Encyclopedia of Water Technology [3 ed.]

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q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Preface “Just do an Internet search.” “It’s on the Internet.” How often have we said or been told that we could find it on the Internet. This third edition of The Water Encyclopedia: Hydrologic Data and Internet Resources started from a premise that most of the information provided within this publication could be found on the Internet. As our team of contributing authors started reviewing each section within each chapter, it soon became apparent that you cannot always find it on the internet. This edition represents many hours of effort to identify the most current information on a wide range of waterrelated topics whether it can be found on the internet or in other sources. The Encyclopedia has retained many of the elements of the previous editions but has also been expanded to reflect the many changes within the environmental industry as well as the current and topical water-related matters of the last decade. Prepared by scientists and engineers, this publication is intended to serve as a valuable resource to all professionals dealing with water-related issues as well as the general public. The material presented has been footnoted to provide the user with the opportunity to return to the original source material for additional research. Where possible, an Internet URL address is provided to guide the user to the appropriate source. The third edition of the Encyclopedia has been significantly expanded beyond the previous edition. The first two chapters of this edition are new and discuss data management and international data collection. Data management concepts are presented to review the use of databases, geographic information systems (GIS), data reporting and metadata. Data repositories and availability vary around the world and range in ease of access and usability. The international data collection provides some direction on potential data sources in less developed areas as well as case histories of actual project work and Internet sources for international water-related data. This edition contains more than 1100 tables and 500 figures providing data related to weather, surface water, groundwater, water use, water quality, waste water, pollution, and water resource management. The pollution chapter alone has grown to contain some 450 plus tables and figures. Wastewater, previously included within the pollution chapter, is presented as a stand-alone chapter to facilitate use of this reference. A chapter of useful conversion factors and constants concludes this edition. Whether you are looking for a specific piece of information or exploring one or more of the many topics related to water, this edition provides its users with a tremendous wealth of data whether on the Internet or not.

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Acknowledgments We want to extend our thanks and appreciation to the many individuals, publishers, and organizations that have made this third edition a reality. Without their time, cooperation, collaboration, this work would not have been possible. Most importantly, the support and access to resources for the management of this compilation provided by ARCADIS G&M was invaluable, and their on-going support and encouragement to undertake these efforts are deeply appreciated. A number of individual contributors were involved in compiling the relevant information for each of the chapters and they are identified at the start of their chapters. Our thanks and appreciation to you and your families for the time committed to completing this task. Behind the scenes and the backbone of keeping everything organized, we want to extend a special thanks to Chris Worden and Carla Gerstner for their encouragement, patience, and the occasional stern word. Additionally, we want to acknowledge Barbara Kelly and Amanda Fierro for their efforts in preparing materials for the manuscript.

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The Editors Pedro Fierro, Jr. is a hydrogeologist and associate vice president with ARCADIS G&M, Inc., where he is involved with a wide variety of environmental assessments and remediation programs. He has been responsible for the direction of several hundred sites addressing environmental issues. Fierro has addressed various audiences on topics ranging from sampling methodologies, regulatory compliance, site assessment techniques, liability management, and remediation technologies. Fierro received his bachelor’s degree in geology from the University of Rochester, Rochester, New York and his master’s degree in geology with an emphasis on groundwater studies from the University of Kentucky. He currently holds geological professional licenses/registrations in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. He is a certified groundwater professional and a certified professional geologist. He was a contributing author to In Situ Treatment Technology. Evan K. Nyer is a senior vice president with ARCADIS G&M, Inc., where he is responsible for maintaining and expanding the company’s technical expertise in geology/hydrogeology, engineering, fate and transport, and remediation technologies. He has been active in the development of new treatment technologies for many years. He has been responsible for the strategies, technical designs and installations of more than 400 groundwater and soil remediation systems at contaminated sites throughout the United States. Nyer also lectures, provides expert testimony, and serves as the public spokesperson for one technically complicated site. Nyer received his graduate degree in environmental engineering from Purdue University and has authored five books: Practical Techniques for Groundwater and Soil Remediation, published by Lewis Publishers, Inc.; Groundwater Treatment Technology, first and second edition, published by Van Nostrand Reinhold; Groundwater and Soil Remediation, and In Situ Treatment Technology (now in its second edition) published by CRC Press; and is co-author of Bioremediation, published by the American Academy of Environmental Engineers. Nyer is a regular contributor to Groundwater Monitoring and Remediation having had his own column “Treatment Technology” in the periodical for the past 20 years.

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Contributors James M. Bedessem ARCADIS G&M, Inc. Tampa, Florida

Melvin Rivera ARCADIS G&M, Inc. Tampa, Florida

Brian Burke ARCADIS G&M, Inc. Tampa, Florida

Christopher Spooner ARCADIS G&M, Inc. Tampa, Florida

Pedro Fierro, Jr. ARCADIS G&M, Inc. Tampa, Florida

Gustavo˜ Suarez ARCADIS G&M, Inc. Tampa, Florida

William H. Lynch ARCADIS G&M, Inc. West Palm Beach, Florida

Katherine L. Thalman ARCADIS G&M, Inc. Tampa, Florida

Daniel J. McCarthy ARCADIS G&M, Inc. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Daniel Zell Dewberry & Davis, LLC Fairfax, Virginia

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Contents Chapter 1 Data Management ...................................................................................................................................................... 1-1 Daniel J. McCarthy Chapter 2 International Data Collection .................................................................................................................................... 2-1 Daniel Zell Chapter 3 Climate and Precipitation .......................................................................................................................................... 3-1 Pedro Fierro, Jr. Chapter 4 Hydrologic Elements ................................................................................................................................................. 4-1 Brian Burke Chapter 5 Surface Water ............................................................................................................................................................ 5-1 Christopher Spooner Chapter 6 Groundwater .............................................................................................................................................................. 6-1 Melvin Rivera Chapter 7 Water Use .................................................................................................................................................................. 7-1 Katherine L. Thalman Chapter 8 Water Quality ............................................................................................................................................................ 8-1 Katherine L. Thalman and James M. Bedessem Chapter 9 Wastewater ................................................................................................................................................................. 9-1 William H. Lynch Chapter 10 Environmental Problems ........................................................................................................................................... 10-1 Katherine L. Thalman Chapter 11 Water Resources Management .................................................................................................................................. 11-1 Gustavo˜ Suarez Chapter 12 Agencies and Organizations ...................................................................................................................................... 12-1 Pedro Fierro, Jr. Chapter 13 Constants and Conversion Factors ............................................................................................................................ 13-1 Pedro Fierro, Jr.

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CHAPTER

1

Data Management Daniel J. McCarthy

CONTENTS 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Database Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geographic Information Systems Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Understanding Data Management Needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Categorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.1 Spatial Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Temporal Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Data Validation and Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 Data Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8.1 Querying Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8.2 Reporting Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 Metadata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1

INTRODUCTION

Data management encompasses many tasks, priorities, and decisions. Underlying these activities is the need for an accurate data from sampling and monitoring programs designed to measure the effects of operational activities. To understand the value of good data management, it is helpful to understand the nature of how this information is generated and used to support management decisions. So what is data? The American Heritage Dictionary defines data as factual information, especially information organized for analysis or used to reason or make decisions, or values derived from scientific experiments. Scientific professionals generate huge quantities of data every day. It is estimated that scientists spend 80% of their time managing the data and 20% analyzing and

1-1 1-1 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-5 1-6 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-8 1-8 1-9

interpreting. By establishing sound data management practices, more time can be spent in data analysis and interpretation. Throughout this chapter, we will provide examples of data management practices within the context of an investigation of contaminated groundwater and surface water. These practices are directly applicable to managing other types of data, such as those found in this book.

1.2

DATABASE OVERVIEW

A discussion of data management would be incomplete without a general discussion of databases. A very general definition of a database might be “A collection of related items of information contained on

1-1 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1-2

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 1.1 Groundwater and Surface Water Location Data Location ID SW-01 SW-02 SW-03 SW-04 SW-05 MW-01 MW-02 MW-03

Area of Concern Upstream Upstream Outfall 1 Downstream Downstream Background area Oil storage area Oil storage area

various media organized in a way that allows easy search and retrieval of subsets of the items of information.” Note that, strictly speaking, a database does not have to be electronic: Boxes containing recipes, telephone books, or paper address books are all databases. A database used for environmental purposes might be composed of a combination of paper copies of information along with items of information contained in electronic form, with perhaps some sort of paper or electronic index to or inventory list of all of the data. Electronic data are nearly always organized into tables. Consider the example shown in Table 1.1. Each row of this table represents a single data point; in this case the first row provides data about location SW-1, and only SW-1. Each column of this table represents a type of data that is stored for each row. In our example, the Area of Concern column identifies the spatial group that each location belongs to. The rows in a database table are typically called “records,” while the columns are called “fields.” Thus, a useful definition of an electronic database is “A collection of related items of data organized into one or more tables.” Each field is constrained to a single data type. Table 1.2 lists the most common data types. Electronic databases are typically either “flat file databases,” in which the entire database resides in a Table 1.2 Common Data Types Data Type Integer Decimal Floating point

Fixed length character Date/Time Boolean Unstructured data

Description or Example Typically stores numbers that relate to counts quantities, or, ID numbers Numbers with fractional parts such as percentages or rates Numbers with a scientific notation that can be calculated approximately, such as distance or weight Names, descriptions, addresses Storage of date and/or time or intervals of dates or times Explicit constraints (Yes/No, True/False) or logical constraints (AND/OR) Images, video, audio

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x

y

z

1,75,470.994 1,77,126.487 1,77,047.029 1,76,871.093 1,75,790.418 1,74,345.077 1,74,251.127 1,74,690.942

16,35,550.124 16,35,925.814 16,35,676.853 16,35,674.137 16,35,597.208 16,32,431.087 16,32,466.059 16,31,435.707

100.203 100.102 100.00 98.97 97.96 96.597 97.384 97.384

single table, or “relational databases,” in which the data are distributed into more than one table, which are then linked together by a common key field. The tables will be related to one another according to a one-to-one (each record in one table has a single matching record in the other table) or one-to-many relationship (each record in one table may have one or more matching records in the other table, but not the reverse). One significant advantage of relational databases to flat-file databases is the ability to query the data in different ways. A query is defined as a statement to retrieve database records that match certain criteria. By structuring the query statement a certain way, different information can be returned from the data set. The most popular general-purpose software for managing data is an electronic spreadsheet program such as Microsoft Excel. Electronic spreadsheets are excellent tools for managing electronic data that fit in a single table. However, spreadsheets are cumbersome or inadequate tools for managing relational data, where more than one table is required. For managing relational data, other more powerful data management programs should be used. There are many popular relational database management systems available, including Microsoft Access. It should be noted that, in contrast to flat-file databases, which typically can be managed by the casual computer user, large relational databases require management by trained individuals, and will usually be beyond the capabilities of the casual user. The field of database management is continually in flux, and would have changed by the time this book is published. Thus, it is impossible to cover all the facets of data management and database theory here. However, it can be said that the relational database model overwhelmingly dominates large-scale data management and database theory. For further information about relational databases, the reader is directed to any of the numerous references on this subject. A particularly helpful book designed for the casual database user is by Michael J. Hernandez (2003) entitled Database Design for Mere Mortals: A Hands-On Guide to Relational Database Design, Addison–Wesley Developers Press.

DATA MANAGEMENT

1.3

1-3

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS OVERVIEW

Data are often presented in a tabular format. Sometimes, a visual representation is helpful in drawing conclusions, particularly if the data have a spatial component. A Geographical Information System (GIS) is a way to display information with a spatial component. GIS can be defined as a software package that manages and displays information in a database composed of data that are associated with spatial information. That is to say, there will be both tabular and spatial information in the database, it will be possible to query the database for specific data, and the user will be able to display the data spatially, as a map. The software package comprising the GIS may be a single program, a set of programs from a single vendor, a combination of programs that together constitute the GIS, a custom-programmed software package, or any combination thereof. In the groundwater arena, the tabular data could typically be depth to water data, water table elevation data, water chemistry data, and water quality data. In addition, the tabular data will have some spatial component in either two or three dimensions, as x–y–z coordinates. Spatial data, in addition to the x–y–z coordinates mentioned above, often will include digitally processed air or satellite photographs, computer-aided design (CAD) drawings, or other electronic spatial

entities. Clearly, depth to water data and water chemistry data, which can be displayed in both plan view (twodimensional) and side view (three-dimensional), are well suited to management using a GIS. Table 1.3 is an example of data from a GIS system representing depth to groundwater. When generated in a GIS system in plan view, the view can look like Figure 1.1. The primary attraction of a GIS is the ability to manage, query and display a large amount of data spatially, in real time. Using most GISs, the user can view the data on a map, query for a subset of the data while viewing the map, and then see the distribution of the subset data when the map is refreshed. This process can be repeated as many times as necessary to answer a question. For example, the temporary wells in the previous figure were not measured during the August sampling event. By querying the GIS system only for locations that were measured during the August event, we return a subset of the data, shown in Table 1.4. From this set of data, our map would look like Figure 1.2. The literature on GISs is voluminous. Because GISs have a wide applicability throughout many disciplines, the reader is directed to the internet, where search engines associated with any popular internet portal (Yahoo! or America Online, for example) may be used to find literally thousands of references on the subject.

Table 1.3 Depth to Groundwater Data from GIS System Well_Id MW131 MW132 MW133 MW134 MW135 MW136 MW137 TW-161 TW-162 TW-163 TW-164 TW-165 TW-166 TW-167 TW-168 TW-169 TW-170 TW-171 TW-172 TW-173 TW-174 TW-175

Loc_Type Monitor well Monitor well Monitor well Monitor well Monitor well Monitor well Monitor well Temp monitor well Temp monitor well Temp monitor well Temp monitor well Temp monitor well Temp monitor well Temp monitor well Temp monitor well Temp monitor well Temp monitor well Temp monitor well Temp monitor well Temp monitor well Temp monitor well Temp monitor well

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X_Coord

Y_Coord

Date

Gwelev

25,48,766.73000 25,48,671.72700 25,48,677.58100 25,48,740.41300 25,48,668.82800 25,48,747.90500 25,48,704.97300 25,48,677.70000 25,49,393.00000 25,49,412.00000 25,48,775.80000 25,48,788.62000 25,48,656.95000 25,48,690.37000 25,48,618.73000 25,48,672.29000 25,48,722.90000 25,48,745.57000 25,48,758.72000 25,48,304.43000 25,48,314.10000 25,48,247.26000

3,19,202.76570 3,19,228.04840 3,19,285.61010 3,19,287.73680 3,19,335.81440 3,19,346.29610 3,19,107.44400 3,18,512.69000 3,17,485.00000 3,17,501.00000 3,19,271.63000 3,19,196.71000 3,19,215.44000 3,19,153.66000 3,19,285.76000 3,19,291.02000 3,19,286.09000 3,19,224.97000 3,19,164.83000 3,19,248.26000 3,19,441.75000 3,19,666.89000

8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004

19.21000 20.38000 19.23000 18.13000 18.78000 16.71000 21.40000 NM NM NM NM NM NM NM NM NM NM NM NM NM NM NM

1-4

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

MW136 16.71 MW135 18.78

17 TW-169 MW133 19.23

TW-168

TW-170

MW134 18.13

TW-164

18

19 MW138 20.38

TW-171

TW-166 MW131 19.21 TW-165

20

TW-172

TW-167

21

Legend Monitoring well

MW137 21.4

Temporary monitoring well

N 21.07

Groundwater elevation (ft MSL)

18

Groundwater elevation contour (dashed where inferred)

0

30

60

120

180 Feel

Figure 1.1 Example of groundwater elevation data from GIS System.

1.4

UNDERSTANDING DATA MANAGEMENT NEEDS

Initially designing a data management program for an investigation or experiment requires significant scientific Table 1.4 Subset of Table 1.3 Data for August Events Only Well_Id MW131 MW132 MW133 MW134 MW135 MW136 MW137

Loc_Type Monitor well Monitor well Monitor well Monitor well Monitor well Monitor well Monitor well

X_Coord

Y_Coord

Date

Gwelev

25,48,766.73000 25,48,671.72700 25,48,677.58100 25,48,740.41300 25,48,668.82800 25,48,747.90500 25,48,704.97300

3,19,202.76570 3,19,228.04840 3,19,285.61010 3,19,287.73680 3,19,335.81440 3,19,346.29610 3,19,107.44400

8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004 8/17/2004

19.21000 20.38000 19.23000 18.13000 18.78000 16.71000 21.40000

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expertise. However, after design and implementation, the processes generally follow a well-defined and straightforward cycle. In our groundwater contamination example, samples are routinely collected and sent to laboratories where they are analyzed with the results reported in the form of a hard-copy analytical results report. From this point on, the data are put to multiple uses to meet a variety of needs. Some portion of the data are collected and reported under the requirements of environmental permits, while additional data are generated voluntarily to further the objectives of sound environmental management. Accountability for effectively managing the collection and utilization of this information according to well-defined processes within

DATA MANAGEMENT

1-5

MW136 16.71 MW135 18.78

17 MW134 18.13

MW133 19.23

18

19

MW132 20.38

MW131 19.21

20

21 MW137 21.4

N

Legend Monitoring well 21.07 Groundwater elevation (ft MSL) 18

Groundwater elevation contour (dashed where inferred)

0

30

60

120

180 Feel

Figure 1.2 Groundwater elevation data from August only.

standardized software environments is essential to effective environmental management. Problems with data collection can be mitigated with a data management plan. This plan will typically specify how data are to be labeled and categorized, the format that the data are to be stored in, how to handle data collected over a period of time or over a significant geographic area, and procedures to account for changes in the investigation and experiment. The advantage to having a data management plan is that it allows the users to collect, label, and record data in a consistent manner. By doing so, retrieval of that data does not have to take into account bias on the part of the individual collecting the data. Consistent terms, units, methods and procedures, will allow any user to retrieve data accurately and quickly. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1.5 1.5.1

DATA CATEGORIZATION

Spatial Data

Data found in this book are often of two distinct types: data with a spatial representation and that of a temporal representation. Water quality, for example, can be represented as changing over an area based on land use, and can also be represented as changing over time due to urban development changing the drainage pathways. It is often helpful to have a defined nomenclature when collecting and categorizing data. This nomenclature makes it easy to glean basic information from the raw data, as well as expediting queries from the data management system. As an example, consider the following spatial data, shown in Table 1.5.

1-6

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 1.5 Spatial Data for Groundwater and Surface Water Locations Location ID SW-01 SW-02 SW-03 SW-04 SW-05 MW-01 MW-02 MW-03

Area of Concern Upstream Upstream Outfall 1 Downstream Downstream Background area Oil storage area Oil storage area

x

y

z

1,75,470.994 1,77,126.487 1,77,047.029 1,76,871.093 1,75,790.418 1,74,345.077

16,35,550.124 16,35,925.814 16,35,676.853 16,35,674.137 16,35,597.208 16,32,431.087

100.203 100.102 100.00 98.97 97.96 96.597

1,74,251.127

16,32,466.059

97.384

1,74,690.942

16,31,435.707

97.384

Consistent nomenclature for identifying spatial locations is crucial to maintaining data integrity, particularly where there is sensitivity to geographic, political, and physical boundaries. In addition, each location should be unique in order to maintain referential integrity within the data management system. This unique value in this table is referred to as a primary key. The location IDs are coded in such a way to let the reader know at a glance what type of location it is. Acceptable locations types in this example include: Location Type Identifier

Location Type Description

MW SW

Monitoring well Surface water

The Area of Concern column provides a general categorization of where the location occurs within the context of the immediate surroundings. This is useful for queries that would ask for all data found in a particular site-specific area. The example table also presents spatial data in the form of x, y, and z coordinates. Spatial data for each location should be collected in a form that is consistent with use at the site, but that can also reference features that are located nearby, such as surface water bodies, wetland areas, or other physiographic features. Use of a consistent coordinate system will make sure that all the data can be compared to each other. Examples of coordinate systems include latitude, longitude and height, Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), Earth Centered, Earth Fixed Cartesian (ECEF), and State Plane coordinates. In our example, the coordinates are in State Plane Coordinates. In the United States, the State Plane System was developed in the 1930s and was based on the North American Datum 1927 (NAD27), which are based on the foot. A more recent variation is the NAD83 system, which is based on the North American 1983 datum and is based on the meter. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

The State Plane System was developed to provide local references tied to a national datum. Most USGS 7.5 Minute Quadrangles use several coordinate system grids including latitude and longitude, UTM kilometer tic marks, and applicable State Plane coordinates. 1.6 TEMPORAL DATA With the establishment of the spatial locations, data collected over time can be collected and referenced. Consider Table 1.6, which summarizes data from samples collected from our groundwater and surface water locations. Consistent nomenclature for sample identifications is crucial to maintaining data integrity. And sample identifications should be unique in order to maintain referential integrity. Character limits are often in place in database management systems; therefore, care should be taken in minimizing spaces, dashes, or parentheses. In our example, the date of collection is captured in the sample ID in parentheses, which allows each sample to be unique. By including the Location ID in this table, we establish a relationship to the previous table. This relationship allows us to query the data in different ways. Because the relationship is of one location to many samples, this is referred to as a one-to-many relationship. The Location ID in this table is referred to as a foreign key because it matches primary key values in our spatial data table presented earlier. Together the primary and foreign keys create a parent/child relationship, which is at the heart of relational database systems. The Sample Type column provides an identifier to discriminate individual samples from each other based on quality assurance needs. In this example, all of the samples have a normal “N” type. If duplicate samples were required for quality assurance purpose to check on the validity of the data set, one could identify the sample type as a “D” for duplicate. The Sample Matrix column identifies what the medium collected for each sample was, through Table 1.6 Sample Information from Groundwater and Surface Water Locations Sample ID

Location ID

Sample Type

Sample Matrix

Sample Date

Sample Time

SW-1(081602)

SW-1

N

WS

8/16/2002

13:00

SW-2(081602)

SW-2

N

WS

8/16/2002

13:10

SW-3(081602))

SW-3

N

WS

8/16/2002

13:20

SW-4(081602)

SW-4

N

WS

8/16/2002

13:30

SW-5(081602)

SW-5

N

WS

8/16/2002

14:31

MW-01(111301)

MW-01

N

WG

11/13/2001

15:22

MW-01(111401)

MW-01

N

WG

11/14/2001

16:31

MW-01(111501)

MW-01

N

WG

11/15/2001

11:00

DATA MANAGEMENT

1-7

an abbreviated two-digit code. Examples of these kinds of matrices are: Sample Matrix

Matrix Description

WB

Water collected from borehole or during geoprobe investigation Estuary water Ground water Leachate Ocean water Drinking water Water quality control matrix Surface water Waste water

WE WG WL WO WP WQ WS WW

The sample date and time columns allow the data to be sorted from more recent to historical and can provide a context for how the data changes over time. Continuing with our groundwater contamination example, consider Table 1.7, which summarizes the data obtained from an analytical laboratory. The primary key (Sample ID) is present again to establish the relationship back to the other tables. The other columns relate information related to the analyses performed on the samples and the results. Each of these records represents a concentration of a given chemical at a given location for a specific point in time. As chemical concentrations, detection limits and detections change, those data points would be represented as new records in the database. This can be illustrated in the following query result, shown in Table 1.8. 1.7

DATA VALIDATION AND VERIFICATION

Once data are collected into the database, steps must be taken to ensure that it was collected accurately and is representative of the source. Data verification checks the compliance of the collected data against known requirements of the experiment or investigation. For example, using the data set shown above, we

would verify with the analytical laboratory that the groundwater samples were analyzed according to specific methods, such as the use of the calibration samples for laboratory equipment. If a verification check fails, then the data may be considered suspect. Data validation, by contrast, must take into account the suitability of the data, and must take into account how the data were collected, how the data were analyzed, and finally, based on the results of the review of the collection and analysis processes, how the data should be used. If the collection process is found to be flawed, the data might be discarded or used for qualitative purposes only. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has provided guidance documents on validating data, which can be found at www.epa.gov/ superfund/programs/clp/guidance.htm.

1.8 DATA REPORTING Once the data have been collected and validated into the data management system, it is time to retrieve the data and make some conclusions about its meaning. Data retrieval usually takes the form of querying the data and then reporting the data.

1.8.1

Querying Data

A query is a programmatic statement that asks a question about the data. Each query usually specifies a criterion, which is a condition or test that must be met in order for a given record to be selected. Queries produce subsets of data, which are the records that match the conditions of the query. For example, a query might request the locations where a certain chemical, e.g. carbon tetrachloride, exceeds a certain concentration, e.g. 500 mg/L. This query would produce a result like the one presented below in Table 1.9.

Table 1.7 Analytical Data Summary Sample ID

Matrix

SDG

Lab Method

Chemical

Result

RDL

Detect

Unit

SW-1(081602)

WG

884825

SW8260

Carbon disulfide

2.5

N

mg/L

SW-1(081602)

WG

884825

SW8260

Xylene (total)

2.5

N

mg/L

SW-1(081602)

WG

884825

SW8260

Ethylbenzene

0.2

N

mg/lL

SW-1(081602)

WG

884825

SW8260

Carbon tetrachloride

Y

mg/L

670

25

Table 1.8 Additional Analytical Data Sample ID

Matrix

SDG

Sample Date

Lab Method

SW-1(081602)

WG

SW-1(111602)

WG

884825

8/16/2002

SW8260

884825

11/16/2002

SW8260

SW-1(011603)

WG

884825

01/16/2003

SW-1(031603)

WG

884825

03/16/2003

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Chemical

Result

RDL

Detect

Unit

Carbon tetrachloride

670

25

Y

mg/L

Carbon tetrachloride

340

25

Y

mg/L

SW8260

Carbon tetrachloride

100

5

Y

mg/L

SW8260

Carbon tetrachloride

5

N

mg/L

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 1.9 Query Results for Carbon Tetrachloride Concentrations over 500 mg/L Sample ID

Matrix

SDG

Lab Method

Chemical

Result

RDL

Detect

Unit

WG

884825

SW8260

Carbon tetrachloride

670

25

Y

mg/L

SW-1(081602)

Table 1.11 Crosstab Query Results

Table 1.10 Data Summary for Crosstab Query Loc ID

AoC

Nitrate

Iron

Sulfate Concentration

SW-01

Upstream

200

599

100.203

SW-02

Upstream

250

342

100.102

SW-03

Background area

300

105

100

SW-04

Downstream

100

20

98.97

SW-05

Downstream

50

40

97.96

MW-01

Background area

75

50

96.597

MW-02

Oil storage area

60

65

97.384

MW-03

Oil storage area

35

10

97.384

Area of Concern Background Area

Data Average of nitrate

Downstream

Oil Storage Area

Upstream

187.5

75

47.5

225

Average of iron

77.5

30

37.5

470.5

Average of sulfate

98.2985

98.465

97.384

100.1525

concentration Max of nitrate

300

100

60

250

Max of iron

105

40

65

599

Max of sulfate

100

98.97

97.384

100.203

concentration

This type of query is referred to a selection query; it returns the selection based on the criteria. Other types of queries, available in Microsoft Access for example, include action queries and crosstab queries. Action queries change record information by specifying criteria and changing the values in given fields based on those criteria. An example of an action query would be the application of data qualifiers following a rigorous validation of the collected data. For example, in our surface water example, the data validation process might uncover that the analytical laboratory initially reported the reported detection limit of carbon tetrachloride as 25 mg/L but in fact it should have been 100 mg/L. An action query could be used to specify the criteria (Sample SW-1(081602) and carbon tetrachloride) and correct the reported detection limit (RDL) from 25 to 100. Crosstab queries perform aggregate calculations on the value of a field, using one or more other fields as rows and one field’s data as columns. For example, consider the data set shown in Table 1.10. An analysis of this data might help refine a remedial course of action for impacted groundwater. Useful calculations to perform would be the average and the maximum values of each of the constituents. A crosstab query of this data would generate the following results, shown in Table 1.11.

1.8.2

Reporting Data

Once data have been retrieved through a query process, it can be reported in tabular format, like those found in this chapter and elsewhere in this book, graphically in the form of charts and graphs, or if there is a spatial representation to the data, as a figure in a GIS system. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1.9

METADATA

The formal definition of metadata is simply “data about data.” Metadata is the information about a data source, for example, a book contains information, but there is also information about that book such as the author and publisher—this is the metadata. Metadata in the context of this book can be used to describe how a particular data table was assembled, who collected the data, what method was used to collect and aggregate the data, the sources of the data. In our groundwater contamination example, metadata might include who did the surveying for the locations, the date of that survey, and the coordinate system specification. For the sample data, the metadata might consist of the following components, shown in Table 1.12.

Table 1.12 Examples of Metadata Components Field Name num

COC Sent_to_lab_date Sample_receipt_date Sampler Sampling_company Sampling_reason Sampling_technique Task_code Collection_quarter Composite_yn Composite_desc

Field Description Chain of custody identifier Date sample was sent to lab Date that sample was received at laboratory Name or initials of sampler Name or initials of sampling company Reason for sampling Sampling technique Code used to identify the task under which sample was retrieved Quarter of the year sample was collected (e.g., "1Q96") Boolean field used to indicate whether a sample is a composite sample Description of composite sample (if composite_yn is YES)

DATA MANAGEMENT

Within the context of GISs, metadata almost always refers to “data about digital geospatial data.” Throughout this discussion, the term “metadata” is used under this restricted definition to refer to the content, quality, condition, and other characteristics of digital geospatial data. Metadata for electronic images should include, as a minimum: How the image was created Who created it originally What has been done to enhance the image Coordinate system to which the image has been rectified † Projection system to which the image has been rectified † Other information unique to these particular images † † † †

With regard to electronic spatial data, in the United States, efforts are being made to try to develop a universal standard format for metadata for GIS systems. This would make accessing and using metadata much easier than it is today. Toward this end, the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) has approved a standard for metadata. Development of the standard was a part of the development of the National Spatial Data Infrastructure. The standard is known as the Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata (Version 2). It may be downloaded as a pdf file from the FGDC web site (www.fgdc.gov/standards/documents/standards/ metadata/v2_0698.pdf). While this standard is intended to facilitate the use of metadata and associated data (particularly images), it appears to not have been universally accepted outside of U.S. government bodies. Accordingly, within this definition metadata may take many forms, ranging from simple (on the paper map, the map legend is the metadata) to separate electronic text files, often multipage, associated with a specific electronic aerial or satellite photo image. The primary use of metadata is to correlate spatial image information, particularly aerial photos, satellite photos, and computer aided design (CAD) images, in three-dimensional space, with tabular data obtained in the field. There are, thus, two aspects to this process. The first aspect is the creation of an electronic base map image on which tabular data may be electronically

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1-9

posted. Typically, the user will need to overlay images together (a CAD image superimposed on an aerial photo, for example) or combine smaller images together to create larger maps, or some combination of both. In this process, it is often possible to obtain access to additional tabular data already associated with (i.e. linked to, or posted on) images. The second aspect is creating or obtaining the tabular data, and orienting it in two- or threedimensional space. Tabular data are usually oriented in three-dimensional space according to surveys taken by hand on the ground, either using traditional surveying methods (compass, transit, etc) or global positioning satellite data. Because of the availability of extremely inexpensive receivers, GPS is rapidly becoming the dominate tool to obtain two- and threedimensional positioning data in the field. Typically the orientation metadata associated with the spatial data must be used to convert (reproject or recoordinate) the spatial data to conform to the orientation data associated with the tabular data, or vice-versa, or both. This process of correlation is called “rectification.” Metadata are thus typically used to rectify the spatial image data to the tabular data.

1.10

CONCLUSIONS

The data management process is intended to reduce the amount of time spent on manipulating data and increase the level of utility of the data to the end users. The goals of the data management process should be as follows: † Understand your data needs and how you are collecting it; † Have a plan to accurately categorize all facets of your data; † Promote accuracy of data through validation and verification; † Promote consistency of data querying and reporting; and † Understand the role of metadata in GIS. The data presented in this book are categorized in a way to facilitate effective data management, and through querying and reporting, would be a verifiable and validated source of data for experimentation and investigation purposes.

CHAPTER

2

International Data Collection Daniel Zell

CONTENTS 2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 2-1 2.2 Data Sources ........................................................................................................................................................ 2-2 2.3 Case Studies ......................................................................................................................................................... 2-3 2.3.1 Latin America .......................................................................................................................................... 2-3 2.3.2 Central Asia.............................................................................................................................................. 2-4 2.3.3 South Asia ................................................................................................................................................ 2-4 2.4 General Process for Data Collection ................................................................................................................... 2-5 2.5 Internet Sources ................................................................................................................................................... 2-5

In developing countries, dams, irrigation schemes, watershed management plans, water and wastewater systems, and flood mitigation works have grown in both number and complexity. Because these data intensive approaches, such as river basin planning, are being embraced worldwide and funded by multilateral and bilateral organizations, the need for data has increased. China, for example, has undertaken massive water resources projects on a scale never seen before, and vast irrigation rehabilitation projects are underway in Afghanistan. In many Latin American countries, water management projects are a top priority. With the demand for such types of projects comes the need for data, information, knowledge management, and, in particular, people who fall under the broad category of water resources engineers. This need is made sharper given the imminent retirement of the seasoned professionals of the post-WWII generation who have spent their lives in

water resources, leaving a younger, less experienced cohort of engineers to tackle the future. 2.1 INTRODUCTION When, as often happens, engineers and other technical professionals in the water resources field are asked to render a technical judgment, they usually need a large set of data to analyze the issue. In the United States, general information such as precipitation, topography, streamflow, and other related data is usually readily available from standard sources: previous studies are usually on-hand with the implementing agency, e.g., state government, military, and the private sector. But sometimes, data are harder to find, less reliable, maybe even lost. This latter case is the normal starting point for water resources projects in less developed countries. The engineer will have to invest a good deal of time, effort,

2-1 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2-2

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

and sometimes money to get the sort of data that are, usually, freely available in developed countries. This chapter gives engineers an idea of what to expect, some approaches to gathering data, and international internet data sources. There has been and always will be a need for rapid and complete data collection for water resources projects in the developing world, a process made even more challenging since data are fragmented among various government and private organizations. Due to both varied organizational arrangements and cultural factors, procedures for data collection vary from region to region and country to country, and it is not possible within the confines of this chapter to give a comprehensive step-bystep method for accomplishing it. Here, we present a brief picture of the challenges of data collection through some selected examples, an outline of a brief process, and a listing of sources of data for international water resources projects. This chapter, then, will be most useful for those with little experience in water resources projects in developing nations. Now, before getting into the details, a few definitions and explanations. 1. Less developed countries is a term of convenience, generally meaning any country except the United States, the former Soviet Union, Canada, Western Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan. But even though such a simple dichotomy does not really exist—other countries undoubtedly deserve to be considered developed and may indeed boast superior data repositories—this term, because of its widespread acceptance, will be used throughout this chapter. 2. Engineer is defined here as a person responsible for technical aspects of a water-related project. Although the engineer is normally an outsider to the country or region under study and perhaps initially unfamiliar with its cultural norms and practices, he or she engineer understands not only the data collection need but also its intended application and eventual output. In some cases engineers will be scientists, economists, even policymakers. The term, again, is chosen out of convenience. 3. To make the chapter as useful as possible to the widest audience, it generally refers to data in the generic sense, rather than, for example, average precipitation and uses illustrative examples rather than an analytical examination. Without digressing too much into the world of development economics, we note that the engineer needs to understand the stage or level of development. In q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

general, there is a positive correlation between wealth, or Gross Domestic Product per capita, and the centralization and quality of water resources data. In Afghanistan, one of the poorest countries in the world, for example, where data sources are widely scattered, the results are incomplete, with much historical data, and studies lost in the warfare over the past few decades. Climate also plays a factor, as natural disasters, humidity, and even rodents often destroy hard copies in countries with limited computerized archives. The overall lesson is that even in the relatively more developed countries of Central and South America, the engineer will need to search for secondary sources of data outside of the government, such as previous consultants’ reports, private water companies’ data, and others (see the list of websites at the end of this chapter). An outside engineer’s local contacts will be essential in setting appointments, identifying possible resources, and even collecting data themselves. But—a word of caution—it is unlikely that this task can be accomplished without the involvement of the engineer. If you are not willing to travel to the country of assignment, then you should probably find somebody else to do the job. Both the credibility and realism of the outputs will suffer from a lack of field presence. Besides, as an outsider, typically seen as immune to local politics and prejudices, the engineer who is willing to travel and spend enough time in country can surmount obstacles that an indigenous assistant could not.

2.2

DATA SOURCES

For general purposes, let us consider a simple dichotomy in terms of data availability: † Initial Conditions (given data), and † Needs (data objectives). Initial data may be given by your client or employer or may be found through some cursory searching of the internet resources listed in this chapter. Data needs or objectives depend on the particular assignment and will likely evolve throughout the problem solving process. In any case, it is well worth taking the time to explore most, if not all, of the websites listed at the end of the chapter with a high-speed internet connection. You will spend much less time than trying to find data from alternate sources, such as government departments, previous and/or current projects, and well-known experts in the field. And the websites listed are generally regarded as reliable. But website searches are not the only route. I recommend a variety of methods, especially if the

INTERNATIONAL DATA COLLECTION

country and region are unfamiliar to the engineer. Before arriving in a country, establish primary contacts and introductions through the employer or client. Email, however convenient, is no substitute for phone calls in building relationships. These contacts may, if sufficiently motivated, be in a much better position to collect the required data. Unfortunately, due primarily to the long and frequently inconclusive history of most local water resources projects with international engineers, it will be a difficult task convincing someone unknown to you, that your cause is worthwhile. This is yet another reason why you should use your in-country network, even if it is only your employer or client, as a foundation for collecting data. The social ties and relationships that locals have established are a resource you should not ignore. A frequent issue when working in an unfamiliar region and culture is payment. How much do things cost? From CAD and GIS operators, to internet usage, to maps, most, if not all, goods and services have a value. In my experience, the issue is not whether or not to pay, but rather, “what is the correct price?” This is not to say that you can not get data for free; indeed, that is how I got most of mine. The engineer will have to rely on his or her in-country network and awareness of local social norms to determine whether or not a payment is required. In general, if work is required beyond normal hours or duties, then a payment is more likely to be required. Another thing to be prepared for is equipment and procedures that do not work. Copiers, for example, are usually broken because of a lack of basic supplies and/or maintenance. Or it may not exist or be available to anyone except the senior staff. Regulations may not let you take records from the office for off-site duplication. Unless you have a penchant for data entry, this is another case where it may be appropriate to pay the correct fee for the data to be digitally entered. I suggest offering an electronic copy of the records by email to both the department and data entry person. By making them part of the process, rather than a cog in a wheel, you may use these people as resources for a long time to come, as I did with a local hydrologist in Afghanistan months after my return. (It did, however, take much longer than expected and required several phone calls and visits by contacts in Afghanistan.)

2-3

conditions, and particularly the values of each nation or region. Ignoring them will imperil both the engineer and the project itself.

2.3.1

Latin America

Overall, although collecting water resources data in Latin America is like working in developing countries worldwide,* the relatively higher income in Latin America can make the work easier, as education level generally correlates with income. Because hydropower is a highly developed sector in Latin America, its organizations often have the best data. However, the data are often considered proprietary and, being tightly controlled, take concerted and time-consuming effort by the engineer and local counterparts to get it. As in other regions, engineers should rely on their counterparts, local staff, or client by insisting that reasonable efforts be expended to gather data in advance. Due to the culture of Latin America, counterparts can be relied on quite heavily, and will likely be highly competent. In this manner, the engineer’s time can be best and efficiently used to address the remaining obstacles, like analyzing the data and writing reports. Still, the engineer should be prepared to complete an assignment with much less data in both quantity and quality than is the norm in developed countries. When no data are found for a specific basin, data for a similar region—in combination with field interviews, maps, and surveys—is used to build a model. The uncertainties resulting from using such data should be plainly and simply stated in the engineer’s work. According to Dr Molina, the process of cleaning data—searching for errors—although time consuming and tedious, has repeatedly proved itself to be worth the trouble. Common errors include converting units, converting gauge readings to flow, and a myriad of other possibilities. These errors, if unchecked and corrected, will skew the results of an analysis. On the other hand, careful advance planning can minimize delays, for example, by contracting a local firm or consultants to carefully screen the data for anomalies and enter it into a useful format.

2.3 CASE STUDIES The following case studies will give the engineer a general perspective of the operational aspects of data collection in a few developing nations. Let me note at once, however, the enormous importance of learning about and paying attention to the unique cultures, q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

* According to a June 25, 2004, interview with Dr Medardo Molina, a Peruvian-born water resources expert who has been active in water resources since 1965 as an international consultant and professor. Dr Molina has published numerous papers in both Spanish and English.

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2.3.2

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Central Asia

In Afghanistan, collecting water resources data were quite complicated, based on my personal experiences in 2003. What little historical data existed was fragmented and incomplete. Thirty years of instability destroyed critical records and the hydrological network. The language barrier, with data sometimes recorded in Dari, Pashto, or Russian, further complicated data collection. The assigned task—to construct a national water balance and determine water availability for rehabilitating irrigation—necessitated casting a wide net to collect all sources of data. Before visiting Afghanistan, my thorough search of libraries and databases yielded only few results, but one of them, a previous water balance study, was quite useful. Although I made contacts in advance, scheduling appointments from outside of Afghanistan did not work. I now understand that the local custom is to pay a brief introductory visit, without an appointment. Then, a later appointment can be scheduled where the useful work will be accomplished. This introductory visit may seem full of pleasantries and even a bit useless. To the novice it may seem not along the critical path. Quite to the contrary, the visits are used to evaluate the engineer, to understand what the engineer is doing, and to understand if the engineer is worthy of help. Besides, since data are rarely immediately available, the first meeting gives the local source time to prepare. The team conducted initial and follow-up visits to the following organizations: Ministries: Irrigation and Water Resources and Environment, Rehabilitation and Rural Development, Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, and the Central Statistics Office United Nations: Food and Agriculture Organization and World Food Program, in particular the Vulnerability Analysis Mapping Unit for socio-economic data, and the Development Program Others: ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas), the U.S. Agency for International Development, and various private consultants, firms, and nongovernment organizations From these and subsequent visits over a 12-month period, the consultant team gathered the hydrological station data. We hired a local professional consultant to both construct and digitize a map of the monitoring stations. More importantly, the team was able to persuade a wide range of policy makers and water q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

resources professionals of the report’s thoroughness and usefulness by conducting follow-up visits to the data repositories, courtesy calls to government officials to present the report and findings, and formal presentations. The United Nations’ organizations provided the most accurate satellite and agricultural data, and previous consultants’ reports were essential in constructing the overall water balance. Although we still had to do careful fact checking based on the newly available data, the efforts of independent and knowledgeable local staff helped us get data not only more rapidly but also with a higher degree of reliability than would have otherwise been possible. It is important to note that the local staff’s efforts had to be supplemented with continual phone calls and emails by the consultants as well as periodic visits to Afghanistan. As outsiders, foreign consultants can often bypass the social norms and traditions that hamper local staff. At the same time, continued communication and visits let the team more completely understand the extent of the problem or issues to be addressed and more importantly, convey the engineers’ recommended solution to the client as it evolved. This served two purposes: 1. By avoiding the “parachute in” approach where a consultant works rapidly and alone, often behind a closed door, the team won a sense of buy-in and respect from the client, which ensured that the client would actually understand the results of the work. 2. By working hand-in-hand with a client who lacked basic institutional capacity, the consultant team was able to increase the client’s capacity to use the team’s results. With so many people interested in the report, the team decided to circulate a draft copy. The resulting informal peer review process increased the credibility of the findings, and although it led to a series of revisions, in the end, it was the only way to accomplish the task.

2.3.3

South Asia

In contrast to the situation in Afghanistan, data availability was relatively high during a 2004 assignment to the Indian State of Orissa. At the state water resources agency, I saw many rooms with neatly bound papers stacked literally from floor to ceiling. More remarkably, when motivated by the department head, almost everything we asked for was quickly found. And because the information requested was relatively recent,

INTERNATIONAL DATA COLLECTION

we did not encounter the issue of deteriorating paper records in a humid environment without climate control. The main problems were poor database design and data entry, and resistance to improving quality control standards. To make sure that our primary data on average daily flow from reservoirs were accurate, my team went to one of the more remote locations to look at primary records. This entailed a journey across the small rice paddies that characterize the regions, a courtesy call to the local supervisor, and even more driving to where the road literally ended at the reservoir. The water resources department had told the reservoir about our trip, and the records were ready. However, local customs dictated a long, slow, and quite good meal as well as an exchanging of pleasantries before the ledger was produced. Then, we asked the data recorders how they recorded the gate height and translated that measurement into a daily flow. Spot checking a few calculations for accuracy, we found no mistakes. A universal issue when dealing with government agencies is territorialism. This issue nearly derailed the entire project in India. An agency insisted that a task was within their realm of authority but showed neither the will nor the capacity to perform the work as required. Rather the agency did the bare minimum and strongly resisted any efforts at improvement. The lesson the engineer should take from this is that relying on someone or some agency out of your control is risky. In hindsight, the solution would have been to accept the agency as a partner, then help them, as cooperatively and diligently as possible, to complete the project.

2-5

3. Identify data requirements. 4. Identify local staff requirements such as cartographers, hydrologists, statisticians, field surveyors, etc. 5. Contact the client or local agency. 5.1. Contact made well in advance of the initial visit so that the staff are aware of the planned work and can plan accordingly. 5.2. Contact at regular intervals, at least weekly. Contact by phone and email is recommended. 6. Make initial visit. Prearranged visits with organizations should be conducted. Social outings, while exhausting, may prove useful for particularly difficult data collection situations. 7. Collect the data. 8. Review data collected. Determine what steps need to be taken to ensure the data are both accurate and in a usable format. 9. Conduct field validation if required. 10. Make more visits. These visits will supplement initial data gatherings and present initial findings. 11. Perform analysis. 12. Prepare and circulate draft report. 13. Incorporate comments as appropriate. 14. Prepare report.

2.5 2.4

GENERAL PROCESS FOR DATA COLLECTION

The following process serves as a guideline for engineers unfamiliar with international water resources engineering. It is highly likely that additional steps will be needed in any actual project depending on the requirements and country. 1. Learn key features of the country’s culture norms and values by both talking to someone from the country and reading appropriate articles and even the literature. 2. Identify the problem. This step consists of more than simply reading the terms of reference. The engineer should plan on conducting one-to-one discussions with senior and mid-level staff at the local or client agency. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

INTERNET SOURCES

The following addresses give access to a lot of data. The descriptions of the 2006 websites come directly from the web pages themselves. AQUASTAT is the Food and Agricultural Organization’s (FAO) global information system of water and agriculture developed by the Land and Water Development Division of FAO. AQUASTAT is FAO’s global information system of water and agriculture developed by the Land and Water Development Division of FAO. The objective of AQUASTAT is to provide users with comprehensive information on the state of agricultural water management across the world, with emphasis on developing countries and countries in transition (www.fao.org/WAICENT/ FAOINFO/AGRICULT/AGL/AGLW/aquastat/main/ index.stm). The following is an excerpt from the AQUASTAT country profile of Afghanistan

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Water Resources Based on the hydrographic systems, the country can be divided into four zones: † the northern basin (24% of the territory) with the Amu Darya and its tributaries (14%), which drain toward the Aral sea, and the rivers of northern Afghanistan (10%), which disappear within the country before joining the Amu Darya; † the western region (12%) consisting of the Hari Rud river basin (6%) and the Murgab river basin (6%), both rivers disappearing in Turkmenistan; † the south-western basin (52%) with the Helmand river flowing toward the Sistan swamps, located on the border of Iran and Afghanistan. In 1972, a document was signed between Afghanistan and Iran to allocate a discharge of 26 m/s of Helmand river water to Iran all year round; † the eastern Kabul basin (12%), which is the only river system having an outlet to the sea, joining the Indus at Attock in Pakistan. Internal renewable water resources are estimated at 55 km3yrK1. The Kunar river, which originates in Pakistan, crosses the border with an average annual flow of 10 km3 and joins the Kabul river at Jalalabad about 180 km further downstream. The Kabul river flows again into Pakistan 80 km further downstream. Total water withdrawal was estimated at 26.11 km3 in 1987, of which 99% for agricultural purposes. Recently, there has been a large development of groundwater use in some provinces. In 1986, there were two dams higher than 15 m. The installed capacity of the hydroelectric plants was 281 MW in 1992, which is about 70% of total installed capacity. There is considerable potential for the generation of hydropower, by both large dams and microhydropower stations.

FAOSTAT is an on-line and multilingual database currently containing over 3 million time-series

Production Trade Food balance sheets Producer prices Forestry trade flow

records covering international statistics in the following areas:

Land use and irrigation Forest products Fishery products Population Food quality control

Fertilizer and pesticides Agricultural machinery Food aid shipments Exports by destination

faostat.fao.org/default.jsp?languageZEN.

Year 1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

Population-estimates rural (1000) Africa developing AGG_COUNTRIES

428,145 435,774 443,382 450,948 458,471 465,941 473,370 480,738 488,033 495,224 428,145 435,774 443,382 450,948 458,471 465,941 473,370 480,738 488,033 495,224

502,287 502,287

Population-estimates urban (1000) Africa developing AGG_COUNTRIES

205,568 214,269 223,156 232,235 241,525 251,050 260,846 270,932 281,347 292,111 205,568 214,269 223,156 232,235 241,525 251,050 260,846 270,932 281,347 292,111

303,245 303,245

The tables above are an example of the output produced by FAO STAT, in this case rural and urban populations in African Developing Nations from 1993 to 2003. The output is also available in .csv format. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GRDC (Global Runoff Data Center) The GRDC makes the unique offer to the international research and science community of easy and universal access to river flow information on a global scale. On request, data

INTERNATIONAL DATA COLLECTION

products are developed and specialized databases are assembled for projects on both regional and global scale. The GRDC serves as a communication platform between institutions, advisors, and scientists and also transfers information about other relevant databases with a hydrological content such as the Global Precipitation Climatology Centre (GPCC) and the Programme Office of the Global Environment Monitoring System—Water (GWPO) of UNEP. It also maintains close ties to the UNESCO Water project “Flow Regimes from International Experimental and Network Data” (FRIEND).

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2-7

The GRDC contains long-term mean annual freshwater surface water fluxes into the world oceans. Estimates are based on 251 discharge stations of major rivers. Data available include mean, minimum, maximum monthly discharges, and time series of mean, minimum, maximum annual discharge for 3035 stations. UNH-GRDC Global Composite Runoff Fields combines observed river discharge information with a climate-driven Water Balance Model (http:// grdc.bafg.de). The following is a sample output:

2-8

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

CGIAR is a global link to research on agriculture, hunger, poverty, and the environment. CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research) is a good starting point for international water issues related to agriculture (www.cigar.org). To access any of CGIARs publications published by the 15 research centers, go to the CGIAR Library Gateway (www.cgiar.org/publications/library/index. html). CGIAR Reefbase—ReefBase is the world’s premier online information system on coral reefs, and provides information services to coral reef professionals involved in management, research, monitoring, conservation, and education. Its goal is to facilitate sustainable management of coral reefs and related coastal/marine environments, in order to benefit poor people in developing countries whose livelihoods depend on these natural resources. ReefBase’s Online Geographic Information System (GIS) allows you to display coral reef related data and information on interactive maps. You can zoom, search, and query datalayers, and save or bookmark the map (www.reefbase.org). ICARDA (International Center for Research in the Dry Areas) is one of the research centers of CGIAR, whose mission is to improve and integrate the management of soil, water, nutrients, plants, and animals in ways that optimize sustainable agricultural production. There are many relevant articles, publications, and datasets on on-farm water use and water efficiency (www.icarda. cgiar.org). IWMI’s (International Water Management Institute) on-line publication section contains several thousand pages of peer reviewed research on water management. All research outputs and publications produced by IWMI are international public goods, freely available to partners in developing countries and to members of the international development, academic and research communities (www.iwmi.cgiar.org/pubs/mindex.htm). The Remote Sensing and GIS Unit (RS GIS Unit) of the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), is a centralized facility for all spatial datarelated activities of IWMI at the headquarters in Sri Lanka and Regional Offices located in different parts of the world. Currently, the RS GIS Unit holds over 1 terabyte of data. Although the emphasis is on IWMI benchmark river basins, large volumes of data are also available at National, Regional, and Global levels. These data are catalogued, streamlined, and released to the public through the IWMI Data Storehouse Pathway (DSP). Much of the river basin and other datasets are composed as single mega files of hundreds or sometimes thousands

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

of bands consisting of continuous streams of 8-day or monthly time series data in several wavebands and/or indices. Large volumes of multitemporal data from multiple satellite sensors are used in several IWMI research projects. These projects include: (a) Global Irrigated Area Mapping (GIAM) at global to local scales, (b) the Wetland project in the Limpopo river basin of four Southern African Nations, (c) the Krishna river basin project in India, (d) the Indo-Gangetic river basin project in India and Pakistan, (e) the Drought Assessment and Mitigation project in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of India, and (f) the biodiversity project in Sri Lanka. More information on the RS GIS Unit and its activities can be found in several areas of this web site (www.iwmidsp.org/iwmi/info/centerprofile.asp). Hydrological Processes is a relevant international journal with abstracts freely accessible on the web. Of particular interest are the past articles on mathematical and methodological aspects of hydrological processes and modeling. Accessed through Wiley Intersciences (www. interscience.wiley.com). Although traditionally thought of as a repository of United States data sets only, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) has a notably thorough database on selected countries that will likely grow over time. In particular, datasets for Jordan and Israel can be found through their project websites (www.watercare.org and www.exact-me.org). Also on USGS, a general homepage with linkages to Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, Bangladesh, and Cyprus (international.usgs.gov/disciplines/water.htm). Winrock Water is both a discussion forum and data clearinghouse that includes an annotated bibliography. Winrock water has selected leading reference materials, research and discussions of major issues in the water resources field through the internet. The links section is of particular interest to those in data collection (www. winrockwater.org). Sakia.org is an information and communication service in the area of “land and water”. Sakia.org hosts several services such as the email discussion list IRRIGATION-L the WWW Virtual Library Irrigation & Hydrology (content filling stage), the WWW Database on Irrigation & Hydrology Software—IRRISOFT (under revision), the e-Journal of Land and Water, an open access and peer reviewed international scientific journal for research and developments and the Journal of Applied Irrigation Science. Sakia.org is fostering the open and free access to knowledge in support of the “land and water” community (www.sakia.org).

CHAPTER

3

Climate and Precipitation Pedro Fierro, Jr.

CONTENTS Section Section Section Section Section

3A 3B 3C 3D 3E

Climatic Data — United States Climatic Data — World . . . . . Weather Extremes . . . . . . . . . Precipitation Data . . . . . . . . . . Snow and Snow Melt . . . . . . .

. . . . .

.. .. .. .. ..

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.. .. .. .. ..

. . . . .

. . . . .

.. .. .. .. ..

. . . . .

. . . . .

.. .. .. .. ..

. . . . .

. . . . .

.. .. .. .. ..

. . . . .

. . . . .

.. .. .. .. ..

. . . . .

.. .. .. .. ..

. . . . .

. . . . .

.. .. .. .. ..

. . . . .

. . . . .

.. .. .. .. ..

. . . . .

. . . . .

.. .. .. .. ..

. . . . .

.. .. .. .. ..

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. . . . .

. . . . .

.. .. .. .. ..

. 3-2 . 3-76 . 3-95 . 3-112 . 3-138

3-1 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-2

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 3A

North West

CLIMATIC DATA — UNITED STATES

West North Central

East North Central

West

North East

Central South West

South East South

Figure 3A.1 U.S. standard regions for temperature and precipitation. (From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

State AL

AK

AZ

AR

CA

Station Birmingham AP Huntsville Mobile Montgomery Anchorage Annette Barrow Bethel Bettles Big Delta Cold Bay Fairbanks Gulkana Homer Juneau King Salmon Kodiak Kotzebue Mcgrath Nome St. Paul Island Talkeetna Unalakleet Valdez Yakutat Flagstaff Phoenix Tucson Winslow Yuma Fort Smith Little Rock North Little Rock Bakersfield Bishop Eureka Fresno Long Beach Los Angeles AP Los Angeles CO Mount Shasta Redding Sacramento

Years 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

42.6 39.8 50.1 46.6 15.8 35.1 K13.7 6.6 K11.2 K2.6 28.2 K9.7 K4.7 23.4 25.7 15.4 29.7 K2.5 K6.7 5.8 25.7 11.0 3.3 21.9 25.8 29.7 54.2 51.7 34.2 58.1 40.1 40.2 38.0 47.8 38.0 47.9 46.0 57.0 57.1 58.3 35.3 45.5 46.3

46.8 44.3 53.5 50.5 18.7 37.1 K15.9 7.6 K7.9 2.3 27.6 K3.8 3.2 24.9 28.9 15.6 29.9 K3.5 K0.9 5.7 23.3 15.4 4.3 24.8 28.4 32.2 58.2 55.0 40.0 62.0 45.2 45.6 43.7 53.3 42.4 48.9 51.4 58.3 58.0 60.0 38.2 49.1 51.2

54.5 52.3 60.2 57.9 25.9 39.5 K13.7 14.5 4.2 14.2 30.0 11.1 15.3 29.4 33.7 23.5 32.6 K0.3 11.8 9.4 24.2 22.6 10.7 29.8 31.5 36.6 62.7 59.2 46.3 66.5 53.4 54.3 52.6 57.3 47.7 49.2 55.5 59.7 58.3 60.7 41.2 52.5 54.5

61.3 60.4 66.1 64.3 36.3 43.8 K0.5 25.9 22.4 32.1 33.5 31.7 31.1 36.4 40.8 33.1 37.3 11.5 29.1 19.6 28.4 34.3 22.7 37.7 37.2 42.9 70.2 66.0 53.4 72.7 61.4 63.0 61.1 62.7 54.1 50.7 61.2 63.0 60.8 63.8 46.3 57.8 58.9

69.3 68.6 73.5 72.3 46.9 49.4 20.1 41.3 44.3 47.8 39.8 48.8 43.9 43.7 47.9 43.5 43.5 31.6 46.2 37.1 35.7 45.8 39.5 45.8 43.6 50.8 79.1 74.5 62.2 79.9 70.1 70.9 69.5 70.3 62.5 53.6 68.8 65.9 63.1 66.2 53.2 66.2 65.5

76.4 76.0 79.3 78.9 54.7 54.3 35.0 51.4 57.8 57.5 45.9 59.7 53.1 50.0 53.9 50.9 49.2 44.8 56.7 47.3 41.9 55.3 49.0 52.2 49.7 60.1 88.6 84.1 72.1 88.8 78.4 78.8 77.5 77.7 71.1 56.3 76.1 69.8 66.4 70.5 60.2 75.2 71.5

80.2 79.5 81.5 81.8 58.4 58.2 40.4 56.0 60.2 60.8 50.6 62.4 57.0 54.1 56.8 55.7 54.1 54.7 59.8 52.6 46.7 58.9 55.5 55.2 53.6 66.1 92.8 86.5 77.5 94.1 82.4 83.2 82.2 83.1 76.8 58.1 81.4 73.8 69.3 74.2 66.1 81.3 75.4

79.6 78.6 81.3 81.2 56.4 58.6 38.7 53.6 53.5 55.5 51.8 56.2 53.1 53.8 55.7 54.8 55.0 52.1 54.9 50.6 48.4 55.6 53.1 53.6 53.3 64.4 91.4 84.9 75.6 93.5 81.3 82.1 81.5 81.9 74.8 58.7 79.9 75.1 70.7 75.2 65.1 78.9 74.8

73.8 72.4 77.2 76.3 48.2 53.8 31.2 45.4 41.0 44.4 47.8 44.5 43.1 47.9 50.0 47.6 49.4 41.8 44.7 42.9 45.0 46.2 43.6 47.1 48.2 57.8 86.0 80.9 68.2 88.2 74.4 75.0 73.9 76.7 67.3 57.4 74.6 73.4 70.1 74.0 59.5 73.4 71.7

62.9 61.3 67.7 65.4 34.1 46.5 14.6 30.0 18.7 24.1 40.0 23.5 26.4 37.8 42.3 33.3 40.3 23.2 25.3 28.5 38.3 31.4 26.5 38.2 41.1 47.1 74.6 70.5 55.9 77.2 63.3 64.5 62.8 67.2 56.6 54.5 65.0 68.6 66.9 69.5 50.5 63.2 64.4

53.1 51.2 58.9 56.1 21.8 39.7 K0.9 17.4 K0.8 6.4 34.5 2.3 5.5 29.4 33.3 23.2 34.0 8.3 5.8 16.9 33.1 17.5 12.6 28.3 32.4 36.5 61.6 58.7 43.2 64.8 51.7 52.5 50.5 54.8 44.8 51.0 52.7 61.8 61.6 62.9 39.9 51.1 53.3

45.6 43.1 52.3 49.0 17.5 36.4 K10.6 9.4 K7.4 0.1 31.0 K5.9 K1.6 25.8 28.7 17.2 30.6 K0.2 K3.8 8.4 28.8 13.0 6.1 24.7 28.6 30.2 54.3 51.9 34.1 57.4 43.2 43.4 41.0 47.2 38.0 47.9 45.2 57.1 57.6 58.5 34.8 45.3 45.8

Annual 62.2 60.6 66.8 65.1 36.3 46.1 10.4 29.9 22.9 28.6 38.4 26.8 27.1 38.1 41.5 34.5 40.5 21.8 26.9 27.1 35.0 33.9 27.2 38.3 39.5 46.2 72.9 68.7 55.2 75.3 62.1 62.8 61.2 65.0 56.2 52.9 63.2 65.3 63.3 66.2 49.2 61.6 61.1

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-3

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Table 3A.1 Normal Daily Mean Temperature — Selected Cities of the United States

(Continued)

State

Station

CO

CT

FL

GA

HI

ID

IL

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

57.8 49.4 52.3 53.1 51.6 46.0 14.7 28.1 29.2 26.1 29.3 29.9 25.7 31.5 31.7 34.9 52.7 58.4 64.9 54.3 53.1 70.3 68.1 60.9 52.0 51.8 61.3 63.0 66.2 42.2 42.7 44.8 46.8 45.5 49.2 71.4 73.0 71.8 71.7 30.2 33.7 24.4 22.0 21.1

58.9 52.4 55.0 55.2 53.1 51.1 22.5 31.7 33.2 34.1 34.6 31.9 28.8 34.2 34.8 38.1 55.3 60.0 66.0 57.0 55.8 70.8 69.1 62.6 54.9 54.8 62.7 63.9 67.2 46.0 46.7 48.4 50.3 48.9 52.5 71.5 73.0 71.9 71.7 36.7 38.4 30.0 27.0 26.9

60.0 54.0 55.9 56.7 53.8 54.9 32.7 37.8 39.6 43.4 41.8 39.5 38.0 42.7 43.4 46.5 60.7 64.7 69.9 62.5 61.6 73.8 72.4 67.4 61.0 61.1 67.4 67.7 70.6 53.5 54.3 55.9 57.6 56.2 59.3 72.0 74.3 73.1 72.7 43.8 44.7 37.9 37.3 38.7

62.6 56.2 57.3 58.9 55.5 60.0 40.8 45.3 47.6 50.9 49.9 48.9 48.9 52.4 53.1 56.1 66.8 68.9 73.6 67.6 66.6 77.0 75.7 71.5 66.9 66.4 71.5 71.5 73.8 60.9 61.6 62.4 64.2 62.7 65.3 72.5 75.6 74.2 73.9 50.6 51.1 45.6 47.8 50.5

64.6 58.7 58.4 60.9 57.8 66.7 50.4 54.6 57.2 60.5 59.7 59.0 59.9 62.5 62.3 65.6 74.1 74.8 78.8 74.3 73.4 80.7 79.6 77.1 74.6 74.4 77.6 76.2 78.2 69.1 69.8 70.5 72.3 71.0 72.8 73.7 77.2 75.7 75.4 58.6 58.5 53.5 58.7 61.7

67.4 61.4 60.5 64.2 60.9 73.2 59.4 64.4 67.6 71.1 69.8 68.0 68.5 71.5 70.9 74.5 80.0 79.7 82.2 79.2 79.1 83.4 82.4 81.2 80.6 80.4 81.5 80.4 81.2 76.3 76.8 77.5 79.2 78.0 78.8 75.1 79.5 77.6 77.7 67.2 65.8 62.0 68.2 71.2

70.9 62.8 61.3 67.0 63.5 77.3 64.1 69.6 73.4 76.8 75.4 74.0 73.7 76.6 75.7 79.2 81.9 81.7 83.0 80.9 81.6 84.5 83.7 82.4 82.6 82.4 82.5 81.7 82.5 79.8 80.0 80.8 82.0 81.1 82.1 75.9 80.8 78.8 79.0 74.7 73.5 69.2 73.3 75.3

72.5 63.6 62.4 68.6 64.2 76.5 62.1 67.6 71.7 74.7 73.5 73.1 71.6 75.0 74.4 77.4 81.7 81.5 83.1 80.4 80.8 84.4 83.6 82.5 82.2 82.1 82.7 81.6 82.8 78.4 78.9 79.3 81.3 80.0 80.8 76.3 81.8 79.5 79.7 73.9 73.4 68.4 71.7 73.2

71.6 63.9 63.7 67.4 63.9 72.8 54.5 59.8 62.4 65.4 64.8 65.7 63.2 67.7 67.3 70.5 79.1 79.9 82.1 77.8 77.8 83.4 82.4 81.1 78.7 78.9 81.6 80.7 81.7 72.6 73.3 73.8 76.2 74.5 76.7 76.2 81.5 79.1 79.5 64.2 63.8 58.8 63.8 65.0

67.6 61.0 62.5 63.5 61.1 64.6 42.8 48.9 51.0 52.7 52.4 54.7 51.9 55.8 55.0 58.8 70.2 74.0 77.5 70.1 69.4 80.2 78.8 75.3 69.5 69.1 75.8 76.4 78.1 61.8 62.8 63.1 65.8 63.9 67.1 75.6 80.2 78.1 78.2 52.8 51.6 47.7 52.1 53.0

61.8 54.7 57.5 57.5 55.5 53.1 28.4 36.2 37.5 38.1 38.4 45.1 41.8 45.9 45.2 48.7 62.0 67.0 71.7 62.8 61.7 76.3 74.4 68.8 60.7 60.4 69.3 70.5 73.1 52.7 53.4 54.4 56.7 55.1 58.7 74.0 77.7 76.0 75.9 39.9 40.4 34.7 39.3 39.1

57.6 49.5 52.7 53.2 51.6 45.3 17.1 29.0 30.3 28.2 30.3 35.1 30.8 36.4 36.0 39.5 55.2 60.8 66.4 56.3 55.0 72.0 69.9 63.0 54.1 53.7 63.3 64.7 68.3 44.8 45.4 46.9 49.1 47.8 51.4 72.2 74.8 73.4 73.3 30.6 33.9 25.3 27.4 26.4

64.4 57.3 58.3 60.5 57.7 61.8 40.8 47.8 50.1 51.8 51.7 52.1 50.2 54.4 54.2 57.5 68.3 71.0 74.9 68.6 68.0 78.1 76.7 72.8 68.2 68.0 73.1 73.2 75.3 61.5 62.2 63.2 65.1 63.8 66.2 73.9 77.5 75.8 75.7 52.0 52.4 46.5 49.1 50.2

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

DE DE

San Diego San Francisco AP San Francisco CO Santa Barbara Santa Maria Stockton Alamosa Colorado Springs Denver Grand Junction Pueblo Bridgeport Hartford Wilmington Washington Dulles AP Washington Nat’l AP Apalachicola Daytona Beach Fort Myers Gainesville Jacksonville Key West Miami Orlando Pensacola Tallahassee Tampa Vero Beach West Palm Beach Athens Atlanta Augusta Columbus Macon Savannah Hilo Honolulu Kahului Lihue Boise Lewiston Pocatello Chicago Moline

3-4

Table 3A.1

IA

KS

KY

LA

ME MD MA

MI

MN

MS

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

22.5 19.0 25.1 31.0 23.6 26.5 23.4 20.4 17.0 18.6 16.1 26.6 30.1 27.6 27.2 30.2 29.7 33.9 32.0 33.0 32.9 50.1 50.9 52.6 46.4 9.5 21.7 32.3 26.0 29.3 23.6 17.8 24.5 21.3 22.4 17.8 21.6 11.5 23.5 13.2 8.4 2.7 13.1 11.8 8.8 45.0

28.2 24.7 30.6 35.8 27.3 31.2 27.3 26.6 23.1 25.1 22.6 32.4 36.0 32.4 33.4 36.3 34.1 37.9 36.4 37.6 38.1 53.5 54.4 55.7 51.2 13.0 24.8 35.5 28.3 31.5 26.0 19.0 27.2 23.8 25.0 19.9 24.0 14.8 25.4 15.6 14.8 10.9 20.1 18.4 16.1 49.2

39.8 36.1 41.8 45.8 38.1 41.7 37.5 38.4 34.8 36.5 35.0 42.5 44.3 39.8 44.2 45.9 43.9 47.1 45.6 46.9 47.6 60.3 61.0 62.4 58.5 24.6 33.7 43.7 36.3 38.9 34.3 28.0 36.9 33.7 34.6 29.3 33.9 23.7 34.0 24.9 25.4 23.6 32.1 30.6 28.4 56.8

51.2 47.9 52.8 55.5 49.0 52.0 48.3 50.6 47.5 49.5 47.8 52.8 53.9 48.8 54.5 55.3 53.7 56.3 54.6 56.4 57.0 66.6 67.3 68.2 65.2 38.1 43.7 53.2 46.3 48.3 45.0 40.3 48.1 45.4 46.3 41.8 45.5 36.4 44.9 38.4 39.0 39.3 46.6 44.7 43.6 63.4

61.9 59.6 63.6 65.6 60.4 62.6 59.6 61.9 59.1 61.2 60.2 63.0 63.8 58.7 64.4 65.0 63.7 64.1 63.8 65.8 65.9 74.0 74.9 75.6 73.0 51.6 53.8 62.9 57.0 58.5 56.3 52.2 59.8 57.1 58.1 53.9 57.1 50.3 56.1 51.3 51.8 53.3 59.3 56.9 56.6 71.5

71.1 68.8 72.6 74.8 69.7 71.7 69.0 71.4 68.3 70.5 69.9 73.4 74.3 69.6 73.9 75.5 72.0 71.4 72.2 74.2 74.5 79.7 80.5 80.7 79.9 60.8 62.9 71.8 65.7 68.0 64.7 61.3 69.0 66.2 67.1 62.2 66.2 59.3 64.9 58.6 59.9 61.6 68.4 66.1 65.1 78.5

75.1 72.9 76.3 78.6 73.4 75.4 73.0 76.1 72.3 74.6 73.6 79.1 79.8 75.1 78.4 81.0 76.3 75.0 76.1 78.4 78.2 81.7 82.6 82.7 83.4 65.6 68.7 76.5 71.6 73.9 70.1 66.7 73.5 70.6 71.4 66.7 70.3 64.4 69.9 63.9 65.5 66.1 73.2 70.1 69.8 81.4

73.1 70.9 74.2 76.5 71.1 73.5 71.0 73.9 70.0 72.1 71.2 77.0 78.2 73.2 76.7 79.8 74.5 73.8 74.8 77.0 76.2 81.4 82.4 82.5 82.9 63.4 67.2 74.5 69.9 72.3 68.3 64.5 71.8 68.5 69.4 64.6 68.4 62.3 68.5 63.3 63.7 63.8 70.6 67.7 67.2 80.9

65.4 62.8 67.0 69.1 64.1 66.3 63.4 65.1 61.8 63.1 62.6 68.0 69.3 64.0 68.1 70.8 67.4 67.9 68.0 70.1 69.1 77.5 78.4 78.9 77.0 53.8 58.7 67.4 62.1 64.7 60.2 56.3 63.9 60.7 61.3 56.8 60.5 53.5 60.5 54.8 54.7 53.2 61.0 58.9 57.4 75.5

53.4 51.0 55.5 57.3 52.4 54.6 52.1 52.8 50.4 50.8 50.2 56.0 57.1 51.8 56.6 58.6 55.7 57.5 56.6 58.5 58.0 68.1 69.5 70.0 66.7 42.8 47.7 55.4 51.6 54.1 49.6 45.6 51.9 49.2 49.9 46.1 49.2 42.5 49.7 44.4 43.5 41.6 48.7 47.0 45.3 64.4

40.1 37.2 42.3 45.9 40.6 42.9 40.1 37.9 35.7 34.8 35.1 40.8 42.4 37.4 42.6 44.2 44.7 47.7 45.9 47.6 46.8 59.0 60.1 61.4 56.1 30.6 38.3 45.5 41.8 44.9 39.6 34.6 40.7 38.1 38.4 34.8 38.0 28.9 38.7 32.4 28.0 24.4 32.5 31.2 28.8 54.8

27.8 24.4 30.3 35.6 29.0 31.6 28.7 24.9 22.5 22.3 21.6 30.2 33.1 29.6 31.4 33.6 34.6 38.3 36.3 37.6 36.9 52.4 53.3 55.1 48.4 16.4 27.6 36.7 31.2 34.8 28.9 24.0 29.6 26.7 27.6 23.7 26.9 17.2 28.6 20.2 14.0 8.5 18.7 17.3 14.4 47.6

50.8 48.0 52.7 56.0 49.9 52.5 49.5 50.0 46.9 48.3 47.2 53.5 55.2 50.7 54.3 56.4 54.2 55.9 55.2 57.0 56.8 67.0 68.0 68.8 65.7 39.2 45.8 54.6 49.0 51.6 47.2 42.5 49.8 46.8 47.7 43.2 46.8 38.7 47.1 40.1 39.1 37.5 45.4 43.4 41.8 64.1

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-5

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

IN

Peoria Rockford Springfield Evansville Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend Des Moines Dubuque Sioux City Waterloo Concordia Dodge City Goodland Topeka Wichita Greater Cincinnati AP Jackson Lexington Louisville Paducah Baton Rouge Lake Charles New Orleans Shreveport Caribou Portland Baltimore Blue Hill Boston Worcester Alpena Detroit Flint Grand Rapids Houghton Lake Lansing Marquette Muskegon Sault Ste. Marie Duluth International Falls Minneapolis-St. Paul Rochester Saint Cloud Jackson

(Continued)

State

Station

MO

MT

NE

NH NJ

NM

NY

NC

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

46.1 40.4 27.8 26.9 29.6 31.7 24.0 10.8 21.7 14.6 20.2 21.4 23.5 22.4 22.4 20.4 23.2 21.7 22.4 24.5 20.8 25.6 25.2 47.0 33.6 30.1 20.1 5.2 32.1 35.2 31.3 35.7 33.9 40.0 22.2 21.7 24.5 30.9 32.1 31.8 32.6 23.9 22.7 35.8

50.2 44.8 33.7 33.0 35.4 37.1 29.8 19.1 26.4 21.9 26.4 26.8 29.0 28.2 28.3 26.4 29.4 28.0 28.5 30.0 26.6 31.3 29.8 52.2 38.5 36.1 23.3 6.6 34.2 36.9 33.8 41.4 37.6 45.7 25.0 23.8 25.9 32.4 34.6 33.5 34.8 25.3 24.5 39.0

57.3 53.1 44.0 43.8 45.8 46.3 37.0 30.9 33.4 32.5 35.1 34.9 37.6 38.3 39.4 37.0 38.0 39.3 39.8 37.3 35.3 38.6 35.9 58.3 43.3 41.1 33.3 13.6 41.8 43.3 42.2 48.1 43.7 52.9 35.0 32.7 34.3 39.8 42.5 40.9 42.3 33.9 33.6 46.3

63.8 60.9 54.4 54.4 56.6 55.6 46.1 44.5 42.6 44.3 44.1 43.4 45.2 49.9 51.2 49.1 48.1 51.4 52.0 46.2 46.1 44.6 42.2 66.0 48.6 46.7 44.6 22.9 50.6 51.4 52.3 55.6 51.7 60.5 46.6 44.1 45.3 49.1 52.5 50.1 52.2 45.3 45.3 54.1

71.7 69.4 63.7 64.3 66.5 64.7 55.7 55.5 51.5 54.5 52.9 51.3 52.7 60.6 62.0 60.3 58.3 62.2 62.3 56.8 57.5 52.7 50.4 75.4 56.4 55.2 56.0 35.6 60.5 60.5 62.7 64.7 60.5 69.6 58.1 55.9 57.0 59.2 62.6 59.7 62.4 57.0 57.1 62.0

78.5 76.9 72.7 73.6 75.6 73.4 65.2 64.4 60.0 62.7 61.2 57.7 60.2 71.1 72.7 70.1 68.4 72.2 71.5 67.2 67.6 61.7 59.9 85.6 64.7 64.3 64.9 44.4 69.7 69.4 71.9 74.8 69.9 78.0 66.3 63.9 65.8 68.5 71.2 68.8 71.5 65.8 65.8 69.2

81.7 80.6 77.4 78.5 80.2 78.5 72.0 70.2 66.2 68.3 67.8 63.5 66.9 75.8 77.8 74.8 74.3 76.7 75.6 73.0 73.7 69.1 67.4 91.2 71.3 72.0 70.0 48.7 75.3 75.2 77.2 78.5 73.8 80.8 71.1 68.7 70.8 74.6 76.5 74.8 77.1 70.7 70.9 73.0

81.4 79.6 75.7 76.6 78.2 77.6 70.9 69.5 65.6 67.6 66.7 63.2 66.3 73.6 75.4 72.7 72.6 74.5 74.0 70.9 72.1 67.6 65.8 89.3 69.9 69.9 68.2 47.6 73.5 74.8 75.5 76.1 72.2 78.9 69.0 66.6 69.1 73.1 75.1 74.1 75.9 68.9 69.2 71.8

76.1 73.3 67.3 68.1 70.2 69.3 59.5 57.3 55.4 56.3 56.1 53.1 56.1 64.4 66.0 63.4 62.4 65.4 65.7 60.5 61.5 58.2 56.7 81.3 62.4 60.3 59.4 40.4 66.3 68.9 67.8 69.1 64.7 72.0 60.6 58.8 61.5 65.8 67.5 67.2 68.6 61.2 61.3 65.7

64.8 61.9 56.0 56.8 58.3 58.4 48.1 45.0 45.5 44.6 44.8 41.9 44.4 52.0 53.5 51.0 49.7 53.2 53.9 47.8 48.3 46.7 45.4 68.7 52.0 48.8 47.8 30.2 55.1 58.5 56.4 57.3 54.6 61.4 49.3 48.1 50.7 54.3 56.6 56.5 57.7 50.4 50.1 55.2

55.7 51.5 43.2 42.7 45.3 45.9 34.1 27.9 32.3 29.1 30.9 30.9 32.0 36.4 38.1 35.1 34.6 38.0 38.4 34.0 33.0 34.5 33.5 55.0 40.9 37.4 37.6 20.6 45.9 49.0 46.4 44.4 42.2 48.9 39.2 37.6 40.2 44.9 47.1 46.8 47.6 39.9 39.7 46.4

48.9 43.4 32.0 31.3 33.9 35.7 26.1 15.6 24.3 19.0 21.4 23.1 23.4 25.6 26.5 23.7 25.7 25.6 26.2 25.7 23.6 26.0 25.8 47.0 33.6 29.6 25.9 10.1 36.8 40.2 36.4 36.1 34.8 40.7 28.0 27.1 29.8 35.7 37.3 37.2 37.9 29.4 28.6 39.0

64.7 61.3 54.0 54.2 56.3 56.2 47.4 42.6 43.8 43.0 44.0 42.6 44.8 49.9 51.1 48.7 48.7 50.7 50.9 47.9 47.2 46.4 44.8 68.1 51.3 49.3 45.9 27.2 53.5 55.3 54.5 56.8 53.3 60.8 47.6 45.8 48.0 52.4 54.6 53.5 55.1 47.7 47.4 54.8

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

NV

Meridian Tupelo Columbia Kansas City St. Louis Springfield Billings Glasgow Great Falls Havre Helena Kalispell Missoula Grand Island Lincoln Norfolk North Platte Omaha Eppley AP Omaha (North) Scottsbluff Valentine Elko Ely Las Vegas Reno Winnemucca Concord Mt. Washington Atlantic City AP Atlantic City CO Newark Albuquerque Clayton Roswell Albany Binghamton Buffalo Islip New York C.Park New York (JFK AP) New York (Laguardia AP) Rochester Syracuse Asheville

3-6

Table 3A.1

OH

OK OR

PC

PA

30 30 30

46.1 41.7 37.7

46.8 45.2 41.2

52.4 52.8 49.1

59.8 60.9 57.6

67.6 69.0 65.8

74.8 76.5 73.6

79.2 80.3 77.9

78.6 78.9 76.2

74.8 72.7 69.8

65.7 61.7 58.5

57.6 52.3 49.2

50.0 44.4 41.0

62.8 61.4 58.2

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

39.7 46.1 10.2 6.8 5.3 8.0 25.2 25.7 28.3 26.3 24.3 23.9 24.9 36.7 36.4 42.4 24.4 39.8 39.1 33.8 39.9 40.3 37.5 77.6 77.5 81.4 81.6

43.0 48.5 18.1 14.1 13.1 16.8 28.3 28.4 32.0 30.3 27.3 27.0 27.7 42.3 42.0 44.2 30.0 42.8 43.5 38.7 43.1 43.0 38.6 77.6 77.7 81.2 81.8

50.7 55.0 29.7 27.2 25.7 28.7 37.7 37.5 42.0 40.2 36.7 37.2 36.7 51.0 51.4 46.0 37.0 46.3 47.1 45.1 47.2 46.5 39.6 78.4 77.9 81.8 82.3

59.1 62.7 43.3 43.5 42.3 42.5 48.1 47.6 52.0 50.6 47.2 48.3 47.4 59.7 60.8 48.5 43.0 49.8 51.6 51.0 51.2 50.0 43.4 79.5 78.7 82.3 82.2

67.0 70.2 56.0 57.4 56.8 54.6 58.8 58.5 62.6 61.2 58.0 59.6 57.6 68.4 69.3 52.7 50.9 54.8 58.1 58.1 57.1 55.6 49.9 80.3 79.8 82.6 82.4

74.7 77.0 64.7 66.0 65.2 63.7 67.5 67.5 71.2 70.2 66.8 68.8 65.9 76.8 78.0 56.7 58.1 60.2 65.6 65.4 62.7 61.2 56.5 80.5 81.2 81.8 82.2

78.8 81.1 70.4 70.6 69.4 69.3 71.8 71.9 75.1 74.3 71.0 73.0 69.9 82.0 83.5 60.1 65.9 66.2 72.7 72.6 68.1 66.8 63.7 79.8 82.0 81.4 82.1

77.2 79.7 69.0 69.0 67.8 68.3 70.3 70.2 73.5 72.3 69.3 70.8 68.4 81.2 82.2 60.8 64.2 66.4 72.5 72.0 68.5 67.0 64.2 79.5 82.6 81.6 82.3

71.2 75.0 57.7 58.0 57.0 56.1 63.0 63.3 66.5 65.1 62.6 63.5 61.5 73.2 73.5 58.5 55.0 61.7 65.9 63.4 63.6 62.2 60.1 79.7 82.5 82.0 82.3

60.0 64.8 45.2 45.3 44.3 43.6 51.6 52.2 54.7 53.5 51.5 51.8 50.8 62.0 62.6 52.6 44.4 52.6 55.1 52.3 54.3 52.9 51.3 79.5 81.9 82.1 82.4

51.0 56.5 28.0 27.0 25.8 25.6 41.1 41.8 43.7 42.2 40.5 40.5 40.7 48.9 49.7 46.6 32.7 44.7 43.9 41.2 45.8 45.2 40.5 79.6 79.9 82.5 82.1

43.0 48.9 15.2 12.5 11.3 13.0 30.7 31.1 33.5 31.4 29.6 29.2 30.4 39.5 39.7 42.8 24.9 39.5 38.1 33.9 40.2 40.2 37.3 78.9 78.3 82.0 81.9

59.6 63.8 42.3 41.5 40.3 40.9 49.5 49.7 52.9 51.5 48.8 49.5 48.5 60.1 60.8 51.0 44.2 52.1 54.5 52.3 53.5 52.6 48.6 79.2 80.0 81.9 82.1

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

80.8 81.5 80.8 81.5 77.8 80.1 27.1 26.9 30.3 30.3

81.1 81.8 81.1 81.3 77.3 80.3 29.9 28.2 32.8 32.8

81.2 82.0 81.4 81.6 78.2 80.8 38.8 36.5 41.7 41.7

81.1 81.6 81.2 81.8 79.2 81.5 49.0 46.8 52.1 52.1

81.3 80.9 81.2 81.9 80.8 81.7 59.6 58.1 62.0 62.0

81.2 80.3 81.0 81.6 82.6 81.0 68.5 67.4 70.7 70.7

81.1 79.7 80.7 81.4 83.3 80.6 73.3 72.1 75.9 75.9

81.4 79.8 80.7 80.9 83.3 80.4 71.2 70.9 74.0 74.0

81.5 80.3 80.7 81.3 83.6 80.6 63.4 64.0 66.2 66.2

81.5 80.7 80.7 81.4 82.6 80.7 52.0 53.3 54.5 54.5

81.4 81.2 81.0 82.1 81.0 80.9 42.0 42.9 44.3 44.3

80.9 81.7 80.9 81.5 79.3 80.6 32.0 32.7 34.8 34.8

81.2 81.0 81.0 81.5 80.8 80.8 50.6 50.0 53.3 53.3

30 30 30

32.3 27.5 26.3

34.8 30.5 28.9

43.2 39.8 37.9

53.1 49.9 48.7

63.5 60.0 59.6

72.3 68.4 67.5

77.6 72.6 72.1

76.3 71.0 70.3

68.8 64.0 62.5

57.2 52.5 51.5

47.1 42.3 41.5

37.4 32.5 31.4

55.3 51.0 49.9

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-7

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

ND

Cape Hatteras Charlotte Greensboro-WnstnSlm-HPT Raleigh Wilmington Bismarck Fargo Grand Forks Williston Akron Cleveland Columbus Dayton Mansfield Toledo Youngstown Oklahoma City Tulsa Astoria Burns Eugene Medford Pendleton Portland Salem Sexton Summit Guam Johnston Island Koror Kwajalein, Marshall IS Majuro, Marshall IS Pago Pago, Amer Samoa Pohnpei, Caroline IS Chuuk, E. Caroline IS Wake Island Yap, W Caroline IS Allentown Erie Harrisburg Middletown/ Harrisburg AP Philadelphia Pittsburgh Avoca

(Continued)

State

Station

RI SC

SD

TN

UT VT VA

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

25.5 28.7 47.9 49.8 44.6 40.8 11.0 14.2 22.4 14.0 34.2 39.4 37.6 39.9 36.8 36.6 43.5 35.8 50.2 48.1 59.6 56.1 44.1 45.9 51.3 45.1 55.8 51.8 38.1 43.2 52.2 44.9 50.3 53.2 46.1 40.5 28.1 29.2 18.0 34.5 40.1 36.4 35.8

28.5 30.9 50.7 52.4 47.9 44.4 18.7 21.0 27.3 20.8 38.0 43.4 41.8 44.9 41.3 40.6 48.6 40.6 54.6 52.6 62.7 59.5 49.4 51.0 56.1 50.5 58.0 55.4 43.3 48.6 55.6 49.7 54.7 56.7 50.8 45.7 33.7 34.5 19.9 37.8 42.0 39.5 39.1

38.0 38.8 57.7 58.7 55.4 51.6 30.7 32.6 34.9 32.6 46.5 51.4 49.7 53.5 50.1 48.8 56.4 47.9 61.7 59.9 68.8 66.0 57.4 58.8 63.8 57.0 64.1 62.3 51.2 55.9 62.2 57.2 62.1 63.7 58.5 54.2 41.6 43.1 30.7 46.0 49.0 47.7 47.2

49.0 48.6 64.2 65.9 63.2 59.0 45.4 46.1 44.7 45.7 54.6 59.6 57.8 62.1 58.5 57.2 64.6 56.2 68.3 67.1 73.8 71.5 65.0 66.3 70.6 64.6 70.0 68.5 60.0 63.7 68.2 65.0 68.6 69.7 65.9 62.4 48.3 50.0 43.5 55.3 57.4 57.1 56.1

59.5 58.7 72.1 73.5 71.6 67.2 57.9 58.2 55.0 57.8 63.0 67.7 66.0 70.6 67.1 65.6 72.8 65.2 75.1 74.7 79.3 77.5 73.1 74.4 77.7 73.7 76.9 75.8 69.2 72.8 75.4 73.1 75.8 76.6 74.1 71.4 56.6 58.8 56.5 63.4 66.3 65.4 64.1

67.8 67.6 78.2 79.4 78.5 74.7 66.8 67.9 64.6 67.5 70.7 75.4 73.8 78.7 75.1 73.3 79.8 74.3 81.0 80.1 82.7 81.9 80.9 82.2 82.9 82.1 82.2 81.3 77.1 79.6 80.9 79.2 81.5 81.8 81.3 79.7 66.7 69.0 65.6 71.0 74.5 73.5 71.9

72.4 73.3 81.7 82.8 82.0 78.8 72.2 73.4 71.7 73.0 74.2 79.6 77.7 82.5 79.1 77.3 83.5 78.2 84.2 82.8 83.9 83.8 85.0 86.5 85.3 83.3 84.3 83.6 79.8 81.7 82.7 82.4 84.3 84.2 85.4 84.8 74.2 77.0 70.6 75.1 79.1 77.9 76.2

70.9 71.9 80.5 81.6 80.3 77.5 70.5 71.5 71.1 70.8 72.8 78.5 76.9 81.2 77.9 76.2 82.6 76.3 84.5 82.1 84.0 83.9 84.4 86.1 85.1 81.1 84.4 83.3 78.0 80.4 82.5 81.3 84.2 84.2 85.2 83.5 72.6 75.6 68.2 73.8 77.4 76.3 74.7

63.1 64.0 76.1 77.6 74.7 71.4 59.8 61.0 60.6 60.9 66.6 72.1 70.8 74.8 71.3 70.0 75.5 69.1 79.5 77.5 81.0 80.8 77.5 78.9 80.0 75.4 81.1 78.9 70.9 73.9 78.7 74.8 79.4 80.1 78.6 75.6 63.1 65.0 59.4 67.1 72.1 69.8 67.7

51.3 53.0 66.2 68.5 63.7 60.5 46.8 47.9 48.2 48.0 55.0 60.4 58.8 63.8 59.9 58.4 66.0 58.2 70.6 68.6 75.0 73.8 67.2 68.4 71.1 64.9 74.1 70.4 60.7 64.4 70.1 65.4 70.7 72.3 68.6 64.7 50.6 52.5 47.7 56.1 61.1 58.3 56.6

40.8 43.8 58.0 60.5 54.7 51.1 29.3 31.3 33.4 31.3 45.5 50.3 49.0 52.3 49.3 47.7 53.7 45.1 59.7 57.8 67.7 65.1 55.1 56.4 60.1 52.7 65.4 60.9 48.1 52.3 60.9 54.0 60.0 62.7 56.8 51.9 37.6 39.6 37.1 46.6 52.3 49.0 47.3

30.7 33.8 50.5 52.8 47.0 43.5 16.0 18.6 24.7 18.3 37.3 42.4 40.9 43.3 40.5 39.4 45.4 37.0 52.1 49.8 61.1 58.1 46.7 48.0 52.4 45.4 58.1 53.7 39.7 44.8 54.2 46.4 52.4 55.2 48.3 42.9 28.6 30.2 24.8 38.2 44.2 40.4 39.1

49.9 51.1 65.3 67.0 63.6 60.1 43.8 45.4 46.6 45.1 54.9 60.0 58.4 62.4 58.9 57.6 64.4 57.0 68.5 66.8 73.3 71.5 65.5 66.9 69.7 64.7 71.2 68.8 59.7 63.4 68.6 64.5 68.7 70.0 66.6 63.1 50.1 52.0 45.2 55.4 59.6 57.6 56.3

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

TX

Williamsport Providence Charleston AP Charleston CO Columbia Greenville-Spartanburg Aberdeen Huron Rapid City Sioux Falls Bristol-JhnCty-Kgsprt Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis Nashville Oak Ridge Abilene Amarillo Austin/City Austin/Bergstrom Brownsville Corpus Christi Dallas-Fort Worth Dallas-Love Field Del Rio El Paso Galveston Houston Lubbock Midland-Odessa Port Arthur San Angelo San Antonio Victoria Waco Wichita Falls Milford Salt Lake City Burlington Lynchburg Norfolk Richmond Roanoke

3-8

Table 3A.1

PR WV

WI

WY

Olympia Quillayute Seattle CO Seattle Sea-Tac AP Spokane Walla Walla Yakima San Juan Beckley Charleston Elkins Huntington Green Bay La Crosse Madison Milwaukee Casper Cheyenne Lander Sheridan

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

38.1 40.6 41.5 40.9 27.3 34.7 29.1 76.6 30.4 33.4 28.6 32.7 15.6 15.9 17.3 20.7 22.3 25.9 20.3 21.3

40.5 42.2 43.8 43.3 32.5 39.7 35.2 76.9 33.9 36.9 31.6 36.8 20.5 22.6 22.6 25.4 26.7 28.8 25.6 26.9

43.6 43.8 46.9 46.2 39.5 46.5 42.5 77.6 42.1 45.3 40.0 45.9 31.3 34.6 33.7 34.9 35.0 34.2 35.5 35.3

47.4 46.7 50.9 50.2 46.5 52.7 48.7 79.1 51.5 54.3 48.9 55.2 44.2 48.4 45.9 45.2 42.7 41.6 43.9 43.9

53.3 51.2 56.6 55.8 54.4 59.8 56.2 80.6 59.9 62.4 57.9 63.6 56.4 60.6 57.7 56.1 52.1 51.3 53.4 52.5

58.2 54.9 61.1 60.7 61.6 67.3 62.9 82.1 67.0 69.9 65.6 71.3 65.4 69.6 67.0 66.3 62.7 61.5 63.7 61.6

62.8 58.6 65.5 65.3 68.6 75.3 69.1 82.2 70.7 73.9 69.6 75.3 69.9 74.0 71.6 72.0 70.0 67.7 70.9 68.8

63.3 59.3 66.0 65.6 68.6 75.2 68.3 82.4 69.3 72.6 68.5 73.9 67.5 71.6 69.1 70.6 68.6 65.9 69.4 68.2

58.3 56.5 61.3 61.1 59.2 66.1 60.0 82.2 63.1 66.2 62.1 66.9 58.8 62.7 60.7 63.0 57.6 56.6 58.7 57.1

49.7 50.1 53.4 52.7 47.2 54.7 48.6 81.6 52.8 55.1 50.6 55.6 47.4 50.6 49.3 51.4 45.7 45.4 46.4 45.1

42.4 44.2 46.0 45.2 34.9 43.1 37.0 79.6 43.4 45.9 41.0 45.9 34.0 35.5 35.5 38.4 32.0 33.3 30.3 31.0

38.0 40.6 41.3 40.7 27.2 35.1 28.8 77.7 34.8 37.5 32.7 37.1 21.2 21.8 23.0 26.2 23.8 27.1 21.3 22.4

49.7 49.1 52.9 52.3 47.3 54.2 48.9 79.9 51.6 54.5 49.8 55.0 44.4 47.3 46.1 47.5 44.9 45.0 45.0 44.6

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

WA

Note: In Fahrenheit degrees, based on 30-year average values 1971–2000; Temperature data are the normal daily values for each month. Source: From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

3-9

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-10

Table 3A.2 Normal Daily Minimum Temperature — Selected Cities of the United States State AL

AK

AR

CA

Years

Birmingham AP Huntsville Mobile Montgomery Anchorage Annette Barrow Bethel Bettles Big Delta Cold Bay Fairbanks Gulkana Homer Juneau King Salmon Kodiak Kotzebue Mcgrath Nome St. Paul Island Talkeetna Unalakleet Valdez Yakutat Flagstaff Phoenix Tucson Winslow Yuma Fort Smith Little Rock North Little Rock Bakersfield Bishop Eureka Fresno Long Beach Los Angeles AP Los Angeles CO Mount Shasta Redding Sacramento San Diego

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

32.3 30.7 39.5 35.5 9.3 30.4 K19.6 0.7 K19.2 K9.6 23.5 K19.0 K12.9 17.5 20.7 8.0 24.6 K8.6 K15.6 K1.8 21.5 2.3 K3.9 17.2 19.4 16.5 43.4 38.9 21.3 46.2 27.8 30.8 31.3 39.3 22.4 40.8 38.4 46.0 48.6 48.5 26.4 35.5 38.8 49.7

35.4 34.0 42.4 38.6 11.7 32.3 K22.0 1.3 K17.7 K6.4 22.9 K15.6 K7.4 18.3 23.5 7.4 24.3 K9.9 K12.5 K2.3 18.9 5.0 K4.2 19.6 21.0 18.8 47.0 41.6 25.5 48.8 32.6 34.8 36.1 43.0 26.4 41.8 41.4 48.1 50.1 50.3 28.7 38.1 41.9 51.5

42.4 41.2 49.2 45.4 18.2 34.2 K20.0 7.2 K8.0 3.2 24.9 K2.7 2.3 22.5 27.8 15.1 26.8 K7.7 K1.8 1.0 19.5 11.1 1.8 23.8 23.6 22.8 51.1 45.1 31.1 52.8 40.9 42.6 44.5 46.2 31.0 42.2 44.9 50.4 51.3 51.6 30.3 41.1 44.2 53.6

48.4 48.4 54.8 51.2 28.7 37.7 K7.3 18.4 10.6 21.7 28.8 19.8 19.7 29.3 33.4 24.9 31.8 3.3 17.7 12.4 24.0 23.9 13.8 30.9 29.2 27.3 57.5 50.5 36.9 58.1 49.0 50.0 52.7 49.6 36.0 44.0 48.4 53.2 53.6 54.4 33.3 44.9 46.3 56.4

57.6 57.5 62.8 60.1 38.9 43.1 15.3 33.1 33.7 37.7 34.8 36.9 32.2 36.7 40.1 34.8 38.2 25.3 35.5 31.1 31.5 34.9 32.1 38.6 36.1 34.0 66.3 58.6 45.3 65.1 58.9 59.2 61.2 56.8 43.7 47.6 54.9 57.8 56.9 57.9 39.0 51.6 50.9 59.8

65.4 65.4 69.2 67.3 47.0 48.3 30.4 43.3 46.9 47.6 41.1 48.5 41.1 43.0 46.1 42.2 43.9 38.8 45.7 40.6 37.6 45.1 42.7 45.0 42.7 41.4 75.2 68.0 54.2 73.2 67.2 67.8 68.9 63.7 50.7 50.7 61.2 61.3 60.1 61.4 44.9 59.6 55.5 62.6

69.7 69.5 71.8 70.9 51.5 52.4 34.3 48.8 49.5 51.1 46.1 51.9 45.4 47.2 49.2 47.5 48.5 49.4 49.8 46.6 43.0 49.9 48.9 48.0 47.1 49.9 81.4 73.4 62.0 80.8 71.4 72.0 72.9 69.2 55.7 52.8 66.1 64.6 63.3 64.6 48.9 64.1 58.3 65.9

68.9 68.1 71.7 70.1 49.4 52.6 33.8 47.5 43.7 46.1 47.4 46.2 41.7 46.7 48.3 47.4 48.6 47.4 45.7 45.2 45.1 46.5 46.5 46.4 46.2 49.1 80.4 72.4 61.1 80.8 70.3 70.5 71.5 68.4 53.7 53.4 64.9 65.6 64.5 65.6 47.5 60.8 58.1 67.4

63.0 61.7 67.6 64.9 41.4 48.0 27.5 39.1 32.8 35.6 43.0 34.7 32.8 41.0 43.8 40.3 43.2 37.2 35.9 37.2 40.7 37.3 35.8 40.9 40.6 41.7 74.5 67.7 52.9 75.3 62.9 63.6 64.9 63.9 46.9 51.2 60.4 63.7 63.6 64.6 42.9 56.5 55.8 66.1

50.9 49.6 56.3 52.2 28.3 41.7 9.8 24.7 11.9 17.0 35.1 15.6 18.4 31.4 37.7 26.0 34.3 18.8 18.3 22.9 34.1 23.6 19.4 33.4 34.8 31.1 62.9 57.0 40.1 64.0 50.5 51.5 54.1 54.9 37.1 47.7 51.9 58.3 59.4 59.9 36.6 48.0 50.6 61.2

41.8 40.7 47.8 43.5 15.9 35.1 K6.4 11.7 K8.0 K0.8 29.9 K6.6 K2.2 23.5 28.9 15.9 28.9 3.2 K2.2 10.8 29.1 9.4 5.0 23.9 26.3 22.1 50.0 45.1 28.7 52.2 39.5 41.5 43.4 44.2 27.1 43.9 42.3 50.1 52.7 52.6 29.9 39.8 42.8 53.6

35.2 33.8 41.6 37.6 11.4 32.1 K16.4 3.2 K15.1 K7.1 26.5 K15.2 K9.5 20.0 24.4 9.3 25.3 K6.4 K12.3 0.9 24.7 4.8 K1.4 20.2 22.9 16.6 43.5 39.2 21.0 45.8 31.1 33.9 34.9 38.2 21.6 40.6 37.0 45.3 48.5 48.3 25.8 35.0 37.7 48.9

Annual 50.9 50.1 56.2 53.1 29.3 40.7 5.0 23.3 13.4 19.7 33.7 16.3 16.8 31.4 35.3 26.6 34.9 15.9 17.0 20.4 30.8 24.5 19.7 32.3 32.5 30.9 61.1 54.8 40.0 61.9 50.2 51.5 53.0 53.1 37.7 46.4 51.0 55.4 56.1 56.6 36.2 47.9 48.4 58.1

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

AZ

Station

CT DE DC FL

GA

HI

ID

IL

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

42.9 46.4 40.8 39.3 38.1 K3.7 14.5 15.2 15.6 14.0 22.9 17.2 23.7 21.9 27.3 43.0 47.1 54.5 42.4 41.9 65.2 59.6 49.9 42.7 39.7 52.4 52.7 57.3 32.9 33.5 33.1 36.6 34.5 38.0 63.6 65.7 63.3 65.4 23.6 28.0 16.3 14.3 12.3 14.3 10.8 17.1

45.5 48.5 44.0 41.4 41.0 4.7 18.0 19.1 22.7 18.8 24.9 19.9 25.8 24.1 29.7 45.8 48.8 55.4 44.7 44.3 65.7 60.5 51.3 45.4 42.1 53.8 53.6 58.2 35.4 36.5 35.5 39.0 37.0 40.9 63.5 65.4 63.1 65.5 28.8 31.2 20.9 19.2 18.2 19.7 16.3 22.2

46.8 49.2 46.0 42.7 43.6 15.8 23.9 25.4 31.0 26.3 32.0 28.3 33.4 31.8 37.3 51.4 53.7 59.3 49.9 49.8 68.8 64.0 55.9 51.7 48.2 58.5 57.8 61.9 42.3 43.6 42.5 45.7 43.8 47.5 64.7 66.9 64.6 67.3 34.0 35.6 27.3 28.5 29.0 30.2 26.7 32.4

48.1 50.1 47.6 43.4 46.7 22.8 31.4 34.2 37.5 34.5 40.7 37.9 42.1 40.2 45.9 57.6 58.0 62.7 54.7 54.6 72.1 67.6 59.9 57.6 52.8 62.4 61.6 65.4 48.7 50.4 48.1 51.8 49.5 52.9 65.6 68.2 66.0 68.9 39.4 40.6 32.6 37.6 39.3 40.3 36.8 42.2

50.5 51.4 50.5 46.9 52.1 32.4 40.7 43.8 46.4 44.8 50.6 48.1 52.4 49.9 55.8 65.1 64.5 68.4 62.0 62.5 75.9 72.0 65.9 65.8 62.3 68.9 67.2 70.5 57.6 59.5 57.2 61.3 58.6 61.3 66.7 69.6 67.0 70.3 46.6 47.0 39.2 47.5 50.0 50.8 47.9 52.7

52.9 53.2 53.9 50.4 57.5 40.4 49.5 53.0 55.3 53.5 59.6 57.0 61.8 59.0 65.0 71.6 70.6 73.1 68.4 69.4 78.7 75.2 71.3 72.1 69.8 74.0 71.8 73.8 65.3 67.1 65.4 68.8 66.6 68.1 68.0 72.1 69.3 72.7 54.2 53.6 45.7 57.2 59.7 60.1 57.6 61.9

54.5 54.4 57.3 53.5 60.8 46.4 54.8 58.7 61.4 59.4 66.0 62.4 67.3 64.0 70.1 73.9 72.4 74.2 70.8 72.4 79.6 76.5 72.6 74.5 72.7 75.3 73.0 75.0 69.3 70.6 69.6 72.3 70.5 71.8 69.2 73.8 70.8 74.0 60.3 59.3 50.9 63.2 64.5 64.6 62.6 66.0

55.5 55.6 58.4 54.2 60.3 45.2 53.6 57.4 59.7 58.1 65.4 60.7 65.8 62.8 68.6 74.0 72.8 74.4 70.6 72.2 79.2 76.5 73.0 74.2 72.7 75.4 72.9 75.4 68.5 69.9 68.4 71.5 69.5 71.3 69.4 74.7 71.0 74.5 59.8 59.3 49.9 62.2 62.4 62.6 60.9 63.9

55.1 56.1 56.6 52.9 57.4 36.5 45.4 47.3 50.4 48.7 57.7 52.1 58.1 55.6 61.8 71.2 71.9 73.9 68.1 69.4 78.5 75.7 71.9 70.4 69.2 74.3 72.7 74.7 62.7 64.3 62.4 66.4 63.7 67.3 69.0 74.2 70.0 74.0 51.2 50.9 41.8 53.7 53.4 54.0 51.8 55.4

52.4 54.6 51.6 48.2 50.5 23.9 34.3 35.9 38.6 35.3 46.3 40.6 45.6 42.3 49.6 60.5 65.3 68.6 59.2 59.7 75.7 72.2 65.5 59.6 56.9 67.6 68.5 71.2 50.7 52.8 49.6 54.5 51.1 56.1 68.5 73.2 69.4 72.8 41.3 41.2 33.3 42.1 41.6 42.3 40.1 44.4

47.5 50.8 44.0 41.8 42.1 11.1 22.6 23.5 26.3 22.5 37.5 32.6 36.9 33.8 40.0 52.0 57.0 62.1 51.1 50.8 71.9 67.5 58.7 51.1 47.9 60.7 61.9 65.8 42.2 43.5 40.9 45.7 42.5 46.9 67.2 71.1 67.9 70.8 32.4 34.1 24.9 31.6 30.1 31.4 29.0 33.7

43.0 46.7 39.9 38.2 36.7 K0.7 15.6 16.4 17.5 15.1 28.0 22.6 28.4 26.0 32.0 45.3 50.1 56.2 44.4 44.1 67.3 62.2 52.6 44.7 41.6 54.7 54.7 60.1 35.3 36.2 34.7 39.0 36.3 40.1 64.9 67.8 65.1 67.6 24.1 28.5 16.8 20.4 18.3 20.1 16.9 22.6

49.6 51.4 49.2 46.1 48.9 22.9 33.7 35.8 38.5 35.9 44.3 40.0 45.1 42.6 48.6 59.3 61.0 65.2 57.2 57.6 73.2 69.1 62.4 59.2 56.3 64.8 64.0 67.4 50.9 52.3 50.6 54.4 52.0 55.2 66.7 70.2 67.3 70.3 41.3 42.5 33.3 39.8 39.9 40.9 38.1 42.9

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-11

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

CO

San Francisco AP San Francisco CO Santa Barbara Santa Maria Stockton Alamosa Colorado Springs Denver Grand Junction Pueblo Bridgeport Hartford Wilmington Washington Dulles AP Washington Nat’l AP Apalachicola Daytona Beach Fort Myers Gainesville Jacksonville Key West Miami Orlando Pensacola Tallahassee Tampa Vero Beach West Palm Beach Athens Atlanta Augusta Columbus Macon Savannah Hilo Honolulu Kahului Lihue Boise Lewiston Pocatello Chicago Moline Peoria Rockford Springfield

State IN

IA

KS

KY

ME MD MA

MI

MN

MS

(Continued) Station

Evansville Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend Des Moines Dubuque Sioux City Waterloo Concordia Dodge City Goodland Topeka Wichita Greater Cincinnati AP Jackson Lexington Louisville Paducah Baton Rouge Lake Charles New Orleans Shreveport Caribou Portland Baltimore Blue Hill Boston Worcester Alpena Detroit Flint Grand Rapids Houghton Lake Lansing Marquette Muskegon Sault Ste. Marie Duluth International Falls Minneapolis-St. Paul Rochester Saint Cloud Jackson Meridian

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

22.6 16.1 18.5 15.7 11.7 9.2 8.5 6.3 16.9 18.7 15.8 17.2 20.3 21.3 25.7 24.1 24.9 23.9 40.2 41.2 43.4 36.5 K0.3 12.5 23.5 18.1 22.1 15.8 9.5 17.8 13.3 15.6 9.7 13.9 3.3 17.1 4.9 K1.2 K8.4 4.3 3.7 K1.2 35.0 34.7

26.2 19.2 22.5 19.0 17.8 15.4 15.3 13.2 21.9 23.6 19.7 23.0 25.3 25.0 28.9 27.7 28.5 28.2 43.1 44.3 46.1 40.3 2.9 15.6 26.1 20.3 24.2 17.8 9.7 20.0 15.3 17.4 10.5 15.4 5.4 18.3 6.6 5.1 K0.7 11.8 10.6 6.4 38.2 37.7

35.2 28.8 32.0 28.2 28.7 26.2 25.7 24.9 31.1 31.2 26.4 32.9 34.4 33.8 37.4 35.9 37.1 37.1 49.6 50.8 52.7 47.2 15.2 25.2 33.6 27.8 31.5 25.6 18.7 28.5 24.3 25.9 19.2 24.3 14.3 25.4 16.1 16.5 12.3 23.5 22.6 19.1 45.4 44.3

43.8 38.2 41.2 37.7 39.9 37.5 37.3 35.8 41.2 40.7 34.8 42.9 43.7 42.7 45.8 44.1 46.0 45.6 55.8 57.2 58.4 53.8 29.2 34.7 42.0 37.1 40.5 35.5 30.2 38.4 34.6 36.1 30.6 34.5 26.9 35.1 28.8 28.9 27.1 36.2 34.6 32.2 51.7 50.4

54.0 49.1 51.8 48.4 51.4 48.8 49.2 48.1 51.9 51.7 45.7 53.4 54.0 52.9 54.3 53.6 56.1 55.0 64.1 65.7 66.4 62.7 40.7 44.2 51.8 47.0 50.2 46.2 40.0 49.4 45.2 46.6 40.7 44.8 39.1 45.1 39.3 40.2 40.0 48.5 46.1 44.1 61.0 59.5

63.5 58.8 61.3 58.3 61.0 57.9 58.5 58.1 61.8 61.6 55.5 63.2 63.9 61.6 61.9 62.2 65.1 63.8 70.2 72.1 72.0 69.9 49.9 52.9 60.8 55.9 59.4 55.0 48.8 58.9 54.6 55.8 48.9 54.3 48.3 54.2 46.5 48.5 49.1 57.8 55.6 52.9 68.1 66.8

67.8 62.5 65.2 62.8 66.1 62.4 62.9 62.2 67.4 66.8 61.1 67.7 69.1 66.1 65.7 66.4 69.8 67.7 72.7 74.3 74.2 73.4 54.8 58.6 65.8 62.0 65.5 60.8 54.5 63.6 59.1 60.5 53.4 58.4 53.5 59.8 52.0 54.6 53.6 63.0 60.1 57.9 71.4 70.5

65.1 60.4 63.3 61.3 63.9 60.2 60.6 59.5 65.6 65.6 59.6 65.4 67.9 64.2 64.3 64.9 68.2 64.9 71.9 73.6 73.9 72.3 52.6 57.2 63.9 60.9 64.5 59.5 52.9 62.2 57.4 59.0 52.2 57.0 52.0 58.8 52.4 53.5 51.3 60.8 58.0 55.5 70.3 69.8

57.0 52.8 55.2 53.3 54.3 51.7 50.1 49.8 56.1 56.5 50.0 55.9 59.3 56.8 58.4 57.9 60.9 57.1 67.5 69.1 70.6 66.4 43.6 48.5 56.6 53.2 56.8 51.3 45.2 54.1 49.4 51.0 45.3 48.9 43.8 50.7 44.8 44.8 41.6 50.8 48.7 45.7 64.6 64.2

44.6 41.8 43.6 42.3 42.2 40.5 38.0 37.8 44.0 43.8 37.5 44.3 46.9 44.9 47.4 46.4 48.5 45.2 56.4 58.6 60.2 55.0 34.1 37.4 43.7 42.9 46.4 40.7 35.6 42.5 38.6 40.2 36.2 38.6 34.0 40.6 36.0 34.5 31.5 38.9 37.1 34.3 52.0 51.3

36.0 32.7 34.1 32.6 29.0 27.8 24.8 25.1 30.5 30.2 25.2 32.1 33.9 35.7 38.9 37.3 39.3 36.5 47.9 49.7 51.8 45.3 23.7 29.5 34.7 34.2 37.9 32.0 27.0 33.5 29.8 31.2 27.6 30.1 22.4 31.8 25.9 20.7 16.4 24.8 23.7 20.4 43.4 42.8

27.0 22.3 24.0 21.7 16.7 15.2 12.8 12.5 20.8 21.7 17.8 21.8 24.0 26.4 30.2 28.4 29.9 27.5 42.1 43.3 45.6 38.3 8.0 18.7 27.3 23.8 27.8 21.6 16.9 23.4 19.1 21.4 16.8 19.7 10.2 22.6 13.1 5.6 K1.1 10.9 10.1 5.5 37.3 37.2

45.2 40.2 42.7 40.1 40.2 37.7 37.0 36.1 42.4 42.7 37.4 43.3 45.2 44.3 46.6 45.7 47.9 46.1 56.8 58.3 59.6 55.1 29.6 36.3 44.2 40.3 43.9 38.5 32.4 41.0 36.7 38.4 32.6 36.7 29.4 38.3 30.5 29.3 26.1 35.9 34.3 31.1 53.2 52.4

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

LA

3-12

Table 3A.2

MT

NE

NV

NH NJ

NM

NY

NC

Tupelo Columbia Kansas City St. Louis Springfield Billings Glasgow Great Falls Havre Helena Kalispell Missoula Grand Island Lincoln Norfolk North Platte Omaha Eppley AP Omaha (North) Scottsbluff Valentine Elko Ely Las Vegas Reno Winnemucca Concord Mt. Washington Atlantic City AP Atlantic City CO Newark Albuquerque Clayton Roswell Albany Binghamton Buffalo Islip New York C.Park New York (JFK AP) New York (Laguardia AP) Rochester Syracuse Asheville Cape Hatteras Charlotte

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

30.5 18.2 17.8 21.2 21.8 15.1 1.8 11.3 3.7 9.9 13.8 16.2 12.2 11.5 9.6 9.9 11.6 12.6 11.0 7.8 14.1 10.4 36.8 21.8 18.5 9.7 K3.7 22.8 29.0 24.4 23.8 20.3 24.4 13.3 15.0 17.8 22.6 26.2 24.7 26.5

33.5 23.4 23.3 26.5 26.4 20.1 9.9 15.1 10.4 15.6 18.4 20.5 17.7 17.2 15.5 15.4 18.0 19.0 15.8 13.7 19.7 15.6 41.4 25.4 23.6 12.6 K1.7 24.5 30.6 26.6 28.2 23.7 29.3 15.7 16.7 18.6 24.3 28.1 26.1 28.3

41.4 33.0 33.2 36.2 34.9 26.4 20.6 21.5 20.0 23.5 24.8 27.1 27.0 27.5 25.4 23.8 28.1 28.8 23.0 22.1 25.9 21.9 47.0 29.3 27.0 22.7 5.9 31.7 37.0 34.2 33.7 29.2 35.7 25.4 24.7 26.1 31.1 35.1 32.9 35.1

48.2 42.9 43.5 46.5 43.6 34.7 32.2 29.7 30.0 31.2 30.8 32.4 37.8 38.8 36.8 33.4 39.6 40.3 31.4 32.4 29.9 26.4 53.9 33.2 30.7 32.2 16.4 39.8 45.2 43.7 40.5 37.2 43.3 35.9 35.1 36.4 40.0 44.2 41.6 44.4

57.7 52.8 53.9 56.6 53.4 44.0 43.0 38.3 40.2 39.8 37.9 39.3 49.3 50.1 48.3 44.5 50.7 51.3 42.4 43.7 36.8 33.4 62.9 40.2 38.4 42.4 29.5 49.8 54.8 54.1 49.7 46.7 53.2 46.5 46.2 47.7 49.4 54.2 51.2 54.3

65.7 61.8 63.2 65.9 62.2 52.5 51.6 46.0 48.0 47.5 43.5 45.9 59.1 60.4 58.0 54.2 60.6 60.5 52.1 53.2 43.5 40.6 72.3 46.5 45.8 51.8 38.5 59.3 63.9 63.5 59.4 55.9 62.0 55.0 54.4 56.9 59.6 63.3 60.4 63.7

69.8 66.3 68.2 70.6 67.1 58.3 56.6 50.4 52.0 52.3 46.7 50.2 64.4 65.9 63.0 60.2 65.9 65.5 57.4 59.1 48.6 47.4 78.2 51.4 51.8 57.1 43.3 65.4 69.8 69.1 64.7 60.2 66.7 60.0 59.2 62.1 65.9 68.8 66.7 69.5

68.2 64.0 66.1 68.6 65.6 57.3 55.7 49.9 51.3 50.8 45.8 49.3 62.3 63.7 61.0 58.4 63.8 64.1 54.9 57.3 47.0 46.4 76.7 49.9 49.2 55.6 42.1 63.7 69.7 67.7 63.2 59.2 65.5 58.3 57.4 60.5 64.5 67.7 66.3 68.7

61.7 55.4 57.2 60.3 57.4 47.1 44.1 41.2 40.7 41.2 37.1 40.6 51.8 53.2 50.4 46.7 53.5 55.0 43.7 45.8 38.1 37.5 68.8 43.1 40.2 46.6 34.6 56.0 63.6 59.9 56.0 51.5 58.3 49.9 49.9 52.9 56.6 60.3 59.5 61.6

48.8 44.1 45.9 48.2 46.1 37.2 33.0 33.0 29.8 31.2 28.4 31.4 39.3 40.4 38.0 33.7 41.1 43.1 31.3 33.1 28.3 27.8 56.5 34.0 30.2 35.1 24.0 43.9 52.5 48.2 43.8 40.6 46.3 38.8 39.6 42.6 44.6 49.6 48.7 50.9

40.0 33.0 33.4 36.7 35.3 25.6 18.5 22.5 17.3 20.3 23.2 24.0 25.9 27.0 24.7 20.7 28.1 29.2 19.7 20.1 20.9 18.2 44.0 26.4 23.3 27.6 13.6 35.7 42.9 39.1 31.6 28.7 33.3 30.8 30.9 33.7 36.1 41.0 39.8 41.6

33.2 22.5 22.5 25.8 25.9 17.7 6.4 14.4 7.8 11.3 16.1 16.5 15.9 16.2 13.7 12.1 16.4 17.2 11.6 10.5 13.8 10.6 36.6 20.7 17.0 16.2 1.7 27.1 34.0 29.8 24.2 21.6 25.1 20.1 20.8 23.6 27.5 31.6 30.5 32.0

49.9 43.1 44.0 46.9 45.0 36.3 31.1 31.1 29.3 31.2 30.5 32.8 38.6 39.3 37.1 34.4 39.8 40.6 32.9 33.2 30.6 28.0 56.3 35.2 33.0 34.1 20.4 43.3 49.4 46.7 43.2 39.6 45.3 37.5 37.5 39.9 43.5 47.5 45.7 48.1

30 30 30 30 30

16.6 14.0 25.8 38.6 32.1

17.3 15.5 28.0 39.0 34.4

25.2 24.2 34.9 44.5 41.6

35.3 34.9 41.8 51.8 49.1

46.1 45.8 50.6 60.2 58.2

55.0 54.6 58.3 68.1 66.5

60.0 60.1 62.7 72.9 70.6

58.7 58.8 61.8 72.3 69.3

51.3 51.1 55.4 68.5 63.0

41.1 40.4 43.3 58.8 50.9

32.6 32.0 35.3 50.3 41.8

22.7 20.9 28.8 42.6 34.9

38.5 37.7 43.9 55.6 51.0

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-13

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

MO

State

ND

OH

OR

PC

PA

(Continued) Station

Greensboro-WnstnSlm-HPT Raleigh Wilmington Bismarck Fargo Grand Forks Williston Akron Cleveland Columbus Dayton Mansfield Toledo Youngstown Oklahoma City Tulsa Astoria Burns Eugene Medford Pendleton Portland Salem Sexton Summit Guam Johnston Island Koror Kwajalein, Marshall IS Majuro, Marshall IS Pago Pago, Amer Samoa Pohnpei, Caroline IS Chuuk, E. Caroline IS Wake Island Yap, W Caroline IS Allentown Erie Harrisburg Middletown/ Harrisburg AP Philadelphia Pittsburgh Avoca

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

30

28.2

30.6

37.8

45.5

54.7

63.5

68.1

66.8

60.1

47.5

38.6

31.4

47.7

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

29.6 35.8 K0.6 K2.3 K4.3 K3.3 17.4 18.8 20.3 19.0 16.2 16.4 17.4 26.2 26.3 36.7 14.0 33.0 30.9 27.4 34.2 33.5 32.5 71.2 73.1 75.1 77.5

31.9 37.5 7.8 5.4 3.7 5.9 19.8 21.0 23.5 22.4 18.7 18.9 19.3 31.1 31.1 37.6 19.4 34.9 33.1 30.9 35.9 34.7 33.0 71.1 73.2 74.9 77.5

38.9 43.7 19.1 19.0 17.1 17.2 27.9 28.9 32.2 31.2 26.8 27.9 27.1 39.4 40.3 38.6 24.9 36.7 35.9 35.4 38.6 36.6 32.5 71.7 73.4 75.2 77.9

46.4 51.2 30.6 32.4 31.0 29.1 37.1 37.9 41.2 40.4 36.1 37.7 36.5 48.1 49.5 40.8 28.6 38.9 39.0 39.7 41.9 38.8 34.9 72.7 74.2 75.8 77.8

55.3 59.8 42.8 45.3 43.5 40.9 47.8 48.3 51.8 51.1 46.7 48.6 46.2 57.9 59.0 45.4 35.6 42.7 44.0 45.9 47.5 43.6 39.6 73.2 75.2 76.0 78.0

63.8 67.6 51.6 54.5 52.8 50.1 56.8 57.7 60.7 60.2 55.8 58.2 54.6 66.4 67.9 49.8 41.1 47.0 50.1 52.0 52.6 48.4 45.4 73.5 76.6 75.4 77.8

68.5 72.3 56.4 59.0 56.8 55.2 61.3 62.3 64.9 64.4 60.3 62.6 58.7 70.8 73.1 52.9 46.4 50.8 55.2 57.5 56.9 52.0 51.8 72.8 77.4 75.3 77.6

67.2 71.0 54.7 57.0 54.5 53.8 60.2 61.2 63.2 62.2 58.9 60.7 57.5 69.8 71.2 53.2 43.9 50.8 54.9 57.3 57.3 52.1 52.7 72.8 78.0 75.7 77.6

61.0 65.9 43.7 46.1 44.3 42.2 53.1 54.3 55.9 54.6 52.1 52.9 50.9 62.2 62.9 49.5 35.0 46.7 48.3 49.7 52.5 47.7 49.8 72.8 77.9 76.0 77.5

48.2 53.9 32.1 34.4 33.0 30.2 42.1 43.7 44.0 43.5 41.3 41.6 40.9 50.6 51.1 44.1 26.4 40.5 40.2 40.7 45.2 41.3 43.3 72.7 77.5 75.8 77.8

39.5 45.1 17.8 18.7 17.4 14.9 33.4 34.9 34.9 34.3 32.2 32.6 33.0 38.2 39.3 40.1 20.6 37.2 35.0 33.8 39.8 37.9 35.2 73.6 75.7 75.9 77.7

32.6 38.1 4.8 4.2 2.5 2.1 23.6 24.9 25.9 24.4 22.0 22.3 23.4 29.2 29.8 37.1 14.6 33.3 31.0 27.7 35.0 33.9 32.5 73.1 73.9 75.6 77.9

48.6 53.5 30.1 31.1 29.4 28.2 40.0 41.2 43.2 42.3 38.9 40.0 38.8 49.2 50.1 43.8 29.2 41.0 41.5 41.5 44.8 41.7 40.3 72.6 75.5 75.6 77.7

30 30

76.3 76.1

76.6 76.3

76.5 76.6

76.4 76.3

76.5 76.2

76.3 76.1

76.2 75.5

76.3 75.5

76.4 75.8

76.3 76.2

76.4 76.5

76.3 76.4

76.4 76.1

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

74.8 75.9 73.1 73.7 19.1 20.3 23.1 23.1

75.1 76.2 72.4 73.8 21.0 20.9 24.7 24.7

75.2 76.4 73.1 74.0 28.9 28.2 32.5 32.5

74.7 76.4 73.9 74.6 37.8 37.9 41.5 41.5

74.6 76.1 75.3 74.9 48.3 48.7 51.4 51.4

74.2 76.0 77.1 74.3 57.7 58.5 60.6 60.6

73.2 75.0 77.8 74.0 62.6 63.7 66.0 66.0

72.8 74.3 77.9 73.7 60.7 62.7 64.2 64.2

72.6 74.7 78.4 73.7 52.7 55.9 56.7 56.7

72.6 74.5 77.4 73.8 41.1 45.5 44.6 44.6

73.3 75.8 76.3 74.0 32.7 36.4 36.1 36.1

74.5 75.3 74.7 74.2 24.0 26.8 27.8 27.8

74.0 75.6 75.6 74.1 40.6 42.1 44.1 44.1

30 30 30

25.5 19.9 18.5

27.5 22.3 20.4

35.1 30.1 28.4

44.2 39.1 38.1

54.8 49.2 48.4

64.0 57.7 56.7

69.7 62.4 61.5

68.5 61.0 60.1

60.9 53.9 52.6

48.7 42.5 41.7

39.5 34.2 33.7

30.6 25.3 24.2

47.4 41.5 40.4

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

OK

3-14

Table 3A.2

SD

TN

TX

UT VT VA

Williamsport Providence Charleston AP Charleston CO Columbia GreenvilleSpartanburg AP Aberdeen Huron Rapid City Sioux Falls Bristol-JhnCtyKgsprt Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis Nashville Oak Ridge Abilene Amarillo Austin/City Austin/ Bergstrom Brownsville Corpus Christi Dallas-Fort Worth Dallas-Love Field Del Rio El Paso Galveston Houston Lubbock Midland-Odessa Port Arthur San Angelo San Antonio Victoria Waco Wichita Falls Milford Salt Lake City Burlington Lynchburg Norfolk Richmond Roanoke

30 30 30 30 30 30

17.9 20.3 36.9 42.4 34.0 31.4

19.9 22.5 39.1 44.9 36.3 33.9

28.2 30.0 46.0 51.5 43.5 40.5

37.8 39.1 52.2 58.8 50.7 47.0

47.8 48.8 61.3 67.4 60.0 56.2

56.8 57.9 68.5 73.8 67.9 64.3

61.7 64.1 72.5 77.0 71.8 68.7

60.4 62.8 71.6 76.1 70.6 67.9

52.8 54.5 67.1 72.2 64.6 61.7

40.9 43.1 55.3 61.9 51.5 49.7

32.7 35.1 46.4 53.4 42.6 41.0

23.7 25.6 39.3 45.5 36.1 34.3

40.1 42.0 54.7 60.4 52.5 49.7

30 30 30 30 30

0.6 3.5 11.3 2.9 24.3

8.8 10.8 15.9 10.1 27.0

21.2 22.3 23.2 21.3 34.6

33.4 33.9 32.3 32.5 42.0

45.6 45.8 42.7 44.6 51.0

54.8 55.4 51.8 54.5 59.5

59.7 60.7 57.9 60.3 63.5

57.4 58.6 56.6 58.4 61.7

46.5 47.3 46.0 47.6 54.7

34.4 34.9 34.7 34.8 41.8

19.7 21.1 22.1 20.7 33.6

6.3 8.4 13.3 7.8 26.8

32.4 33.6 34.0 33.0 43.4

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

29.9 28.9 31.3 27.9 27.2 31.8 22.6 40.0 37.3

32.6 31.8 35.5 31.2 29.5 36.5 27.0 44.0 41.0

40.0 39.1 43.7 39.4 36.6 43.8 33.6 50.9 48.4

47.0 46.6 51.9 47.1 43.8 51.8 41.7 57.6 56.3

56.2 55.6 60.8 56.7 53.4 61.0 51.7 65.4 65.1

64.6 63.9 68.8 65.0 61.7 68.5 61.1 71.1 70.2

69.4 68.5 72.9 69.5 66.4 72.3 65.3 73.4 71.5

68.3 67.3 71.2 68.0 65.2 71.4 63.8 73.3 70.3

61.7 60.8 64.3 61.0 58.8 64.4 56.3 68.8 65.3

48.5 47.7 52.5 48.6 45.7 54.4 44.6 59.8 56.3

39.5 38.9 42.6 39.5 36.4 42.3 31.8 49.3 45.9

32.7 31.9 34.5 31.5 29.8 33.9 24.1 41.9 38.2

49.2 48.4 52.5 48.8 46.2 52.7 43.6 58.0 55.5

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

50.5 46.2 34.0 36.4 39.7 32.9 49.7 41.2 24.4 29.6 42.9 31.8 38.6 43.6 35.1 28.9 15.5 21.3 9.3 24.5 32.3 27.6 26.6

53.3 49.3 38.7 41.0 44.1 37.5 51.5 44.3 28.9 34.1 45.9 36.0 42.4 46.7 39.3 33.4 20.2 25.5 10.9 26.9 33.6 29.7 29.0

59.5 56.2 46.4 48.5 51.6 43.7 58.2 51.3 36.2 40.8 52.4 43.3 49.9 53.9 46.8 41.1 26.4 33.4 21.8 34.4 40.1 37.0 36.5

65.2 62.3 54.0 56.1 58.5 51.1 64.7 57.9 45.4 48.6 58.6 51.0 56.9 60.1 54.2 49.3 31.6 39.0 33.6 42.6 47.8 45.3 44.2

71.6 69.5 63.0 64.9 66.7 60.6 72.3 66.1 55.6 58.8 66.4 60.6 65.5 68.1 63.3 59.3 38.9 46.9 45.2 51.2 57.6 54.6 52.3

74.9 73.5 70.7 72.7 72.1 68.8 77.8 71.8 64.1 66.4 72.3 67.6 71.6 73.3 70.6 67.8 47.1 55.8 54.7 59.5 66.2 63.3 60.4

75.4 74.4 74.6 76.8 74.3 72.0 79.8 73.5 67.7 69.1 73.8 70.4 74.0 75.0 74.1 72.4 55.4 63.4 59.8 63.7 71.4 68.3 64.9

75.3 74.5 74.0 76.4 74.1 70.2 79.5 73.0 66.0 67.9 73.2 69.4 73.6 74.6 73.5 71.3 54.5 62.4 58.1 62.4 70.1 66.8 63.4

72.6 71.6 67.2 69.2 69.4 63.7 75.6 68.4 58.4 61.6 69.4 63.0 68.8 70.3 67.0 63.7 44.9 52.4 49.9 55.9 64.8 59.9 56.6

65.9 64.0 56.4 58.2 60.5 51.8 68.4 58.8 47.0 51.3 59.6 53.0 59.4 61.6 56.7 52.4 33.1 41.0 38.9 43.7 52.8 47.2 44.6

58.6 55.4 45.1 46.8 49.2 39.8 59.4 49.8 34.5 38.8 50.8 41.4 48.6 52.3 45.8 40.1 23.0 30.4 30.3 35.2 43.7 38.4 36.6

52.0 48.1 36.8 38.6 41.2 33.4 51.8 42.8 26.1 31.2 44.5 33.5 40.8 45.2 37.5 31.3 15.0 22.4 17.3 27.9 36.1 31.1 29.6

64.6 62.1 55.1 57.1 58.5 52.1 65.7 58.2 46.2 49.9 59.2 51.8 57.5 60.4 55.3 50.9 33.8 41.2 35.8 44.0 51.4 47.4 45.4

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-15

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

RI SC

State WA

PR WV

WI

(Continued) Station

Olympia Quillayute Seattle CO Seattle Sea-Tac AP Spokane Walla Walla Yakima San Juan Beckley Charleston Elkins Huntington Green Bay La Crosse Madison Milwaukee Casper Cheyenne Lander Sheridan

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

31.8 34.6 36.0 35.9 21.7 28.8 20.5 70.8 22.1 24.2 18.0 24.5 7.1 6.3 9.3 13.4 12.2 14.8 8.7 9.7

32.6 35.1 37.1 37.2 25.7 32.5 24.7 70.9 24.9 26.7 19.7 27.5 12.1 12.8 14.3 18.3 16.4 17.2 13.9 14.9

34.1 35.7 39.2 39.1 30.4 36.9 28.9 71.7 32.4 34.0 26.9 35.5 22.6 24.5 24.6 27.3 23.1 22.0 23.5 22.5

36.5 37.6 42.5 42.1 35.5 41.3 33.2 73.2 40.6 41.8 34.6 43.7 33.9 37.1 35.2 36.4 29.3 28.7 31.3 30.4

42.0 41.9 48.2 47.2 42.6 47.6 40.0 74.9 49.2 50.3 44.1 52.6 44.7 48.7 46.0 46.2 37.9 38.3 40.3 38.6

46.4 46.0 52.7 51.7 49.2 54.3 46.2 76.6 57.0 58.3 52.7 60.9 54.0 57.9 55.7 56.3 46.6 47.5 48.9 46.8

49.6 49.0 56.4 55.3 54.6 60.7 50.9 76.9 61.1 62.9 57.6 65.4 58.6 62.8 61.0 62.9 53.2 53.4 55.4 52.4

49.5 49.2 57.1 55.7 54.5 61.2 50.1 77.0 59.8 61.7 56.7 64.1 56.5 60.7 58.7 62.1 51.8 52.0 54.1 51.5

44.9 45.7 52.6 51.9 45.9 52.9 42.3 76.5 53.5 55.0 50.1 56.8 47.5 51.7 49.9 54.1 41.7 42.9 44.4 41.0

38.9 40.9 46.4 45.7 35.8 43.6 32.9 75.6 42.4 43.1 37.0 44.8 36.9 40.1 38.9 42.6 31.8 32.5 33.2 30.3

35.3 37.5 40.4 39.9 28.7 36.0 26.3 74.0 34.4 35.3 29.3 36.6 25.6 27.4 27.7 31.0 21.3 22.1 18.9 18.5

32.1 34.6 36.1 35.9 21.6 29.3 20.5 72.1 26.5 28.2 21.9 28.9 13.3 13.6 15.8 19.4 14.0 16.1 9.9 10.4

39.5 40.7 45.4 44.8 37.2 43.8 34.7 74.2 42.0 43.5 37.4 45.1 34.4 37.0 36.4 39.2 31.6 32.3 31.9 30.6

Note: In Fahrenheit degrees, based on 30-year average values 1971–2000. Source: From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

WY

3-16

Table 3A.2

State AL

AK

AZ

AR

CA

Station Birmingham AP Huntsville Mobile Montgomery Anchorage Annette Barrow Bethel Bettles Big Delta Cold Bay Fairbanks Gulkana Homer Juneau King Salmon Kodiak Kotzebue Mcgrath Nome St. Paul Island Talkeetna Unalakleet Valdez Yakutat Flagstaff Phoenix Tucson Winslow Yuma Fort Smith Little Rock North Little Rock Bakersfield Bishop Eureka Fresno Long Beach Los Angeles AP Los Angeles CO Mount Shasta Redding Sacramento

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

52.8 48.9 60.7 57.6 22.2 39.7 K7.7 12.4 K3.1 4.4 32.8 K0.3 3.5 29.3 30.6 22.8 34.7 3.7 2.3 13.4 29.8 19.6 10.5 26.6 32.1 42.9 65.0 64.5 47.1 69.9 48.1 49.5 49.1 56.3 53.6 55.0 53.6 68.0 65.6 68.1 44.2 55.4 53.8

58.3 54.6 64.5 62.4 25.8 41.9 K9.8 13.9 2.0 10.9 32.3 8.0 13.8 31.4 34.3 23.8 35.5 3.0 10.7 13.6 27.6 25.7 12.7 30.0 35.7 45.6 69.4 68.4 54.4 75.2 54.8 55.6 55.1 63.5 58.4 55.9 61.3 68.5 65.8 69.6 47.6 60.1 60.5

66.5 63.4 71.2 70.5 33.6 44.7 K7.4 21.8 16.4 25.1 35.1 25.0 28.2 36.3 39.5 32.0 38.3 7.2 25.3 17.7 28.8 34.0 19.6 35.8 39.3 50.3 74.3 73.3 61.5 80.1 64.2 64.2 64.1 68.3 64.3 56.1 66.1 68.9 65.3 69.8 52.1 63.9 64.7

74.1 72.3 77.4 77.5 43.9 49.8 6.3 33.3 34.1 42.5 38.2 43.6 42.4 43.4 48.1 41.3 42.7 19.6 40.5 26.8 32.8 44.6 31.5 44.4 45.1 58.4 83.0 81.5 69.8 87.2 73.2 72.9 73.2 75.7 72.1 57.4 74.0 72.7 68.0 73.1 59.2 70.6 71.4

81.0 79.6 84.2 84.6 54.9 55.7 24.9 49.4 54.9 57.8 44.9 60.6 55.6 50.6 55.7 52.1 48.8 37.8 56.8 43.0 39.8 56.7 46.9 52.9 51.1 67.6 91.9 90.4 79.0 94.7 80.0 81.0 80.5 83.8 81.2 59.6 82.7 74.0 69.3 74.5 67.3 80.7 80.0

87.5 86.5 89.4 90.6 62.3 60.3 39.5 59.4 68.7 67.3 50.8 70.9 65.0 57.0 61.6 59.5 54.5 50.8 67.6 53.9 46.2 65.4 55.2 59.4 56.6 78.7 102.0 100.2 90.0 104.4 87.7 89.0 88.6 91.6 91.5 61.8 90.9 78.3 72.6 79.5 75.5 90.7 87.4

90.6 89.4 91.2 92.7 65.3 64.1 46.5 63.1 70.8 70.4 55.1 73.0 68.5 61.0 64.3 63.8 59.6 60.0 69.7 58.6 50.3 67.9 62.0 62.3 60.1 82.2 104.2 99.6 93.0 107.3 92.9 92.8 93.5 96.9 97.9 63.3 96.6 82.9 75.3 83.8 83.2 98.5 92.4

90.2 89.0 90.8 92.2 63.3 64.6 43.6 59.7 63.2 64.8 56.2 66.3 64.5 60.8 63.1 62.2 61.4 56.7 64.1 56.0 51.6 64.6 59.6 60.8 60.4 79.7 102.4 97.4 90.1 106.1 92.6 92.1 92.6 95.4 95.8 63.9 94.8 84.6 76.8 84.8 82.6 96.9 91.4

84.6 83.0 86.8 87.7 55.0 59.6 34.8 51.7 49.1 53.2 52.5 54.3 53.4 54.8 56.1 54.9 55.6 46.4 53.4 48.6 49.2 55.1 51.3 53.3 55.7 73.8 97.4 94.0 83.5 101.0 84.9 85.1 85.0 89.4 87.6 63.6 88.8 83.1 76.5 83.3 76.0 90.2 87.5

74.9 72.9 79.2 78.7 40.0 51.4 19.3 35.3 25.4 31.1 45.0 31.4 34.3 44.1 46.9 40.5 46.2 27.5 32.2 34.0 42.5 39.1 33.6 43.0 47.3 63.1 86.4 84.0 71.7 90.3 75.0 75.1 74.8 79.5 76.0 61.3 78.1 78.9 74.3 79.0 64.4 78.4 78.2

64.5 61.6 70.1 68.7 27.7 44.2 4.6 23.1 6.4 13.5 39.1 11.2 13.2 35.2 37.6 30.5 39.0 13.3 13.8 23.0 37.1 25.6 20.2 32.7 38.4 50.8 73.3 72.3 57.7 77.3 61.4 62.0 61.6 65.3 62.4 58.0 63.0 73.4 70.4 73.2 49.9 62.4 63.7

56.0 52.4 62.9 60.3 23.7 40.7 K4.7 15.6 0.4 7.2 35.5 3.3 6.4 31.6 33.0 25.1 35.8 6.0 4.8 15.8 32.9 21.2 13.6 29.1 34.3 43.7 65.0 64.6 47.1 69.0 50.9 52.5 51.9 56.1 54.3 55.1 53.4 68.8 66.7 68.7 43.8 55.6 53.9

73.4 71.1 77.4 77.0 43.1 51.4 15.8 36.6 32.4 37.4 43.1 37.3 37.4 44.6 47.6 42.4 46.0 27.7 36.8 33.7 39.1 43.3 34.7 44.2 46.3 61.4 84.5 82.5 70.4 88.5 72.1 72.7 72.5 76.8 74.6 59.3 75.3 75.2 70.6 75.6 62.2 75.3 73.7

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-17

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Table 3A.3 Normal Daily Maximun Temperature — Selected Cities of the United States

State

CO

CT

FL

GA

HI

ID

IL

(Continued) Station

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

San Diego San Francisco AP San Francisco CO Santa Barbara Santa Maria Stockton Alamosa Colorado Springs Denver Grand Junction Pueblo Bridgeport Hartford Wilmington Washington Dulles AP Washington Nat’l AP Apalachicola Daytona Beach Fort Myers Gainesville Jacksonville Key West Miami Orlando Pensacola Tallahassee Tampa Vero Beach West Palm Beach Athens Atlanta Augusta Columbus Macon Savannah Hilo Honolulu Kahului Lihue Boise Lewiston Pocatello Chicago Moline

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

65.8 55.9 58.1 65.4 63.9 53.8 33.1 41.7 43.2 36.6 44.6 36.9 34.1 39.3 41.4 42.5 62.4 69.7 75.3 66.2 64.2 75.3 76.5 71.8 61.2 63.8 70.1 73.3 75.1 51.4 51.9 56.5 56.9 56.6 60.4 79.2 80.4 80.3 77.9 36.7 39.4 32.5 29.6 29.8

66.3 59.3 61.4 66.3 64.8 61.2 40.2 45.4 47.2 45.4 50.4 38.8 37.7 42.5 45.5 46.5 64.8 71.1 76.5 69.3 67.3 75.9 77.7 73.9 64.4 67.4 71.6 74.1 76.3 56.5 56.8 61.3 61.6 60.9 64.1 79.4 80.7 80.8 77.9 44.5 45.6 39.0 34.7 35.6

66.3 61.2 62.5 67.4 64.8 66.1 49.6 51.6 53.7 55.7 57.3 46.9 47.7 51.9 55.0 55.7 69.9 75.6 80.5 75.1 73.4 78.8 80.7 78.8 70.2 74.0 76.3 77.6 79.2 64.7 65.0 69.2 69.4 68.5 71.0 79.2 81.7 81.5 78.1 53.6 53.8 48.5 46.1 48.3

68.7 64.3 64.5 70.1 67.6 73.3 58.7 59.2 60.9 64.3 65.3 57.0 59.9 62.6 65.9 66.3 76.0 79.8 84.5 80.4 78.6 81.9 83.8 83.0 76.2 80.0 80.6 81.4 82.1 73.0 72.9 76.7 76.5 75.9 77.7 79.3 83.1 82.5 78.8 61.7 61.6 58.5 58.0 61.7

69.3 66.8 65.4 71.2 68.6 81.3 68.3 68.4 70.5 74.5 74.6 67.4 71.7 72.5 74.6 75.4 83.0 85.0 89.1 86.5 84.3 85.4 87.2 88.2 83.4 86.5 86.3 85.2 85.9 80.5 80.0 83.9 83.2 83.4 84.3 80.6 84.9 84.3 80.6 70.7 70.0 67.7 69.9 73.3

72.2 69.9 67.7 74.4 71.4 88.9 78.4 79.2 82.1 86.9 86.1 76.4 80.0 81.1 82.8 83.9 88.3 88.8 91.2 89.9 88.7 88.1 89.5 91.0 89.0 90.9 88.9 89.0 88.5 87.2 86.5 89.6 89.5 89.5 89.5 82.2 86.9 86.0 82.7 80.3 78.0 78.3 79.2 82.7

75.8 71.1 68.2 76.7 73.5 93.8 81.7 84.4 88.0 92.1 91.4 81.9 84.9 86.0 87.4 88.3 89.8 91.0 91.7 90.9 90.8 89.4 90.9 92.2 90.7 92.0 89.7 90.4 90.1 90.2 89.4 92.0 91.7 91.8 92.3 82.5 87.8 86.9 83.9 89.2 87.6 87.5 83.5 86.1

77.5 71.7 69.2 78.7 74.2 92.6 78.9 81.6 86.0 89.6 88.8 80.7 82.5 84.1 85.9 86.3 89.4 90.1 91.7 90.1 89.4 89.5 90.6 92.0 90.1 91.5 90.0 90.2 90.1 88.2 87.9 90.2 91.0 90.5 90.3 83.2 88.9 87.9 84.9 88.0 87.6 86.8 81.2 83.9

77.0 72.7 71.3 78.2 74.9 88.2 72.5 74.1 77.4 80.3 80.8 73.6 74.3 77.2 78.9 79.3 87.0 87.9 90.3 87.4 86.1 88.2 89.0 90.3 87.0 88.5 89.0 88.7 88.7 82.5 82.3 85.3 86.0 85.4 86.0 83.4 88.9 88.1 85.0 77.2 76.7 75.7 73.9 76.5

74.0 69.7 70.4 75.4 74.0 78.6 61.7 63.4 66.0 66.7 69.4 63.1 63.1 65.9 67.7 68.0 79.9 82.6 86.3 81.0 79.1 84.7 85.4 85.0 79.3 81.2 84.1 84.3 85.0 72.9 72.9 76.5 77.0 76.8 78.1 82.7 87.2 86.9 83.5 64.3 62.0 62.0 62.1 64.4

69.9 62.0 64.1 71.0 69.2 64.0 45.7 49.8 51.5 49.8 54.3 52.6 50.9 55.0 56.5 57.3 72.0 76.9 81.3 74.4 72.5 80.6 81.2 78.9 70.3 72.9 78.0 79.1 80.4 63.2 63.3 67.8 67.6 67.8 70.5 80.7 84.3 84.1 81.0 47.5 46.8 44.5 47.1 48.0

66.3 56.1 58.6 66.4 64.9 53.8 34.8 42.4 44.1 38.9 45.4 42.1 39.0 44.4 45.9 47.0 65.0 71.4 76.6 68.1 65.8 76.7 77.5 73.3 63.4 65.8 72.0 74.7 76.4 54.2 54.6 59.1 59.2 59.2 62.6 79.5 81.7 81.7 79.0 37.2 39.2 33.8 34.4 34.5

70.8 65.1 65.1 71.8 69.3 74.6 58.6 61.8 64.2 65.1 67.4 59.8 60.5 63.6 65.6 66.4 77.3 80.8 84.6 79.9 78.4 82.9 84.2 83.2 77.1 79.5 81.4 82.3 83.2 72.0 72.0 75.7 75.8 75.5 77.2 81.0 84.7 84.3 81.1 62.6 62.4 59.6 58.3 60.4

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

DE DC

3-18

Table 3A.3

IA

KS

KY

LA

ME MD MA

MI

MN

MS

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

30.7 27.2 33.1 39.5 31.0 34.5 31.0 29.1 24.8 28.7 25.8 36.3 41.4 39.4 37.2 40.1 38.0 42.0 39.9 41.0 41.9 60.0 60.6 61.8 56.2 19.3 30.9 41.2 33.8 36.5 31.4 26.1 31.1 29.2 29.3 25.9 29.4 19.7 29.8 21.5 17.9 13.8 21.9 19.9 18.7 55.1

36.6 33.0 38.9 45.4 35.4 39.9 35.5 35.4 30.8 35.0 31.9 42.9 48.3 45.0 43.8 47.2 43.1 46.8 45.2 46.6 48.0 63.9 64.5 65.3 62.0 23.2 34.1 44.8 36.3 38.7 34.1 28.2 34.4 32.3 32.6 29.3 32.6 24.2 32.5 24.5 24.4 22.4 28.4 26.2 25.7 60.3

49.4 45.5 51.1 56.4 47.4 51.4 46.8 48.2 43.3 47.3 45.0 53.9 57.3 53.2 55.5 57.3 53.9 56.8 55.3 56.8 58.1 71.0 71.3 72.1 69.7 34.1 42.2 53.9 44.8 46.3 43.0 37.3 45.2 43.1 43.3 39.4 43.5 33.1 42.5 33.6 34.2 34.9 40.6 38.7 37.7 68.1

62.0 59.1 63.4 67.2 59.8 62.9 58.9 61.3 57.4 61.7 59.7 64.4 67.1 62.7 66.1 66.9 64.7 66.8 65.1 66.8 68.4 77.3 77.4 78.0 76.6 47.0 52.8 64.5 55.5 56.1 54.4 50.3 57.8 56.2 56.6 53.0 56.6 45.8 54.6 48.0 49.0 51.5 57.0 54.8 54.9 75.0

73.0 71.2 74.4 77.1 71.6 73.5 70.7 72.3 69.3 73.2 72.2 74.0 75.9 71.7 75.3 76.0 74.4 73.8 74.0 75.4 76.9 84.0 84.1 84.8 83.2 62.6 63.3 73.9 67.0 66.7 66.3 64.3 70.2 69.0 69.6 67.2 69.4 61.5 67.0 63.2 63.4 66.6 70.1 67.7 69.0 82.1

82.2 79.9 83.3 86.1 80.6 82.1 79.6 81.8 78.6 82.5 81.7 85.0 86.9 83.6 84.5 87.1 82.4 80.8 82.3 83.3 85.2 89.2 88.9 89.4 89.8 71.8 72.8 82.7 75.5 76.6 74.4 73.8 79.0 77.7 78.4 75.5 78.1 70.3 75.6 70.7 71.2 74.2 79.0 76.6 77.3 88.9

85.7 83.1 86.5 89.4 84.3 85.6 83.1 86.0 82.1 86.2 85.0 90.7 92.8 89.1 89.1 92.9 86.4 84.2 85.9 87.0 88.6 90.7 91.0 91.1 93.3 76.3 78.8 87.2 81.2 82.2 79.3 79.0 83.4 82.0 82.3 80.0 82.1 75.2 80.0 75.7 76.3 78.6 83.3 80.1 81.7 91.4

83.6 80.9 84.5 87.8 81.8 83.7 80.7 83.9 79.8 83.7 82.8 88.4 90.8 86.7 87.9 91.6 84.8 83.3 84.6 85.8 87.4 90.9 91.3 91.0 93.4 74.2 77.3 85.1 78.9 80.1 77.1 76.1 81.4 79.5 79.7 77.1 79.7 72.6 78.1 74.1 73.9 76.3 80.4 77.5 78.9 91.4

76.7 73.9 78.5 81.3 75.4 77.4 73.6 75.9 71.9 76.0 75.3 79.9 82.0 78.0 80.3 82.2 78.0 77.4 78.1 79.4 81.2 87.4 87.7 87.1 87.6 64.1 68.9 78.2 71.0 72.5 69.0 67.4 73.7 71.9 71.7 68.3 72.0 63.2 70.3 64.8 64.5 64.7 71.1 69.2 69.0 86.4

64.4 61.8 66.6 70.0 63.0 65.6 61.8 63.5 60.3 63.7 62.5 67.9 70.4 66.0 68.9 70.2 66.4 67.5 66.9 68.4 70.8 79.7 80.5 79.7 78.3 51.4 57.9 67.0 60.3 61.8 58.4 55.6 61.2 59.7 59.6 56.0 59.8 50.9 58.7 52.8 52.5 51.7 58.4 56.9 56.3 76.8

48.8 45.5 50.9 55.7 48.5 51.6 47.7 46.7 43.6 44.8 45.0 51.0 54.5 49.6 53.1 54.5 53.6 56.4 54.5 55.9 57.2 70.1 70.6 71.0 66.8 37.4 47.1 56.3 49.3 51.8 47.1 42.2 47.8 46.3 45.5 41.9 46.0 35.4 45.6 38.9 35.2 32.5 40.1 38.7 37.2 66.3

35.5 32.0 38.0 44.1 35.8 39.2 35.6 33.1 29.7 31.7 30.7 39.6 44.4 41.3 40.9 43.1 42.7 46.3 44.3 45.4 46.3 62.8 63.3 64.5 58.5 24.8 36.4 46.0 38.6 41.7 36.2 31.2 35.9 34.2 33.7 30.5 34.1 24.1 34.6 27.2 22.3 18.1 26.4 24.5 23.2 57.9

60.7 57.8 62.4 66.7 59.6 62.3 58.8 59.8 56.0 59.6 58.1 64.5 67.7 63.9 65.2 67.4 64.0 65.2 64.7 66.0 67.5 77.3 77.6 78.0 76.3 48.9 55.2 65.1 57.7 59.3 55.9 52.6 58.4 56.8 56.9 53.7 56.9 48.0 55.8 49.6 48.7 48.8 54.7 52.6 52.5 75.0

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-19

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

IN

Peoria Rockford Springfield Evansville Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend Des Moines Dubuque Sioux City Waterloo Concordia Dodge City Goodland Topeka Wichita Greater Cincinnati AP Jackson Lexington Louisville Paducah Baton Rouge Lake Charles New Orleans Shreveport Caribou Portland Baltimore Blue Hill Boston Worcester Alpena Detroit Flint Grand Rapids Houghton Lake Lansing Marquette Muskegon Sault Ste. Marie Duluth International Falls Minneapolis-St. Paul Rochester Saint Cloud Jackson

State

MO

MT

NE

NH NJ

NM

NY

(Continued) Station

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Meridian Tupelo Columbia Kansas City St. Louis Springfield Billings Glasgow Great Falls Havre Helena Kalispell Missoula Grand Island Lincoln Norfolk North Platte Omaha Eppley AP Omaha (North) Scottsbluff Valentine Elko Ely Las Vegas Reno Winnemucca Concord Mt. Washington Atlantic City AP Atlantic City CO Newark Albuquerque Clayton Roswell Albany Binghamton Buffalo Islip New York C.Park New York (JFK AP) New York (Laguardia AP) Rochester Syracuse

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

57.5 50.3 37.4 36.0 37.9 41.6 32.8 19.9 32.1 25.5 30.5 28.9 30.8 32.6 33.2 31.2 36.5 31.7 32.1 38.0 33.8 37.1 40.0 57.1 45.5 41.6 30.6 14.0 41.4 41.4 38.1 47.6 47.4 55.6 31.1 28.4 31.1 39.1 38.0 38.8 38.6

62.6 56.0 43.9 42.6 44.3 47.7 39.5 28.3 37.7 33.4 37.3 35.2 37.4 38.6 39.3 37.3 43.3 37.9 38.0 44.3 39.4 42.9 44.0 63.0 51.7 48.5 34.1 14.8 43.9 43.2 41.1 54.6 51.5 62.0 34.3 30.9 33.2 40.5 41.0 40.9 41.2

70.3 64.8 55.1 54.4 55.4 57.8 47.6 41.3 45.3 44.9 46.8 44.9 48.1 49.5 51.2 48.5 52.1 50.4 50.8 51.7 48.4 51.2 49.9 69.5 57.2 55.1 43.8 21.3 51.9 49.5 50.1 62.4 58.2 70.0 44.5 40.6 42.5 48.5 49.8 48.9 49.6

77.1 73.5 65.9 65.2 66.7 67.7 57.5 56.7 55.6 58.5 56.9 56.0 58.0 61.9 63.5 61.3 62.7 63.2 63.6 61.0 59.8 59.3 57.9 78.1 64.1 62.6 56.9 29.4 61.3 57.5 60.8 70.6 66.1 77.7 57.3 53.1 54.1 58.1 60.7 58.6 60.0

83.9 81.0 74.6 74.6 76.5 75.9 67.4 67.9 64.7 68.8 65.9 64.7 66.1 71.9 73.8 72.3 72.0 73.7 73.3 71.1 71.2 68.6 67.3 87.8 72.6 72.0 69.6 41.6 71.1 66.1 71.4 79.7 74.2 86.0 69.8 65.6 66.4 68.9 70.9 68.3 70.6

90.1 88.0 83.6 83.9 85.3 84.6 78.0 77.1 73.9 77.4 75.0 71.9 74.5 83.0 84.9 82.3 82.6 83.7 82.4 82.2 81.9 79.9 79.2 98.9 82.8 82.7 77.9 50.3 80.0 74.8 80.2 90.2 83.9 94.0 77.5 73.4 74.8 77.4 79.0 77.2 79.3

92.9 91.4 88.6 88.8 89.8 89.9 85.8 83.8 82.0 84.6 83.4 80.2 83.6 87.1 89.6 86.5 88.4 87.4 85.6 88.7 88.3 89.6 87.3 104.1 91.2 92.2 82.9 54.1 85.1 80.6 85.2 92.3 87.4 94.8 82.2 78.1 79.6 83.2 84.2 82.9 84.7

92.9 90.9 87.3 87.1 87.9 89.5 84.5 83.3 81.2 83.9 82.5 80.5 83.2 84.8 87.1 84.4 86.8 85.2 83.9 86.8 86.9 88.1 85.1 101.8 89.9 90.6 80.8 53.0 83.3 79.8 83.2 89.0 85.1 92.3 79.7 75.8 77.8 81.7 82.4 81.8 83.1

88.0 84.9 79.1 79.0 80.1 81.2 71.8 70.4 69.6 71.9 71.0 69.0 71.5 76.9 78.8 76.4 78.0 77.3 76.3 77.3 77.2 78.2 75.8 93.8 81.7 80.4 72.1 46.1 76.6 74.1 75.7 82.2 77.9 85.7 71.3 67.8 70.1 74.9 74.7 74.9 75.6

78.3 74.9 68.0 67.6 68.3 70.6 58.9 57.1 58.0 59.4 58.4 55.3 57.4 64.6 66.5 64.0 65.6 65.2 64.6 64.4 63.5 65.0 63.0 80.8 69.9 67.3 60.5 36.4 66.3 64.5 64.7 70.7 68.5 76.5 59.7 56.7 58.9 64.0 63.5 64.3 64.5

68.5 63.0 53.4 52.0 53.8 56.4 42.7 37.4 42.1 40.8 41.5 38.6 40.0 46.8 49.1 45.5 48.5 47.8 47.5 48.2 45.9 48.1 48.8 66.0 55.3 51.4 47.6 27.6 56.0 55.0 53.7 57.1 55.7 64.5 47.5 44.3 46.7 53.7 53.1 53.8 53.6

60.5 53.6 41.5 40.0 42.0 45.5 34.5 24.8 34.2 30.1 31.5 30.1 30.3 35.3 36.8 33.6 39.2 34.8 35.1 39.8 36.7 38.2 41.0 57.3 46.4 42.2 35.6 18.5 46.4 46.3 43.0 47.9 48.0 56.3 36.0 33.4 36.0 43.9 42.9 44.0 43.7

76.9 72.7 64.9 64.3 65.7 67.4 58.4 54.0 56.4 56.6 56.7 54.6 56.7 61.1 62.8 60.3 63.0 61.5 61.1 62.8 61.1 62.2 61.6 79.9 67.4 65.6 57.7 33.9 63.6 61.1 62.3 70.4 67.0 76.3 57.6 54.0 55.9 61.2 61.7 61.2 62.1

30 30

31.2 31.4

33.2 33.5

42.7 43.1

55.2 55.7

67.9 68.5

76.6 77.0

81.4 81.7

79.1 79.6

71.1 71.4

59.7 59.8

47.2 47.4

36.1 36.3

56.8 57.1

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

NV

3-20

Table 3A.3

ND

OH

OK OR

PC

PA

Asheville Cape Hatteras Charlotte Greensboro-WnstnSlm-HPT Raleigh Wilmington Bismarck Fargo Grand Forks Williston Akron Cleveland Columbus Dayton Mansfield Toledo Youngstown Oklahoma City Tulsa Astoria Burns Eugene Medford Pendleton Portland Salem Sexton Summit Guam Johnston Island Koror Kwajalein, Marshall IS Majuro, Marshall IS Pago Pago, Amer Samoa Pohnpei, Caroline IS Chuuk, E. Caroline IS Wake Island Yap, W Caroline IS Allentown Erie Harrisburg Middletown/ Harrisburg AP Philadelphia

30 30 30 30

45.9 53.6 51.3 47.2

50.0 54.6 55.9 51.7

57.7 60.2 64.1 60.3

66.5 67.7 72.8 69.7

73.5 74.9 79.7 76.9

80.0 81.5 86.6 83.8

83.3 85.4 90.1 87.6

81.7 84.8 88.4 85.7

76.0 81.1 82.3 79.4

67.1 72.6 72.6 69.6

57.4 64.8 62.8 59.9

49.3 57.3 54.0 50.6

65.7 69.9 71.7 68.5

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

49.8 56.3 21.1 15.9 14.9 19.4 32.9 32.6 36.2 33.7 32.4 31.4 32.4 47.1 46.5 48.1 34.7 46.5 47.3 40.1 45.6 47.0 42.5 84.0 81.9 87.6 85.6

54.0 59.5 28.5 22.8 22.4 27.6 36.8 35.8 40.5 38.2 35.9 35.1 36.0 53.5 52.9 50.8 40.5 50.7 53.8 46.5 50.3 51.2 44.1 84.0 82.1 87.5 86.1

62.5 66.2 40.2 35.3 34.3 40.1 47.5 46.1 51.7 49.3 46.6 46.5 46.3 62.5 62.4 53.3 49.0 55.9 58.3 54.8 55.7 56.3 46.7 85.0 82.3 88.3 86.7

71.8 74.1 55.9 54.5 53.6 56.0 59.0 57.3 62.9 60.7 58.4 58.9 58.2 71.2 72.1 56.1 57.4 60.6 64.3 62.2 60.5 61.1 51.9 86.2 83.1 88.8 86.5

78.7 80.6 69.1 69.5 70.0 68.2 69.8 68.6 73.3 71.2 69.3 70.7 69.0 78.9 79.6 60.0 66.1 66.8 72.2 70.2 66.7 67.5 60.1 87.3 84.3 89.1 86.7

85.5 86.4 77.8 77.4 77.6 77.3 78.2 77.4 81.6 80.1 77.8 79.5 77.1 87.2 88.0 63.6 75.1 73.3 81.2 78.7 72.7 74.0 67.5 87.4 85.8 88.1 86.5

89.1 89.9 84.5 82.2 81.9 83.4 82.3 81.4 85.3 84.2 81.8 83.4 81.0 93.1 93.8 67.2 85.4 81.5 90.2 87.7 79.3 81.5 75.5 86.8 86.5 87.5 86.6

87.2 88.3 83.3 81.0 81.0 82.8 80.3 79.2 83.8 82.3 79.7 81.0 79.3 92.5 93.2 68.3 84.5 81.9 90.1 86.6 79.7 81.9 75.7 86.1 87.2 87.5 86.9

81.3 84.1 71.6 69.9 69.7 70.0 72.8 72.3 77.1 75.6 73.0 74.0 72.1 84.1 84.1 67.5 75.0 76.6 83.5 77.1 74.6 76.6 70.3 86.5 87.0 88.0 87.0

71.8 75.6 58.2 56.1 55.6 57.0 61.1 60.8 65.4 63.5 61.7 62.1 60.7 73.4 74.0 61.0 62.4 64.6 70.0 63.8 63.3 64.5 59.3 86.3 86.2 88.3 86.9

62.4 67.8 38.2 35.2 34.1 36.2 48.7 48.7 52.4 50.1 48.7 48.3 48.4 59.6 60.0 53.1 44.8 52.1 52.8 48.5 51.8 52.4 45.7 85.6 84.1 89.0 86.5

53.3 59.6 25.7 20.8 20.1 24.0 37.7 37.4 41.0 38.5 37.2 36.0 37.3 49.8 49.6 48.4 35.1 45.7 45.2 40.0 45.4 46.4 42.0 84.7 82.6 88.4 85.8

70.6 74.0 54.5 51.7 51.3 53.5 58.9 58.1 62.6 60.6 58.6 58.9 58.2 71.1 71.4 58.1 59.2 63.0 67.4 63.0 62.1 63.4 56.8 85.8 84.4 88.2 86.5

30 30

85.2 86.8

85.6 87.2

85.9 87.3

85.7 86.9

86.0 85.6

86.0 84.5

85.9 83.8

86.4 84.0

86.6 84.8

86.6 85.2

86.3 85.8

85.5 86.9

86.0 85.7

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

86.8 87.0 82.4 86.5 35.0 33.5 37.5 37.5

87.0 86.4 82.1 86.7 38.7 35.4 40.9 40.9

87.5 86.7 83.3 87.5 48.7 44.7 50.9 50.9

87.6 87.1 84.5 88.3 60.1 55.6 62.6 62.6

87.8 87.6 86.2 88.5 70.9 67.4 72.6 72.6

87.8 87.2 88.1 87.7 79.3 76.2 80.8 80.8

88.2 87.7 88.8 87.2 83.9 80.4 85.7 85.7

88.6 87.4 88.7 87.1 81.7 79.0 83.7 83.7

88.8 87.8 88.7 87.4 74.0 72.0 75.7 75.7

88.7 88.3 87.8 87.6 62.9 61.0 64.3 64.3

88.6 88.3 85.7 87.7 51.2 49.3 52.5 52.5

87.3 87.7 83.9 87.0 40.0 38.6 41.7 41.7

87.9 87.4 85.9 87.4 60.5 57.8 62.4 62.4

30

39.0

42.1

51.3

62.0

72.1

80.6

85.5

84.0

76.7

65.7

54.8

44.2

63.2

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-21

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

NC

State

RI SC

SD

TN

UT VT VA

(Continued) Station Pittsburgh Avoca Williamsport Providence Charleston AP Charleston CO Columbia GreenvilleSpartanburg Aberdeen Huron Rapid City Sioux Falls Bristol-JhnCtyKgsprt Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis Nashville Oak Ridge Abilene Amarillo Austin/City Austin/ Bergstrom Brownsville Corpus Christi Dallas-Fort Worth Dallas-Love Field Del Rio El Paso Galveston Houston Lubbock Midland-Odessa Port Arthur San Angelo San Antonio Victoria Waco Wichita Falls Milford Salt Lake City Burlington Lynchburg

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

35.1 34.1 33.2 37.1 58.9 57.1 55.1 50.2

38.8 37.3 37.1 39.3 62.3 59.8 59.5 54.8

49.5 47.3 47.8 47.7 69.3 65.8 67.4 62.7

60.7 59.2 60.2 58.1 76.1 72.9 75.7 71.0

70.8 70.8 71.3 68.5 82.9 79.6 83.1 78.2

79.1 78.2 78.9 77.3 87.9 84.9 89.1 85.1

82.7 82.6 83.2 82.6 90.9 88.5 92.1 88.8

81.1 80.5 81.4 80.9 89.4 87.1 90.0 87.1

74.2 72.4 73.3 73.4 85.0 83.0 84.8 81.1

62.5 61.2 61.8 62.9 77.0 75.1 75.8 71.4

50.5 49.3 49.0 52.4 69.6 67.6 66.7 61.3

39.8 38.6 37.8 42.1 61.6 60.0 57.8 52.7

60.4 59.3 59.6 60.2 75.9 73.5 74.8 70.4

30 30 30 30 30

21.4 24.8 33.6 25.2 44.1

28.5 31.3 38.6 31.6 48.9

40.2 43.0 46.6 43.8 58.4

57.4 58.3 57.1 58.8 67.1

70.2 70.5 67.2 71.0 74.9

78.7 80.3 77.4 80.6 81.8

84.7 86.1 85.5 85.6 84.8

83.5 84.4 85.5 83.2 83.9

73.0 74.7 75.2 74.2 78.5

59.2 60.9 61.7 61.1 68.2

38.8 41.4 44.8 41.9 57.4

25.7 28.8 36.1 28.8 47.8

55.1 57.1 59.1 57.2 66.3

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

48.8 46.3 48.6 45.6 45.9 55.2 48.9 60.3 58.9

54.1 51.7 54.4 51.4 51.6 60.7 54.1 65.1 64.1

62.8 60.3 63.3 60.7 61.0 69.1 62.2 72.5 71.4

72.1 69.0 72.4 69.8 70.5 77.3 70.6 78.9 77.8

79.1 76.3 80.4 77.5 77.8 84.7 78.6 84.8 84.3

86.2 83.6 88.5 85.1 84.9 91.1 87.4 90.9 89.9

89.8 86.9 92.1 88.7 88.1 94.8 91.0 95.0 94.0

88.7 86.4 91.2 87.8 87.2 93.7 88.7 95.6 94.0

82.5 80.7 85.3 81.5 81.1 86.7 81.8 90.1 89.7

72.3 69.9 75.1 71.1 71.1 77.6 71.8 81.4 80.8

61.1 59.0 62.1 59.0 59.0 65.1 58.4 70.1 69.7

52.0 49.8 52.2 49.4 49.0 56.9 49.8 62.3 61.3

70.8 68.3 72.1 69.0 68.9 76.1 70.3 78.9 78.0

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

68.7 66.0 54.1 55.4 62.8 57.2 61.9 62.3 51.9 56.8 61.5 57.9 62.1 62.8 57.0 52.1 40.6 37.0 26.7 44.5

72.2 69.7 60.1 61.0 68.0 63.4 64.4 66.5 57.8 63.0 65.3 63.5 67.1 66.6 62.3 58.1 47.1 43.4 29.0 48.6

78.0 75.8 68.3 69.1 76.0 70.2 70.0 73.3 66.2 70.9 72.0 71.1 74.3 73.4 70.2 67.2 56.7 52.8 39.6 57.6

82.3 80.7 75.9 76.5 82.7 78.1 75.2 79.1 74.7 78.8 77.8 79.0 80.4 79.2 77.6 75.5 65.0 60.9 53.3 68.0

86.9 85.6 83.2 83.8 88.7 86.7 81.4 85.5 82.8 86.8 84.3 85.6 86.0 85.1 84.8 83.5 74.2 70.6 67.8 75.5

90.5 90.2 91.1 91.6 93.7 95.3 86.6 90.7 90.0 92.7 89.4 90.8 91.4 90.3 92.0 91.7 86.2 82.2 76.5 82.5

92.4 93.2 95.4 96.1 96.2 94.5 88.7 93.6 91.9 94.3 91.6 94.4 94.6 93.4 96.7 97.2 92.9 90.6 81.4 86.4

92.6 93.4 94.8 95.8 96.0 92.0 89.3 93.5 90.0 92.8 91.7 93.1 94.7 93.7 96.9 95.8 90.7 88.7 78.4 85.1

89.4 89.9 87.7 88.5 90.6 87.1 86.5 89.3 83.4 86.1 88.0 86.6 90.0 89.9 90.1 87.5 81.3 77.6 68.9 78.3

84.0 83.6 77.9 78.6 81.7 77.9 79.7 82.0 74.4 77.4 80.5 77.8 82.0 83.0 80.4 77.1 68.0 64.0 56.4 68.4

76.8 74.9 65.1 66.0 70.9 65.5 71.3 72.0 61.6 65.8 70.9 66.5 71.4 73.0 67.8 63.7 52.2 48.7 44.0 58.0

70.2 68.0 56.5 57.4 63.5 57.4 64.3 64.6 53.2 58.4 63.9 59.3 64.0 65.2 59.1 54.5 42.2 38.0 32.3 48.4

82.0 80.9 75.8 76.7 80.9 77.1 76.6 79.4 73.2 77.0 78.1 77.2 79.8 79.6 77.9 75.3 66.4 62.9 54.5 66.8

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

TX

3-22

Table 3A.3

PR WV

WI

WY

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

47.8 45.3 45.0 44.4 46.6 46.9 45.8 32.8 40.6 37.7 82.4 38.8 42.6 39.3 41.0 24.1 25.5 25.2 28.0 32.3 37.1 31.9 33.0

50.3 49.3 49.1 48.3 49.2 50.5 49.5 39.3 46.9 45.6 82.8 42.8 47.0 43.5 46.1 28.9 32.4 30.8 32.5 37.0 40.5 37.4 39.0

57.8 58.4 57.9 53.0 51.8 54.5 53.2 48.6 56.0 56.0 83.4 51.9 56.6 53.2 56.3 40.0 44.6 42.8 42.6 46.9 46.4 47.5 48.2

67.0 68.9 68.0 58.2 55.7 59.3 58.2 57.5 64.1 64.1 84.9 62.5 66.7 63.2 66.6 54.6 59.7 56.6 53.9 56.1 54.4 56.5 57.5

74.9 76.2 75.9 64.6 60.4 64.9 64.4 66.2 72.0 72.4 86.3 70.6 74.6 71.7 74.6 68.0 72.5 69.4 66.0 66.4 64.4 66.5 66.4

82.8 83.6 83.3 70.0 63.8 69.5 69.6 73.9 80.3 79.6 87.6 77.0 81.5 78.5 81.7 76.8 81.3 78.3 76.3 78.8 75.4 78.5 76.4

86.8 87.5 87.5 76.1 68.2 74.5 75.3 82.5 89.9 87.2 87.4 80.2 84.9 81.7 85.1 81.2 85.2 82.1 81.1 86.8 81.9 86.3 85.2

84.7 85.7 86.0 77.0 69.3 74.9 75.6 82.6 89.1 86.5 87.8 78.9 83.5 80.4 83.7 78.5 82.5 79.4 79.1 85.3 79.8 84.8 84.9

79.4 79.7 78.8 71.7 67.3 69.9 70.2 72.5 79.3 77.6 87.8 72.6 77.3 74.1 77.0 70.2 73.7 71.4 71.9 73.4 70.3 73.0 73.1

69.4 69.3 68.6 60.4 59.2 60.3 59.7 58.5 65.8 64.3 87.5 63.1 67.1 64.1 66.4 57.9 61.1 59.6 60.2 59.5 58.2 59.5 59.8

60.9 59.7 58.0 49.6 50.8 51.5 50.5 41.1 50.1 47.7 85.1 52.4 56.4 52.8 55.1 42.4 43.6 43.3 45.7 42.6 44.5 41.8 43.4

52.3 49.7 48.6 43.8 46.5 46.5 45.5 32.8 40.8 37.1 83.2 43.1 46.8 43.5 45.3 29.0 29.9 30.2 33.1 33.6 38.1 32.6 34.4

67.8 67.8 67.2 59.8 57.4 60.3 59.8 57.4 64.6 63.0 85.5 61.2 65.4 62.2 64.9 54.3 57.7 55.8 55.9 58.2 57.6 58.0 58.5

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

WA

Norfolk Richmond Roanoke Olympia Quillayute Seattle CO Seattle Sea-Tac AP Spokane Walla Walla Yakima San Juan Beckley Charleston Elkins Huntington Green Bay La Crosse Madison Milwaukee Casper Cheyenne Lander Sheridan

Note: In Fahrenheit degrees, based on 30-year average values 1971–2000. Source: From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

3-23

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-24

Table 3A.4 Mean Number of Days with Minimum Temperature 32 8 or Less — Selected Cities of the United States State AL

AK

AR

CA

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Birmingham CO Birmingham AP Huntsville Mobile Montgomery Anchorage Annette Barrow Barter IS Bethel Bettles Big Delta Cold Bay Fairbanks Gulkana Homer Juneau King Salmon Kodiak Kotzebue Mcgrath Nome St. Paul Island Talkeetna Unalakleet Valdez Yakutat Flagstaff Phoenix Tucson Winslow Yuma Fort Smith Little Rock North Little Rock Bakersfield Bishop Blue Canyon Eureka Fresno Long Beach Los Angeles AP Los Angeles CO Mount Shasta

11 39 35 40 39 38 42 82 41 44 50 57 59 39 54 61 58 39 40 59 60 36 85 62 30 30 38 53 42 62 42 31 38 42 24 39 54 54 92 39 42 43 61 42

18 17 18 8 13 31 17 31 31 30 31 31 24 31 31 28 25 28 22 31 31 31 26 31 31 30 25 30 3 6 28 1 23 19 17 5 29 18 2 7 — — — 26

11 12 13 5 8 27 13 28 28 28 28 28 23 28 28 25 22 26 20 28 28 28 26 28 28 27 23 28 1 4 23 — 16 12 10 1 24 16 1 3 0 0 0 21

5 6 7 1 3 29 12 31 31 31 31 30 25 31 31 27 23 27 21 31 31 31 29 31 31 29 24 30 — 1 19 0 7 5 4 — 20 18 — 1 0 0 0 22

1 1 1 — — 20 4 30 30 28 29 26 21 27 29 22 14 24 13 30 28 29 27 28 29 17 21 25 0 — 8 0 1 — — 0 8 11 — — 0 0 0 14

0 0 0 0 0 3 — 31 31 16 14 8 9 7 15 9 3 11 3 25 11 19 18 13 18 1 8 13 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 4

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24 23 1 — — — 0 1 — — — — 6 — 3 3 — 2 — — 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — 0 0 0 0 0 —

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 9 — — — 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 — 0 — — 0 — 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 —

0 0 0 0 0 — 0 15 11 — 2 1 0 1 3 — — — 0 — 1 1 — 1 1 — — — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 3 0 25 25 6 15 10 — 9 14 3 1 5 1 7 10 10 2 8 8 1 5 3 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 — — 0 0 0 0 0 1

— — — — — 20 2 31 31 26 30 28 9 29 27 18 7 22 12 28 28 25 11 25 27 12 11 19 0 — 5 0 1 — — — 7 2 — — 0 0 0 6

4 6 8 1 4 28 10 30 30 29 30 30 19 30 30 25 18 25 18 30 30 29 19 29 30 26 22 28 — 1 21 0 8 5 4 1 24 10 — 2 0 0 0 18

14 14 16 6 10 30 14 31 31 30 31 31 24 31 31 28 23 28 23 31 31 31 25 31 31 30 25 30 1 5 28 1 19 15 12 5 29 15 1 8 — — — 25

52 57 63 22 39 191 72 321 310 224 240 222 154 222 238 185 137 197 134 248 229 238 187 223 236 172 163 208 5 17 135 1 74 56 46 11 143 95 4 20 0 0 0 136

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

AZ

Station

CT DE DC FL

GA

HI

ID

IL

16 52 42 43 65 66 39 43 57 42 35 39 37 37 43 55 40 42 42 59 59 19 61 54 38 39 39 41 39 19 38 59 42 38 57 38 38 57 33 38 53 63 56 39 45 44

11 6 — 1 — 3 5 8 31 30 30 30 30 26 28 25 26 22 3 2 — 5 6 0 — 2 6 11 1 — — 15 15 16 13 14 10 0 0 0 0 26 21 28 21 29

5 2 0 — — 1 3 2 28 27 26 25 27 23 25 22 22 18 1 1 — 3 3 0 0 — 3 7 1 0 — 11 11 12 8 10 6 0 0 0 0 21 16 25 15 25

2 0 0 — 0 0 1 1 31 26 24 17 25 17 22 15 17 8 — — 0 1 1 0 — — 1 3 — — — 5 5 5 3 4 2 0 0 0 0 17 12 25 7 21

0 — 0 0 0 0 — — 27 14 11 6 11 3 8 3 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 1 — — — 0 0 0 0 8 3 15 — 7

0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 14 2 1 — 1 — 1 — — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 — 4 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 — 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 1 1 — 1 0 — 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 3 0 —

0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 27 9 8 4 11 1 6 1 5 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — 0 0 0 — — 1 — — — 0 0 0 0 6 3 15 — 5

3 1 0 0 0 — 2 2 30 24 24 21 26 8 16 10 14 4 — — 0 1 1 0 0 — 1 4 — 0 0 6 5 7 4 5 2 0 0 0 0 17 12 24 6 16

12 6 0 1 — 3 6 8 31 29 29 30 30 21 27 22 23 15 2 1 — 4 4 0 — 1 4 9 1 — — 13 12 14 11 12 8 0 0 0 0 26 21 28 17 26

33 16 0 2 0 7 17 21 227 162 156 133 162 98 133 99 113 68 6 5 0 14 15 0 0 2 15 34 3 0 0 50 48 55 39 44 28 0 0 0 0 122 87 168 66 130

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-25

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

CO

Redding Sacramento San Diego San Francisco AP San Francisco CO Santa Barbara Santa Maria Stockton Alamosa Colorado Springs Denver Grand Junction Pueblo Bridgeport Hartford Wilmington Washington Dulles AP Washington Nat’l AP Apalachicola Daytona Beach Fort Myers Gainesville Jacksonville Key West Miami Orlando Pensacola Tallahassee Tampa Vero Beach West Palm Beach Athens Atlanta Augusta Columbus Macon Savannah Hilo Honolulu Kahului Lihue Boise Lewiston Pocatello Cairo Chicago

State

IN

IA

KS

LA

ME MD MA

MI

MN

(Continued) Station

Moline Peoria Rockford Springfield Evansville Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend Des Moines Dubuque Sioux City Waterloo Concordia Dodge City Goodland Topeka Wichita Greater Cincinnati AP Jackson Lexington Louisville Paducah Baton Rouge Lake Charles New Orleans Shreveport Caribou Portland Baltimore Blue Hill Boston Worcester Alpena Detroit Flint Grand Rapids Houghton Lake Lansing Marquette Muskegon Sault Ste. Marie Duluth International Falls Minneapolis-St. Paul

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

42 43 39 43 41 41 43 39 41 35 43 43 40 39 36 38 49 40 22 39 42 19 43 38 56 50 63 62 52 117 38 47 43 44 39 39 38 39 24 42 61 41 63 43

29 29 29 28 25 28 27 28 30 31 31 31 29 29 30 29 28 26 23 24 24 23 9 5 5 12 31 30 25 28 26 29 30 29 29 29 31 29 31 29 31 31 31 31

25 25 26 23 20 24 23 24 25 26 27 27 24 23 27 22 22 22 16 20 19 16 5 3 3 7 28 27 21 26 23 26 27 25 26 26 28 26 28 26 28 28 28 27

21 19 23 17 13 21 17 20 21 23 23 24 19 18 24 16 15 16 12 14 12 11 1 1 1 3 29 26 14 23 16 25 28 22 24 24 28 25 29 24 29 29 30 25

7 6 9 4 3 8 5 8 6 8 9 10 5 5 12 4 3 5 3 3 2 3 — 0 — — 22 14 3 9 2 10 19 9 11 12 17 13 22 11 21 20 22 11

1 — 1 — — 1 — 1 — 1 1 1 — — 1 — — — — — — 0 0 0 0 0 5 2 — — 0 1 7 1 2 2 5 3 8 2 7 5 7 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 — — 0 — 1 — — 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 — — — 0

— — 0 — 0 — — — — 0 1 1 — — 1 — — — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 — 0 — 2 — — — 2 1 2 — 2 2 4 0

6 4 7 4 3 5 4 3 5 7 8 9 3 4 8 4 1 3 1 2 1 2 — — 0 — 14 9 2 3 0 5 11 4 6 6 9 8 16 5 9 12 16 7

18 17 19 15 12 16 14 14 19 21 23 22 17 17 24 16 14 13 9 11 9 11 2 1 1 3 25 19 11 14 7 17 22 16 17 17 22 18 26 16 22 26 28 23

27 27 28 25 21 26 24 25 29 30 30 30 28 28 30 27 26 22 17 20 20 19 6 4 3 10 30 28 21 26 21 28 29 26 27 28 30 27 30 26 30 31 31 30

134 127 143 115 97 128 114 124 134 147 152 155 125 125 157 118 109 106 81 93 86 85 22 14 12 35 187 155 97 129 96 141 176 132 140 143 171 150 194 138 179 184 197 155

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

KY

3-26

Table 3A.4

MO

MT

NE

NV

NH NJ

NM

NY

42 62 39 38 19 33 30 42 42 43 38 41 39 43 42 41 31 57 38 38 39 38 47 38 64 42 39 53 37 70 38 40 37 42 54 30 37 51 42 19 89 41 40

31 31 14 15 16 27 28 26 26 28 31 27 30 29 29 31 30 31 31 30 30 30 31 29 31 11 27 28 30 31 25 21 23 28 29 25 29 29 28 25 22 23 22

27 28 10 11 10 21 21 20 20 24 28 24 27 26 26 26 26 27 28 26 26 27 28 26 27 4 24 24 27 28 22 17 20 21 25 16 26 26 26 21 20 20 19

26 28 4 5 6 15 15 13 13 23 28 26 27 27 26 23 22 24 27 22 21 27 27 26 29 1 22 25 26 31 17 10 12 14 22 7 24 25 24 17 12 12 10

12 17 — — 1 3 4 2 3 13 16 17 18 18 17 8 8 10 13 7 7 14 15 20 24 — 16 19 17 28 6 1 1 4 9 2 12 12 10 3 1 1 1

2 3 0 0 0 — — — — 2 3 4 4 6 5 1 1 1 3 — — 2 3 8 13 0 5 8 5 20 — 0 0 — 1 0 1 1 1 0 — 0 0

0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 — — 1 — 0 0 0 — 0 0 — — 1 4 0 0 1 — 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — 0 0 — 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — — — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 — — — 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 2 0 0 0 — — 0 — 1 2 3 3 6 4 0 0 1 2 — — 2 2 7 8 0 3 6 2 12 — 0 0 0 — 0 0 — — 0 0 0 0

10 13 0 1 — 2 2 1 2 8 14 12 17 21 18 7 6 7 14 6 4 13 14 22 23 — 14 21 14 23 3 — 0 2 5 1 8 6 3 1 — — —

24 26 6 6 6 14 14 11 12 22 27 22 27 25 26 23 22 24 28 20 19 27 27 26 28 2 24 25 21 28 13 4 6 15 20 12 18 18 14 10 5 4 3

30 31 12 13 14 25 26 23 23 28 31 27 30 29 30 30 30 30 31 29 29 30 31 29 30 10 28 28 29 31 22 15 19 28 28 24 27 27 25 21 18 17 15

163 178 47 51 53 107 110 96 100 147 179 160 181 189 181 148 144 155 177 139 137 172 177 195 218 27 163 186 171 243 109 69 83 113 139 88 146 145 130 99 78 77 70

39 39

28 28

25 25

23 24

11 11

1 1

0 0

0 0

0 0

— —

4 5

15 15

25 26

133 135

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-27

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

MS

Rochester Saint Cloud Jackson Meridian Tupelo Columbia Kansas City St. Louis Springfield Billings Glasgow Great Falls Helena Kalispell Missoula Grand Island Lincoln Norfolk North Platte Omaha Eppley AP Omaha (North) Scottsbluff Valentine Elko Ely Las Vegas Reno Winnemucca Concord Mt. Washington Atlantic City AP Atlantic City CO Newark Albuquerque Clayton Roswell Albany Binghamton Buffalo Islip New York C.Park New York (JFK AP) New York (Laguardia AP) Rochester Syracuse

State NC

ND

OH

OR

PC

PA

(Continued) Station

Asheville Cape Hatteras Charlotte Greensboro-WnstnSlm-HPT Raleigh Wilmington Bismarck Fargo Williston Akron Cleveland Columbus Dayton Mansfield Toledo Youngstown Oklahoma City Tulsa Astoria Burns Eugene Medford Pendleton Portland Salem Sexton Summit Guam Johnston Island Koror Kwajalein, Marshall IS Majuro, Marshall IS Pago Pago, Amer Samoa Pohnpei, Caroline IS Chuuk, E. Caroline IS Wake Island Yap, W Caroline IS Allentown Erie Harrisburg Middletown/Harrisburg AP

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

38 45 42 39

23 9 18 22

19 8 14 18

13 3 7 10

4 — 1 2

— 0 — —

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

— 0 0 0

4 — 1 1

13 1 6 9

21 6 15 18

97 27 63 80

38 39 43 43 41 39 42 43 39 37 47 59 37 42 49 18 60 41 67 62 40 40 43 28 51 50

20 13 31 31 31 28 28 27 27 28 29 28 23 23 9 30 14 19 21 12 13 19 0 0 0 0

16 10 28 28 28 24 24 23 23 24 25 25 15 16 6 26 10 14 16 8 11 16 0 0 0 0

9 4 29 27 29 21 21 18 18 21 23 23 8 8 6 27 7 11 10 4 9 20 0 0 0 0

2 — 18 16 18 9 9 6 6 9 10 11 1 1 2 21 2 5 3 1 5 15 0 0 0 0

— 0 4 4 5 1 1 0 — 1 1 2 0 0 — 9 — 1 — — 1 7 0 0 0 0

0 0 — — — — — 0 0 0 — — 0 0 0 3 — 0 0 0 — — 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 3 2 3 0 0 — — 0 — — 0 0 0 8 — — — 0 — — 0 0 0 0

1 — 15 13 17 4 2 3 3 4 6 4 1 — — 24 2 4 3 1 3 3 0 0 0 0

9 3 28 27 29 14 12 13 14 15 17 16 8 8 4 27 7 10 12 5 7 11 0 0 0 0

17 10 31 31 31 25 24 23 24 25 26 26 20 19 7 30 11 16 20 9 13 17 0 0 0 0

75 40 186 179 189 125 121 115 115 126 137 134 75 76 34 207 54 80 84 40 62 107 0 0 0 0

48 43

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

51 51 50 54 59 37 37 64

0 0 0 0 28 27 26 26

0 0 0 0 25 25 23 23

0 0 0 0 20 23 17 17

0 0 0 0 6 10 4 3

0 0 0 0 — 1 — —

0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 — 0 — —

0 0 0 0 4 1 2 2

0 0 0 0 15 11 11 11

0 0 0 0 26 24 23 23

0 0 0 0 123 122 106 105

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

OK

3-28

Table 3A.4

SC

SD

TN

TX

UT VT VA

43 43 47 58 39 39 60 27 36 40

25 27 28 28 24 28 10 4 16 18

21 24 25 25 21 24 7 2 12 14

14 19 22 21 16 19 3 — 6 7

2 8 8 8 3 5 — 0 1 1

— 1 1 1 0 — 0 0 0 —

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 — — 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 4 4 5 — 3 — 0 1 1

8 14 14 15 5 13 3 0 7 7

20 24 25 25 17 24 9 3 14 15

92 121 127 128 86 116 32 9 57 63

41 43 60 39 41

31 31 30 31 23

28 27 27 27 19

27 26 27 26 13

15 14 15 13 4

3 2 3 2 —

0 — — 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

— 0 0 0 0

2 1 2 1 0

14 12 11 12 3

27 26 25 26 13

31 31 30 31 21

178 170 169 168 96

62 42 61 37 37 39 41 40 36 38 39 39 42 42 33 55 39 42 42 60 41 39 42 39 43 38 39 54 73

19 20 17 21 21 17 27 8 1 3 14 6 18 2 7 25 20 6 17 8 5 12 21 30 27 30 23 16 21

15 16 12 16 17 10 22 4 — 1 8 3 11 1 4 18 13 3 10 4 2 7 13 26 22 26 20 13 19

8 9 5 9 12 4 15 1 — — 3 1 5 — 1 11 6 1 4 2 — 2 6 27 15 26 12 6 10

1 2 — 2 3 — 4 0 0 0 — 0 1 0 — 2 1 — 1 — 0 — 1 18 6 15 3 — 2

0 — 0 0 — 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 1 2 — 0 —

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 — 1 0 0 0

1 1 — 1 2 — 2 — 0 — — — — 0 — 1 — — — — — — — 15 4 8 3 — 2

10 8 5 8 12 5 15 1 — — 3 1 7 — 1 11 7 1 5 2 1 3 6 26 18 18 11 3 10

17 17 14 17 19 14 27 5 1 1 10 5 18 1 5 24 18 4 14 6 3 9 17 30 27 28 20 13 20

71 72 53 74 86 50 111 18 2 5 37 16 59 3 18 92 63 14 51 21 10 33 64 180 122 154 92 51 83

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-29

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

RI

Philadelphia Pittsburgh Avoca Williamsport Block IS Providence Charleston AP Charleston CO Columbia GreenvilleSpartanburg AP Aberdeen Huron Rapid City Sioux Falls Bristol-JhnCtyKgsprt Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis Nashville Oak Ridge Abilene Amarillo Austin Brownsville Corpus Christi Dallas-Fort Worth Del Rio El Paso Galveston Houston Lubbock Midland-Odessa Port Arthur San Angelo San Antonio Victoria Waco Wichita Falls Milford Salt Lake City Burlington Lynchburg Norfolk Richmond

State

WA

PR WV

WY

(Continued) Station

Roanoke Wallops Island Olympia Quillayute Seattle CO Seattle Sea-Tac AP Spokane Walla Walla Yakima San Juan Beckley Charleston Elkins Huntington Green Bay La Crosse Madison Milwaukee Casper Cheyenne Lander Sheridan

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

38 28 43 36 48 43 43 43 56 47 39 55 58 41 41 50 43 42 38 43 56 38

23 21 15 13 7 9 26 19 28 0 25 23 26 23 31 30 30 29 29 29 31 30

19 17 14 10 4 6 23 14 24 0 21 20 24 20 27 27 27 26 26 26 28 27

12 10 14 9 1 3 21 6 21 0 17 15 22 13 27 25 26 23 27 27 28 27

2 1 8 6 0 — 10 0 12 0 7 5 12 4 14 9 13 9 19 18 18 18

— 0 2 — 0 0 2 0 3 0 1 — 3 — 2 1 3 1 7 4 5 5

0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 — 0 — 0 0 0 — 0 — 0 — —

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 — 0 0 1 — 1 0 — 0 1 — 1 — 1 — 4 2 3 3

2 — 5 3 — — 10 2 12 0 5 3 11 3 9 6 9 4 16 13 14 16

10 6 10 7 2 3 20 9 22 0 14 13 20 11 22 21 21 17 25 24 28 28

19 17 15 12 5 8 27 22 28 0 22 21 26 20 29 29 29 27 29 29 31 30

88 72 84 61 19 29 139 73 149 0 112 99 144 95 161 149 159 136 181 172 184 186

The mean number of days with a minimum temperature of 328F or lower indicates the frequency of occurrence of days with freezing temperatures. The annual value is the total of the unrounded monthly values, it may not agree with the sum of the rounded monthly values. Source: From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

WI

3-30

Table 3A.4

State AL

AK

AZ

AR

CA

Station

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Birmingham Birmingham AP Huntsville Mobile Montgomery Anchorage Annette Barrow Barter IS Bethel Bettles Big Delta Cold Bay Fairbanks Gulkana Homer Juneau King Salmon Kodiak Kotzebue Mcgrath Nome St. Paul Island Talkeetna Unalakleet Valdez Yakutat Flagstaff Phoenix Tucson Winslow Yuma Fort Smith Little Rock North Little Rock Bakersfield Bishop Blue Canyon Eureka Fresno Long Beach Los Angeles AP Los Angeles CO

11 39 35 40 39 38 42 29 41 44 50 58 58 39 54 62 58 39 40 59 60 36 85 62 30 30 38 53 42 62 42 31 38 42 24 39 55 55 92 39 42 43 62

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 —

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — —

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 3 — — 0 — 0 0 0 — — — —

— — — — — 0 — 0 0 0 0 — 0 — 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 10 5 — 12 1 — — 2 — 0 0 2 1 — 1

1 2 1 4 4 1 2 0 0 1 1 2 0 4 1 — 1 1 — — 2 — 0 2 — — — 0 23 18 3 23 2 3 2 10 5 0 0 10 1 — 1

10 11 9 16 17 4 4 — 0 3 13 11 — 17 9 — 5 3 1 1 11 2 0 10 1 2 1 1 29 28 17 29 13 16 13 19 19 — 0 19 2 — 1

18 18 17 22 22 6 6 1 — 6 16 15 — 21 13 1 7 6 2 3 14 3 0 13 3 4 1 2 31 29 24 31 23 23 22 28 29 — 0 28 3 — 4

17 16 15 21 21 3 6 — — 2 5 8 — 10 7 1 6 4 3 1 6 1 0 7 2 3 1 — 31 29 19 31 22 21 21 26 27 0 0 27 5 — 5

5 7 6 10 12 — 2 0 0 — — 1 — 1 — 0 — — — 0 — — 0 — — — — — 28 24 5 28 10 9 8 17 14 — 0 18 6 1 6

0 — — 1 1 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 9 — 18 1 1 — 5 1 0 0 4 3 1 3

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — 0 1 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 1 — 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — —

52 54 48 74 78 14 19 1 0 12 36 37 0 54 30 2 19 13 7 4 32 6 0 32 6 9 3 3 168 144 68 175 72 73 67 108 95 0 0 108 22 3 22

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-31

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Table 3A.5 Mean Number of Days with Maximum Temperature 908 F or More — Selected Cities of the United States

State

CO

DE DC FL

GA

HI

ID

(Continued) Station

Mount Shasta Redding Sacramento San Diego San Francisco AP San Francisco CO Santa Barbara Santa Maria Stockton Alamosa Colorado Springs Denver Grand Junction Pueblo Bridgeport Hartford Wilmington Washington Dulles AP Washington Nat’l AP Apalachicola Daytona Beach Fort Myers Gainesville Jacksonville Key West Miami Orlando Pensacola Tallahassee Tampa Vero Beach West Palm Beach Athens Atlanta Augusta Columbus Macon Savannah Hilo Honolulu Kahului Lihue Boise Lewiston

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

42 16 52 42 43 65 66 39 43 57 42 35 39 37 37 43 55 40 42 42 59 59 19 61 54 38 39 39 41 39 19 38 59 42 38 57 38 38 57 33 38 53 63 56

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 — 0 0 — — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 — 0 — — 0 — 0 — — 0 0 0 0 — — — 0 — 0 0 0

0 1 — — — — — — 1 0 0 — 0 — — — — — — — 2 3 2 1 — 2 4 — 1 1 1 2 — — 1 — 1 1 0 0 — 0 — —

— 7 5 — — — — — 7 0 — — 1 3 — 1 1 1 2 1 6 14 10 8 1 4 12 2 9 9 4 4 3 1 6 6 6 6 — — 1 0 1 1

2 16 12 — 1 — — 1 14 — 4 7 15 15 1 4 4 5 7 6 11 20 17 16 7 10 19 13 19 17 10 10 11 8 15 17 17 14 — 2 2 0 5 4

9 28 22 — 1 — 0 — 23 1 9 15 25 23 3 7 8 11 14 8 17 25 22 24 16 17 25 18 23 21 17 18 17 13 23 22 23 22 0 5 3 0 19 16

7 25 19 — — — — — 21 — 3 10 19 18 2 5 5 9 10 8 14 25 20 21 17 17 25 16 22 22 18 19 14 10 19 21 21 18 — 11 6 — 16 14

3 18 13 1 1 1 1 1 14 0 1 2 4 7 — 1 2 3 4 4 6 19 10 10 8 10 18 9 15 16 10 10 5 3 9 10 10 7 — 10 7 — 4 4

— 5 3 1 — — 1 1 3 0 0 0 0 — 0 — — — — — 1 6 1 1 1 2 3 — 2 3 2 2 — 0 1 1 1 1 — 4 5 — — 0

0 0 0 — 0 0 — — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — — 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 — 0 0 0

21 100 74 2 3 1 2 3 83 1 16 34 64 65 6 18 20 29 37 26 57 113 81 81 48 62 106 59 92 87 63 65 51 36 74 76 80 70 0 33 25 0 45 40

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

CT

3-32

Table 3A.5

IN

IA

KS

KY

LA

ME MD MA

MI

MN

Pocatello Cairo Chicago Moline Peoria Rockford Springfield Evansville Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend Des Moines Dubuque Sioux City Waterloo Concordia Dodge City Goodland Topeka Wichita Greater Cincinnati AP Jackson Lexington Louisville Paducah Baton Rouge Lake Charles New Orleans Shreveport Caribou Portland Baltimore Blue Hill Boston Worcester Alpena Detroit Flint Grand Rapids Houghton Lake Lansing Marquette Muskegon Sault Ste. Marie Duluth International Falls

39 45 44 42 43 39 43 41 41 43 39 41 35 43 43 40 39 36 38 49 40 22 39 42 19 43 38 56 50 63 62 52 117 38 47 43 44 39 39 38 39 24 42 61 41 63

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 — 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 — — — — — — — 0 0 0 — — 0 — — 1 — — — 0 — 0 — — — — — — 0 0 — — — — — 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 —

0 2 1 1 — 0 1 2 1 0 1 — — 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 — — — — 1 6 2 4 4 — — 2 — — — — — — 0 — — — — 0 — —

4 11 4 6 5 3 7 9 4 4 3 4 1 6 4 9 13 9 7 12 4 2 3 6 11 19 14 16 18 — 1 6 1 3 1 2 3 2 2 1 2 1 1 — — 1

14 17 7 9 8 6 10 15 6 7 5 9 4 9 6 18 22 17 16 21 8 6 8 12 18 24 23 21 26 1 2 12 3 6 2 3 5 3 5 2 4 2 1 1 1 2

13 13 4 6 5 3 6 11 4 5 3 6 2 6 4 14 19 14 14 19 6 5 7 10 14 22 23 21 25 — 1 8 2 3 1 1 3 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1

2 4 2 2 2 1 3 4 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 5 8 6 5 8 2 1 2 3 6 12 12 9 14 — — 3 — 1 — — 1 — — — 1 — 0 — — —

— — — — — — — — 0 0 0 — 0 — — 1 1 — — 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 2 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

34 48 17 23 20 14 28 41 15 18 13 22 8 24 16 49 66 47 43 63 19 14 20 32 50 84 75 72 90 1 5 30 5 13 3 6 12 7 10 3 10 3 2 1 2 4

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-33

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

IL

State

MS

MO

MT

NV

NH NJ

NM

NY

(Continued) Station

Minneapolis-St. Paul Rochester Saint Cloud Jackson Meridian Tupelo Columbia Kansas City St. Louis Springfield Billings Glasgow Great Falls Helena Kalispell Missoula Grand Island Lincoln Norfolk North Platte Omaha Eppley AP Omaha (North) Scottsbluff Valentine Elko Ely Las Vegas Reno Winnemucca Concord Mt. Washington Atlantic City AP Atlantic City CO Newark Albuquerque Clayton Roswell Albany Binghamton Buffalo Islip New York C.Park New York (JFK AP)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

43 42 62 39 38 19 33 30 42 42 43 38 41 39 43 42 41 31 57 38 38 39 38 47 38 64 42 39 53 37 70 38 40 37 42 54 30 37 51 42 19 89 41

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0

— — — — — — — — — — — — 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 — 0 — — — 0 0 3 0 — — 0 — — — 0 — 2 — 0 — 0 — —

1 — — 5 4 2 — — 1 — — 1 — — — — 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 — 0 16 1 1 1 0 1 — 2 3 1 10 — 0 — 1 1 —

3 2 2 18 16 13 5 6 8 6 4 3 2 2 1 2 8 9 7 6 7 5 8 7 5 3 26 7 9 2 0 4 1 5 17 9 22 2 — 1 2 3 2

6 3 4 24 24 22 14 15 15 16 12 9 8 8 6 9 14 15 12 13 13 9 16 14 19 11 30 20 22 5 0 7 2 9 23 14 25 4 1 1 3 7 4

3 1 3 23 23 20 12 12 12 15 11 9 8 8 6 9 11 12 9 11 8 7 13 13 15 6 30 18 19 3 0 5 1 7 16 9 23 2 1 1 2 5 3

1 — 1 12 12 9 4 4 4 4 2 2 1 1 — 1 4 4 3 4 3 2 5 5 3 1 22 5 6 — 0 1 — 1 4 3 11 — — — — 1 1

0 0 — 1 1 — — — — — — — — 0 0 0 — — — — — — — 1 0 0 6 — — 0 0 0 0 0 — — 2 0 0 0 0 — 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

14 6 10 82 81 66 35 36 41 40 29 23 19 19 13 22 39 42 33 35 33 24 43 41 42 20 133 52 57 11 0 18 4 24 62 36 94 8 2 3 7 17 10

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

NE

3-34

Table 3A.5

ND

OH

OK OR

PC

PA

40

0

0

0

—

1

3

6

4

1

0

0

0

16

39 39 38 45 42 39

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

— — 0 0 — —

— — — — 2 1

2 2 2 1 8 6

4 4 4 2 14 12

2 2 2 2 11 8

1 — — — 4 2

0 0 0 0 — —

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

8 7 8 5 39 29

38 39 43 43 41 39 42 43 39 37 47 59 37 42 49 18 60 41 67 62 40 40 44 28 51 50

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 —

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 —

— 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 5 1

1 1 — — — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 1 0 0 0 — — 0 0 0 — 0 10 0

2 2 1 1 1 — — 1 — — 1 — 2 2 0 — — 2 1 — — — 3 0 14 1

8 8 3 2 3 2 2 4 4 1 4 1 11 13 — 2 1 7 4 1 2 — 4 0 8 1

14 16 8 5 8 4 4 6 7 3 6 3 23 24 — 9 6 18 14 4 6 1 2 0 4 1

11 12 8 5 9 2 2 4 4 2 3 2 23 22 — 9 5 17 11 4 6 1 1 0 4 2

3 4 2 1 2 — 1 1 1 — 1 0 9 9 — 1 2 9 3 2 2 — 1 0 6 2

— — — — — 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 1 1 0 0 — 1 — — — 0 — — 9 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 12 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 —

38 44 21 14 23 7 9 16 16 6 15 7 68 72 0 21 15 55 33 10 16 2 10 0 86 10

48 43

0 4

0 5

0 5

0 3

— —

0 —

— 0

— —

1 0

1 —

— 2

— 4

1 22

51 51 50 54 59 37 37

1 — 0 — 0 0 0

1 — 0 — 0 0 0

3 — — — 0 0 0

4 1 — 4 — 0 —

6 3 1 7 1 — 1

5 2 3 5 3 1 5

8 3 6 3 7 1 9

10 3 8 4 4 1 6

12 3 7 4 1 — 2

12 3 3 5 — 0 —

9 2 — 4 0 0 0

3 — — 1 0 0 0

74 21 29 37 16 2 23

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-35

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

NC

New York (Laguardia AP) Rochester Syracuse Asheville Cape Hatteras Charlotte Greensboro-WnstnSlm-HPT Raleigh Wilmington Bismarck Fargo Williston Akron Cleveland Columbus Dayton Mansfield Toledo Youngstown Oklahoma City Tulsa Astoria Burns Eugene Medford Pendleton Portland Salem Sexton Summit Guam Johnston Island Koror Kwajalein, Marshall IS Majuro, Marshall IS Pago Pago, Amer Samoa Pohnpei, Caroline IS Chuuk, E. Caroline IS Wake Island Yap, W Caroline IS Allentown Erie Harrisburg

State

RI SC

SD

TX

UT

(Continued) Station

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Middletown/ Harrisburg AP Philadelphia Pittsburgh Avoca Williamsport Block IS Providence Charleston AP Charleston CO Columbia GreenvilleSpartanburg Aberdeen Huron Rapid City Sioux Falls Bristol-JhnCtyKgsprt Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis Nashville Oak Ridge Abilene Amarillo Austin Brownsville Corpus Christi Dallas-Fort Worth Del Rio El Paso Galveston Houston Lubbock Midland-Odessa Port Arthur San Angelo San Antonio Victoria Waco Wichita Falls Milford Salt Lake City

64

0

0

0

—

1

5

9

6

2

—

0

0

23

43 43 47 58 39 39 60 27 36 40

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 — 0

— 0 — — — — 1 — 2 —

1 — — 1 0 1 4 1 6 2

5 2 2 3 — 2 11 6 16 8

9 4 4 6 — 4 17 13 23 14

7 2 2 3 — 3 15 10 18 10

2 1 — 1 0 1 5 3 8 3

0 0 0 — 0 0 — — 1 —

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

24 8 7 14 0 10 53 34 73 37

41 43 60 39 41

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

— — — — 0

— 1 0 1 —

3 4 3 4 3

8 11 11 10 6

7 9 12 6 4

2 3 4 2 2

— — — 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

20 28 31 22 14

62 42 61 37 37 39 41 41 36 38 39 39 42 42 33 55 39 42 42 60 41 39 42 39 43

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — — 0 — 0 0 — 0 — 0 — — — — — 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 — 1 1 1 — 2 0 0 — — — 0 1 1 — — 1 0 0

— — — — — 3 1 2 4 2 1 7 2 — 1 2 4 — 5 2 1 1 2 0 0

2 1 3 1 1 8 5 7 12 5 5 15 14 — 6 9 12 2 12 9 6 7 8 1 1

10 5 14 9 7 19 13 21 24 20 20 25 26 1 20 18 21 17 21 22 20 22 20 10 9

17 11 22 17 13 26 21 28 28 28 28 28 27 4 27 23 26 24 27 28 28 29 28 24 23

15 9 19 13 10 25 17 28 28 27 27 28 24 5 26 20 23 24 26 28 28 28 27 18 20

5 3 8 5 4 12 7 17 19 18 14 20 13 2 16 9 11 13 13 18 18 17 14 5 4

— 0 1 — — 2 1 4 6 5 3 5 2 — 3 1 2 2 3 4 5 4 4 — 0

0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 — — 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — — — 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0

49 29 67 45 35 96 65 109 122 106 97 130 108 12 99 81 101 83 109 113 106 109 104 57 57

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

TN

3-36

Table 3A.5

WA

PR WV

WI

WY

Burlington Lynchburg Norfolk Richmond Roanoke Wallops Island Olympia Quillayute Seattle CO Seattle Sea-Tac AP Spokane Walla Walla Yakima San Juan Beckley Charleston Elkins Huntington Green Bay La Crosse Madison Milwaukee Casper Cheyenne Lander Sheridan

38 39 54 73 38 28 43 36 48 43 43 43 56 47 39 55 58 41 41 49 43 42 38 43 56 38

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

— — 0 1 — — 0 0 0 0 — 0 — 3 0 — 0 — 0 — — — 0 0 0 0

0 1 2 3 1 1 — — — — — 2 1 6 0 1 — 1 — 1 — — — — — —

1 4 7 9 5 3 1 — — — 2 7 4 9 — 5 — 4 2 4 3 2 5 1 3 3

3 9 12 14 11 7 2 — 1 1 8 16 14 8 0 8 1 8 3 7 5 4 13 6 11 11

1 7 9 11 8 4 2 — — 1 7 15 11 10 — 5 1 6 1 4 3 2 11 3 7 11

— 2 3 4 2 1 1 — — — 1 4 2 11 0 2 — 2 — 1 1 1 2 — 1 3

0 — — — 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 — 0 0 0 — — 0 0 0 0 —

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

6 23 33 42 27 15 6 0 1 2 19 44 33 62 1 21 2 21 6 17 11 9 31 10 21 28

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

VT VA

Note: Through 2002. For Alaska, the reported values are 708 F. The annual value is the total of the unrounded monthly values, it may not agree with the sum of the rounded monthly values. Source: From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

3-37

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-38

Table 3A.6 Normal Monthly Heating Degree Days — Selected Cities of the United States State AL

AK

AR

CA

Birmingham AP Huntsville Mobile Montgomery Anchorage Annette Barrow Bethel Bettles Big Delta Cold Bay Fairbanks Gulkana Homer Juneau King Salmon Kodiak Kotzebue Mcgrath Nome St. Paul Island Talkeetna Unalakleet Valdez Yakutat Flagstaff Phoenix Tucson Winslow Yuma Fort Smith Little Rock North Little Rock Bakersfield Bishop Eureka Fresno Long Beach Los Angeles AP Los Angeles CO Mount Shasta Redding Sacramento San Diego

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Annual

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0 0 0 0 206 215 763 280 170 144 447 121 250 338 257 290 339 327 174 387 569 193 297 306 353 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 216 0 0 1 0 66 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 268 206 815 355 366 308 409 283 370 349 288 317 310 407 318 446 518 294 373 353 364 56 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 198 0 0 0 0 65 0 0 0

11 18 2 3 505 337 1016 587 721 620 518 615 658 514 453 521 468 696 611 664 603 563 644 537 506 224 0 0 31 0 23 13 8 2 46 232 3 1 2 1 196 13 11 1

133 165 51 84 957 572 1564 1085 1437 1270 774 1287 1199 844 704 984 766 1297 1233 1134 828 1043 1192 832 742 554 11 33 290 5 145 124 99 51 276 326 70 16 21 11 451 131 84 12

359 417 204 278 1297 760 1978 1428 1975 1761 915 1882 1786 1069 953 1254 931 1703 1779 1444 957 1425 1572 1101 980 850 117 195 649 90 448 400 383 283 609 423 344 128 121 91 753 420 359 109

590 669 387 487 1472 885 2346 1724 2245 2016 1054 2199 2064 1215 1125 1481 1067 2022 2132 1756 1122 1613 1826 1251 1129 1085 305 397 965 246 745 666 669 534 847 532 597 265 234 201 936 611 595 231

691 780 455 568 1526 928 2440 1813 2365 2097 1142 2315 2163 1290 1219 1538 1096 2092 2223 1836 1220 1676 1915 1336 1216 1099 304 401 961 228 854 775 770 521 843 530 578 268 252 206 921 606 580 227

514 587 326 415 1295 781 2267 1608 2041 1759 1048 1926 1733 1125 1010 1384 983 1918 1847 1663 1174 1391 1703 1126 1027 930 174 275 713 114 619 563 549 324 643 451 377 205 205 149 753 445 387 176

339 404 182 250 1212 791 2443 1566 1888 1576 1085 1670 1543 1103 973 1286 1007 2023 1653 1727 1267 1317 1685 1091 1040 880 99 194 580 73 410 369 343 236 545 491 283 186 212 144 738 390 335 160

154 180 57 98 861 637 1967 1175 1280 987 945 999 1018 860 728 957 833 1606 1078 1361 1097 923 1271 821 837 668 29 76 357 23 172 150 128 119 344 430 140 99 141 83 563 239 208 90

31 41 3 9 560 484 1391 738 642 536 780 504 655 663 529 667 667 1037 583 867 911 596 791 596 664 446 1 7 133 3 34 24 31 31 138 354 37 39 78 36 374 99 97 47

1 1 0 0 311 321 903 410 227 228 573 179 358 451 335 425 474 607 256 533 693 293 481 383 460 174 0 0 12 0 1 0 0 3 21 263 4 5 19 5 175 7 10 10

2823 3262 1667 2192 10470 6917 19893 12769 15357 13302 9690 13980 13797 9821 8574 11104 8941 15735 13887 13818 10959 11327 13750 9733 9318 6999 1040 1578 4692 782 3451 3084 2980 2104 4314 4446 2433 1212 1286 927 5991 2961 2666 1063

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

AZ

Station

CT DE DC FL

GA

HI

ID

IL

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

77 133 22 68 0 47 11 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 10 21 5 3 2 5 1

56 107 23 49 0 91 20 9 1 3 4 12 2 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 10 26 9 8 7 14 4

62 95 54 70 5 302 163 136 59 88 68 120 49 60 19 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 10 11 5 3 4 1 0 0 0 0 126 102 201 112 108 94 136 77

131 100 92 141 76 675 471 436 342 381 320 413 297 323 202 32 6 1 21 30 0 0 2 35 49 4 0 0 133 126 112 78 91 56 0 0 0 0 408 401 536 401 394 368 444 319

298 232 234 288 348 1082 827 826 766 779 591 697 564 589 467 152 67 16 121 148 0 4 40 175 193 46 18 10 353 352 313 263 277 204 0 0 0 0 769 717 907 759 782 738 832 674

476 383 368 422 609 1475 1082 1078 1118 1058 918 1054 871 882 755 328 185 76 268 314 14 38 142 352 369 144 101 58 597 600 540 481 494 403 0 0 0 0 1088 951 1240 1147 1191 1136 1244 1060

482 396 369 419 592 1551 1114 1111 1194 1092 1089 1218 1029 1025 906 408 245 103 321 374 26 58 220 416 428 187 166 83 687 692 617 559 570 472 0 0 0 0 1102 962 1274 1333 1374 1316 1430 1239

354 283 277 337 391 1189 915 892 860 843 944 1024 864 847 741 285 183 75 208 272 18 39 128 299 315 136 114 60 522 523 469 415 427 350 0 0 0 0 819 742 1003 1075 1090 1045 1150 980

339 288 263 350 313 983 816 788 643 694 803 844 687 670 562 169 99 28 123 155 6 15 57 171 185 63 48 27 349 346 301 252 262 202 0 0 0 0 675 616 842 858 831 788 912 726

266 233 193 291 169 719 568 524 397 431 489 486 376 362 269 42 29 3 40 55 0 1 9 48 71 13 8 4 152 150 129 94 104 72 0 0 0 0 460 411 584 513 450 423 522 376

201 214 151 230 54 451 306 267 151 172 207 195 132 139 72 3 1 0 2 5 0 0 0 1 5 0 0 0 28 26 21 8 12 6 0 0 0 0 254 218 353 232 172 159 215 126

120 150 75 135 6 169 76 60 20 24 32 38 15 21 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 80 71 129 49 19 19 36 14

2862 2614 2121 2800 2563 8734 6369 6128 5552 5566 5467 6104 4887 4923 3999 1419 815 302 1104 1353 64 155 598 1498 1616 593 455 242 2832 2827 2508 2153 2241 1766 0 0 0 0 5809 5211 7116 6493 6422 6095 6940 5596

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-39

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

CO

San Francisco AP San Francisco CO Santa Barbara Santa Maria Stockton Alamosa Colorado Springs Denver Grand Junction Pueblo Bridgeport Hartford Wilmington Washington Dulles AP Washington Nat’l AP Apalachicola Daytona Beach Fort Myers Gainesville Jacksonville Key West Miami Orlando Pensacola Tallahassee Tampa Vero Beach West Palm Beach Athens Atlanta Augusta Columbus Macon Savannah Hilo Honolulu Kahului Lihue Boise Lewiston Pocatello Chicago Moline Peoria Rockford Springfield

State IN

IA

KS

KY

ME MD MA

MI

MN

MS

(Continued) Station

Evansville Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend Des Moines Dubuque Sioux City Waterloo Concordia Dodge City Goodland Topeka Wichita Greater Cincinnati AP Jackson Lexington Louisville Paducah Baton Rouge Lake Charles New Orleans Shreveport Caribou Portland Baltimore Blue Hill Boston Worcester Alpena Detroit Flint Grand Rapids Houghton Lake Lansing Marquette Muskegon Sault Ste. Marie Duluth International Falls Minneapolis-St. Paul Rochester Saint Cloud Jackson Meridian

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Annual

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0 3 2 6 1 8 3 7 1 1 5 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 58 19 0 9 4 9 46 5 13 10 41 17 92 15 91 69 55 7 23 19 0 0

1 11 4 13 6 21 10 20 2 2 10 1 0 3 4 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 103 37 1 22 8 20 78 12 28 24 74 35 134 27 107 106 102 20 50 49 0 0

45 105 77 114 103 158 128 155 76 65 117 73 49 68 44 53 36 38 2 1 0 6 344 199 41 138 84 158 260 121 163 159 250 179 348 168 320 331 360 178 208 253 7 6

262 394 335 392 386 465 434 478 307 273 407 287 235 326 263 284 240 229 49 38 30 78 691 523 279 422 344 478 583 429 474 471 577 493 700 476 642 682 723 516 558 604 100 106

565 722 659 721 804 879 888 903 722 674 807 665 620 626 522 574 527 516 211 191 169 296 1039 790 549 698 604 764 894 742 781 793 901 805 1083 784 979 1124 1217 978 1014 1077 305 303

891 1094 1020 1090 1223 1307 1308 1343 1068 978 1079 1030 965 953 830 877 838 833 386 363 332 522 1505 1152 839 1040 932 1119 1244 1099 1149 1147 1271 1167 1484 1117 1383 1587 1744 1428 1479 1551 516 506

1047 1275 1192 1270 1385 1492 1439 1538 1195 1087 1147 1174 1087 1110 966 1026 992 978 456 434 403 597 1719 1346 986 1207 1104 1284 1447 1270 1329 1317 1468 1341 1659 1288 1606 1772 1946 1616 1650 1742 607 598

825 1063 957 1055 1090 1192 1131 1221 927 826 916 898 819 899 761 819 779 750 325 304 288 416 1466 1145 816 1034 951 1094 1285 1084 1147 1135 1283 1160 1405 1124 1405 1435 1551 1279 1305 1381 440 435

591 835 724 844 826 949 885 948 702 647 776 647 594 684 557 616 569 529 179 163 150 250 1254 988 647 894 815 952 1133 894 957 956 1115 970 1280 968 1253 1248 1304 1034 1066 1135 272 274

295 479 394 498 439 536 473 528 380 351 490 336 302 373 273 332 280 250 55 47 44 89 805 649 345 562 503 601 723 527 577 571 685 585 859 602 798 787 775 560 609 637 110 111

85 188 141 213 153 226 172 205 131 121 224 106 89 138 128 119 84 67 2 1 1 8 417 361 119 271 233 278 394 221 267 255 338 277 468 296 434 421 378 222 281 285 11 14

5 29 16 41 16 40 25 29 13 12 35 7 5 19 10 13 6 2 0 0 0 0 159 116 12 74 48 74 150 45 66 58 117 69 200 78 212 180 140 44 65 79 0 0

4612 6198 5521 6257 6432 7273 6896 7375 5524 5037 6013 5225 4765 5200 4358 4716 4352 4192 1665 1542 1417 2262 9560 7325 4634 6371 5630 6831 8237 6449 6951 6896 8120 7098 9712 6943 9230 9742 10295 7882 8308 8812 2368 2353

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

LA

3-40

Table 3A.6

MT

NE

NV

NH NJ

NM

NY

NC

Tupelo Columbia Kansas City St. Louis Springfield Billings Glasgow Great Falls Havre Helena Kalispell Missoula Grand Island Lincoln Norfolk North Platte Omaha Eppley AP Omaha (North) Scottsbluff Valentine Elko Ely Las Vegas Reno Winnemucca Concord Mt. Washington Atlantic City AP Atlantic City CO Newark Albuquerque Clayton Roswell Albany Binghamton Buffalo Islip New York C.Park New York (JFK AP) New York (Laguardia AP) Rochester Syracuse Asheville Cape Hatteras Charlotte

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0 1 0 0 1 20 22 48 33 42 85 55 3 1 4 6 1 4 7 11 53 26 0 12 12 22 504 1 0 1 0 1 0 10 22 8 0 1 1 1

0 2 7 1 1 25 38 64 49 56 94 62 7 5 11 14 6 15 11 19 57 48 0 22 23 44 542 6 0 2 0 7 0 26 43 21 1 2 2 1

14 72 58 46 62 205 253 275 270 283 341 276 114 100 130 158 105 83 157 175 237 258 1 130 173 212 740 69 20 41 29 85 18 168 200 149 49 43 42 40

150 291 269 246 248 516 609 579 622 631 705 637 401 377 432 481 384 349 489 516 569 605 57 416 509 548 1079 323 228 264 248 325 144 484 514 442 339 261 264 249

400 642 668 583 578 909 1088 952 1067 1018 1014 985 835 806 879 902 806 800 885 952 916 938 320 732 829 835 1333 573 481 541 614 685 485 772 812 737 604 524 532 524

639 1004 1047 943 899 1195 1506 1237 1410 1348 1297 1287 1192 1188 1266 1222 1211 1204 1183 1285 1208 1220 581 987 1101 1220 1702 868 772 863 898 937 755 1142 1160 1081 909 841 838 836

750 1153 1182 1097 1034 1280 1671 1323 1546 1397 1359 1291 1310 1328 1388 1316 1349 1323 1233 1386 1222 1240 583 984 1088 1402 1857 1019 924 1030 914 964 775 1330 1331 1256 1060 1009 1007 1008

559 891 897 845 790 1001 1290 1063 1201 1093 1079 1019 1031 1043 1099 1026 1053 1022 969 1101 943 996 380 757 820 1188 1639 873 787 869 670 767 542 1136 1156 1111 913 853 868 861

368 656 658 613 581 876 1055 948 999 932 933 852 819 799 872 853 805 783 837 932 820 903 247 683 742 999 1594 725 674 697 525 661 378 938 997 961 782 695 723 713

160 336 331 294 300 575 610 639 613 634 640 596 452 425 478 519 424 400 544 571 612 690 90 502 554 623 1262 437 409 371 294 407 182 553 617 594 479 372 420 392

29 115 124 83 100 312 308 389 324 384 411 384 175 154 180 240 151 154 257 260 383 459 16 285 315 302 914 187 167 120 85 179 51 240 292 268 197 127 166 136

1 10 8 6 8 90 91 158 113 157 213 178 23 16 28 46 17 16 53 57 161 178 1 91 105 90 619 32 18 13 4 27 2 62 90 65 24 16 19 16

3070 5173 5249 4757 4602 7004 8541 7675 8247 7975 8171 7622 6362 6242 6767 6783 6312 6153 6625 7265 7181 7561 2276 5601 6271 7485 13785 5113 4480 4812 4281 5045 3332 6861 7234 6693 5357 4744 4882 4777

30 30 30 30 30

10 10 1 0 0

24 25 2 0 0

154 158 52 2 16

447 460 285 72 165

741 748 531 244 404

1085 1108 769 464 655

1263 1294 872 587 747

1117 1131 708 518 585

958 959 550 400 409

582 572 302 187 180

266 254 116 44 44

66 66 15 3 3

6713 6785 4203 2521 3208

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-41

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

MO

State

ND

OH

OR

PC

PA

(Continued) Station

Years

Greensboro-Wnstn-SlmHPT Raleigh Wilmington Bismarck Fargo Grand Forks Williston Akron Cleveland Columbus Dayton Mansfield Toledo Youngstown Oklahoma City Tulsa Astoria Burns Eugene Medford Pendleton Portland Salem Sexton Summit Guam Johnston Island Koror Kwajalein, Marshall IS Majuro, Marshall IS Pago Pago, Amer Samoa Pohnpei, Caroline IS Chuuk, E. Caroline IS Wake Island Yap, W Caroline IS Allentown Erie Harrisburg Middletown/ Harrisburg AP Philadelphia Pittsburgh Avoca

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Annual

30

0

1

32

232

480

742

851

679

501

245

77

8

3848

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0 0 19 17 27 22 7 7 3 2 8 6 15 0 0 151 89 40 10 14 21 39 127 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 44 37 53 43 16 13 7 7 19 18 26 0 0 130 96 31 7 15 15 34 101 0 0 0 0 0 0

20 3 256 245 276 274 120 110 81 90 122 129 148 30 29 197 313 115 69 115 78 116 211 0 0 0 0 0 0

194 95 625 614 655 645 412 385 354 358 407 431 439 152 152 386 638 370 316 400 318 376 440 0 0 0 0 0 0

425 277 1112 1137 1186 1146 704 677 656 669 714 745 723 482 468 542 968 594 632 711 558 592 737 0 0 0 0 0 0

679 497 1539 1610 1660 1567 1040 1023 982 1016 1066 1107 1063 780 781 688 1245 780 837 962 756 771 860 0 0 0 0 0 0

783 589 1711 1808 1860 1734 1220 1205 1154 1185 1236 1281 1243 884 898 695 1259 769 804 971 765 765 853 0 0 0 0 0 0

627 474 1335 1446 1484 1336 1026 1025 954 973 1045 1087 1057 648 658 583 982 615 610 747 605 623 741 0 0 0 0 0 0

456 331 1110 1185 1233 1104 836 847 742 760 852 878 879 446 437 585 869 564 550 623 529 574 788 0 0 0 0 0 0

214 134 660 652 689 646 498 516 421 427 509 517 530 197 179 492 661 443 402 433 393 452 648 0 0 0 0 0 0

61 28 305 271 294 315 219 235 165 167 227 224 252 43 38 375 439 308 233 247 234 301 470 0 0 0 0 0 0

5 1 93 73 88 90 50 54 27 24 53 45 71 1 1 244 226 152 69 83 94 141 267 0 0 0 0 0 0

3465 2429 8809 9095 9505 8922 6148 6097 5546 5678 6258 6468 6446 3663 3641 5068 7785 4781 4539 5321 4366 4784 6243 0 0 0 0 0 0

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0 0 0 0 3 13 0 0

0 0 0 0 8 18 1 1

0 0 0 0 95 123 52 52

0 0 0 0 374 398 338 338

0 0 0 0 657 684 621 621

0 0 0 0 985 1016 937 937

0 0 0 0 1147 1209 1076 1076

0 0 0 0 966 1074 901 901

0 0 0 0 784 926 723 723

0 0 0 0 450 585 390 390

0 0 0 0 176 288 148 148

0 0 0 0 26 75 14 14

0 0 0 0 5671 6409 5201 5201

30 30 30

1 6 9

2 13 18

39 105 138

269 397 431

545 677 711

857 996 1047

1020 1163 1214

858 979 1040

681 788 866

362 462 512

113 200 219

12 43 53

4759 5829 6258

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

OK

3-42

Table 3A.6

SD

TN

TX

UT VT VA

WA

30 30 30 30 30 30

5 3 0 0 0 0

12 9 0 0 0 0

116 101 2 0 8 19

417 377 68 47 121 178

708 637 222 183 325 417

1033 961 428 390 552 655

1201 1125 510 489 628 750

1014 965 394 362 485 586

824 817 242 224 321 420

471 494 95 57 131 197

196 221 11 3 23 47

38 44 1 0 1 3

6035 5754 1973 1755 2595 3272

30 30 30 30 30

11 8 16 7 1

27 21 21 20 2

206 180 190 175 44

569 530 521 519 279

1066 996 934 986 541

1506 1417 1233 1417 810

1678 1572 1314 1563 919

1318 1242 1061 1236 744

1072 1004 925 988 556

591 567 595 558 303

251 242 313 231 108

59 49 88 46 11

8354 7828 7211 7746 4318

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 17 1 0 0 1 90 193

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 3 38 1 0 1 2 78 174

16 22 13 24 30 18 56 2 1 0 0 2 7 2 9 0 1 33 19 1 12 2 1 6 18 112 87 203 43 8 27 48 195 250

180 210 121 189 230 93 239 32 38 6 12 52 62 24 96 6 37 158 103 34 82 33 22 58 106 451 370 538 268 150 224 276 465 460

442 470 381 457 518 353 594 205 248 64 103 312 281 183 388 112 189 472 380 181 325 197 145 271 395 821 737 834 526 368 464 528 666 626

697 732 651 730 787 608 874 406 480 170 246 571 527 384 626 245 367 744 622 349 558 390 314 512 676 1129 1067 1240 798 623 736 798 829 762

797 841 770 858 882 678 920 475 532 206 299 650 605 423 641 316 427 800 680 411 617 455 372 589 762 1144 1108 1457 918 758 863 911 819 758

618 652 565 664 696 477 706 319 360 123 191 448 415 262 435 220 298 588 472 286 427 303 249 409 550 879 857 1273 749 638 705 745 678 646

432 467 366 462 510 299 542 163 180 45 77 248 238 111 285 94 156 409 302 143 258 149 113 235 354 726 665 1063 572 487 526 569 644 656

195 223 144 217 254 113 291 44 45 8 19 74 75 27 113 15 48 178 120 41 92 42 28 77 140 503 448 642 288 240 250 290 511 548

48 65 22 56 80 20 94 2 5 0 0 13 9 1 11 0 2 38 18 1 13 1 1 7 23 280 215 283 102 66 75 107 347 421

2 3 0 1 6 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 66 48 77 13 4 7 13 201 296

3427 3685 3033 3658 3993 2659 4325 1648 1889 622 947 2370 2219 1417 2604 1008 1525 3422 2716 1447 2384 1572 1245 2164 3024 6116 5607 7665 4279 3342 3878 4288 5523 5790 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-43

Williamsport Providence Charleston AP Charleston CO Columbia Greenvile-Spartanbrg AP Aberdeen Huron Rapid City Sioux Falls Bristol-JhnCtyKgsprt Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis Nashville Oak Ridge Abilene Amarillo Austin/City Austin/Bergstrom Brownsville Corpus Christi Dallas-Fort Worth Dallas-Love Field Del Rio El Paso Galveston Houston Lubbock Midland-Odessa Port Arthur San Angelo San Antonio Victoria Waco Wichita Falls Milford Salt Lake City Burlington Lynchburg Norfolk Richmond Roanoke Olympia Quillayute

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

RI SC

State

PR WV

WI

(Continued) Station

Seattle CO Seattle SeaTac AP Spokane Walla Walla Yakima San Juan Beckley Charleston Elkins Huntington Green Bay La Crosse Madison Milwaukee Casper Cheyenne Lander Sheridan

Years

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Annual

30 30

52 55

50 45

139 138

362 383

571 592

735 754

729 747

593 613

564 582

423 447

266 291

131 150

4615 4797

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

44 9 28 0 10 1 15 1 19 6 12 13 15 28 16 27

42 9 28 0 16 3 23 2 38 17 33 18 24 39 24 33

196 99 155 0 115 56 134 55 208 152 183 134 229 238 220 238

554 323 487 0 388 300 456 292 540 467 504 443 581 574 580 581

897 659 813 0 647 558 719 557 925 893 892 808 961 914 1027 979

1168 928 1100 0 926 837 996 843 1350 1347 1298 1200 1252 1145 1355 1293

1169 939 1090 0 1068 977 1133 991 1537 1545 1490 1384 1309 1187 1397 1351

916 709 821 0 882 794 959 796 1270 1225 1209 1132 1073 1000 1122 1078

790 574 671 0 714 604 792 596 1065 975 978 949 921 928 921 925

557 373 463 0 414 319 498 308 638 526 576 611 661 686 643 628

338 191 258 0 199 122 251 116 301 204 261 318 393 414 373 374

149 69 98 0 48 18 70 14 85 38 63 86 115 136 116 129

6820 4882 6012 0 5427 4589 6046 4571 7976 7395 7499 7096 7534 7289 7794 7636

Note: Based on 30-year average values 1971–2000. Degree-day data are used to estimate amounts of energy required to maintain comfortable indoor temperature levels. Each degree that a day’s mean temperature is below 658F is counted as one heating degree day. Source: From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

WY

3-44

Table 3A.6

State AL

AK

AZ

AR

CA

Station

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Birmingham AP Huntsville Mobile Montgomery Anchorage Annette Barrow Bethel Bettles Big Delta Cold Bay Fairbanks Gulkana Homer Juneau King Salmon Kodiak Kotzebue Mcgrath Nome St. Paul Island Talkeetna Unalakleet Valdez Yakutat Flagstaff Phoenix Tucson Winslow Yuma Fort Smith Little Rock North Little Rock Bakersfield Bishop Blue Canyon Eureka Fresno Long Beach Los Angeles AP Los Angeles CO Mount Shasta Redding

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

1 0 9 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 12 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 6 15 0 0

3 1 11 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 3 0 29 0 1 6 1 0 0 0 0 5 7 23 0 0

16 8 45 24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 71 25 0 118 8 14 10 7 0 0 0 3 10 6 26 0 3

51 40 108 73 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 223 107 3 251 43 52 66 56 3 1 0 40 28 15 58 0 22

167 142 282 225 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 473 300 39 466 155 188 212 205 45 15 0 170 55 19 84 7 133

351 326 450 415 0 0 0 0 11 1 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 1 0 0 0 23 744 577 221 714 364 408 412 392 191 41 0 351 135 58 178 31 310

476 446 529 519 3 5 0 0 20 12 0 42 0 0 0 0 0 8 11 2 0 4 1 0 0 64 900 672 384 900 520 542 564 580 357 129 0 530 260 135 295 100 504

455 417 520 502 0 8 0 1 7 12 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 2 0 0 36 859 625 327 882 491 502 528 541 293 125 2 483 302 175 325 66 430

280 238 384 350 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 664 477 124 694 275 296 307 374 106 84 5 316 244 154 281 29 263

69 47 151 106 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 350 211 6 381 59 72 83 144 8 28 0 97 119 81 164 2 74

9 5 41 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 53 20 0 82 5 8 8 4 0 0 0 1 20 22 44 0 2

3 1 18 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 11 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 13 0 0

1881 1671 2548 2252 3 13 0 1 38 27 0 74 0 0 0 0 0 12 21 2 0 5 3 0 0 126 4355 3017 1104 4540 1921 2086 2196 2304 1003 423 7 1991 1183 682 1506 235 1741

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-45

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Table 3A.7 Normal Monthly Cooling Degree Days — Selected Cities of the United States

State

CO

DE DC

FL

GA

HI

(Continued) Station

Sacramento San Diego San Francisco AP San Francisco CO Santa Barbara Santa Maria Stockton Alamosa Colorado Springs Denver Grand Junction Pueblo Bridgeport Hartford Wilmington Washington Dulles AP Washington Nat’l AP Apalachicola Daytona Beach Fort Myers Gainesville Jacksonville Key West Miami Orlando Pensacola Tallahassee Tampa Vero Beach West Palm Beach Athens Atlanta Augusta Columbus Macon Savannah Hilo Honolulu

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

30 30 30

0 2 0

0 4 0

6 5 0

24 17 4

110 32 10

204 81 21

320 183 23

303 230 26

210 199 38

66 97 20

5 15 0

0 1 0

1248 866 142

30

0

2

4

3

9

14

19

26

56

22

5

0

160

30 30 30 30 30

0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0

5 1 0 0 0

8 4 18 0 1

23 5 111 0 5

50 10 254 7 86

84 23 390 27 184

133 25 363 10 131

125 33 247 0 35

45 18 73 0 1

9 3 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

482 123 1456 44 443

30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 2 4

2 3 2 1 5 9 11

23 45 31 21 38 62 60

135 247 191 125 144 215 203

261 414 343 286 277 368 345

217 350 276 258 220 317 302

57 119 91 91 68 135 132

0 4 2 7 5 16 15

0 0 0 0 1 1 3

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

695 1182 936 789 759 1125 1075

30

0

0

4

21

108

307

464

410

210

32

4

0

1560

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

25 36 97 17 15 189 155 91 11 9 56 104 122

14 40 99 17 21 183 154 60 11 12 59 83 121

35 86 174 70 58 277 236 129 42 44 124 132 195

95 150 260 131 116 361 315 201 107 96 204 202 266

284 306 423 308 277 485 442 373 296 273 393 347 408

448 441 516 439 437 552 510 485 466 440 501 462 485

522 513 564 507 535 604 568 539 541 515 550 517 544

517 502 568 498 509 600 568 543 529 509 549 513 549

423 436 518 408 400 550 517 484 412 400 489 471 499

193 277 394 207 183 473 433 319 174 162 323 354 408

63 122 222 74 64 340 291 154 48 49 157 183 255

23 52 122 26 21 233 194 79 19 16 76 92 160

2642 2961 3957 2702 2636 4847 4383 3457 2656 2525 3481 3460 4012

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0 0 1 1 1 6 198 249

1 1 2 4 3 11 180 225

8 11 15 25 23 39 215 288

46 52 52 77 73 101 223 319

164 170 191 234 227 267 268 379

351 354 385 429 418 435 303 436

471 463 511 533 528 547 336 490

430 430 468 511 495 506 350 521

257 262 296 349 325 367 336 497

54 58 77 107 95 141 328 472

7 8 15 21 19 40 268 382

1 1 3 6 6 11 223 303

1790 1810 2016 2297 2213 2471 3228 4561

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

CT

3-46

Table 3A.7

IL

IN

IA

KS

KY

LA

ME MD MA

MI

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

210 207 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

195 188 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

250 239 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 4 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 2 2 0 3 2 3

277 266 3 3 0 9 12 11 7 17 23 7 10 10 12 6 11 7 15 18 4 22 19 13

330 323 30 29 3 48 62 64 49 84 108 53 69 53 60 37 53 47 63 79 26 85 93 71

379 382 116 105 51 159 205 210 162 249 304 183 221 172 219 138 198 168 265 291 173 278 330 209

429 433 281 283 167 283 322 325 263 358 425 278 331 268 353 233 311 261 436 462 320 419 503 334

448 455 260 285 143 234 254 263 205 291 356 212 272 214 285 175 246 198 366 407 266 357 454 280

422 435 75 84 23 91 101 112 74 140 173 88 122 86 110 61 87 70 163 193 99 166 221 126

407 408 4 3 0 10 12 12 7 23 27 8 14 9 12 6 8 7 22 28 6 26 35 16

329 327 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

260 257 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

3936 3920 769 792 387 835 969 998 768 1165 1422 830 1042 813 1052 656 914 758 1333 1481 894 1357 1658 1053

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0 0 0 0 12 9 15 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 15 13 19 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 3 6 6 55 49 62 31 0 0 4 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

11 16 24 33 128 126 136 87 0 0 13 3 4 0 3 6 5 6 3 6 0

100 80 109 122 303 312 320 242 7 7 71 21 32 7 13 41 33 38 20 34 12

201 228 287 320 462 467 466 436 39 51 236 93 139 64 54 144 110 124 64 113 30

310 350 421 444 538 544 538 553 80 144 390 215 282 166 117 252 199 218 127 195 72

277 307 374 377 523 534 534 532 56 120 332 173 235 122 83 204 151 165 89 151 50

130 147 189 191 389 399 413 353 9 24 153 49 76 12 22 75 52 56 24 53 3

29 21 29 37 157 178 182 119 0 1 19 3 7 0 1 5 4 5 1 5 0

1 2 3 3 48 54 62 24 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 22 20 29 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1059 1154 1443 1533 2652 2705 2776 2396 191 347 1220 558 777 371 293 727 555 613 328 558 167

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-47

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

ID

Kahului Lihue Boise Lewiston Pocatello Chicago Moline Peoria Rockford Springfield Evansville Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend Des Moines Dubuque Sioux City Waterloo Concordia Dodge City Goodland Topeka Wichita Greater Cincinnati AP Jackson Lexington Louisville Paducah Baton Rouge Lake Charles New Orleans Shreveport Caribou Portland Baltimore Blue Hill Boston Worcester Alpena Detroit Flint Grand Rapids Houghton Lake Lansing Marquette

State

MN

MS

MO

NE

NV

NH NJ

NM

(Continued) Station

Years

Muskegon Sault Ste. Marie Duluth International Falls MinneapolisSt. Paul Rochester Saint Cloud Jackson Meridian Tupelo Columbia Kansas City St. Louis Springfield Billings Glasgow Great Falls Havre Helena Kalispell Missoula Grand Island Lincoln Norfolk North Platte Omaha Eppley AP Omaha (North) Scottsbluff Valentine Elko Ely Las Vegas Reno Winnemucca Concord Mt. Washington Atlantic City AP Atlantic City CO Newark Albuquerque Clayton

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

30 30 30 30

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

4 1 0 1

24 6 7 17

86 20 28 47

181 56 82 91

145 50 60 67

44 12 12 10

3 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

487 145 189 233

30

0

0

0

4

41

146

259

190

56

3

0

0

699

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0 0 5 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 8 6 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 32 26 14 3 0 7 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

1 2 83 70 50 18 12 32 20 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 11 13 11 4 14

30 26 232 213 171 70 101 114 83 13 17 7 10 3 3 3 48 56 48 22 60

99 90 424 400 364 245 264 316 258 90 80 47 59 39 17 33 218 244 202 139 233

181 172 525 509 488 396 418 461 415 227 185 126 146 122 62 111 349 390 324 279 365

135 121 505 495 453 341 367 396 379 204 182 121 141 100 63 99 285 315 261 230 296

26 31 340 331 274 152 151 196 179 44 28 22 19 13 4 10 107 123 93 70 114

1 1 101 91 60 20 12 36 27 3 1 2 1 0 0 0 8 12 7 2 12

0 0 25 20 8 1 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 10 8 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

473 443 2290 2173 1885 1246 1325 1561 1365 583 494 326 377 277 149 256 1027 1154 946 746 1095

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 17 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0

8 2 5 0 0 93 0 0 2 0 5 0 10 6 6

71 19 27 2 0 310 11 11 18 0 44 25 70 70 37

209 138 141 62 22 597 72 81 82 0 168 147 240 297 173

330 279 286 181 98 792 204 232 173 0 322 316 403 417 274

295 225 242 135 69 734 164 174 133 0 269 302 350 343 228

101 63 75 31 7 470 41 28 33 0 110 136 146 148 77

5 1 3 1 0 150 1 0 1 0 15 25 19 9 2

0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1019 727 779 412 196 3168 493 526 442 0 935 951 1242 1290 797

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

MT

3-48

Table 3A.7

NC

ND

OH

OK OR

PC

Roswell Albany Binghamton Buffalo Islip New York C. Park New York (JFK AP) New York (Laguardia AP) Rochester Syracuse Asheville Cape Hatteras Charlotte GreensboroWnstn-SlmHPT Raleigh Wilmington Bismarck Fargo Grand Forks Williston Akron Cleveland Columbus Dayton Mansfield Toledo Youngstown Oklahoma City Tulsa Astoria Burns Eugene Medford Pendleton Portland Salem Sexton Summit Guam Johnston Island Koror Kwajalein, Marshall IS

30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 0 0 2 0

47 3 4 4 0 10 2

194 27 23 28 15 63 31

391 102 74 101 129 214 162

488 206 158 203 296 379 335

431 157 115 158 251 335 306

228 46 32 50 72 138 125

32 2 2 4 7 17 13

2 0 0 0 0 2 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1814 544 409 548 770 1160 975

30

0

0

1

6

54

209

377

336

141

17

1

0

1142

30 30 30 30 30 30

0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 1 1 0

1 1 0 5 7 4

5 4 6 29 40 25

32 29 47 122 142 97

109 105 165 297 323 263

210 203 278 440 451 398

162 158 243 422 405 345

54 48 104 297 226 172

4 3 8 96 43 24

0 0 0 24 5 3

0 0 0 4 1 1

577 551 851 1738 1644 1332

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 390 389 507 512

1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 350 354 454 470

9 17 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 7 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 414 399 518 536

38 65 2 3 2 1 7 7 9 9 7 7 8 38 50 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 435 409 518 515

119 187 18 33 30 20 41 40 61 62 39 42 33 145 163 1 0 5 24 23 15 7 0 473 457 545 538

293 361 80 104 85 82 136 140 188 194 136 148 112 360 385 2 19 21 90 86 44 25 11 463 485 503 515

429 501 180 191 148 177 232 239 296 305 228 248 190 527 568 4 117 95 253 243 138 95 84 458 526 509 529

379 455 161 162 127 166 189 195 251 246 181 190 154 497 524 7 70 93 240 224 145 98 76 449 545 515 534

206 304 30 38 27 24 69 80 106 105 73 73 57 271 277 7 12 32 95 63 53 31 62 439 523 509 518

39 90 0 2 1 1 4 8 11 11 7 6 5 58 64 1 0 1 7 3 2 1 15 449 522 527 537

6 25 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 3 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 439 448 524 513

2 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 431 412 526 522

1521 2017 471 533 420 471 679 712 925 935 672 715 561 1907 2049 22 218 247 711 644 398 257 248 5190 5469 6155 6239

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-49

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

NY

State

PA

SC

SD

TN

TX

(Continued) Station

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Majuro, Marshall IS Pago Pago, Amer Samoa Pohnpei, Caroline IS Chuuk, E. Caroline IS Wake Island Yap, W Caroline IS Allentown Erie Harrisburg Middletown/ Harrisburg AP Philadelphia Pittsburgh Avoca Williamsport Block IS Providence Charleston AP Charleston CO Columbia GreenvilleSpartanburg Aberdeen Huron Rapid City Sioux Falls Bristol-JhnCtyKgsprt Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis Nashville Oak Ridge Abilene Amarillo Austin/City Austin/Bergstrom Brownsville Corpus Christi

30

487

451

502

482

504

485

498

507

496

510

490

493

5905

30

511

469

526

498

493

460

454

457

460

486

485

515

5814

30

490

449

506

485

501

480

486

487

471

486

477

493

5811

30

510

456

513

501

522

497

506

492

488

508

511

511

6015

30 30

396 467

344 428

409 488

427 493

488 518

527 479

567 484

567 478

556 466

546 486

480 476

443 484

5750 5747

30 30 30 30

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

1 1 0 0

6 5 1 1

45 30 54 54

164 105 186 186

292 197 337 337

235 166 279 279

83 63 87 87

7 6 11 11

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

833 573 955 955

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0 0 0 0 0 0 3 16 2 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 7 7 4 0

2 2 1 0 0 0 29 27 20 5

10 8 5 6 0 3 85 83 69 30

70 41 35 39 1 25 242 266 206 127

234 143 113 135 51 122 408 431 388 304

395 244 220 251 184 265 532 551 515 430

351 203 174 206 177 223 494 514 467 384

152 78 57 68 48 71 348 377 296 207

19 6 4 4 5 5 122 156 76 35

2 1 0 0 0 0 35 47 15 3

0 0 0 0 0 0 8 11 5 1

1235 726 609 709 466 714 2313 2486 2063 1526

30 30 30 30 30

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1

3 4 2 5 10

29 29 13 37 61

112 138 86 151 200

235 273 227 278 309

196 228 208 217 274

49 66 59 65 128

2 3 3 4 11

0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0

626 741 598 757 995

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0 0 1 0 0 0 0 7 8 60 32

0 1 2 0 0 5 0 18 11 76 43

5 5 15 9 2 28 2 59 23 180 121

32 27 72 37 19 94 18 147 107 292 229

124 110 210 136 95 253 90 323 307 463 402

312 282 428 321 254 442 285 495 453 551 520

450 408 554 455 380 568 405 605 551 607 594

418 381 504 416 347 535 345 610 532 608 598

229 205 307 230 180 327 173 439 377 497 485

35 28 84 46 23 118 26 207 148 338 300

2 3 11 5 1 15 0 51 32 170 123

1 0 2 1 0 1 0 13 8 82 51

1608 1450 2190 1656 1301 2386 1344 2974 2557 3924 3498

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

RI

3-50

Table 3A.7

VT VA

WA

PR WV

WI

WY

30

2

11

10

72

265

478

621

601

376

118

15

2

2571

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

2 2 0 30 15 0 0 11 1 7 18 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

9 18 1 23 21 0 2 16 4 19 26 8 2 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0

39 86 8 65 63 7 15 55 30 68 84 39 19 0 0 0 3 8 8 4 0 0 0 0

110 207 65 163 147 48 77 140 107 161 181 111 66 1 4 3 20 35 33 20 0 0 0 0

290 401 238 367 328 180 254 324 277 344 368 292 220 18 34 23 72 119 107 74 2 1 4 5

511 545 481 515 485 382 438 480 446 505 514 497 448 115 184 96 218 303 282 217 10 3 15 19

659 630 535 596 573 472 512 553 554 607 601 637 618 286 395 192 348 456 428 355 38 7 67 65

646 622 473 601 563 413 473 546 519 601 597 628 574 239 355 139 308 403 374 309 40 8 79 65

417 453 293 482 412 225 281 417 322 439 454 416 339 54 111 35 141 240 193 136 7 4 27 19

162 217 69 286 196 49 83 195 113 215 248 170 99 2 6 1 19 50 33 17 0 0 0 0

28 41 2 122 65 1 4 63 16 57 83 34 10 0 0 0 2 11 6 2 0 0 0 0

5 4 0 30 25 0 0 23 1 15 29 6 1 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0

2878 3226 2165 3280 2893 1777 2139 2823 2390 3038 3203 2840 2396 715 1089 489 1131 1630 1466 1134 97 23 192 173

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0 0 0 360 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 332 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 388 1 7 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 4 1 421 8 25 2 25 3 8 6 5 0 0 0 1

11 29 18 484 29 77 16 82 24 49 33 27 3 1 3 4

46 138 68 513 99 204 76 218 95 162 123 114 64 41 70 52

155 329 187 533 183 324 153 341 177 272 214 222 186 126 190 165

154 323 163 539 149 280 126 300 126 208 154 180 154 92 153 154

26 131 28 515 56 125 41 135 36 70 48 63 28 20 29 30

1 3 0 513 4 18 2 19 2 6 4 5 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 436 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 392 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

394 957 465 5426 529 1064 416 1132 463 775 582 616 435 280 445 407

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

UT

Dallas-Fort Worth Dallas-Love Field Del Rio El Paso Galveston Houston Lubbock Midland-Odessa Port Arthur San Angelo San Antonio Victoria Waco Wichita Falls Milford Salt Lake City Burlington Lynchburg Norfolk Richmond Roanoke Olympia Quillayute Seattle CO Seattle Sea-TAC AP Spokane Walla Walla Yakima San Juan Beckley Charleston Elkins Huntington Green Bay La Crosse Madison Milwaukee Casper Cheyenne Lander Sheridan

Note: Based on 30-year average values 1971–2000. Degree-day data are used to estimate amounts of energy required to maintain comfortable indoor temperature levels. Each degree that a day’s mean temperature is above 658F is counted as one cooling degree day.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-51

Source: From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

3-52

Table 3A.8 Average Wind Speed (MPH) — Selected Cities of the United States State AL

AK

AR CA

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Birmingham AP Huntsville Mobile Montgomery Anchorage Annette Barrow Barter IS Bethel Bettles Big Delta Cold Bay Fairbanks Gulkana Homer Juneau King Salmon Kodiak Kotzebue Mcgrath Nome St. Paul Island Talkeetna Valdez Yakutat Flagstaff Phoenix Tucson Winslow Yuma Fort Smith Little Rock Bakersfield Blue Canyon Eureka Fresno Long Beach Los Angeles AP Los Angeles CO Mount Shasta Redding Sacramento San Diego San Francisco AP San Francisco CO

59 35 54 58 49 38 69 33 44 27 26 47 51 14 28 57 47 49 56 52 55 28 19 22 54 35 57 57 42 28 57 60 50 50 54 53 33 54 28 3 16 52 62 75 28

8.1 9.0 10.1 7.7 6.4 11.6 11.9 15.1 14.5 5.8 11.2 17.5 3.0 5.0 7.8 8.1 10.5 12.7 13.9 3.2 10.8 19.9 6.0 7.5 7.2 6.5 5.3 7.9 7.1 7.3 8.2 8.4 5.2 7.8 6.9 5.2 5.2 6.7 6.2 5.0 6.2 7.1 6.0 7.2 6.7

8.7 9.4 10.3 8.2 6.8 11.8 11.3 14.4 14.7 6.3 10.2 17.9 3.9 4.9 7.7 8.2 11.0 12.5 13.0 4.2 11.0 20.0 5.5 7.8 7.3 6.6 5.8 8.1 8.5 7.4 8.5 8.9 5.8 7.7 7.2 5.7 6.0 7.4 6.4 5.2 7.1 7.3 6.6 8.6 7.5

9.0 9.8 10.7 8.3 7.1 10.5 11.3 13.7 13.7 7.0 8.8 17.4 5.3 6.3 7.8 8.4 11.3 12.5 11.9 5.3 10.1 18.8 5.5 6.7 7.0 7.1 6.6 8.6 10.3 7.9 9.4 9.6 6.5 7.4 7.6 6.7 6.7 8.1 6.5 5.8 7.3 8.4 7.5 10.5 8.5

8.2 9.2 10.1 7.3 7.3 10.6 11.5 12.0 12.9 7.4 8.0 17.5 6.6 8.5 8.1 8.5 10.9 11.6 12.0 6.5 10.1 17.4 4.7 5.2 7.1 7.6 6.9 8.9 11.3 8.3 8.9 9.0 7.1 6.5 8.0 7.4 7.4 8.5 6.3 6.2 7.0 8.6 7.8 12.2 9.5

6.8 7.9 8.7 6.1 8.5 9.0 12.0 12.7 11.5 7.2 8.2 16.2 7.7 8.7 8.2 8.3 11.0 10.6 10.7 6.7 9.9 14.9 4.9 5.8 7.5 7.3 7.0 8.8 10.7 8.3 7.7 7.6 7.9 6.5 7.9 8.1 7.1 8.4 6.0 5.4 7.3 9.0 7.9 13.4 10.4

6.0 6.9 7.5 5.8 8.4 8.5 11.5 11.6 11.0 6.8 6.9 15.8 7.1 8.1 7.8 7.7 10.5 9.3 11.9 6.4 9.7 13.6 5.1 5.9 6.9 7.0 6.7 8.7 10.6 8.5 6.7 7.1 7.9 6.3 7.4 8.3 7.0 8.0 5.4 5.4 7.5 9.6 7.8 14.0 10.9

5.7 6.0 6.9 5.7 7.3 7.7 11.7 10.9 10.6 6.5 6.1 15.6 6.6 7.7 7.1 7.5 9.9 7.7 12.7 5.9 9.7 12.1 4.2 4.9 6.6 5.5 7.1 8.4 9.0 9.5 6.3 6.7 7.2 5.8 6.8 7.4 6.8 7.9 5.0 4.4 6.6 8.9 7.5 13.6 11.2

5.4 5.8 6.7 5.2 6.9 8.1 12.4 11.8 11.0 6.2 6.6 16.2 6.1 7.7 6.6 7.4 10.0 8.4 13.2 5.8 10.4 13.7 3.7 4.2 6.3 5.0 6.6 7.9 8.4 8.9 6.3 6.3 6.8 5.9 5.8 6.8 6.6 7.7 4.9 4.2 6.1 8.4 7.4 12.8 10.5

6.3 6.7 7.7 5.9 6.7 8.8 13.2 13.2 11.6 6.4 7.6 16.2 6.0 7.3 7.0 8.0 10.4 9.7 13.2 5.9 11.0 15.4 3.7 4.3 6.9 5.6 6.3 8.3 8.1 7.3 6.6 6.6 6.2 6.4 5.5 6.1 6.2 7.3 5.1 4.6 6.0 7.4 7.1 11.1 9.1

6.2 7.3 8.0 5.7 6.7 11.2 13.3 14.8 12.3 6.4 8.7 16.6 5.3 6.0 7.3 9.5 10.3 11.4 13.5 5.4 10.5 17.4 3.8 6.3 7.8 5.8 5.8 8.2 7.6 6.6 6.8 6.8 5.5 6.8 5.6 5.2 5.6 6.9 5.2 4.2 6.0 6.4 6.5 9.4 7.6

7.2 8.1 8.9 6.5 6.4 11.7 12.5 14.9 13.2 5.8 10.2 17.5 3.8 4.1 7.7 8.4 10.4 12.5 14.4 3.7 11.5 20.0 5.0 7.5 7.2 6.6 5.3 8.1 7.3 6.9 7.8 8.0 5.1 6.6 6.0 4.7 5.2 6.7 5.8 5.2 5.7 6.0 5.9 7.5 6.3

7.7 9.0 9.6 7.1 6.3 12.0 11.7 13.9 13.6 5.6 10.0 17.5 3.0 3.3 7.8 8.8 10.1 12.6 12.9 3.2 10.3 20.1 4.9 7.0 7.8 6.6 5.1 7.8 6.7 7.2 8.1 8.1 5.0 6.7 6.4 4.9 5.0 6.6 5.8 5.4 6.4 6.4 5.6 7.1 6.5

7.1 7.9 8.8 6.6 7.1 10.1 12.0 13.2 12.6 6.5 8.5 16.8 5.4 6.5 7.6 8.2 10.5 11.0 12.8 5.2 10.4 16.9 4.8 6.1 7.1 6.4 6.2 8.3 8.8 7.8 7.6 7.8 6.4 6.7 6.8 6.4 6.2 7.5 5.7 5.1 6.6 7.8 7.0 10.6 8.7

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

AZ

Station

CT DE DC

FL

GA

HI

ID IL

5.1 6.4 6.7 5.6 9.4 8.6 5.7 7.8 12.5 8.9 9.8 8.1

5.9 7.2 7.0 6.6 10.0 8.7 6.7 8.5 12.9 9.4 10.3 8.6

6.7 8.1 7.7 8.4 11.1 9.6 8.4 9.6 13.0 9.9 11.0 9.0

7.6 8.0 8.4 10.3 11.6 10.0 9.4 10.3 12.4 9.8 10.4 8.8

7.0 8.2 9.2 9.7 11.2 9.3 9.6 9.7 11.1 8.7 9.0 7.4

6.7 7.8 9.2 9.0 10.4 8.8 9.8 9.3 9.9 8.0 8.3 6.8

6.5 6.5 8.2 7.0 9.3 8.3 9.4 8.7 9.4 7.3 7.8 6.2

6.1 6.3 7.7 6.2 8.9 8.0 9.1 7.9 9.5 7.0 7.4 5.8

5.5 5.9 7.1 6.5 9.4 7.9 9.0 7.9 10.5 7.3 7.8 6.2

5.5 6.0 6.4 6.4 9.6 7.8 7.9 7.4 11.3 7.8 8.1 6.6

5.2 6.4 5.8 5.6 9.5 8.2 6.8 7.5 12.0 8.4 9.2 7.6

4.4 6.2 6.4 4.9 9.4 8.4 6.0 7.7 12.1 8.7 9.3 7.7

6.0 6.9 7.5 7.2 10.0 8.6 8.2 8.5 11.4 8.4 9.0 7.4

54

10.0

10.3

10.9

10.5

9.3

8.9

8.3

8.1

8.3

8.7

9.4

9.6

9.4

54 57 57 19 53 49 53 54 38 41 56 19 60 47 64 51 44 54 52 53 53 30 52 63 50 22 44 59 59 52 55 62

8.3 8.8 8.3 6.9 8.1 11.8 9.5 9.0 9.0 6.7 8.6 8.7 10.1 8.3 10.4 6.9 7.2 8.0 8.2 7.4 9.4 10.8 11.1 7.9 10.5 9.8 11.6 10.7 10.9 10.5 12.2 9.2

8.7 9.3 8.9 7.4 8.7 12.0 10.0 9.6 9.3 7.1 9.1 9.0 10.5 8.6 10.6 7.5 7.7 8.4 8.6 7.7 10.1 11.2 11.7 8.9 10.5 9.8 11.4 10.6 10.9 10.6 12.2 9.3

8.9 9.8 9.3 7.8 9.1 12.1 10.5 9.9 9.8 7.5 9.4 9.9 11.0 8.7 10.9 7.9 8.0 8.8 9.1 7.7 11.3 12.2 12.7 9.9 11.1 10.6 11.8 11.7 11.7 11.6 13.2 10.0

8.5 9.4 8.8 7.2 8.5 12.2 10.5 9.4 9.5 6.8 9.2 9.5 10.9 8.3 10.1 7.4 7.2 8.3 8.6 7.5 11.6 13.4 13.5 9.9 11.6 10.2 11.9 11.8 11.6 11.8 13.0 9.6

7.7 8.9 8.0 6.9 7.9 10.5 9.5 8.8 8.6 6.2 8.6 9.1 9.9 7.1 8.7 6.4 6.6 7.4 7.6 7.4 11.6 13.0 12.8 9.4 10.5 8.2 10.5 10.1 9.9 10.4 11.1 7.9

7.1 8.0 7.2 6.1 7.7 9.6 8.3 8.0 7.6 5.7 7.9 7.7 8.3 6.6 8.1 6.0 6.1 7.0 7.4 7.1 12.6 14.9 13.2 9.0 10.1 7.4 9.3 8.8 8.9 9.3 9.6 7.1

6.4 7.3 6.6 5.6 7.0 9.4 7.9 7.3 6.9 5.0 7.1 6.9 7.7 6.3 7.7 5.8 5.8 6.7 6.9 6.9 13.1 15.5 13.7 8.4 9.1 6.5 8.4 7.5 7.8 8.1 8.3 6.2

6.4 7.0 6.7 5.4 6.7 9.2 7.9 7.2 6.7 5.0 6.9 6.5 7.7 5.8 7.3 5.3 5.5 6.2 6.7 6.8 12.8 14.7 13.1 8.2 8.9 6.2 8.2 7.1 7.3 7.7 7.9 5.8

7.8 8.0 7.4 5.8 7.4 9.6 8.2 7.6 7.6 5.9 7.6 7.3 8.7 6.4 8.0 5.4 6.4 6.7 7.2 6.8 11.2 13.0 11.7 8.2 9.0 7.0 8.9 8.0 8.3 8.4 8.7 6.4

8.0 8.9 8.4 6.3 7.8 10.8 9.2 8.6 7.9 6.3 8.3 8.6 10.0 6.6 8.5 5.6 6.3 6.5 7.3 6.7 10.5 12.2 11.8 8.3 9.5 7.3 10.1 9.2 9.3 9.5 10.1 6.9

8.0 8.3 8.1 6.2 7.6 12.0 9.7 8.6 8.2 5.9 8.2 8.6 10.4 7.3 9.1 5.9 6.4 6.9 7.2 6.8 10.7 11.8 12.4 8.4 10.1 9.1 11.1 10.6 10.6 10.6 12.2 8.7

8.0 8.3 7.9 6.0 7.6 11.8 9.1 8.5 8.8 6.3 8.3 8.0 10.0 8.0 9.8 6.5 6.9 7.5 7.6 7.2 10.4 11.3 12.0 8.1 9.9 9.3 11.0 10.3 10.6 10.4 12.0 8.9

7.8 8.5 8.0 6.5 7.8 10.9 9.2 8.5 8.3 6.2 8.3 8.3 9.6 7.3 9.1 6.4 6.7 7.4 7.7 7.2 11.3 12.8 12.5 8.7 10.1 8.5 10.3 9.7 9.8 9.9 10.9 8.0 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-53

IN

31 22 42 11 54 47 56 47 30 48 54 40

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

C0

Santa Barbara Santa Maria Stockton Alamosa Colorado Springs Denver Grand Junction Pueblo Bridgeport Hartford Wilmington Washington Dulles AP Washington Nat’l AP Apalachicola Daytona Beach Fort Myers Gainesville Jacksonville Key West Miami Orlando Pensacola Tallahassee Tampa Vero Beach West Palm Beach Athens Atlanta Augusta Columbus Macon Savannah Hilo Honolulu Kahului Lihue Boise Pocatello Cairo Chicago Moline Peoria Rockford Springfield Evansville

State

IA

KS

KY

ME MD MA

MI

MN

MS

MO

(Continued) Station

Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend Des Moines Sioux City Waterloo Concordia Dodge City Goodland Topeka Wichita Greater Cincinnati AP Jackson Lexington Louisville Paducah Baton Rouge Lake Charles New Orleans Shreveport Caribou Portland Baltimore Blue Hill Boston Worcester Alpena Detroit Flint Grand Rapids Houghton Lake Lansing Muskegon Sault Ste. Marie Duluth International Falls Minneapolis-St. Paul Rochester Saint Cloud Jackson Meridian Tupelo Columbia

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

56 54 54 53 61 46 40 60 54 53 49 55

11.5 10.9 11.9 11.4 11.4 11.4 11.7 13.5 12.4 9.7 12.0 10.4

11.0 10.8 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.4 12.1 13.9 12.4 10.2 12.5 10.4

11.7 11.6 11.9 12.4 12.3 12.1 13.4 15.5 14.0 11.5 13.8 11.0

11.6 11.2 11.6 12.6 13.2 12.6 13.8 15.5 14.4 11.7 14.0 10.6

10.0 9.6 10.2 11.0 11.8 11.1 12.1 14.6 13.5 10.2 12.3 8.7

8.9 8.5 9.1 10.1 10.7 9.8 11.7 14.0 12.7 9.4 12.2 7.9

8.0 7.5 8.1 8.9 9.2 8.4 11.3 13.1 11.9 8.4 11.3 7.2

7.3 7.2 7.7 8.6 9.1 8.3 10.9 12.5 11.5 8.0 11.1 6.8

8.2 7.9 8.5 9.4 9.9 9.0 11.2 13.5 12.0 8.5 11.6 7.4

9.1 8.9 9.5 10.3 10.5 10.2 11.6 13.5 11.9 9.0 11.9 8.1

10.9 10.5 11.0 11.3 11.4 11.0 11.8 13.7 11.9 9.7 12.1 9.7

11.1 10.5 11.2 11.1 11.0 11.0 11.5 13.4 11.9 9.5 11.7 10.0

9.9 9.6 10.2 10.7 11.0 10.5 11.9 13.9 12.5 9.6 12.2 9.0

21 55 55 18 51 41 54 50 22 62 52 61 45 36 42 44 61 39 21 43 41 61 53 50 64

7.3 10.6 9.5 8.8 8.7 9.8 9.3 9.2 11.1 9.0 9.4 17.2 13.7 11.7 8.8 11.9 11.8 11.4 9.7 11.7 12.2 9.6 11.6 8.9 10.5

7.4 10.6 9.5 8.9 9.1 10.0 9.8 9.6 10.8 9.4 9.9 17.2 13.7 11.6 8.4 11.4 11.2 10.6 9.1 10.9 11.6 9.3 11.3 8.8 10.4

7.6 10.9 10.1 9.4 9.1 10.2 9.9 10.0 11.7 10.0 10.7 17.2 13.6 11.5 8.9 11.7 11.8 11.1 9.1 11.2 11.6 10.0 11.8 9.4 11.3

7.7 10.4 9.7 8.9 8.7 9.8 9.4 9.6 10.9 9.9 10.2 16.4 13.1 11.0 9.2 11.3 11.5 11.0 9.5 11.1 11.5 10.3 12.3 9.9 12.2

6.0 8.6 8.0 7.4 7.6 8.6 8.1 8.3 10.3 9.1 8.9 14.6 12.0 10.0 8.3 10.1 10.1 9.7 8.8 9.9 9.9 9.7 11.6 9.4 11.1

5.3 7.9 7.4 6.2 6.5 7.5 6.8 7.6 9.3 8.2 8.2 13.8 11.4 8.9 7.5 9.2 9.0 8.9 7.8 8.8 9.3 8.5 10.4 8.5 10.4

5.0 7.2 6.8 5.7 5.9 6.1 6.1 7.1 8.6 7.6 7.6 12.9 11.0 8.4 7.0 8.5 8.1 8.3 7.5 8.0 8.8 7.8 9.4 7.7 9.4

4.6 6.8 6.4 5.1 5.6 6.1 5.9 6.6 8.1 7.5 7.5 12.6 10.8 8.3 6.7 8.1 7.8 7.9 7.0 7.5 8.6 7.7 9.4 7.5 9.2

5.3 7.6 6.8 5.6 6.4 7.1 7.3 7.2 9.2 7.8 7.7 13.5 11.3 8.6 7.1 8.7 8.8 8.3 7.8 8.2 9.3 8.6 10.3 8.5 10.0

6.0 8.1 7.2 6.5 6.6 7.8 7.6 7.4 10.0 8.4 8.1 15.2 11.9 9.4 7.8 9.7 9.8 9.4 8.8 9.4 10.7 9.2 11.2 9.3 10.6

7.0 9.9 8.9 8.2 7.4 8.8 8.7 8.3 10.0 8.8 8.8 16.2 12.7 10.4 8.5 11.2 11.2 10.5 9.6 10.7 11.9 9.7 11.6 9.4 11.0

7.1 10.3 9.1 8.4 8.1 9.3 9.0 8.8 10.4 9.0 8.9 16.7 13.4 10.9 8.4 11.3 11.3 10.7 9.3 11.0 11.7 9.6 11.2 8.8 10.4

6.4 9.1 8.3 7.4 7.5 8.4 8.2 8.3 10.0 8.7 8.8 15.3 12.4 10.1 8.1 10.3 10.2 9.8 8.7 9.9 10.6 9.2 11.0 8.8 10.5

42 16 39 43 19 32

14.2 8.4 8.2 7.1 7.6 10.7

13.7 8.4 8.4 7.5 8.2 10.8

14.1 9.0 8.7 7.9 8.3 11.7

14.3 9.8 8.0 7.1 7.8 11.5

13.2 9.2 6.8 6.0 6.6 9.1

12.1 8.3 6.1 5.2 5.7 8.7

10.8 7.1 5.2 4.9 5.3 8.2

10.4 6.5 5.3 4.6 5.2 7.9

11.5 7.2 6.1 5.3 6.1 8.6

12.7 8.4 6.2 5.2 6.0 9.3

13.6 8.6 6.9 6.1 6.9 10.6

13.7 8.2 7.8 6.9 7.5 10.6

12.9 8.3 7.0 6.2 6.8 9.8

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

LA

3-54

Table 3A.8

NE

NV

NH NJ NM

NY

30 53 57 63 33 61 3 62 40 58 53 30 26 50 66 9 51 34 47 61 54 60 46 60 67 44 58 63 10 29 64 51 63 19 65 44

11.1 10.6 11.4 13.0 9.8 14.9 8.8 6.7 5.6 5.1 11.7 9.6 11.6 9.2 10.9 9.9 10.6 9.3 5.2 10.1 7.4 5.6 7.6 7.2 46.1 10.7 11.2 8.0 11.9 7.7 9.8 11.3 14.0 9.6 10.6 13.0

11.1 10.8 11.5 12.3 10.1 13.9 9.4 7.3 5.6 5.6 11.7 10.0 11.5 9.8 11.1 9.2 11.1 9.4 5.7 10.3 8.5 6.2 8.0 7.9 44.3 11.1 11.5 8.8 12.4 8.6 10.1 11.3 13.3 10.1 10.7 13.3

12.3 11.6 12.5 11.4 11.2 12.8 10.2 8.2 6.7 6.7 13.1 11.3 12.5 11.5 12.2 10.5 12.0 10.4 6.6 10.7 10.1 7.8 8.6 8.1 41.4 11.8 11.9 9.9 13.1 10.1 10.6 11.5 13.1 10.5 11.0 13.5

12.3 11.3 12.0 11.4 12.3 12.6 11.6 9.1 7.7 7.6 14.0 12.1 13.1 12.6 12.6 10.2 12.5 11.1 7.2 10.9 11.0 8.2 8.6 7.8 35.8 11.4 11.2 10.7 14.4 10.2 10.5 11.2 12.3 9.8 10.2 12.7

10.3 9.4 10.2 10.7 12.2 11.3 12.4 8.8 7.4 7.4 12.6 10.5 11.5 11.5 10.9 8.9 11.8 11.0 6.8 10.7 11.0 8.0 8.6 7.0 29.7 10.1 10.0 10.5 13.2 9.9 9.0 9.9 11.4 9.0 8.8 11.6

9.9 8.8 9.3 10.1 11.1 11.1 10.8 8.5 6.9 7.2 11.8 9.8 10.8 10.4 10.1 8.3 10.5 9.9 6.7 10.6 11.0 7.7 8.5 6.5 27.3 9.1 9.5 9.8 12.9 9.7 8.3 9.3 10.8 8.4 8.1 10.7

9.2 8.0 8.4 9.5 10.5 10.0 9.8 7.8 6.3 6.9 10.5 9.3 9.7 9.5 8.8 7.5 9.3 9.1 6.2 10.3 10.2 7.2 8.4 5.7 25.3 8.3 8.9 8.9 11.2 8.6 7.5 8.4 10.2 7.7 7.6 10.2

8.8 7.6 8.4 9.5 10.9 10.1 9.0 7.4 6.3 6.7 10.3 9.1 9.5 9.2 8.8 7.6 8.9 9.2 5.9 10.4 9.6 6.6 7.8 5.4 24.7 7.9 8.7 8.1 10.2 7.9 7.0 8.2 9.7 7.4 7.5 10.0

9.6 8.2 9.1 10.2 10.9 11.2 9.4 7.4 6.1 6.0 11.0 9.5 10.3 9.7 9.4 8.6 9.4 9.7 5.4 10.3 9.0 5.8 7.6 5.6 28.8 8.3 9.0 8.4 11.3 8.0 7.4 8.8 10.2 7.7 8.1 10.4

10.5 8.9 10.1 11.0 10.6 12.9 9.1 7.1 5.1 5.1 11.2 9.9 11.0 9.6 9.8 9.0 9.7 9.5 5.0 10.0 8.1 5.4 7.3 6.0 33.8 8.7 9.4 8.2 11.8 7.9 8.0 9.7 11.1 8.3 8.8 11.0

11.2 10.2 11.0 12.2 9.5 14.5 10.6 7.1 5.3 5.0 11.8 9.9 11.4 9.5 10.9 9.7 10.2 9.7 5.1 9.9 7.8 5.5 7.2 6.6 39.5 9.9 10.2 7.9 11.8 7.7 9.1 10.8 12.6 9.4 9.8 12.2

10.9 10.3 11.2 13.0 9.7 15.2 10.8 6.7 5.1 4.7 11.6 9.6 11.3 9.0 10.7 9.8 10.4 9.2 5.0 9.9 7.3 5.3 7.4 7.0 44.5 10.3 10.8 7.6 12.1 7.6 9.3 11.0 13.1 9.3 10.1 12.7

10.6 9.6 10.4 11.2 10.7 12.5 10.2 7.7 6.2 6.2 11.8 10.1 11.2 10.1 10.5 9.1 10.5 9.8 5.9 10.3 9.2 6.6 8.0 6.7 35.1 9.8 10.2 8.9 12.2 8.7 8.9 10.1 11.8 8.9 9.3 11.8

54

13.7

13.8

13.9

12.9

11.6

11.0

10.4

10.3

11.0

11.6

12.8

13.4

12.2

62

11.6

11.1

11.0

10.7

9.3

8.6

8.0

7.7

8.1

8.8

10.2

10.7

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

MT

Kansas City St. Louis Springfield Billings Glasgow Great Falls Havre Helena Kalispell Missoula Grand Island Lincoln Norfolk North Platte Omaha Eppley AP Omaha (North) Scottsbluff Valentine Elko Ely Las Vegas Reno Winnemucca Concord Mt. Washington Atlantic City AP Newark Albuquerque Clayton Roswell Albany Binghamton Buffalo Islip New York C. Park New York (JFK AP) New York (Laguardia AP) Rochester

Note: Through 2002. The average wind speed is based on the speed of the wind regardless of direction. Source: From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

3-55

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-56

Table 3A.9 Maximum Wind Speed (MPH) — Selected Cities of the United States Jan State AL

AK

Station

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

DR

SP

DR

SP

DR

SP

DR

SP

DR

SP

DR

SP

DR

SP

DR

SP

DR

SP

Nov

DR

SP

Dec

Annual

DR

SP

DR

SP

DR

SP

39

W

49

SE

59

SW

65

SW

56

NW

65

SW

56

SW

57

NW

50

SE

50

W

43

N

52

SE

41

SW

65

35

26

44

08

43

12

46

18

44

24

46

24

56

10

52

02

63

23

43

01

43

27

40

30

40

02

63

Mobile

44

18

44

23

46

10

40

01

44

32

51

16

45

21

60

14

63

09

63

36

46

17

38

22

43

14

63

Montgomery

17

30

32

26

38

28

46

32

39

36

35

29

44

26

35

10

44

70

35

08

52

30

39

30

35

08

52

Anchorage (G)

23

E

64

NE

61

NE

75

SE

43

S

43

SE

46

SE

40

N

44

S

48

S

55

NE

55

SE

55

NE

75

Annette

50

16

58

16

50

14

48

14

60

14

44

16

44

16

35

16

40

11

51

16

55

13

51

16

58

14

60

Barrow (G)

22

E

58

SW

74

E

56

26

51

NE

41

W

43

W

55

27

55

SW

66

W

54

E

53

SW

61

SW

74

9

W

75

W

69

W

66

E

49

W

56

E

53

W

48

NW

58

E

58

W

69

E

61

W

70

W

75

Bethel (G)

23

S

61

NE

59

S

56

S

51

S

53

S

59

S

46

NW

56

SE

69

S

77

W

66

S

67

S

77

Bettles

10

11

30

08

25

08

29

23

28

11

31

01

28

24

30

25

32

24

25

24

25

26

38

24

40

24

40

Big Delta

29

29

74

18

67

20

63

18

60

20

55

16

51

18

63

16

47

18

66

18

58

11

56

11

63

29

74

Cold Bay

47

17

71

16

73

15

71

15

61

14

60

11

63

17

54

16

64

17

75

21

60

14

66

11

64

17

75

Fairbanks

51

25

31

26

36

22

40

24

32

23

32

25

40

27

32

27

34

08

33

25

40

25

35

24

37

22

40

04

52

16

44

15

35

18

46

19

35

15

38

15

40

16

30

16

36

19

46

19

33

16

49

04

52

28

39

07

39

20

35

90

38

11

44

90

35

16

29

28

32

36

49

80

41

08

44

40

69

40

69

Juneau

32

12

45

12

46

11

40

11

40

12

40

12

35

12

32

12

38

12

48

12

49

11

58

11

55

11

58

King Salmon (G)

23

E

69

E

69

E

62

S

59

S

63

E

58

E

47

SW

56

E

71

E

67

E

67

E

66

E

71

Kodiak (G)

23

NW

75

NW

67

NW

82

E

67

W

59

NE

52

NW

52

NW

67

NW

78

NW

70

W

82

NW

83

NW

83

Kotzebue (G)

23

E

72

E

63

E

66

80

56

NE

49

SE

46

SE

45

S

53

NE

54

SE

60

SE

63

E

68

E

72

Mcgrath (G)

23

S

59

SW

47

SE

46

S

46

S

45

NW

62

S

46

S

49

S

49

E

40

S

53

SW

52

NW

62

Nome

45

09

54

04

51

02

44

05

45

09

44

04

35

24

35

15

41

18

44

20

52

24

55

05

54

24

55

St. Paul Island (G)

23

63

N

72

N

67

SE

67

SW

74

S

53

SE

47

N

58

N

61

W

70

SW

84

E

79

SW

84

Talkeetna

35

04

38

03

35

03

39

34

29

18

32

19

29

17

22

40

28

30

35

20

32

02

31

36

35

03

39

6

E

63

E

71

E

60

E

43

E

46

E

37

SW

39

S

44

S

45

SE

53

E

62

E

61

E

71

Valdez (G)

23

N

94

NE

83

NE

82

N

55

N

44

W

38

N

41

N

56

SW

69

NE

66

N

77

N

75

N

94

Yakutat (G)

23

SE

81

SE

62

SE

64

SE

64

SE

48

SE

45

SE

44

SE

60

SE

63

SE

60

SE

70

SE

63

SE

81

Flagstaff

18

SW

38

SW

34

21

38

SW

40

SW

46

SW

35

NW

39

SW

30

W

33

40

38

SW

39

NE

38

SW

46

Phoenix

17

25

36

26

30

24

43

30

51

11

35

40

33

13

43

14

37

15

39

24

36

25

30

29

39

30

51

Tucson

54

E

40

E

59

SE

41

SW

46

SE

43

SE

50

SE

71

NE

54

SE

54

SE

47

E

55

W

44

SE

71

Winslow

37

23

56

22

63

22

61

25

56

25

53

20

52

16

59

21

45

31

45

22

49

22

46

22

52

22

63

Yuma

40

NW

41

W

50

N

43

NW

47

NW

38

SW

42

NE

61

SE

60

E

57

S

47

N

47

W

47

NE

61

Fort Smith

20

30

43

30

39

34

45

26

45

30

49

28

57

09

51

09

46

31

45

29

51

26

40

22

44

28

57

Little Rock

41

Unalakleet (G)

S

44

SW

57

SE

56

NW

65

NW

61

NE

60

NW

56

NW

54

NW

50

SSW

58

SW

49

SW

48

NW

65

3

NW

25

SW

25

S

28

NE

30

SW

30

NE

21

W

30

W

28

NE

24

SE

24

SW

27

SW

25

NE

30

Bakersfield

53

19

36

13

49

17

40

29

40

32

40

15

41

29

25

14

33

14

35

08

38

30

35

13

46

13

49

Bishop (G)

17

60

W

63

Blue Canyon

33

67

17

76

07

51

17

76

Eureka

83

S

54

SW

48

SW

48

Fresno

24

14

39

13

36

29

30

North Little Rock

20

58 67

62 20

62

50

23

N

49

29

36

54 49

60 09

32

70

37

07

07

30

NW

40

NW

39

N

35

N

34

32

32

29

28

32

23

31

28

47 09

52 70

66 19

54

68 07

70

49

05

N

44

SW

56

S

55

S

56

SW

56

31

29

31

26

28

30

14

29

14

39

Long Beach

33

17

37

18

40

11

39

29

44

27

30

29

24

18

23

16

23

10

26

30

37

25

44

32

39

29

44

Los Angeles AP (G)

52

NE

51

N

57

W

62

N

59

W

49

W

40

SW

31

SE

33

E

39

W

46

W

60

NW

49

W

62

Los Angeles CO

40

N

49

NW

40

NW

47

NW

40

NW

39

N

32

W

21

E

24

NW

27

N

48

N

42

SE

44

N

49

6

34

23

36

22

35

21

34

24

32

21

31

18

36

20

34

15

35

20

30

17

34

20

32

21

34

24

44

S

66

S

58

S

85

S

85

NW

42

SE

68

SE

70

SE

70

SW

74

Mount Shasta Redding (G)

16

S

70

S

64

S

74

S

47

S

54

N

60

N

36

S

46

Sacramento

53

SE

60

SE

51

S

66

SW

45

SW

74

SW

47

SW

36

SW

38

San Diego

58

SE

56

S

45

SW

46

S

37

S

30

S

26

NW

23

NW

23

S

31

N

31

SE

51

NW

39

SE

56

San Francisco AP

53

16

58

22

55

26

46

18

47

26

46

28

44

28

40

26

37

28

38

25

44

18

51

22

54

16

58

San Francisco CO

36

SE

47

SW

47

S

44

W

38

W

38

W

40

W

38

W

34

W

32

SE

43

S

41

SE

45

SE

47

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

9 30

Homer

CA

Apr

Huntsville

Gulkana

AR

Mar

Birmingham AP

Barter IS. (G)

AZ

Years

Feb

13

13

36

13

46

16

35

30

44

30

35

29

36

29

32

29

30

29

32

17

37

26

31

16

36

13

46

Stockton

39

14

46

16

41

33

39

35

37

35

41

29

35

27

31

26

30

34

33

33

37

15

47

15

44

15

47

Alamosa (G)

19

SW

58

23

62

23

60

24

71

22

63

20

69

30

66

34

51

SW

54

W

62

21

63

26

54

24

71

Colorado Springs

52

29

55

28

61

29

60

28

61

27

52

20

55

22

49

34

45

30

44

27

59

34

52

27

60

28

61

Denver

14

32

44

30

36

30

41

33

46

36

43

21

38

29

46

33

33

29

36

01

36

36

36

32

38

33

46

Grand Junction

23

25

36

20

41

34

53

27

49

20

46

30

57

35

45

24

45

28

49

21

44

31

39

26

35

30

57

Pueblo

18

29

51

29

46

36

52

35

52

35

60

29

48

30

58

22

48

01

46

30

47

04

48

27

47

35

60

CT

Bridgeport

42

34

67

34

65

08

58

32

55

34

50

35

39

29

40

04

58

18

74

09

58

14

58

25

53

18

74

Hartford

17

24

46

30

46

30

43

05

41

28

39

36

45

27

39

18

40

17

43

29

38

17

44

26

41

24

46

DE

Wilmington

54

15

51

29

46

28

45

33

46

24

48

34

43

27

48

35

46

07

40

20

58

16

46

32

46

20

58

DC

Washington

39

20

39

30

37

28

44

32

46

35

40

31

55

30

48

34

43

25

35

29

38

29

35

30

40

31

55

17

29

41

33

39

33

44

31

39

32

46

31

49

50

47

34

37

32

39

23

39

32

37

34

38

31

49

Dulles AP Washington

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

CO

Santa Maria

Nat’l AP FL

GA

HI

ID

IL

IN

IA

Apalachicola

48

E

48

E

42

E

54

SE

51

SE

47

E

55

N

63

NE

59

E

67

NW

56

SE

47

SE

42

E

67

Daytona Beach

54

26

43

20

44

24

58

18

46

28

46

33

40

25

40

11

50

11

58

05

53

50

39

34

40

24

58

Fort Myers

51

25

40

25

39

35

46

20

39

32

44

31

48

18

45

25

44

05

92

23

45

30

32

33

35

05

92

Jacksonville

22

30

38

30

39

22

44

32

46

29

34

28

39

26

57

11

38

25

36

21

31

33

38

31

40

26

57

Key West

26

27

41

12

57

22

54

01

58

13

46

18

40

12

33

19

41

12

43

35

46

12

47

26

39

01

58

Miami

45

24

46

19

55

04

46

24

35

32

52

13

37

25

43

12

86

06

69

90

59

07

38

32

38

12

86

Orlando

53

25

42

25

46

24

46

02

50

35

51

32

64

14

46

32

50

24

46

05

48

26

46

20

35

32

64

Pensacola

30

31

40

13

40

16

39

32

35

12

39

29

46

20

37

20

40

16

54

22

39

21

35

20

36

16

54

Tallahassee

43

23

46

09

40

27

48

19

35

29

40

03

44

22

39

02

58

08

46

20

32

16

40

28

37

02

58

Tampa

50

32

44

32

50

29

43

28

44

36

46

31

67

32

58

11

38

34

56

21

40

25

40

36

45

31

67

West Palm Beach

53

29

48

11

48

27

51

32

55

27

45

09

71

34

46

13

86

36

58

16

74

10

39

36

38

13

86

Athens

47

25

52

20

52

24

50

23

47

31

35

18

43

13

35

35

47

15

37

05

35

24

41

10

48

25

52

Atlanta

26

23

46

29

52

31

49

30

44

27

54

24

51

30

60

32

41

27

37

09

35

29

39

30

33

30

60

Augusta

51

25

40

30

40

23

52

32

39

28

48

08

62

33

48

18

45

04

36

18

40

27

40

28

35

08

62

Columbus

44

29

46

20

52

27

44

28

40

23

39

29

55

36

52

18

47

36

38

12

40

31

37

33

35

29

55

Macon

20

32

37

27

46

70

35

33

45

31

47

27

44

30

44

12

38

36

37

18

33

30

40

30

35

31

47

Savannah

22

31

30

09

31

32

46

23

35

22

44

05

43

04

45

34

37

10

40

31

35

23

40

30

29

32

46

Hilo

23

36

35

34

39

10

29

34

26

35

29

11

25

05

25

36

25

04

25

34

29

02

28

36

29

34

39

Honolulu

22

70

36

07

35

06

32

50

35

13

30

70

30

05

30

70

31

13

38

60

29

20

46

70

35

20

46

Kahului

28

SW

44

NE

40

N

43

E

36

E

34

40

38

60

38

NE

35

E

33

E

36

SW

41

21

40

SW

44

Lihue

23

40

38

23

41

06

39

05

36

06

33

90

35

70

31

05

31

15

84

04

33

18

65

40

41

15

84

Boise

61

SE

50

W

56

W

52

W

50

W

50

SW

50

W

61

SE

56

SE

50

SE

56

NW

57

NW

56

W

61

Lewiston (G)

31

54

29

59

Pocatello

51

SE

Cairo

45

Chicago

44

Moline

72

64

60

58

54

61

W

57

W

72

S

61

W

61

W

50

W

57

SW

50

SW

68

NW

60

SW

59

SW

63

SW

60

NW

28

47

25

45

01

54

24

54

34

52

24

41

36

13

29

40

26

40

23

46

26

49

30

40

24

49

Peoria

17

23

38

27

39

23

54

24

45

20

36

30

Rockford

52

27

40

22

49

25

46

11

54

27

52

20

51

59

59

59

63

72

SW

54

W

57

SW

54

W

67

NW

57

W

72

49

S

45

SW

47

SW

40

SW

53

SW

63

SW

68

55

32

46

23

58

20

48

23

51

26

46

23

58

27

37

20

57

26

36

26

40

26

49

22

45

20

57

44

26

40

30

37

29

35

27

44

20

48

06

46

23

54

47

30

53

29

57

20

52

21

40

20

46

06

46

29

57

Springfield

23

25

39

29

51

24

56

30

61

28

46

16

43

40

52

33

44

18

39

20

40

24

46

25

36

30

61

Evansville

17

26

34

26

43

25

40

28

44

33

46

28

46

32

35

27

37

28

36

23

36

31

41

24

41

28

46

Fort Wayne

53

SW

59

W

61

S

65

W

63

S

57

SE

65

NW

61

N

55

W

52

SW

46

SW

57

SW

52

S

65

Indianapolis

23

19

45

23

46

21

54

25

47

30

40

29

46

28

49

29

45

26

46

27

44

23

44

26

41

28

49

South Bend

53

22

52

20

47

20

51

27

55

27

68

27

50

34

45

32

63

25

36

25

56

22

58

23

43

27

68

Des Moines

47

NW

66

W

56

S

66

W

76

W

70

NW

76

W

73

SSE

60

NW

55

W

56

W

72

SW

61

W

76

Dubuque (G)

19

55

NW

74

32

66

NW

58

55

E

56

Sioux City

58

91

NW

66

NW

56

S

66

59

NW

53

W

91

58 NW

56

52 NW

54

62 N

61

68 W

68

74 W

80

W

54 W

70

NW

74

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-57

(Continued)

3-58

Table 3A.9

(Continued) Jan

State

KS

KY

Station

Years

DR

Feb SP

DR

Mar SP

DR

Apr SP

DR

May SP

DR

Jun SP

DR

Jul SP

DR

Aug SP

DR

Sep SP

DR

Oct SP

DR

Nov SP

DR

Dec SP

DR

Annual SP

DR

SP

Waterloo

42

29

46

28

44

23

46

25

52

18

52

33

60

35

58

21

46

28

38

29

43

22

53

32

39

33

60

Concordia

21

32

46

21

41

35

46

24

55

30

41

24

54

25

58

06

44

17

44

26

46

34

46

35

40

25

58

Dodge City

16

34

56

34

47

35

63

21

53

30

52

29

60

36

56

32

63

14

51

34

49

20

44

32

46

32

63

Goodland

53

34

53

36

51

33

62

29

62

27

61

33

66

30

64

23

60

34

51

27

61

33

52

34

52

33

66

Topeka

17

31

39

31

36

18

55

08

51

34

47

34

48

34

44

27

38

32

43

23

39

31

45

30

37

18

55

Wichita

21

35

48

20

44

24

49

23

56

18

61

30

51

34

70

04

52

19

44

31

49

33

48

32

44

34

70

Greater

39

28

46

29

40

27

45

25

46

31

37

27

41

32

45

29

41

31

36

29

48

28

43

21

40

29

48

Jackson

21

23

37

19

39

31

33

27

43

28

39

29

31

33

32

28

37

29

26

25

28

19

30

30

30

27

43

Lexington

41

18

47

32

46

27

36

32

46

22

35

30

44

29

37

22

39

29

41

17

40

27

45

22

39

18

47

Louisville

17

16

38

23

44

19

43

22

56

23

40

04

54

32

46

21

47

29

39

29

40

23

44

27

40

22

56

Paducah

18

30

41

25

40

19

37

24

38

24

51

29

45

34

51

10

33

18

35

24

43

21

44

22

35

34

51

Baton Rouge

40

24

39

17

39

27

38

23

39

17

48

03

40

03

41

14

46

06

58

33

40

22

33

29

60

29

60

Lake Charles

41

32

58

25

40

18

40

06

44

31

43

19

53

33

36

11

46

36

40

33

38

21

46

33

36

32

58

New Orleans

43

27

48

26

43

16

38

10

40

36

55

25

49

13

44

33

42

09

69

17

40

22

38

28

46

09

69

Shreveport

40

30

41

30

43

29

54

28

52

32

63

36

46

29

46

11

40

19

44

25

37

31

46

32

43

32

63

Cincinnati AP

LA

Caribou

13

31

36

25

41

33

37

31

33

33

37

34

35

32

32

33

28

30

26

30

40

32

41

31

39

32

41

Portland

17

16

38

08

45

11

41

29

40

28

37

28

35

29

37

28

57

29

33

14

37

10

41

30

44

28

57

MD

Baltimore

50

NE

63

W

68

SE

80

W

70

SW

65

SW

80

NW

57

NE

54

W

56

SE

73

E

58

W

57

SE

80

MA

Blue Hill

39

S

76

S

77

ENE

72

NW

66

S

65

NW

61

NW

78

SSW

67

SSE

92

S

62

S

67

SSE

68

SSE

92

Boston

17

17

46

08

43

06

54

28

43

24

43

28

45

26

46

08

47

23

47

04

47

11

48

05

51

06

54

MI

MN

Worcester

46

25

60

32

76

29

76

05

54

31

51

25

39

31

46

36

44

32

41

25

43

20

54

23

51

32

76

Alpena

22

80

30

35

37

20

35

16

38

21

35

21

35

14

37

31

35

19

38

33

31

20

38

26

33

19

38

Detroit

23

22

48

22

51

21

46

22

47

23

43

23

37

28

53

29

35

28

35

24

47

24

45

29

49

28

53

Flint

47

26

45

28

40

27

58

24

44

32

81

29

52

29

41

27

37

27

46

25

39

23

46

27

40

32

81

Grand Rapids

23

24

45

24

55

25

47

24

52

26

47

24

39

26

51

31

41

18

40

24

47

23

49

24

39

19

52

Houghton Lake

25

26

40

24

37

28

36

24

37

26

40

19

51

13

37

25

29

23

32

16

35

27

40

32

33

19

51

Lansing

41

SW

54

SW

56

W

59

W

61

W

46

SE

63

NE

56

SW

47

N

57

SW

48

W

56

SW

56

SE

63

Marquette

6

NW

44

NW

31

NW

40

NW

44

N

34

NW

38

NW

35

NW

37

W

35

SE

38

NW

31

SW

35

NW

44

Muskegon

43

31

44

34

41

25

41

22

48

27

44

24

44

33

40

26

43

20

40

22

40

23

52

23

40

23

52 60

Sault Ste. Marie

31

NW

47

W

47

SE

42

SE

42

E

49

S

37

SE

44

NW

35

W

43

NW

42

NW

60

NW

45

NW

Duluth

17

30

45

29

44

E

57

20

43

28

44

27

46

31

41

26

48

26

33

32

46

08

44

32

41

E

57

International Falls

47

30

35

26

36

29

42

23

52

20

52

18

46

29

46

30

43

34

38

30

47

27

35

31

36

23

52

Minneapolis-

23

32

51

34

37

32

37

18

45

22

49

33

48

35

43

20

44

29

39

31

43

25

41

32

38

32

51

Rochester

40

30

48

28

45

23

58

30

53

25

69

13

53

17

51

34

46

24

44

30

47

29

47

32

47

25

69

Saint Cloud

13

1

36

30

46

30

43

30

44

27

41

32

62

22

49

22

45

32

34

31

43

30

39

31

39

32

62

Jackson

26

35

46

13

43

16

44

14

44

22

35

35

40

33

44

17

37

06

55

31

30

14

41

15

41

06

55

Meridian

43

33

41

02

35

34

39

19

48

17

35

22

46

40

51

34

38

02

45

02

35

19

41

80

37

40

51

Tupelo

19

24

39

25

35

24

39

10

33

31

41

20

41

35

48

01

41

30

32

25

38

23

37

11

38

35

48

Columbia

14

NW

49

24

41

26

46

23

54

36

39

26

49

31

46

19

52

35

38

25

47

19

45

06

37

23

54

Kansas City

18

32

39

20

40

23

46

20

48

24

46

10

51

20

58

31

40

14

41

21

40

22

37

20

39

20

58

St. Louis

23

29

40

30

45

27

48

27

49

34

46

27

48

36

46

31

40

25

41

28

52

11

41

29

39

28

52

Springfield

17

NW

39

15

39

25

39

34

41

10

43

36

47

28

46

36

48

10

40

22

35

10

43

13

37

36

48

St. Paul

MS

MO

MT

Billings

59

W

66

W

72

NW

61

NW

72

NN

68

NW

79

N

73

NW

69

NW

61

NW

68

NW

63

NW

66

NW

79

Glasgow

34

33

41

29

46

10

41

30

54

32

44

30

54

30

69

23

66

30

46

29

54

27

48

29

54

30

69

Great Falls

54

SW

65

W

72

W

73

W

70

SW

65

NW

70

W

73

SW

71

NW

73

W

73

SW

73

SW

82

SW

82

3

29

46

24

46

27

46

28

58

10

51

27

47

28

55

25

46

33

45

26

69

33

46

29

45

26

69

Havre

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

ME

NV

NH NJ

NM NY

62

SW

73

W

73

SW

61

W

52

SW

56

W

56

SW

65

S

65

NW

54

W

62

SW

56

NW

59

SW

Kalispell

36

04

52

01

40

03

41

23

43

23

40

03

38

31

38

15

43

22

36

32

38

03

35

03

52

04

73 52

Missoula

57

S

52

NW

47

SW

50

NW

51

SW

57

S

51

SE

72

SW

58

16

48

SW

51

SW

42

W

56

SE

72

Grand Island

40

34

54

33

53

34

55

21

52

29

59

30

68

29

59

22

52

25

40

33

51

34

51

31

52

30

68

Lincoln

30

33

48

NW

48

N

54

NW

52

W

51

NE

67

SW

52

NW

65

32

44

30

47

NW

48

34

46

NE

67

Norfolk

21

33

46

32

44

30

44

32

51

07

44

28

46

21

58

32

60

30

55

18

46

31

51

35

46

32

60

North Platte

23

31

45

36

52

02

47

28

49

31

48

32

52

24

55

31

56

30

46

31

53

29

46

02

52

31

56

Omaha Eppley AP

14

33

45

33

39

33

40

20

51

16

57

24

40

28

58

30

46

19

36

11

48

28

45

34

39

28

58

Omaha (North)

15

NW

41

NW

38

NW

38

NW

46

N

34

SW

39

SW

50

NW

39

NW

35

NW

34

NW

38

NW

37

SW

50

Scottsbluff

52

34

53

29

60

29

62

31

55

32

80

29

80

05

52

35

52

32

46

31

48

29

56

32

47

32

80

Valentine

20

32

43

30

52

33

43

30

49

33

49

29

53

26

51

20

53

31

40

29

51

30

45

31

41

20

53

Elko

39

23

40

27

39

29

41

25

48

34

55

27

61

23

45

16

35

27

58

29

35

20

40

27

50

27

61

Ely

57

SE

66

S

56

SW

65

S

59

S

74

SW

63

S

50

E

57

S

57

S

65

S

51

SE

61

S

74

Las Vegas

17

23

45

23

50

23

51

22

49

22

56

34

48

30

45

32

43

16

41

31

47

21

43

34

48

22

56

Reno

13

16

45

15

44

21

49

SW

50

17

46

23

37

18

41

19

40

23

43

15

41

19

52

19

67

19

67

Winnemucca

51

W

56

W

59

W

66

W

52

N

61

W

57

W

56

W

51

W

57

NE

54

22

48

SW

61

W

66

Concord

57

NW

44

N

42

NE

71

NW

52

NW

48

SW

44

SW

45

E

56

E

42

NW

39

NE

72

NW

52

NE

72

Mt. Washington (G)

63

NW

173

E

166

W

180

SE

231

W

164

NW

136

NW

110

ENE

142

SE

174

W

161

NW

163

NW

178

SE

231

Atlantic City AP

43

29

47

27

43

24

46

07

46

70

40

30

41

31

41

12

35

32

60

29

41

28

47

36

55

32

60

Atlantic City CO

11

4

43

04

43

07

63

19

37

01

37

05

30

19

44

35

30

07

32

04

44

04

36

11

45

07

63

Newark

54

30

52

23

46

30

45

29

55

32

50

26

58

35

52

09

46

05

51

11

48

09

82

32

55

09

82

Albuquerque

18

09

52

27

47

19

49

11

47

25

48

27

48

36

52

80

51

34

43

26

48

27

48

06

51

09

52

Roswell

16

NW

47

NW

56

NW

52

25

49

NW

60

NW

73

19

49

NW

44

35

43

22

44

NE

65

SW

58

NW

73

Albany

19

30

40

29

44

30

46

17

35

32

55

23

43

29

41

30

47

32

35

28

39

28

41

29

43

32

55

Binghamton

17

27

40

25

41

24

39

24

32

28

33

26

40

30

35

32

43

34

33

26

33

27

41

24

43

24

43

Buffalo

54

SW

91

SW

70

W

68

W

67

SW

63

NW

56

NW

59

SW

56

SW

59

SW

63

SW

66

S

60

SW

91

New York C. Park

19

7

40

08

34

8

37

80

35

30

29

08

28

35

29

30

33

90

29

33

28

32

30

05

39

7

40

New York (JFK AP)

39

26

52

25

46

06

46

31

46

16

44

28

43

29

51

30

46

28

47

26

44

30

44

26

49

26

52

New York

23

5

40

01

43

06

52

29

55

17

41

29

38

35

53

28

46

33

51

10

52

30

55

05

52

29

55

Rochester

17

24

45

25

59

25

55

25

41

18

45

36

39

20

52

27

40

27

68

25

43

25

46

24

45

27

68

Syracuse

53

W

60

W

62

SE

56

NW

52

30

52

NW

49

28

54

NW

43

32

59

SE

63

E

59

W

52

SE

63

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

NE

Helena

(Laguardia AP)

NC

Asheville

38

34

45

34

60

33

48

22

44

34

40

36

40

35

43

30

41

36

45

33

35

32

40

34

44

34

60

Cape Hatteras

32

24

44

16

44

19

52

21

40

18

35

29

37

15

52

33

60

11

60

22

47

15

58

16

46

33

60

Charlotte

23

31

30

32

33

30

32

19

32

35

34

20

32

20

38

28

46

12

46

21

37

24

30

16

38

28

46

Greensboro-Wnstn-

22

19

41

07

38

30

49

26

37

27

62

27

43

35

50

19

30

26

46

30

46

20

38

24

34

27

62 73

Slm-HPT

ND

Raleigh

49

27

41

23

45

24

46

25

40

20

54

33

39

23

69

33

46

04

53

29

73

32

35

22

40

29

Wilmington

22

26

38

25

44

29

58

28

47

27

44

23

46

4

53

06

56

07

67

01

35

24

38

26

43

07

67

Bismarck

23

29

44

30

52

36

43

31

55

27

54

34

52

22

64

30

54

15

46

32

44

31

47

33

45

22

64

Fargo

17

34

49

33

51

34

49

32

49

24

45

14

43

33

74

34

51

31

45

33

49

31

47

30

45

33

74

5

17

39

27

47

35

48

31

49

15

53

31

51

12

40

30

62

29

43

31

46

31

54

34

45

30

62

23

32

44

30

46

29

46

30

55

27

46

30

56

26

63

29

53

27

40

28

55

29

52

30

48

26

63

Grand Forks Williston OH

OK

Akron

41

22

44

25

51

26

49

30

40

32

46

31

67

23

44

17

51

36

40

24

43

25

41

24

48

31

67

Cleveland

25

22

53

24

45

27

46

23

44

20

42

28

41

23

43

24

39

29

35

24

46

18

40

25

46

22

53

Columbus

21

24

40

27

43

26

47

26

47

25

52

31

40

33

47

29

43

23

44

24

40

27

45

26

47

25

52

Dayton

17

25

43

28

45

27

49

25

49

24

54

24

43

29

61

26

33

22

43

26

43

22

44

25

46

29

61

Mansfield

36

24

46

24

44

26

44

33

46

25

37

23

40

26

39

17

41

33

34

32

40

23

39

18

46

24

46

45

W

47

SW

56

W

56

SW

72

25

46

W

50

NW

54

W

47

NW

47

24

45

SW

65

30

48

SW

72

Youngstown

53

25

48

27

58

25

55

33

51

24

46

23

45

27

58

27

44

36

40

23

44

25

52

25

46

27

58

Oklahoma City

21

34

45

32

45

24

52

32

67

23

53

35

48

31

74

05

46

21

52

30

43

19

46

33

44

31

74

Tulsa

25

18

37

20

41

18

46

34

55

30

41

04

49

19

51

29

38

27

39

25

40

29

44

33

36

34

55

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-59

Toledo

3-60

Table 3A.9

(Continued) Jan

State OR

PC

Station

Years

DR

Feb SP

DR

Mar SP

DR

Apr SP

DR

May SP

DR

Jun SP

DR

Jul SP

DR

Aug SP

DR

Sep SP

DR

Oct SP

DR

Nov SP

DR

Dec SP

DR

Annual SP

DR

SP

Astoria

49

17

55

19

47

18

47

20

52

22

37

18

30

19

29

20

30

17

36

20

44

20

46

25

52

17

55

Eugene

46

20

58

19

60

18

48

18

44

25

46

27

29

32

37

11

32

20

32

18

63

23

46

18

40

18

63

Medford

53

23

50

25

46

16

55

14

35

12

38

17

37

07

44

16

48

14

47

20

40

19

40

14

44

16

55

Pendleton

47

24

52

25

54

29

63

27

77

27

48

29

62

31

49

23

43

27

47

25

49

27

62

29

63

27

77

Portland

48

S

54

SW

61

S

57

S

60

SW

42

SW

40

SW

33

SW

29

S

61

S

88

SW

56

S

57

S

88

Salem

53

18

43

18

46

19

40

18

44

20

31

23

28

24

26

18

25

19

34

18

58

17

49

17

46

18

58

Sexton Summit

15

16

60

19

53

21

60

20

50

20

44

18

42

35

39

20

45

12

45

14

51

19

59

20

63

20

63

Guam

38

W

64

NE

36

70

35

SW

64

NE

76

E

32

22

74

SE

43

E

35

W

44

NE

80

27

106

27

106

Johnston Island

5

33

31

09

38

08

35

09

35

07

32

08

31

06

33

08

32

07

35

08

32

03

33

06

43

06

43

Koror

13

20

35

06

23

36

26

10

25

15

46

30

33

26

33

08

28

27

37

29

31

25

52

09

31

25

52

Kwajalein, Marshall

42

22

55

18

35

90

39

08

37

11

44

12

41

09

41

70

44

07

44

20

40

12

60

09

45

12

60

Majuro, Marshall IS

13

06

36

70

35

07

25

07

26

07

25

09

29

23

30

32

29

22

29

06

33

22

31

09

35

06

36

Pago Pago, Amer

23

34

46

36

63

32

37

35

35

08

35

08

43

09

32

17

33

06

38

18

35

09

39

21

81

21

81

Pohnpei, Caroline IS

14

29

28

10

21

23

20

29

26

10

23

90

18

30

18

25

32

23

21

22

23

24

35

27

23

24

35

Chuuk, E. Caroline

13

34

30

50

28

33

33

8

29

09

29

40

29

24

33

23

39

21

32

22

35

24

35

24

46

24

46

IS

IS Wake Island PA

8

08

39

02

36

06

37

06

38

09

30

08

28

10

41

19

51

16

30

08

33

07

40

03

39

19

51

Yap, W Caroline IS

13

05

23

04

23

12

39

13

23

08

20

23

23

28

28

22

25

09

23

16

26

09

36

26

41

26

41

Allentown

54

29

55

25

58

29

58

29

60

30

58

27

81

27

55

23

58

25

46

14

49

30

58

29

52

27

81

Erie

45

20

53

29

52

14

55

21

46

25

37

36

37

32

46

25

36

17

45

24

43

31

41

24

40

14

55

Harrisburg

10

27

44

30

35

28

37

28

35

29

47

33

58

29

35

35

46

28

31

25

30

31

40

31

46

33

58

Middletown/

20

34

46

29

51

29

46

33

46

29

47

33

58

16

52

29

49

28

40

32

37

33

40

31

46

33

58

Philadelphia

60

NE

61

NW

59

NW

56

SW

59

SW

56

NW

73

SW

49

E

67

NE

49

SW

66

SW

60

NW

48

NW

73

Pittsburgh

50

23

52

26

58

25

48

30

51

30

48

34

53

25

51

29

46

20

38

31

39

29

45

25

48

26

58

Avoca

45

SW

52

W

60

S

49

NW

47

SW

46

W

43

NW

43

NE

50

SW

47

E

40

NW

49

SW

47

W

60

Williamsport

49

27

66

14

60

11

58

18

62

18

55

29

62

20

78

29

60

16

59

11

75

09

77

16

58

20

78

Harrisburg AP

RI SC

Block IS

12

27

36

36

46

05

45

04

29

15

29

18

28

30

28

04

29

16

53

08

37

28

38

25

40

16

53

Providence

49

20

46

16

46

18

60

20

51

20

42

20

40

14

39

11

90

18

58

14

41

18

52

14

48

11

90

Charleston AP

27

20

40

30

38

21

46

20

38

24

33

17

44

28

40

27

38

21

52

21

39

15

37

24

39

21

52

Columbia

49

28

46

20

40

27

60

33

44

28

47

27

47

32

40

30

48

30

48

27

29

35

35

26

41

27

60

Greenville-

12

25

36

22

37

25

39

29

39

36

43

30

43

17

49

24

36

23

30

12

31

25

32

35

29

17

49

Spartanburg AP SD

TN

Aberdeen

33

34

58

06

52

35

52

31

55

16

46

10

47

31

63

33

46

32

41

33

49

34

46

33

43

31

63

Huron

60

NW

57

NW

56

NW

68

SE

73

NW

70

SE

65

NW

77

NW

72

NW

64

W

72

NW

73

NW

59

NW

77

Rapid City

19

32

59

33

59

33

54

32

61

32

57

25

54

21

69

32

54

32

52

32

55

33

57

33

52

21

69

Sioux Falls

54

32

47

31

45

02

60

31

51

11

46

23

70

36

69

31

58

16

50

27

60

36

52

36

46

23

70

Bristol-JhnCty-

47

25

40

25

46

25

40

25

41

32

50

27

39

23

40

34

46

31

29

27

36

26

37

24

40

32

50

Chattanooga

27

31

30

25

37

32

44

18

32

18

35

24

37

30

44

06

43

29

33

29

35

30

38

22

29

30

44

Knoxville

28

27

43

25

39

24

43

28

64

20

40

07

35

24

43

30

38

24

29

26

43

25

49

20

39

28

64

Memphis

23

34

35

24

38

16

40

24

46

34

40

29

51

34

37

30

37

36

39

28

40

23

40

30

36

29

51

Nashville

27

26

38

20

36

13

41

25

40

36

41

10

38

36

38

02

40

34

33

17

35

15

39

23

41

13

41

Abilene

22

19

38

31

45

27

41

27

55

31

54

21

49

30

48

19

55

35

43

31

46

33

39

32

40

27

55

Kgsprt

TX

Amarillo

28

25

45

25

48

34

58

25

53

13

47

35

60

30

48

02

46

80

41

31

58

31

46

32

51

35

60

Austin/City

23

35

37

34

39

33

36

27

46

20

52

34

41

28

40

03

35

02

52

35

33

30

36

31

44

20

52

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Samoa

61

29

73

23

59

20

73

25

60

32

78

29

80

11

62

36

66

02

63

36

51

32

62

34

76

29

Brownsville

23

18

40

23

36

28

44

17

41

17

38

30

41

12

36

19

48

30

51

36

35

17

39

17

38

30

51

Corpus Christi

26

30

43

06

45

17

45

30

45

10

56

01

41

02

46

11

55

30

49

28

49

90

41

18

38

10

56

Dallas-Fort Worth

49

36

55

36

51

29

55

32

55

14

55

32

52

36

65

36

73

11

53

23

46

34

50

32

53

36

73

Dallas-Love Field

3

30

41

17

40

29

47

35

43

28

47

16

40

02

35

33

35

10

35

14

43

03

38

33

45

29

47

23

31

45

31

39

33

52

15

41

32

48

28

51

16

39

14

60

32

45

33

46

32

36

29

43

14

60

El Paso

27

26

64

24

51

28

52

26

56

25

45

32

51

30

45

26

54

35

41

23

41

23

52

26

44

26

64

Galveston

124

S

53

N

60

SE

50

NW

68

W

66

SE

62

NW

68

E

91

NE

100

SE

66

NW

72

NW

50

NE

100

Houston

33

33

32

26

46

25

35

14

45

23

46

30

45

10

46

08

51

05

37

27

41

33

37

14

46

08

51

Lubbock

54

28

59

25

58

34

69

25

58

36

70

05

63

25

64

30

46

36

45

25

65

25

59

25

58

36

70

Midland-Odessa

49

28

44

25

67

27

53

30

53

20

52

24

58

05

58

16

55

23

53

14

46

25

48

26

47

25

67

Port Arthur

23

06

39

16

39

10

43

30

46

29

52

14

55

05

44

01

44

06

38

33

36

34

38

25

41

14

55

San Angelo

54

26

45

29

48

27

58

28

75

02

60

02

57

17

46

02

44

34

52

29

60

29

66

30

43

28

75

San Antonio

26

29

39

31

42

33

46

35

39

28

46

90

38

09

48

11

39

25

43

31

35

33

37

33

33

09

48

Victoria (G)

19

N

49

N

54

N

54

N

62

N

68

N

60

E

54

N

54

S

44

NW

75

N

55

N

45

NW

75

Waco

54

32

49

36

58

27

65

36

62

36

60

09

69

36

60

05

60

32

60

34

52

29

62

32

52

09

69

Del Rio

80

Wichita Falls

54

32

49

29

57

27

59

14

52

20

59

36

69

33

60

34

55

01

53

29

60

32

56

29

55

36

69

UT

Milford

18

SW

44

W

56

SW

52

SW

52

SW

57

SW

57

NW

45

SW

52

SW

47

NW

45

SW

56

SW

53

SW

57

Salt Lake City

66

NW

59

SE

56

NW

71

NW

57

NW

57

W

63

NW

51

SW

58

W

61

NW

67

NW

63

S

54

NW

71

VT

Burlington

19

16

38

17

39

16

33

33

36

29

35

29

39

30

37

36

35

19

36

13

32

18

35

27

35

29

39

VA

Lynchburg

58

W

45

S

50

S

43

NE

43

N

56

SW

56

NW

43

W

48

NE

40

N

41

NW

43

SE

45

N

56

Norfolk

30

20

43

36

44

22

46

02

41

70

40

30

46

34

46

35

46

30

46

04

48

21

40

01

39

04

48 46

WA

Richmond

17

22

38

23

39

27

41

33

46

23

46

26

45

23

40

36

44

10

40

10

37

23

36

15

40

33

Roanoke

41

30

53

31

40

32

52

32

58

36

46

28

46

34

46

30

44

10

38

30

36

34

52

30

40

32

58

Wallops Island

16

NNE

70

SSW

66

W

68

NE

69

S

52

W

69

WNW

67

WNW

75

WNW

70

W

60

WNW

60

E

73

WNW

75

Olympia

54

18

55

18

45

23

40

23

46

29

39

25

32

18

29

27

26

18

35

23

58

18

60

16

45

18

60

Quillayute

34

21

35

SE

46

23

38

SW

32

W

28

SE

23

NE

23

SE

27

SE

33

SE

42

SE

37

SW

39

SE

46

Seattle CO (G)

11

SSE

51

SSW

40

WSW

54

SW

44

WSW

46

SW

37

SW

39

S

33

S

33

SSW

41

SSW

63

SW

46

SSW

63

Seattle Sea-Tac AP

34

S

47

S

51

SW

44

SW

38

SW

32

SW

29

SW

26

SW

29

20

36

SW

38

S

66

S

49

S

66

Spokane

53

SW

59

SW

54

SW

54

SW

52

W

49

SW

44

SW

43

SW

50

SW

38

SW

56

SW

54

SW

51

SW

59

Yakima

48

25

44

28

48

23

48

29

46

18

46

20

47

24

43

20

37

30

38

31

41

29

45

23

48

28

48

PR

San Juan

17

50

28

06

29

07

32

60

31

60

28

12

35

32

49

04

34

05

79

40

37

36

33

70

30

05

79

WV

Beckley

39

24

46

26

40

27

58

27

44

24

41

27

40

36

46

32

40

30

46

26

32

16

44

28

41

27

58

Charleston

53

25

45

19

40

32

46

27

45

25

55

32

50

29

46

29

50

20

35

25

45

29

40

25

55

25

55

WI

WY

Elkins

19

27

46

25

55

32

46

27

50

30

46

27

40

30

37

32

40

26

35

29

46

30

33

27

40

25

55

Huntington

40

26

43

26

41

25

37

18

44

29

47

24

35

34

35

24

35

34

29

30

38

23

35

26

36

29

47

Green Bay

17

40

39

27

37

29

44

22

41

29

46

16

41

24

36

28

35

32

37

28

36

20

45

26

38

29

46

La Crosse

21

32

45

34

37

34

40

25

53

09

58

34

63

27

52

32

63

27

40

34

39

18

46

34

43

34

63

Madison

53

E

68

W

57

SW

70

SW

73

SW

77

W

59

NW

72

W

47

W

52

SW

73

SE

56

SW

65

SW

77

Milwaukee

20

80

44

27

52

26

41

24

48

30

46

31

47

30

54

02

47

70

41

24

43

23

52

04

40

30

54

Casper

49

20

58

23

58

25

81

25

54

32

58

26

54

25

52

25

50

32

53

25

55

25

51

20

63

25

81

Cheyenne

21

25

55

27

59

28

52

30

58

26

48

29

71

25

46

25

56

28

48

26

53

27

59

27

63

29

71

Lander

13

26

44

20

46

23

68

25

62

17

52

19

53

22

47

18

39

20

52

26

55

27

44

24

55

23

68

Sheridan

17

30

53

24

45

31

49

30

61

31

60

31

47

20

52

32

58

31

46

29

46

32

55

31

48

31

60

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Austin/Bergstrom

Note: Through 2002. This table expresses both a maximum wind speed and where available, the direction (referenced to true North) from which it blew. Short gusts are listed only for stations denoted with a (G). If the direction is expressed as one of the 16 compass points (N, NNE, NE, etc) the maximum speed is calculated from the minimum time during which one mile of wind passed the station. If the direction is expressed numerically, the maximum speed is the highest one-minute average value recorded by the observer. Direction is given in tens of degrees clockwise from true North. Source: From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov. 3-61

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-62

Table 3A.10 Average Percentage of Possible Sunshine — Selected Cities of the United States State AL

AK

AZ

AR

CA

CT DC FL

GA

HI

ID IL

Birmingham CO Birmingham AP Montgomery Anchorage Juneau Nome Flagstaff Phoenix Tucson Yuma Fort Smith Little Rock North Little Rock Eureka Fresno Los Angeles CO Redding Sacramento San Diego San Francisco CO Denver Grand Junction Pueblo Hartford Washington Nat’l AP Apalachicola Jacksonville Key West Miami Pensacola Tampa Atlanta Macon Savannah Hilo Honolulu Kahului Lihue Boise Pocatello Cairo Chicago Moline Peoria

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

10 34 45 40 33 40 15 101 53 42 51 32 24 84 46 32 10 46 56 38 46 56 61 42 50 57 50 38 20 5 50 65 48 46 52 46 37 51 60 53 45 16 53 52

48 42 47 34 32 40 77 78 80 84 50 46 61 43 47 69 72 48 72 56 71 61 75 53 46 58 58 74 66 48 63 49 56 54 46 65 64 55 40 40 45 44 48 47

48 50 52 42 32 55 73 80 82 87 55 54 62 46 65 72 82 65 71 62 69 65 74 56 50 61 62 77 68 53 65 54 61 57 46 68 64 57 50 53 50 49 50 50

62 54 59 50 37 54 76 84 86 90 56 57 72 52 77 73 85 74 70 69 69 65 74 57 55 65 68 82 74 61 71 58 65 62 42 72 64 56 62 61 56 51 50 51

61 63 65 50 39 54 82 89 90 94 60 62 77 57 85 70 90 82 68 73 67 70 74 55 57 74 73 84 76 63 75 66 73 71 37 70 63 55 68 66 62 50 53 55

64 66 63 50 39 50 88 93 92 95 62 68 74 58 90 66 91 90 59 72 64 73 73 57 58 77 70 82 72 67 75 68 71 68 37 72 68 61 70 67 65 58 57 60

63 65 62 46 34 43 86 94 93 97 69 73 81 59 95 65 94 94 58 73 70 81 78 60 64 71 66 76 68 67 67 67 70 65 44 74 72 63 75 75 72 67 63 67

60 59 61 43 31 37 75 85 78 91 73 71 82 55 97 82 97 97 68 66 71 79 79 62 62 64 65 77 72 57 62 63 67 64 41 76 71 62 87 83 74 66 68 69

62 63 63 39 32 32 76 85 80 91 72 73 79 51 96 83 97 96 70 65 71 77 78 62 62 64 64 76 71 58 61 64 71 62 42 77 71 65 85 81 75 62 66 67

57 61 62 38 26 36 81 89 87 93 66 68 81 55 94 79 94 93 69 72 74 79 80 59 61 66 58 72 70 60 61 62 67 58 43 77 73 67 82 80 69 59 62 64

63 66 64 36 19 34 79 88 88 92 65 69 75 50 88 73 92 86 68 70 72 74 79 57 59 74 60 71 70 71 65 66 69 63 39 70 68 59 69 72 67 55 58 61

49 55 55 32 23 31 75 83 84 87 54 56 62 44 66 74 84 66 75 62 64 63 72 45 51 67 60 71 67 64 64 58 64 61 33 65 62 49 43 47 51 38 42 43

52 46 49 27 20 34 73 77 79 82 50 48 57 41 46 71 73 49 73 53 67 61 71 47 46 57 54 70 63 49 61 50 57 55 37 63 63 49 38 40 44 43 40 42

57 58 58 41 30 42 78 85 85 90 61 62 72 51 79 73 88 78 68 66 69 71 76 56 56 66 63 76 70 60 66 60 66 62 41 71 67 58 64 64 61 54 55 56

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

CO

Station

IA KS

KY

LA

ME MD MA MI

MN MS MO

MT

NE

NV

NH

Springfield Evansville Fort Wayne Indianapolis Des Moines Sioux City Concordia Dodge City Topeka Wichita Greater Cincinnati AP Louisville Paducah Lake Charles New Orleans Shreveport Portland Baltimore Blue Hill Boston Alpena Detroit Grand Rapids Lansing Marquette Sault Ste. Marie Duluth Minneapolis-St.Paul Jackson Tupelo Columbia Kansas City St. Louis Billings Great Falls Helena Missoula Lincoln North Platte Omaha (North) Valentine Ely Las Vegas Reno Winnemucca Concord

48 56 52 53 50 55 34 59 53 49 13 48 18 19 22 50 55 40 112 61 37 31 36 42 21 55 48 58 33 13 27 23 37 57 46 55 57 40 50 57 29 56 47 45 42 58

48 42 46 40 51 57 64 67 56 58 33 41 45 62 46 51 56 51 46 53 36 40 28 36 35 36 48 53 49 53 50 58 50 47 49 46 33 58 63 55 63 68 77 65 51 52

52 48 51 49 54 56 63 65 55 61 40 48 48 66 50 57 59 55 50 56 45 46 39 44 41 47 53 59 54 53 49 55 52 53 56 55 44 57 62 53 62 68 81 68 56 55

51 55 55 50 57 57 63 65 57 62 48 51 54 74 56 58 56 56 48 57 53 52 46 49 49 55 55 57 60 61 50 58 54 61 66 61 54 57 62 54 59 71 83 75 60 53

56 60 60 54 56 59 65 68 58 63 56 56 61 71 62 60 54 56 49 56 52 54 51 52 51 54 56 58 66 73 55 62 56 60 62 59 57 58 64 58 59 70 87 80 66 53

63 64 68 60 61 61 67 67 61 64 57 60 63 72 62 63 54 56 52 58 59 61 56 61 61 57 57 61 63 72 57 61 59 61 62 60 59 61 65 61 62 72 88 81 72 55

68 71 74 65 68 67 76 74 66 69 61 66 60 78 63 71 59 62 55 63 63 66 62 65 64 58 58 66 70 74 64 66 66 64 65 64 63 69 71 67 69 80 93 85 77 58

71 73 75 66 72 73 78 79 71 76 61 67 70 83 58 75 63 64 57 65 65 68 64 69 66 62 65 72 66 75 67 72 68 76 79 78 81 73 77 74 76 80 88 92 86 62

70 73 74 68 70 70 76 78 70 75 61 66 70 81 61 74 63 62 58 65 59 67 61 64 62 58 61 69 67 73 64 67 65 75 76 74 77 70 75 70 76 81 88 92 85 60

68 69 68 65 66 66 70 74 66 68 61 64 63 78 61 70 62 60 56 63 51 61 54 59 54 45 52 62 65 72 60 66 63 68 67 67 69 66 72 68 71 82 91 91 82 56

63 65 62 61 62 63 68 73 64 65 54 61 64 75 64 69 58 58 55 60 42 51 44 50 45 38 46 55 70 62 59 60 60 61 61 60 55 63 70 65 68 75 87 83 74 53

48 48 42 41 49 51 59 67 54 58 36 46 50 67 54 60 48 51 47 50 28 35 27 31 35 24 35 39 57 51 47 49 46 46 46 44 34 53 60 51 60 67 81 70 54 42

44 42 38 38 46 50 57 65 52 57 31 40 42 59 48 54 53 49 46 52 28 31 23 29 34 27 39 42 49 46 45 49 43 45 44 42 29 52 61 48 60 67 78 64 52 47

58 59 59 55 59 61 67 70 61 65 50 56 58 72 57 64 57 57 52 58 48 53 46 51 50 47 52 58 61 64 56 60 57 60 61 59 55 61 67 60 65 73 85 79 68 54

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-63

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

IN

State NJ NM NY

NC

OH

OK OR PC

PA

RI

(Continued) Station

Mt. Washington Atlantic City AP Albuquerque Roswell Albany Binghamton Buffalo New York C.Park Rochester Syracuse Asheville Cape Hatteras Charlotte Greensboro-Wnstn-SlmHPT Raleigh Wilmington Bismarck Fargo Williston Cleveland Columbus Dayton Toledo Oklahoma City Tulsa Portland Guam Johnston Island Koror Majuro, Marshall IS Pago Pago, Amer Samoa Pohnpei, Caroline IS Chuuk, E. Caroline IS Wake Island Yap, W Caroline IS Allentown Harrisburg Middletown/Harrisburg AP Philadelphia Pittsburgh Avoca Providence

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

64 36 63 7 61 51 59 109 57 53 32 33 48 68

32 50 72 60 46 37 31 51 35 33 55 48 54 51

35 53 72 68 52 42 38 55 41 39 59 52 58 56

34 55 73 75 54 46 46 57 49 46 61 60 61 60

34 56 77 77 54 50 51 58 53 49 66 67 68 63

36 56 79 80 56 56 56 61 59 55 61 65 67 63

32 60 83 83 60 62 65 64 66 59 62 65 67 64

30 61 76 77 64 64 67 65 69 63 60 65 67 62

31 65 75 73 61 61 64 64 66 59 54 65 65 61

35 61 79 72 57 55 57 62 59 53 56 64 64 62

38 59 79 77 52 49 50 61 49 44 61 60 65 64

29 51 76 73 37 32 29 52 31 26 58 56 58 57

30 47 71 71 39 29 27 49 30 25 55 48 55 53

33 56 76 74 53 49 48 58 51 46 59 60 62 60

42 51 63 54 39 59 45 53 41 42 55 46 39 22 42 42

52 56 53 50 51 30 36 40 41 60 53 28 47 70 54 61

56 59 53 56 57 37 42 44 46 60 56 38 52 74 54 64

60 64 58 58 61 45 44 48 50 65 58 48 57 74 63 66

63 70 58 60 60 52 51 52 52 68 60 52 57 70 61 59

59 67 61 61 62 58 56 58 60 66 60 57 56 74 54 58

60 66 64 62 66 65 60 66 64 75 66 56 52 78 44 55

60 64 73 71 74 67 60 66 65 79 74 69 40 79 45 56

58 62 72 69 74 63 60 67 63 79 73 66 36 76 44 61

58 61 65 60 67 60 61 65 61 72 66 62 38 73 52 59

60 64 58 54 59 52 56 59 54 70 64 44 38 65 47 55

57 63 43 40 45 31 37 40 37 61 56 28 40 59 50 53

53 59 47 43 50 25 31 36 33 58 53 23 38 62 49 53

58 63 59 57 60 49 50 53 52 68 62 48 46 71 51 58

34 44 42 28 43 12 53 62

45 38 50 68 59 43 49 48

45 41 55 71 61 48 54 54

45 45 56 76 68 53 58 57

40 42 50 75 67 46 59 58

34 41 47 75 65 53 60 59

34 40 44 76 52 62 65 64

40 44 47 72 47 57 68 67

43 44 48 68 45 61 67 66

51 44 44 68 50 58 62 61

42 40 42 68 47 57 58 58

46 39 44 65 52 49 47 47

45 36 42 64 49 45 44 44

42 41 47 70 55 53 58 57

60 49 41 42

49 32 41 56

53 36 47 58

55 43 50 58

56 46 53 57

57 50 57 58

62 55 61 61

61 57 62 63

62 56 61 62

59 55 55 62

60 51 52 61

52 36 36 50

49 28 34 52

56 45 51 58

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

ND

3-64

Table 3A.10

Charleston AP Columbia Greenville-Spartanburg Huron Rapid City Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis Nashville Abilene Amarillo Austin/City Austin/Bergstrom Brownsville Corpus Christi Dallas-Fort Worth El Paso Galveston Houston Lubbock Midland-Odessa Port Arthur San Antonio Milford Salt Lake City Burlington Lynchburg Norfolk Richmond Quillayute Seattle CO Seattle Sea-Tac AP Spokane San Juan Elkins Green Bay Madison Milwaukee Cheyenne Lander Sheridan

SD TN

TX

UT VT VA

WA

PR WV WI

WY

Note:

39 46 39 55 55 65 57 35 54 49 61 58 60 59 60 17 54 103 27 25 22 26 53 16 64 59 52 32 46 30 31 30 48 47 11 53 50 55 63 50 55

56 55 54 57 57 43 40 50 41 62 69 49 49 41 44 52 78 48 45 65 66 42 47 58 45 41 52 53 54 22 28 28 28 69 29 49 47 44 64 65 57

59 59 57 59 60 49 47 54 47 64 68 51 51 48 49 54 82 51 50 66 69 52 50 64 54 48 56 56 58 30 34 40 41 70 32 52 51 47 67 68 60

66 64 63 59 63 53 53 56 52 70 72 55 55 53 54 58 86 56 54 73 73 52 57 63 64 51 58 60 62 34 42 50 55 76 39 53 52 50 67 70 63

72 70 66 61 62 61 63 64 59 72 74 54 54 58 56 61 89 61 58 74 78 52 56 69 68 49 62 63 66 35 47 52 61 72 46 55 52 53 63 66 60

68 68 62 65 60 65 64 69 60 70 71 56 56 63 59 57 90 67 62 71 78 64 56 73 72 56 62 62 66 37 52 56 65 64 44 61 58 60 61 64 60

66 67 62 70 65 65 65 74 65 78 78 69 69 73 72 67 90 75 68 76 81 69 67 82 80 59 65 67 70 35 49 56 67 65 48 65 64 65 67 72 65

67 67 60 76 73 62 64 74 63 80 79 75 75 80 80 75 82 73 70 77 81 65 74 77 83 64 62 62 68 43 63 65 80 69 44 66 67 69 69 75 75

64 66 61 74 74 63 63 75 63 78 77 74 74 76 76 73 81 71 68 76 77 63 74 79 82 60 62 62 66 44 56 65 78 68 44 63 64 66 68 75 75

61 65 62 69 70 64 61 69 62 71 73 66 66 68 68 67 83 68 66 71 77 62 67 80 82 54 61 61 65 47 53 62 72 62 45 56 60 59 70 72 68

63 67 66 63 66 63 61 70 62 72 75 64 63 65 67 63 84 71 64 75 72 67 64 76 72 47 62 59 63 34 37 43 55 64 46 47 54 54 69 67 62

59 63 58 50 55 53 49 58 50 67 72 54 56 51 54 57 83 59 52 69 74 57 54 62 53 31 56 56 59 21 28 28 29 60 37 38 39 39 61 58 53

56 59 54 49 55 44 40 50 42 62 67 49 49 42 43 52 77 48 51 65 65 47 48 60 42 33 53 54 54 19 23 23 23 61 28 40 40 38 60 61 55

63 64 60 63 63 57 56 64 56 70 73 60 60 60 60 61 84 62 59 72 74 58 60 70 66 49 59 60 63 33 43 47 54 67 40 54 54 54 66 68 63

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

SC

Through 2002. The total time that sunshine reaches the surface of the earth is expressed as the percentage of the maximum amount possible from sunrise to sunset with clear sky conditions.

Source:

From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

3-65

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-66

Table 3A.11 Mean Number of Cloudy Days (Clear, Partly Cloudy, Cloudy) — Selected Cities of the United States (Through 2002) Jan State AL

AK

AR CA

CO

CT DE DC

Birmingham AP Huntsville Mobile Montgomery Anchorage Annette Barrow Barter IS Bethel Bettles Big Delta Cold Bay Fairbanks Gulkana Homer Juneau King Salmon Kodiak Kotzebue McGrath Nome St. Paul Island Talkeetna Unalakleet Valdez Yakutat Flagstaff Phoenix Tucson Winslow Yuma Fort Smith Little Rock Bakersfield Bishop Blue Canyon Eureka Fresno Long Beach Los Angeles AP Los Angeles CO Mount Shasta Redding Sacramento San Diego San Francisco AP Santa Maria Stockton Alamosa Alamosa Colorado Springs Colorado Springs Denver Grand Junction Pueblo Pueblo Bridgeport Hartford Wilmington Washington Dulles AP Washington Nat’l AP

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Years

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

37 27 47 51 44 41 54 34 34 5 3 42 45 5 15 47 42 25 52 55 51 66 10 4 23 48 43 57 55 37 32 49 35 55 29 31 92 46 38 60 34 22 9 49 55 68 45 46 33 2 44 3 61 49 50 3 46 41 47 33 48

7 7 8 7 7 4 6 4 8 15 14 2 9 15 8 6 8 5 11 9 10 2 6 8 5 5 12 14 14 12 15 9 9 7 11 9 6 5 12 12 14 9 8 7 12 9 13 5 13 16 12 5 10 9 12 11 8 8 7 7 7

6 6 6 6 5 4 2 3 5 5 8 5 6 4 4 3 5 6 4 5 4 6 4 4 4 3 6 7 7 7 7 6 6 8 8 5 6 7 8 8 8 6 5 6 7 8 7 6 10 6 8 2 9 7 9 4 8 8 7 7 7

18 18 17 17 19 23 3 8 18 11 9 23 16 12 19 23 18 20 16 17 17 23 21 20 22 22 12 10 10 12 9 16 16 17 12 17 19 19 11 11 9 16 18 19 11 15 11 19 8 6 11 2 11 15 10 3 15 15 17 17 16

7 7 8 8 6 3 12 10 10 10 5 2 8 6 7 4 7 6 12 9 12 3 8 10 5 4 11 13 13 12 15 9 9 7 11 8 5 8 10 11 12 8 8 8 10 8 12 7 11 8 9 8 8 8 10 9 8 7 7 7 7

6 6 7 6 4 4 6 6 4 4 7 5 6 4 4 3 5 5 3 4 4 6 4 3 3 3 6 7 7 7 7 6 6 8 8 5 6 8 7 6 7 7 6 7 8 7 6 7 10 6 8 5 9 7 8 5 7 8 7 6 7

15 16 14 14 18 21 11 12 14 14 17 22 14 18 17 21 16 18 13 15 13 20 16 15 20 21 11 9 9 10 6 14 13 13 10 15 17 13 11 11 9 13 14 13 10 13 10 15 7 7 11 7 11 13 11 6 13 14 14 15 15

7 7 9 8 8 4 14 12 9 9 8 2 10 9 6 4 8 6 12 9 11 3 9 10 8 5 12 14 15 13 17 9 9 10 13 9 6 11 11 12 13 8 8 10 11 10 13 10 10 8 9 8 8 8 10 7 8 7 8 7 7

8 8 8 8 5 5 7 8 5 5 8 6 7 6 6 3 6 7 6 6 5 7 4 6 4 4 8 8 7 9 7 7 7 9 9 6 8 8 9 9 9 8 7 9 9 9 8 8 11 4 9 6 10 8 9 2 9 8 8 8 8

16 17 14 15 18 23 10 12 16 16 15 23 14 15 19 23 18 18 13 15 14 21 18 15 19 22 12 8 9 9 6 15 15 12 9 17 17 12 11 11 9 15 17 12 11 13 10 13 9 3 13 7 13 15 12 5 14 16 15 16 15

9 9 9 10 6 3 11 9 6 7 2 1 7 5 5 4 4 4 10 7 9 2 5 9 6 4 12 17 17 15 21 9 9 12 14 10 6 14 12 11 12 10 8 12 10 11 13 12 10 8 8 5 7 8 9 10 7 6 7 7 7

8 7 9 8 6 6 7 8 6 10 9 4 8 10 6 4 7 6 7 7 6 6 5 5 5 5 9 7 7 9 6 7 7 9 9 7 8 8 10 9 10 10 8 10 10 9 9 9 13 8 10 6 11 9 10 8 9 9 8 9 9

13 14 12 12 18 21 12 13 17 13 20 26 16 15 18 22 20 19 13 15 14 22 18 16 19 21 9 6 6 7 4 14 14 9 7 13 16 8 8 9 8 10 13 8 10 10 8 10 8 8 12 8 13 13 11 5 14 15 14 14 14

8 8 9 9 4 4 3 3 4 7 2 — 5 3 4 4 3 3 8 4 7 1 6 5 4 2 15 21 20 17 24 8 8 18 15 12 6 18 10 10 11 12 11 17 8 14 14 17 9 11 7 1 6 10 9 4 7 6 7 7 7

11 10 11 10 7 7 5 6 8 11 11 3 11 10 7 4 6 5 9 8 8 4 6 9 6 5 9 7 7 9 5 10 11 9 10 8 10 8 13 11 12 8 9 9 11 10 10 8 14 7 12 5 12 11 12 7 10 10 10 10 10

12 14 11 12 20 21 23 22 20 13 18 27 15 18 20 23 22 22 14 19 16 26 19 17 21 24 7 3 4 5 2 13 12 5 6 11 15 5 8 10 8 10 10 5 11 8 7 5 8 6 12 2 13 11 11 4 14 16 14 14 14

7 8 7 8 3 2 3 3 2 4 4 — 3 2 4 3 1 3 6 2 6 1 1 5 3 2 18 23 21 20 25 10 9 23 20 18 7 23 12 10 14 16 17 22 9 16 15 22 14 14 10 3 10 15 12 11 8 6 8 6 7

13 11 14 12 7 6 6 7 7 13 9 3 10 10 8 4 5 6 10 9 9 3 12 7 6 5 8 5 6 7 4 10 12 5 7 5 10 5 12 11 10 7 8 6 12 9 11 6 12 6 12 4 12 9 11 4 10 10 11 12 11

10 11 9 10 20 21 21 20 21 13 17 27 17 18 18 22 24 21 14 19 15 26 17 18 21 24 4 2 3 4 1 10 9 2 3 6 13 2 6 9 6 7 5 2 9 5 4 3 4 5 8 2 8 6 7 2 12 14 12 12 11

5 7 4 6 3 4 3 3 2 2 — — 3 4 3 3 1 3 4 2 4 1 5 2 3 2 9 17 10 11 20 12 9 26 22 26 6 27 18 13 21 25 25 27 13 21 17 27 9 16 9 7 9 14 11 15 7 6 8 8 7

14 13 15 14 6 6 7 9 5 10 8 2 9 9 9 5 5 6 8 8 7 2 7 8 5 4 13 10 12 12 8 11 13 3 7 4 11 3 11 13 9 5 4 3 13 8 12 3 17 6 15 4 16 11 14 6 12 12 11 11 12

12 11 12 11 22 21 21 19 24 19 22 28 19 18 19 23 25 22 19 21 20 28 19 21 23 25 9 4 9 8 3 8 9 1 2 1 14 1 2 5 1 2 1 1 5 3 2 1 6 1 7 2 6 6 5 2 12 13 12 12 12

7 9 6 8 3 4 1 1 2 2 2 — 3 3 5 4 1 4 4 2 3 1 3 6 4 3 10 18 12 12 22 12 12 26 23 25 6 26 19 14 22 24 25 26 15 19 17 26 11 5 10 6 10 13 12 8 9 7 9 8 9

15 13 15 14 6 6 4 6 4 8 8 2 7 9 8 5 5 7 6 5 6 3 11 6 6 4 13 10 12 13 6 11 11 4 6 4 11 3 10 12 7 4 5 4 12 9 13 4 14 10 13 8 14 11 12 11 11 11 10 11 10

10 10 10 9 22 21 26 23 26 21 21 29 21 19 18 22 25 20 21 23 22 28 17 20 21 24 8 4 7 6 3 8 9 1 2 2 15 1 2 5 1 2 2 1 4 3 2 1 6 9 8 8 8 6 7 5 12 13 12 12 12

9 9 9 10 4 4 1 2 2 7 5 — 4 6 5 3 2 4 6 3 5 1 5 4 3 3 16 22 19 18 24 12 11 24 23 22 9 24 15 13 18 21 22 24 15 18 16 23 15 10 14 11 13 16 15 9 10 8 10 9 10

9 9 10 9 5 6 3 4 5 7 7 4 6 8 7 3 6 7 5 5 6 5 4 7 5 4 10 5 7 8 4 8 9 4 5 4 9 4 11 10 8 5 4 4 10 8 10 4 10 2 8 4 9 8 8 2 9 9 8 9 8

11 12 11 11 21 21 26 24 23 16 18 26 20 17 18 24 22 19 19 22 20 24 19 19 22 24 5 3 4 4 2 10 10 2 2 3 13 2 4 6 3 4 3 2 6 4 4 2 5 2 7 6 8 5 6 2 12 13 12 12 12

14 12 14 14 5 2 2 2 4 5 4 1 4 3 5 2 4 6 8 4 7 1 6 6 5 3 17 20 20 19 23 14 14 19 20 17 8 20 13 13 16 14 18 19 14 16 17 19 17 10 15 10 13 15 15 11 11 9 11 11 11

8 7 8 7 5 4 4 5 5 6 5 5 5 7 5 2 7 8 5 5 6 7 5 5 4 3 7 6 6 7 5 7 7 7 7 6 9 6 11 10 9 7 7 6 10 9 9 6 8 6 8 1 9 8 8 4 8 9 8 8 8

9 12 9 10 21 25 25 24 22 21 23 25 22 21 21 27 20 17 19 22 18 23 20 21 23 25 7 4 5 6 3 11 9 5 5 9 14 5 7 8 6 9 6 6 8 7 5 6 6 3 8 5 9 8 8 5 12 13 12 12 12

10 9 11 11 6 3 6 5 6 9 7 1 7 5 6 4 6 7 9 6 7 1 7 8 6 4 15 18 18 16 19 11 11 12 15 10 6 12 13 15 16 9 11 10 15 11 15 9 14 6 12 6 10 11 12 10 8 6 8 7 8

7 7 7 6 5 3 3 4 5 6 6 6 5 5 5 2 5 7 4 4 4 6 3 5 4 3 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 8 5 7 7 8 8 7 7 8 8 8 8 7 8 9 6 8 2 10 7 9 2 8 8 8 8 8

13 14 12 13 20 24 11 15 19 14 17 23 18 21 19 24 19 16 17 19 18 22 19 18 20 23 8 6 6 8 5 13 13 10 7 15 17 11 8 8 6 13 11 12 7 11 8 12 7 4 10 2 10 12 9 2 14 16 14 15 14

8 8 9 9 6 3 4 0 8 9 7 2 7 7 7 3 7 6 11 8 10 1 5 11 5 4 14 15 15 14 17 10 9 7 14 9 6 7 13 13 15 7 10 8 14 9 14 7 14 12 12 11 11 10 12 15 8 7 8 7 8

7 6 6 6 4 4 0 0 5 7 7 5 6 7 5 2 6 6 4 5 4 5 2 4 3 3 6 6 6 7 7 7 6 8 7 5 7 6 8 8 8 8 5 6 8 8 7 7 10 8 8 4 10 8 9 4 8 7 7 7 7

16 18 16 16 21 24 0 0 18 15 17 24 18 17 18 25 19 19 16 19 17 24 22 16 23 24 11 9 10 10 8 15 16 16 9 17 18 18 10 10 8 16 16 17 10 14 10 18 7 2 11 1 10 13 10 2 15 17 16 17 16

99 100 102 107 61 40 66 53 62 86 60 10 70 67 65 44 51 59 100 67 91 18 67 83 57 41 162 211 193 177 242 123 119 191 201 174 77 194 159 147 186 164 172 188 146 160 176 184 148 124 127 82 115 136 139 120 99 82 97 92 96

111 101 116 107 65 60 52 66 65 93 93 50 86 89 75 41 69 74 72 72 69 61 67 67 55 46 102 85 91 99 71 95 100 81 89 64 101 73 119 116 106 83 77 77 117 100 110 77 137 75 120 51 130 106 119 59 107 108 104 105 106

155 164 147 151 239 265 187 192 239 187 212 304 210 209 225 280 245 232 193 226 205 287 225 215 253 278 102 70 81 89 52 147 147 93 75 126 187 98 87 103 73 118 116 100 102 105 80 104 81 54 118 50 120 122 107 44 159 175 164 168 164

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

AZ

Station

GA

HI

ID

IL

IN

IA

KS

KY

LA

ME

MA MI

Apalachicola Daytona Beach Fort Myers Jacksonville Key West Miami Orlando Pensacola Tallahassee Tampa West Palm Beach West Palm Beach Athens Atlanta Augusta Columbus Macon Savannah Hilo Honolulu Kahului Lihue Boise Lewiston Pocatello Cairo Chicago Moline Peoria Rockford Springfield Evansville Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend Des Moines Dubuque Sioux City Waterloo Concordia Concordia Dodge City Dodge City Goodland Goodland Topeka Topeka Wichita Wichita Greater Cincinnati AP Jackson Lexington Louisville Paducah Baton Rouge Baton Rouge Lake Charles New Orleans Shreveport Caribou Portland Baltimore Boston Worcester Alpena Detroit

62 52 54 47 43 46 47 29 34 49 48 1 52 61 44 49 46 45 50 47 37 46 56 42 46 30 37 62 52 45 48 55 49 64 56 46 21 55 35 30 3 50 3 72 3 46 3 39 3 44 14 51 47 11 42 1 34 47 43 54 54 45 60 40 36 37

10 9 11 9 11 9 9 8 8 10 8 1 9 8 9 8 8 9 6 9 13 8 4 3 3 8 7 8 7 7 7 7 5 6 3 8 7 8 8 11 6 11 6 12 6 10 4 11 6 5 4 6 6 7 7 10 7 7 8 7 10 8 9 9 3 4

8 9 12 8 11 13 10 7 7 10 11 6 7 6 6 6 7 6 11 13 10 13 5 4 7 6 6 7 6 7 6 5 6 6 6 7 7 8 7 7 2 8 3 9 4 6 4 6 5 6 5 6 6 6 6 4 6 7 5 7 7 8 7 8 7 7

5 13 9 14 9 9 12 16 15 12 12 6 15 16 16 17 16 16 13 9 8 10 22 24 22 17 18 16 18 17 17 19 20 19 22 16 17 15 16 13 0 12 9 10 9 15 10 14 8 20 22 20 20 18 18 14 19 17 18 17 14 15 15 14 21 20

10 9 10 9 12 8 9 9 8 9 8 8 9 8 9 8 8 8 5 8 11 7 5 3 4 8 6 7 7 7 7 7 5 6 4 8 8 7 7 9 8 9 5 10 8 8 9 8 7 5 4 6 6 6 8 10 8 8 8 6 9 8 8 8 4 5

7 8 11 7 10 12 9 7 7 9 11 3 6 6 6 6 7 6 10 12 9 12 6 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 6 7 6 7 4 8 6 9 4 6 3 7 6 6 5 6 6 8 6 6 6 6 5 6 7 7 7 7 7 7

12 12 7 12 7 8 11 13 13 10 10 2 13 14 13 14 13 14 13 8 7 9 17 21 18 14 16 15 16 15 15 15 17 16 19 15 15 14 15 13 0 12 6 10 8 14 7 13 8 17 19 17 16 15 15 15 15 14 15 16 13 14 13 14 17 17

11 10 11 9 13 9 9 9 9 11 8 7 9 9 9 9 9 9 3 8 11 5 6 4 5 9 5 6 6 6 6 7 5 6 5 7 6 7 6 9 10 9 10 9 7 7 7 9 7 5 6 6 6 7 8 8 7 8 8 7 9 8 8 8 6 6

8 10 12 9 11 14 10 8 9 10 13 6 7 8 8 7 8 9 10 14 11 14 7 6 8 8 8 8 7 8 7 8 7 7 7 7 8 8 7 7 3 8 5 10 4 7 5 7 4 7 7 7 7 8 8 3 8 8 6 7 7 9 8 8 8 7

12 12 8 13 6 8 12 14 13 10 10 4 14 15 14 15 14 13 18 9 9 12 18 21 18 15 18 17 18 17 18 16 19 18 19 17 17 17 18 15 0 14 5 12 5 16 6 15 8 19 18 18 18 16 15 8 16 15 16 17 15 14 15 16 17 18

12 11 11 10 13 8 10 10 11 11 9 9 10 10 11 10 11 11 1 6 8 3 6 5 6 8 6 7 6 6 7 7 6 6 6 7 6 7 6 9 7 9 9 9 8 8 8 9 6 6 6 6 6 8 8 7 7 8 8 5 7 8 7 7 6 6

9 11 13 10 11 15 11 9 10 11 13 13 8 8 8 9 8 9 9 14 12 14 9 6 8 9 8 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 8 8 8 9 8 8 4 9 4 10 3 8 4 8 2 8 8 9 9 8 9 6 9 10 8 7 7 9 8 9 8 8

9 9 6 9 6 7 9 11 9 8 8 8 11 12 11 11 11 11 20 10 10 13 15 19 16 13 16 15 16 16 15 15 17 17 17 15 16 15 16 13 0 12 8 11 11 14 10 13 9 17 16 15 15 14 13 9 15 12 14 18 16 13 15 15 16 16

13 10 10 9 10 6 9 9 9 11 8 5 9 9 8 9 9 9 1 7 10 3 8 6 7 8 7 8 7 8 8 8 7 7 7 8 7 7 7 8 11 9 12 9 8 7 11 8 11 6 6 7 8 7 8 13 7 9 8 4 6 8 6 6 7 7

10 11 15 12 13 15 14 11 13 13 14 6 10 11 11 10 11 10 11 16 14 17 10 9 10 10 10 9 10 9 9 9 9 9 10 8 9 9 9 9 4 10 4 11 5 10 4 10 8 10 8 10 9 9 11 6 11 11 10 9 9 10 10 10 10 10

8 10 6 10 8 9 9 11 10 8 10 8 12 11 12 12 11 12 19 9 8 11 13 16 14 13 14 14 14 14 14 14 15 15 14 15 16 15 14 13 0 12 5 11 6 14 6 13 6 15 17 14 14 15 12 16 12 11 13 18 15 13 15 15 14 14

9 6 5 5 5 3 4 7 6 6 4 6 8 8 8 8 8 7 2 6 11 3 12 8 12 8 7 7 7 7 8 8 6 7 7 8 6 8 7 10 13 11 14 12 14 8 11 9 10 7 6 7 8 7 7 7 8 8 9 3 7 8 7 6 8 8

13 13 16 13 14 14 14 15 14 14 13 8 12 12 11 12 11 11 11 17 13 17 10 9 9 12 11 11 11 11 9 11 12 11 10 10 11 11 11 10 6 10 5 11 4 10 6 11 7 10 12 12 11 12 14 18 13 13 13 10 10 11 10 11 11 11

8 12 10 12 11 13 12 8 10 10 13 9 10 10 11 10 11 12 17 6 6 9 8 13 9 10 11 12 12 12 12 10 12 12 12 11 13 11 12 10 0 8 3 6 4 11 5 10 3 13 13 11 11 11 9 10 9 9 9 17 13 10 13 13 12 11

6 5 2 5 3 3 3 4 4 3 4 4 7 6 6 5 6 6 1 7 11 3 20 18 17 9 8 10 9 9 10 9 8 8 8 10 8 11 9 14 11 13 16 14 13 11 6 13 15 8 7 8 8 10 5 9 6 5 10 3 7 9 7 6 8 9

13 14 18 14 16 17 17 17 17 16 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 14 12 18 15 19 7 7 9 13 12 12 12 12 11 12 12 12 13 11 12 12 12 10 8 12 4 12 5 11 9 11 4 12 12 12 13 11 15 7 14 15 12 13 11 12 12 12 13 12

11 12 11 12 11 11 11 10 10 12 13 13 11 12 12 12 12 12 18 5 5 10 3 6 5 10 10 9 10 10 10 9 11 10 10 9 10 8 11 7 0 7 3 5 2 9 6 7 3 12 12 11 10 10 11 9 10 12 9 15 13 10 12 13 10 10

7 5 2 5 3 2 3 6 5 3 3 3 8 7 7 8 8 6 2 8 12 4 19 16 16 12 9 10 10 9 11 11 9 9 9 11 9 12 9 13 16 14 16 13 14 12 12 13 16 8 7 9 10 11 7 10 7 7 11 5 9 9 9 8 9 9

13 15 19 15 17 18 17 15 16 17 16 16 13 13 14 14 12 14 12 17 14 18 8 8 11 11 11 11 10 11 10 11 12 12 12 10 10 11 11 10 3 10 5 12 4 10 7 10 5 12 12 12 11 11 15 8 15 14 12 11 11 11 11 11 11 11

11 11 10 11 11 11 11 10 10 11 12 12 10 10 10 10 10 12 17 6 5 9 4 7 5 8 11 10 10 11 10 9 11 10 10 10 11 9 11 8 0 7 3 6 6 9 4 8 2 11 12 10 9 8 9 4 9 10 8 15 11 11 11 12 12 11

10 5 4 5 3 2 4 10 8 5 3 3 10 10 9 10 9 7 3 8 12 5 17 13 15 12 9 12 11 10 12 11 9 11 9 12 10 12 10 13 8 14 9 14 9 12 7 13 6 10 8 10 10 11 9 3 10 10 11 5 10 11 10 9 6 8

10 13 16 12 15 15 15 11 12 14 14 14 9 10 9 9 10 10 12 16 13 18 7 7 8 9 10 8 9 9 8 8 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 7 2 7 1 9 9 8 1 7 3 9 9 8 9 8 11 2 11 11 9 9 8 9 8 9 10 10

10 12 11 13 12 12 12 9 10 11 13 13 11 10 11 11 11 13 15 6 6 7 6 9 7 9 11 11 10 12 10 10 12 11 12 11 12 11 12 10 0 9 2 7 3 10 4 10 2 11 12 11 11 11 10 10 9 10 10 15 12 11 12 12 14 12

16 9 11 10 9 7 9 13 13 11 6 6 14 14 14 14 14 12 3 7 11 5 12 9 12 15 9 12 11 10 12 13 10 11 9 12 10 12 10 13 10 15 10 15 12 13 10 13 10 10 9 12 12 11 14 5 13 14 13 5 10 12 11 10 5 8

7 10 13 9 13 14 11 9 8 10 14 14 7 7 7 7 7 8 12 15 13 16 8 7 8 7 9 8 8 7 7 7 8 8 8 7 8 8 8 7 4 7 6 8 3 7 2 7 4 7 8 7 8 7 8 3 9 8 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 9

7 11 8 12 9 10 11 9 10 9 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 11 16 8 8 10 11 15 11 9 14 12 12 13 12 11 14 12 14 12 13 12 14 11 0 9 4 7 6 11 8 11 5 13 14 12 12 13 8 8 9 9 10 18 13 11 12 13 18 15

13 10 11 10 10 8 10 11 11 12 7 7 12 12 12 12 12 11 3 7 11 4 6 3 5 9 5 7 7 6 8 8 5 6 4 7 7 7 5 10 7 12 8 12 8 10 6 11 7 6 6 7 7 9 10 6 10 10 11 3 7 8 8 7 2 4

8 10 12 9 11 14 10 8 8 10 13 13 6 6 6 6 6 7 10 14 11 14 6 6 7 8 6 7 6 6 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 7 7 4 8 4 8 4 7 2 7 2 6 6 7 6 4 8 3 8 8 6 6 7 8 7 8 6 7

9 10 7 11 8 9 10 11 11 9 10 10 12 12 12 12 12 12 17 9 8 12 18 22 18 13 18 16 17 18 16 15 19 17 20 16 17 16 18 13 0 11 4 9 5 14 8 13 8 18 18 17 16 17 13 7 13 12 13 21 15 13 15 15 22 19

10 9 11 9 11 9 10 9 9 10 9 2 10 9 10 9 9 9 5 8 12 6 5 3 3 8 6 7 7 7 7 7 4 5 3 7 7 7 7 10 9 11 13 12 14 9 10 10 11 5 5 6 6 7 8 2 8 8 9 6 9 8 9 8 2 3

8 9 12 8 11 13 9 7 8 10 12 3 6 6 6 6 7 7 11 14 11 14 6 4 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 7 6 7 4 7 3 9 2 7 3 7 4 6 5 6 6 6 7 2 7 7 6 7 7 7 7 8 6 6

13 13 8 14 9 9 12 16 14 11 10 10 15 15 15 16 15 15 15 9 8 11 20 24 21 16 19 18 19 19 18 18 21 20 22 17 18 16 18 14 0 12 5 10 5 15 8 14 8 20 21 19 19 17 16 5 17 16 16 19 15 16 15 16 23 22

128 97 98 94 104 74 89 105 102 101 75 30 113 110 112 110 112 104 36 90 131 56 120 91 106 113 84 101 95 93 104 102 78 88 73 105 92 104 91 131 116 137 128 143 121 114 102 128 114 81 73 89 93 101 99 90 98 101 114 59 101 105 98 90 67 75

113 132 168 127 155 175 147 123 129 143 159 32 105 107 106 104 107 110 132 181 145 184 90 78 98 104 105 100 97 98 94 100 102 99 100 97 99 104 100 95 48 104 51 117 42 97 51 97 55 98 97 101 102 97 119 67 115 118 100 100 99 108 103 107 104 105

116 136 99 144 107 115 130 137 134 121 131 29 147 149 147 151 147 152 197 94 90 125 155 196 162 149 176 164 172 174 167 163 186 179 193 164 175 157 174 140 2 124 57 105 69 154 83 140 70 186 195 174 171 167 147 106 152 146 151 206 165 152 164 168 194 185

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-67

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

FL

3-68

Table 3A.11

(Continued) Jan

State

MN

MS

MO

NE

NV

NH NJ NM

NY

NC

Flint Grand Rapids Houghton Lake Lansing Muskegon Sault Ste. Marie Duluth International Falls Minneapolis-St. Paul Rochester Saint Cloud Jackson Jackson Meridian Tupelo Tupelo Columbia Kansas City St. Louis Springfield Billings Glasgow Great Falls Helena Kalispell Missoula Grand Island Grand Island Lincoln Lincoln Norfolk North Platte Omaha Eppley AP Omaha (North) Scottsbluff Valentine Elko Ely Las Vegas Reno Winnemucca Concord Mt. Washington Atlantic City AP Newark Albuquerque Clayton Roswell Albany Binghamton Buffalo New York C. Park New York (JFK AP) New York (Laguardia AP) Rochester Syracuse Syracuse Asheville Cape Hatters Charlotte

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Years

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

54 32 30 41 53 54 47 56 57 35 50 30 2 50 10 2 26 23 47 50 56 39 57 54 45 51 54 2 28 3 50 43 49 18 52 40 56 56 47 53 45 54 70 37 53 56 28 9 57 44 52 42 37 47

4 3 3 3 2 4 7 7 8 7 8 8 8 7 8 10 8 10 7 8 6 5 5 5 2 2 9 5 10 3 9 9 9 9 8 9 7 9 14 8 7 9 5 8 8 13 13 11 5 3 1 8 8 8

6 5 6 7 3 6 7 7 7 7 8 6 4 7 6 3 6 6 7 7 8 7 6 6 4 4 8 3 7 2 8 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 6 7 7 7 6 8 8 8 7 9 8 7 6 9 8 8

21 23 22 21 26 22 17 16 15 16 15 17 15 17 17 14 16 14 17 16 18 18 19 20 25 24 14 11 15 5 15 14 14 14 14 14 17 15 11 16 18 15 21 15 16 10 12 11 18 22 24 14 15 15

4 3 4 4 3 5 7 8 8 7 8 8 12 7 7 9 7 8 7 7 4 5 4 4 2 3 7 7 8 5 8 7 7 8 7 7 6 7 12 7 6 8 4 8 7 11 11 12 6 3 2 8 8 8

7 6 7 7 5 6 6 6 7 6 7 6 4 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 8 7 6 7 5 5 7 4 7 1 7 7 7 6 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 8 5 7 8 8 7 8 7 6 6 9 8 7

17 19 17 17 21 17 15 14 14 15 13 14 13 15 15 14 15 14 15 15 16 16 18 17 21 21 13 7 13 6 14 14 14 15 13 13 15 14 9 14 16 13 19 14 13 10 10 8 15 19 20 11 13 13

5 5 6 5 5 7 7 8 7 6 7 9 10 8 8 10 7 8 6 8 4 5 4 4 3 3 8 7 8 4 7 7 7 8 6 7 6 7 14 8 7 8 4 8 8 11 11 14 6 4 4 9 8 8

7 7 7 8 7 7 7 8 7 7 7 7 4 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 8 6 6 8 4 8 3 8 8 8 8 10 8 8 8 8 9 7 8 5 8 8 10 9 9 8 7 8 10 9 9

19 19 18 18 18 17 17 16 17 18 17 15 10 15 16 8 17 16 16 16 18 17 18 19 21 22 15 7 15 4 16 16 16 16 15 15 17 15 9 14 17 15 21 15 15 10 11 8 17 20 19 12 14 14

6 6 6 6 7 6 6 7 7 6 7 9 12 9 10 14 8 9 7 8 4 5 4 4 4 4 8 6 8 8 8 7 7 8 7 8 6 7 16 8 6 7 4 7 7 13 12 14 5 5 5 8 8 7

7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 8 8 4 7 7 8 8 9 8 8 9 6 7 9 6 8 8 8 9 8 8 9 8 9 9 8 10 9 8 6 9 9 10 9 9 8 7 8 11 9 9

17 17 17 17 16 16 16 15 15 16 16 13 5 13 12 5 15 14 15 14 17 16 18 18 20 20 13 9 14 14 14 14 14 14 15 14 15 13 7 12 14 15 20 14 14 8 10 7 16 18 17 12 13 13

6 7 7 7 8 7 6 7 7 7 7 8 16 9 8 18 7 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 5 5 8 9 8 3 8 7 7 7 6 8 8 7 18 12 9 6 3 6 6 14 11 13 5 5 6 8 7 7

10 9 9 10 9 9 10 9 9 9 10 10 8 11 10 4 8 9 9 10 10 11 10 10 9 9 9 3 10 2 10 10 10 10 11 10 10 11 8 10 10 10 7 11 11 10 9 12 9 9 10 12 11 11

15 15 14 14 14 15 15 15 15 15 14 12 12 12 13 8 16 14 14 14 15 15 17 16 17 17 14 9 13 7 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 12 5 10 12 15 20 14 14 7 10 6 16 17 16 11 13 13

6 7 7 7 9 7 5 5 7 7 7 9 14 8 9 7 7 10 7 8 7 7 5 6 6 6 10 12 10 6 10 10 8 9 10 11 13 13 22 16 14 6 2 7 7 17 13 17 5 5 6 8 7 7

12 11 11 11 10 10 11 11 10 11 11 12 12 13 11 11 11 10 11 10 12 12 11 11 10 9 10 4 10 4 10 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 5 8 9 12 7 12 11 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 11 11

12 12 12 11 12 13 14 14 12 13 12 9 9 9 9 6 12 11 12 11 11 11 14 13 14 14 9 5 10 4 10 9 11 10 9 9 7 6 3 6 8 12 21 12 12 4 6 3 13 14 12 10 12 11

7 8 7 8 11 8 7 6 10 8 10 8 9 6 11 8 11 13 9 12 13 12 13 14 14 15 13 11 12 4 13 12 11 11 13 14 17 15 20 22 20 7 1 7 7 12 12 11 6 6 7 8 7 7

13 12 13 13 11 11 13 13 12 12 12 13 4 15 11 7 10 11 11 10 12 12 12 11 9 10 11 8 10 2 11 12 12 10 12 12 10 11 7 6 7 12 8 12 12 14 12 15 13 13 13 13 12 13

11 11 10 10 9 12 11 11 9 11 9 10 14 10 8 11 10 7 10 9 6 7 6 6 7 6 7 4 9 4 7 7 8 10 6 6 4 5 3 3 4 12 22 13 12 5 7 5 12 13 11 10 11 11

8 8 8 8 11 8 7 7 10 9 10 9 9 9 12 10 11 12 10 12 14 12 12 13 12 14 13 14 12 10 13 12 12 10 13 14 18 15 22 22 19 8 3 8 8 13 15 13 7 5 7 9 8 8

12 11 11 12 11 11 12 12 11 11 11 13 7 13 12 7 10 11 11 10 11 11 11 11 9 10 10 4 10 5 10 11 10 11 11 11 9 12 7 6 8 11 8 11 12 13 10 12 12 12 12 12 13 12

11 12 12 11 10 13 11 12 10 11 10 9 5 9 8 3 10 8 10 9 7 8 8 7 9 8 8 5 9 4 8 8 9 9 7 6 4 5 3 3 4 12 20 12 12 5 6 6 13 14 12 10 10 11

7 7 6 8 9 5 6 6 10 9 10 10 5 10 13 4 11 12 11 12 10 9 10 11 10 10 14 8 13 9 13 13 12 13 14 14 18 17 22 21 18 9 4 10 10 17 17 13 8 6 6 11 10 10

10 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 7 9 9 9 9 9 1 8 8 8 7 9 9 9 9 8 8 7 2 8 5 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 8 5 6 6 9 7 8 9 8 6 8 10 10 10 10 9 9

13 14 14 13 12 17 15 15 12 14 12 10 1 11 8 1 12 10 10 11 10 11 11 11 12 11 9 3 10 5 10 9 10 9 8 9 5 5 2 4 5 12 19 12 12 6 7 9 12 14 14 9 11 11

7 6 5 7 7 5 7 6 10 8 10 15 6 14 14 7 12 13 12 13 9 8 7 8 6 7 13 9 12 12 12 12 13 11 13 12 14 14 20 16 14 9 6 11 11 17 18 18 8 6 6 12 11 11

9 8 8 9 8 7 8 7 7 8 8 7 7 7 6 2 7 7 7 7 9 9 9 9 7 7 8 3 8 2 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 6 8 7 9 6 9 8 8 7 6 9 8 8 10 9 9

15 17 18 15 15 19 17 18 14 15 13 10 12 10 11 9 13 11 11 11 13 15 15 14 18 17 10 6 12 7 11 10 10 12 10 10 9 9 4 8 9 13 19 12 12 6 7 7 14 17 16 9 11 11

3 3 2 4 2 2 5 4 5 5 6 10 5 10 9 5 8 9 9 10 6 6 5 5 2 2 9 9 9 6 8 9 9 8 8 9 8 10 16 9 8 6 3 8 8 15 15 16 4 3 2 9 8 7

6 5 5 6 4 4 6 5 6 6 6 7 1 7 6 1 6 7 7 6 8 7 7 7 5 5 7 4 7 2 7 8 7 7 8 8 7 8 7 8 7 8 5 9 8 8 6 7 8 6 5 10 8 8

21 22 23 21 23 24 20 21 18 19 18 13 7 13 15 9 16 14 15 14 17 17 18 18 23 23 13 6 15 4 14 13 14 15 14 13 15 12 7 13 15 16 22 13 14 7 9 7 18 21 23 12 14 14

3 2 2 3 2 3 6 6 6 6 7 9 3 9 8 3 8 10 7 9 6 5 5 4 2 2 10 10 8 6 9 10 8 8 9 10 8 9 15 8 8 8 4 8 8 14 14 15 5 2 1 9 8 8

6 4 6 6 4 4 6 6 6 6 7 6 3 7 6 3 6 6 7 6 8 8 8 7 3 4 7 2 7 6 8 8 8 7 9 7 7 8 7 8 6 8 5 8 8 7 7 9 7 6 6 9 8 9

22 25 23 23 26 23 19 19 18 19 18 16 5 16 18 7 17 15 17 16 17 18 18 20 26 25 14 10 15 12 15 13 15 15 14 14 16 14 10 15 16 15 22 15 15 10 10 7 19 23 24 13 15 15

66 64 65 71 75 66 77 76 95 86 97 111 110 108 119 104 104 120 101 115 89 86 79 82 70 75 123 106 117 71 117 115 111 110 115 123 130 131 210 158 138 90 44 94 93 167 162 168 69 52 54 107 98 96

105 96 100 104 88 90 102 101 101 97 102 104 52 110 97 47 91 96 101 96 112 111 106 104 81 83 102 48 99 35 103 109 105 102 112 105 99 109 82 93 89 109 76 111 112 111 99 113 111 102 103 127 116 117

195 205 200 191 202 209 187 188 169 182 166 150 108 148 150 96 169 149 164 155 164 168 180 179 214 208 140 81 149 62 146 141 149 153 138 136 136 125 73 114 138 166 245 160 160 87 104 84 185 212 208 132 152 153

55 44 0 31 38 49

2 3 3 9 9 9

7 7 7 7 7 6

22 22 3 15 16 16

2 3 3 9 9 8

7 6 6 6 5 6

19 19 5 13 14 14

5 5 3 9 10 9

8 7 7 8 7 8

18 19 11 14 14 14

6 6 6 10 10 10

8 7 7 8 9 9

16 17 17 12 11 12

6 6 5 7 9 8

10 10 6 10 10 10

15 15 9 13 13 13

7 7 3 6 7 7

11 11 10 12 10 11

12 12 6 12 12 12

8 8 8 5 7 7

12 12 12 14 10 12

11 11 11 12 14 12

8 7 7 5 8 7

12 11 11 13 10 13

12 13 13 13 13 11

7 7 7 7 10 9

10 10 10 11 9 9

13 13 13 13 11 11

6 6 6 12 11 13

8 8 8 8 8 8

16 17 17 11 12 10

2 2 2 11 10 11

6 6 6 7 8 6

22 22 22 12 12 12

2 2 2 10 10 10

6 5 5 7 7 6

23 24 24 14 14 15

61 63 11 99 109 109

104 98 23 113 101 105

200 205 34 153 156 152

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

MT

Station

OH

OK

OR

PC

PA

RI SC

SD

TN

TX

9

7

15

9

6

13

9

8

14

10

8

12

8

11

12

7

12

11

7

13

12

7

12

11

10

9

12

13

7

10

11

7

12

10

6

15

109

107

150

47 44 56 53 34 47 54 46 52 30 40 52 44 3 54 3 40 1 11 53 67 60 47 58 30 20 24 50 41 46 36

9 10 7 7 6 3 3 4 5 4 5 3 11 4 10 5 3 5 5 2 3 2 3 3 5 3 13 — 2 1 1

7 6 8 7 8 6 5 6 6 6 7 5 6 5 7 4 4 8 8 4 5 5 4 5 5 13 14 7 7 7 10

15 15 17 17 17 22 24 21 20 21 20 23 14 7 14 8 24 15 18 25 24 24 24 24 21 15 4 24 21 23 21

9 9 6 6 6 3 3 4 5 4 5 3 9 10 9 8 3 6 6 3 4 3 3 3 4 2 11 — 3 1 0

6 6 8 7 8 6 6 6 6 6 7 5 7 3 6 3 3 4 6 4 6 6 4 4 4 10 13 6 6 8 9

14 13 15 15 15 19 20 18 17 18 17 20 13 10 13 7 22 15 17 21 19 20 21 21 20 16 4 21 19 19 18

9 10 6 5 7 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 10 8 9 8 3 3 6 3 5 5 3 4 5 3 11 1 2 1 1

7 8 8 9 8 6 6 7 7 7 7 6 8 3 8 1 5 5 7 6 7 8 5 6 5 15 14 9 7 8 12

14 14 17 17 16 20 20 19 19 19 19 20 13 7 14 9 23 2 18 22 19 19 23 21 21 13 6 21 21 22 18

10 11 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 6 6 5 9 10 8 10 3 3 5 4 6 5 3 4 6 1 7 1 2 1 1

9 8 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 8 8 7 8 2 9 1 6 5 10 7 8 10 6 7 7 15 12 9 6 7 12

11 11 15 15 15 18 17 17 17 16 17 18 13 8 13 10 21 19 15 19 16 15 21 19 17 14 11 20 23 22 17

8 8 6 7 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 6 9 9 8 10 3 8 9 6 9 8 5 6 9 1 6 1 1 1 1

10 11 10 10 11 9 10 10 9 10 10 9 10 6 10 4 8 6 10 9 9 11 7 8 7 16 13 9 6 7 13

13 12 14 14 13 16 15 15 16 15 14 17 12 6 13 9 20 14 12 17 13 13 19 18 14 15 12 21 24 23 17

8 7 7 6 8 6 7 6 6 7 7 6 10 13 9 11 3 2 12 8 13 10 6 7 13 1 7 — 1 — 2

12 11 10 11 11 11 11 11 10 12 12 11 11 5 11 8 7 7 9 8 8 10 8 8 7 11 15 5 6 7 14

11 12 12 13 11 13 12 13 13 11 12 12 9 3 10 4 19 12 9 14 9 10 16 15 10 19 8 25 23 23 14

7 6 11 10 12 7 8 7 7 8 8 7 15 16 13 14 6 5 19 16 23 19 13 15 23 — 7 — 1 0 2

12 12 13 13 12 13 12 13 12 13 13 13 10 4 11 6 10 9 7 8 5 8 8 8 5 9 16 5 6 7 15

12 13 7 8 7 11 11 11 11 10 10 11 7 2 7 4 15 10 5 7 3 4 10 8 3 22 9 26 24 24 14

7 7 12 10 11 8 9 7 8 8 8 7 14 15 13 15 6 6 20 14 22 18 11 14 21 0 6 — 1 1 2

12 12 11 12 12 12 11 13 12 11 12 12 10 4 11 5 10 6 8 9 6 8 10 9 6 5 14 5 6 8 16

11 12 8 9 8 11 11 11 11 11 11 12 7 3 7 4 15 8 3 8 4 5 10 9 4 26 11 26 24 22 14

10 8 10 9 10 8 8 9 9 9 8 7 13 7 12 8 8 1 16 12 18 15 10 11 17 — 6 — 1 1 2

9 10 9 9 9 9 10 9 9 9 10 10 8 3 8 4 7 2 8 8 6 8 8 8 6 6 13 6 5 7 14

11 12 11 12 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 9 2 10 4 14 2 6 9 6 7 12 10 7 23 11 23 24 22 14

13 12 9 9 9 9 8 10 10 9 8 8 14 12 14 10 5 2 12 5 10 10 5 6 11 — 7 1 1 1 1

7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 8 7 4 7 4 7 4 7 9 8 8 8 8 6 10 12 7 5 7 13

11 11 14 14 14 14 15 13 13 14 14 15 10 5 10 6 19 5 12 17 12 13 18 17 14 21 12 23 26 23 17

11 12 6 5 6 4 3 5 5 4 4 3 12 6 11 7 3 1 6 2 3 4 3 3 6 2 7 — 1 0 1

7 7 7 6 7 6 6 7 7 6 7 6 7 4 7 1 5 2 7 6 6 6 4 5 5 13 12 8 6 7 11

11 11 17 18 16 20 21 19 18 20 19 21 11 6 12 10 22 8 17 23 21 20 23 22 20 15 12 22 23 23 18

10 10 7 6 7 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 12 8 10 9 3 3 5 1 2 3 2 2 5 3 11 — 2 1 1

7 7 7 7 7 5 5 6 6 5 6 5 6 5 7 5 4 2 7 4 4 5 3 4 4 12 13 7 6 6 10

14 14 17 18 17 23 24 21 21 23 22 23 13 8 13 7 24 3 18 26 25 24 26 25 22 16 7 24 23 24 20

111 111 93 88 93 68 66 72 77 73 73 63 139 119 127 113 50 38 120 75 117 101 68 77 126 16 99 4 18 8 13

106 104 107 109 112 99 97 103 100 101 107 97 96 49 103 45 76 55 94 82 79 91 74 80 68 134 159 83 72 85 148

149 150 165 168 160 198 202 190 188 191 185 205 130 68 136 83 239 114 151 209 169 173 222 208 172 215 107 276 276 272 204

50 51 43 53 52 40 53 61

— — 12 1 7 2 7 7

5 4 13 8 8 4 7 8

26 27 5 22 16 25 17 17

— — 12 0 7 3 7 7

5 3 11 8 8 6 7 7

24 25 5 20 13 20 14 14

— — 12 1 8 5 7 7

5 4 14 9 8 7 8 8

26 27 5 21 15 19 16 16

— — 11 1 7 6 6 7

5 4 14 10 9 8 9 9

25 26 6 19 14 17 15 15

— — 10 1 7 7 6 6

5 4 14 10 11 10 10 11

25 27 6 20 14 14 15 14

— — 10 — 8 8 7 6

5 4 13 6 11 11 12 12

25 26 7 24 11 11 12 12

0 — 7 0 8 8 7 7

6 4 11 4 12 13 12 12

24 27 13 26 11 10 12 12

1 — 6 — 9 8 8 8

7 4 11 4 11 12 11 12

24 27 14 27 11 11 12 12

1 — 7 — 9 7 9 9

6 4 11 6 9 10 9 10

24 26 12 24 12 14 12 12

0 — 9 0 10 6 10 10

6 4 12 7 9 8 8 9

24 27 10 23 12 17 13 13

— — 12 — 7 3 6 6

6 4 13 8 8 5 8 8

24 26 5 21 15 23 15 15

— — 14 0 7 1 6 6

5 3 13 8 7 4 8 8

26 28 4 22 17 26 17 17

2 0 121 5 94 63 87 85

65 45 149 88 110 97 109 112

296 318 94 271 161 205 169 168

55 43 40 51 19 42 47 48 33

7 3 4 5 8 10 9 9 10

8 6 7 7 9 7 6 6 6

16 22 20 19 14 15 16 16 15

7 3 5 5 8 8 9 9 10

7 6 7 7 8 7 6 6 5

14 19 17 16 12 13 13 13 13

8 4 5 6 9 8 9 9 10

8 7 8 8 9 8 8 8 8

15 20 18 17 13 15 14 14 13

7 4 6 6 8 7 11 11 11

9 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

14 17 16 16 13 14 11 11 11

6 5 6 5 7 6 8 9 8

11 9 10 10 11 10 11 10 10

14 17 16 15 13 15 12 11 13

7 5 7 6 8 7 6 8 8

11 12 11 12 10 10 11 11 11

12 13 12 12 12 13 13 11 11

7 5 6 6 7 7 5 7 7

12 13 13 13 11 12 12 13 13

12 13 12 12 13 12 13 12 11

8 7 7 6 7 8 6 8 8

11 12 12 13 11 10 13 12 12

11 13 12 12 13 12 13 11 11

10 7 7 6 10 9 7 10 10

9 10 10 11 9 8 10 9 9

11 13 13 14 11 12 13 12 11

11 8 8 7 11 11 11 13 14

9 9 8 9 8 8 8 7 7

12 14 14 15 12 12 11 11 10

7 4 4 4 7 8 12 12 12

9 6 7 7 10 7 7 6 6

14 20 19 19 14 15 12 12 12

7 3 4 4 7 8 9 10 11

8 6 7 7 10 8 7 6 6

15 23 20 20 14 15 14 15 14

93 59 70 67 98 98 102 115 121

112 103 106 110 113 103 109 103 100

160 203 189 188 155 164 155 147 145

28 56 53 50 58 65 53 43 54 42 56 51 3 54

8 8 8 8 6 7 6 8 6 7 11 13 8 9

8 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 7 6 7 5 6

16 15 15 15 18 17 18 17 18 17 14 11 5 16

7 6 6 7 6 7 7 8 7 8 10 10 10 8

6 8 8 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 4 6

15 14 14 15 16 15 16 15 15 15 12 10 6 14

6 6 6 6 7 8 7 8 8 8 11 12 11 9

7 8 9 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 9 3 8

17 17 15 17 17 16 16 17 16 16 12 11 3 15

7 7 6 7 8 9 8 9 8 10 12 12 12 8

7 9 10 8 9 8 9 7 8 7 8 9 4 8

16 15 15 15 14 13 13 14 13 13 11 9 5 15

8 8 7 7 7 9 8 8 8 9 10 11 11 6

10 10 11 10 11 10 10 10 10 9 10 10 5 11

14 14 13 14 14 12 13 13 13 13 11 10 6 13

9 9 9 9 6 8 7 10 8 9 13 13 18 8

10 11 11 11 13 12 12 11 12 10 11 11 5 15

11 10 10 11 11 10 10 9 10 10 7 6 2 7

11 12 13 12 6 7 7 10 8 8 14 13 17 12

13 12 13 12 13 13 13 12 13 12 10 12 3 13

7 7 5 8 12 11 11 9 10 11 7 5 2 6

12 12 14 12 7 8 8 12 10 9 14 14 16 12

11 11 12 11 14 13 12 12 12 11 10 10 2 14

8 7 5 9 11 10 10 7 9 10 7 7 4 5

11 12 13 12 10 10 10 12 11 10 14 15 10 11

8 8 9 8 10 10 9 8 9 9 8 7 1 11

11 10 8 10 11 11 11 10 10 11 8 8 2 9

10 11 12 11 12 13 12 14 13 14 15 17 12 12

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 8 7 7 7 2 9

13 12 11 12 11 10 11 10 10 10 9 8 4 9

6 7 8 7 8 10 9 10 9 9 13 15 10 11

6 7 8 7 7 7 7 6 7 7 6 7 3 7

18 16 14 16 14 13 14 14 14 14 11 9 4 12

7 7 8 8 7 8 7 9 7 8 12 13 13 10

7 7 8 7 7 6 7 6 7 6 6 7 5 6

17 16 14 16 17 17 17 16 17 17 13 10 4 15

101 104 111 105 88 104 97 118 102 109 149 157 146 115

101 107 115 103 112 106 107 96 106 98 95 104 43 114

163 154 139 157 165 155 162 151 156 158 121 104 44 136

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-69

67

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

ND

GreensboroWnstn-Slm-HPT Raleigh Wilmington Bismarck Fargo Williston Akron Cleveland Columbus Dayton Mansfield Toledo Youngstown Oklahoma City Oklahoma City Tulsa Tulsa Astoria Astoria Burns Eugene Medford Pendleton Portland Salem Sexton Summit Guam Johnston Island Koror Kwajalein, Marshall IS Majuro, Marshall IS Pago Pago, Amer Samoa Pohnpei, Caroline IS Chuuk, E. Caroline IS Wake Island Yap, W Caroline IS Allentown Erie Harrisburg Middletown/Harrisburg AP Philadelpia Pittsburgh Avoca Williamsport Block Is Providence Charleston AP Columbia Greenville-Spartanburg AP Aberdeen Huron Rapid City Sioux Falls Bristol-JhnCty-Kgsprt Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis Nashville Oak Ridge Abilene Amarillo Amarillo Austin

3-70

Table 3A.11

(Continued) Jan

State

Station

UT VT VA

WA

PR WV

WI

WY

Note:

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

CL

PC

CD

52 53 42 16 53 26 49 47 42 47 53 34 50 3 50 2 40 69 52 49 47 50 48 54 29 24 51 48 49 40 32 47 49 34 46 17 49 55 45 60 49 55

6 7 10 10 14 7 12 12 7 12 9 7 9 5 11 12 9 6 5 9 9 8 8 2 3 3 3 3 4 9 5 4 3 4 8 7 7 7 7 9 8 6

7 7 6 7 7 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 2 6 6 8 6 6 7 7 7 8 4 3 5 4 4 5 18 5 6 6 6 7 7 6 6 8 10 10 8

18 17 16 14 10 18 12 12 18 13 16 18 16 6 14 11 14 19 20 15 16 16 15 25 24 23 24 24 22 4 21 21 22 21 17 17 17 18 16 13 13 17

7 7 10 10 14 7 11 11 8 11 8 7 9 9 10 15 8 5 4 8 8 8 8 2 4 3 3 3 4 7 4 4 3 4 7 8 7 6 6 7 7 5

6 6 6 7 7 5 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 1 6 4 8 7 7 7 6 6 7 4 4 6 4 5 6 16 5 6 6 5 7 7 6 6 8 9 10 8

15 15 13 11 7 16 10 10 15 11 14 16 14 8 12 8 12 16 17 13 14 14 14 22 21 19 21 20 18 4 18 18 19 19 15 13 15 15 14 12 12 15

7 7 10 11 15 7 12 13 7 12 9 7 10 9 11 9 9 7 6 9 9 8 8 3 4 4 3 5 6 9 5 5 4 5 7 7 6 6 6 7 7 5

8 8 8 8 8 6 9 8 7 8 7 7 7 3 8 3 8 8 7 9 8 8 8 6 6 8 6 8 8 17 6 8 6 7 8 7 7 8 9 10 10 9

16 16 14 13 7 18 11 10 17 11 15 18 14 7 12 4 13 16 18 13 15 15 14 22 22 19 22 19 17 4 20 19 20 19 16 17 17 17 16 14 14 17

5 6 9 8 17 7 12 13 6 11 7 5 9 7 11 10 10 7 5 9 9 8 9 3 3 5 3 4 6 7 5 6 4 5 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 5

10 9 8 7 8 7 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 4 8 6 10 9 8 9 9 9 9 7 6 9 7 8 9 17 7 8 8 8 8 7 8 8 9 10 10 9

15 15 13 14 5 16 9 9 16 11 15 17 14 4 11 4 11 14 17 12 12 13 13 20 21 16 20 17 14 6 17 16 18 17 16 16 16 16 16 14 14 16

6 5 8 6 19 6 11 13 7 11 6 5 8 6 11 18 11 9 5 8 8 7 7 4 3 7 4 6 8 4 5 6 4 6 7 7 7 7 6 5 6 6

14 12 10 9 8 11 11 10 12 10 11 11 10 5 9 6 10 10 9 10 10 10 11 9 8 10 9 10 11 16 9 10 9 9 10 9 9 10 11 12 11 10

11 13 13 16 4 14 9 8 12 10 14 15 13 5 11 12 9 12 17 13 13 14 13 18 20 14 18 15 12 12 17 15 17 17 14 15 15 14 15 14 14 15

8 9 11 8 20 7 14 15 8 14 7 6 10 10 13 24 17 14 5 8 7 7 7 5 4 7 5 7 10 4 3 5 3 5 8 7 7 8 10 9 10 8

15 14 12 13 7 13 11 9 14 10 15 15 12 3 11 10 8 10 11 12 12 12 12 8 7 8 8 10 10 16 10 13 11 11 11 10 10 10 11 12 11 12

6 7 8 9 3 9 6 5 8 6 8 9 8 2 7 2 5 6 14 10 11 12 11 16 20 15 17 12 10 10 16 12 16 14 12 12 13 12 9 9 9 11

11 11 15 12 12 7 14 13 7 15 9 7 14 10 15 19 16 17 5 8 7 7 7 10 6 12 10 16 19 5 3 5 2 5 8 10 9 10 14 10 14 13

14 14 10 11 13 16 11 11 15 10 15 15 10 4 9 6 10 10 13 12 12 12 13 10 9 10 10 8 8 17 12 13 13 12 12 11 11 11 11 15 11 12

6 6 6 8 5 8 6 7 9 7 7 8 6 2 7 1 5 4 13 11 12 12 11 11 16 9 11 6 4 9 16 13 16 14 11 10 11 10 6 7 6 6

11 11 15 11 14 6 15 14 7 15 10 7 14 14 15 16 16 16 6 9 8 7 8 9 6 10 9 15 18 5 4 5 3 5 8 9 9 10 13 10 13 14

14 13 10 12 12 17 10 10 15 10 15 15 11 3 9 4 10 11 12 11 12 12 12 10 9 10 10 9 8 17 12 14 14 12 11 11 10 11 11 13 12 11

7 7 6 8 5 8 6 6 9 6 6 9 6 2 6 2 5 4 13 11 11 12 11 12 16 11 12 7 6 8 16 12 15 14 12 11 12 10 7 8 6 6

9 10 13 9 18 9 14 14 9 13 9 8 12 5 15 3 18 16 6 10 9 9 10 8 8 9 8 12 15 4 6 7 4 7 8 9 9 9 13 13 14 12

13 12 9 11 7 11 8 8 11 8 12 12 9 3 7 2 7 8 10 9 9 9 9 10 8 8 9 8 8 17 9 11 11 9 9 9 8 9 9 9 9 9

8 8 9 10 5 10 8 8 10 8 9 10 8 2 8 1 4 5 14 11 11 12 12 13 14 13 13 9 7 9 15 12 15 14 13 12 12 12 8 9 8 9

11 12 14 12 19 11 17 17 12 15 11 11 13 8 15 12 17 14 6 13 12 12 13 3 5 5 4 8 9 5 9 9 7 9 7 11 9 9 11 13 12 10

12 10 7 8 7 9 7 6 10 7 10 10 8 2 7 3 7 8 8 7 7 7 7 8 7 8 7 8 8 17 8 9 8 8 8 7 7 8 8 9 9 9

7 8 10 10 5 11 8 8 9 8 9 10 9 4 9 3 7 9 17 11 12 12 11 20 19 18 19 15 13 9 14 13 13 14 15 13 14 13 12 9 10 12

9 9 12 12 18 9 15 15 10 14 10 9 12 3 13 1 11 8 3 10 10 9 9 2 3 3 2 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 5 5 7 10 8 6

9 9 6 7 6 7 7 6 7 6 7 7 6 2 6 3 8 7 5 7 8 8 8 5 5 6 4 5 6 18 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 9 10 8

12 12 12 11 6 14 9 9 13 10 13 14 12 6 11 8 11 15 22 13 12 13 13 23 22 21 23 22 19 7 18 18 19 19 19 18 18 18 14 11 12 16

7 8 11 11 15 7 13 14 8 12 10 7 11 4 12 1 10 6 3 10 9 9 9 2 4 3 2 3 4 7 5 5 4 5 6 7 6 6 8 9 10 7

7 6 6 6 7 6 7 6 6 7 6 6 6 4 6 5 8 6 6 7 7 6 8 4 4 5 4 4 5 18 6 6 5 5 6 6 6 6 8 9 10 8

17 17 14 14 9 18 11 11 17 12 16 19 15 6 13 5 13 18 22 14 15 15 14 26 24 23 25 24 22 6 21 20 21 21 19 18 19 19 15 13 12 17

96 102 135 121 193 90 160 165 95 154 105 86 130 89 151 140 151 125 58 112 106 100 102 52 51 71 58 86 109 73 60 65 48 63 85 95 89 90 107 106 114 95

131 121 97 106 100 114 102 96 117 97 119 118 98 36 93 58 104 101 101 107 107 106 112 84 75 93 82 88 92 203 95 111 103 99 102 97 96 100 111 127 122 113

138 142 133 138 72 161 103 104 153 114 141 162 136 53 120 60 111 139 206 147 153 160 151 228 239 201 226 191 164 89 210 189 212 203 178 173 180 175 147 133 129 157

This table shows the mean number of days per category of cloudiness. The categories are determined for daylight hours only. Clear denotes zero to 3/10 average sky cover. Partly cloudy denotes 4/10 to 7/10 average sky cover. Cloudy denotes 8/10 to 10/10 average sky cover.

Source:

From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Brownsville Corpus Christi Dallas-Fort Worth Del Rio El Paso Houston Lubbock Midland-Odessa Port Arthur San Angelo San Antonio Victoria Waco Waco Wichita Falls Wichita Falls Milford Salt Lake City Burlington Lynchburg Norfolk Richmond Roanoke Olympia Quillayute Seattle CO Seattle Sea-Tac AP Spokane Yakima San Juan Beckley Charleston Elkins Huntington Green Bay La Crosse Madison Milwaukee Casper Cheyenne Lander Sheridan

Feb

Years

Years State AL

AK

AZ

AR CA

CO

CI DE DC

Station Birmingham AP Huntsville Mobile Montgomery Anchorage Annette Barrow Barter IS Bethel Bettles Big Delta Cold Bay Fairbanks Gulkana Homer Juneau King Salmon Kodiak Kotzebue McGrath Nome St. Paul Island Talkeetna Unalakleet Valdez Yakutat Flagstaff Phoenix Tucson Winslow Yuma Fort Smith Little Rock Bakersfield Bishop Blue Canyon Fresno Long Beach Los Angeles AP Los Angeles CO Mount Shasta Redding Sacramento San Diego San Francisco AP San Francisco CO Santa Barbara Santa Maria Stockton Alamosa Colorado Springs Denver Grand Junction Pueblo Bridgeport Hartford Wilmington Washington Dulles AP Washington Nat’l AP

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

39 35 40 39 49 37 51 40 52 52 43 33 50 50 53 36 54 55 39 48 39 24 51 10 30 38 45 42 62 25 14 38 38 26 7 13 39 32 43 43 13 16 16 42 43 8 6 26 26 45 42 35 39 23 36 43 55 33 42

39 35 40 39 49 37 51 40 52 52 43 33 50 50 53 36 54 55 39 48 39 24 51 10 30 38 45 42 62 25 14 38 38 26 7 13 39 32 43 43 13 16 16 42 43 8 6 26 26 45 42 35 39 23 36 43 55 33 42

80 82 83 82 75 81 69 70 78 69 65 85 70 72 78 78 79 79 73 73 74 84 73 67 75 85 74 64 62 76 57 82 80 85 67 56 91 76 71 64 76 84 91 72 86 81 80 82 90 78 58 63 78 69 70 72 76 77 71

64 68 65 64 73 77 69 70 77 68 64 83 71 71 75 74 76 76 73 72 74 83 69 69 74 82 50 32 32 47 28 65 65 63 32 58 68 53 61 50 66 61 70 58 68 63 57 61 71 57 46 49 62 49 59 57 60 58 56

79 80 83 80 75 80 66 69 76 67 68 85 68 73 78 81 78 79 73 73 73 86 74 71 74 86 74 59 58 68 56 80 79 80 68 61 89 78 75 70 75 82 89 74 85 83 79 85 89 78 59 67 73 66 70 72 75 78 71

60 63 61 60 68 73 67 67 74 64 61 81 65 67 70 71 71 73 73 64 72 84 64 73 68 77 45 27 27 33 24 60 61 53 31 61 56 54 64 52 60 51 61 60 66 63 58 62 61 48 40 44 47 37 57 53 56 54 53

79 80 85 82 70 77 67 67 80 67 64 85 68 70 75 79 78 76 73 73 73 87 71 71 72 83 72 56 53 61 52 79 78 74 58 66 86 80 79 74 75 78 86 76 82 80 83 86 84 74 62 67 64 68 70 73 74 78 70

57 60 60 57 57 69 68 67 75 60 52 78 53 54 65 66 67 69 71 53 70 83 57 70 64 71 41 24 23 25 21 57 59 44 20 61 47 55 66 52 52 46 53 61 63 61 60 65 50 36 39 40 35 34 55 51 53 52 50

83 82 88 86 66 76 75 73 83 66 57 84 60 64 72 77 77 74 78 68 76 86 67 76 71 78 67 42 42 52 47 82 82 67 53 61 80 80 80 79 71 76 83 76 82 82 76 89 80 71 63 67 58 68 69 70 73 77 70

57 57 58 57 53 66 74 74 72 60 44 77 45 45 63 61 62 69 75 49 74 81 52 74 61 69 32 17 16 20 17 56 60 33 17 54 35 51 65 54 43 38 44 60 60 61 58 61 41 30 35 35 28 31 53 45 50 49 49

86 86 88 88 63 76 85 86 80 62 50 84 53 58 70 75 73 76 82 63 76 89 65 76 73 78 63 34 34 43 44 88 87 57 49 55 71 81 83 80 69 72 82 78 83 88 83 91 74 72 68 70 54 70 75 74 76 83 75

60 60 60 60 49 66 82 84 62 50 38 75 37 40 63 61 56 72 78 44 73 81 49 71 61 71 27 14 13 16 15 62 62 27 15 47 27 55 67 55 39 33 38 65 60 68 60 61 34 28 37 38 25 32 59 48 54 55 53

84 88 89 88 67 79 87 89 78 60 57 87 60 60 71 75 77 79 81 66 76 92 70 80 78 81 54 30 32 37 41 89 85 52 39 47 65 82 85 80 67 63 78 81 84 78 88 92 71 74 67 69 44 70 78 77 78 84 76

59 61 61 60 56 69 84 87 60 47 44 77 43 42 64 61 59 75 77 47 73 83 53 74 64 74 21 12 13 14 13 62 58 24 14 38 24 56 68 54 36 25 32 67 59 63 62 61 29 25 35 35 19 28 61 51 54 56 53

86 90 90 90 74 81 88 89 86 69 64 90 70 68 76 79 83 82 83 75 82 95 79 81 84 85 67 43 56 58 49 88 86 49 46 41 61 82 86 80 64 60 77 82 86 80 90 89 68 83 69 68 48 74 78 79 79 86 76

62 64 66 64 63 71 84 86 68 53 49 82 50 48 69 67 64 77 77 56 78 89 61 75 71 78 37 20 28 27 22 60 58 23 14 34 22 54 69 52 28 20 30 67 60 65 64 62 28 35 39 34 22 32 60 51 54 55 53

86 91 91 91 78 84 92 91 91 79 69 91 78 71 79 82 86 80 85 83 83 95 84 82 85 86 77 50 65 65 55 88 85 53 45 42 66 82 85 79 65 60 78 83 87 80 90 90 69 85 71 69 52 76 79 83 83 88 80

61 63 66 64 65 73 86 88 73 61 51 82 55 49 69 70 67 74 77 62 79 89 64 73 72 79 44 23 33 30 24 58 58 25 14 34 24 53 69 53 29 19 29 67 61 64 64 62 29 38 43 35 24 35 61 53 56 55 55

87 89 90 89 80 86 91 90 92 79 70 88 79 75 80 86 86 81 83 84 81 90 84 80 87 89 74 48 55 65 57 89 86 57 50 48 71 83 84 75 66 61 77 81 85 75 86 92 71 81 67 68 53 72 82 86 85 90 82

62 63 65 62 64 75 87 87 71 62 53 79 55 52 68 74 66 73 74 61 73 83 64 69 74 78 37 23 27 29 24 60 59 28 16 42 28 54 68 52 33 23 31 67 59 58 63 63 32 33 38 34 27 32 61 55 56 56 56

87 87 87 89 78 85 85 84 88 78 74 84 80 79 79 84 85 78 82 84 80 83 80 77 78 89 72 49 52 60 54 87 84 62 50 50 77 81 80 72 71 68 79 77 82 70 81 85 75 76 59 65 59 69 80 84 85 89 80

58 59 59 58 66 78 84 83 76 72 66 77 68 65 66 76 68 68 77 70 71 78 67 71 70 79 36 22 25 26 23 57 55 34 16 48 35 54 66 54 46 30 37 65 59 52 62 62 38 34 37 36 33 33 59 51 54 54 54

83 84 86 87 78 83 78 75 84 73 69 84 75 76 77 81 83 78 78 79 77 82 75 74 74 87 70 56 54 66 56 84 81 77 63 57 87 79 72 59 78 82 87 73 84 71 77 80 83 78 61 68 71 74 77 79 80 83 76

60 62 62 60 74 79 79 75 81 72 67 81 74 75 72 77 77 72 77 76 75 80 71 73 70 82 43 27 28 33 27 61 60 50 24 60 54 53 62 47 62 51 57 62 64 55 52 62 57 47 46 49 47 46 60 56 56 54 54

81 82 85 84 77 83 73 70 78 70 68 84 72 73 78 81 79 77 75 76 74 84 73 68 76 86 72 65 62 75 58 83 79 83 64 55 91 77 68 59 77 83 88 71 85 69 81 80 91 77 57 65 77 69 74 76 77 79 72

63 67 66 64 76 80 73 70 78 70 68 83 73 73 76 79 77 74 75 75 74 83 73 69 75 85 51 33 34 47 32 65 63 61 29 59 68 52 60 48 67 59 67 59 68 55 55 59 71 56 49 52 59 51 60 59 59 58 57

83 85 87 86 73 81 80 79 83 70 65 86 69 70 76 80 80 78 79 75 77 88 75 75 77 84 70 50 52 60 52 85 83 66 54 53 78 80 79 73 71 72 83 77 84 78 83 87 79 77 63 67 61 70 75 77 78 83 75

60 62 62 61 64 73 78 78 72 62 55 79 57 57 68 70 68 73 75 61 74 83 62 72 69 77 39 23 25 29 22 60 60 39 20 50 41 54 65 52 47 38 46 63 62 61 60 62 45 39 40 40 36 37 59 52 55 55 54

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-71

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Table 3A.12 Average Relative Humidity: Morning (M), Afternoon (A) — Selected Cities of the United States (Through 2002)

3-72

Table 3A.12

(Continued) Years

State FL

GA

ID

IL

IN

IA

KS

KY

LA

ME MD MA

MI

Apalachicola Daytona Beach Fort Myers Gainesville Jacksonville Key West Miami Orlando Pensacola Tallahassee Tampa Vero Beach West Palm Beach Athens Atlanta Augusta Columbus Macon Savannah Hilo Honolulu Kahului Lihue Boise Lewiston Pocatello Cairo Chicago Moline Peoria Rockford Springfield Evansville Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend Des Moines Dubuque Sioux City Waterloo Concordia Dodge City Goodland Topeka Wichita Greater Cincinnati Jackson Lexington Louisville Paducah Baton Rouge Lake Charles New Orleans Shreveport Caribou Portland Baltimore Blue Hill Boston Worcester Alpena

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

42 58 58 19 66 54 38 39 39 41 39 39 38 47 42 38 57 38 38 53 33 38 53 63 44 39 22 44 42 43 39 43 41 41 43 39 41 35 43 43 40 39 36 38 49 40 21 39 42 18 43 38 54 50 58 62 49 49 38 47 43

42 58 58 19 66 54 38 39 39 41 39 39 38 47 42 38 57 38 38 53 33 38 53 63 44 39 22 44 42 43 39 43 41 41 43 39 41 35 43 43 40 39 36 38 49 40 21 39 42 18 43 38 54 50 58 62 49 49 38 47 43

85 88 89 90 88 82 84 88 82 87 87 88 84 81 79 84 84 84 83 79 81 83 82 80 80 80 80 78 76 80 81 80 79 81 81 82 77 78 78 78 78 76 76 78 79 80 78 81 78 81 85 87 85 83 75 76 73 76 69 73 81

66 59 57 60 58 69 60 57 65 58 60 60 59 58 59 54 59 58 55 67 61 62 67 70 70 71 67 70 69 71 73 71 69 72 71 73 70 72 71 72 67 61 61 66 65 69 64 69 65 71 67 72 68 66 67 61 57 62 58 60 71

86 87 88 90 87 81 84 88 82 87 86 88 83 80 77 83 83 84 82 78 78 81 80 79 79 80 79 78 77 81 81 80 79 81 81 81 79 79 80 80 79 76 77 78 78 78 76 79 77 80 84 87 84 82 75 76 72 75 68 72 80

65 57 54 56 54 67 58 53 61 54 57 56 57 54 55 49 54 54 51 66 59 60 66 60 61 62 64 67 67 69 69 70 66 69 67 68 67 69 69 71 64 58 53 64 62 64 60 64 61 68 62 67 65 62 63 57 54 59 56 57 66

86 87 89 91 87 80 82 89 84 89 87 86 82 81 77 84 84 86 84 80 74 77 78 73 76 76 78 79 78 81 81 81 79 81 80 80 78 79 80 82 78 76 78 78 77 78 73 77 76 77 86 89 84 83 76 75 72 75 70 71 83

65 55 52 53 50 66 56 50 62 51 55 56 56 53 52 48 51 52 49 67 57 59 66 44 50 50 59 63 63 65 65 66 62 63 61 61 63 65 66 68 59 54 48 60 57 59 53 58 57 65 61 67 63 60 60 58 51 57 57 55 61

86 86 88 91 87 77 79 88 86 91 86 84 79 83 79 86 85 88 84 81 70 75 77 70 74 71 77 77 78 78 80 79 78 79 79 78 77 77 78 81 80 76 78 80 78 77 71 76 76 80 89 90 87 86 76 73 72 72 69 68 80

64 54 48 50 48 64 54 47 60 47 52 55 55 50 50 45 48 49 46 69 56 58 67 36 43 38 54 58 58 59 60 60 58 57 56 56 58 60 57 59 57 51 43 58 56 54 48 55 52 62 60 65 62 60 56 55 49 52 55 50 54

85 85 88 91 86 77 80 88 87 90 85 84 80 86 82 87 85 88 86 80 68 71 75 69 75 71 82 77 80 81 80 81 82 80 82 79 78 79 79 81 84 81 84 84 83 81 82 81 82 87 91 93 89 90 74 75 77 75 72 70 78

65 57 50 50 51 65 58 49 62 50 53 58 59 54 53 49 50 50 51 68 54 56 66 34 40 35 57 57 57 60 58 58 59 55 57 54 59 61 58 58 61 56 48 62 60 56 57 58 56 66 62 67 62 63 52 58 52 55 59 51 52

85 87 89 88 88 78 84 90 84 91 86 80 84 88 84 87 85 88 88 79 67 68 75 66 73 71 83 79 82 82 82 83 83 81 83 81 80 83 82 84 84 80 82 86 83 84 86 84 83 88 92 93 90 90 78 78 77 78 73 75 80

67 63 58 56 57 68 65 58 61 56 60 60 66 56 56 52 53 54 56 66 52 53 66 29 36 32 57 58 58 60 60 59 59 55 57 55 60 64 61 60 59 53 42 63 56 57 62 58 57 67 63 68 65 62 56 60 52 58 58 57 52

86 89 89 89 89 77 83 91 86 94 87 83 85 90 88 89 89 90 89 81 68 71 76 54 60 65 84 82 85 86 86 86 86 85 87 84 83 86 86 87 81 76 82 85 79 86 90 86 85 90 92 94 91 90 83 80 80 80 74 77 85

71 64 60 59 59 67 63 59 65 61 64 59 64 58 59 55 57 57 58 68 52 56 66 21 25 25 59 60 62 63 62 63 61 56 60 57 61 65 63 63 56 50 40 63 53 58 63 59 58 69 66 69 68 61 58 59 53 56 57 58 54

88 91 91 91 91 78 85 93 87 95 90 85 86 92 89 92 90 93 91 81 68 72 76 52 57 62 87 86 89 89 91 89 88 89 90 89 85 89 89 90 83 79 83 87 79 89 91 88 87 92 92 94 91 90 86 83 84 82 77 79 90

75 67 60 60 61 67 65 60 66 61 65 60 64 59 60 57 56 57 60 69 52 56 66 22 25 23 59 61 64 65 64 64 61 59 60 59 63 66 66 64 59 52 42 62 53 58 62 59 57 69 66 68 68 59 59 59 55 58 59 59 58

88 90 92 96 92 81 87 92 85 93 91 82 87 92 88 92 89 93 91 80 69 71 77 58 66 66 87 85 87 87 90 88 88 89 90 89 84 87 86 89 82 79 79 87 81 89 89 88 88 91 91 92 89 89 88 86 85 83 79 82 91

69 67 61 64 63 70 67 61 63 58 63 59 66 59 59 55 56 58 60 68 53 55 65 29 32 28 57 61 62 63 63 61 60 57 57 59 62 65 63 63 58 53 41 61 57 57 60 58 57 67 64 67 67 60 61 60 55 59 61 61 61

86 87 90 94 91 82 86 90 82 91 89 81 84 89 84 91 88 90 89 80 71 74 78 66 78 70 85 81 81 84 85 83 84 86 87 84 79 81 81 83 78 75 75 83 80 84 83 85 85 86 89 91 87 88 86 84 84 80 77 78 87

62 63 57 61 59 69 63 57 57 53 58 58 63 55 54 50 52 52 54 69 56 57 68 38 49 37 53 59 59 61 61 59 57 58 57 60 59 62 58 61 55 51 45 58 56 56 55 57 55 65 59 62 62 59 62 59 54 56 58 56 61

85 88 90 93 90 83 85 90 82 90 88 79 84 85 82 89 87 88 87 82 75 77 80 77 82 77 80 80 80 83 83 82 80 84 84 83 79 81 82 83 80 77 76 81 79 80 76 81 80 82 89 89 86 86 85 82 79 79 74 78 84

63 60 56 60 57 69 62 56 61 55 58 56 61 54 56 50 54 53 53 71 59 60 69 60 68 60 58 66 66 69 69 67 64 68 66 68 66 69 67 69 63 57 59 64 60 63 58 63 61 68 63 66 64 62 71 62 54 60 59 61 69

86 88 89 91 89 83 84 89 81 88 88 81 84 82 80 85 84 85 84 81 79 80 81 81 81 80 79 80 79 83 83 83 80 83 83 83 80 82 82 82 79 76 75 80 80 81 79 81 79 82 87 89 85 85 80 79 75 75 70 75 83

67 61 57 61 59 70 60 58 65 57 60 56 60 58 59 53 58 57 55 69 61 61 69 71 74 72 66 71 71 73 74 73 70 75 72 75 72 74 73 74 67 60 61 67 65 69 65 68 66 71 66 70 68 65 71 61 57 61 59 62 73

86 88 89 91 89 80 83 90 84 90 88 83 83 86 82 87 86 88 87 80 72 75 78 69 74 72 82 80 81 83 83 83 82 83 84 83 80 82 82 83 80 77 79 82 80 82 81 82 81 85 89 91 87 87 80 79 78 78 73 75 83

66 61 56 58 56 68 61 55 62 55 59 58 61 56 56 51 54 54 54 68 56 58 67 43 48 44 59 63 63 65 65 64 62 62 62 62 63 66 64 65 61 55 48 62 58 60 59 60 59 67 63 67 65 62 61 59 54 58 58 57 61

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

HI

Station

MS

MO

MT

NE

NV

NH NJ NM

NY

NC

ND

OH

44 39 39 38 39 42 61 41 60 43 42 50 39 38 19 33 30 42 42 43 38 41 37 38 42 41 30 57 38 38 9 37 35 35 50 42 39 53 37 34 38 37 42 45 29 37 51 42 42 68 41 40 39 39 38 45 42 39

44 39 39 38 39 42 61 41 60 43 42 50 39 38 19 33 30 42 42 43 38 41 37 38 42 41 30 57 38 38 9 37 35 35 50 42 39 53 37 34 38 37 42 45 29 37 51 42 42 68 41 40 39 39 38 45 42 39

80 81 82 84 82 81 81 78 75 76 81 78 86 86 82 80 77 81 78 65 77 67 72 82 85 77 78 76 80 79 75 74 76 78 73 55 79 79 76 83 79 73 68 64 71 78 80 79 76 68 71 67 78 77 85 80 78 78

70 72 73 73 73 75 74 72 70 69 76 71 68 65 70 69 67 68 65 57 73 61 64 76 76 66 68 66 66 68 63 58 63 60 55 32 50 58 59 83 59 59 39 48 41 64 71 73 62 60 60 58 69 69 59 68 55 56

79 80 81 83 81 81 81 77 74 76 81 79 86 86 80 80 78 80 78 66 79 67 73 82 85 78 80 79 79 77 77 75 77 79 75 51 74 77 76 81 79 72 63 65 65 77 79 79 76 68 71 65 79 78 83 80 76 76

65 68 68 68 68 70 70 68 66 67 74 68 63 61 67 67 66 65 63 51 70 55 54 67 66 64 66 66 63 64 63 48 64 52 50 28 40 47 55 83 55 54 31 42 33 58 66 69 58 57 57 55 66 64 55 65 52 52

79 80 81 84 81 80 82 78 76 76 82 81 86 87 80 78 77 79 77 68 80 69 73 81 83 79 80 80 80 78 78 77 79 77 72 45 69 73 77 84 77 70 55 65 58 76 79 80 77 68 71 67 79 78 84 80 78 77

60 61 63 62 62 63 66 66 62 64 71 65 60 58 61 62 62 61 59 46 58 49 46 54 51 60 63 63 58 61 59 44 61 41 42 23 33 38 53 84 54 51 24 37 26 54 62 65 57 54 56 53 62 60 53 63 49 50

78 78 79 80 79 77 80 76 76 74 80 80 90 90 84 78 77 77 79 69 75 69 70 78 80 79 80 78 80 77 76 76 77 72 69 35 65 67 75 85 77 66 48 64 54 72 76 77 76 67 70 67 77 76 85 78 78 78

54 56 57 54 56 57 59 59 55 55 63 55 58 58 61 59 59 58 59 42 42 42 39 43 42 54 58 53 53 57 53 41 54 33 34 16 28 30 46 84 52 48 19 32 22 49 56 58 55 51 55 51 55 53 50 60 46 48

78 78 79 78 78 76 79 76 77 75 80 80 91 91 88 85 83 81 85 70 74 71 71 80 81 82 83 80 83 80 79 80 78 71 67 32 64 64 77 84 79 70 47 70 58 75 78 76 76 71 73 71 77 76 91 81 82 82

53 54 53 50 54 55 55 56 53 55 60 54 60 61 65 65 63 59 63 42 40 41 38 44 42 57 61 54 57 59 55 42 54 30 30 14 25 27 47 81 55 51 19 37 24 53 56 56 56 53 59 53 54 55 56 65 52 54

79 81 82 82 82 81 85 82 83 78 83 85 91 91 89 87 85 82 87 72 77 72 73 85 83 82 83 82 83 82 79 80 79 63 58 24 62 58 81 86 81 71 46 71 65 79 83 78 71 74 75 72 80 79 94 83 84 84

54 56 56 55 57 58 62 63 59 58 62 59 61 61 65 65 64 59 64 39 41 41 38 46 42 56 59 56 58 61 56 39 54 24 23 11 22 22 52 82 56 52 18 35 27 56 59 57 53 56 60 54 56 56 60 68 55 56

82 84 84 86 86 84 88 85 88 81 86 88 93 92 90 87 85 83 87 64 74 68 67 84 78 83 83 83 83 85 85 81 78 54 52 28 60 46 84 88 83 72 59 76 68 81 84 79 74 75 75 72 83 81 95 85 86 87

54 55 56 55 57 59 62 63 60 59 65 59 64 64 66 63 64 60 62 32 35 31 30 36 31 58 60 57 57 63 63 37 53 18 21 15 18 16 51 84 57 51 27 41 32 55 58 55 56 55 59 53 55 56 62 70 56 59

86 89 89 91 91 89 92 88 91 84 89 91 94 93 91 88 86 86 87 61 69 66 68 82 75 85 86 86 85 87 86 83 79 53 55 33 61 45 88 87 87 76 65 77 73 86 89 83 77 78 78 75 87 86 97 86 88 90

57 58 59 60 60 62 63 66 63 61 67 62 63 63 66 63 64 60 60 30 32 30 30 35 30 59 63 59 58 65 62 39 53 19 23 17 19 16 52 85 58 53 31 42 35 58 60 58 56 57 60 55 58 58 62 70 57 60

87 90 89 92 91 89 92 88 90 84 88 90 93 91 90 87 85 86 87 65 72 68 72 84 82 84 84 83 83 86 84 80 77 59 59 34 66 53 90 82 88 78 61 72 74 89 90 84 79 79 80 76 88 87 97 84 89 90

57 59 60 62 61 63 67 67 66 63 67 63 62 62 65 63 64 61 63 37 37 37 35 42 38 57 61 56 54 63 60 37 51 22 24 17 22 20 55 83 58 55 30 40 38 59 63 60 56 57 60 57 61 61 62 68 57 59

84 85 86 88 88 84 89 82 85 80 83 85 92 91 88 84 80 82 82 64 75 65 73 85 85 79 81 79 81 81 78 76 75 64 64 36 70 62 88 80 88 79 60 65 69 86 85 82 78 76 78 74 85 84 93 82 86 88

57 60 62 64 63 65 67 65 65 61 64 61 59 58 63 62 60 59 59 43 47 44 43 53 50 53 58 53 52 59 55 42 52 27 31 20 27 28 52 79 56 53 30 41 36 58 62 60 54 55 57 55 60 61 56 65 53 54

82 83 83 87 85 81 86 81 84 80 84 83 90 89 85 81 79 81 80 65 80 65 74 84 86 80 81 79 81 81 79 77 76 74 71 45 74 74 84 82 84 76 64 64 69 82 82 80 74 73 76 71 81 81 88 81 83 83

65 68 70 73 70 70 75 72 75 68 73 70 62 60 67 66 66 65 63 54 65 56 58 73 71 61 64 61 60 66 65 53 59 47 46 27 40 46 59 82 57 56 36 47 39 63 69 68 55 59 59 58 67 67 56 65 53 53

81 82 83 85 85 81 84 80 80 78 84 80 87 87 83 81 79 82 80 65 79 65 73 83 86 79 81 79 80 81 77 75 75 76 72 53 77 79 80 82 79 74 69 62 69 80 82 81 70 69 72 68 81 81 85 80 79 79

70 74 75 76 76 75 77 75 75 71 78 73 66 64 70 70 68 69 66 57 73 60 66 79 80 66 68 67 64 70 67 58 62 58 54 32 50 58 61 82 59 58 43 53 42 65 73 72 54 60 60 59 72 71 59 67 55 56

81 83 83 85 84 82 85 81 82 78 83 83 90 89 86 83 81 82 82 66 76 68 72 82 82 81 82 80 81 81 79 78 77 68 65 39 68 65 81 84 82 73 59 68 66 80 82 80 75 72 74 70 81 80 90 82 82 83

60 62 63 63 63 64 66 66 64 63 68 63 62 61 66 64 64 62 62 44 51 46 45 54 52 59 62 59 58 63 60 45 57 36 36 21 31 34 53 83 56 53 29 41 33 58 63 63 56 56 58 55 61 61 57 66 53 55

38 39 43 43 41 39

38 39 43 43 41 39

80 81 76 76 79 80

55 56 71 73 74 71

78 80 79 78 81 79

52 52 70 74 73 66

80 82 81 82 83 78

49 52 66 72 67 60

81 81 79 79 79 76

46 48 55 59 55 54

85 84 79 76 77 78

54 55 53 53 52 56

87 85 84 82 81 81

56 60 57 59 54 57

89 87 84 85 80 84

58 63 53 59 51 56

91 90 83 86 77 88

59 64 52 58 51 59

92 90 82 84 79 88

59 62 54 61 55 60

90 89 79 80 79 84

53 56 55 62 58 59

85 85 81 82 82 80

52 53 67 72 71 66

81 82 79 79 81 80

55 55 72 75 75 71

85 85 81 81 80 81

54 56 61 65 61 61

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-73

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

MN

Detroit Flint Grand Rapids Houghton Lake Lansing Muskegon Sault Ste. Marie Duluth International Falls Minneapolis-St.Paul Rochester Saint Cloud Jackson Meridian Tupelo Columbia Kansas City St. Louis Springfield Billings Glasgow Great Falls Helena Kalispell Missoula Grand Island Lincoln Norfolk North Platte Omaha Eppley AP Omaha (North) Scottsbluff Valentine Elko Ely Las Vegas Reno Winnemucca Concord Mt. Washington Atlantic City AP Newark Albuquerque Clayton Roswell Albany Binghamton Buffalo Islip New York C.Park New York (JFK AP) New York (Laguardia AP) Rochester Syracuse Asheville Cape Hatteras Charlotte Greensboro-Wnstn-SlmHPT Raleigh Wilmington Bismarck Fargo Williston Akron

3-74

Table 3A.12

(Continued) Years

State

OK OR

PC

RI SC

SD

TN

TX

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

M

A

Cleveland Columbus Dayton Mansfield Toledo Youngstown Oklahoma City Tulsa Astoria Eugene Medford Pendleton Portland Salem Sexton Summit Guam Johnston Island Koror Kwajalein, Marshall IS Majuro, Marshall IS Pago Pago, Amer Samoa Pohnpei, Caroline IS Chuuk, E. Caroline IS Wake Island Yap, W Caroline IS Allentown Erie Harrisburg Middletown/Harrisburg AP Philadelphia Pittsburgh Avoca Williamsport Block IS Providence Charleston AP Columbia Greenville-Spartanburg AP Aberdeen Huron Rapid City Sioux Falls Bristol-JhnCty-Kgsprt Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis Nashville Abilene Amarillo Austin Brownsville Corpus Christi Dallas-Fort Worth Del Rio El Paso Galveston Houston Lubbock Midland-Odessa Port Arthur

42 43 39 36 47 55 37 42 49 45 41 61 62 40 7 9 23 51 42 47 34 32 32 45 54 52 37 49 37

42 43 39 36 47 55 37 42 49 45 41 61 62 40 7 9 23 51 42 47 34 32 32 45 54 52 37 49 37

79 78 79 82 81 81 78 78 87 92 90 80 85 87 80 87 76 80 79 80 88 85 81 77 79 76 78 72 73

70 68 70 73 70 72 62 63 78 80 70 75 76 76 72 73 68 76 72 75 75 78 76 66 76 62 72 58 59

78 77 79 81 80 80 77 76 86 92 88 78 85 88 78 87 77 80 78 79 88 84 81 78 78 76 77 71 72

68 64 66 69 66 68 60 59 74 72 57 65 67 68 70 72 68 75 70 74 75 76 75 66 74 57 70 55 55

79 76 79 80 81 80 76 75 88 91 86 74 85 88 84 86 78 78 79 80 89 85 82 80 77 75 77 72 72

63 57 61 63 60 63 57 56 71 65 50 50 60 61 68 70 70 73 71 75 75 77 75 67 73 53 65 52 53

77 76 77 78 79 77 77 77 89 90 84 71 86 88 84 88 79 78 81 83 89 88 84 81 76 74 75 70 71

58 53 55 57 54 56 56 55 70 58 45 42 55 57 63 70 71 74 74 77 76 79 77 68 73 50 62 49 50

78 79 78 79 80 79 83 85 89 91 83 70 85 88 73 89 78 79 83 83 87 90 85 82 78 78 76 74 75

58 55 55 57 53 54 62 62 70 55 39 38 53 53 53 72 70 77 77 78 76 81 78 68 75 53 62 52 52

80 81 80 81 82 82 84 85 90 90 78 66 83 87 73 88 77 81 81 84 85 92 86 82 80 80 79 77 76

58 55 55 58 54 56 61 63 71 50 33 33 49 49 49 73 69 78 75 78 76 80 78 68 77 54 64 53 52

82 84 82 83 85 85 80 81 90 87 74 55 82 85 65 90 78 81 84 84 83 94 88 82 81 82 80 79 78

57 56 56 58 55 56 55 57 70 39 26 24 45 41 40 77 69 78 77 78 74 79 78 70 77 53 64 52 52

86 87 87 88 91 89 80 82 91 88 74 54 83 85 66 91 79 80 83 83 84 95 88 83 82 86 82 83 81

60 57 57 61 59 57 55 56 71 39 26 26 45 40 42 78 71 77 77 77 74 79 77 71 78 56 65 55 54

85 87 87 88 91 89 83 85 91 89 78 61 86 87 65 92 80 79 83 82 84 95 88 83 81 88 82 85 84

60 57 56 60 57 59 59 62 70 43 29 32 48 45 45 79 72 76 76 76 74 79 77 71 78 57 65 56 55

81 83 83 83 86 85 80 82 90 93 86 72 90 90 70 90 80 79 83 82 84 94 87 82 81 87 77 82 81

60 55 57 59 57 58 57 57 73 62 42 47 62 60 58 77 72 77 76 76 76 79 78 71 78 55 63 54 54

78 80 81 81 83 82 80 80 87 93 91 80 88 90 81 88 79 79 83 83 84 93 86 80 80 82 76 77 76

66 63 65 67 66 67 60 61 78 78 67 70 74 77 75 77 73 77 76 77 76 80 78 69 78 59 68 57 56

78 79 81 83 83 82 78 79 86 92 91 81 86 89 79 87 78 80 81 82 85 87 83 78 80 79 77 73 72

71 69 71 74 73 72 62 63 81 84 76 78 78 80 75 76 72 77 75 77 75 79 79 67 77 62 72 58 58

80 81 81 82 84 83 80 81 89 91 84 70 85 88 75 89 78 80 81 82 86 90 85 81 79 80 78 76 76

62 59 60 63 60 61 59 60 73 60 47 48 59 59 59 74 70 76 75 76 75 79 77 69 76 56 66 54 54

43 42 47 57 15 39 60 36 40

43 42 47 57 15 39 60 36 40

74 77 76 77 73 72 83 83 77

60 66 66 62 65 57 56 54 55

72 75 75 76 73 71 82 82 76

55 62 61 58 65 54 52 49 51

72 76 74 77 75 72 83 84 76

53 57 57 53 65 53 50 48 50

71 74 72 75 79 70 84 84 78

50 51 52 49 65 49 49 44 48

75 77 76 80 80 73 85 85 83

53 52 52 51 66 53 53 48 53

77 80 82 84 83 76 86 86 85

53 53 56 54 69 56 59 51 54

78 83 83 87 87 77 88 88 87

54 54 55 55 72 56 62 53 56

81 86 86 90 86 80 90 91 89

54 56 58 57 71 56 63 56 58

83 87 88 92 84 82 90 92 89

56 57 60 59 70 57 62 55 59

83 82 84 89 80 81 89 91 86

54 55 58 57 66 54 56 51 53

78 79 79 82 76 78 86 89 82

56 62 63 61 65 57 53 51 53

74 78 77 78 72 74 84 84 79

59 67 67 63 65 58 55 53 55

76 79 79 82 79 75 86 86 82

55 58 59 57 67 55 56 51 54

34 43 52 39 41 72 42 63 37 39 41 41 36 38 39 23 42 96 33 55 39 42

34 43 52 39 41 72 42 63 37 39 41 41 36 38 39 23 42 96 33 55 39 42

79 77 69 78 81 82 82 78 79 72 71 78 88 87 79 74 65 85 85 72 71 88

73 70 64 71 62 62 64 65 66 56 53 63 70 70 63 60 34 77 68 52 51 71

80 80 71 80 80 81 80 77 79 72 72 78 89 87 78 72 55 84 86 71 71 87

74 71 61 71 58 57 59 61 62 56 52 61 66 68 61 57 27 74 65 52 48 67

83 83 75 82 80 81 80 76 77 70 69 79 88 87 79 70 47 85 87 67 65 88

70 68 54 67 52 53 55 58 57 51 46 59 63 65 59 54 21 74 65 44 40 66

82 82 73 81 82 82 82 77 79 72 68 82 89 89 81 74 39 86 89 67 66 90

59 59 47 59 50 49 52 56 56 50 42 60 64 66 59 57 17 75 64 42 38 66

81 83 76 81 89 86 87 81 85 78 75 88 90 92 86 78 41 84 91 74 73 92

57 59 48 58 55 53 57 58 60 55 48 64 65 70 63 61 17 73 66 47 43 68

84 85 78 81 90 87 89 82 86 78 77 88 90 93 85 78 45 81 92 76 75 93

61 61 49 60 58 55 59 59 60 54 49 61 64 67 59 60 19 70 65 48 46 68

86 86 74 84 92 89 90 84 88 71 73 87 91 93 79 74 61 81 92 73 70 94

59 58 41 60 61 57 61 60 61 49 46 56 60 62 53 57 29 70 63 49 45 70

87 88 72 86 93 91 92 85 89 72 77 85 91 92 78 75 65 81 92 76 73 94

58 59 37 62 60 57 60 59 61 50 50 55 61 62 53 59 33 69 63 52 47 69

85 86 68 85 93 91 92 85 89 76 79 85 91 90 82 80 66 81 92 79 78 92

58 58 39 61 57 56 59 58 62 56 52 59 65 65 59 62 33 68 64 54 53 68

82 81 67 81 90 90 90 82 86 75 73 83 90 89 82 80 63 80 91 77 78 91

59 58 46 60 53 53 56 54 58 54 48 59 64 63 58 63 30 65 62 51 49 63

83 82 69 83 85 85 85 79 81 75 73 82 87 87 81 80 61 83 89 73 75 89

71 66 60 69 56 56 59 58 62 56 50 62 66 66 61 63 33 72 65 49 49 66

81 80 69 81 82 83 83 78 80 73 71 79 87 86 80 75 65 85 87 72 72 89

74 71 64 73 62 61 64 64 66 56 52 63 69 68 63 59 38 76 67 51 49 70

83 83 72 82 86 86 86 80 83 74 73 83 89 89 81 76 56 83 89 73 72 91

65 63 51 64 57 56 59 59 61 54 49 60 65 66 59 60 27 72 65 49 46 68

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

PA

Jan

Station

UT VI VA

Note:

42 60 41 39 42 43 37 39 54

42 60 41 39 42 43 37 39 54

75 80 87 83 79 79 73 73 75

56 61 69 66 59 69 64 54 59

75 80 87 82 78 78 74 73 75

53 59 66 64 58 60 61 50 57

71 79 87 82 78 70 75 73 74

48 57 63 62 54 46 58 48 54

73 82 89 84 80 66 73 73 74

47 59 64 62 53 39 52 45 51

79 87 91 88 85 65 73 81 77

53 62 66 65 57 34 51 52 56

80 87 92 86 84 59 77 83 79

54 60 65 60 55 26 54 55 57

75 86 92 81 76 52 78 86 81

48 55 62 53 48 22 53 57 59

76 85 92 79 77 53 83 86 84

50 54 62 51 49 24 56 56 61

82 85 92 84 83 61 86 88 84

58 57 65 58 56 30 60 57 61

81 84 90 84 82 68 81 86 83

56 57 62 59 55 41 60 52 59

80 81 89 84 82 75 78 80 79

56 59 64 63 57 59 65 52 57

78 80 87 83 80 79 77 76

56 60 68 65 59 71 67 54

77 83 90 83 80 67 77 80

53 58 65 61 55 43 59 53

The relative humidity is expressed as a percentage measure of the amount of moisture in the air compared to the maximum amount of moisture the air can hold at the same temperature and pressure. Average humidity values are given for selected morning and afternoon observations. Maximum relative humidity values usually occur during morning hours. In this publication, the Local Standard Time (LST) of morning and afternoon humidity is shown below. Atlantic, Alaskan (M morning 8 A.M.) (Afternoon 2 P.M.), Eastern, Bering, 165W Meridian (M morning 7 A.M.) (Afternoon 1 P.M.), Central, 180E Meridian (M morning 6 A.M.) (Afternoon NOON), Mountain, 165E Meridian (M morning 5 A.M.) (Afternoon 5 P.M.), Pacific, 150E Meridian (M morning 4 A.M.) (Afternoon 4 P.M.), 135E Meridian (M morning 9 A.M.) (Afternoon 3 P.M.).

Source:

From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

San Angelo San Antonio Victoria Waco Wichita Falls Salt Lake City Burlington Lynchburg Norfolk

3-75

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-76

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 3B

CLIMATIC DATA — WORLD

Figure 3B.2 General Pattern of Annual World Precipitation. (From Environmental Science Service: Administration, Climates of the World, 1969. www.noaa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Figure 3B.3

3-77

Average January World Temperature. (From Climates of the World, Historical Climatology Series 6–14, 1991. www.noaa.gov.)

Figure 3B.4 Average July World Temperatures. (From Climates of the World, Historical Climatology Series 6–14, 1991. www.noaa.gov.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Temperature

Average Precipitation

Average Daily

Extreme

October

November

December

8F

September

8F

August

8F

July

8F

June

Minimum

8F

May

Maximum

8F

April

Minimum

8F

March

Maximum

8F

February

Minimum

Year

January

Maximum

Feet

Length of Record

Minimum

8

Minimum

Maximum

8

Maximum

Length of Record

Oct

Elevation

July

Longitude

Country and Station

Apr

Latitude

Jan

3-78

Table 3B.13 Temperature and Precipitation Data for Representative World-Wide Stations

Year

8F

8F

Year

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

North America 35 35 33 30 33

03N 26N 39N 18N 34N

106 37W 82 32W 84 26W 97 42W 86 45W

5,311 2,140 1,010 597 620

30 30 30 30 30

46 48 52 60 57

24 28 37 41 36

69 67 70 78 76

42 42 50 57 50

91 84 87 95 93

66 61 71 74 71

71 68 72 82 79

45 45 52 60 52

104 99 103 109 107

K16 K7 K9 K2 K10

30 30 30 30 30

0.4 4.2 4.4 2.4 5.0

0.4 4.0 4.5 2.6 5.3

0.5 4.8 5.4 2.1 6.0

0.5 4.0 4.5 3.6 4.5

0.8 3.7 3.2 3.7 3.4

0.6 3.5 3.8 3.2 4.0

1.2 5.9 4.7 2.2 5.2

1.3 4.9 3.6 1.9 4.9

1.0 3.6 3.3 3.4 3.3

0.8 3.1 2.4 2.8 3.0

0.4 2.8 3.0 2.1 3.5

0.5 3.6 4.4 2.5 5.0

8.4 48.1 47.2 32.5 53.1

Bismark, ND Boise, ID Brownsville, TX Buffalo, NY Cheyenne, WY

46 43 25 42 41

46N 34N 54N 56N 09N

100 45W 116 13W 97 26W 78 44W 104 49W

1,647 2,838 16 705 6,126

30 30 30 30 30

20 36 71 31 37

0 22 52 18 14

55 63 82 53 56

32 37 66 34 30

86 91 93 80 85

58 59 76 59 55

59 65 85 60 63

34 38 67 41 32

114 112 104 99 100

K45 K28 12 K21 K38

30 30 30 30 30

0.4 1.3 1.4 2.8 0.5

0.4 1.3 1.5 2.7 0.6

0.8 1.3 1.0 3.2 1.2

1.2 1.2 1.6 3.0 1.9

2.0 1.3 2.4 3.0 2.5

3.4 0.9 3.0 2.5 2.1

2.2 0.2 1.7 2.6 1.8

1.7 0.2 2.8 3.1 1.4

1.2 0.4 5.0 3.1 1.1

0.9 0.8 3.5 3.0 0.8

0.6 1.2 1.3 3.6 0.6

0.4 1.3 1.7 3.0 0.5

15.2 11.4 26.9 35.6 15.0

Chicago, IL Des Moines, IO Dodge City, KS El Paso, TX Indianapolis, IN

41 41 37 31 39

47N 32N 46N 48N 44N

87 45W 93 39W 99 58W 106 24W 86 17W

607 938 2,582 3,918 792

30 30 30 30 30

33 29 42 56 37

19 11 20 30 21

57 59 66 78 61

41 38 41 49 40

84 87 93 95 86

67 65 68 69 64

63 66 71 79 67

47 43 46 50 44

105 110 109 109 107

K23 K30 K26 K8 K25

30 30 30 30 30

1.9 1.3 0.6 0.5 3.1

1.6 1.1 0.7 0.4 2.3

2.7 2.1 1.2 0.4 3.4

3.0 2.5 1.8 0.3 3.7

3.7 4.1 3.2 0.4 4.0

4.1 4.7 3.0 0.7 4.6

3.4 3.1 2.3 1.3 3.5

3.2 3.7 2.4 1.2 3.0

2.7 2.9 1.5 1.1 3.2

2.8 2.1 1.4 0.9 2.6

2.2 1.8 0.6 0.3 3.1

1.9 1.1 0.5 0.5 2.7

33.2 30.5 19.2 8.0 39.2

Jacksonville, FL Kansas City, MO Las Vegas, NV Los Angeles, CA Louisville, KY

30 39 36 33 38

25N 07N 05N 56N 11N

81 39W 94 36W 115 10W 118 23W 85 44W

20 742 2,162 97 477

30 30 30 30 30

67 40 54 64 44

45 23 32 45 27

80 66 78 67 66

58 46 51 52 43

92 92 104 76 89

73 71 76 62 67

80 72 80 73 70

62 49 53 57 46

105 113 117 110 107

10 K22 8 23 K20

30 30 30 30 30

2.5 1.4 0.5 2.7 4.1

2.9 1.2 0.4 2.9 3.3

3.5 2.5 0.4 1.8 4.6

3.6 3.6 0.2 1.1 3.8

3.5 4.4 0.1 0.1 3.9

6.3 4.6 — 0.1 4.0

7.7 3.2 0.5 — 3.4

6.9 3.8 0.5 — 3.0

7.6 3.3 0.3 0.2 2.6

5.2 2.9 0.2 0.4 2.3

1.7 1.8 0.3 1.1 3.2

2.2 1.5 0.4 2.4 3.2

53.6 34.2 3.8 12.8 41.4

Miami, FL Minneapolis, MN Missoula, MT Nashville, TN New Orleans, LA

25 44 46 36 29

48N 53N 55N 07N 59N

80 16W 93 13W 114 05W 86 41W 90 15W

7 834 3,190 590 3

30 30 30 30 30

76 22 28 49 64

58 2 10 31 45

83 56 57 71 78

66 33 31 48 58

89 84 85 91 91

75 61 49 70 73

85 61 58 74 80

71 37 30 49 61

100 108 105 107 102

28 K34 K33 K15 7

30 30 30 30 30

2.0 0.7 0.9 5.5 3.8

1.9 0.8 0.9 4.5 4.0

2.3 1.5 0.7 5.2 5.3

3.9 1.9 1.0 3.7 4.6

6.4 3.2 1.9 3.7 4.4

7.4 4.0 1.9 3.3 4.4

6.8 3.3 0.9 3.7 6.7

7.0 3.2 0.7 2.9 5.3

9.5 2.4 1.0 2.9 5.0

8.2 1.6 1.0 2.3 2.8

2.8 1.4 0.9 3.3 3.3

1.7 0.9 1.1 4.2 4.1

59.9 24.9 12.9 45.2 53.7

New York, NY Oklahoma City, OK Phoenix, AZ Pittsburgh, PA Portland, ME

40 35 33 40 43

47N 24N 26N 27N 39N

73 58W 97 36W 112 01W 80 00W 70 19W

132 1,285 1,117 747 47

30 30 30 30 30

40 46 64 40 32

27 28 35 25 12

60 71 84 63 53

43 49 50 42 32

85 93 105 85 80

68 72 75 65 57

66 74 87 65 60

50 52 55 45 37

106 113 118 103 103

K15 K17 16 K20 K39

30 30 30 30 30

3.3 1.3 0.7 2.8 4.4

2.8 1.4 0.9 2.3 3.8

4.0 2.0 0.7 3.5 4.3

3.4 3.1 0.3 3.4 3.7

3.7 5.2 0.1 3.8 3.4

3.3 4.5 0.1 4.0 3.2

3.7 2.4 0.8 3.6 2.9

4.4 2.5 1.1 3.5 2.4

3.9 3.0 0.7 2.7 3.5

3.1 2.5 0.5 2.5 3.2

3.4 1.6 0.5 2.3 4.2

3.3 1.4 0.9 2.5 3.9

42.3 30.9 7.3 36.9 42.9

Portland, OR Reno, NV Salt Lake City, UT San Francisco, CA Sault Ste. Marie, MI

45 39 40 37 46

36N 30N 46N 37N 28N

122 36W 119 47W 111 58W 122 23W 84 22W

21 4,404 4,220 8 721

30 30 30 30 30

44 45 37 55 23

33 16 18 42 8

62 65 63 64 46

42 31 36 47 30

79 89 94 72 76

56 46 60 54 54

63 69 65 71 55

45 29 38 51 38

107 106 107 106 98

K3 K19 K30 20 K37

30 30 30 30 30

5.4 1.2 1.4 4.0 2.1

4.2 1.0 1.2 3.5 1.5

3.8 0.7 1.6 2.7 1.8

2.1 0.5 1.8 1.3 2.2

2.0 0.5 1.4 0.5 2.8

1.7 0.4 1.0 0.1 3.3

0.4 0.3 0.6 — 2.5

0.7 0.2 0.9 — 2.9

1.6 0.2 0.5 0.2 3.8

3.6 0.5 1.2 0.7 2.8

5.3 0.6 1.3 1.6 3.3

6.4 1.1 1.2 4.1 2.3

37.2 7.2 14.1 18.7 31.3

Seattle, WA Sheridan, WY Spokane, WA Washington, DC Wilmington, NC

47 44 47 38 34

27N 46N 38N 51N 16N

122 18W 106 58W 117 32W 77 03W 77 55W

400 3,964 2,356 14 28

30 30 30 30 30

44 34 31 44 58

33 9 19 30 37

58 56 59 66 74

40 31 36 46 51

76 87 86 87 89

54 56 55 69 71

60 62 60 68 76

44 33 38 50 55

100 106 108 106 104

0 K41 K30 K15 5

30 30 30 30 30

5.7 0.6 2.4 3.0 2.9

4.2 0.7 1.9 2.5 3.4

3.8 1.4 1.5 3.2 4.0

2.4 2.2 0.9 3.2 2.9

1.7 2.6 1.2 4.1 3.5

1.6 2.6 1.5 3.2 4.3

0.8 1.2 0.4 4.2 7.7

1.0 0.9 0.4 4.9 6.9

2.1 1.2 0.8 3.8 6.3

4.0 1.1 1.6 3.1 3.0

5.4 0.8 2.2 2.8 3.1

6.3 0.6 2.4 2.8 3.4

39.0 15.9 17.2 40.8 51.4

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

United States Albuquerque, NM Asheville, NC Atlanta, GA Austin, TX Birmingham, AL

13N 02N 18N 47N 12N

149 131 156 161 162

52W 34W 47W 48W 43W

85 110 31 125 96

30 30 30 30 30

21 38 K9 11 33

4 30 K23 K4 23

44 50 7 34 38

28 37 K7 18 28

65 63 45 62 54

50 51 33 48 45

42 51 21 38 45

28 42 12 25 36

86 90 78 90 78

K38 K4 K56 K52 K9

30 30 30 30 30

0.8 11.4 0.2 1.1 2.3

0.7 8.5 0.2 1.1 3.2

0.5 9.6 0.1 1.0 1.8

0.4 9.1 0.1 0.6 1.5

0.5 7.1 0.1 1.0 2.3

1.0 5.7 0.4 1.2 2.0

1.9 6.0 0.8 2.0 1.8

2.6 7.5 0.9 4.2 4.3

2.5 9.9 0.6 2.6 4.3

1.9 16.9 0.5 1.5 4.6

1.0 14.7 0.2 1.1 3.8

0.9 12.1 0.2 1.0 2.6

14.7 118.5 4.3 18.4 34.5

Fairbanks Juneau King Salmon Nome St. Paul Island

64 58 58 64 57

49N 22N 41N 30N 09N

147 134 156 165 170

52W 35W 39W 26W 13W

436 12 49 13 22

30 30 30 30 30

K1 30 21 12 30

K21 20 6 K3 21

42 45 41 28 33

17 31 25 14 24

72 63 63 55 49

48 48 47 44 42

35 47 43 35 41

17 37 29 24 33

99 89 88 84 64

K66 K21 K40 K47 K26

30 30 30 30 30

0.9 4.0 1.1 1.0 1.8

0.5 3.1 1.0 0.9 1.2

0.4 3.3 1.0 0.9 1.1

0.3 2.9 0.6 0.8 1.0

0.7 3.2 1.0 0.7 1.3

1.4 3.4 1.4 0.9 1.2

1.8 4.5 2.1 2.3 2.3

2.2 5.0 3.4 3.8 3.3

1.1 6.7 3.1 2.7 3.1

0.9 8.3 2.2 1.7 3.2

0.6 6.1 1.5 1.2 2.5

0.5 4.2 1.0 1.0 1.8

11.3 54.7 19.4 17.9 23.8

Shemya Yakutat

52 43N 59 31N

174 06E 139 40W

122 28

30 30

34 34

29 20

38 45

33 29

49 61

44 48

42 49

38 35

63 86

16 K24

30 30

2.5 10.9

2.3 8.2

2.6 8.7

2.1 7.2

2.4 8.0

1.3 5.1

2.2 8.4

2.1 10.9

2.3 16.6

2.8 19.6

2.7 16.1

2.1 12.3

27.4 132.0

68 82 51 46 47

14N 31N 06N 17N 00N

135 00W 62 20W 114 01W 63 08W 65 27W

30 95 3,540 181 109

22 9 55 65 50

K10 K19 24 26 23

K26 K29 2 10 2

19 K8 53 43 47

K2 K18 27 30 28

66 44 76 73 77

47 36 47 58 56

25 2 54 54 55

15 K7 29 41 37

93 67 97 98 102

K62 K53 K49 K27 K43

22 10 55 65 50

0.5 0.2 0.5 3.8 3.4

0.5 0.3 0.5 3.0 2.7

0.4 0.3 0.8 3.2 3.3

0.5 0.3 1.0 2.8 3.0

0.5 0.5 2.3 2.7 3.2

0.8 0.6 3.1 2.6 3.6

1.4 0.5 2.5 3.0 3.9

1.4 1.1 2.3 3.4 4.0

0.9 1.0 1.5 3.4 3.1

0.9 0.9 0.7 4.1 4.0

0.8 0.2 0.7 3.8 3.4

0.4 0.4 0.6 4.0 3.2

9.0 6.3 16.7 39.8 40.8

Churchhill, Man Edmonton, Alta Fort Nelson, BC Fort Simpson, NWT Frobisher Bay, NWT

58 53 58 61 63

45N 34N 50N 45N 45N

94 04W 113 31W 122 35W 121 14W 68 33W

94 2,219 1,253 554 110

30 71 12 42 18

K11 16 1 K10 K9

K27 K3 K15 K27 K23

24 52 47 38 16

4 28 25 14 K1

64 74 74 74 53

43 50 51 50 39

34 51 43 36 29

20 30 25 21 18

96 99 98 97 76

K57 K57 K61 K70 K49

30 71 13 42 10

0.5 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.7

0.6 0.7 1.2 0.7 0.9

0.9 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.8

0.9 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.8

0.9 1.9 1.4 1.4 0.7

1.9 3.2 2.5 1.5 0.9

2.2 3.3 2.4 2.0 1.5

2.7 2.4 1.5 1.5 2.0

2.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.8

1.4 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.1

1.0 0.9 1.4 0.9 1.1

0.7 0.9 1.2 0.8 1.0

16.0 18.0 16.3 13.1 13.3

Gander, Nfld Halifax, NS Kapuskasing, Ont Knob Lake, Que Montreal, Que

48 44 49 54 45

57N 39N 25N 48N 30N

54 63 82 66 73

34W 34W 28W 49W 34W

496 83 743 1,712 187

14 75 19 30 67

27 32 10 K3 21

13 15 K14 K21 6

40 47 43 30 50

27 31 19 12 33

71 74 75 64 78

52 55 50 46 61

51 57 47 37 54

37 41 31 25 40

96 99 101 88 97

K17 K21 K53 K59 K35

14 71 19 10 77

2.6 5.4 2.0 1.9 3.8

3.3 4.4 1.1 1.9 3.0

2.8 4.9 1.6 1.4 3.5

2.6 4.5 1.8 1.6 2.6

2.6 4.1 2.1 1.7 3.1

2.8 4.0 2.3 3.3 3.4

3.6 3.8 3.4 3.3 3.7

3.6 4.4 2.9 4.4 3.5

3.7 4.1 3.5 3.4 3.7

4.1 5.4 2.5 2.9 3.4

4.2 5.3 2.4 2.4 3.5

3.7 5.4 1.9 1.5 3.6

39.6 55.7 27.5 29.7 40.8

North Bay, Ont Ottawa, Ont Penticton, BC Port Arthur, Ont Prince George, BC

46 45 49 48 53

21N 19N 28N 22N 53N

79 25W 75 40W 119 36W 89 19W 122 41W

1,216 374 1,129 644 2,218

17 65 32 62 27

22 21 32 17 23

2 3 21 K4 3

48 51 61 44 54

28 31 35 26 27

78 81 84 74 75

56 58 53 52 44

49 54 59 50 52

36 37 38 34 30

99 102 105 104 102

K46 K38 K16 K42 K58

23 65 32 59 27

2.0 2.9 1.0 0.9 1.8

1.5 2.2 0.7 0.8 1.2

1.8 2.8 0.7 1.0 1.4

2.2 2.7 0.7 1.5 0.8

2.5 2.5 1.1 2.1 1.3

3.2 3.5 1.2 2.8 2.1

3.2 3.4 0.8 3.6 1.6

2.7 2.6 0.8 2.8 1.9

3.7 3.2 1.0 3.4 2.0

3.2 2.9 0.8 2.5 2.0

2.7 3.0 0.9 1.5 1.9

2.1 2.6 1.1 0.9 1.9

30.8 34.3 10.8 23.8 19.9

Prince Rupert, BC Quebec, Que Regina, Sask Resolute, NWT St. John, NB

54 46 50 74 45

17N 48N 26N 43N 17N

130 23W 71 23W 104 40W 94 59W 66 04W

170 239 1,884 220 119

26 72 55 13 61

39 18 10 K20 28

30 2 K11 K33 11

50 44 50 K1 43

37 29 26 K16 32

62 76 79 45 69

49 57 51 35 54

53 51 52 11 54

42 37 27 0 41

90 97 110 61 93

K3 K34 K56 K61 K24

26 72 49 7 61

9.8 3.5 0.5 0.1 4.1

7.6 2.7 0.3 0.1 3.1

8.4 3.0 0.7 0.2 3.7

6.7 2.4 0.7 0.2 3.2

5.3 3.1 1.8 0.5 3.1

4.1 3.7 3.3 0.8 3.2

4.8 4.0 2.4 0.9 3.1

5.1 4.0 1.8 1.1 3.6

7.7 3.6 1.3 0.8 3.7

12.2 3.4 0.9 0.5 4.1

12.3 3.2 0.6 0.2 3.9

11.3 3.2 0.4 0.1 3.8

95.3 39.8 14.7 5.5 42.6

St. Johns, Nfld Saskatoon, Sask The Pas, Man Toronto, Ont Vancouver, BC

47 52 53 43 49

32N 08N 49N 40N 17N

52 44W 106 38W 101 15W 79 24W 123 05W

211 1,690 890 379 127

68 38 27 105 43

30 9 1 30 41

18 K11 K18 16 32

41 49 45 50 58

29 26 21 34 40

69 77 75 79 74

51 52 54 59 54

53 51 45 56 57

40 27 26 40 44

93 104 100 105 92

K21 K55 K54 K26 2

58 38 27 105 41

5.3 0.9 0.6 2.7 8.6

5.1 0.5 0.5 2.4 5.8

4.6 0.7 0.7 2.6 5.0

3.8 0.7 0.8 2.5 3.3

3.9 1.4 1.4 2.9 2.8

3.1 2.6 2.2 2.7 2.5

3.1 2.4 2.2 3.0 1.2

4.0 1.9 2.1 2.7 1.7

3.7 1.5 2.0 2.9 3.6

4.8 0.9 1.2 2.4 5.8

5.7 0.5 1.0 2.8 8.3

6.0 0.6 0.8 2.6 8.8

53.1 14.6 15.5 32.2 57.4

Whitehorse, YT Winnipeg, Man Yellow Knife, NWT

60 43N 49 54N 62 28N

135 04W 97 14W 114 27W

2,303 783 674

10 66 13

13 7 K8

K3 K13 K23

41 48 29

22 27 9

67 79 69

45 55 52

41 51 36

28 31 26

91 108 90

K62 K54 K60

10 66 13

0.6 0.9 0.8

0.5 0.9 0.6

0.6 1.2 0.7

0.4 1.4 0.4

0.6 2.3 0.7

1.0 3.1 0.6

1.6 3.1 1.5

1.5 2.5 1.4

1.3 2.3 1.0

0.7 1.5 1.3

1.0 1.1 1.0

0.8 0.9 0.8

10.6 21.2 10.8

Greenland Angmagssalik Denmarkshaven Elsmitte Godthaab Ivigtut

65 76 70 64 61

36N 46N 53N 10N 12N

37 19 40 51 48

33W 00W 42W 43W 10W

95 7 9,843 66 98

30 2 1 40 48

23 K1 K33 19 24

10 K15 K53 10 12

35 6 K14 31 38

16 K13 K37 20 24

54 47 19 52 57

37 34 1 38 42

35 13 K23 35 40

25 2 K42 26 29

77 63 27 76 86

K26 K42 K85 K20 K20

38 2 1 45 50

2.9 1.2 0.6 1.4 3.3

2.4 0.7 0.2 1.7 2.6

2.6 0.7 0.3 1.6 3.4

2.1 0.1 0.2 1.2 2.5

2.0 0.2 0.1 1.7 3.5

1.8 0.2 0.1 1.4 3.2

1.5 0.5 0.1 2.2 3.1

2.1 0.6 0.4 3.1 3.7

3.3 0.3 0.3 3.3 5.9

4.7 0.3 0.5 2.5 5.7

3.0 1.0 0.5 1.9 4.6

2.7 0.7 1.0 1.5 3.1

31.1 6.0 4.3 23.5 44.6

Jacobshavn Nord Scoresbysund Thule Upernivik

69 81 70 76 72

13N 36N 29N 31N 47N

51 16 21 68 56

02W 40W 58W 44W 07W

104 118 56 251 59

32 8 12 12 40

8 K15 12 K4 K1

K7 K28 K3 K17 K13

24 K5 22 10 15

6 K18 6 K7 K1

51 44 49 46 48

40 35 36 38 35

31 3 25 19 29

20 K6 15 8 21

71 61 63 63 69

K46 K60 K42 K44 K44

52 8 12 12 50

0.4 0.8 1.8 0.4 0.4

0.4 0.8 1.4 0.3 0.5

0.5 0.5 0.9 0.2 0.7

0.5 0.3 1.4 0.2 0.6

0.6 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.6

0.8 0.3 0.8 0.2 0.5

1.2 1.0 1.5 0.7 0.9

1.4 1.4 0.7 0.6 1.1

1.3 1.2 1.7 0.6 1.1

0.9 0.6 1.4 0.7 1.1

0.7 1.4 1.1 0.5 1.1

0.5 0.5 1.9 0.2 0.6

9.2 8.9 15.0 4.9 9.2

Canada Aklavik, NWT Alert, NWT Calgary, Alta Charlottetown, PEI Chatham, NB

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-79

61 55 71 60 55

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

United States, Alaska Anchorage Annette Barrow Bethel Cold Bay

3-80

Table 3B.13

(Continued) Temperature

Average Precipitation

Average Daily

July

August

September

October

November

December

Maximum

June

Minimum

May

Maximum

April

Minimum

March

Maximum

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

50N 42N 41N 57N 07N

99 56W 105 57W 103 20W 110 55W 110 17W

10 4,429 5,194 58 85

8 9 26 9 9

85 65 73 74 74

70 36 45 57 54

87 81 85 84 86

71 51 53 65 58

89 89 79 96 96

75 66 60 82 73

88 79 78 91 90

74 51 56 75 68

97 102 101 117 108

25 19 23 20 19

30N 04N 11N 58N 26N

103 32W 104 20W 106 25W 89 38W 99 04W

3,740 26 256 72 7,340

10 17 10 22 42

72 86 71 83 66

45 68 61 62 42

86 87 76 92 78

57 67 65 69 52

90 93 86 92 74

68 76 77 73 54

82 91 85 87 70

58 76 76 71 50

25 16 22 19

40N 12N 16N 12N

100 18W 95 12W 97 51W 96 08W

1,732 184 78 52

11 10 12 10

68 85 75 77

48 72 59 66

84 88 83 83

62 76 69 72

90 89 89 87

71 76 75 74

80 87 85 85

64 75 71 73

Monterrey Salina Cruz Tampico Vera Cruz

February

Minimum

Year

Lerdo Manzanillo Mazatan Merida Mexico City

January

Maximum

Feet

16 28 20 27 24

Length of Record

Minimum

8

Mexico Acapulco Chihuahua Guadalajara Guaymas La Paz

Minimum

Maximum

8

Country and Station

Year

8F

Year

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

60 12 26 41 31

40 22 33 41 12

0.3 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.2

— 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1

0.0 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.0

— 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0

1.4 0.2 1.1 — 0.0

12.8 1.7 8.8 0.1 0.2

9.1 3.6 9.4 1.7 0.4

9.3 3.7 8.5 2.7 1.2

13.9 3.3 7.2 2.1 1.4

6.7 0.9 2.2 0.7 0.6

1.2 0.5 0.8 0.3 0.5

0.4 0.4 0.7 0.8 1.1

55.1 15.4 39.7 9.4 5.7

105 103 93 106 92

23 54 52 51 24

14 17 46 40 48

0.4 0.1 0.8 1.2 0.2

0.1 0.2 0.5 0.9 0.3

0.2 — 0.2 0.7 0.5

0.3 0.0 0.1 0.8 0.7

0.8 0.1 0.1 3.2 1.9

1.5 4.7 1.5 5.6 4.1

1.5 5.7 5.9 5.2 4.5

1.3 6.4 8.3 5.6 4.3

2.0 14.5 8.0 6.8 4.1

0.8 5.1 2.6 3.8 1.6

0.8 0.9 0.9 1.3 0.5

0.5 1.8 1.3 1.3 0.3

10.2 39.5 30.2 36.5 23.0

107 98 104 98

25 62 34 53

33 22 12 40

0.6 * 1.5 0.9

0.7 0.4 1.2 0.6

0.8 0.6 1.0 0.6

1.3 0.5 1.5 0.8

1.3 3.3 1.9 2.6

3.0 11.6 8.7 10.4

2.3 4.5 4.9 4.1

2.4 5.5 4.8 11.1

5.2 7.1 10.8 13.9

3.0 4.0 5.0 6.9

1.5 0.9 2.0 3.0

0.8 0.1 1.6 1.0

22.9 38.5 44.9 65.7

Central America Belize Belize Canal Zone Balboa Heights Cristobal Costa Rica San Jose El Salvador San Salvador Guatemala Guatemala City Honduras Tela

17 31N

88 11W

17

27

81

67

86

74

87

75

86

72

97

49

33

5.4

2.4

1.5

2.2

4.3

7.7

6.4

6.7

9.6

12.0

8.9

7.3

74.4

08 57N 09 21N

79 33W 79 54W

118 35

34 36

88 84

71 76

90 86

74 77

87 85

74 76

85 86

73 75

97 97

63 66

46 73

1.0 3.4

0.4 1.5

0.7 1.5

2.9 4.1

8.0 12.5

8.4 13.9

7.1 15.6

7.9 15.3

8.2 12.7

10.1 15.8

10.2 22.3

4.8 11.7

69.7 130.3

09 56N

84 08W

3,760

8

75

58

79

62

77

62

77

60

92

49

34

0.6

0.2

0.8

1.8

9.0

9.5

8.3

9.5

12.0

11.8

5.7

1.6

70.8

13 42N

89 13W

2,238

39

90

60

93

65

89

65

87

65

105

45

39

0.3

0.2

0.4

1.7

7.7

12.9

11.5

11.7

12.1

9.5

1.6

0.4

70.0

14 37N

90 31W

4,855

6

73

53

82

58

78

60

76

60

90

41

29

0.3

0.1

0.5

1.2

6.0

10.8

8.0

7.8

9.1

6.8

0.9

0.3

51.8

15 46N

87 27W

41

4

82

67

87

72

88

73

86

71

96

58

20

8.9

5.1

2.6

3.3

4.3

5.0

6.4

9.4

7.7

13.5

15.9

14.0

96.1

5.8

6.7

7.0

8.1

3.8

50.3

West Indies Bridgetown, Barbados Camp Jacob, Guadaloupe Fort-de-France, Martinique Hamilton, Bermuda Havana, Cuba Kingston, Jamaica La Guerite, St. Christopher (St. Kitts)

13 08N

59 36W

181

35

83

70

86

72

86

74

86

73

95

61

22

2.6

1.1

1.3

1.4

2.3

4.4

5.8

16 01N

61 42W

1,750

19

77

64

79

65

81

68

81

68

92

54

21

9.2

6.1

8.1

7.3

11.5

14.1

17.6

15.3

16.4

12.4

12.3

10.1

140.4

14 37N

61 05W

13

22

83

69

86

71

86

74

87

73

96

56

31

4.7

4.3

2.9

3.9

4.7

7.4

9.4

10.3

9.3

9.7

7.9

5.9

80.4

32 17N

64 46W

151

59

68

58

71

59

85

73

79

69

99

40

62

4.4

4.7

4.8

4.1

4.6

4.4

4.5

5.4

5.2

5.8

5.0

4.7

57.6

23 08N 17 58N 17 20N

82 21W 76 48W 62 45W

80 110 157

25 33 19

79 86 80

65 67 71

84 87 83

69 70 73

89 90 86

75 73 76

85 88 85

73 73 75

104 97 91

43 56 61

72 59 21

2.8 0.9 4.1

1.8 0.6 2.0

1.8 0.9 2.3

2.3 1.2 2.3

4.7 4.0 3.8

6.5 3.5 3.6

4.9 1.5 4.4

5.3 3.6 5.2

5.9 3.9 6.0

6.8 7.1 5.4

3.1 2.9 7.3

2.3 1.4 4.5

48.2 31.5 50.9

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Length of Record

Oct

Elevation

July

Longitude

Apr

Latitude

Jan

Extreme

77 21W 72 20W

12 121

35 42

77 87

65 68

81 89

69 71

88 94

75 74

85 90

73 72

94 101

41 58

57 70

1.4 1.3

1.5 2.3

1.4 3.4

2.5 6.3

4.6 9.1

6.4 4.0

5.8 2.9

5.3 5.7

6.9 6.9

6.5 6.7

2.8 3.4

1.3 1.3

46.4 53.3

Saint Clair, Trinidad Saint Thomas, Virgin Is San Juan, Puerto Rico Santo Domingo, Dom. Rep

10 40N 18 20N

61 31W 64 58W

67 11

49 9

87 82

69 71

90 85

69 74

88 88

71 77

89 87

71 76

101 92

52 63

97 9

2.7 2.5

1.6 1.9

1.8 1.7

2.1 2.2

3.7 4.6

7.6 3.2

8.6 3.2

9.7 4.1

7.6 6.9

6.7 5.6

7.2 3.9

4.9 3.9

64.2 43.7

18 26N

66 00W

13

30

81

67

84

69

87

74

87

73

94

60

30

4.7

2.9

2.2

3.7

7.1

5.7

6.3

7.1

6.8

5.8

6.5

5.4

64.2

18 29N

69 54W

57

26

84

66

85

69

88

72

87

72

98

59

25

2.4

1.4

1.9

3.9

6.8

6.2

6.4

6.3

7.3

6.0

4.8

2.4

55.8

38 34 38 27 22

43S 35S 57S 28S 06S

62 58 67 58 65

16W 29W 59W 50W 36W

95 89 889 177 11,345

33 23 9 39 23

88 85 89 93 70

62 63 56 71 41

71 72 72 81 69

51 53 40 63 32

57 57 55 71 60

39 42 29 53 16

71 69 72 82 71

48 50 43 60 32

109 104 107 112 95

18 22 9 30 0

46 70 24 40 25

1.7 3.1 0.4 4.7 3.5

2.2 2.8 0.4 4.5 2.6

2.5 4.3 0.7 5.3 1.8

2.3 3.5 0.4 5.6 0.3

1.2 3.0 0.6 3.3 —

0.9 2.4 0.6 1.9 0.0

1.0 2.2 0.5 1.7 —

1.0 2.4 0.3 1.5 —

1.6 3.1 0.6 2.8 0.1

2.2 3.4 0.9 4.7 0.3

2.1 3.3 0.5 5.2 1.0

1.9 3.9 0.5 5.2 2.7

20.6 37.4 6.4 46.4 12.3

32 31 42 50 27 54

53S 44S 47S 01S 46S 50S

68 60 65 68 64 68

49W 31W 01W 32W 18W 20W

2,625 210 26 39 653 26

23 12 50 12 28 16

90 91 81 70 97 57

60 67 57 48 69 41

73 77 70 57 82 48

47 58 46 39 59 33

59 62 55 41 70 39

35 45 36 28 44 25

76 75 68 58 87 52

50 54 45 39 59 35

109 113 104 94 116 85

15 21 10 1 19 6

46 23 50 20 20 21

0.9 3.1 0.4 0.6 3.4 2.0

1.2 3.1 0.6 0.3 3.0 2.6

1.1 3.9 0.7 0.3 3.0 1.9

0.5 4.9 0.5 0.6 1.3 2.1

0.4 2.6 0.9 0.4 0.6 1.5

0.3 1.2 0.6 0.5 0.3 1.2

0.2 1.2 0.6 0.4 0.2 1.2

0.3 1.6 0.4 0.5 0.2 1.1

0.5 2.1 0.6 0.3 0.5 1.3

0.7 2.8 0.7 0.3 1.4 1.6

0.7 3.7 0.4 0.4 2.5 1.5

0.7 4.5 0.6 0.7 4.1 1.9

7.5 35.0 7.0 5.3 20.4 19.9

16 15S 16 30S 19 03S

62 03W 68 08W 65 17W

1,607 12,001 9,344

5 31 5

85 63 63

66 43 48

86 65 63

62 40 45

81 62 61

54 33 37

88 66 65

62 40 46

101 80 88

32 26 25

16 50 52

7.2 4.5 7.3

4.7 4.2 4.9

4.4 2.6 3.7

1.8 1.3 1.6

2.0 0.5 0.2

1.5 0.3 0.1

1.1 0.4 0.2

0.9 0.5 0.3

1.2 1.1 1.0

2.9 1.6 1.6

5.0 1.9 2.6

5.9 3.7 4.3

38.6 22.6 27.8

05 22 01 15 08

35S 06S 27S 51S 15S

45 56 48 47 49

28W 22W 29W 56W 12W

266 525 42 3,481 53

9 13 16 3 5

89 91 87 80 88

71 67 72 65 70

89 85 87 82 91

71 61 73 62 68

92 77 88 78 95

64 49 71 51 63

94 87 89 82 93

72 61 71 64 68

103 108 98 93 102

45 20 61 46 55

9 20 20 3 5

6.7 6.6 12.5 9.0 14.9

8.7 4.9 14.1 7.8 12.1

8.0 4.4 14.1 4.8 10.8

6.1 4.3 12.6 3.4 4.1

2.3 5.0 10.2 1.4 1.9

1.0 2.8 6.7 — 0.4

0.7 1.3 5.9 0.0 —

0.7 1.8 4.4 — 0.5

1.0 2.9 3.5 1.3 1.5

2.5 5.4 3.3 4.9 6.6

3.9 5.8 2.6 9.7 4.9

5.7 7.0 6.1 11.7 8.6

47.2 52.2 96.0 54.0 66.2

Corumba Florianopolis Goias Guarapuava Manaus

19 27 15 25 03

00S 35S 58S 16S 08S

57 48 50 51 60

39W 33W 04W 30W 01W

381 96 1,706 3,592 144

8 17 11 10 11

94 83 86 79 88

73 72 63 61 75

92 74 91 73 87

73 64 63 55 75

84 68 89 66 89

64 57 56 47 75

93 73 94 74 92

70 63 63 53 76

106 102 104 94 101

33 32 41 23 63

11 25 11 5 25

7.3 7.6 12.5 8.7 9.8

5.9 5.6 9.9 5.8 9.1

5.1 6.3 10.2 5.4 10.3

4.6 4.1 4.6 4.5 8.7

2.9 3.6 0.4 4.6 6.7

1.9 6.5 0.3 6.5 3.3

0.3 2.2 0.0 2.7 2.3

1.2 3.7 0.3 3.6 1.5

2.6 4.3 2.3 4.6 1.8

4.0 5.1 5.3 6.9 4.2

5.6 3.5 9.4 6.6 5.6

7.1 4.3 9.5 6.1 8.0

48.5 53.1 64.8 65.8 71.3

Natal Parana Porto Alegre Quixeramobim Recife

05 12 30 05 08

46S 26S 02S 12S 04S

35 12W 48 06W 51.13W 39 18W 34 53W

52 853 33 653 97

18 19 22 9 27

87 90 87 92 86

76 58 67 79 77

86 90 78 86 85

73 58 60 76 75

82 91 66 88 80

69 48 49 74 71

85 94 74 93 84

75 58 57 77 75

100 105 105 100 94

61 37 25 63 50

18 19 22 13 56

1.9 11.3 3.5 0.7 2.1

4.8 9.3 3.2 5.0 3.3

7.0 9.4 3.9 6.6 6.3

9.2 4.0 4.1 5.0 8.7

7.1 0.5 4.5 7.0 10.5

8.7 * 5.1 1.7 10.9

7.7 0.1 4.5 0.7 10.0

3.8 0.2 5.0 0.6 6.0

1.4 1.1 5.2 0.4 2.5

0.8 5.0 3.4 0.6 1.0

0.7 9.1 3.1 0.7 1.0

1.1 12.2 3.5 0.6 1.1

54.2 62.3 49.1 29.6 63.4

Rio de Janeiro Salvador (Bahia) Santarem Sao Paulo Sena Madureira Uaupes Uruguaiana

22 13 02 23 09 00 29

55S 00S 30S 37S 04S 08S 46S

43 38 54 46 68 67 57

12W 30W 42W 39W 39W 05W 07W

201 154 66 2,628 443 272 246

38 25 22 44 12 15 15

84 86 86 77 92 88 91

73 74 73 63 69 72 69

80 84 85 73 91 88 78

69 74 73 59 68 72 59

75 79 87 66 91 85 66

63 69 71 53 63 70 48

77 83 91 68 93 89 77

66 71 73 57 69 71 55

102 100 99 100 100 100 108

46 50 65 32 41 52 27

84 20 22 24 17 10 12

4.9 2.6 6.8 8.8 11.2 10.3 3.6

4.8 5.3 10.9 7.8 11.3 7.7 3.6

5.1 6.1 13.2 6.0 10.2 10.0 5.6

4.2 11.2 12.9 2.2 9.4 10.6 5.1

3.1 10.8 11.3 3.0 4.1 12.0 3.7

2.1 9.4 6.9 2.4 2.2 9.2 4.2

1.6 7.2 4.1 1.5 1.1 8.8 3.2

1.7 4.8 1.7 2.1 1.5 7.2 2.8

2.6 3.3 1.5 3.5 4.0 5.1 3.6

3.1 4.0 1.9 4.6 7.0 6.9 4.1

4.1 4.5 2.3 6.0 7.5 7.2 2.9

5.4 5.6 4.1 9.4 11.7 10.4 4.1

42.6 74.8 77.9 57.3 81.2 105.4 46.6

Chile Ancud Antofagasta Arica Cabo Raper Los Evangelistas

41 26 18 46 52

47S 42S 28S 50S 23S

73 70 70 75 75

52W 24W 20W 38W 07W

184 308 95 131 190

30 22 15 8 16

62 76 78 58 50

51 63 64 46 44

57 70 74 54 48

47 58 60 44 41

50 63 66 47 43

42 51 54 38 36

55 66 69 51 45

45 55 58 40 39

82 86 93 72 66

30 37 39 28 19

46 32 25 10 27

3.1 0.0 — 7.8 11.7

3.7 0.0 0.0 5.8 10.0

5.3 0.0 0.0 7.1 11.3

7.4 — 0.0 7.7 11.4

9.9 — 0.0 7.5 9.6

11.0 0.1 0.0 7.9 9.4

10.3 0.2 0.0 9.5 9.4

9.4 0.1 — 7.5 8.6

6.5 — 0.0 5.6 9.2

4.2 0.1 0.0 7.0 8.8

4.7 — 0.0 6.7 9.9

4.6 0.0 — 7.0 10.1

80.1 0.5 — 87.1 119.4

69 27W 72 42W

9,350 33

7 8

65 63

49 50

63 55

47 43

57 45

40 37

61 55

44 42

75 93

20 18

7 11

— 7.8

— 7.8

0.3 8.3

— 7.5

0.7 14.7

— 10.4

0.5 11.1

0.3 11.1

0.2 6.5

0.2 7.8

0.0 7.0

— 7.9

2.2 107.9

South America Argentina Bahia Blanca Buenos Aires Cipolletti Corrientes La Quiaca Mendoza Parana Puerto Madryn Santa Cruz Santiago del Estero Ushulaia Bollvia Concepcion La Paz Sucre Brazil Barra do Corda Bela Vista Belem Brasilia Conceicao do Araguaia

Potrerillos Puerto Aisen

26 30S 42 24S

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-81

25 05N 18 33N

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Nassau, Bahamas Port-au-Prince, Haiti

3-82

Table 3B.13

(Continued) Temperature

Average Precipitation

Average Daily

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Length of Record

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

8

Feet

Year

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

Year

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

53 33 39 33

10S 27S 48S 01S

70 70 73 71

54W 42W 14W 38W

26 1,706 16 135

15 14 29 30

58 85 73 72

45 53 52 56

50 74 62 67

39 45 46 52

40 59 52 60

31 37 41 47

51 72 63 65

38 45 44 50

86 99 97 94

11 24 19 32

15 58 60 41

1.5 0.1 2.6 0.1

0.9 0.1 2.9 —

1.3 0.2 5.2 0.3

1.4 0.5 9.2 0.6

1.3 2.5 14.2 4.1

1.6 3.3 17.7 5.9

1.1 3.0 15.5 3.9

1.2 2.2 12.9 2.9

0.9 1.2 8.2 1.3

1.1 0.6 5.0 0.4

0.7 0.3 4.9 0.2

1.4 0.2 4.1 0.2

14.4 14.2 102.4 19.9

Colombia Andagoya Bogota Cartagena Ipiales Tumaco

05 04 10 00 01

06N 42N 28N 50N 49N

76 74 75 77 78

40W 08W 30W 42W 45W

197 8,355 39 9,680 7

8 10 6 9 10

90 67 84 61 82

75 48 73 50 75

90 67 87 60 84

75 51 76 49 76

89 64 88 57 82

74 50 78 42 75

90 66 87 62 82

74 50 77 49 75

97 75 98 77 90

62 30 61 32 64

15 49 10 13 10

25.0 2.3 0.4 3.1 16.9

21.4 2.6 0.0 2.3 11.7

19.5 4.0 0.4 3.5 9.6

26.1 5.8 0.9 3.5 14.6

25.5 4.5 3.4 2.8 17.4

25.8 2.4 3.4 1.9 12.0

23.3 2.0 3.0 1.3 7.7

25.3 2.2 0.6 1.1 7.3

24.6 2.4 0.5 1.4 7.3

22.7 6.3 10.8 3.1 5.9

22.4 4.7 8.9 3.3 4.9

19.5 2.6 4.5 2.6 7.0

281.1 41.8 36.8 29.9 122.3

Ecuador Cuenca Guayaquil Quito

02 53S 02 10S 00 08S

78 39W 79 53W 78 29W

8,301 20 9,222

7 5 54

69 87 67

50 72 46

69 88 69

50 72 47

65 84 71

47 67 44

70 86 71

49 68 46

81 98 86

29 52 25

10 10 33

2.0 8.3 3.9

1.8 11.4 4.4

3.2 11.5 5.6

4.3 8.1 6.9

4.3 2.1 5.4

1.7 0.4 1.7

0.9 0.2 0.8

1.1 — 1.2

1.6 — 2.7

3.1 — 4.4

1.8 0.1 3.8

2.5 1.1 3.1

28.3 43.2 43.9

French Guiana Cayenne

04 56N

52 27W

20

38

84

74

86

75

88

73

91

74

97

65

51

14.4

12.3

15.8

18.9

21.7

15.5

6.9

2.8

1.2

1.3

4.6

10.7

126.1

Guyana Georgetown Lethem

06 50N 03 24N

58 12W 59 38W

6 270

54 3

84 91

74 73

85 91

76 74

85 87

75 73

87 92

76 76

93 97

68 63

35 9

8.0 1.2

4.5 1.4

6.9 1.3

5.5 5.7

11.4 11.5

11.9 11.9

10.0 14.8

6.9 9.4

3.2 3.4

3.0 2.3

6.1 4.3

11.3 1.3

88.7 68.5

Paraguay Asuncion Bahia Negra

25 17S 20 14S

57 30W 58 10W

456 318

15 20

95 92

71 74

84 87

65 68

74 79

53 61

86 90

62 69

110 106

29 35

30 20

5.5 5.4

5.1 5.3

4.3 4.9

5.2 2.9

4.6 2.3

2.7 1.6

2.2 1.5

1.5 0.6

3.1 2.3

5.5 4.2

5.9 5.3

6.2 4.3

51.8 40.6

Peru Arequipa Cajamarca Cusco Iquitos Lima Mollendo

16 07 13 03 12 17

71 78 71 73 77 72

34W 30W 59W 13W 03W 07W

8,460 8,662 10,866 384 394 80

13 9 13 5 15 10

67 71 68 90 82 79

49 48 45 71 66 66

67 70 71 87 80 76

48 47 40 71 63 63

67 70 70 88 67 67

47 41 31 68 57 57

68 71 72 90 71 70

47 47 43 70 58 59

82 79 86 100 93 90

25 25 16 54 49 50

37 9 12 5 15 10

1.3 3.6 6.4 9.1 0.1 —

1.8 4.2 5.9 10.4 — 0.1

0.7 4.6 4.3 9.4 — —

0.2 3.4 2.0 13.6 — —

— 1.7 0.6 10.7 0.2 0.1

— 9.5 0.2 5.7 0.2 0.1

— 9.2 0.2 6.4 0.3 —

— 9.3 0.4 5.2 0.3 0.2

0.0 2.3 1.0 10.5 0.3 0.2

— 2.3 2.6 7.3 0.1 0.1

— 1.9 3.0 9.1 0.1 0.1

0.4 3.2 5.4 10.3 — —

4.4 28.2 32.0 107.7 1.6 0.9

Surinam Paramaribo

05 49N

55 09W

12

35

85

72

86

73

87

73

91

73

99

62

75

8.4

6.5

7.9

9.0

12.2

11.9

9.1

6.2

3.1

3.0

4.9

8.8

91.0

Uruguay Artigas Montevideo

30 24S 34 52S

56 23W 56 12W

384 72

13 56

91 83

65 62

77 71

55 53

65 58

45 43

75 68

54 49

107 109

24 25

50 56

4.3 2.9

3.9 2.6

4.7 3.9

5.1 3.9

4.1 3.3

4.1 3.2

2.8 2.9

3.0 3.1

4.0 3.0

4.7 2.6

3.8 2.9

4.1 3.1

48.6 37.4

Venezuela Caracas Ciudad Bolivar Maracaibo

10 30N 08 07N 10 39N

66 56W 63 32W 71 36W

3,418 197 20

30 10 12

75 90 90

56 72 73

81 93 92

60 75 76

78 90 94

61 75 76

79 93 92

61 75 76

91 100 102

45 64 66

46 10 36

0.9 1.4 0.1

0.4 0.8 —

0.6 0.7 0.3

1.3 1.0 0.8

3.1 3.8 2.7

4.0 5.5 2.2

4.3 6.3 1.8

4.3 7.1 2.2

4.2 3.6 2.8

4.3 4.0 5.9

3.7 2.8 3.3

1.8 1.3 0.6

32.9 38.3 22.7

Merida Santa Elena

08 36N 04 36N

71 10W 61 07W

5,293 2,976

14 10

73 82

56 61

75 82

60 63

76 81

59 61

75 84

60 61

90 95

48 48

14 10

2.5 3.2

1.5 3.2

3.6 3.2

6.7 5.7

9.8 9.6

7.3 9.5

4.7 9.1

5.7 7.6

6.7 5.3

9.5 4.9

8.2 4.9

3.4 4.5

69.7 70.7

Latitude

Maximum

Oct

Length of Record

July

Elevation

Apr

Longitude

Jan

Extreme

Country and Station

8 Punta Arenas Santiago Valdivia Valparaiso

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

21S 09S 33S 45S 05S 00S

Year

Easter Is. (Isla de Pascua) Mas a Tierra (Juan Fernandez) Seymour Is. (Galapagos Is.)

27 10S

109 26W

98

4

77

64

78

63

70

58

73

58

88

46

10

4.8

3.7

4.6

4.2

4.6

4.3

3.5

3.0

2.7

3.7

4.6

4.9

48.6

33 37S

78 52W

20

25

72

60

68

57

60

50

61

51

86

39

29

0.8

1.2

1.6

3.4

5.9

6.4

5.8

4.4

2.9

1.9

1.6

1.0

36.9

00 28S

90 18W

36

3

86

72

87

75

81

69

81

67

93

58

3

0.8

1.4

1.1

0.7

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

4.0

03 50S 54 16S

32 25W 36 30W

148 8

32 23

84 48

75 35

82 42

75 29

81 34

73 23

82 41

75 28

93 84

63 K3

32 24

1.7 3.3

4.7 4.3

7.4 5.3

10.5 5.4

10.5 5.2

7.3 4.9

5.4 5.5

1.9 5.3

0.7 3.5

0.3 2.6

0.4 3.4

0.5 3.0

51.3 51.7

60 44S

44 44W

13

48

35

29

31

21

20

4

30

19

54

K40

46

1.4

1.5

1.9

1.6

1.2

1.0

1.3

1.3

1.1

1.1

1.3

1.0

15.7

51 42S

57 51W

6

25

56

42

49

37

40

31

48

35

76

12

41

2.8

2.3

2.5

2.6

2.6

2.1

2.0

2.0

1.5

1.6

2.0

2.8

26.8

95

21

10

3.0

3.3

3.9

2.2

1.6

1.9

0.5

1.9

1.7

7.1

8.5

7.3

42.9

Atlantic Islands Fernando de Noronha Cumberland Bay, South Georgia Laurie Is., South Orkneys Stanley, Falkland Isles

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Pacific Islands

Europe Albania Durres Andorra Les Escaldes Austria Innsbruck Vienna Bulgaria Sofia Varna Cyprus Nicosia Czechoslovakia Prague Prerov Denmark Copenhagen Aarhus Finland Helsinki Kuusamo Vaasa France Ajaccio (Corsica) Bordeaux Brest Cherbourg Lille Lyon Marseille Paris Strasbourg Toulouse Germany Berlin Bremen Frankfurt A/M Hamburg Munich Munster Numberg Gibraltar Windmill Hill Greece Athens Iraklion (Crete)

41 19N

19 28E

23

10

51

42

63

55

83

74

68

58

42 30N

01 31E

3,543

5

43

29

59

39

78

55

61

42

91

0

9

1.5

1.7

2.9

2.4

4.7

3.1

2.2

3.4

3.1

3.5

3.3

2.5

34.3

47 16N 48 15N

11 24E 16 22E

1,909 664

34 50

34 34

20 26

60 57

39 41

78 75

55 59

58 55

40 44

97 98

K16 K14

35 100

2.1 1.5

1.8 1.4

1.5 1.8

2.2 2.0

2.9 2.8

4.1 2.7

5.1 3.0

4.5 2.7

3.1 2.0

2.4 2.0

2.2 1.9

1.9 1.8

33.8 25.6

42 42N 43 12N

23 20E 27 55E

1,805 115

30 30

34 40

22 30

62 59

41 43

82 84

57 63

63 67

42 50

99 107

K17 K12

27 20

1.3 1.5

1.1 0.9

1.7 1.2

2.3 1.2

3.3 1.8

3.2 2.6

2.4 1.9

2.0 1.2

2.3 1.5

2.1 1.9

1.9 1.9

1.4 2.0

25.0 19.6

35 09N

33 17E

716

40

58

42

74

50

97

69

81

58

116

23

64

2.9

2.0

1.3

0.8

1.1

0.4

—

—

0.2

0.9

1.7

3.0

14.6

50 05N 49 27N

14 25E 17 27E

662 702

40 20

34 34

25 25

55 57

40 38

74 77

58 55

54 56

44 40

98 100

K16 K23

70 21

0.9 1.3

0.8 1.1

1.1 1.1

1.5 2.0

2.4 2.4

2.8 2.9

2.6 3.5

2.2 3.2

1.7 2.0

1.2 2.4

1.2 1.5

0.9 1.4

19.3 24.8

55 41N 56 08N

12 33E 10 12E

43 161

30 21

36 35

29 27

50 51

37 37

72 70

55 54

53 53

42 42

91 87

K3 K12

30 21

1.6 2.3

1.3 1.5

1.2 1.4

1.7 1.8

1.7 1.2

2.1 2.2

2.2 2.5

3.2 3.3

1.9 3.2

2.1 2.6

2.2 2.5

2.1 2.1

23.3 26.6

60 10N 65 57N 63 05N

24 57E 29 12E 21 36E

30 843 13

20 20 18

27 17 26

17 2 16

43 35 41

31 18 28

71 68 69

57 50 55

45 36 44

37 27 36

89 90 89

K23 K40 K29

50 20 19

2.2 1.1 1.1

1.7 1.1 0.8

1.7 1.1 0.8

1.7 1.1 1.0

1.9 1.4 1.4

2.0 2.3 1.8

2.3 2.8 2.4

3.3 3.0 2.5

2.8 2.1 2.7

2.9 2.1 2.3

2.7 1.6 1.7

2.4 1.1 1.1

27.6 20.8 19.6

41 44 48 49 50 45 43 48 48 43

52N 50N 19N 39N 35N 42N 18N 49N 35N 33N

08 35E 00 43W 04 47W 01 38W 03 05W 04 47E 05 23E 02 29E 07 46E 01 23E

243 157 56 30 141 938 246 164 465 538

46 51 56 47 40 70 72 66 20 47

56 48 49 47 42 41 53 42 40 47

40 35 40 40 33 30 38 32 31 35

66 63 57 54 58 61 59 60 59 62

48 44 44 43 40 42 41 41 41 43

85 80 70 67 75 80 78 76 78 82

64 58 56 57 55 58 58 55 57 59

72 66 61 59 59 61 76 59 58 66

55 47 49 50 45 45 57 44 43 48

103 102 95 91 96 105 101 105 101 111

23 9 7 14 0 K13 9 1 K8 1

86 47 56 47 40 70 102 118 20 47

3.0 2.7 3.5 3.3 2.5 1.4 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.9

2.3 2.8 3.0 2.9 1.9 1.4 1.5 1.3 1.4 1.7

2.6 2.9 2.5 2.7 2.5 1.8 1.8 1.5 1.7 2.3

2.2 2.6 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.0 1.7 2.6 2.7

1.6 2.5 1.9 1.9 2.4 2.8 1.9 2.0 2.6 2.9

0.9 2.3 2.0 1.8 2.2 2.9 1.0 2.1 3.1 2.4

2.8 2.0 2.0 1.9 2.8 2.8 0.6 2.1 3.4 1.5

0.7 1.9 2.2 3.0 2.3 2.9 0.9 2.0 3.4 2.1

1.7 2.2 2.3 2.9 2.6 3.1 2.6 2.0 3.1 2.3

3.8 3.0 3.6 4.6 3.0 3.1 3.7 2.2 2.7 2.2

4.4 3.9 4.2 5.1 3.0 2.6 3.1 2.0 2.0 2.4

3.1 3.9 4.4 5.2 3.2 1.9 2.2 1.9 1.9 2.3

29.1 32.7 34.1 37.3 30.3 28.8 23.2 22.3 29.5 26.7

52 53 50 53 48 51 49

27N 05N 07N 33N 09N 58N 27N

13 08 08 09 11 07 11

18E 47E 40E 58E 34E 38E 03E

187 52 338 66 1,739 207 1,050

50 50 50 50 50 50 50

35 37 37 35 33 39 35

26 30 29 28 23 29 26

55 53 58 51 54 56 56

38 38 41 39 37 38 38

74 71 75 69 72 73 74

55 55 56 56 54 54 55

55 54 56 53 53 56 55

41 43 43 44 40 42 41

96 94 100 92 92 96 99

K15 K7 K7 K4 K14 K17 K18

40 80 80 80 80 40 80

1.9 1.9 1.7 2.1 1.7 2.6 1.5

1.3 1.6 1.3 1.9 1.4 1.9 1.2

1.5 1.8 1.6 2.0 1.9 2.2 1.3

1.7 1.5 1.5 1.8 2.7 2.0 1.7

1.9 2.1 2.0 2.1 3.7 2.2 2.2

2.3 2.6 2.5 2.7 4.6 2.7 2.5

3.1 3.2 2.8 3.4 4.7 3.3 3.1

2.2 2.8 2.6 3.2 4.2 3.1 3.1

1.9 2.1 1.9 2.5 3.2 2.5 2.1

1.7 2.2 2.2 2.6 2.2 2.7 2.1

1.7 2.0 2.0 2.1 1.9 2.4 1.9

1.9 2.2 2.0 2.5 1.9 2.9 1.7

23.1 26.0 24.1 28.9 34.1 30.5 24.4

36 06N

05 21W

400

12

58

50

64

55

77

66

70

61

97

35

12

4.6

3.4

3.7

2.5

1.4

0.2

—

0.1

0.8

3.5

4.1

5.4

29.7

37 58N 35 20N

23 43E 25 08E

351 98

72 21

54 60

42 48

67 70

52 54

90 85

72 72

74 77

60 62

109 114

20 32

80 22

2.2 3.7

1.6 3.0

1.4 1.6

0.8 0.9

0.8 0.7

0.6 0.1

0.2 —

0.4 0.1

0.6 0.7

1.7 1.7

2.8 2.8

2.8 2.8

15.8 15.8

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-83

(Continued)

3-84

Table 3B.13

(Continued) Temperature

Average Precipitation

Average Daily

December

Minimum

November

Maximum

October

Minimum

September

Maximum

August

Minimum

July

Maximum

June

Minimum

May

Maximum

April

Minimum

March

Maximum

Feet

Year

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

36 26N 40 37N

28 15E 22 57E

289 78

10 9

59 49

51

67

59

83

74

76

68

104

30

47 31N 47 36N

19 02E 21 39E

394 430

50 50

35 33

26 21

62 61

44 39

82 81

61 57

61 60

45 41

103 102

65 41N 64 09N

18 05W 21 56W

16 92

23 25

34 36

26 28

40 43

30 33

57 58

47 48

43 44

34 36

51 54N 53 22N 52 41N

08 29W 06 21W 08 55W

56 155 8

27 30 9

48 47 46

38 35 36

55 54 55

41 38 41

68 67 66

53 51 53

58 57 58

43 39 44 40 38

13 09 08 14 13

32E 03E 55E 15E 19E

52 3 318 82 354

30 30 10 30 10

46 56 50 54 58

36 43 41 40 47

62 66 65 65 67

50 50 53 52 53

83 86 82 84 86

68 67 70 70 71

41 48N 40 28N 45 26N

12 36E 17 17E 12 23E

377 56 82

10 10 10

54 55 43

39 43 33

68 59 63

46 50 49

88 89 82

49 37N

06 03E

1,096

7

36

29

58

40

35 54N

14 31E

233

90

59

51

66

43 44N

07 25E

180

60

54

46

61

52 23N

04 55E

5

29

40

34

52

43

69

59

56

48

95

3

29

2.0

1.4

1.3

1.6

1.8

1.8

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.8

2.6

2.2

25.6

60 58 59 69 63 70

24N 10N 56N 39N 25N 22N

05 07 10 18 10 31

19E 59E 44E 57E 27E 06E

141 175 308 335 417 43

49 11 44 47 44 40

43 32 30 30 31 27

27 25 20 22 22 19

55 50 50 37 45 34

34 35 34 27 32 26

72 71 73 69 66 53

51 53 56 48 51 44

57 53 49 40 46 38

38 39 37 33 36 32

89 90 93 83 95 80

3 K14 K21 K1 K22 K11

75 56 56 75 65 56

7.9 5.0 1.7 4.1 3.1 2.5

6.0 3.6 1.3 3.8 2.7 2.5

5.4 3.6 1.4 3.3 2.6 2.3

4.4 2.7 1.6 2.4 2.0 1.5

3.9 2.5 1.8 2.1 1.7 1.3

4.2 2.8 2.4 2.1 1.9 1.3

5.2 3.5 2.9 2.3 2.4 1.5

7.3 5.3 3.8 2.9 3.0 1.7

9.2 4.7 2.5 4.7 3.4 1.9

9.2 6.2 2.9 4.5 3.7 2.5

8.0 5.7 2.3 4.0 2.8 2.1

8.1 6.4 2.3 3.9 2.8 2.4

78.8 52.0 26.9 40.1 32.1 23.5

54 50 52 51

24N 04N 13N 07N

18 19 21 17

40E 57E 02E 05E

36 723 294 482

36 35 25 50

33 32 30 35

25 22 21 25

49 55 54 55

37 38 38 39

70 76 75 74

56 57 56 57

53 56 54 55

42 41 41 42

94 97 98 98

K16 K28 K22 K26

35 35 113 40

1.2 1.1 1.2 1.5

1.0 1.3 1.1 1.1

1.3 1.4 1.3 1.5

1.5 1.8 1.5 1.7

1.8 2.8 1.9 2.4

2.3 4.0 2.6 2.4

2.8 4.5 3.0 3.4

2.6 3.8 3.0 2.7

2.1 2.7 1.9 1.8

1.8 2.2 1.7 1.7

1.8 1.7 1.4 1.5

1.5 1.3 1.4 1.5

21.7 28.6 22.0 23.2

41 49N 37 06N 38 43N

06 47W 08 38W 09 08W

2,395 46 313

11 21 75

46 61 56

31 47 46

59 67 64

39 52 52

80 83 79

54 64 63

62 73 69

42 58 57

103 107 103

10 28 29

11 17 75

11.9 3.2 3.3

6.9 2.6 3.2

7.7 2.8 3.1

3.7 1.4 2.4

3.0 0.8 1.7

1.6 0.2 0.7

0.5 * 0.2

0.6 * 0.2

1.5 0.4 1.4

3.0 1.5 3.1

6.3 2.6 4.2

7.1 2.8 3.6

53.8 18.3 27.0

44 25N

26 06E

269

41

33

20

63

41

86

61

65

44

105

K18

41

1.5

1.1

1.7

1.6

2.5

3.8

2.3

1.8

1.5

1.6

1.9

1.5

22.8

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

February

Length of Record

Portugal Braganca Lagos Lisbon Romania Bucharest

January

Elevation

8

37N 15N 24N 51N 07N

Length of Record

Longitude

Rome Taranto Venice Luxembourg Luxembourg Malta Valletta Monaco Monaco Netherlands Amsterdam Norway Bergen Kristiansand Oslo Tromoso Trondheim Vardo Poland Danzig Krakow Warsaw Wroclaw (Breslau)

Oct

Year

Year

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

6

5.7

3.9

2.6

1.7

0.5

0.3

0.0

—

0.4

1.7

5.2

6.7

28.5

K10 K22

50 80

1.5 1.2

1.5 1.1

1.7 1.4

2.0 1.8

2.7 2.4

2.6 2.8

2.0 2.5

1.9 2.3

1.8 1.8

2.1 2.2

2.4 2.0

2.0 1.6

24.2 23.1

83 74

K8 4

26 30

1.7 4.0

1.5 3.1

1.7 3.0

1.3 2.1

0.6 1.6

0.9 1.7

1.3 2.0

1.6 2.6

1.9 3.1

2.3 3.4

1.9 3.6

1.9 3.7

18.6 33.9

44 43 45

85 86 87

15 8 12

35 35 12

4.9 2.7 3.8

3.6 2.2 3.0

3.3 2.0 2.0

2.6 1.9 2.2

2.9 2.3 2.4

2.0 2.0 2.1

2.9 2.8 3.1

3.1 3.0 3.0

2.9 2.8 3.0

3.9 2.7 3.4

4.5 2.7 4.2

4.7 2.6 4.3

41.3 29.7 36.5

67 72 73 71 75

55 58 58 60 62

102 102 100 101 113

18 25 18 24 31

30 25 10 30 30

2.6 2.2 3.9 3.7 3.8

1.7 1.5 4.0 3.2 3.4

1.6 1.5 3.3 3.0 2.4

2.3 1.2 3.4 2.6 1.9

2.1 1.5 4.6 1.8 1.1

1.9 0.5 1.4 1.8 0.6

1.5 0.1 1.6 0.6 0.2

1.5 0.4 2.3 0.7 0.6

3.5 1.0 4.7 2.8 0.2

3.7 3.0 6.1 5.1 3.7

2.5 1.8 7.2 4.5 4.1

3.0 2.3 4.1 5.4 4.5

28.0 17.0 46.6 35.2 28.3

64 70 67

73 73 65

53 58 52

104 108 97

20 26 14

30 10 30

3.3 1.6 2.0

2.9 0.9 2.1

2.0 1.3 2.4

2.0 0.8 2.8

1.9 1.0 3.2

0.7 0.6 3.3

0.4 0.4 2.6

0.7 0.7 2.6

2.8 1.0 2.6

4.3 2.2 3.7

4.4 1.8 3.5

4.1 1.9 2.6

29.5 14.2 33.4

74

55

56

43

99

K10

100

2.3

2.0

1.9

2.1

2.4

2.5

2.8

2.6

2.4

2.7

2.7

2.8

29.2

56

84

72

76

66

105

34

90

3.3

2.3

1.5

0.8

0.4

0.4

*

0.2

1.3

2.7

3.6

3.9

20.3

53

77

70

67

60

93

27

60

2.4

2.3

3.1

2.2

2.1

1.4

0.7

1.1

2.3

4.7

4.3

3.5

30.1

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Ireland Cork Dublin Shannon Airport Italy Ancona Cagliari (Sardinia) Genoa Naples Palermo (Sicily)

July

8

Country and Station

Rhodes Thessaloniki Hungary Budapest Debrecen Iceland Akureyri Reykjavik

Apr

Latitude

Jan

Extreme

46 47N 44 11N

23 40E 28 39E

1,286 13

15 20

31 37

18 25

58 55

38 42

79 79

56 63

60 62

41 49

100 101

K26 K13

16 39

1.3 1.2

1.2 1.2

1.0 1.1

2.1 1.1

3.3 1.3

3.3 1.7

2.6 1.3

3.3 1.1

2.0 1.1

1.7 1.4

1.0 1.2

1.2 1.4

24.0 15.1

36 41 42 40 37 39

51N 24N 20N 25N 29N 28N

02 28W 02 09E 03 42W 03 41W 05 59W 00 23W

213 312 2,825 2,188 98 79

20 20 29 30 26 26

61 56 42 47 59 58

47 42 30 33 41 41

69 64 57 64 73 67

54 51 38 44 51 51

85 81 77 87 96 83

69 69 53 62 67 68

76 71 61 66 78 73

62 58 43 48 57 57

108 98 99 102 117 107

34 24 0 14 27 20

20 30 29 30 26 29

0.9 1.2 1.5 1.1 2.2 0.9

1.0 2.1 1.5 1.7 2.9 1.5

0.7 1.9 2.1 1.7 3.3 0.9

0.9 1.8 1.9 1.7 2.3 1.2

0.7 1.8 2.4 1.5 1.3 1.1

0.2 1.3 1.7 1.2 0.9 1.3

* 1.2 0.8 0.4 0.1 0.4

0.1 1.7 0.7 0.3 0.1 0.5

0.6 2.6 1.4 1.2 1.1 2.2

0.9 3.4 2.0 1.9 2.6 1.6

1.5 2.7 2.2 2.2 3.7 2.5

1.1 1.8 2.0 1.6 2.8 1.3

8.6 23.5 20.2 16.5 23.3 15.4

Sweden Abisko Goteberg Haparanda Karlstad Sarna

68 57 65 59 61

21N 42N 50N 23N 41N

18 11 24 13 13

49E 58E 09E 30E 07E

1,273 55 30 164 1,504

11 39 20 30 20

20 35 22 30 19

6 27 10 20 4

33 48 38 49 42

19 36 23 32 23

61 69 71 73 69

45 56 53 56 46

35 51 39 49 42

24 42 30 38 28

82 88 89 93 91

K30 K13 K34 K21 K51

11 61 20 30 20

0.7 2.5 2.2 1.9 1.6

0.6 2.0 1.6 1.2 0.8

0.5 2.0 1.2 1.2 0.9

0.5 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.2

0.7 1.9 1.4 1.9 1.6

1.8 2.2 1.7 1.9 2.8

1.6 2.8 2.1 2.6 3.6

1.8 3.7 2.8 3.1 3.3

1.2 3.1 2.6 2.9 2.6

1.0 3.1 2.8 2.4 2.3

0.6 2.7 2.5 2.4 1.8

0.6 2.8 2.0 1.9 1.8

11.7 30.5 24.4 24.8 24.3

59 21N 57 39N

18 04E 18 18E

146 36

30 30

31 35

23 28

45 44

32 33

70 67

55 55

48 50

39 41

97 88

K26 1

30 30

1.5 1.7

1.1 1.1

1.1 1.2

1.5 1.4

1.6 1.1

1.9 1.4

2.8 2.0

3.1 2.7

2.1 1.7

2.1 1.9

1.9 2.1

1.9 2.0

22.4 20.3

46 57N 46 12N 47 23N

07 26E 06 09E 08 33E

1,877 1,329 1,617

30 30 23

35 39 38

26 29 28

56 58 57

39 41 39

74 77 76

56 58 55

55 58 57

42 44 42

96 101 98

K9 K1 K12

77 125 23

1.9 1.9 2.3

2.0 1.8 1.9

2.6 2.2 2.9

3.0 2.5 3.4

3.7 3.0 4.0

4.4 3.1 4.9

4.4 2.9 5.0

4.3 3.6 4.6

3.5 3.6 3.3

3.5 3.8 3.2

2.7 3.1 2.5

2.5 2.4 2.9

38.5 33.9 40.9

41 39N 40 58N

26 34E 28 50E

154 59

18 18

41 45

28 36

66 61

44 45

88 81

63 65

70 67

49 54

107 100

K8 17

18 18

2.2 3.7

1.9 2.3

1.7 2.6

1.9 1.9

1.7 1.4

2.1 1.3

1.5 1.7

1.1 1.5

1.1 2.3

2.1 3.8

2.9 4.1

3.0 4.9

23.2 31.5

54 52 51 53 55

35N 29N 28N 22N 55N

05 01 03 06 03

56W 56W 10W 21W 11W

57 535 203 155 441

7 30 30 30 30

42 42 45 47 43

34 35 36 35 35

53 53 55 54 50

38 40 41 38 39

65 69 69 67 65

52 54 54 51 52

55 55 57 57 53

44 45 45 43 44

82 92 91 86 83

14 11 2 8 15

30 30 30 35 30

4.2 2.9 4.6 2.7 2.5

2.8 2.1 3.0 2.2 1.6

2.3 1.7 2.3 2.0 1.6

2.4 2.2 2.5 1.9 1.6

2.3 2.5 3.0 2.3 2.2

2.5 1.8 2.2 2.0 1.9

3.5 2.8 3.4 2.8 3.1

3.5 2.7 3.9 3.0 3.1

3.4 2.3 3.6 2.8 2.6

3.8 2.9 4.5 2.7 2.9

3.6 3.2 4.6 2.7 2.4

3.9 2.6 4.3 2.6 2.1

38.2 29.7 41.9 29.7 27.6

51 53 56 50 58

29N 24N 24N 21N 26N

00 00 03 04W 03 27W 04 07W 03 04W

149 198 77 87 119

30 30 30 30 30

44 44 43 47 42

35 36 32 40 35

56 52 53 54 48

40 41 38 43 38

73 66 68 66 59

55 55 51 55 50

58 55 55 58 52

44 46 41 49 43

99 87 89 88 80

9 15 0 16 8

30 30 30 30 30

2.0 2.7 3.1 4.3 2.9

1.5 1.9 2.2 3.0 2.1

1.4 1.5 1.9 2.6 1.8

1.8 1.6 1.7 2.3 2.1

1.8 2.2 2.3 2.5 1.8

1.6 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0

2.0 2.8 3.1 2.6 2.6

2.2 3.1 2.9 2.9 2.6

1.8 2.6 2.8 2.8 2.9

2.3 3.0 3.3 3.8 3.2

2.5 3.0 2.7 4.6 3.1

2.0 2.5 2.7 4.4 2.9

22.9 28.9 30.7 37.8 30.0

64 46 48 54 58

33N 21N 27N 54N 36N

40 48 35 23 49

32E 02E 04E 53E 41E

22 45 259 118 594

23 10 18 19 20

9 23 25 26 6

2 14 16 18 K2

36 57 53 49 41

23 40 39 34 27

64 85 80 72 72

51 69 62 53 55

36 56 56 50 37

30 40 40 38 29

91 99 101 96 92

K49 K22 K25 K23 K43

25 25 17 19 29

1.2 0.5 1.4 1.6 1.2

1.1 0.5 1.1 1.3 1.0

1.1 0.4 1.2 1.3 0.9

0.7 0.6 1.4 1.8 0.9

1.3 0.6 1.8 2.0 1.9

1.9 0.7 3.0 3.2 2.5

2.6 0.5 1.9 3.3 2.1

2.7 0.4 1.6 3.5 2.9

2.2 0.6 1.0 1.9 2.3

1.9 0.4 1.8 1.9 2.0

1.6 0.6 1.6 1.6 1.6

1.3 0.6 1.6 1.6 1.3

19.8 6.4 19.4 25.0 20.6

Kursk Leningrad Lvov Minsk Moscow

51 59 49 53 55

45N 56N 50N 54N 46N

36 30 24 27 37

12E 16E 01E 33E 40E

773 16 978 738 505

15 26 9 12 15

19 23 31 22 21

11 12 22 13 9

47 45 53 47 47

35 31 38 33 31

74 71 77 70 76

58 57 59 54 55

48 45 55 47 46

36 37 43 36 34

91 91 97 92 96

K23 K36 K29 K27 K27

20 95 35 20 11

1.5 1.0 1.3 1.4 1.5

1.3 0.9 1.5 1.5 1.4

1.2 0.9 1.8 1.3 1.1

1.5 1.0 2.0 1.5 1.9

2.2 1.6 2.8 2.0 2.2

2.5 2.0 3.7 2.8 2.9

3.2 2.5 4.1 3.0 3.0

2.3 2.8 3.1 3.1 2.9

1.6 2.1 2.4 1.6 1.9

1.8 1.8 2.1 1.5 2.7

1.5 1.4 0.8 1.5 1.7

1.7 1.2 1.6 1.7 1.6

22.3 19.2 28.2 22.9 24.8

Odessa Riga Saratov Sevastopol Stalingrad

46 56 51 44 48

29N 57N 32N 37N 42N

30 24 46 33 44

44E 06E 03E 31E 31E

214 67 197 75 136

20 30 14 20 8

28 29 15 39 15

22 20 7 30 4

52 48 50 55 52

41 35 35 42 36

79 72 82 79 84

65 56 64 65 65

57 49 48 63 53

47 39 36 50 37

99 93 102 97 106

K13 K20 K27 K4 K30

15 57 15 30 12

1.0 1.3 1.0 1.1 0.9

0.7 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.0

0.7 1.1 0.8 1.1 0.6

1.1 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.6

1.1 1.7 1.3 0.6 1.0

1.9 2.4 1.8 1.1 1.9

1.6 3.0 1.2 0.8 0.9

1.4 3.0 1.3 0.6 0.8

1.1 2.1 1.1 1.1 0.7

1.4 2.0 1.4 1.5 1.0

1.1 1.9 1.4 1.2 1.5

1.1 1.5 1.2 1.1 1.3

14.3 22.2 14.5 12.2 12.2

Stavropol Tallin Tbilisi Ust’Shchugor Ufy Yugoslavia Belgrade Skopje Split

45 59 41 64 54

02N 26N 43N 16N 43N

41 24 44 57 55

58E 48E 48E 34E 56E

1,886 146 1,325 279 571

18 15 10 15 20

26 27 39 4 6

17 18 26 K14 K3

50 42 61 35 44

37 31 44 17 30

76 70 83 65 75

60 55 65 49 58

55 47 64 33 41

42 38 48 23 31

95 89 95 90 99

K22 K19 6 K67 K42

41 63 10 15 23

1.4 1.1 0.7 1.1 1.6

1.1 1.0 0.8 0.8 1.3

1.5 0.9 1.3 0.8 1.2

2.4 1.1 1.6 0.7 0.9

3.0 1.7 3.6 1.4 1.6

4.1 1.9 3.1 2.2 2.4

3.0 2.1 2.2 3.0 2.6

2.0 2.7 1.7 3.2 2.2

2.5 2.3 1.9 2.4 1.8

2.3 2.1 1.3 2.2 2.3

1.8 1.9 2.0 1.5 2.2

1.8 1.5 1.2 1.3 2.3

26.9 20.2 21.4 20.6 22.5

20 28E 21 28E 16 26E

453 787 420

16 10 14

37 40 51

27 26 29

64 67 65

45 42 50

84 88 87

61 60 68

65 65 69

47 43 55

107 105 100

K14 K11 17

16 10 51

1.6 1.5 3.1

1.3 1.2 2.5

1.6 1.3 3.2

2.2 1.5 3.0

2.6 1.9 2.5

2.8 1.9 2.1

1.9 1.3 1.2

2.5 1.1 1.6

1.7 1.1 2.9

2.7 2.6 4.4

1.8 2.3 4.2

1.9 1.8 4.4

24.6 19.5 35.1

Stockholm Visby (Gotland) Switzerland Berne Geneva Zurich Turkey Edirne Istanbul United Kingdom Belfast Birmingham Cardiff Dublin Edinburgh London Liverpool Perth Plymouth Wick U.S.S.R. Arkhangelsk Astrakhan Dnepropetrovsk Kaunas Kirov

44 48N 41 59N 43 31N

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-85

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Cluj Constanta Spain Almeria Barcelona Burgos Madrid Sevilla Valencia

3-86

Table 3B.13

(Continued) Temperature

Average Precipitation

Average Daily

54 21 35

64 31 46

55 22 37

76 46 58

65 38 49

71 39 50

December

62 31 42

November

36 25

October

36 38

September

44 46

August

16 K3

July

27 15

June

17 K4

May

26 10

April

8F

March

8F

February

30 5 30

8F

January

200 131 269

8F

Length of Record

28 38W 08 28W 01 11W

8F

Minimum

38 32N 77 01N 60 08N

8F

Maximum

10 19

8F

Minimum

49 23

Maximum

19 01E 14 15E

Minimum

74 31N 78 02N

Maximum

Year

Minimum

Length of Record

Feet

Oct

Maximum

Elevation

8

July

Minimum

Longitude

8

Country and Station

Apr

Maximum

Latitude

Jan

Extreme

Year

8F

8F

8F

Year

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

29 17

71 60

K25 K57

25 15

1.6 1.4

1.3 1.3

1.3 1.1

0.9 0.9

0.8 0.5

0.7 0.4

0.8 0.6

1.2 0.9

1.8 1.0

1.7 1.2

1.4 0.9

1.6 1.5

15.1 11.7

62 29 42

88 60 71

38 K18 17

30 29 30

4.5 2.1 4.5

4.1 1.7 3.4

4.2 1.6 2.9

3.0 1.4 2.7

2.9 0.9 2.2

2.0 0.9 2.2

1.5 1.4 2.7

1.9 1.8 2.9

3.2 2.5 3.7

4.4 2.5 4.3

4.1 2.2 4.5

4.5 2.2 4.5

40.3 21.2 40.5

Ocean Islands

73 16N

56 24E

61

9

8

K6

13

K1

47

36

30

21

68

K41

9

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.3

0.4

1.4

1.5

1.5

0.6

0.6

0.4

8.9

37 45N

25 40W

118

30

62

54

64

55

76

64

71

61

85

37

30

4.0

3.5

3.5

2.5

2.3

1.4

1.0

1.2

2.9

3.6

3.7

3.0

32.6

58 11N 62 02N

06 21W 06 45W

34 82

30 50

44 42

37 33

49 45

39 36

61 56

51 47

53 58

44 40

78 70

11 8

15 50

6.4 6.6

3.2 5.2

3.2 4.8

3.1 3.6

2.5 3.4

2.4 2.5

3.0 3.1

4.3 3.5

4.7 4.7

6.2 5.9

4.6 6.3

5.5 6.6

49.1 56.2

Africa Algeria Adrar Algiers Annaba Bordj Omar Driss El Golea

27 36 36 28 30

52N 46N 54N 06N 35N

00 17W 03 03E 07 46E 06 42E 02 53E

948 194 66 1,224 1,247

15 25 26 15 15

69 59 59 67 63

39 49 46 38 37

92 68 67 90 84

60 55 52 59 56

115 83 85 110 107

82 70 69 78 79

92 74 75 92 87

63 63 61 63 60

124 107 115 124 120

25 32 32 19 23

15 25 26 15 15

* 4.4 5.6 0.3 0.1

* 3.3 4.1 0.1 0.3

0.1 2.9 2.9 0.1 0.5

* 1.6 2.2 0.2 *

* 1.8 1.5 * *

* 0.6 0.6 * *

* * 0.1 0.0 *

* 0.2 0.3 * *

* 1.6 1.2 * *

0.2 3.1 3.0 * 0.3

0.2 5.1 4.3 0.2 0.4

* 5.4 5.2 0.2 0.3

0.6 30.0 31.0 1.1 1.9

Tamanrasset Touggourt Angola Cangamba

22 42N 33 07N

05 31E 06 04E

4,593 226

15 26

67 62

39 38

86 83

56 55

95 107

71 77

85 84

59 59

102 122

20 26

15 26

0.2 0.2

* 0.4

* 0.5

0.2 0.2

0.4 0.2

0.1 0.2

0.1 *

0.4 *

0.1 0.1

* 0.3

* 0.5

* 0.3

1.5 2.9

13 41S

19 52E

4,331

6

84

62

89

58

82

46

87

59

109

20

7

8.9

7.4

6.8

1.8

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.2

0.2

1.6

5.1

8.5

40.6

Huambo Luanda Moc¸aˆmedes

12 48S 08 49S 15 12S

15 45E 13 13E 12 09E

5,577 194 10

14 27 15

78 83 79

58 74 65

78 85 82

57 75 66

77 74 68

47 65 56

81 79 74

58 71 61

90 98 102

36 58 44

14 59 21

8.7 1.0 0.3

7.8 1.4 0.4

9.8 3.0 0.7

5.7 4.6 0.5

0.4 0.5 *

0.0 * *

* * *

* * *

0.6 0.1 *

5.5 0.2 *

9.6 1.1 0.1

8.9 0.8 0.1

57.0 12.7 2.1

Benin Cotonou

06 21N

02 26E

23

5

80

74

83

78

78

74

80

75

95

65

10

1.3

1.3

4.6

4.9

10.0

14.4

3.5

1.5

2.6

5.3

2.3

0.5

52.4

Botswana Francistown Maun Tsabong

21 13S 19 59S 26 03S

27 30E 23 25E 22 27E

3,294 3,091 3,156

20 20 10

88 90 94

65 66 65

83 87 83

56 58 51

75 77 71

41 42 34

90 95 88

61 64 54

107 110 107

24 24 15

28 20 14

4.2 4.3 2.0

3.1 3.8 1.9

2.8 3.5 1.9

0.7 1.1 1.3

0.2 0.2 0.4

0.1 * 0.4

* 0.0 0.1

* 0.0 *

* * 0.2

0.9 0.5 0.7

2.3 1.9 1.1

3.4 2.8 1.5

17.7 18.2 11.5

Burkina Faso Bobo Dioulasso Ouagadougou

11 10N 12 22N

04 15W 01 31W

1,411 991

11 10

92 92

58 60

99 103

71 79

87 91

69 74

90 95

70 74

115 118

46 48

10 15

0.1 *

0.2 0.1

1.1 0.5

2.1 0.6

4.6 3.3

4.8 4.8

9.8 8.0

12.0 10.9

8.5 5.7

2.5 1.3

0.7 *

0.0 0.0

46.4 35.2

Cameroon Ngaoundere Yaounde

07 17N 03 53N

13 19E 11 32E

3,601 2,526

9 11

87 85

55 67

87 85

64 66

82 80

63 66

82 81

61 65

102 96

46 57

10 11

* 0.9

* 2.6

1.1 5.8

5.5 6.7

7.0 7.7

8.4 6.0

10.6 2.9

9.6 3.1

9.2 8.4

5.3 11.6

0.5 4.6

* 0.9

57.2 61.2

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Bjornoya, Bear Island Gronfjorden, Spitzbergen Horta, Azores Jan Mayen Lerwick, Shetland Island Matochikin Shar, Novaya Zemlya Ponta Delgada, Azores Stornoway, Hebrides Thorshavn, Faeroes

Congo Brazzaville Ouesso Pointe Noire (Loango) Djibouti Djibouti Egypt Alexandria Aswan Cairo Ethiopia Addis Ababa Asmara Diredawa Gambela Gabon Libreville Mayoumba Gambia Banjul Ghana Accra Kumasi Guinea Conakry Kouroussa Guinea-Bissau Bolama Ifni (Now in Morocco) Sidi Ifni Ivory Coast Abidjan Bouake Kenya Mombasa Nairobi Liberia Monrovia Libya Benghazi Kufra Sabhah Tripoli Malagasy Republic Diego Suarez Tananarive Tulear Malawi Karonga Zomba Mali Araouane Bamako Gao Mauritania Atar Nema

04 22N 08 24N

18 34E 20 39E

1,270 1,939

5 3

90 99

68 67

91 98

71 73

85 86

69 69

87 90

69 68

101 109

57 58

5 3

1.0 0.2

1.7 1.3

5.0 0.6

5.3 1.7

7.4 8.4

4.5 6.1

8.9 8.3

8.1 10.1

5.9 10.7

7.9 7.8

4.9 0.6

0.2 0.0

60.8 55.8

11 02N 12 07N 18 00N

20 17E 15 02E 19 10E

1,430 968 837

3 5 5

98 93 84

56 57 54

105 107 104

68 74 69

89 92 109

70 72 76

96 97 103

67 70 72

113 114 121

43 47 37

3 5 5

0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0 0.0

0.1 0.0 0.0

1.2 0.1 0.0

4.3 1.2 *

5.0 2.6 0.0

7.3 6.7 *

12.3 12.6 0.7

5.8 4.7 *

1.2 1.4 0.0

0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0 0.0

37.2 29.3 0.7

04 15S 01 37N 04 39S

15 15E 16 04E 11 48E

1,043 1,132 164

15 4 7

88 88 85

69 69 73

91 91 87

71 71 74

82 85 78

63 69 66

89 87 83

70 69 72

98 106 93

54 60 59

18 4 7

6.3 2.4 5.4

4.9 3.6 6.7

7.4 6.4 6.4

7.0 3.2 8.0

4.3 5.8 3.9

0.6 4.6 0.0

* 2.9 0.0

* 3.7 0.0

2.2 7.9 0.4

5.4 10.0 4.1

11.5 5.7 6.6

8.4 2.4 6.6

58.0 58.6 48.1

11 36N

43 09E

23

16

84

73

90

79

106

87

92

80

117

63

46

0.4

0.5

1.0

0.5

0.2

*

0.1

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.9

0.5

46.0

31 12N 24 02N 29 52N

29 53E 32 53E 31 20E

105 366 381

45 46 42

65 74 65

51 50 47

74 96 83

59 66 57

85 106 96

73 79 70

83 98 86

68 71 65

111 124 117

37 35 34

61 11 42

1.9 * 0.2

0.9 * 0.2

0.4 * 0.2

0.1 * 0.1

* * 0.1

* * *

* 0.0 0.0

* 0.0 0.0

* 0.0 *

0.2 * *

1.3 * 0.1

2.2 * 0.2

7.0 * 1.1

09 15 09 08

38 38 41 34

45E 55E 45E 35E

8,038 7,628 3,937 1,345

15 9 8 26

75 74 81 98

43 44 58 64

77 78 91 98

50 51 69 71

69 71 90 87

50 53 68 69

75 72 89 92

45 53 67 67

94 88 100 111

32 31 49 48

37 17 8 30

0.5 * 0.8 0.2

1.5 * 0.8 0.4

2.6 0.4 3.3 1.4

3.4 1.5 3.0 3.2

3.4 1.5 2.8 5.9

5.4 1.3 1.5 6.7

11.0 6.7 4.3 8.5

11.8 5.0 3.8 9.5

7.5 1.3 2.2 7.3

0.8 0.3 0.5 3.5

0.6 0.4 0.3 1.8

0.2 * 0.8 0.4

48.7 18.4 24.1 48.8

00 23N 03 25S

09 26E 10 38E

115 200

11 8

87 84

73 73

89 86

73 73

83 78

68 68

86 82

71 72

99 91

62 60

21 8

9.8 6.5

9.3 9.3

13.2 6.2

13.4 10.2

9.6 2.3

0.5 0.1

0.1 0.0

0.7 0.2

4.1 2.6

13.6 9.3

14.7 10.7

9.8 4.6

98.8 62.0

13 21N

16 40W

90

9

88

59

91

65

86

74

89

72

106

45

9

0.1

0.1

*

*

0.4

2.3

11.1

19.7

12.2

4.3

0.7

0.1

51.0

05 33N 06 40N

00 12W 01 37W

88 942

17 10

87 88

73 66

88 89

76 71

81 82

73 70

85 86

74 70

100 100

59 51

65 10

0.6 0.8

1.3 2.3

2.2 5.7

3.2 5.1

5.6 7.5

7.0 7.9

1.8 4.3

0.6 3.1

1.4 6.8

2.5 7.1

1.4 3.7

0.9 0.8

28.5 55.2

09 31N 10 39N

13 43W 09 53W

23 1,217

7 9

88 93

72 60

90 99

73 73

83 87

72 69

87 90

73 69

96 109

63 39

10 10

0.1 0.4

0.1 0.3

0.4 0.9

0.9 2.8

6.2 5.3

22.0 9.7

51.1 11.7

41.5 13.6

26.9 13.4

14.6 6.6

4.8 1.3

0.4 0.4

169.0 66.4

20N 17N 02N 15N

11 34N

15 26W

62

31

88

67

91

73

84

74

87

74

106

59

37

*

*

*

*

0.8

7.8

23.1

27.6

16.9

8.0

1.6

0.1

85.9

29 27N

10 11W

148

14

66

52

71

59

75

64

75

62

124

40

14

1.0

0.6

0.5

0.6

0.1

0.1

*

*

0.4

0.1

0.9

1.8

6.1

05 19N 07 42N

04 01W 05 00W

65 1,194

13 12

88 91

73 68

90 92

75 70

83 85

73 68

85 89

74 68

96 104

59 57

10 10

1.6 0.4

2.1 1.5

3.9 4.1

4.9 5.8

14.2 5.3

19.5 6.0

8.4 3.1

2.1 4.6

2.8 8.2

6.6 5.2

7.9 1.5

3.1 1.0

77.1 46.7

04 03S 01 16S

39 39E 36 48E

52 5,971

45 15

87 77

75 54

86 75

76 58

81 69

71 51

84 76

74 55

96 87

61 41

54 17

1.0 1.5

0.7 2.5

2.5 4.9

7.7 8.3

12.6 6.2

4.7 1.8

3.5 0.6

2.5 0.9

2.5 1.2

3.4 2.1

3.8 4.3

2.4 3.4

47.3 37.7

06 18N

10 48W

75

6

89

71

90

72

80

72

86

72

97

62

4

0.2

0.1

4.4

11.7

13.4

36.1

24.2

18.6

29.9

25.2

8.2

2.9

174.9

32 24 27 32

20 23 14 13

04E 21E 26E 11E

82 1,276 1,457 72

46 7 3 47

63 69 64 61

50 43 41 47

74 90 89 72

58 62 60 57

84 101 102 85

71 75 74 71

80 90 91 80

66 64 64 65

109 122 120 114

37 26 24 33

46 7 10 56

2.6 * * 3.2

1.6 0.0 * 1.8

0.8 0.0 * 1.1

0.2 0.0 * 0.4

0.1 * 0.1 0.2

* 0.0 0.1 0.1

* 0.0 0.0 *

* 0.0 0.0 *

0.1 0.0 0.0 0.4

0.7 0.0 * 1.6

1.8 0.0 * 2.6

2.6 * * 3.7

10.5 * 0.3 15.1

12 17S 18 55S 23 20S

49 17E 47 33E 43 41E

100 4,500 20

11 44 27

88 79 92

75 61 72

88 76 89

75 58 64

84 68 81

69 48 58

86 80 86

72 54 65

98 95 108

63 34 43

31 62 15

10.6 11.8 3.1

9.5 11.0 3.2

7.6 7.0 1.4

2.2 2.1 0.3

0.3 0.7 0.7

0.2 0.3 0.4

0.2 0.3 0.1

0.3 0.4 0.2

0.3 0.7 0.3

0.7 2.4 0.7

1.1 5.3 1.4

5.8 11.3 1.7

38.7 53.4 13.5

09 57S 15 23S

33 56E 35 19E

1,596 3,141

8 27

86 80

71 65

85 78

70 62

81 72

59 53

91 85

66 64

99 95

51 41

8 29

7.1 12.1

7.0 9.9

10.8 10.1

6.2 2.7

1.7 0.7

0.1 0.4

* 0.3

* 0.3

0.0 0.2

0.3 1.0

0.3 4.3

4.7 10.9

38.3 52.9

18 54N 12 39N 16 16N

03 33W 07 58W 00 03W

935 1,116 902

8 11 15

81 91 83

48 61 58

110 103 105

67 76 77

111 89 97

79 71 80

103 93 100

70 71 78

130 117 116

37 47 44

10 10 19

* * *

* * 0.0

0.0 0.1 *

0.0 0.6 0.1

0.0 2.9 0.4

0.2 5.4 1.0

0.2 11.0 2.9

0.5 13.7 5.4

0.6 8.1 1.5

0.1 1.7 0.2

0.1 0.6 *

* * 0.0

1.7 44.1 11.5

20 31N 16 36N

13 04W 07 16W

761 883

7 9

84 86

54 62

97 105

67 79

106 99

81 78

98 101

72 79

117 120

39 47

10 10

* 0.1

0.0 *

* *

* *

* 0.7

0.1 1.1

0.3 2.3

1.2 4.7

1.1 2.1

0.1 0.7

* *

* 0.1

2.8 11.6

06N 12N 01N 54N

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-87

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Central African Republic Bangui Ndele Chad Am Timan Fort Lamy Largeau (Faya)

3-88

(Continued) Temperature

Average Precipitation

Average Daily

South Africa, Republic of Cape Town Durban Kimberley Port Elizabeth Port Nolloth Pretoria Walvis Bay Sudan El Fasher Khartoum Port Sudan Wadi Halfa Wau

Minimum

8F

8F

18 07N

15 36W

33 31 34 35

07 08 06 05

Year

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

December

Maximum

8F

November

Minimum

8F

October

Maximum

8F

September

Minimum

8F

August

Maximum

8F

July

Minimum

8F

May

Maximum

8F

April

Minimum

8F

March

Maximum

Year

February

Length of Record

Feet

January

Elevation

8

Length of Record

Longitude

Oct

Year

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

69

5

85

57

90

64

89

74

91

71

115

44

10

*

0.1

*

*

*

0.1

0.5

4.1

0.9

0.4

0.1

*

39W 01W 50W 49W

164 1,509 213 239

48 35 35 35

63 65 63 60

45 40 46 47

69 79 71 65

52 52 52 51

79 101 82 80

65 67 63 64

76 83 77 72

58 57 58 59

110 120 118 106

31 27 32 28

40 31 29 35

2.1 1.0 2.6 4.5

1.9 1.1 2.5 4.2

2.2 1.3 2.6 4.8

1.4 1.2 1.7 3.5

0.9 0.6 1.1 1.7

0.2 0.3 0.3 0.6

0.0 0.1 * *

* 0.1 * *

0.3 0.4 0.4 0.9

1.5 0.9 1.9 3.9

2.6 1.2 3.3 5.8

2.8 1.2 3.4 5.4

15.9 9.4 19.8 35.3

19 50S 15 36S 25 58S

34 51E 32 21E 32 36E

28 899 194

37 8 42

89 96 86

75 65 71

86 93 83

71 63 66

77 86 76

61 55 55

87 101 82

71 68 64

109 117 114

48 32 45

39 8 42

10.9 7.8 5.1

8.4 5.7 4.9

10.1 4.4 4.9

4.2 0.6 2.1

2.2 * 1.1

1.3 * 0.8

1.2 * 0.5

1.1 * 0.5

0.8 * 1.1

5.2 1.1 1.9

5.3 2.6 3.2

9.2 5.2 3.8

59.9 27.4 29.9

26 35S 22 34S

18 08E 17 06E

3,295 5,669

17 30

95 85

65 63

85 77

57 55

70 68

42 43

87 84

55 59

108 97

26 25

45 60

0.8 3.0

1.1 2.9

1.4 3.1

0.6 1.6

0.2 0.3

* *

* *

* *

0.1 0.1

0.2 0.4

0.3 0.9

0.4 1.9

5.2 14.3

16 59N 18 41N 13 31N

07 59E 12 55E 02 06E

1,706 1,171 709

8 9 10

86 81 93

50 45 58

105 101 108

70 63 77

104 108 94

75 75 74

101 101 101

68 62 74

115 116 114

40 29 47

10 10 10

0.0 0.0 *

0.0 0.0 *

* 0.0 0.2

* * 0.3

0.2 * 1.3

0.3 0.0 3.2

1.9 0.1 5.2

3.7 0.5 7.4

0.7 0.3 3.7

0.0 0.0 0.5

0.0 0.0 *

0.0 0.0 0.0

6.8 0.9 21.6

06 10 06 11

07 06 03 13

29E 26E 24E 05E

763 2,113 10 1,162

11 18 32 15

90 89 88 90

72 59 74 54

91 95 89 104

74 72 77 72

83 83 83 90

71 68 74 73

87 89 85 96

71 66 74 68

99 105 104 112

55 46 60 43

33 34 47 40

0.7 * 1.1 *

1.1 0.1 1.8 *

2.6 0.5 4.0 *

5.9 2.5 5.9 0.3

10.4 5.9 10.6 1.6

11.4 7.1 18.1 2.7

7.6 8.5 11.0 7.1

6.7 11.9 2.5 8.7

12.8 10.6 5.5 4.2

9.8 2.9 8.1 0.7

2.1 0.1 2.7 *

0.5 * 1.0 0.0

71.5 50.1 72.3 25.3

14 42N 14 08N

17 29W 16 04W

131 20

25 9

79 93

64 60

81 103

65 68

88 91

76 75

89 93

76 74

109 114

53 48

26 10

* *

* 0.0

* *

* *

* 0.3

0.7 2.6

3.5 6.9

10.0 10.7

5.2 7.0

1.5 2.7

0.1 0.1

0.3 *

21.3 30.3

35N 36N 00N 48N

27N 35N 27N 51N

6.2

08 37N

13 12W

92

8

87

73

88

76

82

73

85

72

98

62

8

0.4

0.2

1.2

3.1

9.5

14.3

29.2

36.5

22.3

14.2

5.5

1.2

137.6

10 26N 02 02N

45 02E 45 21E

45 39

30 13

84 86

68 73

89 90

77 78

107 83

88 73

92 86

76 76

117 97

58 59

30 21

0.3 *

0.1 *

0.2 *

0.5 2.3

0.3 2.3

* 3.8

* 2.5

0.1 1.9

* 1.0

0.1 0.9

0.2 1.6

0.2 0.5

2.0 16.9

33 29 28 33 29

18 31 24 25 16

32E 02E 46E 36E 52E

56 16 3,927 190 23

19 15 19 14 20

78 81 91 78 67

60 69 64 61 53

72 78 77 73 66

53 64 52 55 50

63 72 65 67 62

45 52 36 45 45

70 75 83 70 64

52 62 54 54 49

103 107 103 104 107

28 39 20 31 31

18 78 57 84 64

0.6 4.3 2.4 1.2 0.1

0.3 4.8 2.5 1.3 0.1

0.7 5.1 3.1 1.9 0.2

1.9 3.0 1.5 1.8 0.2

3.1 2.1 0.7 2.4 0.3

3.3 1.3 0.2 1.8 0.3

3.5 1.1 0.2 1.9 0.3

2.6 1.5 0.3 2.0 0.3

1.7 2.8 0.6 2.3 0.2

1.2 4.3 1.0 2.2 0.1

0.7 4.8 1.6 2.2 0.1

0.4 4.7 2.0 1.7 0.1

20.0 39.7 16.1 22.7 2.3

25 45S 22 56S

28 14E 14 30E

4,491 24

13 20

81 73

60 59

75 75

50 55

66 70

37 47

80 67

55 51

96 104

24 25

12 20

5.0 *

4.3 0.2

4.5 0.3

1.7 0.1

0.9 0.1

0.6 *

0.3 *

0.2 0.1

0.8 *

2.2 *

5.2 *

5.2 *.

30.9 0.9

13 15 19 21 07

25 32 37 31 28

2,395 1,279 18 410 1,443

17 46 30 39 38

88 90 81 75 96

50 59 68 46 64

102 105 89 98 99

64 72 71 62 72

96 101 106 106 89

70 77 83 74 69

99 104 93 98 93

64 75 76 67 69

113 118 117 127 115

33 41 50 28 50

17 46 40 39 38

* * 0.2 * *

0.0 * 0.1 * 0.2

* * * * 0.9

* * * * 2.6

0.3 0.1 * * 5.3

0.7 0.3 * 0.0 6.5

4.5 2.1 0.3 * 7.5

5.3 2.8 0.1 * 8.2

1.2 0.7 * * 6.6

0.2 0.2 0.4 * 4.9

0.0 * 1.7 * 0.6

0.0 0.0 0.9 0.0 *

12.2 6.2 3.7 * 43.3

54S 50S 48S 59S 14S

38N 37N 37N 55N 42N

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

21E 33E 13E 20E 03E

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Nigeria Enugu Kaduna Lagos Maiduguri Senegal Dakar Kaolack Sierra Leone Freetown/Lungi Somalia Berbera Mogadiscio

July

8

Country and Station

Nouakchott Morocco Casablanca Marrakech Rabat Tangier Mozambique Beira Chicoa Maputo Namibia Keetmanshoop Windhoek Niger Agades Bilma Niamey

Apr

Latitude

Jan

Extreme

June

Table 3B.13

06 50S 07 47S 04 53S

39 18E 35 42E 29 38E

47 5,330 2,903

44 14 26

83 76 80

77 59 67

86 75 81

73 59 67

83 72 83

66 52 63

85 80 84

69 57 69

96 90 100

59 42 53

49 24 18

2.6 6.8 4.8

2.6 5.1 5.0

5.1 7.1 5.9

11.4 3.5 5.1

7.4 0.5 1.7

1.3 * 0.2

1.2 * 0.1

1.0 * 0.2

1.2 0.1 0.7

1.6 0.2 1.9

2.9 1.5 5.6

3.6 4.5 5.3

41.9 29.3 36.5

06 10N

01 15E

72

5

85

72

86

74

80

71

83

72

94

58

15

0.6

0.9

1.9

4.6

5.7

8.8

2.8

0.4

1.4

2.4

1.1

0.4

31.0

33 53N 36 47N

10 07E 10 12E

7 217

50 50

61 58

43 43

74 70

54 51

89 90

71 68

81 77

62 59

122 118

27 30

50 50

0.9 2.5

0.7 2.0

0.8 1.6

0.4 1.4

0.3 0.7

* 0.3

* 0.1

0.1 0.3

0.5 1.3

1.2 2.0

1.2 1.9

0.6 2.4

6.7 16.5

00 20N 02 15N

32 36E 32 54E

4,304 3,560

15 14

83 91

65 61

79 86

64 64

77 81

62 61

81 86

63 61

97 100

53 50

15 14

1.8 0.7

2.4 1.0

5.1 3.5

6.9 6.9

5.8 7.9

2.9 4.9

1.8 6.4

3.4 10.0

3.6 8.3

3.8 6.1

4.8 3.2

3.9 1.8

46.2 60.7

26 46N 23 42N

11 31W 15 52W

1,509 35

6 12

73 71

47 56

88 74

58 60

99 78

66 65

88 80

61 65

121 107

37 48

6 14

0.1 *

* *

0.0 *

* *

* 0.1

0.0 0.0

0.0 *

* 0.2

1.0 1.4

* 0.1

0.4 0.2

0.0 1.0

1.5 3.0

05 54S 04 20S 00 26N 05 54S

29 15 25 22

12E 18E 14E 25E

2,493 1,066 1,370 2,198

5 8 8 3

85 87 88 85

66 70 69 68

83 89 88 86

67 71 70 68

82 81 84 85

58 64 67 63

87 88 86 85

67 70 68 68

92 97 97 94

50 58 61 57

20 12 14 14

4.2 5.3 2.1 5.4

4.7 5.7 3.3 5.6

6.3 7.7 7.0 7.7

8.4 7.7 6.2 7.6

3.3 6.2 5.4 3.3

0.3 0.3 4.5 0.8

0.1 0.1 5.2 0.5

0.3 0.1 6.5 2.3

0.8 1.2 7.2 4.6

2.8 4.7 8.6 6.5

7.9 8.7 7.8 9.1

6.3 5.6 3.3 8.9

45.4 53.3 67.1 62.3

13 34S 10 12S 15 25S

23 06E 31 11E 28 19E

3,577 4,544 4,191

8 10 10

82 79 78

65 61 63

84 79 79

61 60 59

81 76 73

47 50 49

91 87 88

64 62 64

108 95 100

38 39 39

9 10 10

8.5 10.7 9.1

6.9 9.9 7.5

5.8 10.9 5.6

1.2 2.8 0.7

* 0.5 0.1

0.0 * *

0.0 * *

* * 0.0

0.3 * *

2.3 0.8 0.4

4.4 6.4 3.6

8.9 9.5 5.9

38.3 51.5 32.9

20 09S 17 50S

28 37E 31 08E

4,405 4,831

15 15

81 78

61 60

79 78

56 55

70 70

45 44

85 83

59 58

99 95

28 32

50 50

5.6 7.7

4.3 7.0

3.3 4.6

0.7 1.1

0.4 0.5

0.1 0.1

* *

* 0.1

0.2 0.2

0.8 1.1

3.2 3.8

4.8 6.4

23.4 32.6

32 38N

16 55W

82

30

66

56

67

58

75

66

74

65

103

40

30

2.5

2.9

3.1

1.3

0.7

0.2

*

*

1.0

3.0

3.5

3.3

21.5

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Tanzania Dares Salaam Iringa Kigoma Togo Lome Tunisia Gabes Tunis Uganda Kampala Lira Western Sahara Semara Villa Cisneros Zaire Kalemie Kinshasa Kisangani Luluabourg Zambia Balovale Kasama Lusaka Zimbabwe Bulawayo Salisbury Atlantic Islands Funchal, Madeira Island Georgetown, Ascension Island Hutts Gate, St. Helena Las Palmas, Canary Islands Porto da Praia, Cape Verde Is Porto da Praia, Cape Verde Is Santa Isabel, Fernando Po Sao Tome, Sao Tome Tristan da Cunha

07 56S

14 25W

55

29

85

73

88

75

84

72

83

71

95

65

45

0.2

0.4

0.7

1.1

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.3

0.2

0.1

5.2

15 57S

05 40W

2,062

30

68

60

69

61

62

55

61

54

82

50

30

2.1

3.1

4.2

3.1

2.8

3.2

4.3

2.6

2.2

1.7

1.2

1.6

32.1

28 11N

15 28W

20

45

70

58

71

61

77

67

79

67

99

46

48

1.4

0.9

0.9

0.5

0.2

*

*

*

0.2

1.1

2.1

1.6

8.6

14 54N

23 31W

112

25

77

68

79

69

83

75

85

76

94

56

25

0.1

*

*

*

0.0

*

0.2

3.8

4.5

1.2

0.3

0.1

10.2

14 54N

23 31W

112

25

77

68

79

69

83

75

85

76

94

56

25

0.1

*

*

*

0.0

*

0.2

3.8

4.5

1.2

0.3

0.1

10.2

03 46N

08 46E

67

89

70

84

69

86

70

102

61

16

1.3

2.5

4.2

7.2

9.4

11.1

7.4

6.6

9.6

10.4

3.5

1.7

74.9

00 20N 37 03S

06 43E 12 19W

16 75

10 5

86 66

73 59

86 64

73 57

82 57

69 50

84 59

71 51

91 75

56 38

10 5

3.2 3.5

4.2 3.5

5.9 6.4

5.0 4.7

5.3 7.1

1.1 5.9

* 6.1

* 6.9

0.9 7.9

4.3 5.8

4.6 4.3

3.5 4.0

38.0 66.1

10 26S 12 05S

56 40E 96 53E

10 15

3 36

86 86

77 77

87 85

77 78

83 82

75 76

84 84

75 76

91 94

69 68

2 38

5.9 5.4

10.1 7.7

4.9 8.5

6.9 10.4

13.2 7.9

8.9 9.0

8.7 8.7

3.2 4.8

1.8 3.7

4.2 3.3

7.0 4.2

10.0 4.6

84.7 78.2

53 01S 21 04S

73 23E 55 22E

16 3,070

5 5

41 74

35 59

39 73

33 56

34 65

27 48

35 69

28 51

58 84

13 40

5 11

5.8 22.4

5.8 8.0

5.7 16.4

6.1 7.2

5.8 5.3

3.9 4.4

3.6 3.1

2.2 3.0

2.5 2.0

3.7 2.3

4.0 3.5

5.1 12.9

54.3 90.5

04 37S

55 27E

15

60

83

76

86

77

81

75

83

75

92

67

64

15.2

10.5

9.2

7.2

6.7

4.0

3.3

2.7

5.1

6.1

9.1

13.4

92.5

20 06S

57 32E

181

40

86

73

82

70

75

62

80

64

95

50

43

8.5

7.8

8.7

5.0

3.8

2.6

2.3

2.5

1.4

1.6

1.8

4.6

50.6

31 16 28

36 26 60

0.9 1.9 0.7

1.9 3.7 0.8

4.2 5.3 1.5

6.8 5.7 3.8

10.6 8.2 5.7

10.6 8.7 7.1

8.1 4.4 5.6

8.5 4.3 4.7

6.5 2.7 5.8

3.4 3.0 4.3

1.2 2.7 1.9

0.9 1.5 0.8

63.6 52.1 42.9

—

2

87

Indian Ocean Islands Agalega Island Cocos (Keeling) Island Heard Island Hellburg, Reunion Island Port Victoria, Seychelles Royal Alfred Observatory, Mauritius

Asia-Far East

23 10N 28 15N 29 30N

113 20E 112 58E 106 33E

59 161 855

26 14 27

65 45 51

49 35 42

77 70 73

65 56 59

91 94 93

77 78 76

85 75 71

67 59 61

101 109 111

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-89

China Canton Chanasha Chungking

3-90

Table 3B.13

(Continued) Temperature

Average Precipitation

Average Daily

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

117 10E 87 40E 114 10E

April

Tientsin 39 10N Urumchi 43 45N Hong Kong 22 18N Japan Kushiro 43 02N Miyako 39 38N Nagasaki 32 44N Osaka 34 47N Tokyo 35 41N Korea Pusan 35 10N Pyongyang 39 01N Seoul 37 31N Mongolia Ulan Bator 47 54N Taiwan Tainan 22 57N Taipei 25 04N Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Alma-Ata 43 16N Chita 52 02N Dubinka 69 07N Irkutsk 52 16N Kazalinsk 45 46N Khabarovsk 48 28N Kirensk 57 47N Krasnoyarsk 56 01N Markovo 64 45N Narym 58 50N

March

4,296 6,211 5,105 138 16

February

76 07E 102 43E 103 55E 123 24E 121 26E

January

24N 02N 06N 47N 12N

Length of Record

39 25 36 41 31

Minimum

Kashgar Kunming Lanchow Mukden Shanghai

Maximum

29 35

Minimum

75 476

Year

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

60 31

108 102

9 K43

55 38

1.8 0.2

1.9 0.2

3.6 0.4

5.8 0.9

7.0 1.7

9.0 3.7

7.0 6.6

4.1 4.7

3.0 2.3

3.1 1.2

1.9 0.5

1.2 0.2

49.4 22.6

71 70 62 62 75

43 53 39 39 56

106 91 100 103 104

K15 22 K3 K28 10

18 31 4 42 81

0.6 0.4 0.2 0.2 1.9

0.1 0.5 0.2 0.2 2.4

0.5 0.7 0.2 0.7 3.3

0.2 0.8 0.5 1.2 3.6

0.3 4.3 0.8 2.6 3.8

0.2 6.3 0.7 3.8 7.0

0.4 8.8 3.3 7.0 5.8

0.3 8.6 5.1 6.3 5.5

0.1 5.0 2.2 2.9 5.2

0.1 3.0 0.6 1.7 2.9

0.2 1.7 0.0 0.9 2.1

0.3 0.4 0.3 0.4 1.5

3.2 40.5 14.1 28.2 45.0

73 58 78

68 50 81

48 31 73

109 112 97

K3 K30 32

25 6 50

0.2 0.6 1.3

0.1 0.3 1.8

0.4 0.5 2.9

0.5 1.5 5.4

1.1 1.1 11.5

2.4 1.5 15.5

7.6 0.7 15.0

6.0 1.0 14.2

1.7 0.6 10.1

0.6 1.7 4.5

0.4 1.6 1.7

0.2 0.4 1.2

21.0 11.5 85.1

66 77 85 87 83

55 62 73 73 70

58 66 72 72 69

40 46 58 55 55

87 99 98 102 101

K19 1 22 19 17

41 30 59 60 60

1.8 2.9 2.8 1.7 1.9

1.4 3.0 3.3 2.3 2.9

2.8 3.2 4.9 3.8 4.2

3.6 3.5 7.3 5.2 5.3

3.8 4.5 6.7 4.9 5.8

4.1 5.0 12.3 7.4 6.5

4.4 5.0 10.1 5.9 5.6

4.9 7.2 6.9 4.4 6.0

6.6 9.5 9.8 7.0 9.2

4.0 6.8 4.5 5.1 8.2

3.1 3.0 3.7 3.0 3.8

2.0 2.6 3.2 1.9 2.2

42.9 56.2 75.5 52.6 61.6

47 38 41

81 84 84

71 69 70

70 65 67

54 43 45

97 100 99

7 K19 K12

36 43 22

1.7 0.6 1.2

1.4 0.4 0.8

2.7 1.0 1.5

5.5 1.8 3.0

5.2 2.6 3.2

7.9 3.0 5.1

11.6 9.3 14.8

5.1 9.0 10.5

6.8 4.4 4.7

2.9 1.8 1.6

1.6 1.6 1.8

1.2 0.8 1.0

53.6 36.4 49.2

45

18

71

50

44

17

97

K48

15

*

*

0.1

0.2

0.3

1.0

2.9

1.9

0.8

0.2

0.2

0.1

7.7

55 53

82 77

67 64

89 92

77 76

86 80

70 68

95 101

39 32

13 12

0.7 3.8

0.7 5.3

1.1 4.3

3.2 5.3

6.3 6.9

15.6 8.8

16.0 8.8

15.8 8.7

8.4 8.2

1.2 5.5

0.9 4.2

0.6 2.9

70.5 72.7

23 K10 K23 3 16 K2 K14 3 K19 K7

7 K27 K31 K15 5 K13 K28 K10 K29 K18

56 42 6 42 58 41 38 34 5 35

38 19 K10 20 27 28 15 23 K8 19

81 75 59 70 90 75 74 67 59 71

60 51 47 50 65 63 51 55 47 56

55 38 19 41 57 48 10 34 16 35

35 18 11 21 35 34 K4 26 9 25

100 99 84 98 108 91 95 103 84 94

K30 K52 K62 K58 K27 K46 K71 K47 K72 K61

27 24 5 38 19 8 19 8 16 14

1.3 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.8 0.1 0.2 0.8

0.9 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.5

2.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.3 0.8

4.0 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.5

3.7 1.1 0.6 1.3 0.6 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.3 1.3

2.6 1.8 1.9 2.2 0.2 3.5 1.8 1.4 0.8 2.6

1.4 3.3 1.5 3.1 0.2 4.1 2.1 1.2 1.0 2.4

1.2 3.3 2.1 2.8 0.3 3.3 2.1 2.1 1.9 2.7

1.0 1.2 1.8 1.7 0.3 3.0 1.7 1.7 1.1 1.7

2.0 0.5 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.7 1.0 0.9 0.4 1.4

1.9 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.6 1.0 0.5 0.4 1.1

1.3 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.5 1.0 0.4 0.3 0.9

23.5 12.3 10.7 14.9 4.9 19.2 14.0 9.8 7.0 16.8

Maximum

114 17E 126 38E

8F

Minimum

30 35N 45 45N

8F

Maximum

Hankow Harbin

8F

Minimum

Year

Year

Maximum

Length of Record

Feet

Oct

Minimum

Elevation

8

July

Maximum

Longitude

8

Country and Station

Apr

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

46 7

34 K14

69 54

55 31

93 84

78 65

74 54

27 32 8 40 56

33 61 33 20 47

12 37 7 K2 32

71 76 65 60 67

48 51 40 36 49

92 77 84 87 91

68 62 61 69 75

13 2,972 109

24 6 50

33 13 64

16 K7 56

68 60 75

45 36 67

90 82 87

12E 59E 53E 26E 46E

315 98 436 49 19

41 30 59 60 60

30 43 49 47 47

8 23 36 32 29

44 58 66 65 63

31 37 50 47 46

129 07E 125 49E 126 55E

6 94 34

36 43 22

43 27 32

29 8 15

62 61 62

106 56E

4,287

13

K2

K27

120 12E 121 32E

53 21

13 12

72 66

76 53E 113 30E 87 00E 104 19E 62 06E 135 03E 108 07E 92 52E 170 50E 81 39E

2,543 2,218 141 1,532 207 165 938 498 85 197

19 10 5 10 10 7 18 10 15 13

144 141 129 135 139

Okhotsk Omsk Petropavlovsk Salehkard Semipalatinsk

59 54 52 66 50

21N 58N 53N 31N 24N

143 17E 73 20E 158 42E 66 35E 80 13E

18 279 286 60 709

19 19 7 18 10

K6 K1 23 K13 8

K17 K14 11 K21 K7

29 39 35 18 45

10 21 25 4 26

57 74 56 61 81

48 56 47 49 57

33 40 46 26 46

21 27 34 20 30

78 102 84 85 101

K50 K56 K29 K65 K47

25 22 35 27 10

0.1 0.6 3.0 0.3 0.9

0.1 0.3 2.2 0.3 0.5

0.2 0.3 3.4 0.3 0.5

0.4 0.5 2.5 0.3 0.6

0.9 1.2 2.2 0.7 1.2

1.6 2.0 2.0 1.3 1.5

2.2 2.0 3.1 1.9 1.1

2.6 2.0 3.2 2.0 1.3

2.4 1.1 3.8 1.5 0.7

1.0 1.0 3.9 0.7 1.2

0.2 0.7 3.6 0.5 1.1

0.1 0.8 3.0 0.4 1.0

11.8 12.5 35.9 10.2 11.6

Sverdlovsk Tashkent Verkhoyansk Vladivostok Yakutsk

56 41 67 43 62

49N 20N 34N 07N 01N

60 38E 69 18E 133 51E 131 55E 129 43E

894 1,569 328 94 535

21 19 24 14 19

6 37 K54 13 K45

K5 21 K63 0 K53

42 65 19 46 27

26 47 K10 34 6

70 92 66 71 73

54 64 47 60 54

37 65 12 55 23

28 41 K3 41 11

94 106 98 92 97

K45 K19 K90 K22 K84

29 19 44 53 22

0.5 2.1 0.2 0.3 0.3

0.4 1.1 0.2 0.4 0.2

0.5 2.6 0.1 0.7 0.1

0.7 2.3 0.2 1.2 0.3

1.9 1.4 0.3 2.1 0.4

2.7 0.5 0.9 2.9 1.1

2.6 0.2 1.1 3.3 1.6

2.7 0.1 1.0 4.7 1.3

1.6 0.1 0.5 4.3 1.1

1.2 1.2 0.3 1.9 0.5

1.1 1.5 0.3 1.2 0.4

0.8 1.6 0.2 0.6 0.3

16.7 14.7 5.3 23.6 7.4

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Latitude

Jan

Extreme

Brunel Brunel Burma Mandalay Moulmein Cambodia Phanom Penh Indonesia Jakarta Manokwari Mapanget Penfui Pontianak Tabing Tarakan Laos Vientiane Malaysia Kuala Lumpur North Borneo Sandakan Philippine Islands Davao Manila Sarawak: Kuching

04 55N

114 55E

10

5

85

76

87

77

87

76

86

77

99

70

12

14.6

7.6

7.8

9.8

10.9

9.5

9.0

7.3

11.8

14.5

15.2

13.0

131.0

21 59N 16 26N

96 06E 97 39E

252 150

20 43

82 89

55 65

1.1 95

77 77

93 83

78 74

89 88

73 75

111 103

44 52

20 60

0.1 0.2

0.1 0.2

0.2 0.5

1.2 3.0

5.8 19.9

6.3 37.1

2.7 47.5

4.1 44.2

5.4 27.1

4.3 8.5

2.0 1.7

0.4 0.3

32.6 190.2

11 33N

104 51E

39

37

88

71

95

76

90

76

87

76

105

55

49

0.3

0.4

1.4

3.1

5.7

5.8

6.0

6.1

8.9

9.9

5.5

1.7

54.8

06 11S 00 53S 01 32N 10 10S 00 00N 00 52S 03 19N

106 134 124 123 109 100 117

50E 03E 55E 39E 20E 21E 33E

26 10 264 335 13 19 20

80 5 21 21 20 21 19

84 86 85 87 87 87 85

74 73 73 75 74 74 73

87 86 86 89 89 87 86

75 74 73 72 75 75 75

87 86 87 88 89 87 87

73 74 73 70 74 74 74

87 87 89 92 89 86 87

74 74 72 72 75 74 74

98 93 97 101 96 94 94

66 68 65 58 68 68 67

78 40 63 63 63 63 31

11.8 12.0 18.6 15.2 10.8 13.9 10.9

11.8 9.4 13.8 13.7 8.2 10.1 10.2

8.3 13.2 12.2 9.2 9.5 12.2 14.0

5.8 11.1 8.0 2.6 10.9 14.5 13.9

4.5 7.8 6.4 1.2 11.1 12.8 13.5

3.8 7.2 6.5 0.4 8.7 11.7 12.6

2.5 5.4 4.8 0.2 6.5 10.5 10.3

1.7 5.6 4.0 0.0 8.0 13.7 12.4

2.6 4.9 3.3 0.0 9.0 16.2 11.6

4.4 4.7 4.9 0.7 14.4 20.1 14.3

5.6 6.5 8.9 3.3 15.3 20.5 15.2

8.0 10.3 14.7 9.1 12.7 19.2 13.4

70.8 98.1 106.1 55.7 125.1 175.4 152.3

17 58N

102 34E

559

13

83

58

95

73

89

75

88

71

108

32

27

0.2

0.6

1.5

3.9

10.5

11.9

10.5

11.5

11.9

4.3

0.6

0.1

67.5

03 06N

101 42E

111

19

90

72

91

74

90

72

89

73

99

64

19

6.2

7.9

10.2

11.5

8.8

5.1

3.9

6.4

8.6

9.8

10.2

7.5

96.1

05 54N

118 03E

38

45

85

74

89

76

89

75

88

75

99

70

46

19.0

10.9

8.6

4.5

6.2

7.4

6.7

7.9

9.3

10.2

14.5

18.5

123.7

07 07N 14 31N

125 38E 121 00E

88 49

15 61

87 86

72 69

91 93

73 73

88 88

73 75

89 88

73 74

97 101

65 58

34 75

4.8 0.9

4.5 0.5

5.2 0.7

5.8 1.3

9.2 5.1

9.1 10.0

6.5 17.0

6.5 16.6

6.7 14.0

7.9 7.6

5.3 5.7

6.1 2.6

77.6 82.0

01 29N

110 20E

85

5

85

72

90

73

90

72

89

73

98

64

19

24.0

20.1

12.9

11.0

10.3

7.1

7.7

9.2

8.6

10.5

14.1

18.2

153.7

01 18N

103 50E

33

39

86

73

88

75

88

75

87

74

97

66

64

9.9

6.8

7.6

7.4

6.8

6.8

6.7

7.7

7.0

8.2

10.0

10.1

95.0

13 44N 21 03N 10 49N

100 30E 105 52E 106 39E

53 20 33

10 12 31

89 68 89

67 58 70

95 80 95

78 70 76

90 92 88

76 79 75

88 84 88

76 72 74

104 108 104

50 41 57

10 12 33

0.2 0.8 0.6

1.1 1.2 0.1

1.1 2.5 0.5

2.3 3.6 1.7

5.2 4.1 8.7

6.0 11.2 13.0

6.9 11.9 12.4

9.2 15.2 10.6

14.0 10.0 13.2

9.9 3.5 10.6

1.8 2.6 4.5

0.1 2.8 2.2

57.8 69.4 78.1

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Asia-Southeast

Singapore Singapore Thailand Bangkok Viet Nam Hanoi Saigon

Asia-Middle East Aden Riyan Afghanistan Kabul Kandhar

14 39N

49 19E

83

13

82

67

88

74

92

77

88

72

111

57

13

0.3

0.1

0.6

0.2

*

0.1

0.1

0.1

*

*

0.7

0.3

2.5

34 30N 31 36N

69 13E 65 40E

5,955 3,462

9 7

36 56

18 31

66 83

43 50

92 102

61 66

73 85

42 44

104 111

K6 14

45 7

1.3 3.1

1.5 1.7

3.6 0.8

3.3 0.3

0.9 0.2

0.2 *

0.1 0.1

0.1 *

* 0.0

0.4 *

0.6 *

0.6 0.8

12.6 7.0

Bangladesh Dacca India Ahmadabad Bangalore Bombay Calcutta Cherrapunji

23 46N

90 23E

24

60

77

56

92

74

88

79

88

75

108

43

61

0.3

1.2

2.4

5.4

9.6

12.4

13.0

13.3

9.8

5.3

1.0

0.2

73.9

23 12 19 22 25

03N 57N 06N 32N 15N

72 77 72 88 91

37E 40E 51E 20E 44E

180 2,937 27 21 4,309

45 60 60 60 35

85 80 88 80 60

58 57 62 55 46

104 93 93 97 71

75 69 74 76 59

93 81 88 90 72

79 66 75 79 65

97 82 93 89 72

73 65 73 74 61

118 102 110 111 87

36 46 46 44 33

45 60 60 60 35

* 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.7

0.1 0.3 0.1 1.2 2.1

0.1 0.4 0.1 1.4 7.3

* 1.6 * 1.7 26.2

0.4 4.2 0.7 5.5 50.4

3.7 2.9 19.1 11.7 6.1

12.2 3.9 24.3 12.8 96.3

8.1 5.0 13.4 12.9 70.1

4.2 6.7 10.4 9.9 43.3

0.4 5.9 2.5 4.5 19.4

0.1 2.7 0.5 0.8 2.7

* 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.5

29.3 34.2 71.2 63.0 425.1

Hyderabad Jalpaiguri Lucknow Madras Mormugao

17 26 26 13 15

27N 32N 45N 04N 22N

78 88 80 80 73

28E 43E 52E 15E 49E

1,741 272 400 51 157

50 50 60 60 10

85 74 74 85 86

59 50 47 67 70

101 90 101 95 88

75 68 71 78 79

87 89 92 96 83

73 77 80 79 75

88 87 91 90 86

68 70 67 75 75

112 104 119 113 98

43 36 34 57 59

45 55 60 60 30

0.3 0.3 0.8 1.4 *

0.4 0.7 0.7 0.4 *

0.5 1.3 0.3 0.3 *

1.2 3.7 0.3 0.6 0.7

1.1 11.8 0.8 1.0 2.6

4.4 25.9 4.5 1.9 29.6

6.0 32.2 12.0 3.6 31.2

5.3 25.3 11.5 4.6 15.9

6.5 21.2 7.4 4.7 9.5

2.5 5.6 1.3 12.0 3.8

1.1 0.5 0.2 14.0 1.3

0.3 0.2 0.3 5.5 0.2

29.6 128.7 40.1 50.0 94.8

28 35N 24 49N

77 12E 92 48E

695 95

10 60

71 78

43 52

97 88

68 69

95 90

80 77

93 88

64 72

115 103

31 41

75 53

0.9 0.8

0.7 2.1

0.5 7.9

0.3 14.3

0.5 15.6

2.9 21.7

7.1 19.7

6.8 19.7

4.6 14.4

0.4 6.5

0.1 1.4

0.4 0.4

25.2 124.5

11 40N

92 43E

261

60

84

72

89

75

84

75

84

74

97

62

60

1.8

1.1

1.1

2.4

15.1

21.7

15.4

16.3

17.4

12.5

10.5

7.9

123.2

New Delhi Silchar Indian Ocean Islands Port Blair, Andaman Is

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-91

(Continued)

3-92

Table 3B.13

(Continued) Temperature

Average Precipitation

Average Daily

Iran Abadan Isfahan Kermanshah Rezaiyeh Tehran Iraq Baghdad Basra Mosul Israel Haifa Jerusalem Tel Aviv

Elevation

Length of Record

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Length of Record

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Oct

Year

8

8

Feet

Year

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

Year

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

11 07N

72 44E

13

29

86

74

92

80

86

77

86

77

99

65

30

0.7

*

*

1.5

3.7

14.3

12.0

7.7

6.3

5.8

2.6

1.3

56.0

08 18N 09 09N

73 00E 92 49E

9 47

20 13

85 86

73 77

87 90

80 77

85 86

76 77

85 85

76 75

98 95

63 66

50 30

1.8 3.9

0.7 1.2

0.9 2.1

2.3 3.5

7.0 12.5

11.6 12.4

8.9 9.3

7.8 10.2

6.3 12.9

7.3 11.6

5.5 11.4

3.4 7.8

63.5 98.8

30 32 34 37 35

48 51 47 45 51

13E 41E 07E 05E 19E

10 5,238 4,331 4,364 3,937

12 45 15 3 24

64 47 45 32 45

44 25 23 17 27

90 72 68 67 71

62 46 38 45 49

112 98 99 91 99

81 67 56 64 72

98 78 79 67 76

63 47 38 47 53

127 108 108 99 109

24 K4 K3 K11 K5

10 45 15 3 33

1.5 0.7 2.6 1.9 1.8

1.7 0.6 2.3 2.3 1.5

0.6 0.8 2.8 2.0 1.8

0.8 0.6 2.2 1.7 1.4

0.1 0.3 1.6 1.2 0.5

0.0 * * 0.5 0.1

0.0 0.1 * * 0.1

0.0 * * 0.1 0.1

0.0 * * 0.2 0.1

0.1 0.1 0.4 1.5 0.3

1.0 0.4 2.0 0.8 0.8

1.8 0.7 2.4 1.6 1.2

7.6 4.4 16.4 13.8 9.7

33 20N 30 34N 36 19N

44 24E 47 47E 43 09E

111 8 730

15 10 26

60 64 54

39 45 35

85 85 77

57 63 49

110 104 109

76 81 72

92 94 88

61 64 51

121 123 124

18 24 12

15 10 29

0.9 1.4 2.8

1.0 1.1 3.1

1.1 1.2 2.1

0.5 1.2 1.9

0.1 0.2 0.7

* 0.0 *

* * *

* * *

* * *

0.1 * 0.2

0.8 1.4 1.9

1.0 0.8 2.4

5.5 7.3 15.2

32 48N 31 47N 32 06N

35 02E 35 13E 34 46E

23 2,654 33

16 19 10

65 55 64

49 41 50

77 73 70

58 50 57

88 87 82

75 63 72

85 81 79

68 59 65

112 107 102

27 26 34

30 50 10

6.9 5.1 4.9

4.3 4.7 2.7

1.6 2.9 2.0

1.0 0.9 0.7

0.2 0.1 0.1

* * 0.0

* 0.0 0.0

* 0.0 0.0

0.1 * 0.1

1.0 0.3 0.4

3.7 2.2 4.1

7.3 3.5 6.1

26.2 19.7 21.1

33 58N

74 46E

5,458

50

41

24

67

45

88

64

74

41

106

K4

50

2.9

2.8

3.6

3.7

2.4

1.4

2.3

2.4

1.5

1.2

0.4

1.3

25.9

21N 37N 19N 32N 41N

Jammu/Kashmir Srinagar Jordan Amman Kuwait Kuwait Lebanon Beirut

31 58N

35 59E

2,547

25

54

39

73

49

89

65

81

57

109

21

25

2.7

2.9

1.2

0.6

0.2

0.0

0.0

0.0

*

0.2

1.3

1.8

10.9

29 21N

48 00E

16

14

61

49

83

68

103

86

91

73

119

33

10

0.9

0.9

1.1

0.2

*

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.6

1.1

5.1

33 54N

35 28E

111

62

62

51

72

58

87

73

81

69

107

30

71

7.5

6.2

3.7

2.2

0.7

0.1

*

*

0.2

2.0

5.2

7.3

35.1

Nepal Katmandu

27 42N

85 22E

4,423

27

65

36

84

53

84

69

80

56

99

27

9

0.6

1.6

0.9

2.3

4.8

9.7

14.7

13.6

6.1

1.5

0.3

0.1

56.2

Oman and Muscat Muscat

23 37N

58 35E

15

23

77

66

90

78

97

87

93

80

116

51

38

1.1

0.7

0.4

0.4

*

0.1

*

*

0.0

0.1

0.4

0.7

3.9

Pakistan Karachi Multan Rawalpindi

24 48N 30 11N 33 35N

66 59E 71 25E 73 03E

13 400 1,676

43 60 60

77 68 62

55 42 38

90 95 86

73 68 59

91 102 98

81 86 77

91 94 89

72 64 57

118 122 118

39 29 25

59 60 60

0.5 0.4 2.5

0.4 0.4 2.5

0.3 0.4 2.7

0.1 0.3 1.9

0.1 0.3 1.3

0.7 0.6 2.3

3.2 2.0 8.1

1.6 1.8 9.2

0.5 0.5 3.9

0.1 0.1 0.6

0.1 0.1 0.3

0.2 0.2 1.2

7.8 7.1 36.5

Saudi Arabia Dhahran Jidda Riyadh

26 16N 21 28N 24 39N

50 10E 39 10E 46 42E

78 20 1,938

10 5 3

69 84 70

54 66 46

90 91 89

69 70 64

107 99 107

86 79 78

95 95 94

73 73 61

120 117 113

40 49 19

10 5 3

1.1 0.2 0.1

0.6 * 0.8

0.4 * 0.9

0.2 * 1.0

0.1 * 0.4

0.0 0.0 *

0.0 * 0.0

0.0 * *

0.0 * 0.0

0.0 * 0.0

0.2 1.0 *

0.9 1.2 *

3.5 2.5 3.2

Sri Lanka Colombo

06 54N

79 52E

22

25

86

72

88

76

85

77

85

75

99

59

40

3.5

2.7

5.8

9.1

14.6

8.8

5.3

4.3

6.3

13.7

12.4

5.8

92.3

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Amini Divi, Laccadive Is Minicoy, Maldive Is Car Nicobar, Nicobar Is

July

Longitude

Country and Station

Apr

Latitude

Jan

Extreme

35 21N 33 30N 36 14N

40 09E 36 20E 37 08E

699 2,362 1,280

5 13 8

53 53 50

35 36 34

80 75 75

52 49 48

105 96 97

78 64 69

86 81 81

56 54 54

114 113 117

16 21 9

8 7 10

1.6 1.7 3.5

0.8 1.7 2.5

0.3 0.3 1.5

0.8 0.5 1.1

0.1 0.1 0.3

* * 0.1

0.0 * 0.0

0.0 0.0 *

0.0 0.7 *

0.2 0.4 1.0

1.5 1.6 2.2

0.9 1.6 3.3

6.2 8.6 15.5

Turkey Adana Ankara Erzurum Izmir Samsun

36 39 39 38 41

35 32 41 27 36

18E 53E 16E 15E 19E

82 2,825 6,402 92 131

21 26 16 39 24

57 39 24 55 50

39 24 8 39 38

74 63 50 70 59

51 40 32 49 45

93 86 78 92 79

71 59 53 69 65

84 69 59 76 69

58 44 37 55 56

109 104 93 108 103

19 K13 K22 12 20

31 24 16 58 27

4.3 1.3 1.4 4.4 2.9

4.0 1.2 1.6 3.3 2.6

2.5 1.3 2.0 3.0 2.7

1.6 1.3 2.5 1.7 2.3

2.0 1.9 3.1 1.3 1.8

0.7 1.0 2.1 0.6 1.5

0.2 0.5 1.3 0.2 1.5

0.2 0.4 0.9 0.2 1.3

0.7 0.7 1.1 0.8 2.4

1.9 0.9 2.3 2.1 3.2

2.4 1.2 1.8 3.3 3.5

3.8 1.9 1.1 4.8 2.4

24.3 13.6 21.2 25.5 29.1

United Arab Emirates Sharjah

25 20N

55 24E

18

11

74

54

86

65

100

82

92

71

118

37

12

0.9

0.9

0.4

0.2

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.4

1.4

4.2

Yemen Kamaran I

15 20N

42 37E

20

26

82

74

89

79

98

85

93

82

105

66

21

0.2

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.1

*

0.5

0.7

0.1

0.1

0.4

0.9

3.4

59N 57N 54N 27N 17N

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Syria Deir Ez Zor Damascus Aleppo

Australia & Pacific Islands Australia Adelaide Alice Springs Bourke Brisbane Broome

34 23 30 27 17

57S 48S 05S 25S 57S

138 133 145 153 122

32E 53E 58E 05E 13E

20 1,791 361 17 56

86 62 63 53 41

86 97 99 85 92

61 70 70 69 79

73 81 82 79 93

55 54 55 61 72

59 67 65 68 82

45 39 40 49 58

73 88 85 80 91

51 58 56 60 72

118 111 125 110 113

32 19 25 35 40

104 30 72 91 50

0.8 1.7 1.4 6.4 6.3

0.7 1.3 1.5 6.3 5.8

1.0 1.1 1.1 5.7 3.9

1.8 0.4 1.1 3.7 1.2

2.7 0.6 1.0 2.8 0.6

3.0 0.5 1.1 2.6 0.9

2.6 0.3 0.9 2.2 0.2

2.6 0.3 0.8 1.9 0.1

2.1 0.3 0.8 1.9 *

1.7 0.7 0.9 2.5 *

1.1 1.2 1.2 3.7 0.6

1.0 1.5 1.4 5.0 3.3

21.1 9.9 13.2 44.7 22.9

Burketown Canberra Carnarvon Cloncurry Esperance

17 35 24 20 33

45S 18S 53S 40S 50S

139 149 113 140 121

33E 11E 40E 30E 55E

30 1,886 13 622 14

31 23 43 32 44

93 82 88 99 77

77 55 72 77 60

91 67 84 90 72

69 44 66 67 54

82 52 71 77 62

55 33 51 51 45

93 68 78 95 68

70 43 61 68 50

110 109 118 127 117

40 14 37 35 31

53 25 57 59 60

8.2 1.9 0.4 4.4 0.7

6.3 1.7 0.7 4.2 0.7

5.2 2.2 0.7 2.4 1.2

1.0 1.6 0.6 0.7 1.8

0.2 1.8 1.5 0.5 3.3

0.3 2.1 2.4 0.6 4.1

* 1.8 1.6 0.3 4.0

* 2.2 0.7 0.1 3.8

* 1.6 0.2 0.3 2.7

0.4 2.2 0.1 0.5 2.2

1.5 1.9 * 1.3 1.0

4.4 2.0 0.2 2.7 0.9

27.5 23.0 9.1 18.0 26.4

Laverton Melbourne Mundiwindi Perth Port Darwin

28 37 23 31 12

40S 49S 52S 56S 25S

122 144 120 115 130

23E 58E 10E 58E 52E

1,510 115 1,840 64 104

30 88 15 44 58

96 78 101 85 90

69 57 64 63 77

81 68 87 76 92

57 51 61 57 76

64 56 70 63 87

41 42 41 48 67

82 67 89 70 93

55 48 58 53 77

115 114 112 112 105

25 27 22 31 55

30 88 15 63 70

0.8 1.9 1.0 0.3 15.2

0.8 1.8 1.9 0.4 12.3

1.6 2.2 2.0 0.8 10.0

0.8 2.3 0.8 1.7 3.8

0.9 2.1 0.6 5.1 0.6

0.7 2.1 0.9 7.1 0.1

0.6 1.9 0.1 6.7 *

0.5 1.9 0.3 5.7 0.1

0.2 2.3 0.3 3.4 0.5

0.3 2.6 0.5 2.2 2.0

0.8 2.3 0.5 0.8 4.7

0.8 2.3 1.2 0.5 9.4

8.8 25.7 10.1 34.7 58.7

Sydney Thursday Island Townsville William Creek Windorah

33 10 19 28 25

52S 35S 15S 55S 26S

151 142 146 136 142

02E 13E 46E 21E 36E

62 200 18 247 390

87 31 31 39 29

78 87 87 96 101

65 77 76 69 74

71 86 84 80 86

58 77 70 55 59

60 82 75 65 70

46 73 59 41 43

71 86 83 84 91

56 76 71 56 61

114 98 110 119 116

35 64 39 25 26

87 49 67 30 50

3.5 18.2 10.9 0.5 1.4

4.0 15.8 11.2 0.6 1.6

5.0 13.9 7.2 0.3 1.6

5.3 8.0 3.3 0.3 0.9

5.0 1.6 1.3 0.3 0.8

4.6 0.5 1.4 0.5 0.8

4.6 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.5

3.0 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.4

2.9 0.1 0.7 0.3 0.5

2.8 0.3 1.3 0.5 0.6

2.9 1.5 1.9 0.5 0.9

2.9 7.0 5.4 0.7 1.4

46.5 67.5 45.7 5.0 11.4

Tasmania Hobart

42 53S

147 20E

177

70

71

53

63

48

52

40

63

46

105

28

100

1.9

1.5

1.8

1.9

1.8

2.2

2.1

1.9

2.1

2.3

2.4

2.1

24.0

New Zealand Auckland Christchurch Dunedin Wellington

37 43 45 41

174 172 170 174

47E 32E 12E 46E

23 118 4 415

36 52 77 66

73 70 66 69

60 53 50 56

67 62 59 63

56 45 45 51

56 50 48 53

46 35 37 42

63 62 59 60

52 44 42 48

90 96 94 88

33 21 23 29

92 64 77 79

3.1 2.2 3.4 3.2

3.7 1.7 2.8 3.2

3.2 1.9 3.0 3.2

3.8 1.9 2.8 3.8

5.0 2.6 3.2 4.6

5.4 2.6 3.2 4.6

5.7 2.7 3.1 5.4

4.6 1.9 3.0 4.6

4.0 1.8 2.7 3.8

4.0 1.7 3.0 4.0

3.5 1.9 3.2 3.5

3.1 2.2 3.5 3.5

49.1 25.1 36.9 47.4

Pacific Islands Canton, Phoenix Is Guam, Marianas Is Honolulu, Hawaii Iwo Jima, Bonin Is Madang, New Guinea

02 46S 13 33N 21 20N 24 47N 05 12S

171 43W 144 50E 157 55W 141 19E 145 47E

9 361 7 353 19

12 30 30 15 12

88 84 79 71 87

78 72 66 64 75

89 86 80 77 88

78 73 68 69 74

89 87 85 86 88

78 72 73 78 74

90 86 84 84 88

78 73 72 76 75

98 95 93 95 98

70 54 56 46 62

30 30 30 17 20

2.6 4.6 3.8 3.2 12.1

2.2 3.5 3.3 2.5 11.9

2.5 2.6 2.9 2.1 14.9

3.6 3.0 1.3 3.7 16.9

4.3 4.2 1.0 4.9 15.1

2.6 5.9 0.3 4.0 10.8

2.6 9.0 0.4 6.4 7.6

2.5 12.8 0.9 6.5 4.8

1.2 13.4 1.0 4.6 5.3

1.1 13.1 1.8 5.9 10.0

1.6 10.3 2.2 4.8 13.3

2.6 6.1 3.0 4.3 14.5

29.4 88.5 21.9 52.8 137.2

28 13N 26 12N 22 16S

177 23W 127 39F 166 27E

29 96 246

21 30 24

69 67 86

62 56 72

71 76 83

64 64 70

81 89 76

74 77 62

79 81 80

72 69 65

92 96 99

46 41 52

20 30 52

4.6 5.3 3.7

3.7 5.4 5.1

3.1 6.1 5.7

2.5 6.1 5.2

1.9 8.9 4.4

1.3 10.0 3.7

2.9 7.1 3.6

3.9 10.0 2.6

3.7 7.1 2.5

3.7 6.6 2.0

3.6 5.9 2.4

4.2 4.3 2.6

40.7 82.8 43.5

14 19S 06 58N

170 43W 158 13E

29 123

2 30

87 86

75 75

87 86

76 75

83 87

74 73

85 87

75 72

98 96

67 67

41 30

24.5 11.1

20.5 9.7

19.2 14.6

16.5 20.0

15.4 20.3

12.3 16.7

10.0 16.2

8.2 16.3

13.1 15.8

14.9 16.0

19.2 16.9

19.8 18.3

193.6 191.9

Midway Is Naha, Okinawa Noumea, New Caledonia Pago Pago, Samoa Ponape, Caroline Is

00S 29S 55S 17S

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-93

(Continued)

3-94

Table 3B.13

(Continued) Temperature

Average Precipitation

Average Daily

Length of Record

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Length of Record

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Oct

Elevation

July

Longitude

Country and Station

Apr

Latitude

Jan

Extreme

Year

8

8

Feet

Year

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

Year

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

IN.

09 29S

147 09E

126

20

89

76

87

75

83

73

86

75

98

64

38

7.0

7.6

6.7

4.2

2.5

1.3

1.1

0.7

1.0

1.4

1.9

4.4

39.8

04 18 17 09

13S 08S 33S 05S

152 11E 178 26E 149 36W 160 10E

28 20 7 8

19 43 23 20

90 86 89 88

73 74 72 76

90 84 89 88

73 73 72 76

89 79 86 86

73 68 68 76

92 81 87 87

73 70 70 76

100 98 93 96

65 55 61 68

24 43 27 37

14.8 11.4 13.2 14.3

10.4 10.7 11.5 15.8

10.2 14.5 6.5 15.0

10.0 12.2 6.8 10.8

5.2 10.1 4.9 8.1

3.3 6.7 3.2 6.8

5.4 4.9 2.6 7.6

3.7 8.3 1.9 8.7

3.5 7.7 2.3 8.0

5.1 8.3 3.4 8.7

7.1 9.8 6.5 10.0

10.1 12.5 11.9 10.4

88.8 117.1 74.7 123.4

Wake Is Yap, Caroline Is

19 17N 9 31N

166 39E 138 08E

11 62

30 30

82 85

73 76

83 87

74 77

87 88

77 75

86 88

77 75

92 97

64 69

30 30

1.1 7.9

1.4 4.6

1.5 5.4

1.9 6.4

2.0 9.5

1.9 10.7

4.6 13.8

7.1 14.7

5.2 14.0

5.3 13.2

3.1 11.2

1.8 10.2

36.9 121.6

Byrd Station Elisworth McMurdo Station South Pole Station Wilkes

80 77 77 89 66

119 32W 41 07W 166 48W 000 00W 110 31E

5,095 139 8 9,186 31

6 6 10 5 7

10 22 30 K16 34

K2 12 21 K23 28

K11 K10 K1 K66 17

K30 K25 K13 K79 9

K25 K21 K9 K67 8

K45 K35 K24 K81 K3

K15 K2 2 K55 16

31 36 42 6 46

K82 K70 K59 K107 K35

6 6 10 5 7

0.4 0.3 0.5 * 0.5

0.4 0.2 0.7 0.1 0.4

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.0 1.7

0.3 0.6 0.4 0.0 1.1

0.4 0.2 0.4 0.0 1.4

0.5 0.2 0.3 0.0 1.2

0.7 0.2 0.2 0.0 1.3

0.7 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.8

0.3 0.3 0.4 0.0 1.5

0.7 0.4 0.2 * 1.2

0.0 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.8

0.3 0.2 0.3 * 0.3

4.9 3.6 4.3 0.1 12.2

Antarctica 01S 44S 53S 59S 16S

K33 K15 K12 K64 6

Note: 1. “Length of Record” refers to average daily maximum and minimum temperatures and precipitation. A standard period of the 30 years from 1931–1960 had been used for locations in the United States and some other countries. The length of record of extreme maximum and minimum temperatures includes all available years of data for a given location and is usually for a longer period. 2. * Z Less than 0.05 00 . 3. Except for Antarctica, amounts of solid precipitation such as snow or hail have been converted to their water equivalent. Because of the frequent occurrence of blowing snow, it has not been possible to determine the precise amount of precipitation actually falling in Antarctica. The values shown are the average amounts of solid snow accumulating in a given period as determined by snow markers. The liquid content of the accumulation is undetermined. Source: From Environmental Science Services Administration, Climates of the World, 1969. Geographic names revised by editors in accordance with 1987 usage.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Port Moresby, New Guinea Rabaul, New Guinea Suva, Fiji Is Tahiti, Society Is Tulagi, Solomon Is

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

3-95

SECTION 3C

WEATHER EXTREMES

118

106 117

119

105

121 114

118

114

120 115

111

118 117 116

117

13 4

113

121

118

120

122

110

114

110 109

110

113

128

106 110

112

118

107 104

108

112 118

125

105

120

111 115

112

112

120 114 109

100

100

Figure 3C.5 Record highest temperature (8F) (through 2000). (From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000. www.noaa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-96

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 3C.14 Record Highest Temperatures by State State

Temperature (8F)

Date

Station

Elevation (ft)

112 100 128 120 134 118 106 110 109 112 100 118 117 116 118 121 114 114 105 109 107 112 114 115 118 117 118 125 106 110 122 108 110 121 113 120 119 111 104 111 120 113 120 117 105 110 118 112 114 115

Sep 5, 1925 Jun 27, 1915 Jun 29, 1994 Aug 10, 1936 Jul 10, 1913 Jul 11, 1888 Jul 15, 1995 Jul 21, 1930 Jun 29, 1931 Aug 20, 1983 Apr 27, 1931 Jul 28, 1934 Jul 14, 1954 Jul 14, 1936 Jul 20, 1934 Jul 24, 1936a Jul 28, 1930 Aug 10, 1936 Jul 10, 1911 Jul 10, 1936a Aug 2, 1975 Jul 13, 1936 Jul 6, 1936a Jul 29, 1930 Jul 14, 1954a Jul 5, 1937 Jul 24, 1936a Jun 29, 1994a Jul 4, 1911 Jul 10, 1936 Jun 27, 1994 Jul 22, 1926 Aug 21, 1983 Jul 6, 1936 Jul 21, 1934a Jun 27, 1994a Aug 10, 1898a Jul 10, 1936a Aug 2, 1975 Jun 28, 1954a Jul 5, 1936 Aug 9, 1930a Jun 28, 1994a Jul 5, 1985 Jul 4, 1911 Jul 15, 1954 Aug 5, 1961 Jul 10, 1936a Jul 13, 1936 Aug 8, 1983

Centerville Fort Yukon Lake Havasu City Ozark Greenland Ranch Bennett Danbury Millsboro Monticello Grenville Pahala Orofino East St. Louis Collegeville Keokuk Alton (Near) Greensburg Plain Dealing North Bridgton Cumberland & Frederick New Bedford & Chester Mio Moorhead Holly Springs Warsaw & Union Medicine Lake Minden Laughlin Nashua Runyon Waste Isolat. Pilot Plt Troy Fayetteville Steele Gallipolis (Near) Tipton Pendleton Phoenixville Providence Camden Gannvalley Perryville Monahans Saint George Vernon Balcony Falls Ice Harbor Dam Martinsburg Wisconsin Dells Basin

345 est. 420 505 396 K178 5,484 450 20 207 860 850 1,027 410 672 614 1,651 581 268 450 623; 325 120; 640 963 904 600 705; 560 1,950 2,169 605 125 18 3,418 35 213 1,857 673 1,350 1,074 100 51 170 1,750 377 2,660 2,880 310 725 475 435 900 3,500

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming a

Also on earlier dates at the same or other places.

Source: From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

3-97

–48

–47 –70

–5 4

–5 0

–60 –60

–60

–3 5 –5 5

–5 8 –66 –5 0

–5 2 –25

–5 1 –47

–42

–47 –3 7

–3 6

–61 –40

–3 0

–40

–3 7

–27

–5 0

–29

–19 –19

–23

–17 –40

–3 4

–3 2

–40

–3 2 –3 4

–3 6 –3 9

–69

–45

–48

–27

–17

–16 –2

–80

12

Figure 3C.6 Record lowest temperature (8F) (through 2000). (From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000. www.noaa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-98

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 3C.15 Record Lowest Temperatures by State State

Temperature (8F)

Date

Station

Elevation (ft)

K27 K80 K40 K29 K45 K61 K32 K17 K2 K17 12 K60 K36 K36 K47 K40 K37 K16 K48 K40 K35 K51 K60 K19 K40 K70 K47 K50 K47 K34 K50 K52 K34 K60 K39 K27 K54 K42 K25 K19 K58 K32 K23 K69 K50 K30 K48 K37 K55 K66

Jan 30, 1966 Jan 23, 1971 Jan 7, 1971 Feb 13, 1905 Jan 20, 1937 Feb 1, 1985 Jan 22, 1961a Jan 17, 1893 Feb 13, 1899 Jan 27, 1940 May 17, 1979 Jan 18, 1943 Jan 5, 1999 Jan 19, 1994 Feb 3, 1996a Feb 13, 1905 Jan 19, 1994 Feb 13, 1899 Jan 19, 1925 Jan 13, 1912 Jan 12, 1981 Feb 9, 1934 Feb 2, 1996 Jan 30, 1966 Feb 13, 1905 Jan 20, 1954 Dec 22, 1989a Jan 8, 1937 Jan 29, 1934 Jan 5, 1904 Feb 1, 1951 Feb 18, 1979a Jan 21, 1985 Feb 15, 1936 Feb 10, 1899 Jan 18, 1930a Feb 10, 1933a Jan 5, 1904 Feb 5, 1996 Jan 21, 1985 Feb 17, 1936 Dec 30, 1917 Feb 8, 1933a Feb 1, 1985 Dec 30, 1933 Jan 22, 1985 Dec 30, 1968 Dec 30, 1917 Feb 4, 1996 Feb 9, 1933

New Market Prospect Creek Camp Hawley Lake Pond Boca Maybell Coventry Millsboro Tallahassee CCC Camp F-16 Mauna Kea Obs 111.2 Island Park Dam Congerville New Whiteland Elkader Lebanon Shelbyville Minden Van Buren Oakland Chester Vanderbilt Tower Corinth Warsaw Rogers Pass Oshkosh San Jacinto Mt. Washington River Vale Gavilan Old Forge Mt. Michell Parshall Milligan Watts Seneco Smethport Greene Caesars Head McIntosh Mountain City Seminole Peter’s Sink Bloomfield Mtn. Lake Bio. Stn. Mazama & Winthrop Lewisburg Couderay Riverside R.S.

760 1,100 8,180 1,250 5,532 5,920 480 20 193 est. 1,000 13,770 6,285 635 785 770 1,812 730 194 510 2,461 640 785 1,460 420 700 5,470 3,379 5,200 6,262 70 7,350 1,720 6,525 1,929 800 958 4,700 est. 1,500 425 3,115 2,277 2,471 3,275 8,092 915 3,870 2,120; 1,755 2,200 1,300 6,500

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming a

Also on earlier dates at the same or other places.

Source: From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

3-99

Table 3C.16 Temperature — Highest of Record — Selected Cities of the United States Data AL

AK

AZ

AR

CA

CO

CT DE DC FL

Through 2002

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Birmingham CO Birmingham AP Huntsville Mobile Montgomery Anchorage Annette Barrow Barter IS Bethel Bettles Big Delta Cold Bay Fairbanks Gulkana Homer Juneau King Salmon Kodiak Kotzebue McGrath Nome St. Paul Island Talkeetna Unalakleet Valdez Yakutat Flagstaff Phoenix Tucson Winslow Yuma Fort Smith Little Rock North Little Rock Bakersfield Bishop Blue Canyon Eureka Fresno Long Beach Los Angeles AP Los Angeles CO Mount Shasta Redding Sacramento San Diego San Francisco AP San Francisco CO Santa Barbara Santa Maria Stockton Alamosa Colorado Springs Denver Grand Junction Pueblo Bridgeport Hartford Wilmington Washington Dulles AP Washington Nat’l AP Apalachicola Daytona Beach Fort Myers

11 59 35 61 58 49 55 82 39 44 52 58 58 51 55 59 58 60 54 60 60 56 85 63 30 31 56 53 65 62 71 45 57 61 24 65 55 55 92 53 50 67 62 42 16 52 62 75 65 66 60 43 57 54 61 56 61 54 48 55 40 61 61 59 59

74 81 77 84 83 50 61 36 39 48 48 48 51 50 46 51 57 53 54 39 54 43 48 45 47 46 55 66 88 87 75 88 81 83 78 82 77 71 78 78 91 88 95 65 77 70 88 72 79 86 86 71 62 73 73 60 81 68 66 75 75 79 79 87 88

80 83 83 82 85 48 65 36 37 46 40 51 50 47 46 51 57 57 56 40 55 48 44 51 44 52 54 71 92 92 78 97 86 85 83 87 81 73 85 80 91 92 95 71 83 76 90 78 81 85 89 78 66 76 76 68 81 67 73 78 79 82 80 89 92

87 89 85 90 89 51 64 34 36 46 49 58 56 56 50 53 61 56 57 39 55 43 50 54 47 53 59 73 100 99 85 100 94 91 87 92 87 72 78 90 98 95 98 80 88 88 93 85 83 90 95 87 73 81 84 81 86 84 89 86 89 89 85 92 93

91 92 90 94 91 65 82 42 43 60 63 72 60 74 67 63 72 65 64 48 67 51 49 69 62 62 71 80 105 104 92 107 95 95 94 101 93 82 80 100 105 102 106 86 94 95 98 92 94 96 103 100 80 87 90 89 93 91 96 94 93 95 90 96 96

95 99 96 100 98 77 88 47 52 80 86 90 67 89 85 71 82 80 80 74 82 78 59 85 78 78 79 89 113 108 101 116 98 98 97 107 101 88 84 107 103 97 102 94 104 105 96 97 101 92 100 107 90 94 96 101 102 97 99 96 97 99 98 100 99

99 102 101 102 105 85 89 72 68 86 92 92 72 96 90 80 86 88 86 85 90 81 62 91 86 86 87 96 122 117 106 122 105 105 102 114 109 92 85 110 109 104 112 98 111 115 101 106 103 109 102 111 95 100 104 105 108 96 100 100 100 101 101 102 103

106 106 104 104 105 82 89 79 78 83 93 91 77 94 91 81 90 86 82 85 89 86 63 90 87 85 84 97 121 114 109 124 111 112 110 115 110 95 76 112 107 97 107 100 118 114 95 105 103 109 104 114 96 100 104 105 106 103 102 102 104 104 102 102 101

102 103 103 105 104 82 90 76 72 84 88 90 78 93 86 78 83 84 83 80 89 81 66 89 85 82 86 92 116 112 103 120 110 109 111 112 107 97 82 112 105 98 105 105 115 110 98 100 98 101 103 109 91 99 101 103 104 100 102 101 104 105 99 100 100

99 100 101 99 101 73 82 62 66 72 79 79 76 84 74 69 73 74 73 69 76 71 61 78 71 74 77 90 118 107 99 116 109 106 105 112 112 93 86 111 110 110 110 103 116 108 111 103 101 102 103 108 87 94 97 100 101 99 99 100 99 101 96 99 96

89 94 90 93 100 61 71 43 46 58 53 66 69 65 65 64 61 67 62 51 61 59 54 68 57 58 63 85 107 102 93 112 96 97 92 103 97 88 87 102 111 106 108 93 105 104 107 99 102 103 108 101 81 86 89 88 94 86 91 91 90 94 93 95 95

82 85 84 87 87 54 67 39 37 51 45 52 59 49 48 55 56 56 54 38 49 47 50 51 48 50 55 74 95 93 80 98 86 86 83 91 84 78 78 89 101 101 100 80 88 87 97 85 86 97 93 84 71 78 79 75 84 78 81 85 84 86 87 89 95

76 80 79 81 85 48 62 34 37 45 38 55 54 45 49 51 54 49 56 37 49 43 52 54 41 52 52 68 88 84 74 86 82 80 78 83 78 75 77 76 92 94 91 72 78 72 88 75 76 83 90 72 61 77 75 64 82 76 76 75 79 79 82 88 90

106 106 104 105 105 85 90 79 78 86 93 92 78 96 91 81 90 88 86 85 90 86 66 91 87 86 87 97 122 117 109 124 111 112 111 115 112 97 87 112 111 110 112 105 118 115 111 106 103 109 108 114 96 100 104 105 108 103 102 102 104 105 102 102 103

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-100

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 3C.16 Data

GA

HI

ID

IL

IN

IA

KS

KY

LA

ME MD MA MI

(Continued)

Through 2002

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Gainesville Jacksonville Key West Miami Orlando Pensacola Tallahassee Tampa Vero Beach West Palm Beach Athens Atlanta Augusta Columbus Macon Savannah Hilo Honolulu Kahului Lihue Boise Lewiston Pocatello Cairo Chicago Moline Peoria Rockford Springfield Evansville Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend Des Moines Dubuque Sioux City Waterloo Concordia Dodge City Goodland Topeka Wichita Greater Cincinnati AP Jackson Lexington Louisville Paducah Baton Rouge Lake Charles New Orleans Shreveport Caribou Portland Baltimore Milton Boston Worcester Alpena Detroit Flint Grand Rapids Houghton Lake Lansing

19 61 50 60 60 39 42 56 19 66 59 54 52 57 54 52 56 33 38 52 63 56 53 45 44 70 63 52 55 62 56 63 63 63 50 62 54 41 60 82 56 50 41 22 58 55 19 52 38 56 50 63 62 52 117 51 47 44 44 46 39 38 44

83 85 86 88 87 80 82 86 88 89 80 79 82 83 84 84 92 88 89 86 63 66 57 75 65 69 70 63 71 76 69 71 68 65 60 71 65 74 80 79 73 75 69 78 76 77 70 84 82 83 84 53 64 75 68 66 60 52 62 61 62 54 66

87 88 85 89 90 82 86 88 89 90 81 80 86 83 85 86 92 88 89 86 71 72 65 77 72 71 72 70 74 79 73 76 74 73 66 71 66 86 85 81 84 87 75 79 80 77 77 85 83 85 89 59 64 79 68 70 67 65 70 68 69 59 69

89 91 88 92 92 86 90 91 91 94 88 89 89 89 95 91 93 88 90 88 81 76 75 85 88 88 86 85 87 84 82 85 85 91 85 91 87 88 93 89 89 89 84 87 83 86 84 91 86 89 92 73 88 89 89 89 84 80 81 80 78 76 79

95 95 90 96 96 96 95 93 94 99 93 93 96 93 96 95 89 91 91 88 92 97 86 91 91 93 92 91 90 91 88 89 91 93 93 97 100 98 100 96 95 96 89 92 88 91 90 92 95 92 94 86 85 94 94 94 91 90 89 87 88 86 86

98 100 91 96 102 98 100 98 99 96 97 95 99 97 99 100 94 93 92 88 98 100 93 98 93 104 93 95 95 95 94 93 95 98 91 102 94 102 105 104 97 100 93 90 92 95 94 98 96 96 102 96 94 98 93 95 92 94 93 93 92 90 94

102 103 94 98 100 101 103 99 99 98 104 101 105 104 106 104 90 92 94 89 109 107 103 104 104 104 105 101 103 104 106 102 104 103 100 108 103 109 110 109 107 110 102 99 101 102 103 103 99 100 102 96 98 101 99 100 94 103 104 101 98 103 99

108 105 95 98 101 106 103 97 99 101 104 105 107 104 108 105 89 94 95 89 111 110 104 104 104 105 103 103 112 105 103 104 102 105 101 108 105 109 109 111 110 113 103 101 103 106 102 101 102 101 107 95 99 104 100 102 96 102 102 101 100 98 100

99 102 95 98 100 104 103 98 98 98 107 102 108 104 105 104 93 93 97 90 110 115 104 103 101 106 103 104 103 102 101 102 103 108 100 104 105 108 107 110 110 110 102 101 103 101 104 105 107 102 109 95 103 105 101 102 96 102 100 98 100 96 100

97 100 94 97 98 98 99 96 97 97 99 98 101 100 102 98 92 95 96 90 102 103 98 103 99 100 100 102 101 103 100 100 99 101 97 103 98 109 106 105 109 108 98 95 103 104 100 104 105 101 109 91 95 100 99 100 91 94 98 94 93 92 97

92 96 93 95 95 92 94 94 94 95 98 95 97 96 100 97 91 94 96 90 94 89 91 92 91 93 90 90 93 94 90 90 92 95 90 94 95 96 96 96 96 95 88 86 91 92 89 94 94 94 97 79 88 92 88 90 85 88 91 89 87 85 89

88 88 89 91 89 85 88 90 92 91 86 84 90 86 88 89 92 93 93 89 78 77 75 82 78 80 81 76 83 83 79 81 82 81 75 81 80 84 91 87 85 85 81 81 83 84 83 87 87 87 88 68 74 83 81 79 78 76 77 76 77 70 77

84 84 86 87 90 81 84 86 87 90 79 79 82 82 82 83 93 89 90 86 65 65 64 79 71 71 71 67 74 77 71 74 70 69 67 70 67 82 86 83 73 83 75 79 75 76 74 85 82 84 84 58 71 77 74 76 72 65 69 70 69 64 69

108 105 95 98 102 106 103 99 99 101 107 105 108 104 108 105 94 95 97 90 111 115 104 104 104 106 105 104 112 105 106 104 104 108 101 108 105 109 110 111 110 113 103 101 103 106 104 105 107 102 109 96 103 105 101 102 96 103 104 101 100 103 100

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Table 3C.16 Data

MN

MS

MO

MT

NE

NV

NH NJ

MN

NY

NC

ND

3-101

(Continued)

Through 2002 Marquette Muskegon Sault Ste. Marie Duluth International Falls Minneapolis-St.Paul Rochester Saint Cloud Jackson Meridian Tupelo Columbia Kansas City St. Louis Springfield Billings Glasgow Great Falls Havre Helena Kalispell Missoula Grand Island Lincoln Norfolk North Platte Omaha Eppley AP Omaha (North) Scottsbluff Valentine Elko Ely Las Vegas Reno Winnemucca Concord Mt. Washington Atlantic City AP Atlantic City CO Newark Albuquerque Clayton Roswell Albany Binghamton Buffalo Islip New York C.Park New York (JFK AP) New York (Laguardia AP) Rochester Syracuse Asheville Cape Hatteras Charlotte Greensboro-WnstnSlm-HPT Raleigh Wilmington Bismarck Fargo Grand Forks

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

24 63 62 61 63 64 43 62 39 57 19 33 30 45 57 68 47 65 3 62 53 58 57 31 57 51 66 39 60 48 72 64 54 61 53 61 70 59 41 61 63 55 30 56 51 59 19 134 42 41

46 63 45 52 48 58 55 55 83 83 77 74 69 76 76 68 61 67 62 72 53 59 76 73 74 73 69 66 74 72 64 68 77 70 68 68 47 78 70 74 69 80 82 65 63 72 69 72 69 68

61 67 49 55 58 61 63 55 85 85 84 82 77 85 81 72 71 70 64 69 64 66 80 84 76 79 78 76 77 78 70 67 87 75 74 67 43 75 72 76 76 81 85 68 66 71 67 75 71 73

71 80 75 78 76 83 79 79 89 90 85 85 86 89 87 79 79 78 77 77 72 75 90 89 88 86 89 88 87 85 77 73 91 83 81 89 54 87 82 89 85 86 93 89 82 81 82 86 85 83

92 86 85 88 93 95 91 96 94 95 93 90 93 93 93 92 91 89 91 86 84 87 96 97 95 98 97 96 93 100 86 82 99 89 90 95 60 94 91 97 89 91 99 92 88 94 94 96 90 94

93 93 89 90 95 96 92 97 99 99 94 92 95 94 93 96 102 93 96 93 94 95 101 99 103 97 99 100 97 99 92 90 109 96 97 97 66 99 94 99 98 99 107 94 89 90 98 99 99 97

96 98 93 94 99 102 101 102 105 104 101 103 105 102 101 105 108 101 99 100 96 98 107 107 106 107 105 104 106 110 104 99 115 103 106 98 71 106 97 102 107 104 114 99 94 96 96 101 99 99

99 96 97 97 98 105 102 103 106 107 105 111 107 107 113 108 104 105 103 105 104 105 109 108 113 112 114 107 109 114 107 101 116 108 109 102 71 104 101 105 105 102 111 100 98 97 102 106 104 107

96 99 98 97 95 102 99 103 107 106 106 110 109 107 106 105 108 106 109 105 105 105 110 107 107 105 110 106 104 108 107 97 116 105 108 101 72 103 102 105 101 102 107 99 95 99 100 104 100 104

93 95 95 95 95 98 95 98 104 105 103 101 106 104 104 103 103 98 96 99 99 99 104 106 101 102 104 103 102 104 99 93 113 101 103 98 69 99 92 105 100 99 103 100 96 98 92 102 98 96

87 83 80 86 88 90 93 90 95 97 92 93 92 94 93 90 90 91 82 87 86 85 96 93 95 94 96 93 92 96 88 84 103 91 91 90 59 90 89 92 91 93 99 89 82 87 86 94 88 87

73 76 67 71 73 77 75 75 88 87 86 83 82 85 81 77 79 76 78 75 69 73 82 85 82 82 83 79 80 86 78 75 87 77 77 80 52 84 78 85 77 85 88 82 77 80 78 84 77 80

59 64 62 55 57 68 62 61 84 84 79 76 74 76 77 69 59 69 61 64 57 60 76 70 71 75 72 66 77 74 65 67 77 70 67 73 47 77 74 76 72 83 81 71 65 74 77 75 75 75

99 99 98 97 99 105 102 103 107 107 106 111 109 107 113 108 108 106 109 105 105 105 110 108 113 112 114 107 109 114 107 101 116 108 109 102 72 106 102 105 107 104 114 100 98 99 102 106 104 107

62 53 38 45 63 74

74 70 80 75 79 78

73 69 78 76 81 81

84 87 83 81 90 90

93 92 89 89 93 94

94 96 93 91 100 98

100 98 96 95 103 102

98 98 96 96 103 102

99 101 100 94 103 103

99 97 92 92 104 100

91 87 86 89 98 95

81 81 81 81 85 85

72 72 78 78 78 78

100 101 100 96 104 103

58 51 63 50 5

80 82 63 52 47

84 85 69 66 67

92 89 81 78 64

95 95 93 100 87

97 98 98 98 88

104 104 111 100 96

105 102 109 106 93

105 103 109 106 95

104 98 105 102 96

98 95 95 93 77

88 87 79 74 73

80 82 65 57 50

105 104 111 106 96

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-102

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 3C.16 Data OH

OK OR

PC

PA

PA RI SC

SD

TN

TX

(Continued)

Through 2002

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Williston Akron Cleveland Columbus Dayton Mansfield Toledo Youngstown Oklahoma City Tulsa Astoria Burns Eugene Medford Pendleton Portland Salem Sexton Summit Guam Johnston Island Koror Kwajalein, Marshall IS Majuro, Marshall IS Pago Pago, Amer Samoa Pohnpei, Caroline IS Chuuk, E. Caroline IS Wake Island Yap, W Caroline IS Allentown Erie Harrisburg Middletown/Harrisburg AP Philadelphia Pittsburgh Avoca Williamsport Block IS Providence Charleston AP Charleston CO Columbia GreenvilleSpartanburg AP Aberdeen Huron Rapid City Sioux Falls Bristol-JhnCtyKgsprt Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis Nashville Oak Ridge Abilene Amarillo Austin/City Austin/Bergstrom Brownsville Corpus Christi

41 54 61 63 59 43 47 59 49 64 49 18 60 73 67 62 65 65 44 29 53 50

53 70 73 74 71 65 65 71 80 79 67 55 67 71 70 63 65 66 88 88 93 90

66 72 74 75 73 71 71 73 92 90 72 67 72 79 75 71 72 67 89 87 93 90

78 81 83 85 82 82 81 82 93 96 73 71 77 86 79 80 80 74 90 85 94 90

92 88 88 89 89 86 88 88 100 102 83 84 86 93 91 90 88 82 91 86 94 90

106 93 92 94 93 92 95 92 104 96 87 94 93 103 100 100 100 91 92 87 94 91

106 100 104 102 102 101 104 99 105 103 93 98 102 111 108 100 105 95 93 88 95 90

109 101 103 100 102 100 104 100 110 112 100 107 105 115 110 107 108 100 94 89 93 91

107 98 102 101 102 97 99 97 110 110 96 100 108 114 113 107 108 97 91 89 94 91

104 99 101 100 101 93 98 99 108 109 95 97 103 110 102 105 104 97 95 89 92 92

93 86 90 90 89 85 91 87 96 98 85 86 94 99 92 92 93 87 91 90 93 92

76 80 82 80 79 78 78 80 87 87 71 70 76 77 80 73 72 77 90 89 93 91

58 76 77 76 72 73 70 76 86 80 64 57 68 72 67 65 68 66 89 86 94 89

109 101 104 102 102 101 104 100 110 112 100 107 108 115 113 107 108 100 95 90 95 92

47 43

89 95

89 96

90 95

89 95

90 93

90 91

90 91

91 92

90 92

91 94

91 95

90 94

91 96

52 52 50 54 59 49 49 64

93 92 89 90 72 68 73 73

93 91 88 92 76 75 75 78

95 94 90 90 87 82 86 87

94 93 91 97 93 89 93 93

93 94 92 93 97 90 97 97

94 93 93 94 100 100 100 100

94 92 94 96 105 99 107 107

97 92 95 93 100 94 101 101

96 93 95 93 99 94 102 102

95 92 92 93 90 88 97 97

95 91 90 93 81 80 84 84

95 91 91 94 72 75 75 75

97 94 95 97 105 100 107 107

61 50 47 58 39 49 60 17 55 40

74 72 67 69 58 69 83 80 84 79

74 76 71 71 62 72 87 82 84 81

87 82 85 87 74 85 90 88 91 89

95 89 92 92 92 98 95 94 94 93

97 91 93 96 83 95 98 96 101 97

100 98 97 102 90 97 103 104 107 100

104 103 101 103 91 102 104 103 107 104

101 100 98 100 91 104 105 103 107 103

100 97 95 102 87 100 99 98 101 96

96 87 84 91 80 86 94 93 101 92

81 82 80 83 70 78 88 84 90 85

73 74 69 69 64 77 83 81 83 76

104 103 101 103 92 104 105 104 107 104

41 61 60 57 57

60 63 76 66 79

62 71 75 70 80

82 89 82 87 85

98 97 93 94 89

96 99 98 100 92

108 109 109 110 97

110 112 110 108 102

112 110 106 108 101

103 106 104 104 100

96 102 94 94 90

78 86 83 81 81

62 66 75 63 78

112 112 110 110 102

63 61 61 63 63 63 62 61 61 64 64

78 77 79 78 75 89 81 90 89 93 91

79 83 81 84 79 93 88 99 101 94 98

87 86 85 86 86 97 94 98 98 106 102

93 92 94 91 92 99 98 98 99 102 102

99 94 99 97 93 109 103 102 102 102 103

104 102 104 106 101 109 108 108 109 102 106

106 103 108 107 105 110 105 109 106 102 104

105 102 107 104 103 109 106 107 107 102 103

102 103 103 105 102 107 103 112 112 105 109

94 91 95 94 90 103 99 98 98 96 98

84 84 86 84 83 92 87 91 90 97 98

78 80 81 79 78 89 81 90 91 94 91

106 103 108 107 105 110 108 112 112 106 109

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Table 3C.16 Data

UT VT VA

WA

PR WV

WI WI

WY

3-103

(Continued)

Through 2002 Dallas-Fort Worth Dallas-Love Field Del Rio El Paso Galveston Houston Lubbock Midland-Odessa Port Arthur San Angelo San Antonio Victoria Waco Wichita Falls Milford Salt Lake City Burlington Lynchburg Norfolk Richmond Roanoke Wallops Island Olympia Quillayute Seattle CO Seattle Sea-Tac AP Spokane Walla Walla Yakima San Juan Beckley Charleston Elkins Huntington Green Bay La Crosse Madison Milwaukee Casper Cheyenne Lander Sheridan

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

49 3 40 63 63 33 56 55 49 55 61 42 60 56 53 74 59 58 54 73 55 28 61 36 65 58 55 55 56 48 39 55 58 42 53 50 63 62 52 67 56 62

88 80 90 80 78 84 83 84 82 90 89 88 88 87 66 62 66 80 80 81 79 79 63 65 66 64 59 67 68 92 73 79 76 78 53 57 56 62 60 66 63 70

95 81 99 83 83 91 87 90 85 97 100 95 96 93 75 69 62 79 82 83 80 79 73 73 74 70 63 75 69 96 74 79 75 79 61 64 64 68 68 71 68 76

96 86 101 89 85 91 95 95 87 97 100 97 100 100 80 78 84 87 88 93 87 86 76 72 75 75 71 77 80 96 81 89 84 86 78 84 82 82 74 74 76 77

95 92 106 98 92 95 100 101 94 103 101 98 101 102 87 86 91 94 97 96 95 93 87 83 87 85 90 87 92 97 86 94 89 92 89 93 94 91 84 83 82 87

103 96 109 104 94 99 109 108 97 109 103 101 102 110 94 96 93 93 100 100 96 97 96 92 92 93 96 99 102 96 89 93 93 93 91 94 93 93 92 91 91 95

113 97 112 114 99 103 114 116 100 110 107 106 109 117 105 104 100 100 101 104 100 96 101 96 100 96 101 107 105 97 90 98 93 100 98 102 101 101 102 100 100 105

110 104 108 112 101 104 108 112 103 111 106 104 109 114 104 107 100 103 103 105 104 101 103 97 100 100 103 112 108 95 94 104 99 102 103 108 104 103 104 100 101 107

108 106 109 108 100 107 106 107 108 109 108 107 112 113 102 106 101 102 104 102 105 100 104 99 97 99 108 109 110 97 96 101 95 100 99 105 102 103 102 96 101 106

111 110 110 104 96 109 103 107 105 107 111 111 111 111 98 100 98 101 99 103 101 96 98 97 92 98 98 99 100 97 92 102 97 97 95 100 99 98 97 95 94 103

102 93 106 96 94 96 100 101 95 100 99 99 101 102 90 89 85 93 95 99 93 90 90 83 82 89 86 87 88 98 81 92 86 87 88 93 90 89 87 83 85 92

89 86 96 87 85 89 88 90 88 93 94 93 92 89 76 75 75 83 86 86 83 82 74 69 73 74 67 81 73 96 78 85 80 82 74 75 76 77 72 75 70 81

88 80 90 80 80 85 81 85 84 91 90 88 91 88 65 69 67 79 80 81 80 77 64 64 65 64 56 65 67 94 73 80 76 80 64 67 64 68 63 69 64 72

113 110 112 114 101 109 114 116 108 111 111 111 112 117 105 107 101 103 104 105 105 101 104 99 100 100 108 112 110 98 96 104 99 102 103 108 104 103 104 100 101 107

Source: From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-104

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 3C.17 Temperature — Lowest of Record — Selected Cities of the United States Data AL

AK

AZ

AR

CA

CO

CT DE DC FL

Through 2002

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Birmingham CO Birmingham AP Huntsville Mobile Montgomery Anchorage Annette Barrow Barter IS Bethel Bettles Big Delta Cold Bay Fairbanks Gulkana Homer Juneau King Salmon Kodiak Kotzebue McGrath Nome St. Paul Island Talkeetna Unalakleet Valdez Yakutat Flagstaff Phoenix Tucson Winslow Yuma Fort Smith Little Rock North Little Rock Bakersfield Bishop Blue Canyon Eureka Fresno Long Beach Los Angeles AP Los Angeles CO Mount Shasta Redding Sacramento San Diego San Francisco AP San Francisco CO Santa Barbara Santa Maria Stockton Alamosa Colorado Springs Denver Grand Junction Pueblo Bridgeport Hartford Wilmington Washington Dulles AP Washington Nat’l AP Apalachicola Daytona Beach Fort Myers Gainesville Jacksonville

11 59 35 61 58 49 55 82 41 44 52 58 59 51 55 59 58 60 54 60 60 56 85 63 30 31 56 53 65 62 71 45 57 61 24 65 55 55 92 53 50 67 62 42 16 52 62 75 65 66 60 43 57 54 61 56 61 54 48 55 40 61 61 59 59 19 61

K6 K6 K11 3 0 K34 1 K53 K54 K48 K70 K63 K13 K61 K60 K24 K22 K48 K16 K49 K75 K54 K26 K48 K48 K20 K22 K22 17 16 K18 24 K10 K4 K6 20 K7 5 25 19 25 23 28 K2 19 23 29 24 30 26 20 19 K50 K26 K25 K23 K29 K7 K26 K14 K18 K5 9 15 28 10 7

11 3 1 11 10 K28 2 K56 K59 K39 K64 K60 K9 K58 K65 K19 K22 K41 K12 K52 K64 K42 K16 K46 K50 K10 K20 K23 22 20 K7 28 K9 K5 4 25 K2 6 27 24 33 32 34 1 21 23 36 25 31 25 22 22 K35 K27 K30 K18 K31 K5 K21 K6 K14 4 21 24 30 18 19

13 2 6 21 17 K24 1 K52 K51 K39 K56 K49 K13 K49 K48 K21 K15 K42 K6 K48 K51 K46 K19 K43 K50 K6 K20 K16 25 20 K2 32 7 11 14 31 9 9 29 26 33 34 26 11 28 26 39 30 38 34 24 27 K20 K11 K11 5 K20 4 K6 2 K1 11 22 26 33 26 23

29 26 26 32 28 K4 21 K42 K44 K22 K37 K37 4 K24 K42 K9 6 K15 7 K44 K40 K30 K8 K37 K30 5 3 K2 32 27 16 41 22 28 30 33 15 17 32 32 38 39 39 14 28 31 41 31 40 36 31 32 K6 K3 K2 11 2 18 9 18 17 24 36 35 39 34 34

42 35 36 43 40 17 31 K19 K16 4 K10 K1 18 K1 5 6 25 4 20 K18 K2 K11 8 K5 K6 21 21 14 40 38 23 46 35 40 40 37 25 21 35 36 40 43 5 21 34 36 48 36 44 38 31 38 11 21 22 26 25 31 28 30 28 34 47 44 50 42 45

48 42 45 49 49 33 37 4 13 28 27 30 29 31 26 29 31 29 30 20 30 23 16 28 25 31 29 22 50 47 35 54 47 46 52 45 29 28 40 44 47 48 49 25 42 41 51 41 47 42 36 45 24 32 30 34 36 41 35 41 36 47 48 52 60 50 47

60 51 54 60 59 38 40 22 24 31 29 32 33 35 29 34 36 33 37 30 33 30 28 33 32 33 35 32 61 59 44 63 50 54 60 52 34 36 45 50 51 49 54 31 53 48 55 43 47 49 43 49 30 42 43 44 44 49 44 48 41 54 63 60 66 62 61

57 51 52 59 56 31 40 20 20 28 22 22 32 27 20 31 27 25 34 29 25 26 29 25 28 32 29 24 60 61 41 63 51 52 53 52 37 35 44 49 52 51 53 34 51 49 57 42 48 47 43 50 29 39 41 43 40 44 36 43 38 49 62 65 65 61 59

41 37 38 42 39 19 33 1 4 18 0 K2 26 3 2 20 23 15 26 13 2 9 22 11 6 25 21 23 47 44 31 53 33 37 41 45 26 27 41 37 50 47 51 25 40 43 51 38 48 45 36 43 15 22 17 29 21 36 30 36 30 39 50 52 63 52 48

32 27 29 30 26 K5 18 K32 K26 K6 K35 K39 6 K27 K23 2 11 K12 10 K19 K28 K10 12 K21 K20 8 6 K2 34 26 13 35 22 29 27 29 16 17 32 27 39 41 41 19 33 36 43 34 45 36 26 33 K10 5 3 18 4 26 17 24 15 29 37 41 45 33 36

21 5 15 22 13 K21 K3 K40 K51 K24 K57 K47 1 K46 K44 K7 K5 K28 0 K36 K53 K39 4 K41 K47 1 K6 K13 25 24 K1 30 8 17 19 28 5 13 29 26 34 34 38 9 23 26 38 25 40 30 25 25 K30 K8 K8 K2 K17 16 1 14 9 16 24 27 34 25 21

K1 1 K3 8 5 K30 1 K55 K51 K37 K59 K62 K1 K62 K58 K16 K21 K38 K2 K47 K67 K41 K5 K45 K50 K6 K24 K23 22 16 K12 27 K5 K1 K2 19 K8 3 21 18 28 32 30 K5 17 18 34 20 28 20 20 17 K42 K24 K25 K17 K25 K4 K14 K7 K4 1 13 19 26 16 11

K6 K6 K11 3 0 K34 K3 K56 K59 K48 K70 K63 K13 K62 K65 K24 K22 K48 K16 K52 K75 K54 K26 K48 K50 K20 K24 K23 17 16 K18 24 K10 K5 K6 19 K8 3 21 18 25 23 5 K5 17 18 29 20 28 20 20 17 K50 K27 K30 K23 K31 K7 K26 K14 K18 K5 9 15 26 10 7

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Table 3C.17 Data

GA

HI

ID

IL

IN

IA

KS

KY

LA

ME

MA

MI

MN

3-105

(Continued)

Through 2002

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Key West Miami Orlando Pensacola Tallahassee Tampa Vero Beach West Palm Beach Athens Atlanta Augusta Columbus Macon Savannah Hilo Honolulu Kahului Lihue Boise Lewiston Pocatello Cairo Chicago Moline Peoria Rockford Springfield Evansville Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend Des Moines Dubuque Sioux City Waterloo Concordia Dodge City Goodland Topeka Wichita Greater Cincinnati AP Jackson Lexington Louisville Paducah Baton Rouge Lake Charles New Orleans Shreveport Caribou Portland Baltimore Blue Hill Boston Worcester Alpena Detroit Flint Grand Rapids Houghton Lake Lansing Marquette Muskegon Sault Ste. Marie Duluth International Falls Minneapolis-St.Paul

50 60 60 39 42 56 19 66 59 54 52 57 54 52 56 33 38 52 63 56 53 45 44 70 63 52 55 62 56 63 63 63 50 62 54 41 60 82 56 50 41 22 58 55 19 52 38 56 50 63 62 52 117 51 47 44 44 46 39 38 44 24 63 62 61 63 64

41 30 19 5 6 21 21 27 K4 K8 K1 K2 K6 3 54 53 48 50 K17 K22 K30 K12 K27 K27 K25 K27 K21 K21 K22 K27 K22 K24 K28 K26 K33 K17 K13 K26 K20 K12 K25 K18 K21 K22 K15 9 15 14 3 K33 K26 K7 K16 K12 K19 K28 K21 K25 K22 K26 K29 K27 K13 K36 K39 K46 K34

45 32 26 15 14 24 28 32 5 5 9 10 9 14 53 53 50 52 K15 K15 K33 K5 K19 K28 K19 K24 K22 K23 K18 K21 K17 K26 K27 K26 K31 K15 K15 K22 K23 K21 K11 K8 K15 K19 K8 15 17 16 12 K41 K39 K3 K21 K4 K12 K37 K15 K22 K19 K34 K25 K34 K19 K35 K39 K45 K32

47 32 25 22 20 29 32 30 11 10 12 16 14 20 54 55 52 51 6 2 K12 6 K8 K19 K10 K11 K12 K9 K10 K7 K13 K22 K20 K22 K34 K7 K15 K20 K7 K2 K11 7 K2 K1 11 20 23 25 17 K28 K21 6 K5 6 K4 K27 K4 K12 K8 K23 K15 K23 K10 K24 K29 K38 K32

48 46 38 33 29 40 42 43 26 26 26 28 29 32 56 57 54 56 19 20 13 28 7 7 14 5 19 23 7 16 11 9 11 K2 K4 14 14 0 10 15 15 20 18 22 24 32 34 32 31 K2 8 20 6 16 11 0 10 6 3 3 K2 K5 1 K2 K5 K14 2

64 53 48 48 34 49 47 51 37 37 35 39 40 39 58 60 57 58 22 23 20 38 24 26 25 24 28 28 27 28 24 30 24 25 25 26 26 21 26 31 27 32 26 31 35 44 49 41 42 18 23 32 27 34 28 20 25 22 22 21 19 17 22 18 17 11 18

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

68 60 53 56 46 53 57 61 45 46 47 44 46 51 60 65 58 61 31 34 28 51 36 39 39 37 40 41 38 37 35 38 36 38 38 41 41 31 43 43 39 44 39 42 44 53 56 50 52 30 33 40 36 45 36 28 36 33 33 29 30 28 31 26 27 23 34

69 69 64 61 57 63 67 66 55 53 55 59 54 61 62 66 58 62 35 41 34 54 40 46 47 43 48 47 44 44 42 47 44 42 42 48 46 42 43 51 47 52 47 50 53 58 61 60 58 36 40 50 44 50 43 34 41 40 41 33 37 36 39 36 35 34 43

68 68 64 62 57 67 64 65 54 55 54 57 55 57 63 67 61 66 34 41 30 50 41 40 41 41 43 43 38 41 40 40 40 37 38 45 47 38 41 48 43 45 42 46 44 59 59 60 53 34 33 45 39 47 38 30 38 37 39 29 35 34 36 29 32 30 39

69 68 56 43 40 57 64 66 36 36 36 38 35 43 61 66 60 65 23 28 19 40 28 24 26 27 32 31 29 28 29 26 28 24 22 29 29 19 29 31 31 34 34 33 35 43 47 42 42 23 23 35 28 38 30 25 29 26 27 21 22 24 27 25 22 20 26

60 51 43 32 30 40 46 46 24 28 22 24 26 28 62 61 58 61 11 15 10 27 17 16 19 15 17 21 19 17 20 14 13 12 11 14 14 7 19 18 16 26 20 23 24 30 30 35 28 14 15 25 21 28 20 16 17 19 18 16 15 14 21 16 8 2 13

49 39 29 25 13 23 38 36 7 3 15 10 10 15 58 57 55 57 K3 K3 K14 5 1 K9 K2 K10 K3 K3 K1 K2 K7 K4 K17 K9 K17 K4 0 K12 2 1 1 13 K3 K1 10 21 23 24 16 K8 3 13 5 15 6 K6 9 6 5 K5 4 K5 K14 K10 K23 K32 K17

44 30 20 11 10 18 23 28 2 0 5 4 5 9 55 54 52 52 K25 K22 K29 K4 K25 K24 K23 K24 K21 K15 K18 K23 K16 K22 K25 K24 K29 K26 K21 K27 K26 K16 K20 K13 K19 K15 K10 8 11 11 5 K31 K21 0 K19 K7 K13 K18 K10 K13 K18 K21 K18 K28 K15 K31 K34 K41 K29

41 30 19 5 6 18 21 27 K4 K8 K1 K2 K6 3 53 53 48 50 K25 K22 K33 K12 K27 K28 K25 K27 K22 K23 K22 K27 K22 K26 K28 K26 K34 K26 K21 K27 K26 K21 K25 K18 K21 K22 K15 8 11 11 3 K41 K39 K7 K21 K12 K19 K37 K21 K25 K22 K34 K29 K34 K19 K36 K39 K46 K34

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-106

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 3C.17 Data

MS

MO

MT

NE

NV

NH NJ

NM

NY

NC

ND

OH

OK

(Continued)

Through 2002 Rochester Saint Cloud Jackson Meridian Tupelo Columbia Kansas City St. Louis Springfield Billings Glasgow Great Falls Havre Helena Kalispell Missoula Grand Island Lincoln Norfolk North Platte Omaha Eppley AP Omaha (North) Scottsbluff Valentine Elko Ely Las Vegas Reno Winnemucca Concord Mt. Washington Atlantic City AP Atlantic City CO Newark Albuquerque Clayton Roswell Albany Binghamton Buffalo Islip New York C.Park New York (JFK AP) New York (Laguardia AP) Rochester Syracuse Asheville Cape hatteras Charlotte Greensboro-WnstnSlm-HPT Raleigh Wilmington Bismarck Fargo Grand Forks Williston Akron Cleveland Columbus Dayton Mansfield Toledo Youngstown Oklahoma City Tulsa

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

43 62 39 57 19 33 30 45 57 68 47 65 3 62 53 58 57 31 57 51 66 39 60 48 72 64 54 61 53 61 70 59 41 61 63 55 30 56 51 59 19 134 42 41

K32 K43 2 0 K6 K19 K17 K18 K13 K30 K47 K37 K23 K42 K38 K33 K28 K33 K27 K23 K23 K22 K32 K30 K43 K27 8 K16 K24 K33 K47 K10 K3 K8 K17 K21 K9 K28 K20 K16 K7 K6 K2 K3

K35 K40 10 8 4 K15 K19 K12 K17 K38 K38 K35 K23 K42 K36 K27 K19 K24 K26 K22 K21 K20 K28 K31 K37 K30 16 K16 K28 K37 K46 K11 1 K7 K5 K17 3 K21 K15 K20 1 K15 K2 K2

K31 K32 15 15 16 K5 K10 K5 K3 K19 K27 K29 K27 K30 K29 K13 K21 K19 K20 K22 K16 K16 K27 K29 K9 K13 23 K2 K3 K16 K38 5 2 6 8 K11 9 K21 K7 K7 8 3 7 8

5 K3 27 28 29 19 12 22 18 K5 K3 K6 4 1 10 14 7 3 2 7 5 7 K8 3 K2 K5 31 13 6 8 K20 12 22 16 19 9 23 10 9 12 24 12 20 22

21 19 38 38 40 29 30 31 30 14 20 15 17 17 19 21 23 24 24 19 27 25 15 19 10 7 40 18 10 21 K2 25 36 33 16 23 34 26 25 26 34 32 34 38

35 32 47 42 49 40 42 43 42 32 32 31 38 30 26 30 38 39 38 29 38 41 30 30 23 18 48 25 23 30 8 37 45 43 40 37 47 36 33 35 43 44 45 46

42 40 51 55 58 48 51 51 44 41 41 36 39 36 30 31 42 42 42 39 44 44 40 38 30 28 60 33 29 35 24 42 53 52 52 45 59 40 39 43 50 52 55 56

37 33 55 53 52 42 43 47 44 35 37 30 34 28 30 30 40 41 40 35 43 44 39 34 20 24 56 24 28 29 20 40 50 45 50 45 54 34 37 38 45 50 46 51

23 18 35 34 40 32 31 36 31 22 15 16 21 18 16 20 23 26 26 17 25 28 19 17 9 15 46 20 12 21 9 32 42 35 37 26 40 24 25 32 38 39 40 44

11 5 26 24 29 22 17 23 18 K7 K6 K11 4 K8 K3 0 9 8 11 10 13 15 K6 K1 1 K3 26 8 K2 10 K5 20 27 28 21 12 14 16 17 20 28 28 25 30

K20 K20 17 16 19 0 1 1 4 K22 K26 K25 K6 K39 K28 K23 K11 K5 K15 K13 K9 K11 K13 K22 K12 K15 21 1 K8 K5 K20 10 8 15 K7 K10 4 5 3 9 11 5 19 18

K33 K41 4 2 K3 K20 K23 K16 K16 K32 K38 K43 K30 K38 K35 K30 K26 K27 K30 K34 K23 K25 K42 K39 K38 K29 11 K16 K37 K22 K46 K7 4 K1 K7 K14 K8 K22 K18 K10 7 K13 2 K1

K35 K43 2 0 K6 K20 K23 K18 K17 K38 K47 K43 K30 K42 K38 K33 K28 K33 K30 K34 K23 K25 K42 K39 K43 K30 8 K16 K37 K37 K47 K11 K3 K8 K17 K21 K9 K28 K20 K20 K7 K15 K2 K3

62 53 38 45 63 74

K17 K26 K16 6 K5 K8

K19 K26 K2 14 5 K4

K7 K16 2 19 4 5

13 9 22 26 24 21

26 25 28 39 32 32

35 35 35 44 45 42

42 45 44 54 53 48

36 40 42 56 53 45

28 28 30 45 39 35

20 19 21 32 24 20

5 5 8 22 11 10

K16 K22 K7 12 2 0

K19 K26 K16 6 K5 K8

58 51 63 50 5 41 54 61 63 59 43 47 59 49 64

K9 5 K44 K35 K29 K40 K25 K20 K22 K25 K22 K20 K22 K4 K8

0 11 K43 K39 K22 K41 K13 K15 K13 K16 K11 K14 K14 K3 K11

11 9 K31 K23 K14 K28 K3 K5 K6 K7 K6 K6 K10 3 K3

23 30 K12 K7 6 K15 10 10 14 15 8 8 11 20 22

31 38 15 20 22 17 24 25 25 27 25 25 24 37 35

38 48 30 30 33 26 32 31 35 40 37 32 30 47 49

48 55 35 36 37 34 43 41 43 44 43 40 40 53 51

46 55 33 33 40 34 41 38 39 39 40 34 32 51 52

37 44 11 19 28 17 32 32 31 32 33 26 29 36 35

19 27 K10 7 12 K9 20 19 20 21 20 15 20 16 18

11 20 K30 K24 K9 K27 K1 3 5 K2 2 2 1 11 10

4 0 K43 K32 K24 K50 K16 K15 K17 K20 K17 K19 K12 K8 K8

K9 0 K44 K39 K29 K50 K25 K20 K22 K25 K22 K20 K22 K8 K11

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Table 3C.17 Data OR

PC

PA

RI SC

SD

TN

TX

UT VT

3-107

(Continued)

Through 2002

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Astoria Burns Eugene Medford Pendleton Portland Salem Sexton Summit Guam Johnston Island Koror Kwajalein, Marshall IS Majuro, Marshall IS Pago Pago, Amer Samoa Pohnpei,Caroline IS Chuuk,E.Caroline IS Wake Island Yap,W. Caroline IS Allentown Erie Harrisburg Middletown/ Harrisburg AP Philadelphia Pittsburgh Avoca Williamsport Block IS Providence Charleston A Charleston CO Columbia GreenvilleSpartanburg AP Aberdeen Huron Rapid City Sioux Falls Bristol-JhnCty -Kgsprt Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis Nashville Oak Ridge Abilene Amarillo Austin City Brownsville Corpus Christi Dallas-Fort Worth Dallas-Love Field Del Rio El Paso Galveston Houston Lubbock Midland-Odessa Port Arthur San Angelo San Antonio Victoria Waco Wichita Falls Milford Salt Lake City Burlington

49 18 60 73 67 62 65 65 44 29 53 50 47 43

11 K27 K4 K3 K22 K2 K10 K2 56 65 69 68 69 67

9 K28 K3 6 K18 K3 K4 9 59 64 71 71 70 67

22 K14 20 16 1 19 12 15 54 67 69 70 70 67

29 10 27 21 18 29 23 19 59 65 69 71 70 68

30 15 28 28 25 29 25 22 62 68 71 71 70 66

37 21 32 31 35 39 32 27 63 69 70 71 70 64

39 25 39 38 42 43 37 36 64 70 70 70 70 62

39 22 38 39 40 44 36 36 63 70 70 71 71 64

33 17 31 29 30 34 26 26 61 71 70 68 70 63

26 K7 17 18 11 26 20 20 64 66 71 71 70 67

15 K13 12 10 K12 13 9 11 62 63 70 70 68 67

6 K20 K12 K6 K19 6 K12 2 61 62 71 69 70 67

6 K28 K12 K6 K22 K3 K12 K2 54 62 69 68 68 62

52 52 50 54 59 49 49 64

61 68 65 67 K15 K18 K9 K22

63 67 65 67 K8 K17 K5 K5

65 68 65 64 K1 K9 5 5

61 68 65 66 16 12 19 19

61 67 69 67 28 26 31 31

67 68 71 65 39 32 40 40

66 67 69 66 46 44 49 49

63 69 68 65 41 37 45 45

62 67 69 66 30 33 30 30

63 64 68 66 21 24 23 23

64 66 65 63 11 7 13 13

65 69 64 65 K8 K6 K8 K8

61 64 64 63 K15 K18 K9 K22

61 50 47 58 39 49 60 17 55 40

K7 K22 K21 K20 K2 K13 6 10 K1 K6

K4 K12 K16 K13 K2 K7 12 22 5 8

7 K1 K4 K2 8 1 15 22 4 11

19 14 14 15 18 14 29 36 26 25

28 26 27 28 34 29 36 13 34 31

44 34 34 36 41 41 50 58 44 40

51 42 43 43 51 48 58 65 54 54

44 39 38 38 45 40 56 59 53 52

35 31 29 28 40 33 42 55 40 36

25 16 19 20 30 20 27 40 23 25

15 K1 9 8 16 6 15 35 12 12

1 K12 K9 K15 K4 K10 8 5 4 5

K7 K22 K21 K20 K4 K13 6 5 K1 K6

41 61 60 57 57

K35 K37 K27 K36 K21

K45 K41 K31 K31 K15

K32 K24 K21 K23 K2

K2 K2 1 5 21

19 17 18 17 30

33 32 31 33 38

39 37 39 38 45

32 36 38 34 43

20 19 18 22 34

8 8 K2 9 20

K27 K21 K19 K17 5

K39 K30 K30 K28 K9

K45 K41 K31 K36 K21

63 61 61 63 63 63 62 61 64 64 49 3 40 63 63 33 56 55 49 55 61 42 60 56 53 74 59

K10 K24 K4 K17 K17 K9 K11 K2 19 14 4 19 15 K8 11 12 K16 K8 14 5 0 14 K5 K5 K28 K22 K30

1 K8 K11 K13 K13 K7 K14 7 22 18 7 21 14 8 8 20 K8 K11 20 K1 6 19 4 K8 K29 K30 K30

8 1 12 2 1 7 K3 18 32 24 15 17 21 14 26 22 2 9 23 8 19 21 15 8 K14 2 K20

25 22 29 23 20 25 14 35 38 33 29 41 33 23 38 31 22 20 32 25 31 33 27 24 9 14 2

34 32 38 34 30 36 28 43 52 47 41 50 45 31 52 44 30 34 46 35 43 49 37 36 17 25 24

41 43 48 42 39 47 41 53 60 58 51 62 55 46 57 52 44 47 56 48 53 59 52 51 24 35 33

51 49 52 51 49 55 51 64 68 64 59 69 64 57 66 62 51 53 61 56 62 62 60 54 38 40 39

50 49 48 47 50 50 49 61 63 64 56 70 64 56 67 60 52 54 60 54 61 62 53 53 34 37 35

36 36 36 36 33 35 30 41 55 50 43 49 48 41 52 48 33 36 45 37 41 48 40 38 23 27 25

22 25 25 26 21 23 12 30 35 28 29 39 28 25 39 29 18 24 30 26 27 31 25 25 K2 16 15

4 5 9 K1 0 14 0 20 31 28 20 29 22 1 26 19 K1 11 22 13 21 24 17 14 K13 K14 K2

K2 K6 K13 K10 K7 K7 K8 4 16 13 K1 21 10 5 14 7 K2 K1 12 K4 6 9 K4 K7 K32 K21 K26

K10 K24 K13 K17 K17 K9 K14 K2 16 13 K1 17 10 K8 8 7 K16 K11 12 K4 0 9 K5 K8 K32 K30 K30

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-108

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 3C.17 Data VA

WA

PR WV

WI

WY

(Continued)

Through 2002 Lynchburg Norfolk Richmond Roanoke Wallops Island Olympia Quillayute Seattle CO Seattle Sea-Tac AP Spokane Walla Walla Yakima San Juan Beckley Charleston Elkins Huntington Green Bay La Crosse Madison Milwaukee Casper Cheyenne Lander Sheridan

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

58 54 73 55 28 61 36 65 58 55 55 56 48 39 55 58 42 53 51 63 62 52 67 56 62

K10 K3 K12 K11 0 K8 7 11 0 K22 K4 K21 61 K22 K16 K24 K21 K31 K37 K37 K26 K40 K29 K37 K35

K10 8 K10 K1 10 K1 11 11 1 K24 K13 K25 62 K16 K12 K22 K9 K28 K36 K29 K26 K29 K34 K28 K32

7 18 11 9 14 9 19 22 11 K7 4 K1 60 K5 0 K15 K2 K29 K28 K29 K10 K21 K21 K16 K23

20 28 23 20 27 23 23 31 29 17 29 20 64 11 19 3 20 7 7 0 12 K6 K8 K2 K2

31 36 31 31 37 25 29 35 28 24 34 25 66 23 26 20 27 21 26 19 21 16 16 18 13

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

40 45 40 39 44 30 33 42 38 33 39 30 69 32 33 25 40 32 37 31 33 28 25 25 27

49 54 51 47 53 35 38 47 43 37 46 34 69 41 46 32 46 40 33 36 40 30 38 39 35

45 49 46 42 48 33 36 48 44 35 42 35 70 36 41 34 43 38 40 35 44 33 36 35 32

35 45 35 34 43 25 28 40 35 22 32 24 69 30 34 27 31 24 28 25 28 16 8 10 6

21 27 21 22 31 14 24 30 28 7 15 4 46 18 17 11 16 15 14 13 18 K3 K1 K3 K9

8 20 10 9 20 K1 5 13 6 K21 K11 K13 66 4 6 0 8 K9 K9 K11 K5 K21 K16 K18 K25

K4 7 K1 K4 4 K7 7 9 6 K25 K14 K17 59 K18 K12 K24 K13 K27 K30 K25 K20 K41 K28 K37 K37

K10 K3 K12 K11 0 K8 5 9 0 K25 K14 K25 46 K22 K16 K24 K21 K31 K37 K37 K26 K41 K34 K37 K37

Source: From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

3-109

Table 3C.18 World-Wide Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation Temperature A. Highest World, 588C (1368F), El Azizia, Libya, 13 September 1922 Western Hemisphere, 578C (1348F), Death Valley, California, 10 July 1913 Antarctica, K13.68C (7.58F), 27 December 1978 Asia, 548C (1298F), Tirat Tsvi, Israel, 21 June 1942 Australia, 538C (1288F), Cloncurry, Queensland, 16 January 1889 Europe, 508C (1228F), Seville, Spain, 4 August 1881 South America, 498C (1208F), Rivadavia, Argentina, 11 December 1905 Canada, 458C (1138F), Midale and Yellow Grass, Saskatchewan, 5 July 1937 Vanda Station, Antarctica, had a 158C (598F) maximum, 5 January 1974 (possibly Antarctica’s highest) South Pole, K148C (7.58F), 27 December 1978 Persian Gulf had a 368C (968F) sea-surface, 5 August 1924 Annual Mean, 34.48C (948F), Dallol, Ethiopia B.

Lowest World, K898C (K1298F), Vostok, Antarctica, 21 July 1983 Northern Hemisphere, K688C (K908F), Verkhoyansk, U.S.S.R., 5 and 7 February 1892 and Oimekon, U.S.S.R., 6 February 1933 Greenland, K668C (K878F), Northice, 9 January 1954 North America, excluding Greenland, K638C (K818F), Snag, Yukon Territory, 3 February 1947 U.S., K628C (K808F), Prospect Creek, Endicott Mts., Alaska, 23 January 1971 U.S., excluding Alaska, K56.58C (K708F), Rogers Pass, Montana, 20 January 1954 Europe, K558C (K678F), Ust ’Shchugor, U.S.S.R., January (date not known, lowest in 15-year period) South America, K338C (K278F), Sarmiento, Argentina, 1 June 1907 Africa, K248C (K118F), Ifrane, Morocco, 11 February 1935 Antarctica, annual mean temperature K578C, (K718F), Sovietskaya, Antarctica Australia, K238C (K98F), Charlotte Pass, New South Wales, 29 June 1994 Upper Air, K1538C (K2438F) at 93 km (58 mi) above Point Barrow, AK

Precipitation A. Greatest Rainfall World, 1-minute, 3.1 cm (1.23 00 ), Unionville, Maryland, 4 July 1956 World, 20-minute, 20.5 cm (8 00 ), Curtea-de-Arges, Romania, 7 July 1889 World, 42-minute, 30.5 cm (12 00 ), Holt, Missouri, 22 June 1947 World, 60-minute, 30.5 cm (12 00 ), Holt, Missouri, 22 June 1947 and Kilauea Sugar Plantaion 24–25 January 1956 World, 12-hour, 117 cm (46 00 ), Grand Ilet, La R’eunion Island, 28 January 1980 World, 24-hour, 183 cm (72 00 ), Foc-Foc, La R’eunion Island, 7–8 January 1966 World, 5-day, 430 cm (169 00 ), Commerson, La R’eunion Island, 23–28 January 1980 World, 1-month, 930 cm (366 00 ), Cherrapunji, India, July 1861 World, 12-month, 2,647 cm (1042 00 ), Cherrapunji, India, August 1860–1861 Northern Hemisphere, 24-hour, 125 cm (49 00 ), Paishih, Taiwan, 10–11 September 1963 Australia, 24-hour, 114 cm (44 00 ), Bellenden Ker, Queensland, 4 January 1979 Canada, 24-hour, 49 cm (19 00 ), Ucluelet Brynnor Mines, British Columbia, 6 October 1967 United States, 24-hour, 109 cm (43 00 ), Alvin, Texas, 25–26 July 1979 United States, 12-month, 1878 cm (793 00 ), Kukui, Maui, Hawaii, December 1981–1982 B.

Greatest Average Yearly Precipitation World, 1,168 cm (460i 00 ), Mount Waialeale, Kauai, HI (1931–1960), 1187 cm (467 Mawsynram,India (1941–1979), 1330 cm (524 00 ), Lloro, Colombia (1932–1960) Asia, 1187 cm (467 00 ) during a 38-year period, Mawsynrami, India Africa, 1029 cm (405 00 ) during a 32-year period, Debundscha, Cameroon South America, 899 cm (354 00 ) during a 10–16 year period, Quibdo, Colombia North America, 650 cm (256 00 ) during a 14-year period Henderson Lake, British Columbia Europe, 465 cm (183 00 ) during a 22-year period, Crkvice, Yugoslavia Australia, average yearly, 864 cm (340 00 ), Bellenden Ker, Queensland Bahia Felix, Chile, averages 325 days/year with rain Canada, highest frequency of days with precipitation, 242 per year average, Langara, Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia

C.

Least Precipitation Arica, Chile, had no rain for more than 14 consecutive years, October 1903 to January 1918 U.S., longest dry period, 767 days from 3 October 1912 to 8 November 1914, Bagdad, California Canada, least precipitation during a calendar year, 1.27 cm (0.05 00 ), Arctic Bay, Northwest Territories, 1949 Canada, lowest frequency of days with precipitation, 8 per year average, Rea Point, Northwest Territories Lowest Average Yearly Precipitation World, 0.08 cm (0.03 00 ) during a 59-year period, Arica, Chile

D.

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 3C.18 (Continued) Africa, !0.25 cm (!0.1 00 O during a 39-year period, Wadi Haifa, Sudan North America, 3.0 cm (1.2 00 ) during a 14-year period, Bataques, Mexico United States, 4.1 cm (1.63 00 ) during a 42-year period, Death Valley, California Asia, 4.6 cm (1.8 00 ) during a 50-year period, Aden, South Yemen Australia, 10 cm (4.05 00 ) during a 42-year period, Troudaninna, South Australia Europe, 16 cm (6.4 00 ) during a 25-year period, Astrakhan, U.S.S.R. E.

Hailstones U.S., largest hailstone, 44.5 cm (17.5 00 ) circumference, Coffeyville, Kansas, 3 September 1979 Canada, heaviest hailstone, 290 gm (10.23 oz), Cedoux, Saskatchewan, 27 August 1973 Canada, highest frequency of days with hail, 7 per year average, Edson and Red Deer, Alberta United States, highest frequency of days with hail, 9.4 per year average, Cheyenne, Wyoming World, heaviest hailstone, 1.02 kg (2.25 lbs) in the Gopalganj district, Bangladesh, 14 April 1986

F.

Greatest Snowfall North America, 24-hour, 192.5 cm (76 00 ), Silver Lake, Colorado, 14–15 April 1921 Bessans, France, had a snowfall of 172 cm (68 00 ) in 19 hours, 5–6 April 1969 Canada, climatological day, 118 cm (46 00 ), Lakelse Lake, British Columbia, 17 January 1974 North America, one storm, 480 cm (189 00 ), Mt. Shasta Ski Bowl, California, 13–19 February 1959 North America, one season, 2850 cm (1122 00 ), Rainier Paradise Ranger Station, Washington, 1971–1972 Canada, one season, 2446.5 cm (964 00 ), Revelstoke Mt. Copeland, British Columbia, 1971–1972 Canada, highest frequency of days with snow, 142 per year average, Old Glory Mountain, British Columbia North America, greatest depth of snow on the ground, 1145.5 cm (451 00 ), Tamarack, California, 11 March 1911 Canada, greatest depth of snow on the ground, 775 cm (305 00 ), Loch Lomond, British Columbia

Other Elements A. Thunderstorms Kampala, Uganda, averages 242 days/year with thunderstorms, during a 10-year period Bogor, Indonesia, averaged 322 days/year with thunderstorms from 1916 to 1920 Canada, highest frequency of days with thunderstorms, 34 per year average, Windsor, Ontario North America, highest average annual days with thunderstorms, 100 per year average, Tampa, Florida B.

Fog Frequency U.S. West Coast, highest average, 2552 hours per year during a 10-year period or more, Cape Disappointment, Washington U.S. East Coast, highest average, 1580 hours per year during a 10-year period or more, Moose Peak Lighthouse, Mistake Island, Maine Canada, highest average, 158 days per year, Cape Race, Newfoundland

Source: From Krause, P. and Flood, K., 1997, Weather and climate extremes, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Topographic Engineering Center, Alexandria, VA 22315.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

3-111

Table 3C.19 World Record Point Rainfall Duration 1 8 15 20 42 60 2.17 2.75 4.5 6 9 10 18.5 24 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 31 2 3 4 5 6 11 12 2

Units min

hours

days

months

years

Rainfall (mm) 38 126 198 206 305 401 483 559 782 840 1,087 1,400 1,689 1,825 2,467 3,130 3,721 4,301 4,653 5,003 5,286 5,692 6,028 6,299 6,401 6,422 6,432 6,433 9,300 12,767 16,369 18,738 20,412 22,454 22,990 26,461 40,768

Location Barot, Guadeloupe Fussen, Bavaria Plumb Point, Jamaica Curtea-de-Arges, Romania Holt, U.S.A. Shangdi, Nei Monggol, China Rockport, U.S.A. D’Hanis, U.S.A. Smethport, U.S.A. Muduocaidang, China Belouve, La Re´union Muduocaidang, China Belouve, La Re´union Foc Foc, La Re´union Aurere, La Re´union Aurere, La Re´union Cherrapunji, India Commerson, La Re´union Commerson, La Re´union Commerson, La Re´union Commerson, La Re´union Commerson, La Re´union Commerson, La Re´union Commerson, La Re´union Commerson, La Re´union Commerson, La Re´union Commerson, La Re´union Commerson, La Re´union Cherrapunji, India Cherrapunji, India Cherrapunji, India Cherrapunji, India Cherrapunji, India Cherrapunji, India Cherrapunji, India Cherrapunji, India Cherrapunji, India

Date 26 Nov 1970 25 May 1920 12 May 1916 7 Jul 1889 22 Jun 1947 3 Jul 1975 18 Jul 1889 31 May 1935 18 Jul 1942 1 Aug 1977 28 Feb 1964 1 Aug 1977 28–89 Feb 1964 7–8 Jan 1966 7–9 Apr 1958 6–9 Apr 1958 12–15 Sep 1974 23–27 Jan 1980 22–27 Jan 1980 21–27 Jan 1980 20–27 Jan 1980 19–27 Jan 1980 18–27 Jan 1980 17–27 Jan 1980 16–27 Jan 1980 15–27 Jan 1980 15–28 Jan 1980 14–28 Jan 1980 1–31 Jul 1861 Jun–Jul 1861 May–Jul 1861 Apr–Jul 1861 Apr–Aug 1861 Apr–Sep 1861 Jan–Nov 1861 Aug 1860–Jul 1861 1860–1861

Source: From World Meteorological Organization and are published in the Guide to Hydrological Practices 1994, 5th Edition, WMO No. 168, www.noaa.gov.

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3-112

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 3D

PRECIPITATION DATA

-ANNUALA < 5 .01 B 5 .01 – 12.00 C 12.01 – 20.00 D 20.01 – 3 0.00 E 3 0.01 – 40.00 F 40.01 – 5 0.00 G 5 0.01 – 70.00 H 70.01 – 100.00 I > 100.00 ( I N.) Figure 3D.7 U.S. annual mean total precipitation. (From Climate Atlas of the United States, updated 8/27/02.)

-ANNUALA < 10.01 B 10.01 – 15 .00 C 15 .01 – 20.00 D 20.01 – 3 0.00 E 3 0.01 – 40.00 F 40.01 – 5 0.00 G

5 0.01 – 75 .00 H 75 .01 – 100.00 I > 100.00 ( I N.)

Figure 3D.8 Alaska annual mean total precipitation. (From Climate Atlas of the United States, updated 8/27/02.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Kaua `i

3-113

O `ahu

Ni `ihau

Moloka `i

Maui -ANNUAL A < 10.01

Lana `i

B 10.01 – 20.00 C 20.01 – 3 0.00

Kaho `olawe

D 3 0.01 – 5 0.00 E 5 0.01 – 80.00 F 80.01 – 120.00 G

120.01 – 200.00 H

200.01 – 3 00.00 I > 3 00.00 Hawai `i ( I N.)

Figure 3D.9 Hawaii annual mean total precipitation. (From Climate Atlas of the United States, updated 8/27/02.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

State AL

AK

AR

CA

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

5.45 5.52 5.75 5.04 0.68 9.67 0.12 0.62 0.84 0.34 3.08 0.56 0.45 2.61 4.81 1.03 8.17 0.55 1.04 0.92 1.74 1.45 0.40 6.02 13.18 2.18 0.83 0.99 0.46 0.38 2.37 3.61 3.37 1.18 0.88 5.97 2.16 2.95 2.98 3.33 7.06 6.50 3.84 2.28 4.45

4.21 4.95 5.10 5.45 0.74 8.05 0.12 0.51 0.61 0.41 2.59 0.36 0.52 2.04 4.02 0.72 5.72 0.42 0.74 0.75 1.25 1.28 0.31 5.53 10.99 2.56 0.77 0.88 0.53 0.28 2.59 3.33 3.27 1.21 0.97 5.51 2.12 3.01 3.11 3.68 6.45 5.49 3.54 2.04 4.01

6.10 6.68 7.20 6.39 0.65 7.96 0.09 0.67 0.55 0.22 2.48 0.28 0.36 1.82 3.51 0.79 5.22 0.38 0.81 0.60 1.12 1.26 0.39 4.49 11.41 2.62 1.07 0.81 0.61 0.27 3.94 4.88 4.88 1.41 0.62 5.55 2.20 2.43 2.40 3.14 5.81 5.15 2.80 2.26 3.26

4.67 4.54 5.06 4.38 0.52 7.37 0.12 0.65 0.38 0.20 2.30 0.21 0.22 1.21 2.96 0.94 5.48 0.41 0.66 0.65 1.12 1.22 0.35 3.55 10.80 1.29 0.25 0.28 0.27 0.09 3.91 5.47 5.03 0.45 0.24 2.91 0.76 0.60 0.63 0.83 2.65 2.40 1.02 0.75 1.17

4.83 5.24 6.10 4.14 0.69 5.73 0.12 0.85 0.85 0.77 2.65 0.60 0.59 1.07 3.48 1.35 6.31 0.33 1.02 0.74 1.21 1.64 0.55 3.08 9.78 0.80 0.16 0.24 0.36 0.05 5.29 5.05 5.40 0.24 0.26 1.62 0.39 0.23 0.24 0.31 1.87 1.66 0.53 0.20 0.38

3.78 4.22 5.01 4.13 1.06 4.72 0.32 1.60 1.43 2.38 2.89 1.40 1.54 0.96 3.36 1.70 5.38 0.57 1.45 1.14 1.41 2.41 1.25 3.01 7.17 0.43 0.09 0.24 0.30 0.02 4.28 3.95 3.51 0.12 0.21 0.65 0.23 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.99 0.69 0.20 0.09 0.11

5.09 4.40 6.54 5.31 1.70 4.26 0.87 2.03 2.10 2.77 2.53 1.73 1.82 1.45 4.14 2.15 4.12 1.43 2.32 2.15 1.91 3.24 2.15 3.84 7.88 2.40 0.99 2.07 1.18 0.23 3.19 3.31 3.15 0.00 0.17 0.16 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.39 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.03

3.48 3.32 6.20 3.63 2.93 6.12 1.04 3.02 2.54 2.11 3.59 1.74 1.80 2.28 5.37 2.89 4.48 2.00 2.75 3.23 2.96 4.53 2.92 6.62 13.27 2.89 0.94 2.30 1.31 0.61 2.56 2.93 2.97 0.08 0.13 0.38 0.01 0.10 0.14 0.13 0.43 0.22 0.06 0.09 0.07

4.05 4.29 6.01 4.22 2.87 9.49 0.69 2.31 1.82 1.03 4.51 1.12 1.44 3.37 7.54 2.81 7.84 1.70 2.36 2.51 2.79 4.35 2.10 9.59 20.88 2.12 0.75 1.45 1.02 0.26 3.61 3.71 3.53 0.15 0.28 0.86 0.26 0.24 0.26 0.32 0.87 0.48 0.36 0.21 0.20

3.23 3.54 3.25 2.58 2.08 13.86 0.39 1.43 1.08 0.73 4.54 0.92 1.02 2.77 8.30 2.09 8.36 0.95 1.46 1.58 2.70 3.06 0.89 8.58 24.00 1.93 0.79 1.21 0.90 0.26 3.94 4.25 3.81 0.30 0.20 2.36 0.65 0.40 0.36 0.37 2.21 2.18 0.89 0.44 1.04

4.63 5.22 5.41 4.53 1.09 12.21 0.16 1.37 0.90 0.59 4.79 0.68 0.67 2.87 5.43 1.54 6.63 0.71 1.46 1.28 2.87 1.78 0.66 5.51 15.17 1.86 0.73 0.67 0.55 0.14 4.80 5.73 5.74 0.59 0.44 5.78 1.10 1.12 1.13 1.05 5.08 4.03 2.19 1.07 2.49

4.47 5.59 4.66 4.97 1.05 11.39 0.12 1.12 0.87 0.39 4.33 0.74 0.97 3.00 5.41 1.39 7.64 0.60 1.44 1.01 2.13 1.96 0.47 7.59 15.85 1.83 0.92 1.03 0.54 0.42 3.39 4.71 4.53 0.76 0.62 6.35 1.34 1.76 1.79 1.91 5.35 4.67 2.45 1.31 2.89

53.99 57.51 66.29 54.77 16.08 100.83 4.16 16.18 13.97 11.94 40.28 10.34 11.40 25.45 58.33 19.41 75.35 10.05 17.51 16.56 23.21 28.18 12.44 67.41 160.38 22.91 8.29 12.17 8.03 3.01 43.87 50.93 49.19 6.49 5.02 38.10 11.23 12.94 13.15 15.14 39.16 33.52 17.93 10.77 20.11

Birmingham Huntsville Mobile Montgomery Anchorage Annette Barrow Bethel Bettles Big Delta Cold Bay Fairbanks Gulkana Homer Juneau King Salmon Kodiak Kotzebue Mcgrath Nome St. Paul Island Talkeetna Unalakleet Valdez Yakutat Flagstaff Phoenix Tucson Winslow Yuma Fort Smith Little Rock North Little Rock Bakersfield Bishop Eureka Fresno Long Beach Los Angeles AP Los Angeles CO Mount Shasta Redding Sacramento San Diego San Francisco AP

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

AZ

Station

3-114

Table 3D.20 Normal Monthly Precipitation (inches) — Selected Cities of the United States

CT DE DC

FL

GA

HI

ID

IL

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

4.72 3.57 2.64 2.71 0.25 0.28 0.51 0.60 0.33 3.73 3.84 3.43 3.05

4.15 4.28 3.23 2.46 0.21 0.35 0.49 0.50 0.26 2.92 2.96 2.81 2.77

3.40 3.51 2.94 2.28 0.46 1.06 1.28 1.00 0.97 4.15 3.88 3.97 3.55

1.25 0.63 0.91 0.96 0.54 1.62 1.93 0.86 1.25 3.99 3.86 3.39 3.22

0.54 0.23 0.32 0.50 0.70 2.39 2.32 0.98 1.49 4.03 4.39 4.15 4.22

0.13 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.59 2.34 1.56 0.41 1.33 3.57 3.85 3.59 4.07

0.04 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.94 2.85 2.16 0.66 2.04 3.77 3.67 4.28 3.57

0.09 0.11 0.05 0.05 1.19 3.48 1.82 0.84 2.27 3.75 3.98 3.51 3.78

0.28 0.42 0.31 0.33 0.89 1.23 1.14 0.91 0.84 3.58 4.13 4.01 3.82

1.19 0.52 0.45 0.82 0.67 0.86 0.99 1.00 0.64 3.54 3.94 3.08 3.37

3.31 1.32 1.24 1.77 0.48 0.52 0.98 0.71 0.58 3.65 4.06 3.19 3.31

3.18 2.26 1.84 1.82 0.33 0.42 0.63 0.52 0.39 3.47 3.60 3.40 3.07

22.28 16.93 14.01 13.84 7.25 17.40 15.81 8.99 12.39 44.15 46.16 42.81 41.80

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

3.21 4.87 3.13 2.23 3.51 3.69 2.22 1.88 2.43 5.34 5.36 2.27 2.89 3.75 4.69 5.02 4.50 4.78 5.00 3.95 9.74 2.73 3.74 4.59 1.39 1.14 1.14 1.75 1.58 1.50 1.41 1.62

2.63 3.76 2.74 2.10 3.39 3.15 1.51 2.07 2.35 4.68 4.63 2.67 2.45 2.55 4.39 4.68 4.11 4.48 4.55 2.92 8.86 2.35 2.36 3.26 1.14 0.95 1.01 1.63 1.51 1.67 1.34 1.80

3.60 4.95 3.84 2.74 4.26 3.93 1.86 2.56 3.54 6.40 6.47 2.84 4.20 3.68 4.99 5.38 4.61 5.75 4.89 3.64 14.35 1.89 2.35 3.58 1.41 1.12 1.38 2.65 2.92 2.83 2.39 3.15

2.77 3.00 2.54 1.67 2.86 3.14 2.06 3.36 2.42 3.89 3.59 1.80 2.88 3.57 3.35 3.62 2.94 3.84 3.14 3.32 12.54 1.11 1.75 3.00 1.27 1.30 1.18 3.68 3.82 3.56 3.62 3.36

3.82 2.62 3.26 3.42 3.23 3.48 3.48 5.52 3.74 4.40 4.95 2.85 3.80 5.39 3.86 3.95 3.07 3.62 2.98 3.61 8.07 0.78 0.66 2.87 1.27 1.56 1.51 3.38 4.25 4.17 4.02 4.06

3.13 4.30 5.69 9.77 6.78 5.37 4.57 8.54 7.35 6.39 6.92 5.50 6.03 7.58 3.94 3.63 4.19 3.51 3.54 5.49 7.36 0.43 0.23 1.82 0.74 1.16 0.91 3.63 4.63 3.84 4.80 3.77

3.66 7.31 5.17 8.98 6.10 5.97 3.27 5.79 7.15 8.02 8.04 6.49 6.53 5.97 4.41 5.12 4.07 5.04 4.32 6.04 10.71 0.50 0.49 2.12 0.39 0.72 0.70 3.51 4.03 4.02 4.10 3.53

3.44 7.29 6.09 9.54 6.63 6.87 5.40 8.63 6.25 6.85 7.03 7.60 6.04 6.65 3.78 3.67 4.48 3.78 3.79 7.20 9.78 0.46 0.53 1.91 0.30 0.75 0.66 4.62 4.41 3.16 4.21 3.41

3.79 7.10 6.61 7.86 4.37 7.90 5.45 8.38 5.76 5.75 5.01 6.54 6.84 8.10 3.53 4.09 3.59 3.07 3.26 5.08 9.14 0.74 0.39 2.69 0.76 0.80 0.89 3.27 3.16 3.12 3.47 2.83

3.22 4.18 4.48 2.59 2.50 3.86 4.34 6.19 2.73 4.13 3.25 2.29 5.04 5.46 3.47 3.11 3.20 2.33 2.37 3.12 9.64 2.18 1.05 4.25 0.76 0.96 0.97 2.71 2.80 2.76 2.57 2.62

3.03 3.62 3.03 1.71 2.17 2.34 2.64 3.43 2.32 4.46 3.86 1.62 3.04 5.55 3.71 4.10 2.68 3.97 3.22 2.40 15.58 2.26 2.17 4.70 1.38 1.21 1.13 3.01 2.73 2.99 2.63 2.87

3.05 3.51 2.71 1.58 2.56 2.64 2.14 2.18 2.31 3.97 4.10 2.30 2.19 3.14 3.71 3.82 3.14 4.40 3.93 2.81 10.50 2.85 3.08 4.78 1.38 1.05 1.10 2.43 2.20 2.40 2.06 2.54

39.35 56.51 49.29 54.19 48.36 52.34 38.94 58.53 48.35 64.28 63.21 44.77 51.93 61.39 47.83 50.20 44.58 48.57 45.00 49.58 126.27 18.29 18.80 39.57 12.19 12.74 12.58 36.27 38.04 36.03 36.63 35.56

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-115

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

CO

San Francisco CO Santa Barbara Santa Maria Stockton Alamosa Colorado Springs Denver Grand Junction Pueblo Bridgeport Hartford Wilmington Washington Dulles AP Washington Nat’l AP Apalachicola Daytona Beach Fort Myers Gainesville Jacksonville Key West Miami Orlando Pensacola Tallahassee Tampa Vero Beach West Palm Beach Athens Atlanta Augusta Columbus Macon Savannah Hilo Honolulu Kahului Lihue Boise Lewiston Pocatello Chicago Moline Peoria Rockford Springfield

State IN

IA

KS

KY

ME MD MA

MI

MN

MS

Station

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

2.91 2.05 2.48 2.27 1.03 1.28 0.59 0.84 0.66 0.62 0.43 0.95 0.84 2.92

3.10 1.94 2.41 1.98 1.19 1.42 0.62 1.05 0.73 0.66 0.44 1.18 1.02 2.75

4.29 2.86 3.44 2.89 2.21 2.57 2.00 2.13 2.35 1.84 1.20 2.56 2.71 3.90

4.48 3.54 3.61 3.62 3.58 3.49 2.75 3.23 2.45 2.25 1.51 3.14 2.57 3.96

5.01 3.75 4.35 3.50 4.25 4.12 3.75 4.15 4.20 3.00 3.46 4.86 4.16 4.59

4.10 4.04 4.13 4.19 4.57 4.08 3.61 4.82 3.95 3.15 3.30 4.88 4.25 4.42

3.75 3.58 4.42 3.73 4.18 3.73 3.30 4.20 4.20 3.17 3.54 3.83 3.31 3.75

3.14 3.60 3.82 3.98 4.51 4.59 2.90 4.08 3.24 2.73 2.49 3.81 2.94 3.79

2.99 2.81 2.88 3.79 3.15 3.56 2.42 2.95 2.50 1.70 1.12 3.71 2.96 2.82

2.78 2.63 2.76 3.27 2.62 2.50 1.99 2.49 1.84 1.45 1.05 2.99 2.45 2.96

4.18 2.98 3.61 3.39 2.10 2.49 1.40 2.10 1.45 1.01 0.82 2.31 1.82 3.46

3.54 2.77 3.03 3.09 1.33 1.69 0.66 1.11 0.86 0.77 0.40 1.42 1.35 3.28

44.27 36.55 40.95 39.70 34.72 35.52 25.99 33.15 28.43 22.35 19.76 35.64 30.38 42.60

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

3.56 3.34 3.28 3.47 6.19 5.52 5.87 4.60 2.97 4.09 3.47 4.78 3.92 4.07 1.76 1.91 1.57 2.03 1.61 1.61 2.60 2.22 2.64 1.12 0.84 1.04

3.68 3.27 3.25 3.93 5.10 3.28 5.47 4.21 2.06 3.14 3.02 4.06 3.30 3.10 1.35 1.88 1.35 1.53 1.25 1.45 1.85 1.58 1.60 0.83 0.64 0.79

4.38 4.41 4.41 4.27 5.07 3.54 5.24 4.18 2.57 4.14 3.93 4.79 3.85 4.23 2.13 2.52 2.22 2.59 2.05 2.33 3.13 2.36 2.41 1.69 0.96 1.86

3.79 3.67 3.91 4.95 5.56 3.64 5.02 4.42 2.64 4.26 3.00 4.32 3.60 3.92 2.31 3.05 3.13 3.48 2.29 3.09 2.79 2.91 2.57 2.09 1.38 2.31

5.16 4.78 4.88 4.75 5.34 6.06 4.62 5.25 3.27 3.82 3.89 3.79 3.24 4.35 2.61 3.05 2.74 3.35 2.57 2.71 3.07 2.95 2.50 2.95 2.55 3.24

4.67 4.58 3.76 4.51 5.33 6.07 6.83 5.05 3.31 3.28 3.43 3.93 3.22 4.02 2.53 3.55 3.07 3.67 2.93 3.60 3.21 2.58 3.00 4.25 3.98 4.34

4.59 4.80 4.30 4.45 5.96 5.12 6.20 3.99 3.89 3.32 3.85 3.74 3.06 4.19 3.17 3.16 3.17 3.56 2.75 2.68 3.01 2.32 3.14 4.20 3.37 4.04

4.13 3.77 3.41 2.99 5.86 4.85 6.15 2.71 4.15 3.05 3.74 4.06 3.37 4.09 3.50 3.10 3.43 3.78 3.72 3.46 3.55 3.77 3.47 4.22 3.14 4.05

3.77 3.11 3.05 3.56 4.84 5.95 5.55 3.21 3.27 3.37 3.98 4.13 3.47 4.27 2.80 3.27 3.76 4.28 3.11 3.48 3.74 3.52 3.71 4.13 3.03 2.69

3.18 2.70 2.79 3.45 3.81 3.94 3.05 4.45 2.99 4.40 3.16 4.42 3.79 4.67 2.33 2.23 2.34 2.80 2.26 2.29 3.66 2.80 3.32 2.46 1.98 2.11

4.20 3.44 3.80 4.53 4.76 4.61 5.09 4.68 3.12 4.72 3.12 4.64 3.98 4.34 2.08 2.66 2.65 3.35 2.14 2.66 3.27 3.23 3.40 2.12 1.36 1.94

4.27 4.03 3.69 4.38 5.26 4.60 5.07 4.55 3.19 4.24 3.35 4.56 3.73 3.80 1.83 2.51 2.18 2.70 1.75 2.17 2.43 2.64 2.91 0.94 0.70 1.00

49.38 45.91 44.54 49.24 63.08 57.19 64.16 51.30 37.44 45.83 41.94 51.22 42.53 49.05 28.40 32.89 31.61 37.13 28.43 31.53 36.31 32.88 34.67 31.00 23.93 29.41

30 30 30

0.94 0.76 5.67

0.75 0.59 4.50

1.88 1.50 5.74

3.01 2.13 5.98

3.53 2.97 4.86

4.00 4.51 3.82

4.61 3.34 4.69

4.33 3.93 3.66

3.12 2.93 3.23

2.20 2.24 3.42

2.01 1.54 5.04

1.02 0.69 5.34

31.40 27.13 55.95

Evansville Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend Des Moines Dubuque Sioux City Waterloo Concordia Dodge City Goodland Topeka Wichita Greater Cincinnati AP Jackson Lexington Louisville Paducah Baton Rouge Lake Charles New Orleans Shreveport Caribou Portland Baltimore Blue Hill Boston Worcester Alpena Detroit Flint Grand Rapids Houghton Lake Lansing Marquette Muskegon Sault Ste. Marie Duluth International Falls MinneapolisSt. Paul Rochester Saint Cloud Jackson

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

LA

(Continued)

3-116

Table 3D.20

MT

NE

NV

NJ

NM

NY

NC

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

5.92 5.14 1.73 1.15 2.14 2.11 0.81 0.35 0.68 0.47 0.52 1.47 1.06 0.54 0.67 0.57 0.39 0.77 0.76 0.54 0.30 1.14 0.74 0.59 1.06 0.83 2.97 8.52 3.60 3.44 3.98 0.49 0.30 0.39 2.71 2.58 3.16 4.27 4.13 3.62 3.56

5.35 4.68 2.20 1.31 2.28 2.28 0.57 0.26 0.51 0.36 0.38 1.15 0.77 0.68 0.66 0.76 0.51 0.80 0.77 0.58 0.48 0.88 0.75 0.69 1.06 0.62 2.36 7.33 2.85 2.88 2.96 0.44 0.27 0.41 2.27 2.46 2.42 3.33 3.15 2.70 2.75

6.93 6.30 3.21 2.44 3.60 3.82 1.12 0.47 1.01 0.70 0.63 1.11 0.96 2.04 2.21 1.97 1.24 2.13 2.25 1.16 1.11 0.98 1.05 0.59 0.86 0.86 3.04 9.42 4.06 3.79 4.21 0.61 0.62 0.35 3.17 2.97 2.99 4.76 4.37 3.78 3.93

5.62 4.94 4.16 3.38 3.69 4.31 1.74 0.75 1.40 0.87 0.91 1.22 1.09 2.61 2.90 2.59 1.97 2.94 3.07 1.79 1.97 0.81 0.90 0.15 0.35 0.85 3.07 8.43 3.45 3.25 3.92 0.50 0.99 0.58 3.25 3.49 3.04 4.13 4.28 3.75 3.68

4.87 5.80 4.87 5.39 4.11 4.57 2.48 1.72 2.53 1.84 1.78 2.04 1.95 4.07 4.23 3.92 3.34 4.44 4.57 2.70 3.20 1.08 1.29 0.24 0.62 1.06 3.33 8.21 3.38 3.16 4.46 0.60 2.08 1.30 3.67 3.55 3.35 3.90 4.69 4.13 4.16

3.99 4.82 4.02 4.44 3.76 5.02 1.89 2.20 2.24 1.90 1.82 2.30 1.73 3.72 3.51 4.25 3.17 3.95 3.84 2.65 3.01 0.67 0.66 0.08 0.47 0.69 3.10 8.36 2.66 2.46 3.40 0.65 2.21 1.62 3.74 3.80 3.82 3.71 3.84 3.59 3.57

5.45 3.65 3.80 4.42 3.90 3.56 1.28 1.78 1.45 1.51 1.34 1.41 1.09 3.14 3.54 3.74 3.17 3.86 3.75 2.13 3.37 0.30 0.60 0.44 0.24 0.27 3.37 8.02 3.86 3.36 4.68 1.27 2.81 1.99 3.50 3.49 3.14 2.93 4.62 3.92 4.41

3.34 2.67 3.75 3.54 2.98 3.37 0.85 1.25 1.65 1.20 1.29 1.25 1.15 3.08 3.35 2.80 2.15 3.21 2.93 1.19 2.20 0.36 0.91 0.45 0.27 0.35 3.21 8.08 4.32 4.16 4.02 1.73 2.69 2.31 3.68 3.35 3.87 4.48 4.22 3.64 4.09

3.64 3.35 3.42 4.64 2.96 4.83 1.34 0.98 1.23 1.03 1.05 1.20 1.08 2.43 2.92 2.25 1.32 3.17 3.03 1.22 1.61 0.68 0.94 0.31 0.45 0.53 3.16 8.55 3.14 3.02 4.01 1.07 1.56 1.98 3.31 3.59 3.84 3.39 4.23 3.50 3.77

3.28 3.38 3.18 3.33 2.76 3.47 1.26 0.71 0.93 0.62 0.66 0.96 0.83 1.51 1.94 1.72 1.24 2.21 2.49 1.01 1.22 0.71 1.00 0.24 0.42 0.66 3.46 7.66 2.86 2.71 3.16 1.00 0.74 1.29 3.23 3.02 3.19 3.63 3.85 3.03 3.26

4.95 5.01 3.47 2.30 3.71 4.46 0.75 0.39 0.59 0.45 0.48 1.45 0.96 1.41 1.58 1.44 0.76 1.82 1.67 0.80 0.72 1.05 0.63 0.31 0.80 0.80 3.57 10.49 3.26 2.96 3.88 0.62 0.54 0.53 3.31 3.32 3.92 3.86 4.36 3.48 3.67

5.31 6.12 2.47 1.64 2.86 3.17 0.67 0.37 0.67 0.51 0.46 1.65 1.15 0.66 0.86 0.65 0.40 0.92 0.95 0.56 0.33 0.93 0.50 0.40 0.88 0.81 2.96 8.84 3.15 3.18 3.57 0.49 0.32 0.59 2.76 3.03 3.80 4.13 3.95 3.31 3.51

58.65 55.86 40.28 37.98 38.75 44.97 14.77 11.23 14.89 11.46 11.32 17.21 13.82 25.89 28.37 26.66 19.66 30.22 30.08 16.33 19.52 9.59 9.97 4.49 7.48 8.33 37.60 101.91 40.59 38.37 46.25 9.47 15.13 13.34 38.60 38.65 40.54 46.52 49.69 42.46 44.36

30 30 30 30

2.34 2.60 4.06 5.84

2.04 2.12 3.83 3.94

2.58 3.02 4.59 4.95

2.75 3.39 3.50 3.29

2.82 3.39 4.41 3.92

3.36 3.71 4.38 3.82

2.93 4.02 3.87 4.95

3.54 3.56 4.30 6.56

3.45 4.15 3.72 5.68

2.60 3.20 3.17 5.31

2.84 3.77 3.82 4.93

2.73 3.12 3.39 4.56

33.98 40.05 47.07 57.75

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-117

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

MO

Meridian Tupelo Columbia Kansas City St. Louis Springfield Billings Glasgow Great Falls Havre Helena Kalispell Missoula Grand Island Lincoln Norfolk North Platte Omaha Eppley AP Omaha (North) Scottsbluff Valentine Elko Ely Las Vegas Reno Winnemucca Concord Mt. Washington Atlantic City AP Atlantic City CO Newark Albuquerque Clayton Roswell Albany Binghamton Buffalo Islip New York C. Park New York (JFK AP) New York (Laguardia AP) Rochester Syracuse Asheville Cape Hatteras

State

ND

OH

OR

PC

Station

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

30 30

4.00 3.54

3.55 3.10

4.39 3.85

2.95 3.43

3.66 3.95

3.42 3.53

3.79 4.44

3.72 3.71

3.83 4.29

3.66 3.27

3.36 2.96

3.18 3.06

43.51 43.14

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

4.02 4.52 0.45 0.76 0.68 0.54 2.49 2.48 2.53 2.60 2.63 1.93 2.34 1.28 1.60 9.62 1.18 7.65 2.47 1.45 5.07 5.84 4.71

3.47 3.66 0.51 0.59 0.58 0.39 2.28 2.29 2.20 2.29 2.17 1.88 2.03 1.56 1.95 7.87 1.11 6.35 2.10 1.22 4.18 5.09 4.29

4.03 4.22 0.85 1.17 0.89 0.74 3.15 2.94 2.89 3.29 3.36 2.62 3.05 2.90 3.57 7.37 1.24 5.80 1.85 1.26 3.71 4.17 3.92

2.80 2.94 1.46 1.37 1.23 1.05 3.39 3.37 3.25 4.03 4.17 3.24 3.33 3.00 3.95 4.93 0.85 3.66 1.31 1.13 2.64 2.76 2.38

3.79 4.40 2.22 2.61 2.21 1.88 3.96 3.50 3.88 4.17 4.42 3.14 3.45 5.44 6.11 3.28 1.05 2.66 1.21 1.22 2.38 2.13 1.35

3.42 5.36 2.59 3.51 3.03 2.36 3.55 3.89 4.07 4.21 4.52 3.80 3.91 4.63 4.72 2.57 0.66 1.53 0.68 0.78 1.59 1.45 0.94

4.29 7.62 2.58 2.88 3.06 2.28 4.02 3.52 4.61 3.75 4.22 2.80 4.10 2.94 2.96 1.16 0.40 0.64 0.31 0.41 0.72 0.57 0.35

3.78 7.31 2.15 2.52 2.72 1.48 3.65 3.69 3.72 3.49 4.60 3.19 3.43 2.48 2.85 1.21 0.45 0.99 0.52 0.56 0.93 0.68 0.61

4.26 6.79 1.61 2.18 1.96 1.35 3.43 3.77 2.92 2.65 3.44 2.84 3.89 3.98 4.76 2.61 0.50 1.54 0.78 0.63 1.65 1.43 1.20

3.18 3.21 1.28 1.97 1.70 0.87 2.53 2.73 2.31 2.72 2.68 2.35 2.46 3.64 4.05 5.61 0.72 3.35 1.31 0.99 2.88 3.03 2.93

2.97 3.26 0.70 1.06 0.99 0.65 3.04 3.38 3.19 3.30 3.76 2.78 3.07 2.11 3.47 10.50 1.11 8.44 2.93 1.63 5.61 6.39 5.32

3.04 3.78 0.44 0.57 0.55 0.57 2.98 3.14 2.93 3.08 3.26 2.64 2.96 1.89 2.43 10.40 1.30 8.29 2.90 1.48 5.71 6.46 5.18

43.05 57.07 16.84 21.19 19.60 14.16 38.47 38.71 38.52 39.58 43.24 33.21 38.02 35.85 42.42 67.13 10.57 50.90 18.37 12.76 37.07 40.00 33.18

30 30

5.58 1.64

5.11 1.29

4.24 2.01

4.16 1.86

6.39 1.14

6.28 0.87

11.66 1.40

16.17 2.07

13.69 2.46

11.88 2.78

9.34 4.78

6.11 2.70

100.61 25.00

30 30

11.20 5.12

9.65 3.73

8.79 3.82

9.45 7.63

11.27 8.62

17.54 8.86

16.99 10.24

14.47 10.42

11.65 11.82

13.41 11.46

11.62 10.74

12.33 7.94

148.37 100.40

30

8.09

6.86

8.43

11.30

11.53

11.09

12.41

11.95

11.96

13.73

12.81

11.50

131.66

30

14.02

12.14

11.15

11.16

10.43

5.94

5.76

6.43

7.36

10.03

11.16

13.38

118.96

30

12.52

9.78

13.96

16.94

19.41

17.06

16.72

16.37

14.94

16.30

14.74

15.87

184.61

30

8.58

8.77

8.15

10.94

11.29

12.82

12.45

15.09

13.12

10.69

11.09

10.98

133.97

30 30

1.40 7.24

1.89 5.45

2.38 6.14

2.11 5.58

1.70 8.15

1.95 13.46

3.44 13.25

5.62 14.41

4.82 13.53

4.27 12.25

2.78 8.82

1.87 9.34

34.23 117.62

Charlotte GreensboroWnstn-SlmHPT Raleigh Wilmington Bismarck Fargo Grand Forks Williston Akron Cleveland Columbus Dayton Mansfield Toledo Youngstown Oklahoma City Tulsa Astoria Burns Eugene Medford Pendleton Portland Salem Sexton Summit Guam Johnston Island Koror Kwajalein, Marshall IS Majuro, Marshall IS Pago Pago, Amer Samoa Pohnpei, Caroline IS Chuuk, E. Caroline IS Wake Island Yap, W Caroline IS

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

OK

(Continued)

3-118

Table 3D.20

RI SC

SD

TN

TX

Allentown Erie Harrisburg Middletown/ Harrisburg AP Philadelphia Pittsburgh Avoca Williamsport Block IS Providence Charleston AP Charleston CO Columbia GreenvilleSpartanburg AP Aberdeen Huron Rapid City Sioux Falls Bristol-JhnCtyKgsprt Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis Nashville Oak Ridge Abilene Amarillo Austin/City Austin/ Bergstrom Brownsville Corpus Christi Dallas-Fort Worth Dallas-Love Field Del Rio El Paso Galveston Houston Lubbock Midland-Odessa Port Arthur San Angelo

30 30 30 30

3.50 2.53 3.18 3.18

2.75 2.28 2.88 2.88

3.56 3.13 3.58 3.58

3.49 3.38 3.31 3.31

4.47 3.34 4.60 4.60

3.99 4.28 3.99 3.99

4.27 3.28 3.21 3.21

4.35 4.21 3.24 3.24

4.37 4.73 3.65 3.65

3.33 3.92 3.06 3.06

3.70 3.96 3.53 3.53

3.39 3.73 3.22 3.22

45.17 42.77 41.45 41.45

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

3.52 2.70 2.46 2.85 3.68 4.37 4.08 3.62 4.66 4.41

2.74 2.37 2.08 2.61 3.04 3.45 3.08 2.62 3.84 4.24

3.81 3.17 2.69 3.21 3.99 4.43 4.00 3.83 4.59 5.31

3.49 3.01 3.28 3.49 3.72 4.16 2.77 2.44 2.98 3.53

3.88 3.80 3.69 3.79 3.40 3.66 3.67 2.77 3.17 4.59

3.29 4.12 3.97 4.45 2.77 3.38 5.92 4.96 4.99 3.92

4.39 3.96 3.74 4.08 2.62 3.17 6.13 5.50 5.54 4.65

3.82 3.38 3.10 3.38 3.00 3.90 6.91 6.54 5.41 4.08

3.88 3.21 3.86 3.98 3.19 3.70 5.98 6.13 3.94 3.96

2.75 2.25 3.02 3.19 3.04 3.69 3.09 3.02 2.89 3.88

3.16 3.02 3.12 3.62 3.77 4.40 2.66 2.18 2.88 3.79

3.31 2.86 2.55 2.94 3.57 4.14 3.24 2.78 3.38 3.86

42.05 37.85 37.56 41.59 39.79 46.45 51.53 46.39 48.27 50.24

30 30 30 30 30

0.48 0.48 0.37 0.51 3.52

0.48 0.57 0.46 0.51 3.40

1.34 1.67 1.03 1.81 3.91

1.83 2.29 1.86 2.65 3.23

2.69 3.00 2.96 3.39 4.32

3.49 3.28 2.83 3.49 3.89

2.92 2.86 2.03 2.93 4.21

2.42 2.07 1.61 3.01 3.00

1.81 1.80 1.10 2.58 3.08

1.63 1.59 1.37 1.93 2.30

0.75 0.89 0.61 1.36 3.08

0.38 0.39 0.40 0.52 3.39

20.22 20.90 16.64 24.69 41.33

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

5.40 4.57 4.24 3.97 5.13 0.97 0.63 1.89 2.20

4.85 4.01 4.31 3.69 4.50 1.13 0.55 1.99 1.73

6.19 5.17 5.58 4.87 5.72 1.41 1.13 2.14 1.98

4.23 3.99 5.79 3.93 4.32 1.67 1.33 2.51 2.77

4.28 4.68 5.15 5.07 5.14 2.83 2.50 5.03 5.87

3.99 4.04 4.30 4.08 4.64 3.06 3.28 3.81 3.38

4.73 4.71 4.22 3.77 5.16 1.69 2.68 1.97 1.61

3.59 2.89 3.00 3.28 3.39 2.63 2.94 2.31 1.48

4.31 3.04 3.31 3.59 3.75 2.91 1.88 2.91 2.63

3.26 2.65 3.31 2.87 3.02 2.90 1.50 3.97 2.70

4.88 3.98 5.76 4.45 4.86 1.30 0.68 2.68 2.61

4.81 4.49 5.68 4.54 5.42 1.27 0.61 2.44 2.39

54.52 48.22 54.65 48.11 55.05 23.78 19.71 33.65 31.36

30 30 30

1.36 1.62 1.90

1.18 1.84 2.37

0.93 1.73 3.06

1.96 2.05 3.20

2.48 3.48 5.15

2.93 3.53 3.23

1.77 2.00 2.12

2.99 3.54 2.03

5.31 5.03 2.42

3.78 3.94 4.11

1.75 1.74 2.57

1.11 1.75 2.57

27.55 32.26 34.73

30

1.89

2.31

3.13

3.46

5.30

3.92

2.43

2.17

2.65

4.65

2.61

2.53

37.05

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0.57 0.45 4.08 3.68 0.50 0.53 5.69 0.81

0.96 0.39 2.61 2.98 0.71 0.58 3.35 1.18

0.96 0.26 2.76 3.36 0.76 0.42 3.75 0.99

1.71 0.23 2.56 3.60 1.29 0.73 3.84 1.60

2.31 0.38 3.70 5.15 2.31 1.79 5.83 3.09

2.34 0.87 4.04 5.35 2.98 1.71 6.58 2.52

2.02 1.49 3.45 3.18 2.13 1.89 5.23 1.10

1.59 1.75 4.22 3.83 2.35 1.77 4.85 2.05

2.06 1.61 5.76 4.33 2.57 2.31 6.10 2.95

2.00 0.81 3.49 4.50 1.70 1.77 4.67 2.57

0.96 0.42 3.64 4.19 0.71 0.65 4.75 1.10

0.75 0.77 3.53 3.69 0.67 0.65 5.25 0.94

18.23 9.43 43.84 47.84 18.69 14.80 59.89 20.91

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-119

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

PA

State

UT

VT VA

WA

WI

WY

Station

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

30 30 30 30 30 30

1.66 2.44 1.90 1.12 0.73 1.37

1.75 2.04 2.43 1.57 0.77 1.33

1.89 2.25 2.48 2.27 1.21 1.91

2.60 2.97 2.99 2.62 0.99 2.02

4.72 5.12 4.46 3.92 0.94 2.09

4.30 4.96 3.08 3.69 0.44 0.77

2.03 2.90 2.23 1.58 0.76 0.72

2.57 3.05 1.85 2.38 1.04 0.76

3.00 5.00 2.88 3.19 0.92 1.33

3.86 4.26 3.67 3.11 1.12 1.57

2.58 2.64 2.61 1.68 0.77 1.40

1.96 2.47 2.76 1.68 0.58 1.23

32.92 40.10 33.34 28.83 10.27 16.50

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

2.22 3.54 3.93 3.55 3.23 7.54 13.65 5.24 5.13

1.67 3.10 3.34 2.98 3.08 6.17 12.35 4.09 4.18

2.32 3.83 4.08 4.09 3.84 5.29 10.98 3.92 3.75

2.88 3.46 3.38 3.18 3.61 3.58 7.44 2.75 2.59

3.32 4.11 3.74 3.95 4.24 2.27 5.51 2.03 1.77

3.43 3.79 3.77 3.54 3.68 1.78 3.50 1.55 1.49

3.97 4.39 5.17 4.67 4.00 0.82 2.34 0.93 0.79

4.01 3.41 4.79 4.18 3.74 1.10 2.67 1.16 1.02

3.83 3.88 4.06 3.98 3.85 2.03 4.15 1.61 1.63

3.12 3.39 3.47 3.60 3.15 4.19 9.81 3.24 3.19

3.06 3.18 2.98 3.06 3.21 8.13 14.82 5.67 5.90

2.22 3.23 3.03 3.12 2.86 7.89 14.50 6.06 5.62

36.05 43.31 45.74 43.91 42.49 50.79 101.72 38.25 37.07

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

1.82 2.25 1.17 3.02 3.23 3.25 3.43 3.21 1.21 1.19 1.25 1.85 0.58 0.45 0.52 0.77

1.51 1.97 0.80 2.30 2.96 3.19 3.20 3.09 1.01 0.99 1.28 1.65 0.64 0.44 0.54 0.57

1.53 2.20 0.70 2.14 3.63 3.90 3.92 3.83 2.06 2.00 2.28 2.59 0.90 1.05 1.24 1.00

1.28 1.83 0.53 3.71 3.42 3.25 3.53 3.33 2.56 3.38 3.35 3.78 1.52 1.55 2.07 1.77

1.60 1.95 0.51 5.29 4.39 4.30 4.77 4.41 2.75 3.38 3.25 3.06 2.38 2.48 2.38 2.41

1.18 1.15 0.62 3.52 3.92 4.09 4.61 3.88 3.43 4.00 4.05 3.56 1.43 2.12 1.15 2.02

0.76 0.73 0.22 4.16 4.78 4.86 4.83 4.46 3.44 4.25 3.93 3.58 1.29 2.26 0.84 1.11

0.68 0.84 0.36 5.22 3.45 4.11 4.26 3.88 3.77 4.28 4.33 4.03 0.73 1.82 0.57 0.80

0.76 0.83 0.39 5.60 3.23 3.45 3.82 2.80 3.11 3.40 3.08 3.30 0.98 1.43 1.14 1.38

1.06 1.77 0.53 5.06 2.64 2.67 2.86 2.73 2.17 2.16 2.18 2.49 1.14 0.75 1.37 1.41

2.24 2.85 1.05 6.17 2.88 3.66 3.42 3.32 2.27 2.10 2.31 2.70 0.82 0.64 0.99 0.80

2.25 2.51 1.38 4.57 3.09 3.32 3.44 3.37 1.41 1.23 1.66 2.22 0.62 0.46 0.61 0.68

16.67 20.88 8.26 50.76 41.63 44.05 46.11 42.31 29.19 32.36 32.95 34.81 13.03 15.45 13.42 14.72

San Antonio Victoria Waco Wichita Falls Milford Salt Lake City Burlington Lynchburg Norfolk Richmond Roanoke Olympia Quillayute Seattle CO Seattle Sea-Tac AP Spokane Walla Walla Yakima San Juan Beckley Charleston Elkins Huntington Green Bay La Crosse Madison Milwaukee Casper Cheyenne Lander Sheridan

Note: Based on 30-year average values 1971–2000. The normal precipitation is the arithmetic mean for each month over the 30-year period and includes the liquid water equivalent of snowfall. The annual value is the total of the unrounded monthly values and may not agree with the sum of the rounded monthly values. Source: From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

PR WV

(Continued)

3-120

Table 3D.20

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

3-121

-ANNUALA < 1.00 B 1.00 – 1.5 0 C 1.5 1 – 2.00 D 2.01 – 2.5 0 E 2.5 1 – 3 .00 F 3 .01 – 3 .5 0 G 3 .5 1 – 4.00 H 4.01 – 5 .00 I > 5 .00 ( I N.) Figure 3D.10 U.S. mean maximum daily precipitation. (From Climate Atlas of the United States, updated 8/27/02.)

-ANNUALA < 1.01 B 1.01 – 1.25 C 1.26 – 1.5 0 D 1.5 1 – 1.75 E 1.76 – 2.00 F 2.01 – 3 .00 G

3 .01 – 5 .00 H 5 .01 – 10.00 I > 10.00 ( I N.)

Figure 3D.11 Alaska mean maximum daily precipitation. (From Climate Atlas of the United States, updated 8/27/02.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-122

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Kaua `i

O`ahu

Ni `ihau

Moloka `i

Maui -ANNUAL-

Lana `i

A < 2.01 B 2.01 – 3 .00

Kaho `olawe

C 3 .01 – 4.00 D 4.01 – 5 .00 E 5 .01 – 6.00 F 6.01 – 7.00 G

7.01 – 8.00 H

8.01 – 10.00 I > 10.00 Hawai `i ( I N.)

Figure 3D.12 Hawaii mean maximum daily precipitation. (From Climate Atlas of the United States, updated 8/27/02.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

3-123

Table 3D.21 Record Maximum Annual Precipitation by State State

Precipitation (inches)

Date

Station

98.22 332.29 58.92 98.55 153.54 92.84 78.53a 72.75 112.43a 122.16 704.83 81.05 74.58 97.38 74.50 68.55a 79.68 113.74a 75.64 76.52 76.49a 64.01 52.36 104.36a 92.77 55.51 64.52 59.03 130.14 85.99 62.45 90.97 129.60 37.98 70.82 84.47 204.04 81.64 70.21 110.79 48.42 114.88 109.38 108.54 100.96a 83.70a 184.56 89.01 62.07 55.46

1961 1976 1978 1957 1909 1897 1955 1948 1966 1959 1982 1933 1950 1890 1851 1993 1950 1991 1845 1971 1996 1881 1993 1991 1957 1953 1896 1969 1969 1882 1941 1996 1964 1944 1870 1957 1996 1952 1983 1994 1946 1957 1873 1983 1996 1996 1931 1926 1884 1945

Citronelle MacLeod Harbor Hawley Lake Newhope Monumental Ruby Burlington Lewes Wewahitchka Flat Top Kukui Roland New Burnside Marengo Muscatine Blaine Russelville New Orleans (Audubon) Brunswick Towson New Salem Adrian Fairmont Waveland Portageville Summit Omaha Mt. Rose Resort Mount Washington Paterson White Tail Slide Mountain Rosman Milnor Little Mountain Kiamichi Tower Laurel Mountain Mt. Pocono Kingston Jocassee Deadwood Haw Knob Clarksville Alta Mt. Mansfield Philpott Dam Wynoochee Oxbow Bayard Embarrass Grassy Lake Dam

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming a

At least one month estimated.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Elevation (ft) 331 40 8,180 2,420 2,420 est.10,000 460 10 50 est. 3,600 5,788 4,150 560 570 680 1,530 590 6 70 390 845 770 1,187 8 280 5,210 980 est. 7,300 6,260 100 7,450 2,649 2,220 2,600 1,187 2,350 3,590 1,910 100 2,500 4,550 4,900 440 8,760 3,950 1,123 670 2,381 808 7,240

3-124

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

184.5 6

13 0.14 5 5 .5 1

100.96*

3 7.98

75 .64

204.04 81.05

5 2.3 6

76.49* 62.07

48.42

64.5 2 5 9.03

70.21

64.01

5 5 .46 74.5 0

81.64 74.5 8 97.3 8

108.5 4

15 3 .5 4

90.97

70.82

68.5 5 *

92.77

83 .70* 76.5 2

79.68 129.60

114.88

5 8.92 62.45

72.15

89.01

92.84

84.47

98.5 5

78.5 3 * 85 .99

110.79 104.3 6*

98.22 122.16

109.3 8 113 .74* 112.43 *

3 3 2.29*

704.83

Figure 3D.13 Record maximum annual precipitation (in.) (through 1998) (*at least one month estimate). (From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climate Data for the United States Through 2000. www.noaa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

3-125

Table 3D.22 Record Maximum 24-hour Precipitation by State State

Precip. (inches)

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming a

Estimated.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

32.52 15.20 11.40 14.06 26.12 11.08 12.77 8.50 38.70 21.10 38.00 7.17 16.91 10.50 16.70 12.59 10.40 22.00 13.32 14.75 18.15 9.78 10.84 15.68 18.18 11.50 13.15 7.13 10.38 14.81 11.28 11.17 22.22 8.10 10.75 15.68 11.65 34.50a 12.13 17.00 8.00 11.00 43.00a 6.00a 8.77 27.00a 14.26 19.00a 11.72 6.06

Date Jul 19–20, 1997 Oct 12, 1982 Sep 4–5, 1970 Dec 3, 1982 Jan 22–23, 1943 Jun 17, 1965 Aug 19, 1955 Jul 13, 1975 Sep 5, 1950 Jul 6, 1994 Jan 24–25, 1956 Nov 23, 1909 Jul 18, 1996 Aug 6, 1905 Aug 5–6, 1959 May 31–Jun 1, 1941 Jun 28, 1960 Aug 28–29, 1962 Oct 20–21, 1996 Jul 26–27, 1897 Aug 18–19, 1955 Aug 31–Sep. 1, 1914 Jul 21–22, 1972 Jul 9, 1968 Jul 20, 1965 Jun 20, 1921 Jul 8–9, 1950 Jan 31, 1963 Feb 10–11, 1970 Aug 19, 1939 May 18–19, 1955 Oct 9, 1903 Jul 15–16, 1916 Jun 29, 1975 Aug 7–8, 1995 Oct 11, 1973 Nov 19, 1996 Jul 17, 1942 Sept 16–17, 1932 Aug 27, 1995 Sep 10, 1900 Mar 28, 1902 Jul 25–26, 1979 Sept 5, 1970 Nov 3–4, 1927 Aug 20 1969 Nov 23–24, 1986 Jul 18, 1889 Jun 24, 1946 Aug 1, 1985

Station Dauphin Is Sea Lab Angoon Workman Creek Big Fork Hoegees Camp Holly Burlington Dover Yankeetown Americus Kilauea Plantation Rattlesnake Creek Aurora Princeton Decatur Co. Burlington Dunmor Hackberry Portland Jewell Westfield Bloomingdale Fort Ripley Columbus Edgarton Circle York Mt. Rose Hwy. Stn. Mount Washington Tuckerton Lake Maloya NYC Central Park Altapass Litchville Lockington Dam Enid Port Orford Smethport Westerly Antreville Elk Point McMinnville Alvin Bug Point Somerset Nelson Co. Mt. Mitchell #2 Rockport Mellen Cheyenne

Elevation (feet) 8 15 6,970 1,100 2,760 3,390 460 30 5 490 180 4,000 640 480 1,110 1,010 610 10 45 165 220 750 1,140 190 856 2,440 1,610 7,360 6,262 20 7,400 130 2,600 1,470 950 1,245 150 1,510 40 700 1,127 900 50 6,600 2,080 Est 500 3,600 700 1,150 6,126

3-126

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

14.26

10.3 8 11.5 0

11.65

8.77

8.10

7.17

18.15

10.84 11.72

8.00

11.17

13 .15

12.77

3 4.5 0*

16.70 10.75

14.81

16.91 10.5 0

6.00* 11.08

26.12

12.13

9.78

6.06

7.13

13 .3 2

12.5 9

19.00*

18.18

15 .68

11.28

27.00* 14.75

10.40 22.22

11.00

11.40

8.5 0

14.06

17.00 15 .68 3 2.5 2

21.10

43 .00* 22.00 3 8.70

3 8.00 15 .20

Figure 3D.14 Record maximum 24-h precipitation (in.) (through 1998) (*estimated). (From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climate Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.)

-ANNUALA < 10.00 B 10.00 – 20.00 C 20.01 – 3 0.00 D 3 0.01 – 40.00 E 40.01 – 5 0.00 F 5 0.01 – 60.00 G 60.01 – 80.00 H 80.01 – 120.00 I > 120.00 ( I N.) Figure 3D.15 U.S. record total precipitation. (From Climate Atlas of the United States, updated 8/27/02.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

3-127

-ANNUALA < 12.01 B 12.01 – 20.00 C 20.01 – 3 0.00 D 3 0.01 – 40.00 E 40.01 – 5 0.00 F 5 0.01 – 80.00 G

80.01 – 120.00 H 120.01 – 240.00 I > 240.00 ( I N.)

Figure 3D.16 Alaska record total precipitation. (From Climate Atlas of the United States, updated 8/27/02.)

Kaua `i

O`ahu

Ni `hau

Moloha `i

Maui -ANNUALLana `i A < 3 0.01 B 3 0.01 – 40.00 C 40.01 – 5 0.00

Kaho `olawe

D 5 0.01 – 80.00 E 80.01 – 120.00 F 120.01 – 200.00 G

200.01 – 3 00.00 H

3 00.01 – 400.00 I > 400.00

Hawai `i

( I N.)

Figure 3D.17 Hawaii record total precipitation. (From Climate Atlas of the United States, updated 8/27/02.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-128

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

2.61 2.97 3 .3 3

22.3 1 22.98

4.02

23 .06

7.81

2.09

21.76*

17.64

12.00

2.89

15 .64

24.08

1.28 6.3 0 trac e

15 .71

12.11 16.5 9* 18.67

1.3 4 1.69

19.85

16.96

0.00

21.3 8

9.5 0 4.77

12.5 2

16.14*

17.76

14.5 1 22.69

25 .23

0.07

23 .60*

6.5 3

1.00

19.11

20.73 25 .97 22.00

17.14

1.64* 26.44 21.16

1.61

0.19

Figure 3D.18 Record minimum annual precipitation (in.) (through 1998) (*at least one month estimate). (From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climate Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

State AL

AK

AZ

AR

CA

Station

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

11 59 35 61 58 38 55 82 39 44 43 42 57 51 44 46 58 57 53 59 60 56 84 48 17 30 56 53 63 62 71 45 57 60 24 65 55 55 92 53 58 67 62

10 11 12 11 11 8 20 4 5 9 8 6 19 8 7 14 19 11 17 8 10 11 18 9 6 17 19 7 4 4 4 3 8 10 10 6 4 12 16 8 6 6 6

10 10 10 9 9 8 19 4 5 7 7 4 18 6 6 12 17 9 16 7 8 9 15 9 5 15 18 7 4 4 4 2 8 9 9 6 3 12 14 8 5 6 6

11 11 12 10 10 7 20 4 5 9 7 4 18 6 5 11 18 10 17 7 9 9 15 9 6 15 19 8 4 4 5 2 9 10 10 6 3 13 16 7 5 6 6

9 9 10 7 8 6 18 4 6 9 5 4 17 4 3 9 17 10 16 7 7 9 14 7 6 14 18 6 2 2 3 1 10 10 10 4 2 10 12 4 3 3 3

10 10 10 8 8 7 17 4 6 11 7 7 17 7 5 10 17 12 17 6 9 8 14 12 6 16 19 4 1 2 3 — 11 10 11 2 3 7 9 2 1 1 1

9 10 10 11 9 8 15 5 6 13 10 12 16 11 10 9 16 13 15 6 12 9 12 13 8 15 17 3 1 2 2 — 9 8 9 1 2 3 5 1 — 1 1

12 12 11 16 12 12 14 9 8 15 12 14 17 12 13 11 17 15 15 11 15 12 15 15 12 17 18 11 4 10 7 1 7 8 8 — 2 1 2 — — 1 —

10 10 9 14 9 14 15 11 12 18 14 13 20 13 12 13 18 17 14 14 17 16 18 17 16 17 18 12 5 9 9 2 7 7 7 — 2 1 3 — — — 1

9 8 8 10 8 14 18 11 10 16 12 9 21 10 11 16 21 17 16 12 14 14 20 16 12 21 21 7 3 5 5 1 7 7 8 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 1

8 6 7 6 6 12 24 11 12 12 11 9 23 11 9 15 24 13 17 10 12 11 22 13 10 19 24 5 3 3 4 1 7 7 8 2 1 6 9 2 2 2 2

10 9 10 8 8 9 22 6 8 11 10 7 22 10 7 13 20 12 17 10 12 12 22 10 8 15 21 5 2 3 3 1 7 8 9 4 2 10 13 5 3 3 3

9 11 11 10 10 11 23 5 5 10 10 6 21 9 8 15 21 12 18 9 12 10 20 11 8 18 22 6 4 4 4 2 8 9 10 5 3 12 16 7 5 5 5

117 117 118 121 108 115 226 78 87 141 114 93 229 106 94 147 223 152 195 108 138 130 205 139 103 200 235 82 36 53 54 17 97 104 107 37 29 90 119 45 31 35 35 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-129

Birmingham CO Birmingham AP Huntsville Mobile Montgomery Anchorage Annette Barrow Barter IS Bethel Bettles Big Delta Cold Bay Fairbanks Gulkana Homer Juneau King Salmon Kodiak Kotzebue McGrath Nome St. Paul Island Talkeetna Unalakleet Valdez Yakutat Flagstaff Phoenix Tucson Winslow Yuma Fort Smith Little Rock North Little Rock Bakersfield Bishop Blue Canyon Eureka Fresno Long Beach Los Angeles AP Los Angeles CO

Years

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Table 3D.23 Mean Number of Days with Precipitation 0.01 in. or More — Selected Cities of the United States

State

CO

DE DC

FL

GA

HI

Station Mount Shasta Redding Sacramento San Diego San Francisco AP San Francisco CO Santa Barbara Santa Maria Stockton Alamosa Colorado Springs Denver Grand Junction Pueblo Bridgeport Hartford Wilmington Washington Dulles AP Washington Nat’l AP Apalachicola Daytona Beach Fort Myers Gainesville Jacksonville Key West Miami Orlando Pensacola Tallahassee Tampa Vero Beach West Palm Beach Athens Atlanta Augusta Columbus Macon Savannah Hilo Honolulu Kahului Lihue

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

42 16 63 62 75 65 66 60 60 56 54 61 56 60 54 48 55 39

12 14 10 7 11 11 6 8 9 4 5 6 7 4 11 11 11 10

11 11 9 6 10 10 6 8 9 4 5 6 6 4 10 10 9 9

12 12 9 7 10 11 6 8 8 5 7 9 8 6 11 12 11 10

9 8 5 5 6 6 2 5 5 5 8 9 7 6 11 11 11 10

7 7 3 2 3 3 1 2 3 6 10 11 6 8 11 12 11 12

5 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 10 9 4 7 10 11 10 10

2 1 — — — — 1 — — 9 13 9 5 9 8 10 9 11

2 1 — 0 — 1 — — — 10 12 9 7 9 9 10 9 10

3 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 6 7 6 6 5 9 10 8 9

6 4 3 2 4 4 2 2 3 5 5 5 6 4 7 9 8 8

10 9 7 4 7 8 3 5 7 4 4 6 6 4 10 11 9 9

12 11 9 6 10 10 5 6 7 4 4 5 6 4 11 12 10 10

93 83 58 42 63 69 33 46 52 67 90 89 73 71 118 127 117 117

61

10

9

11

10

11

10

10

9

8

7

8

9

112

61 59 59 19 61 54 60 60 39 41 56 19 60 59 68 52 57 54 52 60 53 44 52

9 7 6 9 8 6 7 6 10 10 7 9 8 11 12 10 10 11 9 17 9 10 15

8 7 5 7 8 5 6 7 9 9 7 7 7 9 10 9 9 9 8 17 9 9 13

8 8 6 8 8 5 6 7 9 9 7 8 8 11 11 10 10 10 9 23 9 10 16

6 6 4 6 6 5 6 6 6 6 5 6 7 9 9 8 8 8 7 25 9 10 17

5 8 8 7 8 8 10 8 7 8 6 8 11 9 9 9 8 9 8 25 7 6 16

10 13 15 15 13 12 15 14 10 13 12 14 15 10 10 10 10 10 12 25 6 5 17

15 13 18 16 14 12 16 17 14 17 16 14 15 11 12 11 13 12 13 27 7 7 20

14 14 18 16 15 15 18 16 13 14 16 14 16 9 9 10 10 10 13 27 6 6 18

11 14 16 12 13 16 17 14 9 9 13 16 17 8 8 8 8 8 10 24 7 5 16

5 11 8 7 9 11 14 9 5 5 7 13 13 7 7 6 6 6 6 24 8 7 18

6 7 4 7 6 7 8 6 8 7 5 9 9 8 9 7 8 7 7 23 9 10 18

8 7 5 7 8 7 7 6 9 8 6 8 8 10 10 9 9 9 8 21 10 11 18

105 115 112 116 116 109 131 116 110 115 106 126 133 111 115 107 109 110 110 279 96 98 200

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

CT

(Continued)

3-130

Table 3D.23

IL

IN

IA

KS

KY

LA

ME MD MA

MI

Boise Lewiston Pocatello Cairo Chicago Moline Peoria Rockford Springfield Evansville Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend Des Moines Dubuque Sioux City Waterloo Concordia Dodge City Goodland Topeka Wichita Greater Cincinnati AP Jackson Lexington Louisville Paducah Baton Rouge Lake Charles New Orleans Shreveport Caribou Portland Baltimore Blue Hill Boston Worcester Alpena Detroit Flint Grand Rapids Houghton Lake Lansing Marquette Muskegon

63 56 53 45 44 70 63 52 55 62 56 63 63 63 50 62 52 40 60 82 56 49 55

12 11 12 10 11 9 9 9 9 10 12 12 16 7 9 7 7 5 5 4 6 5 12

10 9 10 9 9 8 8 8 8 9 10 10 12 7 8 6 7 5 5 5 6 5 11

10 11 10 12 12 11 11 11 11 12 13 13 14 10 11 9 9 8 7 6 9 8 13

8 10 8 11 13 11 12 12 12 12 13 12 13 11 12 10 10 9 7 7 10 8 13

8 10 9 11 11 12 12 12 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 11 12 11 10 10 12 11 12

6 9 7 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 10 10 9 9 11 9 11

2 5 4 9 10 10 9 10 9 9 10 10 9 9 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 10

2 4 4 8 9 9 8 9 8 7 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 9

4 5 5 7 9 9 8 9 8 7 9 8 9 9 9 8 9 8 6 6 8 8 8

6 8 5 7 9 8 8 9 8 8 9 8 10 8 9 7 7 6 5 5 7 6 8

10 11 9 9 11 9 9 9 9 9 11 10 13 7 9 6 7 5 4 4 6 5 11

11 11 11 10 11 9 10 10 10 10 12 12 15 8 10 7 7 5 4 4 6 6 12

89 104 95 112 125 115 114 117 113 115 132 126 144 108 117 99 104 89 78 77 97 86 130

22 58 55 19 51 41 54 50 63 62 52 117 51 47 43 44 61 39 38 48 24 62

14 12 11 10 10 10 10 9 15 11 10 12 12 12 15 13 13 16 15 14 18 17

13 11 10 9 9 8 9 8 12 10 9 11 10 11 11 11 11 12 11 11 13 13

14 13 13 11 9 8 9 10 13 11 11 13 12 12 12 13 12 12 12 13 15 13

12 12 12 11 7 7 7 8 13 12 11 12 11 12 12 13 13 13 12 13 12 12

14 12 12 11 8 8 8 9 14 12 11 12 12 13 12 11 11 11 11 11 11 11

12 11 10 9 10 9 11 8 14 11 10 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 11 11 12 9

12 11 10 8 13 11 14 8 14 10 9 11 9 10 10 10 9 9 9 10 11 9

9 9 8 7 12 11 13 7 13 9 9 10 10 10 11 10 9 9 10 10 11 9

9 8 8 7 9 9 10 7 12 9 8 10 9 10 12 10 10 11 12 10 14 10

9 8 7 8 6 6 6 7 13 9 7 10 9 9 13 10 10 11 12 10 15 11

12 11 10 10 8 8 8 9 14 12 9 11 11 12 14 12 12 13 13 13 16 14

14 12 12 10 10 9 10 9 14 11 9 12 12 12 15 13 13 16 14 14 17 16

143 130 124 110 110 104 114 99 160 129 114 134 126 134 146 135 134 144 141 139 165 143

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-131

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

ID

State MN

MS

MO

MT

NV

NH NJ

NM

NY

Station

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Sault Ste. Marie Duluth International Falls Minneapolis-St.Paul Rochester Saint Cloud Jackson Meridian Tupelo Columbia Kansas City St. Louis Springfield Billings Glasgow Great Falls Helena Kalispell Missoula Grand Island Lincoln Norfolk North Platte Omaha Eppley AP Omaha (North) Scottsbluff Valentine Elko Ely Las Vegas Reno Winnemucca Concord Mt. Washington Atlantic City AP Atlantic City CO Newark Albuquerque Clayton Roswell Albany Binghamton Buffalo Islip

61 61 63 64 42 62 39 57 19 33 30 45 57 68 47 65 62 53 58 64 31 57 50 66 18 59 47 72 64 54 60 53 61 70 59 40 61 63 53 30 56 51 59 19

19 12 11 9 9 9 11 11 11 8 7 9 8 8 8 9 8 15 14 5 6 6 5 6 5 5 4 9 7 3 6 8 11 19 11 10 11 4 3 4 13 17 20 11

14 9 9 7 8 7 9 9 10 8 7 8 8 7 6 8 6 12 10 6 5 6 5 7 6 5 5 9 7 3 6 7 9 18 10 9 10 4 3 3 11 14 17 9

13 11 10 10 10 9 10 10 11 11 10 11 10 9 7 9 8 11 11 7 8 8 7 8 10 7 7 9 8 3 6 8 11 19 11 10 11 5 5 3 12 15 16 11

11 11 9 10 12 9 8 9 9 11 11 11 11 10 7 9 8 10 10 9 10 9 8 10 10 9 9 8 8 2 4 7 11 18 11 10 11 3 5 3 12 14 14 12

11 12 12 11 12 11 9 9 11 12 12 11 11 11 10 11 11 12 12 11 12 11 11 12 12 12 11 8 7 1 4 7 12 17 10 10 12 4 8 4 13 13 13 11

11 13 13 12 11 12 9 9 10 9 10 9 10 11 11 12 12 12 12 10 9 10 10 10 10 11 10 6 5 1 3 5 11 16 9 8 10 4 8 5 11 12 11 9

10 12 12 10 11 10 11 11 8 8 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 9 9 9 10 9 10 8 9 3 5 3 2 2 10 16 9 9 10 9 10 6 10 11 10 9

11 11 11 10 10 10 10 9 7 8 9 8 8 6 7 8 8 8 7 8 9 8 8 9 9 7 8 3 6 3 2 2 10 15 9 8 9 10 9 8 10 11 10 9

13 12 12 10 10 9 8 8 6 8 8 8 8 7 6 7 6 8 8 7 8 8 7 8 8 7 7 4 4 2 3 3 9 15 8 8 9 6 6 7 10 11 11 9

14 10 10 8 9 8 7 6 7 9 8 8 8 6 5 6 6 9 8 5 6 6 5 6 7 5 5 5 5 2 3 4 9 15 7 7 8 5 4 5 9 12 12 8

17 11 11 8 9 8 9 8 9 9 7 9 9 6 6 7 7 13 11 5 6 5 5 6 6 5 4 7 5 2 5 7 11 19 9 9 10 4 3 3 12 15 16 10

19 11 11 9 9 8 10 10 11 9 7 9 9 7 7 7 8 15 13 5 6 5 4 6 7 5 4 9 6 3 6 8 11 20 10 10 11 4 3 4 12 17 19 10

165 134 130 116 120 109 110 107 111 112 105 111 109 96 90 100 95 131 123 87 93 91 84 99 101 86 83 79 73 26 51 69 127 209 113 109 122 61 68 55 135 161 168 118

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

NE

(Continued)

3-132

Table 3D.23

ND

OH

OK OR

PC

133 44 62

11 10 11

10 10 10

11 11 11

11 11 11

11 11 11

10 10 10

10 9 9

10 9 9

8 8 8

8 8 8

9 10 10

10 11 11

121 118 118

62 53 38 45 63 74

18 19 11 11 10 10

16 16 9 10 9 9

15 17 12 11 11 11

13 14 10 9 9 9

12 13 11 10 9 10

11 11 12 9 10 10

10 11 12 12 11 12

10 11 12 11 10 10

11 11 10 9 7 8

12 13 8 9 7 7

15 17 9 9 8 8

18 19 10 10 10 9

160 171 125 120 111 115

58 51 63 60 41 54 61 63 59 43 47 59 63 63 49 18 60 73 67 62 65 65 45 28 51 50

10 11 8 9 8 16 16 13 13 14 13 17 5 6 22 11 18 14 12 18 18 16 20 11 23 16

10 10 7 7 6 14 14 11 11 12 11 15 6 7 19 10 15 11 10 16 16 15 18 12 19 13

10 10 8 8 8 15 15 13 13 14 13 15 7 8 21 11 17 12 11 17 17 16 19 15 20 15

9 8 8 8 8 14 15 13 13 14 13 15 8 9 18 9 13 10 9 15 14 12 20 14 19 17

10 9 10 10 10 13 13 13 12 13 12 13 10 11 16 9 10 8 8 12 11 9 20 13 23 21

10 10 12 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 10 12 9 9 13 6 7 5 7 9 8 6 24 12 25 23

11 13 9 10 9 11 10 11 10 10 9 11 6 6 8 3 3 2 3 4 3 2 26 12 24 24

10 12 8 9 7 10 10 9 9 10 9 10 6 7 8 3 4 2 3 5 4 3 26 13 22 23

8 10 7 8 7 10 10 8 8 9 10 10 7 7 10 4 6 4 4 7 7 5 25 14 20 22

7 7 6 7 6 10 11 9 9 10 9 11 7 7 16 6 11 7 7 12 12 9 25 16 23 24

8 8 6 6 7 14 14 11 11 13 12 15 5 6 21 12 17 13 12 18 18 16 25 15 22 23

9 9 7 8 8 16 16 13 12 14 14 17 6 7 22 11 18 14 12 19 19 17 24 16 24 19

113 117 96 101 95 154 155 137 132 144 134 160 83 91 193 95 139 101 98 152 147 126 271 162 265 240

48 36

18 24

16 21

18 23

20 22

23 20

24 19

24 19

23 18

23 17

23 21

23 20

22 23

258 247

51

22

20

23

24

27

27

27

26

24

25

25

24

294

51

19

16

19

20

24

24

24

24

22

23

23

23

264

50

11

10

12

14

15

15

19

19

19

19

15

13

180

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-133

(Continued)

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

NC

New York C. Park New York (JFK AP) New york (Laguardia AP) Rochester Syracuse Asheville Cape Hatteras Charlotte Greensboro-WnstnSlm-HPT Raleigh Wilmington Bismarck Fargo Williston Akron Cleveland Columbus Dayton Mansfield Toledo Youngstown Oklahoma City Tulsa Astoria Burns Eugene Medford Pendleton Portland Salem Sexton Summit Guam Johnston Island Koror Kwajalein, Marshall IS Majuro, Marshall IS Pago Pago, Amer Samoa Pohnpei, Caroline IS Chuuk, E. Caroline IS Wake Island

State PA

RI SC

TN

TX

Station

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Yap, W Caroline IS Allentown Erie Harrisburg Middletown/ Harrisburg AP Philadelphia Pittsburgh Avoca Williamsport Block IS Providence Charleston AP Charleston CO Columbia GreenvilleSpartanburg AP Aberdeen Huron Rapid City Sioux Falls BristolJhnCtyKgsprt Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis Nashville Oak Ridge Abilene Amarillo Austin Brownsville Corpus Christi Dallas-Fort Worth Del Rio El Paso Galveston Houston Lubbock Midland-Odessa Port Arthur San Angelo San Antonio

54 59 49 49 24

21 11 19 11 11

18 10 15 10 10

18 11 15 11 11

18 12 14 13 12

21 12 12 13 13

24 11 10 11 10

24 10 10 10 10

24 10 11 9 9

23 9 11 9 9

24 8 13 9 8

23 10 16 10 10

22 11 19 10 10

258 124 163 126 122

62 50 47 58 36 49 60 27 55 40

11 16 12 12 10 11 10 10 10 11

9 14 11 11 9 10 9 8 9 9

11 15 13 12 11 12 10 8 10 11

11 14 12 13 10 11 7 7 8 9

11 13 13 13 10 11 9 8 8 10

10 12 12 12 9 11 11 10 10 10

9 11 11 11 7 9 14 11 12 12

9 10 11 11 8 9 13 11 11 10

8 10 10 10 7 9 10 10 8 9

8 10 10 10 8 9 6 6 6 7

9 13 12 12 10 10 7 7 7 9

10 16 12 12 11 12 9 9 9 10

117 152 139 139 110 124 114 104 109 117

71 63 60 57 57

6 6 6 6 14

6 7 7 7 12

7 8 8 9 13

8 9 10 10 11

10 10 12 11 12

10 11 12 11 11

9 9 9 10 12

8 8 8 9 10

7 7 6 8 8

5 6 6 6 8

6 6 6 7 10

6 6 6 6 12

89 92 95 98 133

72 60 52 61 61 63 61 61 60 63 49 39 63 63 33 56 55 49 55 60

12 12 10 11 12 5 4 8 7 8 7 5 4 10 10 4 4 10 5 8

10 11 9 10 11 5 4 8 6 7 7 5 3 8 8 4 4 9 5 7

12 13 11 12 13 5 5 8 4 5 8 5 2 8 9 4 3 8 4 8

10 11 10 11 11 6 5 7 4 5 8 5 2 6 7 5 3 7 5 7

10 11 9 11 11 8 8 9 5 6 9 7 2 6 8 7 6 7 7 8

11 11 9 10 11 6 8 7 6 6 7 5 3 7 10 7 5 9 5 7

12 11 9 10 12 5 8 5 4 5 5 4 8 9 9 7 5 11 4 4

10 9 7 9 10 6 8 5 7 6 5 4 8 9 9 7 6 12 5 5

8 8 7 8 8 6 6 7 10 9 6 6 5 9 9 6 6 10 6 7

7 8 6 7 8 6 5 7 7 7 6 5 4 7 8 5 5 7 5 6

9 10 9 9 10 5 4 7 6 6 6 5 3 8 8 3 3 8 4 7

11 11 10 11 11 5 4 8 7 7 7 5 4 10 9 4 3 9 4 8

121 127 107 119 128 67 69 85 73 77 79 62 49 96 105 63 51 105 59 82

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SD

(Continued)

3-134

Table 3D.23

VT VA

WA

PR WV

WI

WY

41 59 59 56 74 59 58 54 65 55 28 61 36 48 58

8 7 5 7 10 15 11 11 10 10 11 20 23 18 19

7 7 5 7 9 11 9 10 9 10 10 17 19 15 16

7 8 6 8 10 13 11 11 11 11 11 18 21 17 17

6 7 7 6 10 12 10 10 9 10 10 15 19 14 14

7 9 9 5 8 14 12 10 11 12 10 11 17 11 11

8 6 7 3 5 13 10 9 9 10 9 9 14 9 9

7 4 5 5 4 12 11 11 11 12 11 5 11 5 5

9 5 6 6 6 12 10 10 9 10 8 6 10 6 6

10 6 6 4 5 12 8 8 8 9 8 8 12 8 9

7 6 6 4 6 12 7 7 7 7 8 14 18 11 13

7 7 5 5 8 14 9 8 8 9 9 19 22 18 18

8 6 5 6 9 15 9 9 9 9 10 21 23 18 19

91 80 71 67 91 154 118 116 113 119 115 163 209 151 155

55 55 56 47 39 55 58 41 53 50 54 62 52 67 56 62

14 13 10 17 16 15 18 13 10 9 10 11 7 6 4 9

11 10 7 13 14 14 16 12 8 7 8 10 8 6 5 8

11 12 6 12 15 15 17 14 11 10 11 12 9 9 7 11

9 10 5 13 15 14 15 13 11 11 12 12 10 10 8 11

9 9 5 16 14 13 15 13 11 11 12 12 11 12 9 12

8 7 5 15 13 12 13 11 11 11 11 11 9 11 6 11

5 4 2 19 13 13 14 11 10 10 10 10 8 11 6 8

5 3 3 19 11 11 12 10 11 10 10 9 6 10 5 6

6 4 3 18 11 9 11 8 10 10 9 9 7 8 6 7

8 7 5 17 10 9 11 9 9 8 9 9 7 6 5 8

13 15 8 19 12 12 13 11 10 8 10 10 7 6 5 8

14 12 10 19 15 14 17 13 10 9 10 11 7 6 4 8

112 106 69 197 159 151 171 139 121 114 120 125 95 100 71 106

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

UT

Victoria Waco Wichita Falls Milford Salt Lake City Burlington Lynchburg Norfolk Richmond Roanoke Wallops Island Olympia Quillayute Seattle CO Seattle Sea-Tac AP Spokane Walla Walla Yakima San Juan Beckley Charleston Elkins Huntington Green Bay La Crosse Madison Milwaukee Casper Cheyenne Lander Sheridan

Note: Through 2002. This table shows mean number of days per month with at least 0.01 in. of precipitation. This is the smallest amount of precipitation numerically recorded, and includes the liquid water equivalent of frozen precipitation. The frequency of days with precipitation should not be considered as frequency of cloudy days. Source: From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Comparative Climatic Data for the United States Through 2000, www.noaa.gov.

3-135

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3-136

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 3D.24 Record Minimum Annual Precipitation by State State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming a

At least one month estimated.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Precipitation (in.)

Date

Station

22.00 1.61 0.07 19.11 0.00 1.69 23.60a 21.38 21.16 17.14 0.19 2.09 16.59a 18.67 12.11 4.77 14.51 26.44 23.06 17.76 21.76a 15.64 7.81 25.97 16.14a 2.97 6.30 T 22.31 19.85 1.00 17.64 22.69 4.02 16.96 6.53 3.33 15.71 24.08 20.73 2.89 25.23 1.64a 1.34 22.98 12.52 2.61 9.50 12.00 1.28

1954 1935 1956 1936 1929 1939 1965 1965 1989 1954 1953 1947 1956 1934 1958 1956 1968 1936 1930 1930 1965 1936 1936 1936 1956 1960 1931 1898 1930 1965 1910 1941 1930 1934 1963 1956 1939 1965 1965 1954 1936 1941 1956 1974 1941 1941 1930 1930 1937 1960

Primrose Farm Barrow Davis Dam Index Death Valley Buena Vista Baltic Dover Conch Key Swainsboro Kawaihae Grand View Keithsburg Brooksville Cherokee Johnson Jeremiah Shreveport Machias Picardy Chatham L.S. Croswell Angus Yazoo City La Belle Belfry Hull Hot Springs Bethlehem Canton Hermanas Lewiston Mount Airy Parshall Elyria Regnier Warm Springs Reservoir Breezewood Block Island Rock Hill Ludlow Halls Presidio Myton Burlington Moores Creek Dam Wahluke Upper Tract Plum Is. Lysite

Elevation (ft) 180 31 660 300 K282 7,980 140 30 6 320 est. 75 2,360 540 630 1,360 3,270 1,160 170 30 1,030 20 730 870 120 770 4,040 4,400 4,072 1,440 20 4,540 320 1,070 1,930 730 4,280 3,330 1,350 40 667 2,850 310 2,580 5,080 330 1,950 416 1,540 590 5,260

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

3-137

Table 3D.25 Velocity of Fall, Number of Drops, and Kinetic Energy for Rainfall of Various Intensities

Fog Mist Drizzle Light Rain Moderate Rain Heavy Rain Excessive Rain Cloudburst Do Do

Intensity (in./hr)

Median Diameter (mm)

Velocity of Fall (ft/sec)

Drops per Square Foot (no./sec)

Kinetic Energy (ft-lbs.per sq. ft/hr)

0.005 0.002 0.01 0.04 0.15 0.60 1.60

0.01 0.1 0.96 1.24 1.60 2.05 2.40

0.01 0.7 13.5 15.7 18.7 22.0 24.0

6,264,000 2.510 14 26 46 46 76

4.043!10K8 7.937!10K5 0.148 0.797 4.241 23.47 74.48

4.00 4.00 4.00

2.85 4.00 6.00

25.9 29.2 30.5

113 41 12

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216.9 275.8 300.7

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 3E

SNOW AND SNOW MELT

-ANNUALA 0.0 B 0.1 – 3 .0 C 3 .1 – 6.0 D 6.1 – 12.0 E 12.1 – 24.0 F 24.1 – 3 6.0 G 3 6.1 – 48.0 H 48.1 – 72.0 I > 72.0 ( I N.) Figure 3E.19 U.S. mean total snow. (From Climate Atlas of the United States, updated 8/27/02.)

-ANNUALA < 24.1 B 24.1 – 48.0 C 48.1 – 72.0 D 72.1 – 96.0 E 96.1 – 144.0 F 144.1 – 240.0 G

240.1 – 3 60.0 H

3 60.1 – 600.0 I > 600.0 ( I N.)

Figure 3E.20 Alaska mean total snow. (From Climate Atlas of the United States, updated 8/27/02.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

3-139

- ANNUALA 0.0 B 0.1 – 2.0 C 2.1 – 6.0 D 6.1 – 12.0 E 12.1 – 24.0 F 24.1 – 48.0 G

48.1 – 72.0 H 72.1 – 180.0 I > 180.0

( I N.) Figure 3E.21 U.S. annual (Aug–Jul) record total snowfall. (From Climate Atlas of the United States, updated 8/27/02.)

- Annual A < 24.1 B 24.1 – 3 6.0 C 3 7.1 – 48.0 D 48.1 – 60.0 E 60.1 – 72.0 F 72.1 – 84.0 G 84.1 – 96.0 H 96.1 – 120.0 I > 120.0 ( I N.)

Figure 3E.22 General Pattern of Annual World Precipitation. (Form Environmental Science Service: Administration, Climates of the World, 1969, www.noaa.gov.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

A 90 ( P erc ent)

Figure 3E.23

Average January world temperature. (From Climates of the World, Historical Climatology Series 6–14, 1991, www.noaa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

3-141

A 95

( P erc ent)

Figure 3E.24 Average July world temperature. (From Climates of the World, Historical Climatology Series 6–14, 1991, www.noaa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3-142

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 3E.26 Physical Properties of Snow and Ice

New Snow Old Snow Firma Glacier Ice a

Density (g/cm3)

Porosity (percent)

Air Permeability (g/cm3/sec)

Grain Size (mm)

0.01–0.3 0.2–0.6 0.4–0.84 0.84–0.917

99–67 78–35 56–8 8–0

O400–40 100–20 40–0 0

0.01–5 0.5–3 0.5–5 1–100

Firm is snow which has been modified into a dense compact material by deformation, refreezing, recrystallization, and other processes.

Table 3E.27 Heat Supplied to Melting Snow by Different Processes Extreme Conditions

Approximate Heat Supplieda

708 dry bulb, 20-mile wind 608 dew point, 20-mile wind Very moist air, cloudy at night 4 in., 508 wet bulb New snow

600 600 200 100 20

Heat Supply Convection from turbulent air Condensation of atmospheric moisture Absorption of solar radiation Warm rain Conduction from soil a

Calories per square centimeter per day.

Table 3E.28 Relation of Snow Melt to Snow Evaporation

Air Temperature (8C) 5 10 15 20 a

Relative Humidity (%) 20 20 20 20

Heat Transfer from Air to Snow Snow (cal cmL2 Evaporated L2 1 day1) (g cm day ) 2.02 1.69 1.25 0.67

Heat Required in Evaporation Processa (cal cmL2 day1)

Heat Available to Melt Snow (cal cmL2 day1)

Melted Snow (g cmL2 day1)

Melt/Evaporation

1,370 1,150 850 460

0 640 1,840 3,130

0 8.0 23.0 39.1

4.7 18.4 58.4

900 1,790 2,690 3,590

Heat required in evaporation process is equal to heat transfer from air to snow plus heat obtained by lowering of snow-surface temperature.

Table 3E.29 Melting Constant for Snow Location Albany, NY Donner Summit, CA Gooseberry Creek, UT Gooseberry Creek, UT Finland Soda Springs, CA New England floods NY and PA basins LaGrange Brook, NY New England floods, 1936 Permigewasset Basin, NH Crater Lake, OR Crater Lake, OR

Descriptive Notes Tests of small cylinders Observations in 1917 Field measurements Tests of cores All basins, 1934–1937 Average, 1936–1941 Studies by Boston Soc. C.E. Flood runoff studies Basin area, 36 acres Geol. Survey, average values Flood of March 1936 Small test plots Small test plots

Melting Period 8–12 hours Apr 1–May 6 Apr 23–May 9 6–9 hr Apr Apr 1–14 days Mar or Apr Mar 28–Apr 6 Mar 9–22 Mar 17–20 Mar 3–Jun 9 May 26–Jun 2

Melting Constant 0.04–0.06 0.071 0.091 0.05–0.07 0.108 0.051 0.01–0.04 0.04–0.07 0.09 0.03–0.05 0.16 0.153 0.658

Note: The melting constant is the depth of water in inches melted per degree day. A degree day is a unit of heat resulting from a day with a mean temperature one degree Fahrenheit above 328F. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

3-143

Table 3E.30 Snow Survey Reports — Western United States SNOTEL (SNOWpack Telemetry) is an extensive system operated by the Natural Resources Conservation Services (NRCS). The system supports the Congressional mandate from the mid-1930’s “to measure snow pack in the mountains of the West and forecast the water supply.” SNOTEL has been in operation since 1980 replacing manual measurements and provides the data necessary to support the data needs of the NRCS and others Specific products (data) supported include † Climate Information † Data Collection Technology † Snow Survey Information † Water Supply Forecasting B Colorado River Basin B Columbia River Basin/Alaska B Great Basin/California/Pacific Coastal B Missouri River Basin † Hydraulics and Hydrology † Irrigation and Water Management † Water and Wind Erosion † Water Quality Assessment and Monitoring † Wetlands and Drainage Regional Water and Climate Monitoring Natural Resources Conservation Service Unites States Department of Agriculture 101 SW Main, Suite 1600 Portland, OR 97204-3224 Water and Climate Services Natural Resources Conservation Service Unites States Department of Agriculture 101 SW Main, Suite 1600 Portland, OR 97204-3224 States Alaska Data Collection Officer, Natural Resources Conservation Service, 949 E. 36th Ave., Suite 400, Anchorage, AK 99508-4362, (907) 271-2424 Arizona Water Supply Specialist, Natural Resources Conservation Service, 3003 N. Central Ave., Suite 800, Phoenix, AZ 85012-2945

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California Water Supply Specialist, 430 G Street, #4164, Davis, CA 95616, (530) 792-5624, (530) 7925791 (fax) Colorado Snow Survey Supervisor, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Snow Survey Office, 655 Parfet St., Rm. E200C, Lakewood, CO 80215-5517, (303)236-2910 Ext. 235 Idaho Water Supply Specialist, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Snow Survey Office, 9173 West Barnes Drive, Suite C, Boise, Idaho 83709-1574 Montana Water Supply Specialist, Natural Resources Conservation Service, 10 E. Babcock, Room 443, Bozeman, Montana 59715 Nevada Water Supply Specialist, Natural Resources Conservation Service, 5301 Longley Lane, Building F, Suite 201, Reno, NV 89511 New Mexico Water Supply Specialist, USDA—NRCS, 6200 Jefferson NE, Albuquerque, NM Oregon Snow Survey Supervisor, USDA, NRCS, 101 SW Main Street, Suite 1300, Portland, OR 97204, 503-414-3266 Utah Snow Survey Supervisor, USDA–NRCS, Snow Surveys, 245 N. Jimmy Doolittle Road, Salt Lake City, UT 84116 Washington Water Supply Specialist, Washington Snow Survey Office, 2021 E. College Way, Suite 214, Mount Vernon, WA 98273 Wyoming Water Supply Specialist, Federal Building, Room 3124, 100 East B Street Casper, Wyoming 82601-1911 http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 3E.31 Greatest Snowfalls in North America Place 24 hr 1 month 1 storm 1 season

Date

Silver Lake, CO Tamarack, CA Mt. Shasta Ski Bowl, CA Mount Baker, WA

In.

Apr 14–15, 1921 Jan 1911 Feb 13–19, 1959 1998–1999

Cm

76 390 189 1,140

195.6 991 480 2,895.6

Table 3E.32 National Snowfall and Snow Depth Extremes Location

Coop Station Number

Ending Date

Number of Years of NonMissing Data

Data Period Analyzed

AK AK

12/29/1955 12/30/1955

19 19

1952–1973 1952–1073

Thompson Pass

AK

12/30/1955

19

1952–1973

509146

Thompson Pass

AK

12/30/1955

19

1952–1973

175.4

509146

Thompson Pass

AK

12/31/1955

19

1952–1973

172.6

509146

Thompson Pass

AK

2/24/1953

19

1952–1973

186.9

509146

Thompson Pass

AK

2/25/1993

19

1952–1973

297.9

509146

Thompson Pass

AK

2/1953

17

1952–1973

1069.8

456898

WA

1974

17

1948–2000

293.0

456898

Rainier Paradise Rangers Rainier Paradise Rangers

WA

4/12/1974

11

1948–2000

Snow Amount (in.)

Station Name

62.0 120.6

509146 509146

Thompson Pass Thompson Pass

147.0

509146

163.0

Greatest daily snowfall Greatest 2-day snowfall (snowed both days) Greatest 3-day snowfall (snowed all 3 days) Greatest 4-day snowfall (snowed all 4 days) Greatest 5-day snowfall (snowed all 5 days) Greatest 6-day snowfall (snowed all 6 days) Greatest 7-day snowfall (snowed all 7 days) Greatest monthly snowfall total Greatest Aug–July snowfall total Greatest daily snow depth

State

Note: Missing data may cause apparent discrepancies between the daily extreme, monthly total, and seasonal total snowfall values. The monthly and seasonal totals were based on complete data; if any days were missing, then the monthly or seasonal total could not be computed for that year. Daily snowfall extremes were not as susceptible to missing data. Consequently, it may be possible for a 1-day extreme to be greater than a multiple-day extreme, a daily extreme to be greater than a monthly total, and a monthly total to be greater than a seasonal total. Checking the “number of years with non-missing data” parameter is an important part of using this snow climatology. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CHAPTER

4

Hydrologic Elements Brian Burke

CONTENTS Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section

4A 4B 4C 4D 4E 4F 4G 4H 4I 4J 4K 4L

Hydrologic Cycle .................................................................................................................................. Water Resources — United States ....................................................................................................... World Water Balance ........................................................................................................................... Hydrologic Data.................................................................................................................................... Interception ........................................................................................................................................... Infiltration ............................................................................................................................................. Runoff ................................................................................................................................................... Erosion and Sedimentation................................................................................................................... Transpiration ......................................................................................................................................... Evaporation ........................................................................................................................................... Consumptive Use .................................................................................................................................. Phreatophytes ........................................................................................................................................

4-2 4-5 4-7 4-11 4-24 4-25 4-28 4-39 4-61 4-63 4-69 4-95

4-1 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-2

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 4A

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Vapo rs

co ol &p re

to

Clouds

rm n fo tio ta pi ci

Rain Hail

Evaporation from

Infiltration/ percolation

om tion fr

Soil/Porous earth

t re

P l an

n

Water vapor

Sun’s heat causes evaporation

es

ts

C ro p

s

Su runrface of f

Fresh groundwater zone

Su r run face off

e fac Sur ff o run

Septic system

Water well Salty/Brackish water zone

Non-porous earth and confining rock

Figure 4A.1 The hydrologic cycle. (From www.dnr.ohio.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

oceans from tion ora ap Ev

Transpira

i t a ti o p recip

Evaporati on fro l a k es & m r ive rs

Snow

Ocean

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-3

Table 4A.1 Hydrologic Effects of Urbanization Change in Land or Water Use Transition from Pre-Urban to Early-Urban Stage: Removal of trees or vegetation Construction of scattered city-type houses and limited water and sewage facilities Drilling of wells Construction of septic tanks and sanitary drains

Transition from Early-Urban to Middle-Urban State: Bulldozing of land for mass housing, some topsoil removed, farm ponds filled in Mass construction of houses, paving of streets, building of culverts

Discontinued use and abandonment of some shallow wells Diversion of nearby streams for public water supply Untreated or inadequately treated sewage discharged into streams or disposal wells Transition from Middle-Urban to Late-Urban Stage: Urbanization of area completed by addition of more houses and streets and of public, commercial, and industrial buildings Larger quantities of untreated waste discharged into local streams Abandonment of remaining shallow wells because of pollution Increase in population requires establishment of new watersupply and distribution systems, construction of distant reservoirs diverting water from upstream sources within or outside basin Channels of streams restricted at least in part to artificial channels and tunnels Construction of sanitary drainage system and treatment plant for sewage Improvement of storm drainage system

Drilling of deeper, large-capacity industrial wells

Increased use of water for air conditioning Drilling of recharge wells Waste-water reclamation and utilization

Possible Hydrologic Effect Decrease in transpiration and increase in storm flow Increased sedimentation of streams Some lowering of water table Some increase in soil moisture and perhaps a rise in water table. Perhaps some waterlogging of land and contamination of nearby wells or streams from overloaded sanitary drain system Accelerated land erosion and stream sedimentation and aggradation. Increased flood flows. Elimination of smallest streams Decreased infiltration, resulting in increased flood flows and lowered groundwater levels. Occasional flooding at channel constrictions (culverts) on remaining small streams. Occasional overtopping or undermining of banks of artificial channels on small streams Rise in water table Decrease in runoff between points of diversion and disposal Pollution of stream or wells. Death of fish and other aquatic life. Inferior quality of water available for supply and recreation at downstream populated areas Reduced infiltration and lowered water table. Streets and gutters act as storm drains, creating higher flood peaks and lower base flow of local streams Increased pollution of streams and concurrent increased loss of aquatic life. Additional degradation of water available to downstream users Rise in water table Increase in local streamflow if supply is from outside basin

Increased flood damage (higher stage for a given flow). Changes in channel geometry and sediment load. Aggradation Removal of additional water from the area, further reducing infiltration and recharge of aquifer A definite effect is alleviation or elimination of flooding of basements, streets, and yards, with consequent reduction in damages, particularly with respect to frequency of flooding Lowered water-pressure surface of artesian aquifer; perhaps some local overdrafts (withdrawal from storage) and land subsidence. Overdraft of aquifer may result in salt-water encroachment in coastal areas and in pollution or contamination by inferior or brackish waters Overloading of sewers and other drainage facilities. Possibly some recharge to water table, due to leakage of disposal lines Raising of water-pressure surface Recharge to groundwater aquifers. More efficient use of water resources

Note: A selected sequence of changes in land and water use associated with urbanization. Source: U.S. Geological Survey.

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4-4

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Precipitation

Precipitation

Condensation

W at e r

Condensation Solar energy

vapor transport

W at e r In cr

Ru

r ta

s ea

ff

Infiltration

no

ble

Evapotranspiration

Decreased infiltration

te Wa

W Evaporation

ru no f

Evapotranspiration

Evaporation Evaporation

Increased pollution Evaporation Ocean

Ocean Groundwater flow

Figure 4A.2 Water cycle before and after urbanization. (From www.unce.unr.edu.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ed

f

ble ater ta

Groundwater flow

Solar energy

vapor transport

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-5

SECTION 4B

WATER RESOURCES — UNITED STATES

Table 4B.2 Distribution of Water in the Continental United States

%

Annual Circulation (!109 m3/yr)

Replacement Period (yr)

43.2 43.2 13.0 0.43 0.04 0.03 0.13 0.05

310 6.2 190 3,100 5.7 1,900 6,200 1.6

O200 O10,000 100 0.2 O10 !0.03 O0.03 O40

Volume !109 m3 Liquid water Groundwater Shallow (!800 m deep) Deep (O800 m deep) Freshwater lakes Soil moisture (1-m root zone) Salt lakes Average in stream channels Water vapor in atmosphere Frozen water, glaciers

63,000 63,000 19,000 630 58 50 190 67

Source: From Ad Hoc Panel on Hydrology, Scientific Hydrology, Washington, DC: Federal Council for Science and Technology, 1962.

Atmospheric moisture 40,000 bgd

Evaporation and transpiration from surface-water bodies, land surface and vegetation 2,800 bgd

Precipitation 4,200 bgd

Consumptive use 100 bgd

Evaporation from oceans

Well Stream flow

Recharge

to oceans 1,230 bgd

Wa ter tab le

Total surface and groundwater flow to oceans 1,300 bgd

Fresh groundwater

face Inter

Ocean Saline groundwater

bgd = billion gallons per day

Figure 4B.3 Hydrologic cycle showing the gross water budget of the conterminous United States. (From U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Summary 1983 — Hydrologic Events and Issues, Water-Supply Paper 2250, 1984.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-6

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4B.3 Some Purposes of Water-Resources Development Purpose Flood control

Irrigation

Hydroelectricity

Description Flood-damage abatement or reduction, protection of economic development, conservation storage, river regulation, recharging of groundwater, water supply, development of power, protection of life Agricultural production

Navigation

Provision of power for economic development and improved living standards Transportation of goods and passengers

Domestic and industrial water supply

Provision of water for domestic, industrial, commercial, municipal, and other uses

Watershed management

Conservation and improvement of the soil, sediment abatement, runoff retardation, forests and grassland improvement, and protection of water supply Increased well-being and health of the people

Recreational use of water Fish and wildlife

Pollution abatement

Insect control

Drainage Sediment control

Salinity control

Improvement of habitat for fish and wildlife, reduction or prevention of fish or wildlife losses associated with man’s works, enhancement of sports opportunities, provision for expansion of commercial fishing Protection or improvement of water supplies for municipal, domestic, industrial and agricultural uses and for aquatic life and recreation Public health, protection of recreational values, protection of forests and crops Agricultural production, urban development and protection of public health Reduction or control of slit load in streams and protection of reservoirs

Abatement or prevention of salt-water contamination of agricultural, industrial, and municipal water supplies

Type of Works and Measures Dams, storage reservoirs, levees, floodwalls, channel improvement, floodways, pumping stations, floodplain zoning, flood forecasting Dams, reservoirs, walls, canals, pumps and pumping plants, weed-control and desilting works, distribution systems, drainage facilities, farmland grading Dams, reservoirs, penstocks, power plants, transmission lines Dams, reservoirs, canals, locks, open-channel improvements, harbor improvements Dams, reservoirs, walls, conduits, pumping plants, treatment plants, saline-water conversion, distribution systems Soil-conservation practices, forest and range management practices, headwater-control structures, debris-detention dams, small reservoirs, and farm ponds Reservoirs, facilities for recreational use, works for pollution control, preservation of scenic and wilderness areas Wildlife refuges, fish hatcheries, fish ladders and screens, reservoir storage, regulation of streamflows, stocking of streams and reservoirs with fish, pollution control, and land management Treatment facilities, reservoir storage for augmenting low flows, sewage-collection systems, legal control measures Proper design and operation of reservoirs and associated works, drainage, and extermination measures Ditches, tile drains, levees, pumping stations, soil treatment Soil conservation, sound forest practices, proper highway and railroad construction, desilting works, channel and revetment works, bank stabilization, special dam construction and reservoir operations Reservoirs for augmenting low stream-flow, barriers, groundwater recharge, coastal jetties

Source: From Chow, V.T., Water as a World Resource, Water International, 4, 6, 1979. With permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-7

SECTION 4C

1,357,506,000 km3 (1,167,200 cm or 11,672 m) total volume of water

1,320,000,000 km3 (1,135,000 cm or 11,350 m) or 97.20% in the oceans

3

8,506,000 km (7,316 cm or 73.16 m) or 0.65% fresh water on land and air

8,506,000 km3 (7,316 cm or 73.16 m) total volume of fresh water on land and air

WORLD WATER BALANCE

4,150,000 km3 (3,570 cm or 35.70 m) or 48.77% groundwater ½ mile deep

3

29,000,000 km (24,900 cm or 249 m) or 2.15% frozen water

3

4,150,000 km (3,570 cm or 35.70 m) or 48.77% groundwater below ½ mile

3

13,000 km (11 cm or 0.11 m) or 0.16% as water vapor in the atmosphere 3

67,000 km (57 cm or 0.75 m) or 0.8% soil moisture and seepage

126,250 km3 (108 cm or 1.08 m) or 1.5% lakes, rivers and streams

Note: figures in brackets indicate the height that the relevant quantites of water would reach if they were placed on the whole non-frozen land area of the earth which is 116,400,000 km3

Figure 4C.4 Water availability on earth. (From Doxiadis, C.A., Water and Environment International Conference on Water for Peace, Washington, DC, 1967.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-8

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4C.4 Estimated Global Water Cycle Volume Type of Water

Location

Millions of cu. Miles

Millions of cu Kilometer

Percent of Total Volume

Salt Water

97.00 Oceans Saline bodies

314.2 2.1

1308.0 (96.4%) 8.7 (0.6%)

Fresh Water

2.90 Ice & snow Lakes Rivers Accessible groundwater

6.9 0.5 0.01 1.0

28.7 (2.1%) 2.1 (0.15%) 0.04 (0.003%) 4.2 (0.31%)

Atmospheric

0.10 Sea evaporation Land evaporation Precipitation over sea Precipitation over land Water vapor

Rounded Total

0.1 0.05 0.09 0.03 0.005 326.00

0.42 (0.03%) 0.21 (0.015%) 0.37 (0.03%) 0.12 (0.01%) 0.02 (0.002%) 1357.00

100.0

Source: From National Weather Service Northwest River Forecast Center, www.nwrfc.noaa.gov.

Table 4C.5 World Water Balance, by Continent Water Balance Elements Area, millions of km2 in mm Precipitation (P) Total river runoff (R) Groundwater runoff (U) Surface water runoff (S) Total infiltration and soil moisture (W) Evaporation (E) in km3 Precipitation Total river runoff Groundwater runoff Surface water runoff Total infiltration and soil moisture Evaporation Relative values Groundwater runoff as percent of total runoff Coefficient of groundwater discharge into rivers Coefficient of runoff a b c d

Europea 9.8

Asia 45.0

Africa 30.3

North Americab 20.7

South America 17.8

Australiac 8.7

Total Land Aread 132.3

734 319 109 210 524 415

726 293 76 217 509 433

686 139 48 91 595 547

670 287 84 203 467 383

1,648 583 210 373 1,275 1,065

736 226 54 172 564 510

834 294 90 204 630 540

7,165 3,110 1,065 2,045 5,120 4,055

32,690 13,190 3,410 9,780 22,910 19,500

20,780 4,225 1,465 2,760 18,020 16,555

13,910 5,960 1,740 4,220 9,690 7,950

29,355 10,380 3,740 6,640 22,715 18,975

6,405 1,965 465 1,500 4,905 4,440

110,303 38,830 11,885 26,945 83,360 71,475

34

26

35

32

36

24

31

0.21

0.15

0.08

0.18

0.16

0.10

0.14

0.43

0.40

0.23

0.31

0.35

0.31

0.36

Including Iceland. Excluding the Canadian archipelago and including Central America. Including Tasmania, New Guinea and New Zealand, only within the limits of the continent: P-440 mm; R-47 mm; U-7 mm; S-40 mm; W-400 mm; E-393 mm. Excluding Greenland, Canadian archipelago and Antarctica.

Source: From Lvovitch, M.I., EOS, 54, 1973. With permission. Copyright by American Geophysical Union. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Table 4C.6 World Water Resources by Region

Region 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Northern America Central America and Caribbean Southern America Western and Central Europe Eastern Europe Africa Near East Central Asia Southern and Eastern Asia Oceania and Pacific World

Total Area (km2) (FAOSTATE, 1999) (1)

Total Population (FAOSTAT, 2000) (2)

Average Precipitation 1961–1990 (km3/yr) (IPCC) (3)

Internal Resources: Total (km3/yr) (4)

External Resources: Natural (km3/yr)

External Resources: Actual (km3/yr)

Total Resources: Natural (km3/yr)

Total Resources: Natural (km3/yr)

% of World Resources

IRWR/inhab. (m3/yr)

TRWR (actual)/inhab. (m3/yr)

47 (5) 6 (6)

47 6

6,709 787

6,709 787

15.2% 1.8%

16,253 10,784

16,368 10,867

21,899,600 749,120

409,895,363 72,430,000

13,384 1,506

6,662 781

17,853,960 4,898,416

345,737,000 510,784

28,635 4,096

12,380 2,170

0 11

0 11

12,380 2,181

12,380 2,181

28.3% 5.0%

35,808 4,249

35,808 4,270

18,095,450 30,044,850 6,347,970 4,655,490 21,191,290

217,051,000 793,288,000 257,114,000 78,563,000 3,331,938 000

8,452 20,415 1,378 1,270 24,017

4,449 3,950 488 261 11,712

244 0 3 28 8

244 0 3 28 8

4,693 3,950 491 289 11,720

4,693 3,950 491 289 11,720

10.2% 9.0% 1.1% 0.6% 26.8%

20,498 4,980 1,897 3,321 3,515

21,622 4,980 1,909 3,681 3,518

8,058,920

25,388,537

4,772

911

0

0

911

911

2.1%

35,869

35,869

133,795,066

6,042,188,900

107,924

43,764

0

0

43,764

43,764

100.0%

7,243

7,243

Notes: (1) No FAOSTAT data for Spilsbergen (Norway); (2) No FAOSTAT data for West Bank (Palestinian authority); data from Margat and Valle´e (2000); (3) No IPCC data on Near East (Saudi Arabia, West Bank (Palestinian Authority); Gaza strip (Palestinian Authority)), South Asia (Taiwan Province of China, east Timor), Caribbean (Aruba). Pacific (Polynesia, Guam) so not included in total. For Europe: no IPCC data for Spilsbergen (Norway), Luxembourg and Belgium; national data source used; (4) No data for various islands in Caribbean (Aruba, Bermuda, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Lucia. St. Vincent, Dominica) Pacific (French Polynesia, Guam, New Caledonia, Samoa, Tonga), Asia (Macao, Hong Kong); so not included in regional and global totals; (5) 47 km3/year from Guatemala to Mexico; (6) 6 km3/year from North America region (Mexico). Source: www.fao.org.

4-9

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-10

Table 4C.7 Water Poor Countries

FAO Code 105 112 124 136 35 72 225 179 134 76

Internal Resources Surface (km3/yr)

Internal Resources Groundwater (km3/yr)

Internal Resources Overlap (km3/yr)

Internal Resources Total (km3/yr)

External Resources Natural (km3/yr)

External Resources Actual (km3/yr)

Total Resources Natural (km3/yr)

Total Resources Actual (km3/yr)

9.16 9.93 98.53 94.66 1.70 5.12 6.53 0.81 0.12 0.00

0.25 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.18 0.30 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.50 0.50 0.50 0.30 0.12 0.02 0.12 0.05 0.05 0.05

0.00 0.22 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.75 0.68 0.60 0.40 0.30 0.30 0.15 0.05 0.05 0.05

0.92 0.20 0.00 11.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01

0.92 0.20 0.00 11.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01

1.67 0.88 0.60 11.40 0.30 0.30 0.15 0.05 0.05 0.06

1.67 0.88 0.60 11.40 0.30 0.30 0.15 0.05 0.05 0.06

0.06 2.16

0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00

0.11 0.02

0.11 0.02

0.12 0.02

0.12 0.02

Israel Jordan Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Mauritania Cape Verde Djibouti United Arab Emirates Qatar Malta Gaza Strip (Palestinian Authority) Bahrain Kuwait

Source: From Review of World Water Resources by Country, www.fao.org/documents.

Table 4C.8 Water Rich Countries

FAO Code 21 185 33 101 41 44 231 170 100

Country Brazil Russian Federation Canada Indonesia China, Mainland Colombia United States of America (Cont.) Peru India

Average Precipitation 1961–1990 (km3/yr)

Internal Resources Surface (km3/yr)

Internal Resources Groundwater (km3/yr)

Internal Resources Overlap (km3/yr)

Internal Resources Total (km3/yr)

External Resources Natural (km3/yr)

External Resources Actual (km3/yr)

Total Resources Natural (km3/yr)

Total Resources Actual (km3/yr)

IRWR/inhab. (m3/yr)

15,236 7,855 5,352 5,147 5,995 2,975 5,800

5,418 4,037 2,840 2,793 2,712 2,112 1,862

1,874 788 370 455 829 510 1,300

1,874 512 360 410 728 510 1,162

5,418 4,313 2,850 2,838 2,812 2,112 2,000

2,815 195 52 0 17 20 71

2,815 195 52 0 17 20 71

8,233 4,507 2,902 2,838 2,830 2,132 2,071

8,233 4,507 2,902 2,838 2,830 2,132 2,071

31,795 29,642 92,662 13,381 2,245 50,160 7,153

1,919 3,559

1,616 1,222

303 419

303 380

1,616 1,261

297 647

297 636

1,913 1,908

1,913 1,897

62,973 1,249

Source: From Review of World Water Resources by Country, www.fao.org/documents.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

13 118

Country

Average Precipitation 1961–1990 (km3/yr)

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-11

SECTION 4D

HYDROLOGIC DATA

Figure 4D.5 Locations of NASQAN and national hydrologic bench-mark stations in the United States. (From http://water.usgs.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

USGA Station ID

Station Name

Mississippi River Basin 03216600 Ohio River at Greenup Dam near Greenup, KY 03303280

03378500

03612500

05420500

Latitude

Longitude

Hydrologic Unit Code

Location of Stream Gage and Sampling Site

Drainage Area

Louisville, KY

38838 0 48 00

82851 0 38 00

05090103

Louisville, KY Ohio River at Cannelton Dam at Cannelton, IN Wabash River at Paducah, KY New Harmony, IN Tennessee River Paducah, KY at Highway 60 near Paducah, KY

37853 0 58 00

86842 0 20 00

05140201

38807 0 55 00

87856 0 25 00

05120113

37802 0 16 00

88831 0 46 00

06040006

At auxiliary gaging station at bridge on U.S. Highway 60, 16.3 mi downstream from gagin station, 2.4 mi east of Paducah, and at mile 5.3

40,330 sq. mi., 40,200 sq. mi. at gage

Paducah, KY Ohio River at Dam 53 near Grand Chain, IL Mississippi River Iowa City, IA at Clinton, IA

37812 0 11 00

89802 0 30 00

05140206

203,100 sq. mi, approximately

41846 0 50 00

90815 0 07 00

07080101

38858 0 05 00

90825 0 42 00

07110009

48807 0 30 00

104828 0 20 00

10060005

At auxiliary gaging station, 0.5 mi upstream from Gar Creek, 3.0 mi southwest of Grand Chain, 18.1 mi downstream from gaging station at Metropolis, and at mile 962.2 At river end of 3rd St., at downstream end of ADM repair dock, 10.3 miles upstream from Wapsipinicon River, 4.8 mi upstream from Camanche gage, 5.9 mi downstream from Lock and Dam 13, and at mile 516.6 upstream from Ohio River. Water-quality samples collected at Fulton-Lyons Bridge, 6.4 mi upstream of discharge station On left bank 0.2 mi downstream from the mouth of the Illinois River, 15.3 mi above Lock and Dam 26, 23.0 mi above mouth of Missouri River and at mile 218.6 upstream of the mouth o the Ohio River. Water-quality samples collected 4 mi downstream of discharge station On right bank at upstream side of bridge on State Highway 16, 2.5 mi southeast of Culbertson, 10 mi downstream from Big Muddy Creek and at river mile 1,620.76

05587455

Mississippi River Rolla, MO below Grafton, IL

06185500

Missouri River near Culbertson, MT

Fort Peck, MT

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

At left bank at downstream end of lock guidewall in 62,000 sq. mi., lower poolat Greenup locks, 1.1 mi upstream approximately from Grays Branch, 4.7 mi downstream from Little Sandy River, 5.0 mi north of Greenup and at mile 341.5 97,000 sq. mi, At Cannelton Dam, 0.7 mi upstream from Indian approximately Creek, 3.3 mi upstream from Lead Creek, and at mile 720.8. Water-quality samples are collected 2.0 mi upstream from discharge station At bridge on U.S. Highway 66 at New Harmony and 29,234 sq. mi at mile 51.5

85,600 sq. mi., approximately, at Fulton-Lyons Bridge in Clinton

171,300 sq. mi., approximately

91,557 sq. mi

Remarks

Water discharge obtained from station Wabash river at Mount Carmel, IL (03377500) Records of daily discharge are taken from gaging station near Paducah (03609500). Flow completely regulated. BarkleyKentucky Cannal (03438190) diverts water from and to Lake Barkley in the Cumberland River Basin Water discharge obtained from Ohio River at Metropolis, IL (03611500). Flow regulated by many dams and reservoirs

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

03609750

USGS Office Sampling Station

4-12

Table 4D.9 National Stream Water Quality Accounting Network (NASQAN) — Stations Operated by NASQAN 1996–2000

Yellowstone River near Sidney, MT

06338490

Missouri River at Bismark, ND Garrison Dam, ND Missouri River at Pierre, SD Pierre SD

06440000

47840 0 42 00

104809 0 22 00

10100004

47830 0 08 00

101825 0 50 00

10130101

44822 0 23 00

100822 0 03 00

10140101

06610000

Missouri River at Council Bluffs, IA 41815 0 32 00 Omaha, NE

95855 0 20 00

10230006

06805500

Platte River at Louisville, NE

41800 0 55 00

96809 0 28 00

10200202

06934500

Missouri River at Rolla, MO Hermann, MO Mississippi River Rolla, MO at Thebes, IL

38842 0 36 00

91826 0 21 00

10300300

37813 0 00 00

89827 0 50 00

07140105

Little Rock, AR 34840 0 07 00 Arkansas River at David D. Terry Lock & Dam below Little Rock, AR Mississippi River Baton Rouge, LA 30845 0 30 00 near St. Francisville, LA Baton Rouge, LA 30841 0 26 00 Atchafalaya River at Melville, LA

92809 0 18 00

11110207

91823 0 45 00

08070100

91844 0 10 00

08080101

07022000

07263620

07373420

07381495

Linclon, NE

On left bank at Montana-Dakota Utilities Company powerplant, 0.2 mi downstream from bridge on State Highway 23, 2.5 mi south of Sidney, 3.0 mi downstream from Fox Creek, and at river mile 29.2 In control structure of Garrison Dam, 2.5 mi west of Riverdale, 14 mi upstream from Knife River, and at mile 1,389.9 On left bank downstream from Dakota Minnesota and Eastern Railroad bridge, 1.3 mi upstream from Bad River, 5.8 mi downstream from Oahe Dam, and at mile 1066.5. Water-quality samples collected 0.25 mile below Oahe Dam, about 5.55 mile upstream from gaging station. Inflow between these two locations generally are negligible On right bank on left side of concrete floodwall, at foot of Douglas Street, 275 ft downstream of Interstate 480 Highway bridge in Omaha and at mile 615.9 Water-quality samples are collected at Interstate-80 bridge, 2.0 miles downstream of gaging station On the left bank at the upstream side of bridge on Nebraska Highway 50, 1 mi north of Louisville, and at mile 16.5

On downstream side of third pier from right abutment of bridge on State Highway 19 at Hermann, and at mile 97.9 Near center span on downstream side of railroad bridge at Thebes, 5.0 mi downstream from Headwater Diversion Channel and at mile 43.7 above Ohio River At upper end of upstream wall at David D. Terry Lock and Dam. 10.7 mi downstream from Main Street bridge at Little Rock, and at mile 124.2

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Fort Peck, MT

06329500

69,103 sq. mi;

181,400 sq. mi., approximately 243,500 sq. mi., approximately

322,800 sq. mi. approximately. The 3,959 sq. mi. in the Great Divide basin are not included 85,370 sq. mi., appoximately, of which about 71,000 sq. mi., contributes directly to surface runoff 524,200 sq. mi., approximately

Flow regulated by upstream mainstem reservoirs. US Army Corps of Engineers raingage and satellite data collection platform at station

713,200 sq. mi., approximately

158,288 sq. mi., of which 22,241 sq. mi. is probably noncontributing

Discharge is from station 07263450, 16.8 mi. upstream

At State Highway 10 ferry crossing, 2.0 mi southwest of St. Francisville and at mile 266.0

1,125,300 sq. mi. contributing

Discharge is from Mississippi River at Tarbert Landing, MS, station 07295100

At bridge on Texas and Pacific Railroad in Melville

93,316 sq. mi

Discharge is from station 07381490, Atachafalaya river at Simmesport, LA

(Continued) 4-13

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

USGA Station ID

4-14

Table 4D.9

(Continued) USGS Office Sampling Station

Station Name

08470400

08475000

09180500

Colorado River near Cisco, UT

Rio Grande Basin 29,267 sq. mi 13030102 At gaging stati on the downstream side of the Courchesne Bridge, 5.6 mi upstream from the Santa Fe Street-Juarez Avenue bridge betwen El Paso, Tx, and Cd. Juarez, Chihuahua at mile 1,249 and 1.7 mi upstream from the American Dam 13040212 At gaging station 0.1 mi downstream from Terrell- 80,742 sq. mi Val Verde Country line, 16.9 mi from Langtry, and 597.2 midownstream from the American Dam at El Paso 13040212 At gaging station 7.4 mi east of Langtry and 15.0 mi 35,179 sq. mi upstream from confluence with Rio Grande

Remarks

29848 0 10 00

101826 0 45 00

San Angelo, TX

29825 0 30 00

101802 0 27 00

13080001

2.2 mi downstream from Amistad Dam and 10 mi northwest of Del Rio

San Angelo, TX

27824 0 01 00

99829 0 18 00

13080002

8.7 Mi (14.0 km) downstream from Texas-Mexican 132,578 Railway Bridge near Laredo, and at mile 352.69 (567.48 km)

Discharge measured by International Boundary and Water Commission

San Angelo, TX

26833 0 25 00

99810 0 05 00

13090001

U.S. tailrace at Falcon Dam

San Angelo, TX

26810 0 24 00

97842 0 01 00

San Angelo, TX

25852 0 35 00

97827 0 15 00

Moab, UT

38848 0 38 00

109817 0 34 00

On downstream side of northbound service road on 182 sq. mi U.S. Highways 83&77, about 18 mi from point of main floodway that divides into North Floodway and Arroyo Colorado 13090002 At International Boundary and Water Commission 176,333 sq. mi gaging station, 1000 ft downstream from El Jardin pumping plant, 6.8 mi below International bridge between Brownsville and Matamoras, Tamps., Mex. And 48.8 miles above the Gulf of Mexico Colorado River Basin 14030005 On left bank 1 mi downstream from Dolores River, 24,100 sq. mi., approximately 11 mi south of Cisco, 36 mi downstream from Colorado-Utah state line, 97 mi upstream from Green River and 235 mi upstream from San Juan River, at mile 1022.3 from Arizona-Sonora

Discharge measured by International Boundary and Water Commission Discharge measured by International Boundary and Water Commission

Albuquerque, NM

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

13090002

123,143 sq. mi

159,270 sq. mi

Discharge measured by International Boundary and Water Commission

Discharge measured by International Boundary and Water Commission Discharge measured by International Boundary and Water Commission Discharge measured by International Boundary and Water Commission

Discharge measured by International Boundary and Water Commission

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

08461300

Drainage Area

101845 0 20 00

San Angelo, TX Rio Grande at Foster Ranch, near Langtry, TX Pecos River near San Angelo, TX Langtry, TX

08459200

Location of Stream Gage and Sampling Site

29846 0 50 00

08377200

Rio Grande below Amistad Dam near Del Rio, TX Rio Grande at Pipeline Crossing below Laredo, TX Rio Grande below Falcon Dam, TX Arroyo Colorado at Harlingen, TX map of lower basin Rio Grande near Brownsville, TX map of lower basin

Hydrologic Unit Code

106832 0 25 00

Rio Grand at El Paso, TX

08450900

Longitude

31848 0 10 00

08364000

08447410

Latitude

Green River at Green River, UT

Moab, UT

38859 0 10 00

110809 0 02 00

14060008

09379500

San Juan River Moab UT near Bluff, UT

37808 0 49 00

109851 0 52 00

14080205

09380000

Flagstaff, AZ Colorado River at Lees Ferry, AZ

36851 0 53 00

111835 0 15 00

14070006

09404200

Colorado River above Diamond Creek near Peach Springs, AZ

Flagstaff, AZ

36846 0 25 00

113821 0 46 00

15010002

09421500

Las Vegas, NV Colorado River below Hoover Dam, AZ-NV

36800 0 55 00

114844 0 16 00

15030101

09429490

Yuma, AZ Colorado River above Imperial Dam, CA-AZ. schematic map of Lower Colorado River

32852 0 59 00

114827 0 55 00

15030104

44,850 sq. mi. of On right bank, 1,400 ft upstream from railroad which about bridge, 0.9 mi southeast of town of Green River, 4,260 sq. mi. 22.7 mi upstream from San Rafael River, at mile (including 117.6 upstream from mouth 3,959 sq. mi. in Great Divide Basin in southern Wyoming) i noncontributing 23,000 sq. mi., On left bank, 1,600 ft downstream from Gypsum approximately Creek, 1,800 ft upstream from highway bridge, 20 mi southwest of Bluff, at mile 113.5 In Navajo Indian Reservation, on left bank at head of 111,800 sq. mi., approximately, Marble gorge at lees ferry, just upstream from including 3,959 Paria River, 16 mi downstream of Glen Canyon sq. mi. in Great Dam, 28 mi downstream from UT-AZ state line, Divide basin in and 61.5 mi upstream from Little Colorado River southern Wyoming, which is noontributing 149,316 sq. mi., In Lake Mead NRA, on the right bank, 0.6 mi including 3,959 upstream from Diamond Creek, 138 mi sq. mi. in Great downstream from Phantom Ranch, 25 mi north Divide Basin in of Peach Springs, 242 mi downstream from Glen southern Canyon Dam, and 130 mi upstream from Hoover Wyoming nand Dam 697 sq. mi. on the Colorado Plateau In powerhouse at downstream side of Hoover Dam. 171,700 sq. mi., Water-quality samples collected at gaging approximately, station 0.3 mi downstream from Hoover Dam included 3,959 sq. mi. in Great Divide Basin in southern Wyoming, which is noncontributing Imperial Dam is 5 mi upstream from Laguna Dam, 188,500 sq. mi., approximately, 15 mi northeast of Yuma, 90 mi downstream including 3,959 from Palo Verde Dam and 147 mi downstream sq. mi. in Great from Parker Dam. Water-quality samples Divide basin in collected below trash racks at All-American southern Canal headworks at west end of Imperial Dam Wyoming, which is noncontributing

Flow regulated by Flaming gorge Reservoir (09234400)

No diversions between station and mouth of river. Flow regulated by Navajo Reservoir, NM (09355100) Many diversions above Lake Powell for irrigation, municipal, and industrial use. No diversion or inflow between Lake Powell and the gage

Several unregulated tributaries below Glen Canyon Dam

Records show flow of Colorado River reaching Imperial Dam and are synthesized from records of several other stations

4-15

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

09315000

USGA Station ID

4-16

Table 4D.9

(Continued) USGS Office Sampling Station

Station Name

Yuma, AZ Colorado River at Northerly International Boundary (NIB), above Morelos Dam, near Andrade, CA schematic map of Lower Colorado River

12400520

Columbia River at Northport, WA Columbia River at Vernita Bridge, near Priest Rapids Dam WA Snake River at Burbank, WA

12472900

13353200

14128910

14211720

14246900

0

32843 07

00

Longitude 0

114843 05

00

Hydrologic Unit Code

Location of Stream Gage and Sampling Site

Drainage Area

On left bank at northerly international boundary, 0.5 246,700 sq. mi., approximately, mi east of Andrade. 1.1 mi upstream from including all Morelos Dam, 1.1 mi downstream from closed basins Rockwood Gate, and 6.4 mi downstream from entirely within gaging station on Colorado River below Yuma the drainage Main Canal wasteway boundary, also 3,959 sq. mi. in Great divide basin in southern Wyoming, which is noncontributing Columbia River Basin 17020001 0.4 mi downstream from State Highway 25 bridge at 60,200 sq. mi., approximately Northport, 10.3 mi downstream from gaging station at boundary, and at mile 735.1 17020016 At State Highway 24 Vernita Bridge crossing, 9.0 mi 96,000 sq. mi., approximately downstream from Priest Rapids Dam and at mile 388.1 15030108

Spokane, WA

48855 0 08 00

117847 0 11 00

Pasco, WA

46838 0 34 00

119843 0 54 00

Pasco, WA

46815 0 00 00

118853 0 45 00

17060110

Approximately 1.0 mi downstream from Ice Harbor Dam

45836 0 45 00

122801 0 35 00

17080001

On left bank 0.1 mi downstream from Tumult Creek, 240,000 sq. mi., approximately 1.0 mi west of Warrendale, 5.1 mi downstream from Bonneville Dam, and at mile 141.0

45831 0 07 00

122840 0 00 00

17090012

In pier at east end of drawspan, on upstream side of 11,100 sq. mi., Morrison bridge in Portland, and at mile 12.8 approximately

46810 0 55 00

123810 0 50 00

17080003

On left bank, 0.7 mi downstream from Crims Island, 256,900 sq. mi., 3.0 mi northwest of Qunicy, and at mile 53.8 approximately

Portland, OR Columbia River at Warrendale, OR Willamette River Portland, OR at Portland, OR Columbia river at Portland, OR Beaver Army Terminal, near Quincy, OR

Source: From http://water.usgs.gov

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Remarks

108,800 sq. mi

Discharge is routed from gaging station at international boundary (12399500) Discharge determined by routing flows from the gaging station below Priest Rapids Dam (12472800) 6.4 mi upstream Discharge is obtained and routed from Ice Harbor Dam, 1.0 mi upstream Stream discharge taken from Columbia River at the Dalles, OR (14105700) at river mile 188.9 Water discharge records obtained by flow routing procedures usg sta records

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

09522000

Latitude

4-17

nia .R .

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Co l VERNITA FERRY BURBANK WARRENDALE Willamette .R

M is s o u r i

CULBERTSON GARRISON DAM

.R Yel l o ws ton SIDNEY e

SAINT LAWRENCE

CISCO HERMANN ka

THEBES

an

ni

Ri

n

r

de

se

TOMBIGBEE

e Riv r a n G

EL PAGO

Te n n es er

Re d R iv er

Ri v er D. TERRY DAM

FOSTER RANCH LANGTRY AMISTAD RES. PRESIDIO

MELVILLE

r

RM

Riv

DIAMOND CREEK River Gi l a IMPERIAL DAM

HA W NE hio O

GREEN LIP DAM CANNELTON DAM PADUCAH ver

Ar

BLUFF

SUSQUEHANNA Y ON

ve

G re en

GREENR.

CLINTON r ve OMAHA Ri LOUISVILLE GRARTON

Pa r ua

N.I.B

LEES FERRY R do Co l o r a

P la tte

R

JORDAN Minnesota

i sipp

PIERRE

r ve

HOOVER DAM

Ri

R i ver

rR i

na

ke

MHASTINGS is s is

Ri

S

GRAND CHAIN W abash R

PORTLAND

um

NORTHPORT BEAVER ARMY TERMINAL

ALABAMA ST. FRANCISVILLE

EXPLANATION NASQAN station NAWQA station Joint NASQAN/ NAWQA station Cooperative station Inactive station

Aichafalaya R.

LAREDO FALCON DAM

ARROYO COLORADO BROWNSVILLE

Figure 4D.6 NASQAN stations, 1996–2000. (From http://water.usgs.gov.)

Table 4D.10 Water Quality Characteristics Are Measured as NASQAN Stations Code

Parameter

4S MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ

5S 00010 00061 00076 00095 00300 00400 00452 00453 00608 00613 00623 00625 00631 00665 00666 00671 00681 00689 00915 00925 00930 00935 00940 00945

Description 75S Water temperature (degree Celsius) Discharge, instantaneous (cubic feet per second) Turbidity (nephelometric turbidity units, NTU) Specific conconductance (microsiemens per centimeter at 25 Celsius) Oxygen, dissolved (milligrams per liter) Ph, field (standard units) Carbonate, filtered (milligrams per liter as CO3) Bicarbonate, filtered (milligrams per liter as HCO3) Ammonia–nitrogen (milligrams per liter as N) Nitrite–nitrogen (milligrams per liter as N) Ammonia-plus-organic-nitrogen, dissolved (milligrams per liter as N) Ammonia-plus-organic-nitrogen (milligrams per liter as N) Nitrite-plus-nitrate-nitrogen, dissolved (milligrams per liter as N) Phosphorus, total (milligrams per liter as P) Phosphorus, dissolved (milligrams per liter as P) Orthophosphate-phosphorus (milligrams per liter as P) Carbon, organic, dissolved (milligrams per liter as C) Carbon, organic, suspended (milligrams per liter as C) Calcium, dissolved (milligrams per liter as Ca) Magnesium, dissolved (milligrams per liter as Mg) Sodium, dissolved milligrams per liter as Na) Potassium, dissolved (milligrams per liter as K) Chloride, dissolved (milligrams per liter as Cl) Sulfate, dissolved (milligrams per liter as SO4) (Continued)

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4-18

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4D.10 Code

(Continued) Parameter

MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ MAJ SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM SEDCHEM TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE PEST PEST PEST

00950 00955 39086 70300 70331 80154 29816 29818 29820 29822 29826 29829 29832 29836 29839 29841 29843 29846 29847 29850 29853 29855 30221 30244 30269 30292 30308 30317 35031 35040 35046 35050 49955 50279 50465 01000 01005 01010 01020 01025 01030 01035 01040 01046 01049 01056 01057 01060 01065 01075 01080 01085 01090 01095 01106 01130 01145 04024 04028 04035

Description Fluoride, dissolved (milligrams per liter as F) Silica, dissolved (milligrams per liter as SiO2) Alkalinity, filtered (milligrams per liter as CaCO3) Residue on evaporation (180 Celsius) (milligrams per liter) Sediment, finer than 63 microns (percent) Sediment, suspended (milligrams per liter) Antimony, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Arsenic, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Barium, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Beryllium, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Cadmium, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Chromium, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Copper, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Lead, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Manganese, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Mercury, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Molybdenum, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Nickel, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Selenium, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Silver, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Vanadium, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Zinc, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Aluminum, sediment, suspended, total (percent) Carbon, sediment, suspended, total (percent) Iron, sediment, suspended, total (percent) Phosphorus, sediment, suspended, total (percent) Sulfur, sediment, suspended (percent) Titanium, sediment, suspended, total (percent) Cobalt, sediment suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Strontium, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Uranium, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Lithium, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Thallium, sediment, suspended, total (micrograms per gram) Sediment, suspended (milligrams per liter) Carbon, organic, suspended, total (percent) Arsenic, dissolved (milligrams per liter as As) Barium, dissolved (milligrams per liter as Ba) Beryllium, dissolved (milligrams per liter as Be) Boron, dissolved (micrograms per liter as B) Cadmium, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Cd) Chromium, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Cr) Cobalt, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Co) Copper, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Cu) Iron, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Fe) Lead, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Pb) Manganese, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Mn) Thallium, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Tl) Molybdenum, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Mo) Nickel, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Ni) Silver, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Ag) Strontium, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Sr) Vanadium, dissolved (micrograms per liter as V) Zinc, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Zn) Antimony, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Sb) Aluminum, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Al) Lithium, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Li) Selenium, dissolved (micrograms per liter as Se) Propachlor, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Butylate, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Simazine, dissolved (micrograms per liter) (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Table 4D.10

4-19

(Continued)

Code

Parameter

PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST PEST

04037 04040 04041 04095 22703 34253 34653 38933 39341 39381 39415 39532 39542 39572 39632 46342 49260 82630 82660 82661 82663 82664 82665 82666 82667 82668 82669 82670 82671 82672 82673 82674 82675 82676 82677 82678 82679 82680 82681 82682 82683 82684 82685 82686 82687 91063 91065 99108 99856

Description Prometon, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Desethyl atrazine, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Cyanazine, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Fonofos, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Uranium, natural, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Alpha BHC, dissolved (micrograms per liter) P, P 0 DDE, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Chlorpyrifos, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Lindane, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Dieldrin, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Metolachlor, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Malathion, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Parathion, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Diazinon, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Atrazine, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Alachlor, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Acetochlor, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Metribuzin, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Diethylanilene, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Trifluralin, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Ethalfluralin, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Phorate, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Terbacil, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Linuron, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Methyl parathion, dissolved (micrograms per liter) EPTC, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Pebulate, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Tebuthiuron, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Molinate, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Ethoprop, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Benfluralin, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Carbofuran, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Terbufos, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Pronamide, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Disultoton, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Triallate, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Propanil, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Carbaryl, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Thiobencarb, dissolved (micrograms per liter) DCPA, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Pendimethalin, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Napropamide, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Propargite, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Azinphos-methyl, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Permethrin, dissolved (micrograms per liter) Diazinon, D-10 surrogate (percent) HCH, alpha, D-6 surrogate (percent) Spike volume (milliters) Sample volume (milliters)

Note: ASCII text file containing parameter code definitions for constituents. Analyzed by the USGS National Stream Quality Accounting Network (1996–2000). File is tab-delimited. The first header contains column names. The second header contains column formats. CodeZConstituent group, defined as follows: MAJZinstantaneous Q, field parameters, major ions, nutrients, suspended sediment SEDCHEMZsediment chemistry TEZtrace elements (dissolved) PESTZpesticides ParameterZWATSTORE code DescriptionZConstituent name (units of measure) Source: http://water.usgs.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-20

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Total stations 7,426 Other Federal agency programs 1,868

Combined sources 779

Federal−state cooperative program 4,222

Federal program 557

Figure 4D.7 Sources of funds for operation of continuous surface-water discharge stations. (From U.S. Geological Survey Water Data Program, http://water.usgs.gov.)

Table 4D.11 Hydrologic and Related Data Collection Networks in the United States Type of Network Automatic meterological observing stations (full parameter); temperature, dew point, wind, pressure, precipitation) National weather service synoptic and basic observation stations (high quality observations for basic weather program) Cooperative station services (observations by lay persons): Temperature and precipitation Precipitation only — daigeoly Precipitation only — storage Hourly precipitation stations equipped with recording precipitation gages Cooperative stations equipped with both recording and nonrecording precipitations gages Crop reporting stations River and/or rainfall reporting stations River stage reports only Rainfall reports only River stage and rainfall reports Evaporation storage Reference Climatological Stations Automated Hydrologic Observing System (AHOS) — river and rainfall data for flood forecasting AHOS/Ta AHOS/Sb Special reporting stations Cooperative station data published Temperature and precipitation Precipitation only Evaporation Soil temperature Miscellaneous (snow density, special meteorological, etc) a b

Data transmitted by telephone. Data transmitted by satellite.

Source: From National Weather Service, Operations of the National Weather Service, 1985. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Number of Stations 92 67 5,568 3,200 32 3,205 1,995 566 998 3,656 1,069 448 21 506 75 293 8,256 3,055 431 308 473

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-21

Table 4D.12 USGS Programs Managed by the Water Resources Discipline † Cooperative Water Program — The Cooperative Program, a partnership between the USGS and state and local agencies, provides information that forms the foundation for many of the Nation’s water resources management and planning activities † National Streamflow Information Program (NSIP) — The National Streamflow Information Program (NSIP) is a conceptual plan developed by the USGS for a new approach to the acquisition and delivery of streamflow information † National Water Quality Assessment Program (NAWQA) — Since 1991, USGS scientists with the NAWQA program have been collecting and analyzing data and information in more than 50 major river basins and aquifers across the Nation. The goal is to develop long-term consistent and comparable information on streams, groundwater, and aquatic ecosystems to support sound management and policy decisions. The NAWQA program is designed to answer these questions: 1. What is the condition of our Nation’s streams and groundwater? 2. How are these conditions changing over time? 3. How do natural features and human activities affect these conditions? † Toxic Substances Hydrology (Toxics) Program — provides unbiased earth science information on the behavior of toxic substances in the Nation’s hydrologic environments. The information is used to avoid human exposure, to develop effective cleanup strategies, and to prevent further contamination † Groudwater Resources Program — The Groundwater Resources Program encompasses regional studies of groundwater systems, multidisciplinary studies of critical groundwater issues, access to groundwater data, and research and methods development. The program provides unbiased scientific information and many of the tools that are used by Federal, State, and local management and regulatory agencies to make important decisions about the Nation’s groundwater resources † Hydrologic Research and Development — Hydrologic Research and Development focuses on long-term investigations that integrate hydrological, geological, chemical, climatic, and biological information related to water resources issues. The program provides the primary support for the National Research Program (NRP) in the hydrologic sciences and for Water, Energy, and Biogeochemical Budgets (WEBB) program † State Water Resoruces Research Institute Program — A matching grant program to support water resources research, education, and information transfer at the 54 university based Water Resources Research Institutes. This program includes the National Institutes for Water Resources USGS Student Internship Program Subprograms: † Water Information Coordination Program (WICP) — ensures the availability of water information required for effective decision making for natural resources management and environmental protection and to do it cost effectively † Drinking Water Programs — The wide range of monitoring, assessment, and research activities conducted by the USGS to help understand the protect the quality of our drinking water resources is described on these pages. These studies are often done in collaboration with other federal, state, tribal, and local agencies † National Stream Quality Accounting Network (NASQAN) — Focus is on monitoring the water quality of four of the Nation’s largest river systems — the Mississippi (including the Missouri and Ohio), the Columbia, the Colorado, and the Rio Grande † Hydrologic Benchmark Network (HBN) — was established in 1963 to provide long-term measurements of streamflow and water quality in areas that are minimally affected by human activities. These data were to be used to study time trends and to serve as controls for separating natural from artificial changes in other streams. The network has consisted of as many as 58 drainage basins in 39 State † National Atmospheric Deposition Program/National Trends Network (NADP/NTN) — A nationwide network of precipitation monitoring sites. The first sites in the network were established in 1978. The network currently consists of approximately 200 sites † National Research Program (NRP) — conducts basic and problem-oriented hydrologic research in support of the mission of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) † National Water Summary Program — a series of publications designed to increase public understanding of the nature, geographic distribution, magnitude, and trends of the Nation’s water resources. It is often referred to as the USGS “encyclopedia of water” † National Water-Use Program — examines the withdrawal, use, and return flow of water on local, state, and national levels † USGS Environmental Affairs Program — provides guidance and information on the National Environmental Policy Act and other environmental issues † Water, Energy, and Biogeochemical Budgets (WEBB) — understands the processes controlling water, energy, and biogeochemical fluxes over a range of temporal and spatial scales and to understand the interactions of these processes, including the effect of atmospheric and climatic variables † National Irrigation Water Quality Program — A Department of Interior program to identify and address irrigation-induced water quality and contamination problems related to Department of Interior water projects in the west International Programs: † Cyprus Water Resources Database Development — This project met the USGS goal of supporting U.S. foreign policy. It was requested by the U.S. Ambassador to Cyprus and coordinated closely through the U.S. Department of State. It took 5 years of negotiations with senior Cypriot officials, Embassy staff, U.S. Department of State, and selected United Nations offices to design and implement this project. This project enabled water managers on Cyprus to manage their limited water resources, which will directly contribute to enhancement and protection of the quality of life for Cypriot citizens † Public Awareness and Water Conservation — The project, which began in 1996, is part of the Middle East Peace Process and is one of several projects sponsored by the Multilateral Working Group on Water Resources. The U.S. Department of State requested the USGS to undertake this activity and has provided political guidance throughout the project. The project meets the USGS goal of supporting U.S. foreign policy and fostering outreach and public awareness activities (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-22

Table 4D.12

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

† Regional Water Data Banks — The Executive Action Team Multilateral Working Group on Water Resoruces, Water Data Banks Project consists of a series of specific actions to be taken by the Israelis, Jordanians, and Palestinians that are designed to foster the adoption of common, standardized data collection and storage techniques among the Parties, improve the quality of the water resources data collected in the region, and to improve communication among the scientific community in the region † Ukraine Streamflow Project — Floods are among the most frequent and costly natural disasters in terms of human hardship and economic loss. In Ukraine, two major floods (one in 1998 and one in 2001) have occurred in the Tisa River Basin in the last 5 years. Both floods caused several fatalities, damaged or destroyed several thousand homes, destroyed bridges and roads, and created severe personal and economic hardship for the residents of Zakarpattia Oblast in western Ukraine. Near real-time streamflow data can be used to forecast and manage floods and improve public safety † Groundwater Research Program for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates — Since 1988 the USGS has been partnering with the National Drilling Company (NDC) of the Abu Dhabi Emirate to collect information on the groundwater resources of the Emirate, to conduct research on the hydrology of the arid environment, to provide training in water resources investigations, and to document the results of the cooperative work in scientific publications † Geologic, Hydrologic, and Geochemical Characterization of the Deep Groundwater Aquifer System In the Bengal Delta of Bangladesh — The USGS is currently conducting research on the deeper aquifer system in Bangladesh in areas associated with high levels of arsenic in the shallow groundwater. This work is an integral step in the characterization of the hydrogeolocial framework needed to define the potential for developing safe and sustainable groundwater sources † Botswana–Village Flood Watch — The Village Flood Watch project, which was completed in 2002, was designed to help establish an early-warning system for potential flooding events by adding or upgrading six gauging stations to near real-time capabilities and providing training on hydrologic runoff modeling † Jordan Groundwater Management — The project objective is to enhance current Jordanian technical capacities for hydrogeologic data and information development, management and analysis; development and use of groundwater management models; and joint design and conduct of outreach workshops and meetings to increase public understanding of the benefits of local efforts in groundwater management and conservation † Summary of Palestinian Hydrologic Data 2000 — The project provides a critical tool to the USAID Water Resources Program including several investigative, development, and construction projects, in the West Bank and Gaza, designed to comprehensively develop, manage, and protect water resources. This activity demonstrates the USGS leadership role in the natural sciences and confirms the mission of providing scientific information to manage natural resources to enhance and protect the quality of life Source: From Water Resources of the United States, http://water.usgs.gov.

Table 4D.13 Number of USGS Data-Collection Stations Operated in 1994, by Source of Funds

Types of Stations Surface water: Discharge Stage-only — streams, lakes and reservoirs Quality Groundwater: Water levels Quality

Federal-State Cooperative Program

Other Federal Agency Program

Combined Support

Total

638 47

6,419 968

2,219 850

964 183

10,240 2,048

778

1,666

426

228

3,098

2,344 691

27,029 4,602

2,421 1,347

237 216

32,031 6,856

Federal Program

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey Water Data Program, http://water.usgs.gov. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Table 4D.14 Increasing Global Data Coverage Regions

Number of Stations

Number of Data Point

Physical/Chemical

Major Loans

Metals

Nutrients

Organic Contaminants

Microbiology

Date Range

Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania Total

138 682 332 318 94 1544

206907 417994 641940 823323 206650 2296814

26712 47198 118868 146747 31678 371203

79889 73210 159329 136392 12237 461087

6439 88124 83005 154742 2535 334845

41289 47284 98796 108815 46992 343176

370 3583 6794 14539 1438 26734

832 10401 32018 27260 1383 71894

1977–2004 1965–2004 1971–2004 1978–2003 1979–2004 1965–2004

Source: From GEMS Water, State of the UNEP GEMS/Water Global Network and Annual Report, United Nations Environment Programme, Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) Water Programme, 2004, www.gemswater.org.

4-23

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-24

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 4E

INTERCEPTION

Table 4E.15 Interception by Trees Type or Species

Age or Size

Hemlock Douglas fir Hemlock Spruce-fir Hemlock Douglas fir Hemlock Spruce — fir — paper birch White pine — hemlock Western white pine — western hemlock Maple — beech Mixed Maple — hemlock Beech — birch — maple Ponderosa pine Lodgepole pine Ponderosa pine Jeffrey pine Lodgepole pine Ponderosa pine Ponderosa pine Calif, scrub oak Mixed brush White pine — red pine Jack pine Shortleaf pine Quaking aspen Chaparral, mixed Maple — hemlock Hemlock Oak-pine Ponderosa — lodgepole pine Beech — maple Chamise

Place in Succession

Locality

Interception (Percent)

Mature 25 yr Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Overmature

Climax Climax Climax Climax Climax Climax Climax Climax Climax Climax

Connecticut Washington New Hampshire Maine Adirondacks, New York Washington Ithaca, New York Maine Massachusetts Idaho

48 43 38 37 34 34 31 26 24 21

Mature Mature Mature, cutover Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature 32 yr Mature Young 6 ft Mature 40 yr 50 yr 45 yr 32 yr 6 ft Mature (after leaf fall) Mature Open, second growth 25 ft Mature 6 ft

Climax Climax Climax Climax Preclimax Preclimax Preclimax Preclimax Preclimax Preclimax Pioneer — Preclimax Preclimax Pioneer Pioneer Pioneer

New York New York Wisconsin Ontario Arizona Colorado Idaho Southern California Colorado Idaho Colorado Southern California North Fork, California Ontario Wisconsin North Carolina Colorado Southern California Wisconsin New York New Jersey Idaho New York Southern California

43 40 25 21 40 32 27 26 23 22 18 31 19 37 21 16 16 17 16 13 13 8 6 3

Climax (under-stocked) Climax Preclimax Preclimax Climax Pioneer

Note: Interception includes stemflow and is expressed as a percentage of annual precipitation. Source: From Compilation of data from various references, Kittredge, Forest Influences, McGraw-Hill, Copyright 1948. With permission.

Table 4E.16 Interception by Various Forest Types Gross Interception Forest Type Northern hardwood Aspen — birch Spruce — spruce-fir White pine Hemlock Red pine

Stemflow

Net Interception

With Leaves (%)

Without Leaves (%)

With Leaves (%)

Without Leaves (%)

With Leaves (%)

Without Leaves (%)

Net Snow Interception (%)

20 15 35 30 30 32

17 12 — — — —

5 5 3 4 2 3

10 8 — — — —

15 10 32 26 28 29

7 4 — — — —

10 7 35 25 25 30

Source: U.S. Forest Service. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-25

Table 4E.17 Interception by Various Crops Description

Alfalfa

Corn

Soybean

Oats

During growing season: Rainfall (in.) Canopy penetration (in.) Stemflow (in.) Interception (in.) Interception (%) During low-vegetation development (%)

10.81 6.18 0.76 3.87 35.8 21.9

7.12 4.84 1.18 1.10 15.5 3.4

6.25 4.06 1.28 0.91 14.6 9.1

6.77 6.30 0.47 6.9 3.1

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

SECTION 4F

INFILTRATION

Figure 4F.8 Total annual infiltration and soil moisture in the world (in mm). (From Lvovitch, M.I., EOS, 54, 1973, Copyright by American Geophysical Union. With permission.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4F.18 Seepage Rates for Canals Canal Soil Material

Seepage (Feet per Day)

Sandy loam Gravelly loam Fine sandy loam and adobe Sand and sandy loam Loam and sandy loam Adobe Fine sandy loam

8.2 5.3 3.8 3.4 3.3 3.0 2.1

Canal Soil Material

Seepage (Feet per Day)

Loam and adobe Loam Silty clay Sand and silty clay Sand and clay Loam and gravelly loam

1.4 1.1 0.9 0.4 0.1 0.1

Note: Values are average maximum rates through the wetted area. Source: From Rohwer and Stout, Colo, Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull., 1948. With permission.

Table 4F.19 Infiltration Rate and Land Use 1. Fallow 2. Row crops, poor rotationa 3. Row crops, good rotationb 4. Pasture, poor 5. Legumes after row crops 6. Small grains, poor rotation 7. Small grains, good rotation

8. Pasture, fair 9. Woods, poor 10. Pasture, good 11. Woods, fair 12. Meadows 13. Woods, good

Notes: Rank of land uses in order of infiltration rate; first use listed has lowest rate a b

One-fourth or less in hay or sod. More than one-fourth of rotation in hay or sod.

Source: U.S. Soil Conservation Service.

Table 4F.20 Infiltration Model Classification Category Semi-empirical Homogeneous Nonhomogeneous Ponding Non-ponding Wetting and drying

Model Selected SCS model Philip’s two-term model Green-Ampt model for layered systems Green-Ampt explicit model Constant Flux Green-Ampt model Infiltration/Exfiltration model

Reference USDA-SCS (1972) Philip (1957) Flerchinger et al. (1988) Salvucci and Entekhabi (1994) Swartzendruber (1974) Eagleson (1978)

Source: From USEPA Estimation of Infiltration Rate in the Vadose Zone: Application of Selected Mathematical Models — Volume II, EPA/600/R-97/128b, 1998. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-27

Table 4F.21 Concentrations of Compounds in Highway Runoff Prior to and after Infiltration through the Second Batch of Medium Formulation Number 9: 90-Percent Sand, 5-Percent Clay, and 5-Percent Mulch Effluent After Infiltration Analyte Calcium, dissolved (mg/L) Magnesium, dissolved (mg/L) Potassium, dissolved (mg/L) Sodium, dissolved (mg/L) Chloride, dissolved (mg/L) Fluoride, dissolved (mg/L) Silica, dissolved (mg/L) Sulfate, dissolved (mg/L) NitrateCnitrite (mg/L) Suspended solids (mg/L) Dissolved solids (mg/L) Arsenic, dissolved (mg/L) Arsenic, total (mg/L) Cadmium, dissolved (mg/L) Cadmium, total (mg/L) Copper, dissolved (mg/L) Copper, total (mg/L) Iron, dissolved (mg/L) Lead, dissolved (mg/L) Lead, total (mg/L) Manganese, dissolved (mg/L) Zinc, dissolved (mg/L) Zinc, total (mg/L) Total petroleum hydrocarbons (mg/L) Calcium, dissolved (mg/L) Magnesium, dissolved (mg/L) Potassium, dissolved (mg/L) Sodium, dissolved (mg/L)

Influent Prior to Infiltration

Halfway Through Experiment

End of Experiment

Percent Changea

6.3 1.2 1.2 3.2 2.8 !0.2 7.6 11 0.83 13 48 0.3 !2 0.1 0.28 6 10.5 48 0.4 2.8 17 20 55.3 4 6.3 1.2 1.2 3.2

5.2 1.9 1.6 3.5 3.0 e 0.1 8.3 11 0.83 42 55 0.5 e 2 e 0.02 0.17 4 16.9 79 0.09 8.1 e 2 2 54.0 !2 5.2 1.9 1.6 3.5

5.1 1.8 1.6 3.4 3.0 e 0.1 7.9 11 0.80 65 52 0.7 e 1 e 0.02 0.16 4 12.9 19 e 0.06 6.4 !3 2 54.7 !2 5.1 1.8 1.6 3.4

K19 50 33 6 7 — 4 0 K4 400 8 133 — e K80 K43 K33 23 K60 e -85 129 OK82 K90 K1 OK50 K19 50 33 6

Note: mg/L, milligrams per liter; mg/L, micrograms per liter; !, less than; O, greater than; e, estimated value; — , not computed. a

Percent change was calculated using the prior-to-infiltration and end-of-experiment values.

Source: From Kenneth, C. Ames, Emily L., Inkpen, Lonna M., Frans, William R., Bidlake, Technical Report WARD 5122, Wahington State Department of Transportation.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-28

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 4G

RUNOFF

SOURIS-RED RAINY

AT

LA

GREAT LAKES

RT NO

ORN

OHIO

ARKANSAS-WHITE-RED

RI O E

ND

A GR

LOWER COLORADO

TEXAS-GULF

LOWER MISSISSIPPI

CO

IA

UPP E LOR R ADO

CALIF

GREAT BASIN

UPPER MISSISSIPPI

H

MISSOURI

NT

IC

COLUMBIA NORTH PACIFIC

E

SE

S NE

LF

GU

N TE

IC

NT

LA

H

UT

AT

SO

ALASKA

PUERTO RICO

HAWAII

Figure 4G.9 Water resources regions of the United States. (From U.S. Water Resources Council, 1968.)

Table 4G.22 World-Wide Stable Runoff, by Continent Stable Runoffa (km2) Of Underground Origin

Regulated by Lakes

Regulated by Water Reservoirs

Total

Total River Runoffb

Total Stable Runoff as Present of Total River Runoff

1,065 3,410 1,465 1,740 3,740 465 11,885

60 35 40 150 — — 285

200 560 400 490 160 30 1,840

1,325 4,005 1,905 2,380 3,900 495 14,010

3,110 13,190 4,225 5,960 10,380 1,965 38,830

43 30 45 40 38 25 36

Europe Asia Africa North America South America Australiac Total land area except polar zones a b c

Excluding flood flows. Including flood flow. Including Tasmania, New Guinea, and New Zealand.

Source: From Lvovitch, M.I., EOS, 54, 1, 1973. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-29

Figure 4G.10 Annual total river runoff in the world (includes groundwater discharge to rivers; in mm). (From Lvovitch, M.I., EOS, 54, 1973. Copyright by American Geophysical Union. With permission.)

4-30

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4G.23 Runoff in the United States Region North Atlanticb South Atlantic-Gulf Great Lakesb,c Ohiod Tennessee Upper Mississippid Lower Mississippid Souris-Red-Rainyb Missourib Arkansas-White–Red Texas-Gulf Rio Grandee Upper Coloradoe Lower Coloradod,e Great Basind Columbia-North Pacificb Californiaf Conterminous United Statesg Alaskab Hawaii United Statesg

Mean

50%a

90%a

95%a

163 197 63.2 125 41.5 64.6 48.4 6.17 54.1 95.8 39.1 4.9 13.45 3.19 5.89 210 65.1 1,201 580 13.3 1,794

163 188 61.4 125 41.5 64.6 48.4 5.95 53.7 93.4 37.5 4.9 13.45 2.51 5.82 210 64.1

123 131 46.3 80.0 28.2 36.4 29.7 2.60 29.9 44.3 15.8 2.6 8.82 1.07 3.12 154 32.8

112 116 42.4 67.5 24.4 28.5 24.6 1.91 23.9 33.4 11.4 2.1 7.50 0.85 2.46 138 25.6

—h —h

—h —h

—h —h

Note: Annual natural runoff in billions of gallons per day; regions are shown in Figure 4G.9. a

Flow exceeded in indicated percent of years. Does not include runoff from Canada. c Does not include net precipitation on the lakes. d Does not include runoff from upstream regions. e Does not include runoff from Mexico. f Virgin flow. Mean annual natural runoff estimated to be 13.7 bgd. g Rounded. h Not available. Source: U.S. Water Resources Council, 1968. b

Table 4G.24 Runoff Distribution in the United States Range in Runoff (Inches per Year) 0–0.25 0.25–0.5 0.5–1.0 1.0–2.5 2.5–5 5–10 10–20 20–40 40–80 Over 80 Total

Area (Square Miles)

Percent of Total Area

Percent of Total Runoff

306,000 380,000 266,000 413,000 247,000 258,000 830,000 290,000 30,000 2,000 3,022,000

10.1 12.6 8.8 13.7 8.2 8.5 27.4 9.6 1.0 0.1 100

0.1 .5 .8 2.8 3.6 7.4 44.8 32.4 6.9 0.7 100

Source: House of Representatives, U.S. Congress. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-31

Table 4G.25 Seasonal Variation of Natural Runoff by Regions of the United States Region

Months of High Flow

North Atlantic South Atlantic-Gulf Great Lakes Ohio Tennessee Upper Mississippi Lower Mississippi Souris-Red-Rainy Missouri Arkansas-White–Red Texas-Gulf Rio Grande Upper Colorado Lower Colorado Great Basin Columbia-North Pacific

March, April February, March April March March March, April March April March, June April, May, June March, May May June March, April June February, April, May

California

April, May

Months of Low Flow August, September September, October January, August, September September, October October January, September, October October January, February January January, September August, October June January, February June, November September, January January, February, August, September September, October, December

Source: U.S. Water Resources Council, 1968.

Average annual runoff INCHES ALASKA

0−1 1−5 PUERTO RICO

Regional data not available

5 − 20 20 − 40

HAWAII Regional data not available

Over 40

Figure 4G.11 Average annual runoff in the United States. (From U.S. Water Resources Council 1968, The Nation’s Water Resources.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-32

Table 4G.26 Runoff for National Forest and Non-National Forest Areas in Selected Western Drainage Basins Average Annual Water Production

Drainage Basin or Area Columbia (in U.S.) Colorado (in U.S.) Rio Grande above El Paso Central Valley (California only) Rogue-Umpqua Area Northwest Washington (State less Columbia) Southern California Coast (Los Angeles watershed to Mexican border) North Platte and South Platte Missouri above Fort Randall Dam Arkansas above Dodge City Source: U.S. Geological Survey.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Outside NF

NF (Percent)

Outside NF (Percent)

Whole Area (Inches)

Inches

Percent of Total Volume

Inches

Percent of Total Volume

37 19 25 32 40 32

63 81 75 68 60 68

10.4 2.5 1.7 11.8 35.5 39.3

16.7 7.2 3.8 23.5 37.0 51.4

59 56 58 63 42 41

6.7 1.3 0.9 6.4 34.2 33.7

41 44 42 37 58 59

25

75

3.7

6.3

43

2.8

57

11 9 9

89 91 91

1.7 1.7 1.2

6.2 6.9 4.7

41 37 38

1.2 1.2 0.7

59 63 62

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

NF

Area

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-33

KO

RR 5 IT O

Arctic

N

N

O

RY

R

T H W E S T

7 BR 1

Pacific C

OL

IT

IS

T E R R I T O R

16

H

N

6

ALB

UM

BI 2 A

4

11 12

ND

E O E B2 2 Q U

O N T A R I O 13

Gulf of Mexico

L

Atlantic

Hudson Bay 17

9

FO

18

D

10

MA NI TO BA 14

N

8 AS K

EW

25

15

TA

A

3

ER

21

19

25 24P . E . L

23 N . A

VA IA NO OT C S

20

200

Scale 0 200 400 600 kilometres

INQUIRY ON FEDERAL WATER POLICY

Pacific

1 2 3 4 5

River basin region Pacific Coastal Fraser-Lower Mainland Okanagan-Similkameena Columbiaa Yukona

Arctic

6 7 8

Peace-Athabasca Lower Mackenzie Arctic Coast-Islands

Gulf of Mexico

9

Missouria

Ocean basin region

Area in 000s km2

Population in 000s 1981

352 234 14 90 328

616 1 722 189 161 23

487 1 300 2 025

286 43 13

26

14

Hudson Bay

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

North Saskatchewan South Saskatchewana Assiniboine-Reda Winnipega Lower Saskatchewan-Nelson Churchill Keewatin Northern Oontario Northern Quebec

146 170 190 107 363 298 689 694 950

1 084 1 282 1 300 77 224 68 5 157 109

Atlantic

19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Great Lakesa Ottawa St. Lawrencea North Shore-Gaspé St. John-St. Croixa Maritime Coastal Newfoundland-Labrador

319 146 116 403 37 114 376

7 579 1 270 5 193 653 393 1 314 568

9 974

24 343

CANADA a

Prepared by Drafting Division, ECS

YU TE

Canadian portion only; area and population on U.S. side of international basin regions are excluded from totals.

Figure 4G.12 Drainage regions of Canada. (From Pearse, P.H., Currents of change, Final Report Inquiry on Federal Water Policy, Ottawa, Canada, 1985.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-34

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Separate storm sewer system

Separate sanitary sewer system

Combined sewer system

Storm drain Sanitary wastewater

Sanitary wastewater

Storm drain Snowmelt

Storm water

Storm drain

Sanitary wastewater

Storm water

Storm drain

Sanitary wastewater Storm drain

wastewater treatment plant Storm water point source

Erosion

Fully treated Combined effluent sewer overflow

Nonpoint source pollution Sanitary sewage/wastewater Storm water runoff with potential contaminants

Figure 4G.13 Urban runoff flows in different types of sewer systems. (From www.gao.gov. GAO water quality — better data and evaluation of urban runoff programs needed to assess effectiveness — report to Congressional requesters, U.S. General Accounting Office.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-35

Table 4G.27 Projections of Average Water Availability in the United Statesa Region

1965

1980

2000

2020

North Atlantic South Atlantic-Gulf Great Lakesb Ohio Tennessee Upper Mississippic Lower Mississippid Souris-Red-Rainye Missourif Arkansas-White–Redf Texas-Gulfg Rio Grandeh Upper Coloradoi Lower Coloradoj Great Basink Columbia-North Pacificl Californiam Alaskal Hawaii

163 197 80.3 125 41.5 66.7 408 6.2 54.5 95.8 39.1 5.2 13.5 14.1 6.9 258 69.7 710 13.3

163 197 80.3 125 41.5 66.7 401 6.4 54.6 95.9 39.2 5.3 13.5 12.6 7.0 258 69.4 710 13.3

163 197 80.3 125 41.5 66.7 395 6.8 54.8 96.0 39.2 5.3 13.5 11.9 7.1 258 69.3 710 13.3

163 197 80.3 125 41.5 66.7 390 6.8 54.9 96.0 39.2 5.3 13.5 11.6 7.2 258 69.2 710 13.3

Note: Values in billion gallons per day; for regions, see Figure 4G.9. a b c d e f g h i j k l m

Nature runoff adjusted for imports and upstream runoff where appropriate, values rounded. Includes net precipitation of U.S. portion of Great Lakes. Includes import from Great Lakes Region. Includes net upstream runoff and imports. Includes import from Missouri Region. Includes imports from Upper Colorado Region. Includes import from Arkansas-White–Red Region. Includes imports from Upper Colorado Region and Mexican Treaty deliveries. Virgin flow at Lee Ferry Compact point. Includes net upstream runoff. Includes imports from Upper Colorado Region and nature runoff from California Region. Includes natural runoff from Canada. Includes imports from Lower Colorado Region.

Source: U.S. Water Resources Council, 1968.

Table 4G.28 Values of Runoff Coefficient in the Rational Formula Types of Drainage Area Lawns: Sandy soil, flat, 2% Sandy soil, average, 2–7% Sandy soil, steep, 7% Heavy soil, flat, 2% Heavy soil, average, 2–7% Heavy soil, steep, 7% Business: Downtown areas Neighborhood areas Residential: Single-family areas Multi units, detached Multi units, attached Suburban Apartment dwelling areas

Runoff Coefficient (C) 0.05–0.10 0.10–0.15 0.15–0.20 0.13–0.17 0.18–0.22 0.25–0.35 0.70–0.95 0.50–0.70 0.30–0.50 0.40–0.60 0.60–0.75 0.25–0.40 0.50–0.70

Type of Drainage Area Industrial: Light areas Heavy areas Parks, cemeteries Playgrounds Railroad yard areas Unimproved areas Streets: Asphaltic Concrete Brick: Drives and walks Roofs

Runoff Coefficient (C) 0.50–0.80 0.60–0.90 0.10–0.25 0.20–0.35 0.20–0.40 0.10–0.30 0.70–0.95 0.80–0.95 0.70–0.85 0.75–0.85 0.75–0.95

Note: Formula is applicable to drainage areas less than about 5000 acres and has the form QZCiA where Q is peak discharge in cfs, C is a dimensionless runoff coefficient, i is rainfall intensity for the time of concentration in inches per hour, and A is drainage area in acres. Source: Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-36

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4G.29 Watershed Characteristics for Determining Runoff Coefficient in the Rational Formula Designation of Watershed Characteristics Relief

Soil infiltration

Vegetal cover

Surface storage

Runoff-Producing Characteristics 100 Extreme

75 High

50 Normal

(20) Rolling, with average (40) Steep, rugged terrain, (30) Hilly, with average slopes of 10–30% slopes of 5–10% with average slopes generally above 30% (20) No effective soil cover, (15) Slow to take up water; (10) Normal; deep loam either rock or thin soil clay or other soil of low with infiltration about mantle of negligible infiltration capacity, such equal to that of typical infiltration capacity as heavy gumbo prairie soil (20) No effective plant (15) Poor to fair; clean(10) Fair to good; about cover; bare or very cultivated crops or poor 50% of drainage area in sparse cover natural cover; less than good grassland, 10% of drainage area woodland, or equivalent under good cover cover; not more than 50% of area in cleancultivated crops (10) Normal; considerable (15) Low; well-defined (20) Negligible; surface surface-depression system of small depressions few and storage; drainage drainage-ways; no ponds shallow; drainage-ways system similar to that of or marshes steep and small; no typical prairie lands; ponds or marshes lakes, ponds and marshes less than 2% of drainage area

25 Low (10) Relatively flat land, with average slopes of 0–5% (5) High; deep sand or other soil that takes up water readily and rapidly (5) Good to excellent; about 90% of drainage area in good grassland, woodland, or equivalent cover

(5) High; surface-depression storage high; drainage system not sharply defined; large flood-plain storage or a large number of lakes, ponds, or marshes

Note: For each watershed characteristic in left column select appropriate descriptive box; add four numerical values given in parentheses to obtain runoff coefficient as a percentage. Source: U.S. Soil Conservation Service.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Table 4G.30 Time of Concentration of a Watershed Height (Feet) Length (Feet) 200 400 600 800 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 7,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000

5

10

20

40

60

100

200

400

600

800

1000

2 5 8 10 14 28 48 65 100 150 240 330 430 600 870 1080

2 4 6 8 10 21 35 50 65 100 180 270 350 500 660 840

1 3 4 6 8 17 27 36 48 70 120 210 280 450 510 600

1 2 3 5 6 13 20 28 35 52 85 150 210 320 420 480

1 2 3 4 5 10 17 24 28 42 70 120 180 280 360 430

1 1 2 3 4 9 13 19 22 34 54 90 140 230 300 360

1 2 2 3 7 10 14 19 27 40 60 95 170 240 300

1 2 2 5 8 11 14 20 28 46 65 120 180 230

1 2 2 4 7 9 12 17 25 44 54 100 150 190

1 2 4 6 8 11 15 22 34 48 90 130 160

2 3 5 7 9 13 20 30 43 75 120 150

Note: Values are time in minutes for water to travel from the most distant point in a watershed to the watershed outlet. Length is distance along the main stream from the watershed outlet to the most distant ridge; height is difference in elevation between the watershed outlet and the most distant ridge. Source: From Kirpich, Civil Eng, 1940.

4-37

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-38

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4G.31 Total Impervious Area for Specific Land-Use Categories Typical Values of Total Impervious Area (Precent) Land-Use Category a

Single-family residential Multifamily residentialb Commercialc Industriald Public facilitiese Parks and undeveloped landf a b c d e f

Low

Intermediate

High

16 50 80 50 50 0

27 60 88 75 60 1

45 70 95 90 75 3

Single-family residential — Single-family dwellings predominate. Multifamily residential — Multiple-family units predominate. These include duplexes, apartment buildings, and condominiums. Commercial — Zone consisting of various types of business. Industrial — Manufacturing complexes, railroad yards, and large utilities. Public facilities — School, hospitals, churches, airports, and other public buildings. Parks and undeveloped land-parks, forests, and open undeveloped land.

Source: From Conger, D.H., Estimating magnitude and frequency of floods for wisconsin urban streams, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources investigations Report 86-4005, 1986.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-39

SECTION 4H

EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION

Table 4H.32 Drainage Area, Water and Suspended Sediment Discharges for Major Rivers of the World

River North America St. Lawrence (Canada) Hudson (U.S.A.) Mississippi (U.S.A.) (including Atchafalaya) Brazos (U.S.A.) Colorado (Mexico) Eel (U.S.A.) Columbia (U.S.A.) Fraser (Canada) Yukon (U.S.A.) Copper (U.S.A.) Susitna (U.S.A.) MacKenzie (Canada) Total North America South America Chira (Peru) Magdalena (Colombia) Orinoco (Venezuela) Amazon (Brazil) Sao Francisco (Brazil) La Plata (Argentina) Negro (Argentina) Total South America Europe Rhone (France) Po (Italy) Danube (Romania) Semani (Albania) Drini (Albania) Total Europe Eurasian Arctic Yana (U.S.S.R.) Ob (U.S.S.R.) Yenisei (U.S.S.R.) Severnay Dvina (U.S.S.R.) Lena (U.S.S.R.) Kolyma (U.S.S.R.) Indigirka (U.S.S.R.) Total Euras. Arctic Asia Amur (U.S.S.R.) Liaohe (China) Daling (China) Haiho (China) Yellow (Huangho) (China) Yangtze (China) Huaihe (China) Pearl (Zhu Jiang) (China) Hungho (Vietnam) Mekong (Vietnam) Irrawaddy (Burma) Ganges/Brahmaputra (Bangladesh) Mehandi (India)

Sediment Discharge Millions of Tons per Year

Drainage Area (!106 km2)

Water Discharge (km3 yr)

Strakhov (1961) and Lisitzin (1972)

1.03 0.02 3.27

447 12 580

4 36 500

4 — 349

4 1 210

0.11 0.64 0.008 0.67 0.22 0.84 0.06 0.05 1.81 9.57

7 20 — 251 112 195 39 40 306

32 135 — 36 — 88 — — 15

32 135 16 9 — — — — —

16 0.1 14 8 20 60 70 25 100 528

0.02 0.24 0.99 6.15 0.64 2.83 0.10 10.85

5 237 1100 6300 97 470 30

— — 86 498 — 129 —

— — 86 364 — 82 —

4-75 220 210 900 6 92 13 1420

0.09 0.07 0.81 — 0.01 0.97

49 46 206 — —

31 18 67 — —

— 15 19 22 15

10 15 67 ? ? 92

0.22 2.50 2.58 0.35 2.50 0.64 0.36 9.15

29 385 560 106 514 71 55

3 16 13 4.5 15 6 14

— 15 — — — — —

3 16 13 4.5 12 6 14 68

1.85 0.17 0.02 0.05 0.77 1.94 0.26 0.44 0.12 0.79 0.43 1.48

325 6 1 2 49 900 — 302 123 470 428 971

25 — — — 1890 500 — — 130 170 299 2180

— — — — 1890 502 — 27 130 170 300 2180

52 41 36 81 1080 478 14 69 130 160 265 1670

0.13

67

—

62

2

Holeman (1968)

Milliman and Meade (1983)

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-40

Table 4H.32

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Strakhov (1961) and Lisitzin (1972)

0.02 0.31 0.97 1.05 9.74

10 84 238 46

— — 435 105

28 — 440 53

? 96 100 ? 4334

2.96 1.21 3.82 1.02 1.20 0.41 0.18 0.032 7.48

30 192 1250 11 223 5 9 —

110 67 65 153 100 — — —

111 4 64 — — — — —

0 40 43 17 20 33 17 32 175

1.06 — 0.001 0.061 0.031 0.003 0.003 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 1.074

22 — 6 77 77 6 9 2 4 4 4 39

32 — —

32 — —

— — — — — —

— — — — — —

30 28 13 30 80 66 39 28 19 17 16 336

Drainage Area (!106 km2)

River Damodar (India) Godavari (India) Indus (Pakistan) Tigris-Euphrates (Iraq) Total Asia Africa Nile (Egypt) Niger (Nigeria) Zaire (Zaire) Orange (S. Africa) Zambesi (Mozambique) Limpopo (Mozambique) Rufiji (Tanzania) Tana (Kenya) Total Africa (minus Nile) Oceania Murray (Aust.) Waiapu (N.Z.) Haast (N.Z.) Fly (New Guinea) Purari (New Guinea) Choshui (Taiwan) Kaoping (Taiwan) Tsengwen (Taiwan) Hualien (Taiwan) Peinan (Taiwan) Hsiukuluan (Taiwan) Total Oceania (excluding Murray)

Sediment Discharge Millions of Tons per Year

Water Discharge (km3 yr)

Holeman (1968)

Milliman and Meade (1983)

Source: From Milliman, J.D., and Meade, R.H., World-wide Delivery of River sediment to oceans Copyright. J. Geol., 91, 1, 1983. With permission. Table 4H.33 Losses of Land by Riverbank Erosion in the United States Region North Atlantic South Atlantic-Gulf Great Lakes Ohio Tennessee Upper Mississippi Lower Mississippi Souris-Red-Rainy Missouri Arkansas-White–Red Texas-Gulf Rio Grande Upper Colorado Lower Colorado Great Basin Columbia-North Pacific California Alaska Hawaii Puerto Rico

Areas of Significant Erosion River-miles Not significant 5,100 Not significant Not significant Not significant Not available 1,044 Not available 1,692 2,300 1,698 250 Not available Not available 265 13,500 2,600 80,000 Not significant Not available

Note: Estimated average annual losses as of 1966; for regions see Figure 4G.9. Source: U.S. Water Resources Council, 1968. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Average Land Losses Acres/yr Not significant 350 Not significant Not significant Not significant Not available 4,705 Not available 5,000 7,300 1,045 150 Not available Not available 150 1,300 3,837 5,000 Not significant Not available

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-41

Table 4H.34 Losses of Land by Erosion of Beaches and Estuary Shores in the United States Region

Average Annual Land Losses Acres/mile 0.12 0.11 0.07 — 0.27 0.02 0.13 0.06 0.24 —

North Atlantic South Atlantic-Gulf Great Lakes Lower Mississippi Texas-Gulf Columbia-North Pacific California Alaska Hawaii Puerto Rico

Note: Estimated average annual losses as of 1966; for regions see Figure 4G.9. Source: U.S. Water Resources Council, 1968.

Table 4H.35 Erosion Problems in the Public Domain of the United States Extent of Erosion Region Missouri Arkansas-White–Red Rio Grande Upper Colorado Lower Colorado Great Basin Columbia-North Pacific California Total

Slight

Moderate

Critical

Total

7.5 0.1 1.3 4.1 2.4 15.4 14.6 6.8 52.2

9.0 0.4 6.4 14.4 13.8 20.1 8.5 5.4 78.0

5.2 0.2 3.6 8.3 7.9 11.6 5.0 3.2 45.0

21.7 0.7 11.3 26.8 24.1 47.1 28.1 15.4 175.2

Note: Values in millions of acres; conterminous United States only; for regions see Figure 4G.9. Source: U.S. Water Resources Council, 1968.

Figure 4H.14 Total erosion on cropland and Conservation Reserve Program Land. (From USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1997 National Resources Inventory, revised December 2000, www.nrcs.usda.gov.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-42

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Erosion Billion tons per year

3.50

Total = 3.07

3.00 2.50

1.38

Total = 2.92 Includes erosion on both cropland and Conservation Reserve Program land Total = 2.16 1.40

2.00

Total = 1.90 0.95

1.50 1.00

1.69

1.52

0.50

1.21

0.84

1.06

0.00 1982

1987

1992

1997 Wind Sheet & Rill

Figure 4H.15 Changes in erosion, 1982–1997. (From www.nrcs.usda.gov.)

Each red dot represents 5,000 acres of highly erodible land (57.3 million acres) and each yellow dot represents 5,000 acres of non-highly erodible land (50.5 million acres) with excess erosion above the tolerable soil erosion rate.

Hawaii Pacific Basin (No Data) Northern Marianas

108 million acres have excessive erosion with a total of 1.3 billion tons of erosion.

Guam American Samoa

Alaska (No Data) U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service Resource Assessment Division Washington DC December 2000

Excess erosion leads to water quality concerns from sediments, nutrients, and pesticides as well as air quality in wind erosion areas of the West, Midwest, Northern Plains, and Southern Plains. Puerto Rico / U.S. Virgin Islands Excess erosion is also an indicator of forgone opportunities for improving soil, water and air quality, sequestering carbon dioxide, and helping in goals to reduce greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Map ID: m5083 For proper interpretation, see Explanation of Analyis for this map at our web site. Search for "USDASOTL" to locate our map index.

Figure 4H.16 Excessive erosion on cropland, 1997. (From www.nrcs.usda.gov.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

95% or more Federal area

Data Source: 1997 National Resources Inventory Revised December 2000

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-43

Each blue dot represents 200,000 tons of erosion due to water. 1,068 million tons per year. Each red dot represents 200,000 tons of erosion due to wind. 840 million tons per year.

Hawaii Pacific Basin (No Data) Northern Marianas

Total 1.9 billion tons per year.

Guam

Sheet and rill (water) erosion mostly occurs in areas east of the Corn Belt and Southern Plains. Wind erosion is mostly in the West, Northern Plains, Southern Plains, and parts of the Corn Belt. Several parts of the country battle difficult problems with both wind and water erosion.

American Samoa

Puerto Rico / U.S. Virgin Islands

Alaska (No Data) U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service Resource Assessment Division Washington DC December 2000

Map ID: m5112 For proper interpretation, see Explanation of Analyis for this map at our web site. Search for "USDASOTL" to locate our map index.

Figure 4H.17 Total wind and water erosion, 1997. (From www.nrcs.usda.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Data Source: 1997 National Resources Inventory Revised December 2000

4-44

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Tons/Acre/Year

Hawaii Pacific Basin (No Data) Northern Marianas

41 million acres are eroding at a rate above 5 tons/acre/year. The national erosion rate averages 2.6 tons/acre/year. Total erosion equals 1,068 million tons.

Guam American Samoa

Data are only displayed where cropland and Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) land are 5% or more of the total area. Gully erosion is also excluded from the analysis. Alaska (No Data) U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service Resource Assessment Division Washington DC December 2000

Figure 4H.18

8 or more 4.6% of erosion 0.8% of watersheds 5 to 8 19.6% of erosion 5.9% of watersheds 3 to 5 36.0% of erosion 15.2% of watersheds 1 to 3 34.5% of erosion 27.2% of watersheds Less than 1 4.2% of erosion 18.2% of watersheds Less than 5% cropland and CRP 1.1% or erosion 32.7% of watersheds 95% or more Federal area Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands

Watersheds are defined as U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Cataloging Units (8-digit). Map ID: m5058 For proper interpretation, see Explanation of Analysis for this map at our web site. Search for ''USDASOTL'' to locate our map index.

Data Source: 1997 National Resources Inventory Revised December 2000

Average annual soil erosion by water on cropland and Conservation Reserve Program land, 1997. (From www.nrcs.usda.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-45

Tons/Acre/Year

Hawaii Pacific Basin (No Data) Northern Marianas There was a net decrease of 1.4 tons/acre/year between 1982 and 1997

Guam

Data are only displayed where cropland and Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) land are 5% or more of the total area. Gully erosion is also excluded from the analysis.

American Samoa

Alaska (No Data) U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service Resource Assessment Division Washington DC January 2001

Increase > 0.5 0.9% of change 3.0% of watersheds Little change 5.8% of change 30.3% of watersheds Decrease of 0.5 to 2 29.1% of change 20.3% of watersheds Decrease of 2 to 4 25.4% of change 7.6% of watersheds Decrease > 4 35.6% of change 7.6% of watersheds Less than 5% cropland and CRP 3.2% of change 33.5% of watersheds 95% or more Federal area Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands

Watersheds are defined as U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Cataloging Units (8-digit). Map ID: m5060 For proper interpretation, see Explanation of Analysis for this map at our web site. Search for ''USDASOTL'' to locate our map index.

Data Source: 1997 National Resources Inventory Revised December 2000

Figure 4H.19 Change in average annual soil erosion by water on cropland and Conservation Reserve Program land, 1982–1997. (From www.nrcs.usda.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-46

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Tons/Acre/Year 8 or more 40.9% of erosion 3.2% of watersheds 5 to 8 13.1% of erosion 2.6% of watersheds 3 to 5 18.7% of erosion 5.2% of watersheds 1 to 3 22.3% of erosion 12.5% of watersheds Less than 1 3.4% of erosion 43.8% of watersheds Less than 5% Cropland and CRP 1.6% or erosion 32.7% of watersheds 95% or more Federal area Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands

Hawaii Pacific Basin (No Data) Northern Marianas 41 million acres are eroding at a rate above 5 tons/acre/year. The national erosion rate averages 2.0 tons/acre/year. Total erosion equals 840 million tons.

Guam American Samoa

Data are only displayed where cropland and Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) land are 5% or more of the total area. Watersheds are defined as U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Cataloging Units (8-digit).

Alaska (No Data) U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service Resource Assessment Division Washington DC December 2000

Figure 4H.20

Map ID: m5065 For proper interpretation, see Explanation of Analysis for this map at our web site. Search for ''USDASOTL'' to locate our map index.

Data Source: 1997 National Resources Inventory Revised December 2000

Average annual soil erosion by wind on cropland and Conservation Reserve Program land, 1997. (From www.nrcs.usda.gov.)

Table 4H.36 Selected Quantitative Effects of Man’s Activities on Surface Erosion Initial Status of Land Use

Type of Disturbance

Forestland Grassland Forestland Forestland Forestland Forestland Row crop Pastureland Forestland

Planting row crops Planting row crops Building logging roads Woodcutting and skidding Fire Mining Construction Construction Construction

a

Magnitude of Specific Disturbancea 100 to 1,000 Times 20 to 100 Times 220 Times 1.6 Times 7 to 1,500 Times 1,000 Times 10 Times 200 Times 2,000 Times

Relative magnitude of surface erosion from disturbed surface, assuming “I” for the initial status. The first row of the table, for example, indicates that transforming a forestland into row crops may increase surface erosion 100 to 1000 times. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Loading Functions for Assessments of Water Pollution from Non-Point Sources, Environmental Protection Technology Series, Washington, DC, 1976. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-47

Table 4H.37 Representative Rates of Erosion from Various Land Uses Land Use

Amount of Erosion (Tons/Square Mile/Year)

Rate of Erosion Relative to ForestZ1

24 240 2,400 4,800 12,000 48,000 48,000

1 10 100 200 500 2,000 2,000

Forest Grassland Abandoned Surface Mines Cropland Harvested Forest Active Surface Mines Construction

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Methods For Identifying and Evaluating the Nature and Extent of Nonpoint Source of Pollutants, EPA 430/9-73-014, Washington, DC, 1973.

Table 4H.38 Estimated Average Annual Sheet and Rill Erosion on Nonfederal Land, by State and Year (Data in tons/acre/year) Cropland State

Year

Cultivated

Noncultivated

Total

CRP Land

Pastureland

Alabama

1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987

7.6 6.5 7.0 6.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 3.8 3.8 3.5 3.5 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.7 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.7 4.8 5.7 6.1 5.6 2.1 2.0 2.1 2.0 2.4 2.1 1.8 1.8 6.2 6.1 5.5 5.9 5.3 5.1 4.6 2.5 5.0 4.4

0.8 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.6 1.2 1.4 0.7 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.6 0.3 3.0 2.8 2.8 3.3 0.4 0.3

7.2 6.0 6.3 6.0 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 3.7 3.7 3.4 3.4 1.1 1.0 0.8 0.6 1.9 2.0 1.8 1.5 2.6 3.1 3.3 2.7 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.0 1.8 1.4 1.2 1.2 5.9 5.7 5.0 5.2 5.0 4.8 4.3 2.7 4.3 3.7

— 3.0 0.6 1.0 — — — — — 0.7 0.7 0.6 — 2.4 1.1 0.3 — 2.2 0.8 0.4 — — — — — — 0.1 0.1 — 0.5 0.6 0.4 — 2.1 0.5 0.2 — — — — — 2.9

0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.4 0.4

Arizona

Arkansas

California

Colorado

Connecticut

Delaware

Florida

Georgia

Hawaii

Idaho

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-48

Table 4H.38

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Cropland

State

Illinois

Indiana

Iowa

Kansas

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan

Minnesota

Mississippi

Missouri

Montana

Nebraska

Year

Cultivated

Noncultivated

Total

CRP Land

Pastureland

1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982

3.5 3.4 6.3 5.3 4.4 4.1 4.8 4.4 3.4 3.0 7.7 6.5 5.6 4.9 2.7 2.6 2.3 2.2 8.3 8.2 5.8 4.4 4.7 4.1 3.5 3.3 3.6 4.0 3.1 3.9 5.6 5.3 5.0 4.4 5.7 5.9 4.1 4.5 2.5 2.5 2.3 2.0 2.6 2.6 2.3 2.1 7.7 6.6 5.7 5.3 10.9 8.4 6.6 5.6 2.1 2.3 2.0 1.9 4.8

0.4 0.4 1.2 1.5 1.6 0.6 1.1 0.9 1.1 0.9 1.8 1.5 1.1 0.8 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.3 1.3 2.0 1.8 1.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.3 2.8 2.3 1.3 1.2 1.0 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.7

2.9 2.8 6.2 5.2 4.3 4.0 4.7 4.2 3.3 2.9 7.5 6.3 5.4 4.7 2.5 2.5 2.2 2.1 6.9 6.6 4.5 3.4 4.6 4.0 3.4 3.2 1.7 1.8 1.3 1.7 5.2 5.1 4.6 4.0 1.7 1.7 1.3 1.2 2.2 2.2 1.9 1.6 2.4 2.5 2.2 2.0 7.6 6.5 5.5 5.0 9.6 7.4 5.5 4.5 1.8 2.0 1.7 1.6 4.5

1.5 1.3 — 4.3 1.2 0.5 — 1.7 0.4 0.3 — 0.8 0.5 0.5 — 2.3 0.4 0.3 — 4.2 0.9 0.9 — 0.6 0.2 0.6 — — 0.1 0.2 — 1.0 1.3 1.0 — — — — — 3.8 0.6 0.2 — 1.3 0.3 0.2 — 4.4 2.6 1.1 — 6.3 1.1 0.7 — 0.8 0.2 0.2 —

0.4 0.5 1.6 1.3 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.7 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.0 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 1.1 1.1 1.0 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.2 2.0 1.7 1.6 1.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.9 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Table 4H.38

4-49

(Continued) Cropland

State

Nevada

New Hampshire

New Jersey

New Mexico

New York

North Carolina

North Dakota

Ohio

Oklahoma

Oregon

Pennsylvania

Rhode Island

South Carolina

South Dakota

Year

Cultivated

Noncultivated

Total

CRP Land

Pastureland

1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997

4.2 3.5 2.9 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 4.1 4.4 3.7 3.5 6.7 6.7 5.5 5.6 1.2 0.9 1.0 0.9 4.0 4.1 4.0 3.9 6.4 6.3 5.6 5.0 1.9 2.0 1.5 1.4 3.8 3.7 3.3 2.6 2.7 3.0 2.9 2.8 4.6 3.4 3.2 3.1 7.0 6.9 5.8 5.1 7.0 5.0 4.8 3.5 4.0 3.9 3.3 3.2 2.8 2.6 2.2 2.0

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 1.0 1.1 0.8 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.7 1.5 1.0 1.4 1.0 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.3 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.4 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.7 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 2.2 1.6 1.8 1.9 1.4 1.0 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2

3.9 3.3 2.7 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.4 1.3 0.8 0.9 5.5 5.7 4.3 4.3 1.0 0.7 0.8 0.7 2.6 2.7 2.4 2.3 6.1 6.0 5.3 4.6 1.8 1.8 1.4 1.3 3.6 3.5 3.1 2.5 2.6 2.9 2.8 2.8 3.8 2.6 2.5 2.3 4.8 5.0 4.2 3.8 3.0 2.9 2.5 2.2 3.9 3.8 3.1 3.0 2.5 2.3 2.0 1.7

1.5 0.7 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 — — — — — — 0.3 0.3 — 1.0 0.4 0.2 — 3.8 0.5 0.3 — 15.7 4.5 1.2 — 1.1 0.3 0.2 — 3.4 0.5 0.3 — 1.1 0.4 0.3 — 2.9 0.4 0.4 — 1.7 1.0 0.3 — — — — — 3.9 1.7 0.5 — 2.6 0.4 0.1

0.8 0.7 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.7 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 2.3 1.7 1.7 1.7 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-50

Table 4H.38

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Cropland

State

Year

Cultivated

Noncultivated

Total

CRP Land

Pastureland

Tennessee

1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997 1982 1987 1992 1997

11.0 10.8 9.1 7.7 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.6 4.6 4.2 3.4 3.1 6.6 6.4 6.4 5.9 6.1 7.0 5.0 4.7 7.3 9.2 4.7 4.3 4.7 4.1 3.8 3.7 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.1 11.1 11.2 12.1 12.2 4.4 4.0 3.5 3.1

0.9 1.0 0.9 0.6 0.9 1.2 0.7 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.5 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.8 1.5 2.0 0.7 1.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 11.9 13.1 15.4 13.2 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7

9.4 9.1 7.1 5.6 2.6 2.5 2.6 2.6 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.2 5.3 4.9 4.5 3.9 5.5 6.2 4.4 4.0 2.5 2.8 1.7 1.4 4.1 3.7 3.2 3.3 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 11.2 11.5 12.9 12.7 4.0 3.7 3.1 2.8

— 9.5 0.8 0.7 — 0.6 0.3 0.2 — 3.2 1.3 0.9 — — — — — 0.8 0.8 0.5 — 2.4 0.5 0.6 — 0.7 0.3 0.0 — 4.5 0.7 0.6 — 1.6 0.6 0.2 — — — — — 2.0 0.6 0.4

0.8 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.3 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.3 4.2 5.4 6.1 6.0 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 7.0 7.3 8.0 6.4 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9

Texas

Utah

Vermont

Virginia

Washington

West Virginia

Wisconsin

Wyoming

Caribbean

National average

Source: www.nrcs.usda.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

River and Location Little Colorado at Woodruff, Arizona Canadian River near Amarillo, Texas Colorado River near San Saba, Texas Bighorn River at Kane, Wyoming Green River at Green River, Utah Colorado River near Cisco, Utah Iowa River at Iowa City, Iowa Mississippi River at Red River Landing, Louisiana Sacramento River at Sacramento, California Flint River near Montezuma, Georgia Juniata River near New Port, Pennsylvania Delaware River at Trenton, New Jersey a b c

Elevation (ft)

Drainage Area (sq mi)

5,129

8,100

2,989

19,445

1,096

Average Discharge, Q (cfs) 63.3

Discharge D Drainage Area (cfs/sq mi)

Years of Record in Samplea

Average Suspended Load

Average Dissolved Load (millions of tons/yr)

Total Average Suspended and Dissolved Load

Total Average Load D Drainage Area (tons sq mi/yr)

Dissolved Load as Percent of Total Load (%)

0.0078

6

1.6

0.02

1.62

199

1.2

621

0.032

1

6.41

0.124

6.53

336

1.9

30,600

1,449

0.047

5

3.02

0.208

3.23

105

6.4

3,609

15,900

2,391

0.150

1

1.60

0.217

1.82

114

12

4,040

40,600

6,737

0.166

26–20

19

2.5

21.5

530

12

4,090

24,100

8,457

0.351

25–20

15

4.4

19.4

808

23

627

3,271

1,517

0.464

3

510

29

1,144,500b

569,500b

0.497

3

337

26

0

27,000c

25,000c

0.926

3

2.85

2.29

5.14

190

44

256

2,900

3,528

1.22

1

0.400

0.132

0.53

183

25

364

3,354

4,329

1.29

7

0.322

0.566

0.89

265

64

8

6,780

11,730

1.73

9–4

1.003

0.830

1.83

270

45

1.184 284

0.485 101.8

1.67 385.8

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Table 4H.39 Dissolved and Suspended Sediment Loads in Selected Rivers of the United States

Computation of load, dissolved or suspended, depends on discharge for same period. Years of record pertain to number of years used for related values of discharge and of suspended and dissolved load. Where two figures are shown, the first is for suspended load and the second is for dissolved load. From USGS records for Vicksburg, Mississippi station. Estimated.

Source: From Leopold, Wolman, and Miller, Fluvial Processes in Geomorphology, W.H. Freeman and Company, 1964. With permission.

4-51

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-52

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4H.40 Discharge of Suspended Sediment to the Coastal Zone by 10 Major rivers of the United States, About 1980 Rivers

Average Annual Sediment Discharge (million ton/yr)

Rivers that discharge the largest sediment loads: Mississippi Copper Yukon Susitna Eel Brazos Columbia: Before Mount St. Helens eruption Since Mount St. Helens eruptionapproximate Rivers with large drainage areas: St. Lawrence Rio Grande Colorado

230a 80 65 25 15 11 10 40

1.5 0.8 0.1

a Includes Atchafalaya River. Source: From Meade, R.H., Parker, R.S., Sediment in rivers of the United States, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2275, National Water Summary 1984, 1985.

Columbia River 10

Before Mount St. Helens eruption

St. Lawerence River 1.5

After eruption 40

Eel River 15

Susquehanna River 2 Potomac River 1.3

Colorado River

Peedee River 0.6

0.1

11 Brazos River Concentration of suspended sediment in rivers, in milligrams per liter Less than 300

2000−6000

300−2000

More than 6000

Rio Grande

0.8

230

Mississippi River

Discharge of suspended sediment to the coastal zone, in millions of tons per year 15

(Area of semicircle is proportional to sediment volume)

Figure 4H.21 Concentration of suspended sediment in rivers and discharge of suspended sediment to the coastal zone in the conterminous United States. (From Meade, R.H., Parker, R.S., Sediment in the rivers of the United States, National Water Summary 1984, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2275, 1984.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-53

Table 4H.41 Dimension and Rate of Formation of Modern Deltas Dimension of Subaerial Delta, Statute Mi River

Length

Breadth

12

30

300 220

470a 200

30

47

46 96 43

46 145 0.05–0.6

350

90

Mississippi’s present bird-foot delta Hwang-Ho Ganges-Brahmaputra Rhone into Mediterranean Sea Danube Nile (prior to barrages) Colorado above Hoover Dam Euphrates Tigris

Amount of Sediment Discharged

Annual Extension of Subaerial Delta

River Water by Annual Volume of Measurement Weight (avg), ppm Sediment (mi3) Period (yr) 550 50,000b 870 400–590 310 1600 8300

0.068

Approximate Distance (ft)

1838–1947

250

1870–1937

950

0.043 (Ganges only) 0.005

1737–1870

190

0.008 0.001 0.032

1100–1870 1936–1948 1793–1853

40 45 3.6 mi (gorge) 180

a

Includes 100 ml of nondeltaic Shantung Peninsula. Maximum is 400,000 ppm. Source: From McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of the Geological Sciences. Copyright 1978. With permission. b

Table 4H.42 Water Storage Capacity and the Capacity Lost Annually Due to Sedimentation in the Conterminous United States

Farm Production Region

Total Water Storage Capacity (million ac-ft)

Usable Water Storage Capacity (million ac-ft)

Estimated Water Storage Capacity Lost (%)

36.5 59.5 73.6 29.3 39.7 42.7 78.9 110.3 167.1 90.7 728.3

25.2 30.6 47.6 19.5 15.2 20.1 54.4 46.6 138.1 74.7 472.1

0.08 0.13 0.17 0.27 0.26 0.21 0.23 0.19 0.18 0.49 0.22

Northeast Appalachian Southeast Lake States Corn Belt Delta States Northern Plains Southern Plains Mountain Pacific United States (Lower 48)

Estimated Water Storage Stream Capacity Lost Sediment (thousand Originating on ac-ft) Cropland (%)

Note: Reservoirs with 5000 acre-feet or more total capacity. Source: From Crowder, B.M., J Soil Water Conserv., Soil Conserv. Soc. Am., 1987. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

28.1 75.5 127.3 79.1 104.8 87.5 184.6 207.4 302.5 441.6 1,638.5

29 29 33 64 63 41 36 19 8 9

Reservoir Sedimentation from Cropland (thousand ac-ft) 8.2 21.9 42.0 50.6 66.0 35.9 66.5 39.4 24.2 39.7 394.4

4-54

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Percent 0−10 10−25 25−40 40−60 60−90 No data

Hawaii (No Data) Pacific Basin (No Data) Northern Marianas

Guam American Samoa Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands (No Data)

Alaska (No Data)

U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service

Map ID: 4124 For proper interpretation, see Explanation

Figure 4H.22 Percent conservation tillage. (From www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Source: Conservation Technology Information Center,1998

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-55

Figure 4H.23 Water erosion vulnerability. (From www.soils.usda.gov.) Table 4H.43 Matrix of Laws Relating to Beach Nourishment Law P.L. 71-520 of 1930

Provisions

Authorized the USACE to conduct shoreline erosion control studies (not construction) in cooperation with state governments; the Beach Erosion Board (BEB) was also established P.L. 79-727 of 1946 Expanded the use of federal funds to now include one third of construction costs in addition to the studies for projects along publicly owned shores Gave coastal states authority over the resources of Submerged Lands Act of submerged lands from the shore out to three miles 1953 (43 USC 1301 and seaward following) Provided for the federal government to manage the Outer Continental Shelf mineral resources of the OCS lying on or under the Lands Act of 1953 (43 seabed that extends seaward from state waters out to USC 1331 and following) the edge of the shelf P.L. 84-826 of 1956 Expanded the authority for federal shore protection to include privately owned shores where substantial public benefits would result; also defined periodic renourishment as construction for the protection of shores for a period of usually ten years Under Section 103 (33 USC 426g), the Corps was River and Harbor Act (33 authorized to participate in the cost of protecting the USC 401 and following) of shores of publicly owned property and private property 1962 (P.L. 87-874) and where public benefits result; increased federal aid from 1968 (P.L. 980-483) one third to 100 percent for shore protection study costs leading to authorization; also increased federal participation in the cost of beach erosion and shore protection to 50 percent of the construction cost when the beaches were publicly owned or used, and 70 percent for seashore parks and conservation areas when certain conditions of ownership and use of the beaches were met

Relevance First federal involvement in shoreline protection activities

Expanded federal involvement as a result of major hurricanes Affected the availability of offshore sand for beach nourishment Affected the availability of offshore sand for beach nourishment

Federal authority now included shore protection on privately owned shores where public benefits result

Resulted in a large number of studies and subsequent authorizations in the 1950’s and 60’s; Required USACE to fund mitigation for downdrift erosion caused by federal navigation works

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 4H.43

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Law

P.L. 88-172 of 1963

Provisions Under Section 111 (33 USC 426i), mitigation could be conducted for shoreline erosion that results from federal navigation works Established the Coastal Engineering Research Board (CERB) and the Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC), replacing the Beach Erosion Board

Coastal Zone Management Required all federal agencies with activities directly Act of 1972 (16 USC 1451 affecting the coastal zone, or with development and following) (P.L. projects within the zone, to assure that those activities 92-583) or projects are consistent with the approved state Coastal Zone Management Program

Coastal Barrier Resources Established the Coastal Barrier Resources System Act of 1982 (16 USC 3501 (CBRS); areas in the CBRS may no longer receive and following) (P.L. federal financial assistance for new construction or 97-384) improvements. The CBRS was greatly expanded with the passage of the Coastal Barrier Improvement Act (CBIA) of 1990 (P.L. 101-591) Water Resources Established a broad congressional policy to encourage Development Act (33 conservation efforts among federal, state, and local USC 2201 and following) governments. Authorized the Secretary of the Army to of 1976 (P.L. 94-587), construct, operate, and maintain any water resource 1986 (P.L. 99-662), 1988 development project. The resource development (P.L. 100-676), 1992 (P.L. projects over which the USACE currently maintains 102-580), 1996 (P.L. 104jurisdiction are navigation, flood control, shore 303), 1999 (P.L. 106-53), protection, and beach renourishment projects and 2000 (P.L. 106-541) Shore Protection Act of 1996 Recommended funding for shore protection project (Section 227 of the studies and construction WRDA of 1996) (33 USC 2601 and following) National Environmental Required federal agencies to evaluate the environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 impacts associated with major actions they fund, USC 4321 and following) support, permit, or implement

Clean Water Act (33 USC 1251 and following)

Under section 404, a permit was required for the discharge of dredged or fill materials into the waters of the U.S. The USACE has the permitting authority for the 404 program Endangered Species Act (16 Federal agencies must review actions they undertake or USC 1531 and following) support to determine whether they may affect endangered species or their habitats; agency must consult with the USFWS

Federal agencies must consider the effects of their National Historic undertakings (including the issuance of permits, the Preservation Act (16 USC expenditure of federal funding, and the initiation of 470 and following) federal projects) on historic resources that the either eligible for listing or are listed on the National Register of Historic Places Source: csc.noaa.gov/beachnourishment.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Relevance

Resulted from increased need for additional engineering and study in the area of beach erosion, coupled with increased beach development and more demand for erosion relief from the federal government Established a national program to assist the states in comprehensively managing the nation’s coastal resources through wise management practices. Encouraged coastal zone management and provided grants (Section 306A) for maintaining coastal areas The intent of the law was to discourage development. The law applied only to areas within the defined CBRS

Authorized beach nourishment projects. Set cost-sharing percentage, with a general trend to reduce federal percentage and increase non-federal percentage (will be 50/50 by 2003)

Rejected the Administration’s position of not authorizing funding for new projects

Required that actions be the least environmentally damaging practicable alternative. Most beach nourishment projects have the potential for adverse impacts and will trigger a required NEPA analysis Proponents of beach nourishment projects must obtain a Section 404 permit

Significant impacts on beach nourishment projects; limitations on construction typically exclude construction in certain seasons, for example, the nesting season for sea turtles on the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. There are short-term environmental impacts associated with both removing the sand from the source and depositing it onto the beach Areas worthy of historic preservation must be avoided in the beach nourishment site selection process

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-57

Table 4H.44 Atlantic and Gulf Coast State Beach Nourishment Program Summary Beach Nourishment Policy

State Alabama Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Mississippi New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina Rhode Island South Carolina Texas Virginia

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Related Policies

State Funding Program

ABCDE BCDE ABCDE BCDE ABCDE ABCD ABCD ABC ABCDE ABC ABCDE ABCDE ABCDE ABCDE ABCDE BCDE ABDE ABC

No Yes Yes Yes Case-by-Case Yes No Yes Yes Yes Case-by-Case Yes Case-by-Case Case-by-Case No Case-by-Case Case-by-Case Yes

Note: Policies related to beach nourishment. AZnear shore sand mining; BZdredge and fill; CZsand scraping/dune reshaping; DZdune creation/restoration; EZpublic access. Source: NOAA 2000, csc.noaa.gov.

Table 4H.45 Riverbank Treatment in the United States Region North Atlantic South Atlantic-Gulf Great Lakes Ohio Tennessee Upper Mississippi Lower Mississippi Souris-Red-Rainy Missouri Arkansas-White–Red Texas-Gulf Bio Grande Upper Colorado Lower Colorado Great Basin Columbia-North Pacific California Alaska Hawaii Puerto Rico

Mattress

Jetties

Training Walls

Riprap

Revetment

Dikes

Other

Total Treated

— 35 — — — — 573 — — 250 0 — — — 0 — — — 0 —

18 67 — — — — — — 735 1 0 250 — — 0 — — — 0 —

18 — — — — — — — — 80 0 — — — 0 — — 6 0 —

— — — 50 — — — — — — 0 — — — 0 261 — — 0 —

— — — 10 — — — — 735 — 0 — — — 0 — — — 0 —

— — — — — — 75 — — 140 0 — — — 0 — — — 0 —

— — — — — — 5836 — — — 0 — — — 0 — 19 — 0 —

36 102 — 60 — — 6484 — 1470 471 0 250 — — 0 261 19 6 0 —

Note: Value in miles as of 1966; Corps of Engineers projects only; for regions see Fig. 4G.9. Source: U.S. Water Resources Council, 1968. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-58

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4H.46 Sediment Yield from Drainage Areas of 100 Square Miles or Less of the United States Estimated Sediment Yield

Estimated Sediment Yield

Region

High

Low

Average

North Atlantic South Atlantic-Gulf Great Lakes Ohio Tennessee Upper Mississippi Lower Mississippi Souris-Red-Rainy Missouri

1210 1850 800 2110 1560 3900 8210 470 6700

tons/sq/mi/yr 30 100 10 160 460 10 1560 10 10

250 800 100 850 700 800 5200 50 1500

Region

High

Arkansas-White–Red Texas-Gulf Rio Grande Upper Colorado Lower Colorado Great Basin Columbia-North Pacific California

8210 3180 3340 3340 1620 1780 1100 5570

Low tons/sq/mi/yr 260 90 150 150 150 100 30 80

Note: For regions see Fig. 4G.9. Source: U.S. Water Resources Council, 1968.

Table 4H.47 Permissible Velocities for Channels Lined with Vegetation Permissible Velocity a

Cover

Slope Range (Percent)

Bermudagrass Buffalograss Kentucky bluegrass Smooth brome Blue grama Grass mixture Lespedeza sericea Weeping lovegrass Yellow bluestem Kudzu Alfalfa Crabgrass Common lespedezac Sudangrassc

Erosion Resistant Soils (ft/sec)

Easily Eroded Soils (ft/sec)

0–5 5–10 over 10 0–5 5–10 over 10

8 7 6 7 6 5

6 5 4 5 4 3

0–5a 5–10

5 4

4 3

0–5b

3.5

2.5

0–5d

3.5

2.5

Note: Use velocities exceeding 5 feet per second only where good covers and proper maintenance can be obtained. Values apply to average, uniform stands of each type of cover. a b c d

Do not use on slopes steeper than 10 percent except for side slopes in a combination channel. Do not use on slopes steeper than 5 percent except for side slopes in a combination channel. Annuals — used on mild slopes or as temporary protection until permanent covers are established. Use on slopes steeper than 5 percent is not recommended.

Source: U.S. Soil Conservation Service. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Average 2200 1800 1300 1800 600 400 400 1300

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-59

Table 4H.48 Permissible Velocities for Channels with Linings Other Than Vegetation

Original Material Excavated

Clear Water, No Detritus (ft/sec)

Water Transporting Colloidal Silts (ft/sec)

Water Transporting Noncolloidal Silts, Sands, Gravels, or Rock Fragments (ft/sec)

1.50 1.75 2.00 2.00 2.50 2.50 2.50 3.75 3.75 3.75 4.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

2.50 2.50 3.00 3.50 3.50 3.50 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.50 6.00 5.50 6.00

1.50 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.25 2.00 3.75 3.00 5.00 3.00 5.00 6.50 6.50 5.00

Fine sand, noncolloidal Sandy loam, noncolloidal Silt loam, noncolloidal Alluvial silts, noncolloidal Ordinary firm loam Volcanic ash Fine gravel Stiff clay, very colloidal Graded, loam to cobbles, noncolloidal Alluvial silts, colloidal Graded, silt to cobbles, colloidal Coarse gravel, noncolloidal Cobbles and shingles Shales and hardpans

Note: Values apply to aged straight channels with mild bed slopes. Source: From Fortier and Scobey, Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., 1926. With permission.

Table 4H.49 Settling Velocities of Sand and Silt in Still Water Diameter of Particle (mm) 9 > > 10.0 > > > > > 1.0 > > > > > 0.8 > > > > = 0.6 0.5 > > > > > 0.4 > > > > > 0.3 > > > > > 0.2 ; 0.15 9 > > 0.10 > > > > > 0.08 > > > > > 0.06 > > = 0.05 > > 0.04 > > > > > 0.03 > > > > > 0.02 > ; 0.015 9 0.010 > > > > > 0.008 > > > > > 0.006 > > > > 0.005 = 0.004 > > > > > 0.003 > > > > > 0.002 > > > ; 0.0015 0.001 0.0001 0.00001

Order of Size Gravel

Coarse sand

Fine sand

Silt

Bacteria Clay particles Colloidal particles

Setting Velocity (mm/sec) 1000 100 83 63 53 42 32 21 15 8 6 3.8 2.9 2.1 1.3 0.62 0.35 0.154 0.098 0.065 0.0385 0.0247 0.0138 0.0062 0.0035 0.00154 0.000154 0.000000154

Note: Temperature 50 8F; all particles assumed to have a specific gravity of 2.65. Source: Amer. Water Works Assoc. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Time Required to Settle 1 Foot 0.3 sec 3.0 sec

38.0 sec

33.0 min

55.0 h 230.0 d 63.0 yr

4-60

Table 4H.50 Classification of Alluvial Channels Based on Channel Stability and on Mode of Sediment Transport Proportion of Total Sediment Load Suspended Load Percent

Bedload, Percent

30–100

85–100

0–15

Mixed load

8–30

65–85

15–35

Bedload

0–8

30–65

35–70

Mode of Sediment Transport Suspended load

a

Channel Stability Stable (Graded Stream)

Stable suspended-load channel. Width-depth Depositing suspended load channel. Major deposition ratio less than 7; sinuosity greater than 2.1; on banks cause narrowing gradient relatively gentle of channel; streambed deposition minor Stable mixed-load channel. Width-depth ratio Depositing mixed-load channel. Initial major greater than 7 less than 25; sinuosity, less deposition on banks than 2.1 greater than 1.5; gradient followed by streambed moderate deposition Stable bedload channel. Width-depth ratio Depositing badload channel. greater than 25; sinuosity, less than 1.5; Streambed deposition and gradient relatively steep island formation

The percentage of sediment finer than 0.074 mm in the perimeter of the channel.

Source: U.S. Geological Survey.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Depositing (Excess Load)

Eroding (Deficiency of Load) Eroding suspended-load channel. Streambed erosion predominant; channel widening minor Eroding mixed-load channel. Initial streambed erosion followed by channel widening Eroding bedload channel. Little streambed erosion; channel widening predominant

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Silt-Clay in Channel Sediment, Percenta

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-61

SECTION 4I

TRANSPIRATION

Table 4I.51 Transpiration Ratios for Crops Transpiration Ratio Crop Grains Proso Millet Buckwheat Sorgo Grain sorghum Barley Corn Oats Wheat, emmer Wheat, durum Wheat, common Wheat, hybrids Rye Flax Legumes Clover Clover, sweet Vetch Alfalfa Cowpeas Beans Beans, soy Chickpeas Peas, Canadian field Lupinus albus Grassses Sudan grass Wheat grass Brome grass Miscellaneous Cotton Sugar beets Potatoes Cabbage Rape Watermelons Cantaloupes Turnips Cucumbers

Varieties Tested, No

Range

Mean

2 3 1 3 4 4 2 4 1 6 11 2 1 6

531–603 863–1117 — 863–1804 750–1050 1128–1464 821–1998 1379–1915 — 1365–1622 1244–3398 1995–2163 — 2010–5162

567 959 969 1237 868 1241 1405 1627 1167 1475 1872 2079 2142 3252

2 1 5 10 1 2 1 1 1 1

636–759 — 562–899 626–920 — 1583–1815 — — — —

698a 731a 708a 844a 1632 1699 1974 1685 2153 4734

1 1 1

— — —

1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1

— — 1325–2877 — — — — — —

380a 678a 977a 568a 629 2101 518a 714a 1102 1754 1471 1549

Note: Transpiration ratios are weighted values in pounds of water per pound of crop product. Data measured at Akron, Colorado. a

Based on total dry matter

Source: From Shantz and Piemeisel, J. Agric. Res., 1927.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-62

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4I.52 Transpiration Ratios for Weeds and Native Plants Weeds or Native Plants Weeds Tumbleweed Pigweed Russian thistle Lamb’s quarters Polygonum Native weeds Purslane Cocklebur Nightshade Buffalo bur Gumweed

Transpiration Ratio 260 305 314 658 678 281 415 487 536 585

Weeds or Native Plants

Transpiration Ratio

Native weeds (continued) Sunflower Mountain sage Verbena Fetid marigold

623 654 702 847

Native plants Buffalo grass Buffalo and grama grass Clammyweed Iva Western ragweed Western wheat grass Franseria

296 338 483 534 912 1035 1131

Note: Transpiration ratios are weighted values in pounds of water per pound of dry matter. Data measured at Akron, Colorado. Source: From Shantz and Piemeisel, J. Agric. Res., 1927.

Table 4I.53 Transpiration Ratios for Trees Tree

Scientific Name

Ash White birch Beech Hornbeam Field elm Stiel oak Traubean oak Zerr oak Black alder Gray alder Sycamore maple Mountain maple Field maple Linden Aspen Service berry Larch Spruce Fir Scotch white pine Black Austrian pine

Fraxinus excelsior Betula alba Fagus sylvatica Carpinus betulus Ulmus campestris Quercus pedunculus Quercus sessilifolia Quercus cerris Alnus glutinosa Alnus incana Acer platanoides Acer pseudoplat Acer campestria Tilia grandifolia Populus tremula Sorbus tormin Larix europea Abies excelsa Abies pectinata Pinus silvestris Pinus larico

Transpiration Ratio 981 849 1043 787 738 454 790 669 840 678 520 635 1281 1038 873 1748 1165 242 96 110 123

Note: Transpiration ratios are expressed as pounds of water per pound of dry-leaf matter. Data measured by Hohnel (1879–1880). Source: U.S. Weather Bureau. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-63

SECTION 4J

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

EVAPORATION

4-64

Table 4J.54 Reservoir Evaporation at Selected Stations in the United States Month Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

June

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

AZ, Yuma CA, Sacramento CO, Denver FL, Miami GA, Macon ME, Eastport MN, Minneapolis MS, Vicksburg MO, Kansas City MT, Havre NE, North Platte NM, Roswell NY, Albany ND, Bismarck OH, Columbus OK, Oklahoma City OR, Baker SC, Columbia TN, Nashville TX, Galveston TX, San Antonio UT, Salt Lake City VA, Richmond WA, Seattle WI, Milwaukee Gulf off Texas Coast Gulf Stream off Cape Hatteras, NC Ocean off Massachusetts

3.9 0.8 1.6 3.0 1.7 0.8 0.3 1.3 0.9 0.5 0.8 2.1 0.6 0.4 0.6 1.5 0.5 1.6 0.9 0.9 2.2 0.8 1.3 0.8 0.6 4.0 9.0 3.0

4.6 1.4 1.8 3.4 2.2 0.7 0.4 1.9 1.1 0.5 1.1 3.2 0.7 0.5 0.8 1.9 0.7 2.4 1.3 1.3 3.1 1.0 1.7 0.8 0.7 4.0 9.5 2.5

6.5 2.5 2.5 4.1 3.1 0.9 0.9 2.9 1.7 1.1 2.2 4.9 1.1 1.0 1.1 3.1 1.4 3.2 1.9 1.6 4.5 2.0 2.2 1.4 0.9 3.5 8.5 2.0

8.0 3.6 3.7 4.9 4.3 1.1 1.7 4.2 3.1 2.5 3.7 6.8 2.0 2.3 2.3 4.7 2.5 4.5 3.3 2.6 5.6 3.5 3.5 2.1 1.3 3.5 7.0 1.5

9.8 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.1 1.4 3.2 5.0 4.4 4.5 5.0 8.3 3.2 4.0 3.5 5.5 3.4 5.4 4.1 4.1 6.5 5.1 4.1 2.7 2.1 4.0 5.5 1.0

11.5 7.1 7.4 4.8 6.2 1.7 4.4 5.7 6.1 6.1 6.5 9.8 4.3 5.3 4.6 7.8 4.4 6.3 5.1 5.6 8.4 7.9 5.0 3.4 3.2 4.5 3.5 1.5

13.4 8.9 8.8 5.3 6.3 2.0 6.0 5.8 8.0 8.2 8.6 9.4 5.2 7.3 5.6 10.2 6.9 6.6 5.8 6.2 9.4 10.6 5.6 3.9 5.0 5.0 3.5 1.5

12.9 8.6 8.4 5.1 5.8 2.1 5.8 5.5 7.8 8.3 8.4 8.3 4.7 7.7 5.1 10.7 7.3 6.0 5.4 6.1 9.4 10.4 4.9 3.4 5.4 5.5 3.5 2.0

10.7 7.1 6.7 4.3 5.2 2.0 4.6 5.2 6.0 5.6 6.9 6.9 3.4 5.8 4.1 8.8 4.9 5.5 4.9 5.7 7.6 7.3 4.1 2.6 4.7 6.5 5.5 2.5

8.0 4.8 4.6 4.1 4.2 1.6 3.0 4.4 4.5 3.3 4.6 5.5 2.4 3.3 3.0 6.3 2.9 4.4 3.7 4.6 5.8 3.9 3.2 1.6 3.2 6.5 9.0 3.0

6.1 2.6 3.0 4.3 2.8 1.1 1.3 2.9 2.5 1.5 2.6 3.5 1.4 1.3 1.6 3.5 1.5 3.0 2.1 2.7 3.7 2.0 2.4 1.1 1.6 6.0 9.5 3.5

4.5 1.2 1.9 2.7 1.8 0.7 0.4 1.6 1.0 0.7 1.1 2.5 0.8 0.5 0.6 2.0 0.6 1.9 1.1 1.3 2.4 1.0 1.5 0.7 0.6 5.0 10.0 4.0

100 54 55 51 49 16 32 46 47 43 51 71 30 39 33 66 37 51 39 43 69 55 39 24 29 58 84 28

Note: Mean monthly computed values in inches. Source: Minnesota Resources Commission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Station

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Table 4J.55 Evaporation Equations For pan evaporation, the expression is EP Z fexp½ðTa K 212Þð0:1024 K 0:01066ln RÞ K 0:0001 C 0:025ðes K ea Þ0:88 ð0:37 C 0:0041Up Þg !f0:025 C ðTa C 398:36ÞK2 4:7988 !1010 exp½K7482:6=ðTa C 398:36ÞgK1 For lake evaporation, the expression is EL Z fexp½ðTa K 212Þð0:1024 K 0:01066ln RÞ K 0:0001 C 0:0105ðes K ea Þ0:88 ð0:37 K 0:0041UP Þg !f0:015 C ðTa C 398:36ÞK2 6:8554 !1010 exp½K7482:6=ðTa C 398:36ÞgK1 The terms in these expressions are EPZpan evaporation, inches ELZlake evaporation, inches TaZair temperature, degrees Fahrenheit eaZvapor pressure, inches of mercury at temperature Ta esZvapor pressure, inches of mercury at temperature Td TdZdew point temperature, degrees Fahrenheit RZsolar radiation, langleys per day UPZwind movement, miles per day Notes: The equations enable pan and lake evaporation to be computed from climatic data at first-order weather stations. Daily values of evaporation are obtained using mean daily temperature and vapor pressure data together with data on solar radiation and wind movement as specified. Source: U.S. Weather Bureau, 1962.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Figure 4J.24 Mean annual lake evaporation in the United States (values in inches for period 1946–1955). (From U.S. Weather Bureau.)

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Figure 4J.25 Annual evaporation in the world (in mm). (From Lvovitch, M.I., EOS, 54, 1973, Copyright by American Geophysical Union.) 4-67

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Water surplus or deficiency Inches 20 to >80 0 to 20

Alaska

0 to −20 Puerto Rico Hawaii Regional data not available

−20 to < −40

Regional data not available

Figure 4J.26 Areas of natural water surplus and natural water deficiency (computed by subtracting values of potential evapotranspiration from average precipitation). (From U.S. Water Resources Council, 1968, The Nation’s Water Resources.)

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HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-69

SECTION 4K

CONSUMPTIVE USE

Table 4K.56 Consumptive Use by Irrigated Crops in the Western United States Consumptive Use (Evapotranspiration), (in.) Location Arizona, Mesa California Los Angelesa

Coastal Ontario Shafter Firebaugh Deltab

Davis

Winters Nebraska, Scottsbluff

Crop

Apr

May

June

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

Total

Alfalfa Dates

5.0 6.2

6.5 7.6

9.0 8.3

12.0 9.2

10.0 8.4

6.0 7.2

4.0 5.7

52.5 52.6

Lemons Oranges Walnuts Alfalfa Alfalfa Peaches Cotton Cotton Cotton Alfalfa Potatoes Truck Sugar beets Beans Fruit Onions Sugar beets Tomatoes Alfalfa Prunes Peaches Walnuts Grapes Apricots Alfalfa

2.1 2.2 3.8 3.3 4.9 1.0 0.5 — — 3.6 — 1.2 1.6 1.9 2.2 1.6 — — — — — — — — 1.4

2.6 2.2 5.0 6.7 4.9 3.5 1.0 0.8 0.4 4.8 1.8 3.0 3.8 2.4 3.8 3.2 5.2 — 6.8 5.8 5.4 6.6 4.6 — 4.0

3.3 3.1 5.9 5.4 4.3 6.7 4.0 1.1 0.7 6.0 4.6 6.0 6.1 1.7 6.0 5.9 5.7 3.2 7.9 6.0 6.4 6.7 4.9 5.6 7.0

3.9 3.4 6.1 7.8 5.2 8.0 8.5 7.3 8.4 7.8 6.2 5.4 7.3 2.9 6.8 5.2 7.1 6.2 8.3 7.6 7.9 8.4 6.2 6.8 7.1

3.7 3.7 5.0 4.2 5.9 6.5 9.7 7.8 9.5 6.6 3.6 5.4 6.4 6.9 4.8 2.4 5.8 4.9 7.1 6.5 7.2 7.2 5.3 6.5 6.4

3.4 3.1 2.8 5.6 5.5 2.7 5.8 3.6 3.0 6.0 1.8 3.6 2.4 4.4 2.8 1.9 — 4.7 4.3 5.0 5.0 4.8 4.3 4.9 3.0

2.8 2.9 2.0 4.4 4.7 1.4 3.2 2.0 2.5 1.2 — 1.8 — — 0.8 — — — — — — — — — —

21.8 20.6 30.6 37.4 35.4 29.8 32.7 22.6 24.5 36.0 18.0 26.4 27.6 20.2 27.2 19.8 23.8 22.3 — — — — — — 28.9

Beets Potatoes Oats

1.9 — —

3.3 — 3.0

5.2 — 6.1

6.9 3.4 5.1

5.8 5.8 —

1.1 4.4 —

— — —

24.2 — 14.2

Notes: Data for irrigation season only. a b

In San Fernando Valley, City of Los Angeles, California. In Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta, California.

Source: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4K.57 Consumptive Use by Principal Crops in the Central Valley, California

Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Total

Sugar Beets

Cotton

Improved Pasture

Alfalfa

S.V.

S.J.V.

a

b

Deciduous Orchard

Rice S.V.

1.0 1.8 3.0 4.7 6.1 7.8 8.2 7.1 5.2 3.5 1.6 0.8 50.8

1.0 1.8 2.8 4.2 5.4 7.0 7.6 6.8 5.1 3.5 1.6 0.8 47.6

0.9 1.2 — — 1.8 6.0 8.5 7.3 5.6 3.5 1.6 0.8 37.2

— — 1.6 3.6 5.6 7.7 8.5 5.1 1.9 — — — 34.0

— — — — 1.0 6.0 9.7 8.5 5.5 2.1 — — 32.8

— — — — 0.6 3.6 8.8 7.8 5.3 1.8 — — 27.9

— — 1.8 3.3 4.9 6.7 7.5 6.4 4.5 2.7 — — 37.8

(0.8)c (1.5) (1.4) 4.8 7.6 9.6 10.0 8.5 6.4 3.2 (1.4) (0.8) 56.0

Note: Values in inches; S.V. is Sacramento Valley, and S.J.V. is San Joaquin Valley. a b c

Solid planting or one row skipped in three. Planting of two rows skipped in four. Values in parentheses are for nongrowing season. Values may change with differences in rainfall.

Source: Calif. Dept. of Water Resources, 1967.

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HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Table 4K.58 Consumptive Use by Crops in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, California Month

Alfalfa

Asparagus

Beans

Beets

Celery

Corn

Fruit

Grain and Hay

Onions

Potatoes

January February March April May June July August September October November December Growing season Year

(0.06) (0.08) 0.10 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.65 0.55 0.50 0.20 (0.10) (0.07) 3.20 3.51

0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.08 0.14 0.40 0.68 0.55 0.42 0.12 0.10 2.69 2.69

(0.06) (0.08) (0.08) (0.16) (0.20) 0.14 0.24 0.58 0.37 (0.09) (0.07) (0.05) 1.33 2.12

(0.06) (0.08) (0.08) 0.13 0.32 0.51 0.61a 0.53a 0.20a (0.13) (0.10) (0.07) 2.30 2.82

(0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.08) (0.10) 0.10 0.10 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.20 0.05 1.20 1.50

(0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.08) (0.10) 0.24 0.85 0.84a 0.40a 0.10 (0.10) (0.07) 2.43 2.90

(0.04) (0.04) (0.04) 0.18 0.32 0.50 0.57 0.40 0.23 0.07 (0.07) (0.05) 2.27 2.51

(0.04) (0.04) 0.07 0.60 0.83 0.20 (0.14) (0.23) (0.21) (0.14) (0.07) (0.05) 1.70 2.62

(0.04) (0.04) 0.08 0.13 0.27 0.49 0.43 0.20 (0.16) (0.13) (0.10) (0.07) 1.60 2.14

(0.06) (0.08) (0.08) (0.16) 0.15 0.38 0.52 0.30 0.15 (0.09) (0.07) (0.05) 1.50 2.09

Note: Depth in feet. Figures in parentheses show estimated losses by soil evaporation and weed transpiration. a

Including additional use of water by weeds.

Source: California Department of Public Works.

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Table 4K.59 Total Consumptive Use and Peak Daily Use, Western United States Southern Coastal 300 Days Plus Crops

250–300 Days

250–300 Days

210–250 Days

180–210 Days

150–180 Days

Season Use (in.)

Daily Use (in./d)

Season Use (in.)

Daily Use (in./d)

Season Use (in.)

Daily Use (in./d)

Season Use (in.)

Daily Use (in./d)

Season Use (in.)

Daily Use (in./d)

Season Use (in.)

Daily Use (in./d)

36.0 33.5 16.0 29.0 12.0 — — 10.0 25.0 18.0 16.0 — 16.0 — — — — — 20.0 18.0 22.0 22.0 4.0 — —

0.20 0.20 0.18 0.20 0.18 — — 0.18 0.20 0.16 0.16 — 0.18 — — — — — 0.16 0.16 0.20 0.20 0.16 — —

30.0 28.0 14.0 25.0 10.0 — — 8.0 22.0 15.0 14.0 — 14.0 — — — — — 18.0 — 18.0 18.0 4.0 — —

0.17 0.17 0.16 0.18 0.16 — — 0.16 0.18 0.16 0.16 — 0.16 — — — — — 0.16 — 0.18 0.18 0.16 — —

37.0 33.0 17.0 30.0 13.0 — 24.0 11.0 26.0 19.0 18.0 18.0 16.0 24.0 24.0 24.0 22.0 22.0 22.0 — 24.0 23.0 6.0 23.0 20.0

0.27 0.27 0.22 0.27 0.22 — 0.20 0.20 0.25 0.20 0.18 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.18 — 0.25 0.25 0.18 0.24 0.22

32.0 30.0 14.5 26.0 11.0 19.0 20.0 9.0 22.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 14.0 22.0 22.0 22.0 20.0 20.0 — — 22.0 18.0 5.0 21.0 20.0

0.22 0.22 0.20 0.22 0.18 0.25 0.18 0.18 0.22 0.18 0.18 0.20 0.18 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 — — 0.22 0.22 0.18 0.22 0.20

26.0 24.0 12.0 — — 16.0 — 8.0 20.0 13.0 14.0 14.0 12.0 20.0 — — — — — — 20.0 16.0 — 19.0 —

0.20 0.20 0.20 — — 0.22 — 0.16 0.20 0.16 0.16 0.18 0.18 0.18 — — — — — — 0.20 0.20 — 0.20 —

22.0 20.0 10.0 — — 14.0 — 7.0 18.0 11.0 12.0 12.0 11.0 18.0 — — — — — — — 14.0 — 17.0 —

0.18 0.18 0.18 — — 0.20 — 0.16 0.18 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.18 — — — — — — — 0.18 — 0.18 —

Central Valley—California and Valleys East Side of Cascade Mountains 250–300 Days Alfalfa Pasture Grain — small Beets — sugar Beans — field Corn — field Potatoes — summer Potatoes — fall Peas — green Peas — field

210–250 Days

180–210 Days

150–180 Days

120–150 Days

90–120 Days

40.0 36.0 18.0 33.0 17.0 26.0 12.0

0.30 0.30 0.22 0.30 0.22 0.35 0.16

34.0 30.0 16.0 28.0 13.0 22.0 —

0.28 0.28 0.22 0.25 0.20 0.32 —

30.0 28.0 15.0 24.0 13.0 22.0 —

0.25 0.25 0.20 0.22 0.20 0.30 —

26.0 24.0 14.0 20.0 12.0 20.0 —

0.22 0.22 0.18 0.20 0.18 0.25 —

20.0 18.0 13.0 18.0 12.0 18.0 —

0.20 0.20 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.22 —

14.0 13.0 12.0 — — 17.0 —

0.18 0.18 0.16 — — 0.20 —

— — —

— — —

19.0 8.0 10.0

0.25 0.18 0.18

18.0 7.0 9.0

0.22 0.18 0.18

18.0 7.0 9.0

0.20 0.18 0.18

17.0 7.0 8.0

0.18 0.16 0.16

16.0 6.0 8.0

0.16 0.15 0.15

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Alfalfa Pasture Grain — small Beets — sugar Beans — field Corn — field Potatoes Peas — green Legume seed Tomatoes Vegetable seed Beans — pole Corn — sweet Apples Cherries Peaches Prunes Apricots Oranges Avocados Walnuts Strawberries Lettuce Mint Hops

South Pacific Coastal Interior and North Coastal

20.0 26.0 15.0 — — 22.0 20.0 28.0 24.0 4.0 — — 30.0 24.0 22.0

0.20 0.30 0.20 — — 0.22 0.22 0.18 0.20 0.20 — — 0.25 0.22 0.25

18.0 22.0 13.0 26.0 24.0 22.0 17.0 — 20.0 — 20.0 18.0 25.0 20.0 20.0

0.18 0.28 0.18 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 — 0.20 — 0.22 0.20 0.22 0.20 0.22

18.0 — 12.0 23.0 21.0 20.0 15.0 — 18.0 — 18.0 16.0 22.0 — —

0.18 — 0.17 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 — 0.18 — 0.20 0.18 0.20 — —

17.0 — 10.0 21.0 19.0 18.0 — — — — — — — — —

0.17 — 0.16 0.18 0.18 0.18 — — — — — — — — —

16.0 — 9.0 — — — — — — — — — — — —

0.16 — 0.15 — — — — — — — — — — — —

— — 8.0 — — — — — — — — — — — —

— — 0.15 — — — — — — — — — — — —

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Tomatoes Cotton Grain — sorghum Apples Cherries Peaches Apricots Oranges Strawberries Lettuce — winter Mint Hops Grapes Walnuts Almonds

Central Intermountain, Desert, and Western High Plains 250–300 Days Alfalfa Pasture Grain — small Beets — sugar Beans — field Corn — field Potatoes — fall Peas — field Tomatoes Cotton Grain — sorghum Apples Cherries Peaches Apricots Almonds Vineyards Legume seed Grass seed Potatoes — seed Grapefruit Oranges Lettuce — winter Melons Palm dates Truck crops

52.0 48.0 21.0 37.0 22.0 — — — — 32.0 19.0 — — — 26.0 22.0 40.0 — — — 45.0 36.0 6.0 22.0 60.0 20.0

0.40 0.40 0.25 0.30 0.25 — — — — 0.30 0.25 — — — 0.25 0.25 0.27 — — — 0.20 0.18 0.18 0.25 0.30 0.25

210–250 Days 44.0 40.0 18.0 32.0 17.0 30.0 23.0 — 20.0 30.0 18.0 — — 29.0 24.0 20.0 32.0 — — — — — — 20.0 — 18.0

0.32 0.30 0.22 0.30 0.20 0.35 0.30 — 0.22 0.28 0.20 — — 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 — — — — — — 0.22 — 0.22

180–210 Days 36.0 33.0 16.0 30.0 14.0 26.0 21.0 10.0 18.0 16.0 28.0 26.0 27.0 25.0 — 26.0 — — — — — — 18.0 — 14.0

0.29 0.28 0.20 0.28 0.20 0.30 0.28 0.19 0.20 — 0.20 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.20 — 0.22 — — — — — — 0.20 — 0.20

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30.0 28.0 16.0 26.0 14.0 24.0 20.0 10.0 17.0 — 14.0 24.0 — — — — — — — — — — — 16.0 — 12.0

0.26 0.25 0.20 0.25 0.18 0.28 0.25 0.18 0.18 — 0.18 0.20 — — — — — — — — — — — 0.18 — 0.18

120–150 Days 24.0 22.0 16.0 24.0 14.0 22.0 19.0 10.0 16.0 — 12.0 20.0 — — — — — 16.0 14.0 16.0 — — — — — 12.0

0.22 0.22 0.20 0.22 0.17 0.24 0.22 0.17 0.17 — 0.17 0.18 — — — — — 0.18 0.14 0.16 — — — — — 0.16

90–120 Days 19.0 17.0 14.0 18.0 12.0 — 17.0 9.0 — — — — — — — — — 14.0 12.0 14.0 — — — — — 10.0

0.20 0.20 0.18 0.20 0.15 — 0.20 0.15 — — — — — — — — — 0.16 0.14 0.15 — — — — — 0.15 4-73

Source: From Woodward, Sprinkler Irrigation, Sprinkler Irrigation Assoc., 1959. With permission.

150–180 Days

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Table 4K.60 Accumulated Use of Water by Crops with Various Planting to Maturity Periods Total Period of Growth

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 a

Days Since Planting

Accum. Water Use (in.)

Days Since Planting

Accum. Water Use (in.)

Days Since Planting

Accum. Water Use (in.)

Days Since Planting

Accum. Water Use (in.)

Days Since Planting

Accum. Water Use (in.)

6.0 13.8 23.5 34.5 46.5 59.4 72.3 84.3 94.5 100.0

6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60

0.3 0.7 1.1 1.7 2.3 2.9 3.5 4.1 4.7 4.9

9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90

0.4 1.0 1.9 2.6 3.4 4.4 5.3 6.2 7.0 7.4

12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120

0.6 1.4 2.3 3.4 4.6 5.8 7.1 8.3 9.3 9.8

15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150

0.8 1.7 2.9 4.3 5.7 7.3 8.9 10.3 11.6 12.3

18 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180

0.9 2.0 3.5 5.1 6.8 8.7 10.6 12.4 13.9 14.7

2 Month

3 Month

4 Month

5 Month

6 Month

Growing Period refers to the entire time from planting to the time the plant dies, which is usually longer than the period from planting to harvesting. Flowering will occur at about 50 to 60 percent of the growing period and fruiting after 60 percent.

Source: From Israelson and Hansen, Irrigation Principles and Practices, John Wiley & Sons, 1962. With permission.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Percentage of Growing Perioda

Accumulated Consumptive Use of Water in Percentage of Total Use

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

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Table 4K.61 Variations in Consumptive Use by Crops Crop Alfalfa Rhodes grass Sudan grass Barley Oats Wheat Corn Kafir Flax Broomcorn Emmer Feterita Millet Milo Sorghum Cotton Potatoes Soybeans Sugar beets Sugar canea Beans, snap Beets, table Cabbage Carrots Cauliflower Lettuce Onions Peas Melons Spinach Sweet potatoes Tomatoes Forage, including alfalfa Barley Oats Wheat Corn Kafir corn Flax Millet Milo maize Sorghum Apples Beans Buckwheat Cantaloupes Peas Potatoes Sugar beets Sunflowers Tomatoes Cucumbers a

No. of Tests

(A) Farm crops in the southwest 369 12 25 3 2 46 42 16 3 9 6 8 5 35 34 103 12 36 5 41

3.47–5.08 3.49–4.43 2.88–3.16 1.24–1.83 1.90–2.09 1.46–2.24 1.44–1.99 1.32–1.54 1.23–1.59 0.97–1.15 1.19–1.87 0.97–1.10 0.91–1.09 0.96–1.67 1.69–2.08 2.35–3.51 1.59–2.04 1.66–2.81 1.77–2.72 3.48–4.56

(B) Vegetable crops in the southwest 9 28 21 6 6 49 4 8 3 12 3 17

0.83–1.44 0.87–1.37 0.94–1.49 1.27–1.60 1.43–1.77 0.72–1.35 0.73–1.52 1.21–1.56 0.80–1.07 0.80–1.07 1.77–2.25 0.95–1.42

(C) Crops in the Missouri and Arkansas Basins 648 335 409 542 70 15 50 14 27 26 4 4 3 10 168 350 128 16 6 7

1.94–2.62 1.33–1.82 1.35–1.81 1.36–1.80 1.23–1.83 1.43–1.57 1.47–1.85 0.81–0.94 1.09–1.70 1.06–1.47 2.10–2.60 1.30–1.60 1.05–1.30 1.50–2.30 1.36–1.94 1.38–1.70 1.60–2.50 1.20–1.40 2.10–2.80 1.73–3.75

Not commonly produced in the Southwest.

Source: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.

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Range in Water Requirements (ft)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4K.62 Consumptive Use of Water by Crops in Florida Month

Citrus

Pasturea

Sugarcane

Riceb

Rainfall

Pan Evapotranspirationc

January February March April May June July August September October November December Total

2.09 2.60 3.58 4.49 5.31 4.41 4.88 4.80 4.02 3.59 2.72 2.09 44.58

2.01 2.52 3.35 4.21 5.20 4.25 4.80 4.80 3.86 3.43 2.48 1.93 42.84

1.42 1.10 2.52 3.39 4.80 5.98 6.50 6.69 5.12 5.20 3.19 2.59 48.50

0 0 0 1.63 3.07 5.82 8.43 3.05 (5.00) (3.00) 0 0 22.00

1.97 1.97 3.21 2.96 4.74 9.08 8.58 8.21 8.82 5.65 1.74 1.80 58.76

3.39 4.00 5.70 6.54 7.06 6.24 6.36 6.12 5.31 4.82 3.71 3.19 62.44

Note: Everglades agricultural area; in inches. a b c

Mean monthly values averaged over 5 years and averaged over water table depth of 12, 24, and 36 inches maintained in lysimeters at Ft. Lauderdale. These turfgrass evapotranspiration values are assumed to be valid for pastures adequately supplied with water. Assuming planting date of April 15 which is approximately the middle of the planting season. Values in parentheses are estimates for a ratoon crop. Rice is not always ratoon cropped. Pan evapotranspiration is a measure of the capability of the air to evaporate water. A relatively higher indicates relatively high consumptive use of water.

Source: From Bajwa, R.S., Analysis of Irrigation Potential in the Southeast: Florida, A Special Report, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1985.

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HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

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Table 4K.63 Economic Irrigation Requirements in the Western United States Div. No

Division Description

State

Irrigation Season, Inclusive

Total Depth (ft)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

(A) Columbia River basin Snake River Valley Idaho Upper Snake River Valley Idaho Jackson Lake and Upper Snake basin Idaho and Wyoming Southwest Idaho and north Nevada Idaho and Nevada Salmon River basin Idaho North Idaho Idaho Bitterroot and Missoula River basins Montana Flathead Lake and River basins Montana Owyhee and Malheur River basins Oregon Northeast Oregon Oregon Umatilla, John Day, Deschutes, and Hood basins Oregon Central Oregon Oregon Yakima and Wenatchee river basins Washington Southeast Washington Washington Northeast Washington Washington Okanogan River basin Washington Lower Columbia River basin Washington Willamette River basin Oregon Washington Puget Sound regiona

Apr–Oct Apr–Sept May–Sept Apr–Sept May–Aug May–Sept Apr–Nov Apr–Sept Apr–Sept Apr–Sept Apr–Oct May–Aug Apr–Nov Apr–Oct Apr–Oct Apr–Nov May–Sept May–Sept May–Sept

2.5 2.3 1.7 1.9 2.0 1.5 2.1 1.8 2.4 2.0 2.5 2.4 2.6 2.1 2.2 2.3 1.3 1.2 1.4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

(B) Pacific Slope basins Umpqua, Coquill, and Lower Rogue basins Oregon Upper Rogue River basin Oregon Klamath Lake and River basins Oregon and California Northwest California California Pit River basin California Feather, Yuba, and American River basins California Sacramento Valley California Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta California San Francisco Bay basin California Salinas River basin California Santa Maria, Santa Inez, and Santa Clara basins California San Joaquin Valley California West slope of Sierras California East slope of Coast Range California Antelope and Victor Valleys California Los Angeles, San Gabriel, and Santa Ana basins California Upper Santa Ana River Valley California San Diego County California

Apr–Sept Mar–Sept Apr–Sept Apr–Oct Apr–Sept Mar–Nov Mar–Oct May–Sept Mar–Nov Mar–Oct Jan–Dec Feb–Oct Feb–Nov Feb–Oct Mar–Oct Jan–Dec Jan–Dec Jan–Dec

0.85 1.50 2.00 1.40 1.60 1.50 2.10 2.00 1.50 1.70 1.60 2.30 1.70 1.80 1.90 1.70 1.80 1.40

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Imperial Valley South Nevada Southwest Arizona Northwest Arizona Navajo country Southeast Arizona San Juan basin West New Mexico Rio Grande basin Pecos River basin Northeast New Mexico Central Rio Grande basin Pecos River basin West Central Texas Lower Rio Grande basin Upper Nueces and Colorado River basins Upper Brazos and Red River basins Eastern Panhandle

Jan–Dec Jan–Dec Jan–Dec Mar–Oct Mar–Oct Feb–Nov Apr–Sept Apr–Oct Jan–Dec Jan–Dec Feb–Nov Jan–Nov Jan–Nov Jan–Dec Jan–Dec Jan–Dec Jan–Dec Mar–Oct

3.10 2.90 3.00 2.30 2.30 2.60 2.20 1.70 2.60 2.40 1.60 2.40 2.25 1.60 1.75 1.30 1.10 1.35

(C) Southwest California Nevada Arizona Arizona Arizona Arizona New Mexico New Mexico New Mexico New Mexico New Mexico Texas Texas Texas Texas Texas Texas Texas

(Continued)

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4-78

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4K.63 Div. No

(Continued) Division Description

Irrigation Season, Inclusive

Total Depth (ft)

Texas Oklahoma Oklahoma Colorado Colorado Colorado Colorado Utah Utah Utah Utah Wyoming

Mar–Oct Apr–Oct Apr–Oct May–Sept Apr–Sept May–Aug Apr–Sept Feb–Nov Apr–Sept Apr–Oct Apr–Sept May–Aug

1.65 1.25 1.00 1.80 1.90 1.35 1.70 2.25 2.10 2.00 1.75 1.60

(D) Great basin Idaho and Utah Utah Utah Utah Nevada California and Nevada California California and Nevada California and Nevada Nevada California and Nevada Oregon

May–Oct May–Oct May–Oct Apr–Oct Apr–Oct Mar–Oct Mar–Oct Apr–Oct May–Oct May–Sept Apr–Sept Apr–Sept

2.0 2.2 2.1 1.8 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.0 2.1 2.0 1.7 1.5

May–Aug May–Aug May–Aug May–Aug May–Aug May–Sept May–Sept May–Sept May–Sept Apr–Sept Apr–Sept Apr–Sept Apr–Oct Apr–Oct Apr–Oct Apr–Oct May–Sept May–Sept

1.40 1.50 1.70 1.60 1.90 1.95 1.65 1.70 1.60 2.05 2.20 2.10 2.30 1.75 1.25 2.00 1.50 1.35

State

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Western Panhandle Panhandle West Oklahoma San Luis basin San Juan basin Yampa and White River basins Upper Colorado River basin Virgin River basin San Juan basin Green River basin Uintah basin Green River basin

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Bear River basin Utah Lake and Great Salt Lake Valleysb Sevier River basin Irrigable lands, southwest Utah Irrigable lands, southern Nevada Antelope Valley and Mohave River areas Mono, Owens, and Inyo-Kern valleys Walker River basin Truckee and Carson River basins Humboldt, Quinn, and White River basins Honey Lake basin Malheur Lake, Harney Lake, and other basins

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

(E) Missouri and Arkansas basins Northeast Montana Montana North central Montana Montana Central Montana Montana Upper Missouri River basin Montana Upper Yellowstone River basin Montana Southeast Montana Montana Big Horn River basin Wyoming Yellowstone and Missouri River basins Wyoming Upper Platte River basin Wyoming Northeast Colorado Colorado North central Colorado Colorado South central Colorado Colorado Southeast Colorado Colorado West Kansas Kansas Central Nebraska Nebraska West Nebraska Nebraska Western South Dakota South Dakota Western North Dakota North Dakota

Note: Estimated minimum quantities of irrigation water required, assuming optimal irrigation practices. a b

Not in the Columbia River Basin. South of Weber River basin.

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-79

Table 4K.64 Estimated Evapotranspiration for Types of Vegetation in the Western United States Vegetation Type

Annual Evapotranspiration (in.)

Forest Lodgepole pine Engelmann spruce-fir White pine-larch-fir Mixed conifer True fir Aspen Pacific Douglas-fir-hemlock-redwood Interior ponderosa pine Interior Douglas-fir Chaparral and woodland Southern California chaparral California woodland-grass Arizona chaparral Pinon-juniper Semiarid grass and shrub Alpine

19 15 22 22 24 23 30 17 21 20 18 17.5 14.5 10.6 20

Source: Select Committee on National Water Resources, U.S. Senate, 1960.

Table 4K.65 Consumptive Use in a Municipal Area Cultural Classification Estates Class A residential Class B residential Rural residential Semicommercial

Consumptive Use (ft) 2.07 1.92 1.88 1.78 1.32

Note: Data for Raymond Basin, Los Angeles County, California. Source: California Department of Water Resources. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Cultural Classification Reservoir sites Park Schools River wash

Consumptive Use (ft) 1.34 2.40 1.63 0.99

4-80

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Blaney-Criddle Consumptive Use Formula

consumptive use factor f, so that Equation 4.1 becomes simply

The consumptive use of an irrigated crop in which ample water supply is available can be estimated by the BlaneyCriddle formula. For a given month the consumptive use is given by

For an entire growing season the consumptive use is given by

(4.1)

u Z kðtpÞ

where u is the monthly consumptive use measured in inches, k is a monthly consumptive use coefficient dependent on the crop and location, t is the mean monthly temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, and p is the monthly percentage of daytime hours of the year. Because t and p can be found from climatic data at a given location, they are often combined into a monthly

(4.2)

u Z kf

(4.3)

U Z KF

where U is the seasonal consumptive use measured in inches, K is a seasonal consumptive use coefficient, and F is the sum of the monthly consumptive use factors. Values for the Western United States of k are given in Table 4K.66, K in Table 4K.67, p in Table 4K.69, and f in Table 4K.70.

Table 4K.66 Monthly Consumptive Use Coefficients (k) for Irrigated Crops in the Western United States Crop

Location

Alfalfa

California, coastal California, interior North Dakota Utah, St. George Corn (maize) North Dakota Cotton Arizona Texas Orchard, citrus Arizona California, coastal Pasture California, Murrieta Potatoes North Dakota South Dakota Small grain North Dakota Wheat Texas Sorghum Arizona Kansas Texas Soy beans Arizona Sugar beets California, coastal California, interior Montana Truck crops California, interior

Mar

Apr

May

June

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

0.60 0.65 — — — — 0.24 0.57 — — — — — 0.64 — — — — — — — 0.19

0.65 0.70 0.84 0.88 — 0.27 0.22 0.60 0.40 — — — 0.19 1.16 — — — — 0.39 0.30 — 0.26

0.70 0.80 0.89 1.15 0.47 0.30 0.61 0.60 0.42 0.84 0.45 0.69 0.55 1.26 — — — — 0.38 0.60 — 0.38

0.80 0.90 1.00 1.24 0.63 0.49 0.42 0.64 0.52 0.84 0.74 0.60 1.13 0.87 — 0.80 0.26 0.26 0.36 0.86 — 0.55

0.85 1.10 0.86 0.97 0.78 0.86 0.50 0.64 0.55 0.77 0.87 0.80 0.77

0.85 1.00 0.78 0.87 0.79 1.04

0.80 0.85 0.72 0.81 0.70 1.03

0.70 0.80

0.60 0.70

0.68 0.55 0.82 0.75 0.89 0.30

0.68 0.55 1.09 0.54 0.39

0.65 0.50 0.70

0.62 0.45

0.34 0.94 0.73 0.58 0.37 0.96 0.83 0.71

0.72 1.17 1.20 0.92 0.35 0.91 1.05 0.82

0.97 0.86 0.85 0.92 0.38 0.41 1.02 0.69

0.62 0.47 0.49 0.55

0.60

0.37

0.35

Note: For use with the Blaney-Criddle consumptive use formula. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.81

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-81

Table 4K.67 Seasonal Consumptive Use Coefficients (k) for Irrigated Crops in the Western United States Crop Alfalfa Bananas Beans Cocoa Coffee Corn (Maize) Cotton Dates Flax Grains, small Grain, sorghums Oilseeds Orchard crops Avocado Grapefruit Orange and lemon Walnuts Deciduous Pasture crops Grass Ladino whiteclover Potatoes Rice Sisal Sugar beets Sugarcane Tobacco Tomatoes Truck crops, small Vineyard

Length of Normal Growing Season or Perioda

Consumptive Use Coefficient (K)b

Between frosts Full year 3 months Full year Full year 4 months 7 months Full year 7 to 8 months 3 months 4 to 5 months 3 to 5 months

0.80 to 0.90 0.80 to 1.00 0.60 to 0.70 0.70 to 0.80 0.70 to 0.80 0.75 to 0.85 0.60 to 0.70 0.65 to 0.80 0.70 to 0.80 0.75 to 0.85 0.70 to 0.80 0.65 to 0.75

Full year Full year Full year Between frosts Between frosts

0.50 to 0.55 0.55 to 0.65 0.45 to 0.55 0.60 to 0.70 0.60 to 0.70

Between frosts Between frosts 3 to 5 months 3 to 5 months Full year 6 months Full year 4 months 4 months 2 to 4 months 5 to 7 months

0.75 to 0.85 0.80 to 0.85 0.65 to 0.75 1.00 to 1.10 0.65 to 0.70 0.65 to 0.75 0.80 to 0.90 0.70 to 0.80 0.65 to 0.70 0.60 to 0.70 0.50 to 0.60

Note: For use with the Blaney-Criddle consumptive use formula. a b

Length of season depends largely on variety and time of year when the crop is grown. Annual crops grown during the winter period may take much longer than if grown in the summertime. The lower values of K for use in the Blaney-Criddle formula, UZKF, are for the more humid areas, and the higher values are for the more arid climates.

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-82

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4K.68 Monthly and Seasonal Consumptive Use Coefficients (k) for Mature Urban Landscape Plantings Planting Type Warm-season grass (Bermuda, buffalo), Mesa and Tempe, Arizona (elevation 1200 ft) Warm-season grass (Bermuda, buffalo), Laramie and Wheatland, Colorado (elevation 7200 and 4700 ft) Cool-season grass (Kentucky bluegrass), Mesa and Tempe, Arizona (elevation 1200 ft) Cool-season grass (Kentucky bluegrass), Laramie and Wheatland, Colorado (elevation 7200 and 4700 ft) Deciduous fruit or nut tree in bare soil, Mulch, or Paved Area Deciduous fruit or nut tree with cover crop (turf, ground cover, etc) Grapefruit in bare soil, mulch, or paved area Lemon, orange Other trees Grapevine, Mesa and Tempe, Arizona (elevation 1200 ft) Grapevine, elsewhere Other vines Shrubs over 4 ft diameter Shrubs under 4 ft diameter Ground cover plants, other small plants Arid climate native plants Pavements, mulches, nonliving soil covers

Monthly (Maximum K)

Seasonal (Average)

1.17 1.08

0.97 0.79

1.41 1.30

1.20 0.95

0.90 1.25 0.75 0.65 0.90 0.80 0.75 0.80 0.80 1.00 1.00 0.35 0.00

0.70 1.00 0.65 0.55 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.70 0.70 0.90 0.90 0.25 0.00

Note: For use with the Blaney-Criddle consumptive use formula; the higher the monthly or seasonal factor, the greater the planting’s water demand in that time period. Source: From Ferguson, B.K., Water conservation methods in urban landscape irrigation: an exploratory overview, Water Res. Bull., 23, 147, 1987. With permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Latitude North 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 South 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

8.50 8.32 8.13 7.94 7.74 7.53 7.30 7.20 7.10 6.99 6.87 6.76 6.63 6.49 6.34 6.17 5.98 5.77 5.55 5.30 5.01 4.67

7.66 7.57 7.47 7.36 7.25 7.14 7.03 6.97 6.91 6.85 6.79 6.72 6.65 6.58 6.50 6.41 6.30 6.19 6.08 5.95 5.81 5.65

8.49 8.47 8.45 8.43 8.41 8.39 8.38 8.37 8.36 8.35 8.34 8.33 8.31 8.30 8.29 8.27 8.24 8.21 8.18 8.15 8.12 8.08

8.21 8.29 8.37 8.44 8.52 8.61 8.72 8.76 8.80 8.85 8.90 8.95 9.00 9.06 9.12 9.18 9.24 9.29 9.36 9.45 9.55 9.65

8.50 8.65 8.81 8.98 9.15 9.33 9.53 9.62 9.72 9.82 9.92 10.02 10.14 10.26 10.39 10.53 10.68 10.85 11.03 11.22 11.46 11.74

8.22 8.41 8.60 8.80 9.00 9.23 9.49 9.59 9.70 9.82 9.95 10.08 10.22 10.38 10.54 10.71 10.91 11.13 11.38 11.67 12.00 12.39

8.50 8.67 8.86 9.05 8.25 9.45 9.67 9.77 9.88 9.99 10.10 10.22 10.35 10.49 10.64 10.80 10.99 11.20 11.43 11.69 11.98 12.31

8.49 8.60 8.71 8.83 8.96 9.09 9.22 9.27 9.33 9.40 9.47 9.54 9.62 9.70 9.79 9.89 10.00 10.12 10.26 10.40 10.55 10.70

8.21 8.23 8.25 8.28 8.30 8.32 8.33 8.34 8.36 8.37 8.38 8.39 8.40 8.41 8.42 8.44 8.46 8.49 8.51 8.53 8.55 8.57

8.50 8.42 8.34 8.26 8.18 8.09 7.99 7.95 7.90 7.85 7.80 /7.75 7.69 7.63 7.57 7.51 7.45 7.39 7.30 7.21 7.10 6.98

8.22 8.07 7.91 7.75 7.58 7.40 7.19 7.11 7.02 6.92 6.82 6.72 6.62 6.49 6.36 6.23 6.10 5.93 5.74 5.54 5.31 5.04

8.50 8.30 8.10 7.88 7.66 7.42 7.15 7.05 6.92 6.79 6.66 7.52 6.37 6.21 6.04 5.86 5.65 5.43 5.18 4.89 4.56 4.22

8.50 8.68 8.86 9.05 9.24 9.46 9.70 9.81 9.92 10.03 10.15 10.27 10.40 10.54 10.69

7.66 7.76 7.87 7.98 8.09 8.21 8.33 8.39 8.45 8.51 8.57 8.63 8.70 8.78 8.86

8.49 8.51 8.53 8.55 8.57 8.60 8.62 8.63 8.64 8.65 8.66 8.67 8.68 8.69 8.70

8.21 8.15 8.09 8.02 7.94 7.84 7.73 7.69 7.64 7.59 7.54 7.49 7.44 7.38 7.32

8.50 8.34 8.18 8.02 7.85 7.66 7.45 7.36 7.27 7.18 7.08 6.97 6.85 6.73 6.61

8.22 8.05 7.86 7.65 7.43 7.20 6.96 6.85 6.74 6.62 6.50 6.37 6.23 6.08 5.92

8.50 8.33 8.14 7.95 7.76 7.54 7.31 7.21 7.10 6.99 6.87 6.76 6.64 6.51 6.37

8.49 8.38 8.27 8.15 8.03 7.90 7.76 7.70 7.63 7.56 7.49 7.41 7.33 7.25 7.16

8.21 8.19 8.17 8.15 8.13 8.11 8.07 8.06 8.05 8.04 8.03 8.02 8.01 7.99 7.96

8.50 8.56 8.62 8.68 8.76 8.86 8.97 9.01 9.06 9.11 9.16 9.21 9/9.26 9.31 9.37

8.22 8.37 8.53 8.70 8.87 9.04 9.24 9.33 9.42 9.51 9.61 9.71 9.82 9.94 10.07

8.50 8.68 8.88 9.10 9.33 9.58 9.85 9.96 10.08 10.21 10.34 10.49 10.64 10.80 10.97

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Table 4K.69 Monthly Percentage of Daytime Hours of the Year (p)

Note: Latitudes 608N to 468S. For use with the Blaney-Criddle consumptive use formula. Source: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. 4-83

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-84

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4K.70 Monthly Consumptive Use Factors (f ) for Locations in the Western United States and Hawaii Arizona Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Total Frost-free period

California

Phoenix f

Safford f

Yuma f

Bakersfield f

3.64 3.82 5.07 5.89 7.28 8.17 8.85 8.25 6.91 5.58 4.20 3.62 71.28 2/5 to 12/6

3.14 3.40 4.51 5.35 6.73 7.61 8.20 7.52 6.26 5.04 3.67 3.15 64.58 4/5 to 11/4

3.90 4.07 5.36 6.10 7.36 8.16 8.91 8.41 6.98 5.81 4.42 3.87 73.35 1/12 to 12/26

3.33 3.58 4.74 5.55 6.87 7.61 8.38 7.69 6.20 5.13 3.68 3.38 65.84 2/21 to 11/25

California El Centro f

Escondido f

Merced f

Red Bluff f

January February March April May June July August September October November December Total Frost-free period

3.88 4.00 5.37 6.17 7.58 8.20 9.07 8.56 7.19 5.95 4.44 3.93 74.34 1/29 to 12/9

3.70 3.70 4.72 5.26 6.20 6.49 7.22 6.93 5.95 5.14 4.06 3.73 63.10 3/9 to 11/25

3.16 3.38 4.45 5.27 6.57 7.35 8.08 7.39 6.06 4.95 3.67 3.14 53.47 3/9 to 11/20

3.06 3.35 4.53 5.33 6.70 7.58 8.34 7.61 6.14 4.98 3.60 3.20 64.24 3/5 to 12/5

Month

Sacramento f

Santa Ana f

Fort Collins f

Grand Junction f

January February March April May June July August September October November December Total Frost-free period

3.13 3.39 4.52 5.18 6.30 6.93 7.42 6.92 5.81 4.89 3.64 3.06 61.19 2/6 to 12/10

3.77 3.78 4.77 5.27 6.17 6.50 7.05 6.71 5.81 5.11 4.15 3.80 62.89 2/7 to 12/7

1.76 1.89 3.02 4.10 5.49 6.45 7.11 6.50 4.98 3.73 2.42 1.81 49.26 5/7 to 9/29

1.72 2.29 3.57 4.67 6.20 7.22 7.98 7.19 5.60 4.22 2.71 1.92 55.29 4/13 to 10/25

Month

California

Colorado

Idaho

Colorado Month January February March

Montrose f

Boise f

Idaho Falls f

Lewiston f

1.68 2.15 3.32

1.82 2.22 3.44

1.26 1.55 2.79

2.09 2.42 3.77 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Table 4K.70

4-85

(Continued)

April May June July August September October November December Total Frost-free period

4.32 5.70 6.64 7.31 6.62 5.20 3.89 2.56 1.77 51.16 5/6 to 10/9

4.44 5.74 6.68 7.58 6.87 5.15 3.83 2.58 1.90 52.25 4/23 to 10/17

4.05 5.45 6.26 7.19 6.45 4.79 3.60 2.18 1.45 47.02 5/15 to 9/19

4.84 6.25 7.12 8.13 8.01 5.40 4.02 2.64 2.12 56.81 4/5 to 10/26

Kansas

Idaho

Montana

Month

Twin Falls f

Garden City f

Wichita f

Agricultural College f

January February March April May June July August September October November December Total Frost-free period

1.77 2.16 3.35 4.39 5.75 6.53 7.57 6.67 5.00 3.93 2.48 9.84 51.44 5/18 to 9/26

2.12 2.32 3.65 4.81 6.32 7.30 7.97 7.37 5.83 4.41 2.93 2.17 57.20 4/25 to 10/16

2.21 2.39 3.80 4.98 6.45 7.45 8.10 7.53 5.99 4.65 3.13 2.32 59.00 4/10 to 10/27

1.30 1.48 2.50 3.76 5.15 6.03 6.87 6.21 4.53 3.35 2.03 1.41 44.63 5/24 to 9/16

Nebraska

Montana Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Total Frost-free period

New Mexico

Missoula f

McCook f

Scottsbluff f

Albuquerque f

1.16 1.54 2.77 4.01 5.46 6.34 7.17 6.32 4.51 3.26 1.98 1.27 45.79 5/18 to 9/23

1.85 2.11 3.34 4.59 6.14 7.17 7.97 7.25 5.56 4.20 2.64 1.91 54.73 5/3 to 10/6

1.72 1.88 3.02 4.20 5.71 6.79 7.58 6.87 5.19 3.83 2.45 1.81 51.05 5/11 to 9/26

2.40 2.69 3.85 4.87 6.23 7.09 7.65 6.98 5.65 4.46 3.01 2.54 57.39 4/13 to 10/28

New Mexico Month January February March April May June July August

Nevada

Carlsbad f

State College f

Carson City f

Yerington f

3.18 3.37 4.64 5.56 6.89 7.61 7.93 7.55

2.96 3.12 4.29 5.15 6.29 7.29 7.72 7.17

2.20 2.40 3.45 4.25 5.49 6.23 7.04 6.42

2.06 2.46 3.56 4.40 5.65 6.37 7.17 6.63 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-86

Table 4K.70

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

September October November December Total Frost-free period

6.15 5.04 3.70 3.06 64.68 3/29 to 11/4

5.94 4.77 3.45 2.85 61.00 4/6 to 10/31

5.00 3.87 2.69 2.24 51.28 5/23 to 9/19 Oregon

Oklahoma Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Total Frost-free period

Altus f

Baker f

Hood River f

Medford f

2.75 3.09 4.43 5.49 6.86 7.78 8.33 7.82 6.34 5.07 3.65 2.88 64.48 3/28 to 11/9

1.60 1.90 3.12 4.10 5.33 6.11 6.92 6.26 4.72 3.55 2.32 1.68 47.64 5/12 to 10/3

2.09 2.40 3.61 4.57 5.83 6.47 7.15 6.50 5.04 3.92 2.65 2.15 52.38 4/20 to 10/20

2.50 2.81 3.90 4.69 5.91 6.74 7.54 6.85 5.33 4.12 2.90 2.42 55.71 5/6 to 10/4

Texas

January February March April May June July August September October November December Total Frost-free period

January February March April May June July

Utah

Amarillo f

Fort Stockton f

Lubbock f

Logan f

2.33 2.48 3.78 4.75 6.07 6.98 7.54 6.98 5.67 4.39 2.87 2.43 56.27 4/11 to 11/2

3.45 3.61 4.87 5.74 7.08 7.69 7.94 7.47 6.25 5.25 3.93 3.39 66.67 4/1 to 11/3

2.85 3.09 4.28 5.25 6.57 7.37 7.80 7.28 5.95 4.83 3.47 2.84 61.58 4/12 to 11/3

1.59 1.86 3.05 4.28 5.63 6.53 7.53 6.86 5.19 3.87 2.46 1.69 50.54 5/7 to 10/11

Washington

Utah Month

5.09 3.95 2.67 2.11 52.12 5/23 to 9/18

Wyoming

Salt Lake City f

Prosser f

Yakima f

Cheyenne f

1.96 2.26 3.47 4.45 5.77 6.83 7.77

1.95 2.36 3.80 4.82 6.21 7.03 7.74

1.72 2.22 3.71 4.64 6.06 6.88 7.63

1.70 1.82 2.75 3.67 5.08 6.13 6.87 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Table 4K.70

4-87

(Continued)

August September October November December Total Frost-free period

7.13 5.40 4.06 2.75 2.06 53.91 4/13 to 10/22

6.92 5.24 3.97 2.55 2.01 54.55 4/28 to 10/4

6.79 5.21 3.91 2.41 1.92 53.11 4/15 to 10/22

Wyoming Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Total Frost-free period

Worland f 0.97 1.40 2.79 4.08 5.57 6.58 7.41 6.60 4.87 3.57 2.07 1.19 47.10 5/10–9/27

Note: For use with the Blaney-Criddle consumptive use formula. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6.29 4.78 3.46 2.32 1.84 46.71 5/14 to 10/2 Hawaii

Honolulu W.B. Airport f

Waianai f

5.62 5.15 6.04 6.26 6.87 6.98 7.20 7.02 6.49 6.27 5.67 5.54 75.07 —

5.57 5.16 6.08 6.45 7.05 7.23 7.49 7.35 6.65 6.43 5.74 5.61 76.81 —

4-88

Table 4K.71 Estimated Oat Yieldsa Based on Stored Soil Water and Growing Season Precipitationa Consumptive Use Area

Stored Soil WaterDGrowing Season Precipitation (in.) 4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

77 84 96 102

86 95 108 115

96 105 119 128

105 115 131 140

115 126 143 152

124 136 154 165

17

18

19

20

21

228

1,591

1,755

1,919

2,083

2,247

2,411

b,c

a

Estimated yields reflect consumptive use data from Huntley, Havre, Sidney, Conrad, Kalispell, Bozeman, and Moccasin. Yields may vary from estimates due to climatic conditions, weeds, disease, insects, lodging, or stand density. When rooting depths are limited by rocks, gravel, or impermeable layers such as shale, yields may vary.

c

2 2 2 2

11 12 14 15

21 23 26 28

30 33 37 40

39 43 49 52

49 54 61 65

68 74 84 90

Source: From NRCS, MT July 2002, Specification MT590-5.

Table 4K.72 Estimated Safflower Yieldsa Based on Stored Soil Water and Growing Season Precipitationa Consumptive Use Area

Stored Soil WaterDGrowing Season Precipitation (in.) 8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16 b,c

2 Moderate high a b c

115

279

443

607

771

935

Pounds per acre 1,099 1,263 1,427

Estimated yields reflect consumptive use data from Huntley, Havre, Sidney, Conrad, Kalispell, Bozeman, and Moccasin. Yields may vary from estimates due to climatic conditions, weeds, disease, insects, lodging, or stand density. When rooting depths are limited by rocks, gravel, or impermeable layers such as shale, yields may vary.

Source: From NRCS, MT July 2002, Specification MT590-5.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

High Moderate high Moderate Moderate low

b

0 0 0 0

Bushels per acre 58 64 72 78

1 2 3 4

Consumptive Use Area

Stored Soil WaterDGrowing Season Precipitation (in.) 4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

39 42 48 50

43 47 53 56

48 52 59 62

53 57 65 68

57 62 71 74

62 67 77 80

67 72 82 87

b,c

High Moderate high Moderate Moderate low

a

Estimated yields reflect consumptive use data from Huntley, Havre, Sidney, Conrad, Kalispell, Bozeman, and Moccasin. Yields may vary from estimates due to climatic conditions, weeds, disease, insects, lodging, or stand density. When rooting depths are limited by rocks, gravel, or impermeable layers such as shale, yields may vary.

b c

0 0 0 0

6 6 7 7

10 11 13 13

15 16 19 20

20 21 24 26

24 27 30 32

Bushels per acre 29 34 32 37 36 42 38 44

1 2 3 4

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Table 4K.73 Estimated Spring Wheat Yieldsa Based on Stored Soil Water and Growing Season Precipitationa

Source: From NRCS, MT July 2002, Specification MT590-5.

Table 4K.74 Estimated Barley Yieldsa Based on Stored Soil Water and Growing Season Precipitationa Consumptive Use Area

Stored Soil WaterDGrowing Season Precipitation (in.) 4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

62 68 76 80

69 75 84 89

76 83 93 98

83 90 101 107

90 98 110 116

97 106 118 125

104 113 127 134

b,c

High Moderate high Moderate Moderate low

a

Estimated yields reflect consumptive use data from Huntley, Havre, Sidney, Conrad, Kalispell, Bozeman, and Moccasin. Yields may vary from estimates due to climatic conditions, weeds, disease, insects, lodging, or stand density. When rooting depths are limited by rocks, gravel, or impermeable layers such as shale, yields may vary.

b c

6 7 8 8

13 14 16 17

20 22 25 26

27 30 33 35

34 37 42 44

41 45 50 53

Bushels per acre 48 55 52 60 59 67 62 71

1 2 3 4

Source: From NRCS, MT July 2002, Specification MT590-5. 4-89

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Consumptive Use Area

4-90

Table 4K.75 Estimated Winter Wheat Yieldsa Based on Stored Soil Water and Growing Season Precipitationa Stored Soil WaterDGrowing Season Precipitation (in.) 4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

44 47 53 57

49 53 60 64

55 59 67 71

60 64 73 78

65 70 80 85

71 76 86 92

76 82 93 99

b,c

High Moderate high Moderate Moderate low

a

Estimated yields reflect consumptive use data from Huntley, Havre, Sidney, Conrad, Kalispell, Bozeman, and Moccasin. Yields may vary from estimates due to climatic conditions, weeds, disease, insects, lodging, or stand density. When rooting depths are limited by rocks, gravel, or impermeable layers such as shale, yields may vary.

b c

0 0 0 0

6 6 7 8

11 12 14 15

17 18 20 22

22 24 27 29

28 30 34 36

Bushels per acre 33 38 35 41 40 47 43 50

1 2 3 4

Source: From NRCS, MT July 2002, Specification MT590-5.

Region

1889a,b

1949a

1969a

1974a

1978a

1982a

1987a

1992c

1993c

1994d

1000 acres USDA production region Atlantice North Centralf Northern Plains Delta States Southern Plains Mountain States Pacific Coast United Statesg Crop Corn for grain Wheat Rice Soybeans Cotton Hay

— — — — — 2,300 1,200 3,600

500 — 1,100 1,000 3,200 11,600 8,300 25,800

1,800 500 4,600 1,900 7,400 12,800 10,000 39,100

2,000 600 6,200 1,800 7,100 12,700 10,600 41,200

2,900 1,400 8,800 2,700 7,500 14,800 12,000 50,400

2,700 1,700 9,300 3,100 6,100 14,100 11,900 49,000

3,000 2,000 8,700 3,700 4,700 13,300 10,800 46,400

3,500 2,600 10,200 5,400 5,300 13,600 10,500 51,300

3,600 2,400 9,800 5,200 5,500 13,900 10,100 50,600

3,700 2,700 10,300 5,300 5,300 14,300 10,300 52,000

NA NA NA NA NA NA

NA NA NA NA NA NA

3,300 2,000 2,200 700 3,100 7,900

5,600 3,300 2,600 500 3,700 8,000

8,700 3,000 3,000 1,300 4,700 8,900

8,500 4,600 3,200 2,300 3,400 8,500

8,000 3,700 2,400 2,600 3,500 8,600

10,300 4,100 3,500 3,100 3,700 8,400

9,800 3,900 3,100 3,200 4,400 8,600

10,600 3,900 3,400 3,200 4,300 8,900

Note: — IndicatedO50,0000 acres. NAZnot applicable. a b c d e f g

Census of agriculture. Excludes rice, which was grown on 342,000 acres in South Atlantic and Gulf States in 1899. Preliminary estimates constructed from unpublished USDA sources and the Census. Partial returns from 1992 Census were incorporated. Forecast based on March Planting Intentions (NASS). Northeast, Appalachian, and Southeast farm production regions. Lake States and Corn Belt production regions. Remaining regions correspond to single farm production regions. Includes Alaska and Hawaii.

Source: USDA, ERS data. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4K.76 Irrigated Land in Farms, 1889–1994, by Region and Crop

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-91

Table 4K.77 Average Depth of Irrigation Water Applied Per Season, 1969–94, by Region and Crop 1969a

Item

1974a

1979b

1984b

1988b

1990c

1991c

1992c

1993c

1994d

Inchese Region Atlanticf North Centralg Northern Plains Delta States Southern Plains Mountain States Pacific Coast United Statesh Crop Corn for grain Wheat Rice Soybeans Cotton Alfalfa hay

8.5 7.5 16.0 15.5 18.0 30.5 33.0 25.5

11.5 8.0 17.0 17.5 18.5 28.5 34.0 25.0

15.0 9.5 15.5 26.0 17.0 24.0 32.0 22.5

16.5 9.5 13.5 17.5 16.5 24.5 34.0 22.5

15.5 10.5 14.5 18.0 17.0 24.5 34.5 22.5

15.5 9.0 14.0 16.5 16.5 24.0 34.5 22.5

16.0 9.5 14.0 15.5 15.0 24.0 34.5 21.5

16.0 10.0 13.5 16.5 16.0 24.0 34.5 21.5

16.5 8.0 11.5 15.5 16.0 23.0 33.0 20.0

16.5 10.0 14.5 15.5 16.0 24.0 35.0 21.5

18.5 23.0 28.0 12.0 23.0 32.5

19.5 24.0 28.5 11.5 25.5 30.5

17.0 20.5 33.5 14.0 24.0 26.0

16.0 16.5 33.5 9.5 25.0 28.0

16.0 16.0 32.5 10.0 24.5 29.0

15.5 15.5 31.5 8.5 23.0 28.5

15.0 14.5 30.5 7.0 21.0 27.5

15.0 14.5 30.0 8.0 23.0 27.5

13.5 14.0 30.5 6.5 20.0 26.5

15.5 14.5 30.5 7.5 21.5 27.5

a

Census of Agriculture. Estimates constructed by State, by crop, from Farm and Ranch Irrigation Surveys (FRIS) (USDC, 1990, 1986, and 1982a) and ERS estimates of irrigated area. c Aggregated from FRIS State/crop application rates adjusted to reflect annual changes in precipitation. Sensitivity to precipitation is estimated as a function of average precipitation and soil hydrologic group. d Forecast using precipitation records through May 1994. e Values rounded to nearest 0.5 inches. f Northeast, Appalachian, and Southeast production regions. g Lake States and Corn Belt farm production regions. h Includes Alaska and Hawaii. Source: USDA, ERS data. b

Table 4K.78 Irrigated Area, 1992 Census of Agriculture State

1987

1992

Change

3,170 6 62 1,783 3,260 328 241 116 2,680 10 57 20 368 709 2 80 29 1,622 3 2 62 1,641 3 331 1,465 18,050

Percent 5 K19 2 10 1 58 42 25 9 69 12 K1 17 33 K41 K12 K9 K2 K15 16 K22 8 K12 16 K4 6

1,000 acres Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Missouri New Hampshire New Jersey Ohio Oregon Rhode Island Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total, 25 states

3,014 7 61 1,623 3,219 208 170 92 2,463 6 51 20 315 535 3 91 32 1,648 3 2 79 1,519 3 285 1,518 16,967

Note: The table includes 1992 data on States released by the Bureau of the Census by June 20, 1994. Source: USDC, 1994. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-92

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Blaney-Criddle empirical estimate

or

Monthly ET Adjust sum of monthly

to obtain and

values to reflect local Monthly evaporimeter data

Monthly ET (a)

or

Carryover moisture

(b)

Cultural practices

Growing season

to obtain

minus

minus

ET of applied water

Growing season effective precipitation

divide to by obtain

Applied water demand

Irrigation efficiency

(a) Obtained from field measurements of evapotranspiration (ET) of crop and measurements of evaporation from evaporimeters at agroclimatic stations. (b) Stored soil moisture available at start of growing season.

Growing season ET

Known measured factors

add

to obtain

Total applied water demand

Miscellaneous water demand (c)

Calculated values

(c) Water used for leaching, crop cooling, crop heating, etc.

Figure 4K.27 Steps in determining agricultural applied water demand. (From American Society of Civil Engineers, 1972, Copyright, Groundwater Management.)

Other crops Other small grains Dry beans Alfalfa Cherries Wheat for grain Tobacco Corn silage Peanuts Barley Pasture and range Fall potatoes Vegetables Cotton Corn for grain Land in orchard Soy beans Rice

0

1

2 3 Million acre-feet

4

5

Figure 4K.28 Eastern water applications by crop, 1998. (From ERS, 1998 Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey, USDA, www.ers.usda.gov.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-93

Other crops Other small grains Peanuts Sorghum grain Dry beans Soy beans Sugar beets Barley for grain Fall potatoes Corn silage Rice Vegetables Wheat for grain Cherries Cotton Pasture and range Land in orchard Corn for grain Alfalfa

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Million acre-feet

Figure 4K.29 Western water applications by crop, 1998. (From ERS, 1998 Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey, USDA, http://ers.usda. gov.)

Figure 4K.30 Estimated mean annual evapotranspiration in the United States and Puerto Rico. (From U.S. Geological Survey, 1990, http://geochange.er.usgs.gov.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-94

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Million acres 54

Inches 26

Irrigation land in farms 1 (left scale)

52 50

24

48 46 22

44 42 Water applied 2 (right scale)

40

20

38 36

18 1969

73

77

81

85

89

93

Figure 4K.31 Irrigation trends, 1969–1994. (From USDA, ERS data, www.ers.usda.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

4-95

SECTION 4L

PHREATOPHYTES

Table 4L.79 Phreatophyte Areas and Their Consumptive Use in Selected Western States (Estimates as of 1953) State Arizona Californiaa Coloradoa Idaho Montana Nebraskaa Nevada New Mexico North Dakota Oregona South Dakota Texasa Utah Wyoming Total (approximate)b a b

Area (Acres)

Annual Use (Acre-Feet)

405,000 317,000 737,000 500,000 1,600,000 515,000 2,801,000 300,000 1,035,000 40,800 850,000 262,000 1,200,000 527,000 11,090,000

1,280,000 1,150,000 1,056,000 1,000,000 3,200,000 709,000 1,500,000 900,000 1,660,000 21,200 1,240,000 436,500 1,500,000 1,100,000 16,750,000

Partial data, from published reports on areas within the state. Partial data.

Source: U.S. Geological Survey.

Table 4L.80 Consumptive Use by Some Common Phreatophytes in the Western United States

Plant Alder Batamote or seepwillow Cottonwood Do Greasewood Mesquaite Sacaton Saltcedar Do Saltgrass Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Willow Do

Annual Rate Including Precipitation Acre-feet per acre 5.3 4.7 7.6–5.2 6.0 2.5–0.08 3.3 4.0–3.5 5.5–4.7 9.2–7.3 4.1–1.1 2.9–1.1 2.3–1.1 4.5 2.6 4.0–0.8 1.9 2.3–1.6 2.0 4.4 2.5

Volume Density

Depth to Water

Percent — 100 100 100 — 100 — — 100 — — — — — — — — — — —

Feet — 6 3–4 6 — 10 — — 4–7 1.5–5 2–4 0.3–2.1 2.0 0.65 0.4–3.1 2.2 1.9–2.6 2.0 2.0 1.1

Source: From Select Committee on National Water Resources U.S. Senate, 1960. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Locality Santa Ana River, CA Safford Valley, AZ San Luis Rey River, CA Safford Valley, AZ Escalante Valley, UT Safford Valley, AZ Pecos River Valley, NM Do Safford Valley, AZ Owens Valley, CA Santa Ana, CA San Luis Valley, CO Carlsbad, NM Isleta, NM Los Griegos, NM Mesilla Dam, NM Escalante Valley, UT Vernal, UT Santa Ana, CA Isleta, NM

4-96

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 4L.81 Phreatophyte Areas and their Consumptive Use in River Basins of the Western United States

State and River or Valley Arizona Little Colorado River Main stem only St. Johns to mouth Total Little Colorado including Zuni and Puerco Rivers Gila River Virden, NM to Clifton, AZ Head of Safford Valley to Coolidge Dam

Coolidge Dam to Kelvin

Kelvin to Gillespie Dam downstream from Granite Reef Dam on Salt River, Rillito on Santa Cruz River and Lake Pleasant on Agua Fria River Gillespie Dam to Dome Total Gila River including San Pedro River, Palominas to mouth, Verde River, Bartlett Dam to mouth, Salt River, Stewart Mountain Dam to Granite Reef Dam Salt River: Stewart Mountain Dam to Granite Reef Dam San Pedro River: Palominas to Gila at mouth Verde River: Bartlett to Gila at mouth California San Luis Rey River: IN San Diego County Santa Anna River: Below Prado Dam Kings River: Kings River Soil Conservation District Idaho: Malad Valley New Mexico Pecos River: Alamogordo Dam to Texas State line Rio Grande: Bernardo to San Marcial Nevada Little Humboldt River: Paradise Valley Muddy River: To mouth Nevada-Utah-Arizona-California Virgin River: Littlefield to mouth Lower Colorado River: Main stem Lee Ferry to Hoover Dam Hoover Dam to Davis Dam Davis Dam to Parker Dam Parker Dam to Laguna Dam Laguna Dam to International Boundary Total main stem Total Lower Colorado River Basin, including Little Colorado River, Virgin River, and Gila River Basins

Area in Acres

Estimated Annual Year of Water Survey or Use in Acre-Feet Estimate

49,560

64,720

1951

65,310

74,360

1951

5,600 25,520

6,310 61,500

1951 1951

3,970

7,460

1951

142,880

282,770

1951

51,270 300,710

69,220 522,510

1951 1951

2,710

2,070

1951

Saltcedar, mesquite

42,510 3,790

69,420 5,720

1951 1951

Saltcedar, mesquite Saltcedar, mesquite, seepwillow

6,390 1,071 1,080 10,900

17,800 3,000 6,500 32,400

1945 1946 1958 1953

Cottonwood, willow Cottonwood, willow Cottonwood, willow Grasses and rushes

42,500 52,000

117,000 77,800

1956 1955

Saltcedar Saltcedar

36,500 4,900

23,000 10,330

1947 1951

Greasewood, saltgrass, willows Saltcedar

7,360

27,160

1951

Saltcedar

1,480 4,500 57,490 191,890 33,510 288,920 667,200

5,920 11,450 209,290 314,360 54,210 595,230 1,230,090

1951 1951 1950 1951 1951 1951 1951

Saltcedar, willow Saltcedar, willow Saltcedar, willow Saltcedar, willow Saltcedar, willow

Source: Select Committee on National Water Resources, U.S. Senate, 1960.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Principal Species of Phreatophytes

Saltcedar, cottonwood, willow, brush Saltcedar, cottonwood, willow, brush Cottonwood, willow, seepwillow Saltcedar, mesquite, willow, seepwillow, cotton wood, arrowweed Saltcedar, mesquite, willow, seepwillow, cotton wood, arrowweed Saltcedar, mesquite, willow, seepwillow, cotton wood, arrowweed Saltcedar, mesquite, seepwillow

Relation to Groundwater

Scientific Name Acacia greggii A. Gray

Acer negundo Linnacus

Alhagi camelorum Fischer

Depth to Water Below Land Surface (ft)

Quality

Use (acre feet/acre)

Catclaw, Southern devilsclaw, una California to de gato western Texas Boxelder Canada to Oklahoma and Arizona

—

1

—

Uses more water than mesquite. Forms thickets along streams and washes

—

—

—

Camelthorn

—

—

—

Occurs in moist places and along streams, chiefly in mountains. Observed in the flood plain of the North Canadian River near Oklahoma City, Okla. Widely used as a shade tree Introduced into Southwestern United States from Asia Minor. Poor browse plant. Observed growing as a phreatophyte along Little Colorado River between Holbrook and Winslow, AZ, in localities where the depth to water ranged from 4 to 6 ft. Aggressive and thicket forming, root system deep and extensive

California to western Texas —

1–20

3

—

—

—

5.3

So. California, So. Nevada to Utah and Texas Arizona

Shallow

3

—

—

—

—

South Dakota to Oregon, south to Mexico

8–62

1–2

—

Oregon and California to Kansas and New Mexico Southern Utah and Nevada to California and Sonora, Mexico

—

3

—

Occurs in saline soils, especially around alkaline lakes, in salt marshes, and in other water-soaked soils

6–15

3

—

High tolerance for alkali and saline soil. Fair browse plant. Reaches height of 10 ft where water table is shallow

Common Name

Allenrolfea occidentalis (S. Pickleweed, Watson) Kuntze iodinebush Alnus Alder

Anemopsis californica (Nuttall) Hooker and Arnott Aster spinosus Bentham

Yerba mansa

Spiny aster

Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Fourwing Nuttall saltbush, Chamiso, chamiza hastata Linnaeus —

lentiformis (Torrey) Watson

Quailbrush, lenscale Nevada saltbush

Occurrence as a Phreatophyte

Arizona

Remarks

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Table 4L.82 Phreatophytes in the Western United States

Occurs along streams, river bottom land, and other wet sites. The use of 5.3 ft was for the period May to October 1932 in Cold-water Canyon, altitude 2400 ft, San Bernardino Mountains, CA, where alder constituted 82 percent of the vegetation Used by Pima Indians as a herbal remedy. Common in saline and wet lowlands Identified as phreatophyte in bottom land of lower Safford Valley, AZ Tolerates alkali. Valuable browse plant. Useful in erosion control. Taproots 30–40 ft deep. May not always occur as a phreatophyte

(Continued) 4-97

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-98

Table 4L.82

(Continued) Relation to Groundwater

Scientific Name Baccharis emoryi A. Gray

glutinosa Persoon

sarothroides A. Gray

viminea Crandolle

Bigelovia hartwegii, probably Aplopappus heterophyllus A. Gray Celtis reticulata Torrey Cercidium floridum Bentham

Quality

—

2

2–15

2

4.7

Evapotranspiration for plants grown in tanks ranged from 10.3 ft with water level at 2 ft to 4.6 ft with water level of 6 ft. Safford Valley, AZ

—

—

—

Occurs along streams in draws, in canyon bottoms and wet alkaline sites

—

2

—

Occurs as a phreatophyte in lower Safford Valley, AZ

—

—

—

Useful in erosion control

—

—

—

Will grow in dry places but thrives where groundwater is within reach

Arizona

—

—

—

Southwestern Arizona, southeastern California Western Texas to southern Nevada, Arizona, southern California Mud Lake, Idaho

—

—

—

A large tree that may reach 3 ft in diameter and 50 ft in height. Usually occurs along streams Common along washes, canyons, valleys, alluvial plains, grassland at sites where groundwater is plentiful

To 50

—

—

May not always occur as a phreatophyte

—

—

—

Emory baccharis

Texas to southern California and southern Utah Colorado and Batamote, Texas to seepwillow, California and water motie, Mexico waterwillow Broom baccharis, Southern California, desertbroom, Arizona, rosinbrush southwestern New Mexico Squaw baccharis, Arizona, southern waterweed California, southern Nevada, southwestern Utah Mulefat Southwestern Utah, southern California, Nevada, Arizona Rayless goldenrod Hackberry, cumaru, kom Blue palo verde

Chilopsis linearis Sweet

Desertwillow

Chrysothamnus pumilus (Nuttall)

Rabbitbrush

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Use (acre feet/acre)

Remarks

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

sergiloides A. Gray

Common Name

Depth to Water Below Land Surface (ft)

Occurrence as a Phreatophyte

Rubber rabbitbrush

nauseosus graveolens (Nuttall)

Rubber rabbitbrush

nauseosus mohavensis (Greene)

Rubber rabbitbrush

nauseosus oreophilus (Al Nelson) nauseosus viridulus

Rubber rabbitbrush Rubber rabbitbrush

Cowania stansburiana (Torrey)

Vanadium bush

Dalea spinosa Gray

Smoketree, smokethorn

Dasiphora fruticosa Linnaeus

Bush or shrubby cinquefoil

Distichlis spicata (Linnaeus) Greene stricta (Torrey) Rydberg

Seashore saltgrass Saltgrass, or desert saltgrass Elymus condensatus Presl Giant wildrye

triticoides Buckley Eragrostis obtusiflora (Fournier) Scribner

Nevada, Utah, Idaho, Wyoming Montana, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico Northern California, Nevada Wyoming, Colorado, Utah Colorado to Oregon; Nevada, New Mexico Arizona, Idaho, Utah

Southeastern California, southwestern Arizona Locally in Idaho but widespread in Oregon, Washington, Utah, Nevada and Arizona Western United States All Western States

All Western States except New Mexico Creeping wildrye Western United States Mexican Southeastern saltgrass, alkali Arizona, lovegrass southwestern New Mexico

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

nauseosus consimilis (Greene)

—

2–3

—

2.5–15

2–3

—

—

2–3

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Shallow

—

—

—

—

—

2–14

1–3

—

1–12

1–2

—

Fair forage, Killed by overgrazing. Extensive root system

—

1–2

—

4–15

2–3

—

Good forage. Frequently cut for hay. Associated with giant wild-rye along Humboldt River, Nev Commonly locally in saline soil near Wilcox, AZ. Observed growing in Sulphur Springs Valley, AZ, where depth to water table was from 4–15 ft

Used as an indicator of vanadium–uranium deposits by prospectors in the Colorado Plateau. Able to grow in highly mineralized ground and to absorb large amounts of uranium Its persistent occurrence in gravelly and sandy washes suggests it depends upon groundwater underflow and occurs as a phreatophyte Occurs as a phreatophyte in Pahsimeroi Valley, Idaho. Grows on subalpine meadows, along streams, about cold springs in peaty, sandy, or clayey loams

(Continued) 4-99

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4-100

Table 4L.82

(Continued) Relation to Groundwater

Scientific Name Fraxinus velutina Torrey

Common Name

Occurrence as a Phreatophyte

Velvet ash, Arizona ash

Quality

Use (acre feet/acre)

—

1

—

Prominent stream-bank and canyon tree; restricted to areas with a permanent groundwater supply. Popular as a shade tree in Arizona and California

— Shallow

— 2–3

— —

Deep tap root. Identified as a phreatophyte in Colorado High tolerance for alkali. Occurs on moist saline soil

Shallow

1–2

—

—

—

—

Occurs largely along streams, washes, and in bottom lands; aggressive. Often forming thickets. Unpalatable to livestock Occurs in sandy desert

2–20

1

—

—

—

7.8

Juncus cooperi Engelmann Desertrush

Southern Utah to California

—

2–3

—

Juniperus scopulorum?

Nevada

10

1–2

—

Western United States

—

1–3

—

Western United States Western United States Mountain areas of western United States

4C

1–2

—

0–8G

1–2

—

—

1

—

Leptochola fascicularis (Lamarck) A. Gray

Rocky Mountain juniper; locally “swampcedar.” Sprangletop

Medicago sativa Linnaeus

Alfalfa

Phragmites communis Trinius Picea engelmanni Parry

Reed, giant reedgrass, carrizo Engelmann spruce

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Remarks

Occurs along watercourses and washes; intolerant of shade. Deep tap root Grows in wet sites where groundwater is shallow, also in shallow ponds. Appears to occur both as phreatophyte and hydrophyte. Deep root system. Fair to good forage Occurs on the margins of salt marshes and alkaline meadows, common in Death Valley, CA, along the edge of the playa often associated with saltgrass Occurs locally as a phreatophyte in White River and Spring Valleys, Nev. May be a hybrid between J. scopulorum and J. utahensis. Occurs along ditches and in moist waste places, often in brackish marshes; most places in alkali plains. Often invades rice fields

Occurs also as a hydrophyte in the shallow water of streams, lakes, ponds, and marshes Requires a good water supply and depends upon groundwater in many localities. Shallow root system

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Southwestern Utah, southern Nevada, California, Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas Hedysarum boreale Nuttall Sweet vetch Colorado, Utah Heliotropium curassavicum Heliotrope, Southwestern Linnaeus Chinese pusley Utah to southern California Hymenoclea monogyra Burrobush Western Texas to Torrey and Gray southern California salsola Torrey and Gray White burrobush Utah to Arizona and California Juglans microcarpa Walnut, nogal, Arizona, New Berlandier butternut Mexico Juncus balticus Willdenow Wirerush, Western United wiregrass States

Depth to Water Below Land Surface (ft)

Pluchea sericea Coville

Populus tremuloides aurea Tidestorm

Prosopis juliflora (Swartz.)

velutina Wooton pubescens Bentham

Quercus agrifolia Nee lobata Nee Salicornia europaea Linnaeus rubra Linnaeus

Arizona sycamore Southern Arizona, southeastern and southwestern California, New Mexico Arrowweed Texas to southern Utah and southern California Cottonwood Western United States Quaking aspen Mountainous areas of Western United States Mesquite, honey Southern Kansas mesquite to southeastern California and Mexico Velvet mesquite Southern Arizona Screwbean Western Texas to mesquite, southern tornillo Nevada and southern California California live oak California Roble oak California Glasswort — Glasswort

utahensis Tidestrom Salix

Glasswort Willow

Sambucus

Elder, elderberry

Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah Utah Western United States Western United States

Sarcobatus vermiculatus Big greasewood Western United (Hook). Torrey States Sequoia gigantea (Lindley) Giant or bigtree California sequoia Sesuvium portulocostrum Lowland purslane Southern Nevada and California

—

1

—

Common along stream and rocky canyons, in foothills and mountains, upper desert, desert grassland, and oak woodland zones. Valuable in erosion control

0–10G

1–2

—

Occurs along streams and flood plains. Abundant along lower reaches of Colorado River and tributaries. Arrowweed may grow where depth to water is 25 ft

—

1–2

—

—

1

—

Considered a phreatophyte when it grows along streams, around springs, and in other wet areas. Shallow root system

—

1–2

—

Extensive root development. Reported to penetrate 60 ft below surface

10C —

1–2 —

3.3 —

Occurs in bottom lands. Extensive root development Characteristic of bottom lands along desert streams and water holes of Mojave and Colorado Deserts

35G 10–20 —

1 — 3

— — —

Occurrence related to depth to water table

—

3

—

— —

3 —

— —

Occurs on borders of salt lakes and alkaline places

—

1

—

Eleven species reported to grow in Western United States. Grows along streams, in canyons and in moist sites

60G

—

—

—

1

—

—

3

—

Frequently occurs in salt flats with salts approximately 1.0 percent of weight of soil Some value as waterfowl feed. In Nevada occurs along edges of channels draining into playas

Appears to prefer localities where a water table is within reach of its roots but will grow elsewhere Reported as a plant that grows on moist alkaline soils. Indicative of groundwater but usually of poor quality. Alkali resistant 4-101

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS

Platanus wrightil Watson

4-102

Table 4L.82

(Continued) Relation to Groundwater

Scientific Name verrucosum Rafinesque

Shepherdia

Common Name Warty sesuvium, sea purslane Buffalo berry

Sporobolus airoides Torrey Alkali sacaton

Sacaton

Quality

Use (acre feet/acre)

Southern Arizona, California, and New Mexico Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Oregon, Black Hills Western United States

Shallow

3

—

—

1

—

Fruit edible. Grows in moist sites and along streams and river bottoms. One species reported growing as a phreatophyte in Big Smoky Valley, Nev. Occurs also as a phreatophyte in Mason Valley, Nev.

5–25G

1–3

3.7

Arizona to western Texas Southwest

—

1–2

—

—

3

—

—

3

—

4–15

3

—

Most common in the Southwest where it is important as forage; deep, coarse root system. Prefers moist alkali flats. Grows in very saline or saline-alkali soils. Soil salinity may range from 0.3 to 3.0 percent. Grows best in range 0.3 to 0.5 percent Occurs in alluvial flats and bottom lands. Will not grow on highly alkaline soils Browsed when other forage is scarce. Occurs on saline or saline-alkali soils with salt content in first foot as much as 3.2 percent Browsed when other forage is scarce. Occurs on saline or saline-alkali soils with salt content in first foot as much as 3.2 percent Browsed when other forage is scarce. Occurs on saline or saline-alkali soils with salt content in first foot as much as 3.2 percent

— —

1–3 1–3

— —

—

1–3

—

Suaeda depressa Watson

Seepweed, saltwort

Suaeda suffrutescens Watson

Desert seepweed Western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona Torrey seepweed, Eastern Oregon iodineweed, to New Mexico inkweed and California Athel tree Southwest Saltcedar, French Southwest tamarisk Fan palm, Southern Arizona, California palm California, SE New Mexico

torreyana Watson

Tamarix aphylla Linnaeus Gallica Linnaeus Washingtonia filifera Wendland

Remarks

Highly tolerant to alkali. Generally grows where groundwater is at shallow depth

Note: The quality of the groundwater with respect to its suitability for crop growth is indicated by numerals as follows: 1Zexcellent to good; 2Zgood to poor; 3Zpoor to unsatisfactory. The use of groundwater, including precipitation, unless otherwise stated is presumed to be for a plant growth of 100-percent volume density. Source: U.S. Geological Survey.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

wrightii Munro

Depth to Water Below Land Surface (ft)

Occurrence as a Phreatophyte

CHAPTER

5

Surface Water Christopher Spooner

CONTENTS Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section

5A 5B 5C 5D 5E 5F 5G 5H 5I

Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waterfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glaciers and Ice . . . . . . . . . . Floods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flood Prevention . . . . . . . . . Flood Controls Works . . . . . . Water Areas — United States Oceans and Seas . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

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.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

5-2 5-39 5-64 5-68 5-93 5-126 5-128 5-130 5-142

5-1 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-2

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

RIVERS

R

SECTION 5A

b um ia

R

ce

en

r

e il

Missouri

le

St

R

me

ss

iss

ipp

ver Ri

e ny

R

i

R

Riv er

bam Ala

ve r

Apalachicola

bee R

R

20,000 ft3 sec−1 50,000 ft3 sec−1 100,000 ft3 sec−1 250,000 ft3 sec−1 500,000 ft3 sec−1 Rivers shown are those whose average flow at the mouth is 17,000 ft3 sec−1 or more. Average flow of Yukon River, Alaska, is 240,000 ft3 sec−1.

Tombig

River Atc haf ala ya

R

Missis

Red

EXPLANATION

C a Ten ne ss ee

Wh it e

sippi

Riv er

R r erland r Rive mb ve i u R

eR

Arkans as

bil

o ol

o hi O

er Riv

C

do ra

le

Ri

is Illi no

River

Al

R

hR as ab W

a

R

gh

r

Mo

Rive

quehann

Sacremenio R

R

e

S us

Sn

tt e

Mi

Hudson R re R lawa De

W i lli a

ak

er iv

La wr

O nd

Col

Pe

100

0

100 0

100

200

300 MILES

100 200 300 km

Figure 5A.1 Large rivers in the United States. (From Iseri, K.T., and W.B. Langbein, Large Rivers of the United States, U.S. Geol. Survey Circular 686, 1974.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

5-3

Table 5A.1 Average Discharge at Downstream Gaging Stations on Large Rivers of the United States, 1931–1960, and 1941–1970

River

Gaging-Station Location

Drainage Area (Square Miles)

Average Discharge (1931–1960) (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (1941–1970) (ft3/sec)

Alabama Allegheny Apalachicola Arkansas Atchafalayaa

At Claiborne, AL At Natrona, PA At Chattahoochee, FL At Little Rock, AR At Krotz Springs, LA

22,000 11,410 17,200 158,000 93,320

31,140 19,200 20,700 41,300 160,800b

31,510 18,810 21,700 42,130 180,800b

Colorado Columbia Cumberland Delaware Hudson

Below Hoover Dam, AZ–NVc At The Dalles, OR Near Grand Rivers, KY At Trenton, NJf At Green Island, NY

167,800 237,000 17,598 9,397 8,090

14,580d 183,000 26,900 16,100 —

14,530 189,000 28,030e 14,500g 12,520h

Illinois Mississippi Mississippi Missouri Ohio

At Merdosia, IL At Alton, IL At Vicksburg, MS At Hermann, MO At Metropolis, IL

25,300 171,500 1,144,500 528,200 203,000

20,500 91,300 554,000 69,200 257,000

20,670 98,300 565,300 76,200 257,200

Pend Oreille Red Sacramento St. Lawrence

At international boundary At Alexandria, LA At Verona, CAi At Cornwall, Ontario-near Massena, NYj Near Clarkston, WA

25,200 67,412 — 299,000

26,900 32,470 25,700 233,000k

28,420 32,100 27,200 239,000k

103,200

48,600

48,960

25,990 40,200 18,500

36,100 63,400 25,200

35,060 64,050f 25,130

28,600 25,497 7,280 259,000

26,400 29,490 23,870 —

26,600 29,360 24,780 170,000l

Snake Susquehanna Tennessee Tombigbee Wabash White Willamette Yukon a b c

d e f g h i j k l

At Marietta, PA Near Paducah, KY At Jackson Lock and Dam near Coffeeville, AL At Mount Carmel, IL At Clarendon, AR At Salem, OR At Ruby, AK

Continuation of Red River. Includes diversion from Mississippi River through Old River or Old River diversion channel. Very little tributary flow downstream. Downstream station located at Yuma, AZ., drainage area 242,900 square miles. The greater part of the natural flow is diverted for irrigation and other uses in the basin above Yuma. Average flow at Yuma, 1963–1970, is less than 1,000 ft3secK1. For the period 1934–1960. Interbasin diversion beginning June 1966 between Lake Barkley on Cumberland River and Lake Kentucky on Tennessee River through Barkley–Kentucky Canal. Five tributaries below Trenton have been added. Unadjusted for diversion by New York City reservoirs since 1954. October 1946 to September 1970 (24 years). American River and Yolo bypass have been added. Formerly at Ogdensburg, NY Furnished by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers through International St. Lawrence River Board of Control. Average is for 1957–1970; station operated only since 1956.

Source: From Iseri, K.T., and W.B. Langbein, 1974, Large Rivers of the United States, U.S. Geol. Survey Circular 686.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-4

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5A.2 Flow of Selected Streams in the United States Gaging Station

Name

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

Alabama 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

7. 8.

9.

10. 11.

South Atlantic–Gulf Region Choctawhatcheee-Wseambia Subregion Choctawhatchee River, Newton 686 1923–1926 88 1937–1983 Conecuh River, Brantley 500 1937–1983 31 Alabama Subregion Coosa River, Childersburg 8,392 1915–1968 2,000 1969–1978 1,330 Tallapoosa River, Wadley 1,675 1923–1983 140 Alabama River, Montgomery 15,087 1927–1968 5,240 1969–1983 3,860 Mobile–Tombigbee Subregion Cahaba River, Centreville 1,027 1902–1907 143 1931 1937–1983 Mulberry Fork, Garden City 365 1928–1983 4.9 Black Warrior River, Northport 4,820 1895–1902 90 1929–1960 1961–1983 504 Tombigbee River, Coatopa 15,385 1928–1983 685 Tennessee Region Middle Tennessee-Elk Subregion Flint River, Chase 342 1930–1983 66 Tennessee River, Florence 30,810 1984–1983 7,490

983

40,900

680

27,300

13,860 13,860 2,594 24,260 24,260

157,600 144,900 73,800 317,000 219,500

1,633

117,000

681 8,041

51,300 221,000

8,041 23,500

305,400

554 51,900

75,200 —

4,500a 31

56,674 421

299,600a 5,420

3,040 723 5,000a

37,670 9,724 49,940

321,000 115,000 230,000a

7,380 1,100 6,000a 7,850

18,060 6,156 23,840 41,220

66,500 36,200 89,200a 445,000

10,500

82,660

605,000

6b 150 4,740 267 37,000a

14,230 1,384 23,550 14,540 219,600

476,000 38,800c 153,000d 332,000e 751,000a

1,300a

15,270

152,000a

No flow

1,367

218,000

1,670 — 2,550

17,850 — 13,590

189,500 — —

Alaska 1. 2.

Stikine River, Wrangell Fish Creek, Ketchikan

3. 4. 5.

Copper River, Chitina Susitna River, Gold Creek Susitna River, Susitna Station

6. 7. 8. 9.

Kvichak River, Igiugig Nuyakuk River, Dillingham Nushagak River, Ekwok Kuskokwim River, Crooked Creek

10.

Yukon, River, Eagle

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Porcupine River, Fort Yukon Chena River, Fairbanks Tanana River, Nenana Koyukuk River, Hughes Yukon River, Pilot Station

16.

Kobuk River, Kiana

17.

Kaparuk River, Deadhorse

Alaska Region Southeast Alaska Subregion 19,920 1976–1983 32.1 1915–1936b 1938–1983 South-Central Alaska Subregion 20,600 1955–1983 6,160 1949–1983 19,400 1974–1983 Southwest Alaska Subregion 6,500 1967–1983 1,490 1953–1983 9,850 1977–1983 31,100 1951–1983 Yukon Subregion 113,500 1911–1913b 1950–1983 29,500 1964–1979 1,980 1948–1983 25,600 1962–1983 18,700 1960–1982 321,000 1975–1983 Northwest Alaska Subregion 9,520 1976–1983 Arctic Subregion 3,130 1971–1983

Arizona 1.

Colorado River, Lees Ferry

2.

Colorado River, below Hoover Dam

Lower Colorado River Basin 111,800 1912–1962 1965–1984 171,700 1935–1984

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5A.2

5-5

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name 3. 4.

Bill Williams River, below Alamo Dam Colorado River, above Morelos Dam

5.

Little Colorado River, Cameron

6. 7.

Gila River, Clifton Gila River, Solomon

8. 9. 10. 11.

San Pedro River, Palominas San Pedro River, Winkelman Gila River, Kelvin Santa Cruz River, Tucson

12. 13. 14. 15.

Black River, Fort Apache White River, Fort Apache Salt River, Roosevelt Verde River, above Horseshoe Dam

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

4,730 1940–1968 246,700 1950–1984 Little Colorado Subregion 26,500 1974–1984 Upper Gila Subregion 4,010 1928–1984 7,896 1914–1984 Middle Gila Subregion 741 1950–1981 4,471 1966–1979 18,011 1912–1984 2,222 1915–1981 Salt Subregion 1,232 1958–1984 632 1958–1984 4,306 1925–1984 5,872 1945–1984

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

0.72 541

92.3 —

325,000 —

—

244

32,800

8.15 22.0

192 468

30,600 86,800

0.03 — 0.82 —

32.1 57.1 494 22.7

21,800 — 244,000 20,300

16.7 4.80 81.9 72.5

412 201 888 564

56,100 11,900 164,000 158,000

99,000

474,200

1,860,000

57

5,274

—

83

—

—

105 244 236 548 0.35 12.6 6.5

2,380

194,000

7,490 — 374 2,590 676

299,000 — 39,700 102,000 6,930

16.5 894 973 1,120 279 1,980

1,027 9,830 — — 1,360 8,410

176,000 352,000 — — 163,000 176,000

1,990 !0.19 4,090 5,050 6,020

— 467 29,510 — —

— 140,000 291,000 — —

!0.1 !0.1

215 —

47,100 —

Arkansas 1.

2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

10. 11.

12. 13.

14.

Lower Mississippi Region Mississippi River Main Stem Mississippi River, Memphis, TN 932,800 1933–1981 Lower Mississippi–St. Francis Subregion St. Francis River Basin St. Francis Bay, Riverfront — 1936–1975 1978–1981 1944–1975 1978–1981 Lower Red–Ouachita Subregion Ouachita River, Malvern 1,585 1928–1984 1954–1984 Ouachita River, Camden 5,357 1928–1984 1954–1984 Smackover Creek, Smackover 385 1961–1983 Saline River, Rye 2,102 1937–1983 Bayou Bartholomew, McGehee 576 1939–1942 1946–1984 Arkansas–White–Red Region Upper White Subregion White River Basin Buffalo River, St. Joe 829 1939–1984 White River, Calico Rock 9,978 1939–1983 1945–1983 1958–1983 Spring River, Imboden 1,183 1936–1983 Black River, Black Rock 7,369 1929–1931 1939–1983 1950–1983 Middle Fork Little Red River, Shirley 302 1939–1983 White River, Clarendon 25,555 1928–1981 1945–1981 1958–1981 Lower Arkansas Subregion Arkansas River Basin Poteau River, Cauthron 203 1939–1983 1950–1983

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-6

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5A.2

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name 15. 16. 17.

Mulberry River, Mulberry Big Piney Creek, Dover Petit Jean River, Danville

18.

Arkansas River, Murray Dam

19.

Red River, Index

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

!0.16 0.15 0.74 1.9 1,230

534 398 809 — 40,290

82,400 112,000 91,900 — 588,000

812 934 1,110

11,170 — —

190,000 — —

169 1,061 1,618 5,732 64 426

7,957 9,424 18,240 22,680 3,735 3,942

521,000 332,000 77,700f 94,700f 257,000 150,000

104 111 52 241

762 2,177 733 4,783

45,800 135,000 14,400 99,900

0.1 1.0 0 0 0 0.1 3.8 0.1

42.3 13.7 43.3 31.0 52.8 110 222 36.2

54,900 5,400 46,000 32,000 33,800 192,000 118,000 161,000

2.9

67.8

58,500

0.1 0.5 0.6 9.2

659 262 590 140

145,000g 145,000g 145,000g 39,600

77 40 43 1,859 191

2,230 2,435 7,412 18,110 3,891

108,000 93,400 608,000 556,000 231,000

2.4

240

2,830

35 3.3 51 7.6

440 79.1 834 524

7,870 2,410 40,400 62,300

373 274 764

1938–1983 1950–1983 1916–1984 1949–1984 158,030 1927–1984 Red–Sulphur Subregion Red River Basin 48,030 1936–1984 1945–1984 1969–1984

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

California 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

13.

14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

19.

California Region Sacramento Subregion Feather River, Nicolaus 5,921 1944–1969 1970–1983 Sacramento River, Verona 21,251 1930–1969 1970–1983 American River Fair Oaks 1,888 1906–1955 1956–1983 Tulare–Buena Vista Lakes and San Joaquin Subregions Kern River, Kernville 846 1912–1984 Kings River, Trimmer 1,342 1953–1983 Merced River, Stevinson 1,273 1941–1983 San Joaquin River, Vernalis 13,536 1930–1983 Southern California Coastal Subregion San Diego River, Santee 377 1914–1943 1944–1982 Santa Margarita River, Ysidora 740 1924–1948 1949–1983 Santa Ana River, Santa Ana 1,700 1942–1984 Los Angeles River, at Long Beach 827 1930–1940 1941–1982 Santa Clara River, Los Angeles– 625 1953–1971 Ventura County Line 1972–1984 Central California Coastal Subregion Salinas River, Spreckels 4,156 1930–1941 1942–1965 1966–1984 San Lorenzo River, Big Trees 106 1937–1984 Klamath–Northern California Coastal Subregion Russian River, Guerneville 1,338 1940–1958 1959–1983 Eel River, Scotia 3,113 1911–1984 Klamath River, Klamath 12,100 1911–1984 Smith River, Crescent City 609 1932–1984 Great Basin Region Central Lahontan Subregion Truckee River, Tahoe City 507 1910–1984

Colorado 1. 2. 3. 4.

North Platte River, Northgate South Platte River, Hartsel South Platte River, Kersey South Platte River, Julesburg

Missouri Region North and South Platte Subregions 1,431 1915–1984 880 1933–1984 9,598 1901–1984 23,138 1902–1984

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5A.2

5-7

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name

5. 6.

Arkansas River, Canon City Arkansas River, La Junta

7.

Purgatoire River, Trinidad

8.

Purgatoire River, Las Animas

9.

Arkansas River Lamar

10. 11.

Rio Grande, Del Norte Rio Grande, Lobatos

12. 13.

Colorado River, near Dotsero Colorado River, Cameo

14.

Gunnison River, Gunnison

15.

Gunnison River Grand Junction

16. 17.

Yampa River, Maybell White River, Meeker

18.

Animas River, Durango

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

Arkansas–White–Red Region Upper Arkansas Subregion 3,117 1888–1981 12,210 1912–1973 1974–1984 795 1895–1976 1977–1981 3,503 1922–1931 1948–1976 1977–1984 19,780 1913–1942 1948–1984 Rio Grande Region Rio Grande Headwaters Subregion 1,320 1889–1984 7,700 1899–1984 Upper Colorado Region Colorado Headwaters Subregion 4,394 1940–1984 8,050 1933–1984 Gunnison Subregion 1,012 1940–1928 1944–1984 7,928 1896–1965 1968–1984 White–Yampa Subregion 3,410 1916–1984 755 1901–1984 San Juan Subregion 692 1912–1984

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

129 4.8 3.8 2.7 — 0.34

715 244 233 83.3 64.3 116

14,300 96,300 19,300 34,400 — 94,000

— 1.1 0.63

81.0 301 93.6

— 131,000 35,500

107 7.1

901 575

13,400 19,900

536 997

2,136 3,900

23,800 41,900

148 115 265 495

888 709 2,611 2,659

11,500 9,000 38,100 30,500

39 179

1,573 626

19,900 6,570

128

819

15,500

2,200 0.7 144 101 5.2

16,400 8.3 1,030 1,040 184

209,000 1,250 44,000 24,000 16,600

0.9 46.5 44.2 119 90.0 5.2

51.2 667 734 1,250 1,330 165

5,620 25,000 22,500 29,500 26,500 10,800

32.6

211

6,340

119 6.2 6.0 160 61.2 59.4

1,090 236 128 2,600 484 557

24,000 24,000 19,900 95,100 46,000 23,000

Connecticut

1. 2. 3.

Connecticut River, Thompsonville Burlington Brook, Burlington Farmington River, Rainbow

4.

Salmon Silver, East Hampton

5. 6.

Mount Hope River, Warrenville Shetucket River, Willimantic

7.

Quinebaug River, Jewett City

8.

Yantic River, Yantic

9.

Quinnipiac River, Wallingford

10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Housatonic River, Falls Village Shepaug River, Roxbury Pomperaug River, Southbury Housatonic River, Stevenson Naugatuck River, Beacon Falls

New England Region Connecticut Subregion Connecticut River Basin 9,661 1928–1983 4.10 1931–1983 590 1928–1960 1961–1983 100 1928–1983 Connecticut Coastal Subregion Thames River Basin 28.6 1940–1983 404 1928–1952 1953–1983 713 1918–1958 1959–1983 89.3 1930–1983 Quinnipiac River Basin 115 1930–1983 Housatonic River Basin 634 1912–1983 132 1930–1971 75.1 1932–1983 1,544 1928–1983 260 1928–1959 1960–1983

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-8

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5A.2

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name 15.

Saugatuck River, Westport

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

Saugatuck River Basin 79.8 1932–1967

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

2.25

119

13,400

1.5 75

28.8 488

4,840 34,300

0.66

7.04

200

15

92.8

3,570

18

672

40,500

24 0 788 —

1,310 3,120 2,020 1,550

18,500 21,900 12,900 —

0 809 36

257 2,190 1,390

21,400 29,800

57 53 158

1,150 259 1,090

34,400 10,300 9,750

1,790 730

6,940 1,610

68,000 16,400

4,020

10,400

66,400

30

1,030

41,200

7,000

22,400

264,000

1,630 184 291 777 221

7,140 1,170 1,100 6,360 766

128,000 45,900 33,600 179,000 34,200

200

1,809

5,500

10,200

60,400 — —

150

1,446

50,700

2,250

13,770

Delaware

1. 2.

Christina River, Coochs Bridge Brandywine Creek, Wilmington

3.

Stockley Branch, Stockley

4.

Nanticoke River, Bridgeville

Mid-Atlantic Region Delaware Subregion Christina River Basin 20.5 1943–1984 314 1946–1984 Upper Chesapeake Subregion Indian River Basin 5.24 1943–1984 Nanticoke River Basin 75.4 1943–1984

Florida 1.

St. Marys River, Macclenny

2. 3. 4.

St. Johns River, Christmas St. Johns River, DeLand Oklawaha River, Rodman Dam

5. 6.

Fisheating Creek, Palmdale Kissimmee River, S-65E near Okeechobee

7. 8. 9.

Peace River, Acradia Hillsborough River, Zephyrhills Withlacoochee River, Holder

10. 11.

Suwannee River, Branford Santa Fe River, Fort White

12.

Suwannee River, Wilcox

13.

Ochlockonee River, Havana

14.

Apalachicola River, Chattahoochee

15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Choctawhatchee River, Bruce Yellow River, Milligan Shoal River, Crestview Escambia River, Century Perdido River, Barrineau Park

South Atlantic–Gulf Region Altamaha–St. Marys Subregion 700 1927–1983 St. Johns Subregion 1,539 1934–1983 3,066 1934–1983 2,747 1944–1968 1969–1983 Southern Florida Subregion 311 1932–1983 2,886 1929–1962 1964–1983 Peace–Tampa Bay Subregion 1,367 1932–1983 220 1940–1983 1,825 1932–1983 Suwannee Subregion 7,880 1932–1983 1,017 1928–1929 1933–1983 9,640 1931 1942–1983 Ochlockonee Subregion 1,140 1927–1983 Apalachicola Subregion 17,200 1929–1983 Choctawhatchee–Escambia Subregion 4,384 1931–1983 624 1939–1983 474 1939–1983 3,817 1935–1983 394 1942–1983

Georgia 1.

Broad River, Bell

2.

Savannah River, Augusta

3.

Oconee River, Greensboro

4.

Altamaha River, Doctortown

South Atlantic–Gulf Region Ogeechee–Savannah Subregion 1,430 1927–1932 1937 7,508 1960–1981 Altamaha–St. Marys Subregion 1,090 1903–1932 1936–1978 13,600 1931–1983

225,000 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5A.2

5-9

(Continued) Gaging Station Drainage Area (mL2)

Name 5.

Penholoway Creek, Jesup

6.

Alapaha River, Statenville

7. 8.

Chattahoochee River, Atlanta Flint River, Culloden

9.

Flint River, Albany

10.

Etowah River, Allatoona Dam

11.

Toccoa River, Dial

Streamflow Characteristics

Period of Analysis

210 1958–1983 Suwannee Subregion 1,400 1931–1983 Apalachicola Subregion 1,450 1959–1981 1,850 1911–1923 1928–1931 1937–1983 5,310 1901–1921 1929–1983 Alabama Subregion 1,120 1950–1981 Tennessee Region Middle Tennessee–Hiawassee Subregion 177 1912–1983

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

0

201

7,180

25

1,044

24,200

860 180

2,840 2,402

— 99,100

1,000

6,303

94,600

240

1,944

—

125

498

16,600

10.4

48.6

10,400

0.29

6.74

10,400

0.26

4.69

4,410

0.10

11.8

1,140

80

937

8,190

200

1,686

11,500

180

6,297

46,000

560 400 14

6,691 2,088 280

31,700 12,100 2,650

5 — 36

2,711 — 314

42,400 28,300 3,280

2

480

10,400

6,000 — 47

10,910 — 409

54,600 39,100 7,500

Hawaii 1.

East Branch of North Fork Wailua River near Lihue

2.

Kalihi Stream, near Honolulu

3.

Honopou Stream near Huolo

4.

Waiakea Stream near Mountain View

Hawaii Region Kauai Subregion 6.27 1916–1983 Oahu Subregion 2.61 1917–1983 Maui Subregion 0.64 1911–1983 Hawaii Subregion 17.4 1931–1983

Idaho

1.

Bear River, Preston

2.

Priest River, Priest River

3.

Spokane River, Post Falls

4. 5. 6.

Snake River, Irwin Henrys Fork, Rexburg Portneuf River, Pocatello

7.

Snake River, Milner

8.

Big Lost River, below Mackay Reservoir, Mackay

9.

Big Wood River below Magic Dam, Richfield

10.

Snake River, King Hill

11.

Bruneau River, Hot Spring

Great Basin Region Bear Subregion Bear River Basin 4,545 1944–1984 Pacific Northwest Region Kootenai–Pond Oreille–Spokane Subregion Pend Oreille River Basin 902 1904 1930–1984 Spokane River Basin 3,340 1913–1984 Upper Snake Subregion 5,225 1950–1984 2,920 1910–1984 1,250 1913–1916 1918–1984 17,180 1910–1926 1927–1984 813 1905

1,600

1913–1914 1920–1984 1913–1984

Middle Snake Subregion 35,800 1910–1926 1927–1984 2,630 1904–1914 1943–1984

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-10

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5A.2

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name 12. 13. 14. 15.

Boise River, Boise Payette River, Payette Weiser River, Weiser Snake River, Weiser

16.

Salmon River, White Bird

17.

Clearwater River, Spalding

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

2,680 1953–1984 3,240 1936–1984 1,460 1953–1984 69,200 1911–1984 Lower Snake Subregion 13,550 1911–1917 1920–1984 9,570 1910–1913 1925–1984

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

1 400 54 6,600

2,951 3,183 1,132 18,490

10,000 10,000 26,000 10,000

2,400

11,420

126,000

1,500

15,550

188,000

— 3,180 — 3,630

— 9,791 — 21,976

91,100 — 132,300 —

463 — 6.0 48 176 366 — 9.6 1.3 20 147 263 10

4,233 — 471 — 1,703 — 822 — 511 1,054 3,335 — 802

68,100 7,830 — — 37,400 — 40,700 — 43,900 37,600 82,800 — 27,500

191 68 1,270 40

900 713 6,020 610

21,300 25,000 58,800 13,000

14 34 — 2.3 47

1,412 1,769 — 1,788 1,888

33,000 30,400 39,300 — 41,000

Illinois

1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

11. 12. 13. 14.

15. 16.

Upper Mississippi Region Upper and Lower Illinois Subregions Illinois River Main Stem Illinois River, Marseilles 8,259 1919–1983 1940–1983 Illinois River, Meredosia 26,028 1921–1983 1940–1983 Illinois River Basin–Tributaries Kankakee River, Wilmington 5,150 1915–1983 Des Plaines, River Riverside 630 1914–1983 1943–1983 1974–1983 Fox River, Dayton 2,642 1915–1983 1974–1983 Vermillion River, Leonore 1,251 1931–1983 1973–1983 Mackinaw River, Congerville 767 1945–1983 Spoon River, Seville 1,636 1914–1983 Sangamon River, Oakford 5,093 1910–1983 1974–1983 La Moine River, Ripley 1,293 1921–1983 Rock Subregion Rock River Basin Pecatonica River, Freeport 1,326 1914–1983 Kishwaukee River, Perryville 1,099 1940–1983 Rock River, Joslin 9,549 1940–1983 Green River, Geneseo 1,003 1936–1983 Upper Mississippi–Kaskaskia–Meramec Subregion Kaskaskia and Big Muddy River Basins Kaskaskia River, Vandalia 1,940 1908–1969 1970–1983 Big Muddy River, Murphysboro 2,169 1916–1970 1931–1970 1971–1983

Ohio Region Wabash and Lower Ohio Subregions Embarras and Little Wabash River Basins 1,516 1910–1983 3,102 1940–1983

17. 18.

Embarras River, Ste. Marie Little Wabash, River, Carmi

14 6.2

1,224 2,529

53,700 45,300

1.

Ohio Region Great Miami Subregion Whitewater River Basin Whitewater River, Alpine 522 1928–1983 48 Wabash Subregion Wabash River Main Stem–White River Basin–Patoka River Basin Muscatatuck River, Deputy 293 1947–1983 0.0

551

49,000

348

41,200

Indiana

2.

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5A.2

5-11

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name 3. 4.

South Fork Patoka River, Spurgeon Eagle Creek, Indianapolis

5. 6.

Driftwood River, Edinburgh Wabash River, Peru

7.

Wabash River, Mount Carmel, IL

8. 9.

Kankakee River, Shelby Iroquois River, Foresman

10. 11.

St. Joseph River, Elkhart Pigeon Creek Angola

12.

Muamee River, New Haven

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

42.8 174

1964–1983 1938–1968 1969–1983 1,060 1940–1983 2,686 1943–1967 1970–1983 28,635 1927–1983 Upper Mississippi Region Upper Illinois Subregion Kankakee River Basin 1,779 1922–1983 449 1948–1983 Great Lakes Region Southestern Lake Michigan Subregion St. Joseph River Basin 3,370 1947–1983 106 1947–1983 Western Lake Erie Subregion Maumee River Basin 1,967 1956–1983

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

2.2 0.5 6.0 91 92 155 2,280

51.9 148 168 1,144 2,290 2,500 27,440

5,990 18,400 11,800 49,500 74,300 31,000 315,000

417 11

1,619 383

6,950 5,660

818 5.8

3,177 78.5

21,500 843

72

1,645

25,600

10,050

47,390

295,000h

32 81

327 949

22,400 33,100

160 98

1,027 1,537

47,700 31,600

60 93 2.3 64 284 347 555 893

1,470 2,180 370 974 2,984 3,414 5,950 8,650

43,700 17,400 25,300 42,800 98,900 83,500 102,000 116,000

10 2.3 31

916 436 2,407

25,800 27,400 55,200

40 8.3 26 34 143

1,882 708 449 1,346 5,160

54,600 27,200 32,200 46,500 123,000

245

7,860

90,600

3,810 6,570

30,000 28,700

437,000 144,500n

Iowa 1.

Mississippi River, Clinton

2. 3.

Upper Iowa River, Decorah Turkey River, Garber

4. 5.

Maquoketa River, Maquoketa Wapsipinicon River, De Witt

6.

Iowa River, Iowa City

7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

English River, Kalona Shell Rock River, Shell Rock Cedar River, Waterloo Cedar River, Cedar Rapids Iowa River, Wapello

12. 13. 14.

South Skunk River, Oskaloosa North Skunk River, Sigourney Skunk River, Augusta

15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Des Moines River, Stratford North Raccoon River, Jefferson South Raccoon River, Redfield Raccoon River, Van Meter Des Moines River, Keosauqua

20.

Missouri River, Sioux City

Upper Mississippi Region Mississippi River Main Stem 85,600 1873–1983 Northeast Iowa River Basini 511 1951–1983 1,545 1913–1916 1919–1927 1929–1930 1932–1983 1,553 1913–1983 2,330 1934–1983 Iowa–Cedar River Basinj 3,271 1903–1958 1959–1983 573 1939–1983 1,746 1953–1983 5,146 1940–1983 6,510 1902–1983 12,499 1914–1958 1959–1983 Skunk River Basinj 1,635 1945–1983 730 1945–1983 4,303 1914–1983 Des Moines River Basink 5,452 1920–1983 1,619 1940–1983 988 1940–1983 3,441 1915–1983 14,038 1903–1906 1911–1968 1969–1983 Missouri Region Missouri River Main Steml 314,600 1897–1956m 1957–1983

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-12

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5A.2

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name 21. 22. 23.

Big Sioux River, Akron Floyd River, James Little Sioux River, Correctionville

24.

Boyer River, Logan

25.

Nishnabotna River, Hamburg

26.

Nodaway River, Clarinda

27.

Thompson River, Davis City

28.

Chariton River, Rathbun

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

Western Iowa River Basino 9,030 1928–1983 886 1934–1983 2,500 1918–1925 1928–1932 1936–1983 871 1918–1925 1937–1983 Southern Iowa River Basinp 2,806 1922–1923 1928–1983 762 1918–1925 1936–1983 701 1918–1925 1941–1983 549 1956–1969 1970–1983

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

19 2.7 14

901 197 766

71,000 34,300 32,600

6.5

315

31,800

28

1,057

40,700

5.8

338

37,900

1.6

370

25,500

0.25 4.0

303 382

40,327 2,130

990 30 550

76,000q 70,000 51,000r

1,600

85,000r

2,600 2,000 7,000 2,000

140,000r 50,000r 300,000r 67,000q

42,000

—

310

130,000q

280 1,800

43,000 99,000r

1,700

72,000r

2,500

56,000q

7,400 8,200 46,000

92,530 115,700 271,000

699,000 862,000 1,580,000

0.22 2.3

1,572 1,801

61,900 65,600

Kansas

1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12.

13. 14.

Missouri Region Republican and Smoky Hill Subregions Republican and Smoky Hill River Basins Republic River, Clay Center 24,542 1917–1983 75q Smoky Hill River, Elkader 3,555 1940–1983 0.0 Solomon River, Niles 6,770 1897–1903 33q 1917–1983 Smoky Hill River Enterprise 19,260 1935–1983 120q Kansas, Gasconade–Osage, and Missouri–Nishnabotna Subregions Kansas, Osage, and Missouri River Basins Kansas River, Fort Riley 44,870 1964–1983 240q Big Blue River, Manhattan 9,640 1955–1983 18q Kansas River, De Soto 59,756 1917–1983 800q Marais des Cygnes River, Kansas– 3,230 1959–1983 2.5q Missouri State line Missouri River, St. Joseph, MO 420,300 1929–1983 6,100q Arkansas–White–Red Regions Middle Arkansas, Upper Cimarron, and Arkansas–Keystone Subregions Arkansas River Basin Arkansas River, Syracuse 25,763 1902–1906 0.3q 1921–1983 Little Arkansas River, Valley Center 1,327 1922–1983 10 Arkansas River, Arkansas City 43,713 1902–1906 170q 1922–1983 Middle Arkansas and Neosho–Verdigris Subregions Walnut, Verdigris, and Neosho River Basins Verdigris River, Independence 2,892 1895–1904 9.0q 1921–1983 Neosho River, Parsons 4,905 1922–1983 7.5q

Kentucky

1. 2. 3.

Ohio River, Greenup Dam Ohio River, Louisville Ohio River, Metropolis, IL

4. 5.

Salt River, Shepherdsville Rolling Fork, Boston

Ohio Region Middle and Lower Ohio Subregions Ohio River Main Stem 62,000 1968–1983 91,170 1928–1983 203,000 1928–1983 Salt River Basin 1,197 1938–1983 1,299 1938–1983

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5A.2

5-13

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name 6.

Levisa Fork, Pikeville

7.

Licking River, Catawba

8. 9.

Middle Fork Kentucky River, Tallega Kentucky River, Salvisa

10. 11.

Green River, Munfordville Pond River, Apex

12. 13.

Cumberland River, Williamsburg Little River, Cadiz

14.

Tennessee River, Paducah

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

Big Sandy–Guyandotte Subregion 1,232 1937–1983 Kentucky–Licking Subregion Licking River Basin 3,300 1914–1983 Kentucky River Basin 537 1930–1983 5,102 1925–1983 Green Subregion Green River Basin 1,673 1915–1983 194 1940–1983 Cumberland Subregion Cumberland River Basin 1,607 1959–1983 244 1940–1983 Tennessee Region Lower Tennessee Subregion 40,200 1889–1983

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

5.8

1,474

76,400

13

4,143

84,900

0.64 136

730 6,737

51,400 125,000

73 0

2,722 267

70,300 25,800

22 11

2,736 349

54,000 18,200

8,190 —

64,060s 65,450t

— —

9,887 1,915

129,000 93,200

578,800 514,200

2,203,000 —

61.4

37,200

2,021 1,154

136,000 81,900

196,700 1,147

— 58,900

2,568

121,000

24,030 30,870 162

297,000 251,000 17,200

7,491

90,700

Louisiana

1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

8. 9. 10.

11. 12. 13.

14.

South Atlantic–Gulf Region Pearl Subregion Pearl River Basin Pearl River, Bogalusa 6,573 1939–1983 1,320 Bogue Chitto, Bush 1,213 1938–1983 460 Lower Mississippi Region Mississippi River Main Stemu Mississippi River, Vicksburg, MO 1,118,160 1929–1983 127,000 Mississippi River, Tarbert Landing, MO 1,124,900 1939–1983 142,000 Lower Red–Ouachita Subregion Ouachita River Basin Big Creek, Pollock 51 1943–1983 7.4 Lower Mississippi–Lake Maurepas Subregion Amite River, Denham Springs 1,280 1939–1983 304 Tangipahoa River, Robert 646 1939–1983 284 Louisiana Coastal Subregion Atchafalaya–Teche–Vermillion and Calcasieu–Mermentau River Basin Atchafalaya River, Simmesport 87,570 1939–1983 26,000 Calcasieu River, Oberlin 753 1923–1924 37 1939–1983 Calcasieu River, Kinder 1,700 1923–1924 202 1939–1957 1962–1983 Arkansas–White–Red Region Red–Sulphur Subregion Red River Basin Red River, Shreveport 60,613 1929–1983 1,150 Red River, Alexandria 67,500 1929–1983 1,650 Saline Bayou, Lucky 154 1941–1983 4.5 Texas–Gulf Region Sabine Subregion Sabine River Basin Sabine River, Ruliff, TX 9,329 1925–1983 432

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-14

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5A.2

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

Maine 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8.

New England Region St. John Subregion St. John River, Ninemile Bridge 1,341 1950–1985 St. John River, Fort Kent 5,665 1926–1985 Aroostook River, Washburn 1,654 1930–1985 Maine Coastal Subregion St. Croix River, Baring 1,374 1958–1985 Narraguagus River, Cherryfield 227 1948–1985 Sheepscot River, North Whitefield 148 1938–1985 Penobscot Subregion Penobscot River, Dover–Foxcroft 298 1902–1985 Penobscot River, West Enfield 6,71 1901–1985 Kennebec Subregion Kennebec River, Bingham 2,715 1907–1910 1930–1985 Carrabassett River, North Anson 353 1902–1907 1925–1985 Androscoggin Subregion Swift River, Roxbury 96.9 1929–1985 Little Androscoggin River, South Paris 75.8 1913–1924 1931–1985 Androscoggin River, Auburn 3,263 1928–1985 Saco Subregion Royal River, Yarmouth 141 1949–1985 Saco River, Cornish 1,293 1916–1985 Maryland (and the District of Columbia) Mid-Atlantic Region Potomac Subregion Conoccocheague Creek, Fairview 494 1928–1983 Antietam Creek, Sharpsburg 281 1899–1983 Monocacy River, Frederick 817 1929–1983 Upper Chesapeake Subregion Pocomoke River, Willards 60.5 1949–1983 Choptank River, Greensboro 113 1948–1983 Patuxent River, Unity 34.8 1944–1983 Susquehanna Subregion Susquehanna River, Conowingo 27,100 1968–1983 Ohio Region Monongahela Subregion Youghiogheny River, Oakland 134 1941–1983

96 747 143

2,330 9,730 2,670

47,900 167,000 51,500

484 29 8.8

2,760 503 249

31,000 11,300 7,080

19 2,970

603 11,960

25,400 150,000

1,310

4,450

59,200

45

717

39,500

6.9 2.6

199 139

21,100 6,700

1,690

6,140

99,700

24 386

275 2,710

11,000 36,800

53 66 50

590 275 926

26,800 14,400 65,900

3.4 5.4 2.8

71 132 39

1,830 9,360 26,900

—

42,180

—

5.9

297

12,800

47 8.1 97 1,700 6.4 0.2 130 5.7

630 183 1,285 13,760 167 69.5 903 190

— 17,000 56,000 — — 3,100 — 29,000

84

921

—

46 33

568 630

16,000 6,000

Massachusetts 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Millers River, Erving North River, Shattuckville Deerfield River, West Deerfield Connecticut River, Montague City Ware River, Barre East Branch Swift River, Hardwick Chicopee River, Indian Orchard West Branch Westfield River, Huntington Westfield River, Westfield

10. 11.

Nashua River, East Pepperell Concord River, Lowell

New England Region Connecticut Subregion 372 1915–1983 89.0 1940–1983 557 1941–1983 7,860 1905–1983 96.3 1929–1983 43.7 1938–1983 689 1929–1983 94.0 1936–1983 497 1915–1983 Merrimack Subregion 316 1936–1983 307 1937–1983

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5A.2

5-15

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

Merrimack River, Lowell

4,423 1924–1983 Massachusetts–Rhode Island Coastal Subregion Parker River, Byfield 21.3 1946–1983 Ipswich River, Ipswich 125 1931–1983 Charles River, Dover 183 1938–1983 Indian Head River, Hanover 30.2 1967–1983 Wading River, Norton 43.3 1926–1983 Connecticut Coastal Subregion Housatonic River, Great Barrington 280 1914–1983

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

937

7,530

—

0.2 2.0 13 1.4 2.3

36.7 187 302 62.4 73.3

610 3,120 3,800 1,800 1,500

69

526

11,000

3,260 1,420

20,400 12,300

205

6,890

833

8,800

3,570

53,000

892

13,000

998

9,060

1,970

14,100

2,000

8,240

420 743 490

9,330 16,700 20,800

1,680

44,600

1,430 216

32,400 4,830

936 531 456

7,660 23,200 5,940

1,194 173 13.1

7,655 1,264 276

98,000 15,300 10,000

14.7

664

19,000

64.4

602

14,000

61.6

501

34,000

Michigan 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Great Lakes Region Northwestern Lake Michigan and Southeastern Lake Michigan Subregions St. Joseph River, Niles 3,666 1931–1984 945 Kalamazoo River, Fennville 1,600 1930–1936 335 1938–1984 Red Cedar River, East Lansing 355 1903 9.79 1932–1984 Grand River, Lansing 1,230 1902–1906 80.2 1935–1984 Grand River, Grand Rapids 4,900 1902–1905 721 1931–1984 Escanaba River, Cornell 870 1904–1912 168 1951–1984 Northeastern Lake Michigan–Lake Michigan Subregion Muskegon River, Evart 1,450 1931 314 1934–1984 Muskegon River, Newaygo 2,350 1910–1914 672 1917–1919 1931–1984 Manistee River, Manistee 1,780 1952–1984 1,210 Southwestern Lake Huron–Lake Huron Subregion Shiawassee River, Fergus 637 1940–1984 42.1 Flint River, Fosters 1,188 1940–1984 66.4 Cass River, Frankenmuth 841 1936 20.4 1940–1984 Tittabawassee River, Midland 2,400 1937–1984 187 Southern Lake Superior–Lake Superior and St. Clair–Detroit Subregions Ontonagon River, Rockland 1,340 1943–1984 308 Sturgeon River, Sidnaw 171 1913–1915 8.19 1944–1984 Tahquamenon River, Paradise 790 1954–1984 196 Clinton River, Mt. Clemens 734 1935–1984 61.4 Huron River, Ann Arbor 729 1905–1984 43.6

Minnesota 1. 2. 3.

Mississippi River, Anoka Crow Wing River, Pillager Sauk River, St. Cloud

4.

Crow River, Rockford

5.

Rum River, St. Francis

6.

Cannon River, Welch

Upper Mississippi Region Mississippi River Basinv 19,000 1932–1983 3,300 1968–1983 925 1910–1912 1931 1935–1981 2,520 1910–1917 1931 1935–1983 1,360 1931 1934–1983 1,320 1911–1913 1931–1971

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-16

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5A.2

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

7.

Zumbro River, Zumbro Falls

1,130

8.

Root River, Houston Minnesota Subregion

1,270

9. 10.

Minnesota River, Jordan Lac qui Parle River, Lac qui Parle

11. 12.

Chippewa River, Milan Cottonwood River, New Ulm

13.

Blue Earth River, Rapidan

14.

St. Croix River, St. Croix Falls

15. 16. 17.

Otter Tail River, Orwell Dam Fergus Falls Red River of the North, Grand Forks Red Lake River, Crookston

18. 19.

Rainy River, Manitou Rapids Little Fork River, Littlefork

20.

Big Fork River, Big Falls

21. 22. 23

Pigeon River, Grand Portage Baptism River, Beaver Bay St. Louis River, Scanlon

Period of Analysis 1910–1917 1931–1980 1910–1917 1931–1983

16,200 983

1935–1983 1913 1932 1934–1983 1,870 1938–1983 1,280 1912–1913 1936–1937 1939–1983 2,430 1940–1945 1950–1983 St. Croix Subregion 6,240 1903–1983 Souris–Red–Rainy Region Red Subregion Red Lake River Basin 1,830 1931–1983 30,100 1883–1983 5,280 1902–1983 Rainy Subregion Little Fork and Big Fork River Basins 19,400 1929–1983 1,730 1912–1916 1929–1983 1,460 1929–1979 1983 Great Lakes Region Western Lake Superior Subregion 600 1924–1983 140 1928–1983 3,430 1909–1983

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

77.7

517

40,200

178

696

51,500

171 0.20

3,520 120

115,000 19,300

2.90 2.77

269 289

12,400 33,000

14.9

895

34,600

1,099

4,235

61,000

12.3

304

4,800

71.4 31.6

2,558 1,130

89,000 31,000

3,597 40.3

12,830 1,053

80,000 27,400

33.7

715

21,800

44.5 3.45 316

506 169 2,313

13,600 8,820 38,000

831 741

9,330 10,900

— 45,000

87

1,070

14,100

84

3,800

73,400

324 365

6,110 7,530

— 97,100

233

6,520

223,000

865

9,350

Mississippi

1.

Yazoo River, Greenwoodw

2.

Big Sunflower River, Sunflowerw

3.

Big Black River, Bovina

4.

Pearl River, Monticello

5.

Tombigbee River, Columbus

6.

Pascagoula River, Merrill

Lower Mississippi Region Lower Mississippi–Yazoo Subregion Yazoo River Basin 7,450 1907–1912 1927–1939 1940–1984 767 1935–1984 Lower Mississippi–Big Black Subregion Big Black River Basin 2,810 1936–1984 South Atlantic–Gulf Region Pearl Subregion Pearl River Basin 4,993 1938–1960 1961–1984 Mobile–Tombigbee Subregion Tombigbee River Basin 4,463 1899–1912 1928–1982 Pascagoula Subregion Pascagoula River Basin 6,590 1930–1968

— (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5A.2

5-17

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis 1969–1984

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec) 1,080

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

11,800

221,000

1,700 183,000 3,100 198,000

87,000 1,000,000 144,000 1,100,000

1,100 530

89,000 11,000

51,000 1,200 9,900 2,500 72,000

— 72,000 — 106,000 —

940 3,500 2,700 840

69,000 — 104,000 80,000

122 2,230 65

430 7,827 940

3,040 96,000 —

0.00

301

34,600

13 1,520

710 11,000

36,600 54,900

1,090 767 3.3

7,074 3,939 440

80,000 41,700 17,800

1.6 1,410

612 13,080

48,100 156,000

1,440 123 1,090 4,440

7,583 931 9,737 20,010

79,800 13,200 84,000 145,000

Missouri 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

12. 13. 14. 15.

Upper Mississippi Region Upper Mississippi–Kaskaskia–Meramec Subregion Salt River, New London 2,480 1922–1983 1.7 Mississippi River, St. Louis 697,000 1951–1983 43,000 Meramec River, Eureka 3,788 1921–1983 280 Mississippi River, Thebes, IL 713,200 1951–1983 47,100 Lower Mississippi Region Lower Mississippi–St. Francis Subregion St. Francis River Basin St. Francis River, Patterson 956 1920–1983 15 Little River, Morehouse 450 1945–1983 33 Missouri Region Gasconade–Osage and Chariton–Grand Subregions Osage and Grand River Basins Missouri River, Kansas City 485,200 1955–1983 6,400 Grand River, Gallatin 2,250 1921–1983 4.0 Osage River, St. Thomas 14,500 1931–1983 480 Gasconade River, Jerome 2,840 1923–1983 320 Missouri River, Hermann 524,200 1955–1983 11,000 Arkansas–White–Red Region Upper White Subregion White River Basin James River, Galena 987 1921–1983 38 White River, Branson 4,020 1956–1983 78 Current River, Doniphan 2,038 1918–1983 940 Spring River, Waco 1,164 1924–1983 18

Montana 1. 2. 3.

Beaverhead River, Barretts Missouri River, Fort Benton Marias River, Shelby

4.

Musselshell River, Mosby

5. 6.

Milk River, Nashua Missouri River, Culbertson

7. 8. 9.

Yellowstone River, Billings Bighorn River, Bighorn Tongue River, Miles City

10. 11.

Powder River, Locate Yellowstone River, Sidney

12. 13. 14. 15.

Clark Fork, St. Regis Bitterroot River, Darby Flathead River, Columbia Falls Clark Fork, Plains

Missouri Region Missouri River Basinx 2,737 1907–1983 24,749 1890–1983 3,242 1902–1904 1905–1906 1907–1908 1911–1983 7,846 1929 1932–1983 1934–1930 22,332 1939–1983 91,557 1941–1951 1958–1983 Yellowstone River Basiny 11,795 1928–1983 22,885 1945–1983 5,379 1938–1942 1946–1983 13,194 1938–1983 69,103 1910–1931 1933–1983 Pacific Northwest Region Clark Fork Basinz 10,709 1910–1983 1,049 1937–1983 4,464 1928–1983 19,958 1910–1983

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-18

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5A.2

(Continued) Gaging Station Drainage Area (mL2)

Name 16.

Streamflow Characteristics

Period of Analysis

Kootenai River Basinz 10,240 1911–1970 1973–1983

Kootenai River, Libby

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

1,610 2,560

12,100 11,740

116,000 76,300

1,450bb 6,210bb

25,230bb 40,190bb

99,000bb 241,000bb

Nebraska 1. 2.

Missouri River, Fort Randall Dam, SD Missouri River, Rulo

3.

Niobrara River, Norden

4. 5.

Pumpkin Creek, Bridgeport North Platte River, North Platte

6.

South Platte River, North Platte

7.

Platte River, Overton

8.

Platte River, Louisville

9. 10.

Middle Loup River, Dunning Loup River, Genoa

11.

Elkhorn River, Waterloo

12.

Big Nemaha River, Falls City

13. 14.

Medicine River, Harry Strunk Lake Republican River, Cambridge

15. 16.

Big Blue River, Barneston Little Blue River, Fairbury

Missouri Region Missouri River Main Stemaa 263,500 1947–1983 414,900 1950–1983 Niobrara Subregion 8,390 1953–1963 1964–1983 North Platte Subregion 1,020 1932–1983 30,900 1896–1940 1941–1983 South Plate Subregion 24,300 1918–1946 1947–1983 Platte Subregion 57,700 1915–1940 1941–1983 85,800 1954–1983 Loup Subregion 1,850 1946–1983 14,400 1943–1983 Elkhorn Subregion 6,900 1929–1983 Missouri–Nishnabotna Subregion 1,340 1945–1983 Republican Subregion 770 1951–1983 14,520 1950–1983 Kansas Subregion Blue River Basin 4,447 1933–1983 2,350 1911–1915 1930–1983

516 398

952 810

10,900

0.35 135

28.3 2,720 713

3,320 36,700 10,700

78

435 402

77,300 57,300

46 430

2,860 1,470 5,980

60,700 32,800 169,000

260 0.96

401 574

1,100 130,000

119

1,120

83,500

11.4

587

80,700

16.0 18.0cc

65.9 279cc

23,700 16,800cc

35.1 48.3

787 369

50,100 48,500

48 31

243 41.5

35,300 5,000

0 —

0.025 46.6

4,300 6,500

8.9

385

7,700

0.3

235

5,700

Nevada 1. 2.

Virgin River, Littlefield, AZ Muddy River, Moapa

3. 4.

Lee Canyon, Charleston Park Las Vegas Wash, Henderson

5.

Humboldt River, Palisade

6.

Humboldt River, Imlay

Lower Colorado Regions Lower Colorado–Lake Mead Subregion 5,090 1929–1983 3,820 1913–1915 1916–1918 1928–1931 1944–1983 9.20 1963–1983 2,125 1957–1983 Great Basin Region Black Rock Desert–Humboldt Subregion Humboldt River Basin 5,010 1902–1906 1911–1983 15,700 1911–1983

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5A.2

5-19

(Continued) Gaging Station Drainage Area (mL2)

Name

7.

8. 9. 10. 11.

Streamflow Characteristics

Period of Analysis

Central Lahontan Subregion Walker Lake Basin Walker River, Wabuska 2,600 1902–1904 1920–1924 1925–1935 1939–1941 1942–1943 1944–1983 Carson River Basin Carson River, Carson City 886 1939–1983 Truckee River Basin Truckee River, Nixon 1,827 1957–1983 Central Nevada Desert Basins Subregions Newark Valley tributary, Hamilton 157 1962–1983 South Twin River, Round Mountain 20 1965–1983

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

3.8

170

6,700

4.8

418

28,300

14

538

28,300

0 0.78

0.325 7.06

1,100 260

1,280

2,465

20,900

93

933

53,800

4.9

282

6,310

115 13

1,358 213

60,800 —

3.7 663

112 5,280

4,080 —

35 49

571 473

— 10,800

27

208

13,600

632 40 993 46

4,731 404 9,380 671

— 13,800 — —

0 3.7 32 13

103 172 1,168 102

5,570 3,730 22,500 5,750

22

123

6,600

0.1 72

65.1 1,293

8,390 40,800

0

12.9

3,280

New Hampshire 1.

Androscoggin River, Gorham

2.

Saco River, Conway

3.

Lamprey River, Newmarket

4. 5.

Pemigewasset River, Plymouth Blackwater River, Webster

6. 7.

Soucook River, Concord Merrimack River, Goffs Falls Manchester

8. 9.

Connecticut River, Pittsburg Upper Ammonoosuc River, Groveton

10.

Ammonoosuc River, Bethlehem Junction Connecticut River, Wells River, VT Sugar River, West Claremont Connecticut River, North Walpole Ashuelot River, Hinsdale

11. 12. 13. 14.

New England Region Androscoggin Subregion 1,361 1913–1983cc Saco Subregion 385 1903–1909 1929–1983 183 1934–1983 Merrimack Subregion 622 1903–1983 129 1918–1920 1927–1983 76.8 1951–1983 3,092 1936–1983 Connecticut Subregion 254 1956–1983 232 1940–1980 1982–1983 87.6 1939–1983 2,644 269 5,493 420

1949–1983 1928–1983 1942–1983 1907–1911 1914–1983

New Jersey Lower Hudson–Long Island Subregion Hackensack and Passaic River Basins 113 1922–1984 100 1904–1984dd 762 1898–1984 54.6 1924–1984 Raritan River Basin 65.3 1919–1984

1. 2. 3. 4.

Hackensack River, New Milford Passaic River, Chatham Passaic River, Little Falls Saddle River, Lodi

5.

South Branch Raritan River, High Bridge Stony Brook, Princeton Raritan River below Calco Dam Bound Brook Green Brook, Plainfield

6. 7. 8.

44.5 785

1954–1984 1904–1984dd

9.75

1939–1984

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-20

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5A.2

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name

9. 10. 11. 12.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Delaware and Lower Hudson–Long Island Subregions Atlantic Coastal Basins Swimming River, Red Bank 49.2 1923–1984 0 Manasquan River, Squankum 44.0 1932–1984 18 Oyster Creek, Brookville 7.43 1968–1984 13 Great Egg Harbor River, Folsom 57.1 1926–1984 22 Delaware Subregion Delaware River Basin and Streams Tributary to Delaware Bay Maurice River, Norma 112 1933–1984 37 Flat Brook, Flatbrookville 64.0 1924–1984 7.8 Delaware River, Trenton 6,780 1914–1984 1,800ff Crosswicks Creek, Extonville 81.5 1941–1984gg 24 McDonalds Branch, Lebanon State 2.35 1954–1984 0.9 Forest Cooper River, Haddonfield 17.0 1964–1984 8.6

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

80.8ee 75.9 28.7 86.8

168 110 11,740 136 2.32 36.3

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

11,000 2,870 514 1,230

2,880 7,070 217,000ff 5,800 49 3,840

New Mexico

1.

Canadian River, Logan

Arkansas–White–Red Regionhh Upper Canadian Subregion Canadian River Basin 11,141 1904–1983

0.0

392ii

333,000

Rio Grande Region 2. 3.

Pecos River, Pecos Delaware River, Red Bluff, TX

4.

Rio Grande, Albuquerque

5.

San Juan River, Shiprock

6.

Gila River, Gila

Upper and Lower Pecos Subregions Pecos River Basin 189 1919–1983 689 1912–83 Rio Grande River Basin (main stem)ll 117,440 1941–1983

12.0 0.0

98.1 13.0

3,070 82,500

0.3 1,232nn

1,068mm —

22,000 —

53.6

2,181

67,200

19.7

141

24,900

106 757 772 2,810 6.5

2,230 2,090 5,750 13,700 253

30,400 14,800 128,000 191,000 18,500

89

1,670

73,700

111 416 832

1,100 5,570 4,750

40,100 184,000 170,000

385 104

7,580 2,530

139,000 143,000

511 311 980

2,780 2,880 6,690

44,100 30,600 38,600

Upper Colorado Region San Juan Subregion 12,900 1927–1983 Lower Colorado Regionoo 1,864 1927–1983

New York 1.

Sacandaga River, Stewarts Bridge

2. 3. 4.

Mohawk River, Cohoes Hudson River, Green Island Wappinger Creek, Wappingers Falls

5.

East Branch Delaware River, Fishs Eddy

6.

7. 8.

9. 10.

Mid-Atlantic Region Upper Hudson Subregion 1,055 1907–1929 1931–1984 3,456 1917–1984 8,090 1946–1984 181 1928–1984 Delaware Subregion 784 1912–1954

1955–1984 1904–1954 1963–1984 Susquehanna Subregion Susquehanna River, Waverly 4,773 1937–1984 Chemung River, Chemung 2,506 1903–1984 Great Lakes Region Southwestern and Southeastern Lake Ontario Subregions Genesee River, Rochester 2,467 1919–1951 1952–1984 Oswego River, Oswego 5,100 1933–1984 Delaware River, Port Jervis

3,070

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5A.2

5-21

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name 11. 12. 13.

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Northeastern Lake Ontario–Lake Ontario–St. Lawrence Subregion Black River, Watertown 1,874 1920–1984 825 West Branch Oswegatchie River, 244 1916–1984 43 Harrisville St. Lawrence River, Massena 298,000 1860–1984 179,000

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

4,020 515

41,000 7,290

243,000

358,000

1,010 1,310

8,085 7,700

215,000 66,800

90

2,234

45,500

210 —

2,892 —

43,100 33,000

75 600

3,300 3,300

117,000 80,000

61

340

15,700

455

2,093

49,100

!0.1

171

11,500

12.3 0

519 44.1

11,000 3,370

12.9

176

5,280

69.1

2,558

89,000

!0.1 2.7

593 181

78,700 36,200

6,570 !0.3

22,740 268

63,700 49,500

!0.1 1.1

256 62.2

60,000 4,800

71 253

441 2,541

641

7,596

8,670 66,900 23,000 183,000 97,100

North Carolina 1.

Roanoke River, Roanoke Rapids

2.

Tar River, Tarboro

3.

Neuse River, Kinston

4.

Cape Fear River, Lillington

5.

South Yadkin River, Mocksville

6.

French Broad River, Asheville

South Atlantic–Gulf Region Chowan–Roanoke Subregion 8,386 1911–1949 1950–1984 Neuse–Pamlico Subregion 2,183 1896–1900 1931–1984 2,692 1930–1981 1981–1984 Cape Fear Subregion 3,464 1923–1975 1975–1981 Pee Dee Subregion 306 1939–1984 Tennessee Region Tennessee Subregion 945 1896–1984

North Dakota

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Souris–Red–Rainy Region Souris and Red Subregions Souris River and Red River of the North Basins Souris River, Minot 10,600pp 1904–1983 6,700qq 1943–1983 Red River of the North, Wahpeton 4,010pp Big Coulee, Churchs Ferry 2,510pp 1951–1979 690qq 1904–1905 Sheyenne River, West Fargo 8,870pp 1930–1983 5,780qq Red River of the North Grand 30,100pp 1883–1983 3,800qq Missouri Region Missouri–Little Missouri and Missouri–Oahe Subregions Missouri River Main Stem and Tributary River Basins 1935–1983 Little Missouri River, Watford City 8,310pp Knife River, Hazen 2,240pp 1930–1933 1938–1983 Missouri River, Bismarck 186,400pp 1921–1983 1929–1932 Heart River, Mandan 3,310pp 1938–1983 Cannonball River, Breien 4,100pp 1935–1983 James River, Jamestown 2,820pp 1929–1934 1,650qq

Ohio 1. 2.

Tuscarawas River, Massillon Tuscarawas River, Newcomerstown

3.

Muskingum River, McConnelsville

Ohio Region Muskingum Subregion 518 1937–1984 2,443 1921–1937 1938–1984 7,422 1921–1937 1938–1984

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-22

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5A.2

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name 4.

Scioto River, Prospect

5.

Olentangy River, Delaware

6.

Scioto River, Higby

7. 8. 9. 10.

Great Miami River, Sidney Stillwater River, Englewood Mad River, Dayton Great Miami River, Hamilton

11.

Blanchard River, Findlay

12. 13.

Auglaize River, Defiance Maumee River, Waterville

14.

Cuyahoga River, Hiram Rapids

15.

Cuyahoga River, Independence

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

Scioto Subregion 567 1925–1932 1939–1984 393 1923–1934 1938–1951 1951–1984 5,131 1930–1984 Great Miami Subregion 541 1914–1984 650 1925–1984 635 1914–1984 3,630 1907–1918 1927–1984 Great Lakes Region Western Lake Erie Subregion Maumee River Basin 346 1923–1935 1940–1984 2,318 1915–1984 6,330 1898–1901 1921–1935 1939–1984 Southern Lake Erie Subregion Cuyahoga River Basin 151 1927–1935 1944–1984 707 1921–1923 1927–1935 1940–1984

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

9.3

454

13,900

5.2

351

22,000 6,280

296

4,579

184,000

21 15 131 284

477 579 629 3,279

27,300 10,500 21,100 140,000 95,900

2.3

251

14,300

11 95

1,718 4,926

62,700 97,800

16

207

63

817

4,410 3,690 18,000

730 1,180 6,550 6,940 3,720 3,720 867 398 242 95.9 126 133

69,400 174,000 324,000 165,000 178,000 46,400 141,000 66,800 23,300 68,100 51,400 17,900

266 2,750 1,540 1,140 880 7,890

54,200 180,000 117,000 64,200 61,200 174,000

Oklahoma

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Arkansas–White–Red Region Arkansas River Basin, Salt Fork Arkansas River and Cimarron River Basin, Verdigris River and Grand (Neosho) River Basins, and Canadian River Basinsrr Salt Fork Arkansas River, Tonkawa 4,528 1942–1982 6.68 Cimarron River Perkins 17,852 1940–1982 8.73 Arkansas River, Tulsa 74,615 1926–1964 155 1965–1982 346 Verdigris River, Claremore 6,534 1936–1962 3.06 1965–1982 15.4 Illinois River, Tahlequah 959 1936–1982 16.8 Little River, Sasakawa 865 1943–1965 0.69 1966–1982 0.08 Beaver River, Beaver 7,955 1938–1982 0.03 Fourche Maline, Red Oak 122 1939–1963 0.10 1966–1982 0.12 Red River Basinss, Washita River Basin North Fork Red River, Headrick 4,244 1946–1982 0.39 Red River, Gainesville 30,782 1947–1982 97.6 Washita River, Dickson 7,202 1929–1960 33.7 1962–1982 4.87 Muddy Boggy Creek, Farris 1,087 1938–1982 0.14 Red River, Arthur City, TX 44,531 1945–1982 375

Oregon 1.

Silvies River, Burns

Pacific Northwest Region Oregon Closed Basins Subregion 934 1928–1983

1.5

175

4,900 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5A.2

5-23

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name 2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

7. 8.

9. 10. 11.

12. 13. 14.

Donner und Blitzen River, Burns

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

200

1912–1913 1915–1916 1918–1921 1939–1983 Middle Snake Subregion Owyhee River, Owyhee Reservoir 11,160 1930–1983 Middle Columbia Subregion Umatilla River, Umatilla 2,290 1928–1983 John Day River, McDonald Ferry 7,580 1906–1983 Deschutes River, Moody 10,500 1897–1999 1907–1983 Willamette Subregion Santiam River, Jefferson 1,790 1909–1953 1967–1982 Willamette River, Salem 7,280 1911–1941 1969–1982 Oregon–Washington Coastal Subregion Rogue River Basin Wilson River, Tillamook 161 1932–1983 Umpqua River, Elkton 3,683 1906–1983 Rogue River, Raygold 2,053 1905–1983 California Region Klamath–Northern California Coastal Subregion Klamath River Basin Sprague River, Chiloquin 1,580 1922–1983 Williamson River, Chiloquin 3,000 1918–1982 Klamath River, Keno 3,920 1905–1912 1930–1983

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

20

125

4,200

1.7

380

—

1.3 28 3,610

456 2,036 5,846

19,700 37,800 —

323 1,150 2,720 5,160

7,821 7,821 23,650

— —

51 797 870

1,205 7,517 2,978

36,700 276,000 139,000

127 414 165

584 1,049 1,684

13,300 14,100 13,000

7.6 920 —

235 7,890 11,685

10,800 220,000 270,000

28 260

292 1,891

14,600 74,000

550 980 1,600 2,556

10,600 15,320 26,520 34,350

105,000 260,000 530,000 750,000

655

10,810

280,000

380

4,295

145,000

0.27

12.4

1,590

24 29 511

476 535 10,470

9,300 19,800 125,000

Pennsylvania

1. 2. 3.

Bush Kill Shoemakers Delaware River, Belvidere, NJ Delaware River Trenton, NJ

4. 5.

Schuylkill River, Landingville Schuylkill River, Pottstown

6. 7. 8. 9.

Susquehanna River, Towanda Susquehanna River, Danville Susquehanna River, Sunbury Susquehanna River, Harrisburg

10.

West Branch Susquehanna River, Lewisburg

11.

Juniata River, Newport

12.

Tonoloway Creek, Needmore

Mid-Atlantic Region Delaware Subregion Delaware River Main Stem 117 1908–1983 4,535 1922–1983 6,780 1913–1983 Schuylkill River Basin 133 1947–1983 1,147 1926–1983 Susquehanna Subregion Susquehanna River Main Stem 7,797 1913–1983 1,220 1899–1983 18,300 1937–1983 24,100 1890–1983 West Branch Susquehanna River Basin 6,847 1939–1983 Juniata River Basin 3,354 1899–1983 Potomac Subregion 10.7 1965–1983

Ohio Region 13. 14. 15.

Allegheny River, Port Allegany Oil Creek Rouseville Allegheny River, Franklin

Allegheny Subregion 248 1974–1983 300 1932–1983 5,982 1914–1983

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-24

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5A.2

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name 16. 17.

Monongahela River, Elizabeth Monongahela River, Braddock

18.

Connoquenessing Creek, Zelienople

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

Monongahela Subregion 5,340 1933–1983 7,337 1938–1983 Upper Ohio Subregion Ohio River Main Stem 356 1919–1983

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

698 1,150

9,109 12,460

170,000 230,000

11

464

19,450

20.0 90.0

299 510

111,000 —

60.0 8.2tt 7.8 14.0 1.4tt 5.0

375 125 276 219 9.47 57.0

255,000 45,800 202,000 131,000 5,430tt 22,400

3.5

68.9

45,400

5.4 1.3

60.9 18.6

40,500 15,100

3.1 1.5

35.8 18.2

22,200 21,800

5.9tt 38.0

220 304

160,000tt 83,600

13 100 16

171 763 130

7,110 19,200 2,890

73

345

5,220

28 20 67

194 156 576

2,090 2,630 6,850

Puerto Rico

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Rio Culebrinas, Moca Rio Grande de Arecibo, Central Cambalache Rio Grande de Manati, Manati Rio Cibuco, Vega Baja Rio de la Plata, Toa Alta Rio Grande de Loiza, Caguas Rio Herrera, Colonia Dolores Rio Espiritu Santo, Rio Grande

9.

Rio Fajardo, Fajardo

10. 11.

Rio Grande de Patillas, Patillas Rio Inabon, Real Abajo

12. 13.

Rio Cerrillos, Ponce Rio Portugues, Ponce

14. 15.

Rio Guanajibo, Hormigueros Rio Grande de Anasco, San Sebastian

Caribbean Region Puerto Rico Subregion North Coast Area 71.2 1967–1985 200tt 1969–1984 1970–1985 197uu 1973–1985 99.1vv 200ww 1960–1985 89.8 1960–1985 2.75 1966–1973 8.62 1966–1985 East Coast Area 14.9 1961–1985 South Coast Area 18.3 1966–1985 9.70 1964–1970 1971–1985 17.8 1964–1985 8.82 1964–1985 West Coast Area 120 1973–1985 134xx 1963–1985

Rhode Island

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

New England Region Massachusetts–Rhode Island Coastal Subregion Blackstone River Basin Branch River, Forestdale 91.2 1941–1983 Blackstone River, Woonsocket 416 1930–1983 South Branch Pawtuxet River, 63.8 1942–1983 Washington Pawtuxet River, Cranston 200 1941–1983 Pawcatuck River Basin Pawcatuck River, Wood River Jct. 100 1942–1983 Wood River, Hope Valley 72.4 1942–1983 Pawcatuck River, Westerly 295 1942–1983

South Carolina

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Pee Dee River, Pee Dee Lynches River, Effingham Little Pee Dee River, Galivants Ferry Black River, Kingstree Waccamaw River, Longs

6.

North Pacolet River, Fingerville

South Atlantic–Gulf Region Pee Dee Subregion Lower Pee Dee River Basin 8,830 1938–1983 1,030 1925–1983 2,790 1943–1983 1,252 1920–1983 1,110 1950–1983 Edisto–Santee Subregion Santee River Basin 116 1931–1983

1,500yy 132 315 5.7 0.99

43

9,850 1,035 3,243 942 1,223

215

160,000yy 22,100 31,300 39,100 17,300

13,100 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5A.2

5-25

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

14.

Broad River, Richtex Saluda River, Columbia Wateree River, Carnden

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

4,850 2,520 5,070

1925–1983 1925–1983 1904–1910 1925–1983 Congaree River, Columbia 7,850 1939–1983 Lake Marlon–Moultrie Diversion Canal — 1943–1983 Edisto–South Carolina Coastal Basin Edisto River, Givhans 2,730 1939–1983 Salkehatchie River, Miley 341 1951–1983 Ogeechee–Savannah Subregion Savannah River Basin Savannah River, Augusta, GA 7,508 1883–1891 1896–1906 1925–1983

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

970yy 260yy 490yy

6,250 2,929 6,444

210,000yy 70,000yy 225,000yy

1,800yy 2,320

9,425 15,125

220,000yy —

2,711 356

29,200 4,390

10,300

—

442 33

4,700yy

South Dakota 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Missouri River, Mobridge Missouri River, Pierre Missouri River, Fort Randall Dam Missouri River, Yankton Missouri River, Sioux City, IA

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Little Missouri River, Camp Crook Grand River, Little Eagle Moreau River, Whitehorse Cheyenne River, Cherry Creek Bad River, Fort Pierre White River, Oacoma Keya Paha River, Wewela

13. 14. 15.

James River, Scotland Vermillion River, Wakonda Big Sioux River, Akron, IA

Misouri Region Missouri River Main Stemzz 208,700 1928–1962aaa 243,500 1929–1965 263,500 1947–1983 279,500 1930–1983 314,600 1929–1983 Western Tributariesccc 1,970 1903–1983ddd 5,370 1958–1983 4,880 1954–1983 23,900 1960–1983 3,107 1928–1983 10,200 1928–1983 1,070 1937–1983ddd Eastern Tributarieseee 20,300 1928–1983 1,680 1945–1983 8,360 1928–1983

3,500 2,100bbb 1,450bbb 5,980bbb 6,380bbb

21,560 21,860 25,230 26,430 29,360

471,000 97,500bbb 99,000bbb 92,400bbb 115,000bbb

0.2 0.3bbb 0.0 26.1bbb 0.0 0.5 3.6

136 238 202 827 147 531 68.9

13,300 24,400bbb 44,900 84,600bbb 47,000 49,200 8,680

1.5 0.9 18.8

372 125 901

23,600 6,050 73,200

Tennessee

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9. 10.

Ohio Region Cumberland Subregion Cumberland Basin New River, New River 382 1934–1985 0.47 741 Wolf River, Byrdstown 106 1942–1985 5.19 192 Cumberland River, Celina 7,307 1924–1985 850 11,830 West Fork Stones River, Smyrna 237 1965–1985 9.0 440 Harpeth River, Kingston Springs 681 1924–1985 25.4 986 Red River, Port Royal 935 1961–1985 66.6 1,351 Tennessee Region Upper Tennessee, Middle Tennessee–Hiwassee, Middle Tennessee–Elk, and Lower Tennessee Subregions Tennessee Basin Nolichucky River, Embreeville 805 1919–1985 224 1,370 Little River, Maryville 269 1951–1985 54.8 535 Obed River, Lancing 518 1958–1968 1.3 1,062 1974–1985 South Chickamauga Creek, 428 1928–1978 88.3 698 Chickamauga 1980–1985

63,500 31,400 78,000 57,400 69,700 18,000

72,600 37,200 84,400 35,100

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-26

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5A.2

(Continued) Gaging Station

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

16. 17. 18. 19.

1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

15.

Streamflow Characteristics

Name

Drainage Area (mL2)

Tennessee River, Chattanooga Elk River, Prospect

21,400 1,784

Period of Analysis

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

1874–1985 10,000 1905–1907 330 1920–1985 Duck River, Hurricane Mills 2,557 1925–1985 303 Buffalo River, Lobelville 707 1927–1985 174 Big Sandy River, Bruceton 205 1929–1985 35.5 Lower Mississippi Region Lower Mississippi–Hatchie Subregion Lower Mississippi Basin Obion River, Obion 1,852 1929–1958 266 1966–1985 Hatchie River, Bolivar 1,480 1929–1985 126 Loosahatchie River, Arlington 262 1969–1985 71 Wolf River, Germantown 699 1969–1985 200 Arkansas–White–Red Region Canadian–Red River Basinfff Canadian River, Amarillo 15,376 1939–1983 0.3 Red River Terral, OK 22,787 1939–1983 76.4 Texas–Gulf Region Sabine–Neches–Trinity–San Jacinto River Basinggg Trinity River, Dallas 6,106 1903–1983 20.5 Trinity River, Romayor 17,186 1969–1983 64 Neches River, Rockland 3,636 1962–1983 27.6 Brazos–Colorado River Basinhhh Salt Fork Brazos River, Aspermont 2,496 1940–1983 0.0 Brazos River, South Bend 13,107 1939–1983 0.0 North Bosque River, Clifton 968 1968–1983 0.0 Colorado River, Colorado City 1,585 1953–1983 0.0 Llano River, Junction 1,849 1916–1983 17.8 Colorado River, Wharton 30,600 1939–1983 224 Lavaca–Guadalupe–Nueces River Basiniii Guadalupe River, Spring Branch 1,315 1923–1983 0.1 Nueces River, Laguna 737 1924–1983 9.6 Nueces River, Three Rivers 15,427 1916–1983 0.0 Rio Grande Region Rio Grande Basinjjj Pecos River, Girvin 29,560 1940–1983 3.3

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

37,100 3,076

257,000 128,000

4,121 1,196 294

114,000 88,900 18,900

2,702

92,800

2,428 364 1,040

68,000 24,000 42,100

331 2,117

135,000 —

1,530 7,417 1,974

— — 68,400

108 836 167 38.9 194 2,685

52,900 — 73,200 — 363,000 —

311 148 848

158,000 408,000 116,000

84.2

23,300

U.S. Virgin Islands

1.

Bonne Resolution Gut, Bonne Resolution

Caribbean Region U.S. Virgin Islands Subregion St. Thomas 0.49 1963–1968

2.

Turpentine Run, Mariendal

2.97

3.

Guinea Gut, Bethany

St. John 0.37

4.

Jolly Hill Gut, Jolly Hill

St. Croix 2.10

0

0.24

kkk

0

1.07

kkk

1963–1967 1983

0

0.08

kkk

1963–1969 1983

0

0.02

lll

1979–1981 1982 1963–1969 1979–1980 1982

1,650

9,710

946

223

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5A.2

5-27

(Continued) Gaging Station

Name

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

11. 12.

Streamflow Characteristics Drainage Area (mL2)

Period of Analysis

7-Day, 10-Year Low Flow (ft3/sec)

Guam, American Samoa, and the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands Aipan S. F. Talofofo Stream 0.64 1968–1984 0.0 Guam Ugum River 5.76 1977–1984 3.6 Ylig River 6.48 1952–1984 0.2 Pago River 5.67 1951–1982 0.2 Palau Diongradid River 4.45 1969–1984 3.2 Tabecheding River 6.07 1970–1984 1.7 Yap Oaringeel Stream 0.24 1968–1984 0.1 Truk Wichen River 0.57 1968–1983 0.02 Pohnpei Nanpil River 3.00 1970–1984 1.8 Kosrae Malem River 0.76 1971–1981 0.3 1982–1984 American Samoa Aasu Stream 1.03 1958–1984 0.4 Afuelo Stream 0.25 1958–1984 0.03

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

100-Year Flood (ft3/sec)

1.35

—

23.3 28.0 26.3

— 5,980 12,300

32.4 48.4

2,870 4,910

1.07

696

3.05

1,060

44.6

10,000

6.71

2,760

6.05 1.45

586 683

7,563

87,600

785

23,600

Utah 1.

Colorado River, Cisco

2.

Dolores River, Cisco

3.

Green River, Jensen

Upper Colorado Region Colorado River Main Stemmmm 24,100nnn 1895–1984 1,100 Upper–Coloradodolores Subregion Dolores River Basin nnn 4,580 1951–1984 19 Great Divide–Upper Green and Lower Green Subregions Green River Basin nnn ooo 29,660 1904–1984 480ppp 743

4,396ppp 4,456

38,200

Gaging station: Period of analysis is for the water years used to compute average discharge and may differ from that used to compute other streamflow characteristics. Streamflow characteristics: The 7-day, 10-year low flow is a discharge statistic; the lowest average discharge during 7 consecutive days of a year will be equal to or less than this value, on the average, once every 10 years. The average discharge is the arithmetic average annual discharges during the period of analysis. The 100-year flood is the peak flow that has a 1-percent chance of being equaled or exceeded in a given year. The degree of regulation is the effect of dams on the natural flow of the river. Abbreviations: DoZditto; mi2Zsquare miles; ft3/secZcubic feet per second; .Zinsufficient data or not applicable. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q

Less than 10 years of record. Minimum discharge and maximum instantaneous discharge for period of record are shown. Record interrupted. Adjusted for no-flow periods. Adjusted for high-outlier in period of record. Did not use 1981 peak because it was regulated. Adjusted for high-outlier in period of record. Sutter and Yolo Bypasses Carry Much of Floodflow Past Verona gage. Regulation has Little Effect on High Floodflows. From Upper Mississippi River Basin Commission, 1978. Within the Upper Mississippi–Black–Root, Upper Mississippi–Maquoketa–Plum, and Upper Mississippi–Iowa–Skunk–Wapsipinicon Subregion (Seaber and Others, 1984). Within the Upper Mississippi–Iowa–Skunk–Wapsipinicon Subregions (Seaber and Others, 1984). Within the Minnesota Des Moines Subregions(Seaber and Others, 1984). Within the Missouri–Big Sioux, Missouri–Little Sioux, and Missouri–Nishnabotna Subregions (Seaber and Others, 1984). Flow Parameters Based Only on 1929–1931 and 1939–1956 Water Years. From U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, February 1978. Within the Missouri–Big Sioux, Missouri–Little Sioux, and Missouri–Nishnabotna Subregions (Seaber and Others, 1984). Within the Missouri–Nishnabotna, Chariton–Grand, and Upper Mississippi–Salt Subregions (Seaber and Others, 1984). Based on period of analysis since regulation began. These values are not based on detailed analyses, are approximate estimates, and are for information purposes only. (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-28

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5A.2 r s t u v w x y z aa bb cc dd ee ff gg hh ii jj kk ll mm nn oo pp qq rr ss tt uu vv ww xx yy zz aaa bbb ccc ddd eee fff ggg hhh iii jjj kkk lll mmm nnn ooo ppp qqq

(Continued)

From flood-insurance hydrology study. Based on detailed analyses of regulated-flow conditions. Prior to opening of Barkley–Kentucky Canal (1889–1965). Since the opening of Barkley–Kentucky Canal (1965–1983). Includes all or parts of the Lower Mississippi–Yazoo, Lower Mississippi–Big Black, Lower Mississippi–Lake Maurepas, and the Lower Mississippi Subregions (Seaber, Kapinos, and Knapp, 1984). Includes the Mississippi Headwaters and the Upper Mississippi Black-Roof Subregions. Data furnished by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Includes the Saskatchewan, the Missouri Headwaters, the Missouri–Marias, the Missouri–Musselshell, the Milk, and the Missouri– Polar Subregions. Includes the upper Yellowstone, the Big Horn, the Powder–Tongue, the lower Yellowstone, and the Missouri–Little Missouri Subregions. Contained within the Kootenai–Pend Oreille–Spokane Subregion. Within the Missouri–Big Sioux, Missouri–Little Sioux, and Missouri–Nishnabotna Subregions. Analysee based on period of record since regulation began. Based on record to 1981. Period of record not continuous. Adjusted for diversion and change in reservoir contents. Analysis based no regulated period 1955–1984. Period of record not continuous. Also includes parts of the Upper Arkansas, Upper Cimarron, Lower Canadian, North Canadian, and Red Headwaters Subregions. Fifteen years, prior to completion of Conchas Dam. Twenty-four years, prior to completion of Ute dam. Twenty-one years (1963–1983), subsequent to completion of Ute Dam. Includes all or parts of Rio Grande Headwaters, Rio Grande–Elephant–Butte, Rio Grande–Mimbres, and Rio Grande Closed basins Subregions. Thirty-two years, prior to closure of Cochiti Dam. Ten years (1974–1983), subsequent to closure of Cochiti Dam. Includes parts of the Little Colorado, Upper Gila and Sonora Subregions. Approximate. Noncontributing. Includes parts or all of the Upper Cimarron, Arkansas–Keystone, Lower Cimarron, Lower Arkansas, Neosho–Verdigris, Lower Canadian and North Canadian Subregions. Includes parts or all of the Red Headwaters, Red–Washita, and Red–Sulphur Subregions. Estimated. Drainage area includes 38 mi2 which are partly or entirely noncontributing and excludes 6.0 mi2 upstream from Lago El Guinea and Lago de Matrullas. Drainage area includes 25.4 mi2 which do not contribute directly to surface runoff. Drainage area excludes 8.2 mi2 upstream form Lago Carite, flow from which is diverted to the Rio Guamani. Drainage area includes 39.7 mi2 from headwaters of Lago Yahuecas (17.05 mi2), Lago Guayo (9.67 mi2), Lago prieto (9.50 mi2), and Lago Toro (3.5 mi3) which does not contribute to surface runoff except at high stages. Analysis based on records collected since regulation began. Within the Missouri–Oahe, Missouri–White, and Missouri–Big Sioux Subregions. Station discontinued subsequent to construction of Oahe Dam in 1962. Analysis based on period of record after regulation began. Within the Missouri–Oahe, Missouri–Little Missouri, Cheyenne, Missouri–White, and Niobrara Subregions. Period of record not continuous. Within the James and Missouri–Big Sioux Subregions. Within the Upper Canadian, Lower Canadian, North Canadian, Red Headwaters, Red–Washita, and Red–Sulphur Subregions. Within the Sabine, neches, Triniy, and Galveston Bay–San Subregions. Within the Brazos Headwaters, Middle Brazos, Lower Brazos, Upper Colorado, and Lower Colorado–San Bernard Coastal Subregions. Within the Central Texas Coastal and Nueces–Southwestern Texas Coastal Subregions. Within the Rio Grande–Mimbres, Rio Grande Amistad, Rio Grande Closed Basins, Upper Pecos, Lower Pecos, Rio Grande–Falcon, and Lower Rio Grande Subregions. Discharge represents highest recorded. Data available are not adequate to determine a discharge–frequency relation, but it is estimated to have exceeded the 100-year flood. Discharge represents highest recorded. Within the Upper Colorado–Dolores and Upper Colorado–Dirty Devil Subregions. Approximate. Period of analysis not continuous. Since completion of Flaming Gorge Reservoir in 1963. Based on record to 1981.

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Summary 1985—Hydrologic Events and Surface-Water Resources, Water-Supply Paper 2300. Original Source: Reports of the U.S. Geological Survey and State agencies.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Mean Monthly Discharge (m3/sec)

River and Station

Basin Area (km2)

Period of Record

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

214 94.4 123 187 385

186 99.5 111 188 341

290 116 194 348 677

809 202 428 542 1,300

685 259 336 320 763

345 136 161 165 365

221 94.8 93.5 86.6 194

181 89.6 81.7 71.3 172

176 89.0 93.4 90.8 202

224 88.2 107 98.4 237

328 93.3 149 171 390

282 92.9 137 193 393

327 121 168 205 4511

1902–65 1907–10 1929–65 1923–65 1928–65

353 1,100 461 300 329

611 2,210 642 358 362

653 2,090 552 316 315

387 1,290 379 192 233

235 703 221 126 182

197 422 132 83.5 175

170 332 143 106 183

157 306 110 85.1 158

179 457 150 95.3 155

292 696 161 105 153

334 877 245 185 221

327 9631 296 184 230

1912–65 1890–1965 1930–65 1934–65 1911–65

169 471 161 519 795

140 396 139 520 782

66.6 241 47.8 338 388

49.7 179 24.8 240 239

64.9 190 22.2 244 231

61.3 183 18.8 253 214

72.7 210 63.6 222 177

59.0 182 72.9 277 177

57.6 171 31.6 249 162

87.7 224 43.0 313 295

95.9 265 67.0 336 385

1923–65 1938–65 1942–65 1929–33, 37–65 1931–65

73.4 287 1,150

70.8 316 1,040

46.2 207 652

46.8 145 465

80.2 148 477

100 180 429

124 185 341

168 175 361

144 141 359

103 142 550

92.2 191 6201

1933–65 1931–65 1928–65

90.5 433

160 834

173 9021

1934–65 1930–65

347 133 101 1,500 332

661 269 222 2,780 537

7421 269 250 3,1201 7441

1928–60 1930–65 1938–65 1928–65 1928–65

Penobscot, West Enfield, ME Kennebec, Bingham, ME Androscoggin, Auburn, ME Merrimack, Lowell, MA Connecticut, Thompsonville, CT

17,000 7,040 8,436 12,000 25,020

Delaware, Trenton, NJ Susquehanna, Harrisburg, PA Potomac, Washington, DC James, Richmond, VA Roanoke, Roanoke Rapids, NC

17,600 62,400 29,940 17,500 21,800

Cape Fear, Lillington, NC Pee Dee, Pee Dee, SC Santee, Pineville, SC Savannah, Clyo, GA Altamaha, Doctortown, GA

8,910 22,900 38,100 25,500 35,200

143 316 58.6 418 477

181 431 123 438 636

St. Johns, De Land, FL Suwannee, Branford, FL Apalachicola, Chattahoochee, FL Escambia, Century, FL Alabama, Claiborne, AL

8,080 20,000 44,300

78.8 169 752

69.0 203 876

351 1,070 369 260 304

9,886 57,000

223 1,280

246 1,550

339 1,830

337 1,770

166 899

108 531

120 519

123 484

95.6 369

74.6 367

Tombigbee, Leroy, AL Pascagoula, Merrill, MS Pearl, Bogalusa, LA Ohio, Louisville, KY Wabash, Mount Carmel, IL

49,500 17,000 17,200 236,100 74,100

1,190 381 332 4,880 1,130

1,580 492 483 5,470 1,110

1,750 561 554 7,210 1,370

1,530 515 502 6,020 1,380

714 279 298 3,730 1,130

318 140 138 2,280 742

330 170 144 1,610 528

208 124 103 1,190 270

175 100 74.8 743 194

162 78.5 70.0 738 217

Cumberland, Smithland, KY Tennessee, Paducah, KY Ohio, Metropolis, IL Fox, Wrightstown, WS Grand, Grand Rapids, MI

46,395 104,000 526,000 15,900 12,700

1,210 2,890 10,900 109 90.7

1,580 3,590 13,400 112 111

1,740 3,160 14,900 132 213

1,390 2,100 13,400 199 185

718 1,520 8,650 171 128

446 1,170 5,480 143 88.9

348 1,140 4,070 95.4 54.4

272 1,080 3,040 76.2 41.0

217 1,050 2,300 73.1 46.0

188 987 2,180 86.4 54.0

383 1,370 3,640 99.8 64.8

809 2,130 6,200 105 70.9

779 1,8201 7,3001 117 95.2

1939–65 1939–65 1928–65 1896–1965 1904–65

Maumee, Waterville, OH St. Lawrence, Ogdensburg, NY Red of the North, Grand Forks, ND

16,350 764,600

197 6,230

203 6,150

317 6,430

268 6,970

157 7,230

92.4 7,340

47.4 7,290

22.7 7,100

22.4 6,860

31.5 6,630

58.7 6,510

108 6,450

127 6,760

1899–1901 1860–1965

238

138

108

80.3

44.1

36.0

35.2

31.4

24.8

68.5

2,420 4,870 259 310 1,120 233 1,540 221

2,280 4,290 205 527 829 218 1,200 261

1,990 3,680 184 1,200 1,250 267 1,690 426

1,030 1,740 363 257 737 88.6 918 169

1,040 1,650 389 197 696 93.7 848 180

1,100 1,660 377 228 663 87.6 807 136

1,030 1,790 249 197 485 109 674 99.1

708 1,530 197 153 263 93.4 384 67.5

1,3301 2,6201 252 3651 6891 150 9481 185

19.5

222,000 444,200 237,130 178,220 723,900 221,000 1,073,000 155,100

677 1,790 187 143 267 84.7 374 67.0

18.0 730 2,120 171 173 299 148 532 106

48.1 1,330 3,540 212 307 600 249 1,060 161

1,560 2,840 236 690 1,060 134 1,360 332

1882–1965 1874–1965 1927–65 1941–51; 58–65 1910–31; 33–65 1930–65 1953–65 1929–65 1917–65

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-29

Mississippi, Clinton, IA Mississippi, Alton, IL Missouri, Culbertson, MT Yellowstone, Sidney, MT Missouri, Yankton, SD Platte, South Bend Missouri, Nebraska City, NE Kansas, Bonner Springs,

78,000

SURFACE WATER

Table 5A.3 Monthly Discharge of Principal Rivers in the United States

5-30

Table 5A.3

(Continued) Mean Monthly Discharge (m3/sec)

River and Station

Basin Area (km2)

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug 1,930 339

1,820 291

1,600 305

1,440 402

151 69.0 545 9,340 305

164 88.6 555 7,320 260

185 117 762 7,090 342

103 10,500 82.9 37.3 41.4

90.1 8,100 57.5 28.2 53.6

109 7,930 55.5 36.6 86.4

Missouri, Herman, MO White, DeValls Bluff, AR

1,368,000 60,686

1,080 850

1,420 943

2,430 1,140

3,360 1,270

3,020 1,230

4,160 829

3,390 505

Arkansas, Tulsa, OK Canadian, Whitefield, OK Arkansas, Little Rock, AR Mississippi, Vicksburg, MS Red, Alexandria, LA

193,250 123,220 409,741 2,964,300 175,000

73.6 61.5 987 16,200 1,100

90.9 102 1,160 21,100 1,330

118 147 1,330 24,800 1,380

261 255 1,810 27,900 1,350

375 430 2,320 23,600 1,600

368 291 1,780 18,500 1,150

277 164 1,070 14,600 555

Ouachita, Monroe, LA Mississippi, Tarbert Landing Sabine, Ruliff, TX Neches, Evadale, TX Trinity, Romayor, TX

39,622 3,923,800 24,160 20,590 44,512

627 17,900 399 273 247

879 23,000 416 297 262

1,010 27,800 406 308 291

1,039 30,800 366 308 278

940 27,900 381 325 439

524 21,400 252 188 295

272 16,500 120 73.4 118

114,000 107,200 43,150 91,069 352,178

200 67.6 8.6 5.42 73.7

234 79.5 12.0 5.28 72.2

231 67.5 11.4 4.82 61.9

257 101 15.0 6.57 69.7

459 133 43.5 13.4 121

Green, Green River, UT Colorado, Lees Ferry, AZ Colorado, Yuma, AZ Sevier, Juab, UT Humboldt, Imlay, NV

105,000 279,500 629,100 13,300 40,700

49.3 150 222 0.67 2.09

64.8 192 262 0.35 3.53

124 274 293 1.28 6.60

222 561 367 6.86 9.83

485 1,280 665 20.4 14.2

600 1,600 1,040 13.6 13.9

239 850 108 648 64.5

212 501 35.3 381 31.0

San Joaquin, Vernalis, CA Sacramento, Sacramento, CA Eel, Scotia, CA Klamath, Klamath, CA Chehalis, Porter, WA

35,070 60,940 8,063 31,300 3,351

126 940 508 806 279

181 1,180 566 1,050 251

187 1,020 349 749 182

199 960 262 793 131

Pend Oreille, Newport, WA Columbia International Bdry. Snake, Clarkston, WA Columbia, Dalles, OR Willamette, Salem, OR

62,700 155,000 267,300 614,000 18,900

377 1,080 866 2,750 1,300

382 1,110 1,010 3,020 1,250

439 1,200 1,320 3,590 971

723 1,930 2,300 5,700 824

1,540 5,040 3,540 10,300 624

5,796 9,539 10,200 53,300 80,500

371 443 312 160 385

354 450 352 130 328

297 350 260 124 284

323 278 229 147 315

345 191 181 848 2,080

294,000 516,400 767,000

475 674 1,320

433 591 1,100

394 502 915

408 517 930

3,220 5,420 7,980

Cowlitz, Castle Rock, WA Umpqua,Elkton, OR Rogue, Agness, OR Copper, Chitina, AK Kuskokwim, Crooked Creek, AK Yukon, Eagle, AK Yukon, Rampart, AK Yukon, Kaltag, AK 1

Monthly and yearly averages rounded to three significant figures.

Source:

From UNESCO, 1971.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

303 131 38.9 9.84 158

2,060 8,140 3,140 14,000 412 291 113 94.2 2,320 2,740 6,160 11,500 18,300

Oct

Nov

Period of Record

Dec

Year

1,050 542

2,2201 7201

116 87.0 695 8,220 432

82.6 76.9 721 11,100 673

188 157 1,1401 15,8001 8801

1925–65 1938–65 1927–65 1928–65 1928–65

174 8,750 116 81.1 122

316 12,100 221 164 185

5071 17,7001 239 176 202

1932–65 1928–65 1927–65 1904–06; 21–65 1924–65

1897–1965 1928–45; 50–65

145 82.8 29.5 7.23 136

68.9 47.0 6.9 5.28 143

99.2 72.2 42.7 16.6 269

153 77.2 38.2 12.7 188

140 80.6 10.8 6.31 96.8

188 69.8 4.2 5.44 82.5

207 80.7 21.9 8.24 123

1903–06; 22–65 1919–25; 38–65 1939–65 1954–65 1900–14; 22–65

250 657 586 14.2 10.8

108 313 306 9.13 2.54

76.8 236 230 5.98 1.05

77.4 245 214 2.36 0.71

68.5 210 200 1.05 0.92

50.6 163 213 0.38 1.71

181 4891 383 6.36 5.66

1895–99; 1905–65 1911–65 1902–65 1911–65 1935–41; 45–65

64.9 299 9.42 162 15.8

28.1 289 4.08 94.2 10.9

33.8 323 3.57 93.6 12.4

46.8 320 22.1 148 38.9

58.6 419 121 348 176

99.2 681 370 629 239

124 6471 200 486 119

1922–65 1948–65 1910–65 1910–26; 50–65 1952–65

1,210 5,920 1,130 9,630 205

505 3,130 555 5,270 134

339 1,940 549 3,470 147

340 1,600 666 2,810 253

150 50.9 46.7 3,250 2,000

76.3 33.6 37.1 2,920 2,420

65.2 33.4 35.9 1,460 2,470

122 55.8 64.1 615 1,300

2,980 5,090 9,820

1,930 2,780 5,400

5,130 7,950 13,100

3,980 6,480 11,800

402 1,430 777 2,800 772

391 1,190 887 2,820 1,130

7261 2,810 1,3901 5,5201 6651

1903–41; 52–65 1937–65 1915–65 1878–1965 1909–16; 23–65

302 194 154 303 599

415 361 427 200 457

259 212 182 1,0401 1,280

1927–65 1905–65 1960–65 1955–65 1951–65

980 1,220 2,350

598 799 1,490

2,2201 3,6301 6,2101

1911–14; 50–65 1955–65 1956–65

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Brazos, Richmond, TX Colorado, Wharton, TX Nueces, Mathis, TX Pecos, Shumla, TX Rio Grande, Laredo, TX

Sep

SURFACE WATER

5-31

Table 5A.4 Length of Principal Rivers in the United States and Canada Length River/Outflow

Miles

km

Alabama/Mobile River Albany/James Bay Arkansas/Mississippi River Black/Chantrey Inlet Brazos/Gulf of Mexico Canadian/Arkansas River

735 610 1,459 600 870 906

1,183 981 2,348 965 1,400 1,458

Churchill/Hudson Bay Cimarron/Arkansas River Colorado (U.S.-Mex.)/Gulf of California Colorado (Texas)/Matagorda Bay Columbia/Pacific Ocean Columbia, Upper Mouth of Snake River

1,000 600 1,450 840 1,243 890

1,609 965 2,333 1,352 2,000 1,432

720 850 630 730 600 710

1,158 1,368 1,014 1,175 965 1,142

Kuskokwim/Kuskokwim Bay Liard/Mackenzie River Mackenzie/Arctic Ocean Milk/Missouri River Mississippi/Mouth of SW Pass Mississippi, Upper/to Mouth of Missouri River Mississippi–Missouri–Red Rock/Mouth of SW Pass Missouri/Mississippi River Missouri–Red Rock/Mississippi River Mobile-Alabama–Coosa/Mobile Bay North Canadian/Canadian River North Platte/Platte River Ohio/Mississippi River Ohio–Allegheny/Mississippi River Ottawa/St. Lawrence Ouachita/Red River Peace/Slave River Pecos/Rio Grande Red (OK–TX–LA)/Mississippi River

680 693 900 625 2,348 1,171

1,094 1,115 1,448 1,006 3,778 1,884

3,710 2,315 2,533 780 760 618 981 1,306 790 605 1,195 735 1,270

5,969 3,725 4,076 1,255 1,223 994 1,578 2,101 1,271 973 1,923 1,183 2,043

Rio Grande/Gulf of Mexico St. Lawrence/Lake Ontario Saskatchewan N./Lake Winnipeg Saskatchewan S./Lake Winnipeg Severn (Ontario)/Hudson Bay Snake/Columbia River Tanana/Yukon River

1,885 800 1,100 1,205 610 1,038 620

3,033 1,287 1,770 1,939 981 1,670 998

Tennessee/Ohio River Tennessee–French Broad/Ohio River White (AR–MO)/Mississippi River Yellowstone/Missouri River Yukon/Bering Sea

652 900 720 671 1,979

1,049 1,448 1,158 1,080 3,185

Cumberland/Ohio River Fraser/Strait of Georgia Gila/Colorado River Green (UT–WY)/Colorado River Hamilton/Atlantic Ocean James (ND–SD)/Missouri River

Note: Comprises rivers 600 miles or more in length. Length represents distance to designated outflow from (a) original headwater of named river where name applies to entire length of channel, or (b) upper limit of channel so named, usually the junction of two tributaries or headwater streams. Source: From Statistical Abstract of the United States 1986.

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Table 5A.5 Flowing Water Resources of the United States

Number Streams

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total

1,570,000 350,000 80,000 18,000 4,200 950 200 41 8 1 2,023,000

Average Length Miles 1 2.1 5.3 12 28 64 147 338 777 1,800

Total Length Miles (L) 1,570,000 810,000 420,000 220,000 116,000 61,000 30,000 14,000 6,200 1,800 3,249,000

Drainage Area Sq. Miles (Ad)

Mean Width Feet (W)

Mean Depth Feet (D)

Mean Velocity ft/sec (V)

1 4.7 23 109 518 2,500 12,000 56,000 260,000 1,250,000

0.65 3.1 15.0 71.0 340 1,600 7,600 36,000 171,000 810,000

4 10 18 37 75 160 320 650 1,300 2,800

0.15 0.29 0.58 1.10 2.20 4.1 8.0 15.0 29.0 55.0

1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.3 3.9 5.6 5.9

Total Surface Calculated Area, AsSq. Miles Discharge CFS Z WDV (thousands) 0.60 3.7 15.6 73 380 1,800 8,500 38,000 211,000 900,000

1.2 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.0 15.0

Total Channel Storage Acre Feet (millions) 0.11 0.29 0.53 1.1 2.4 4.9 9.3 16.5 28.3 34.3 97.0

Note: Based on stream order and channel morphology. a

Stream order classification based on river characteristics. A first order stream has no tributary channels; a second order stream is formed when two first order streams merge. When two second order streams merge, a third order stream is formed, and so on, downstream in the drainage basin until the water is discharged to the sea.

Source: From Keup, L.E., Flowing Water Resources, Water Resources Bulletin, V.21, no.2, 1985. Reprinted with permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Stream Ordera

Mean Flow For Area Drained (CFS)

SURFACE WATER

5-33

3

3

3

3

3

3

3 3

3

3 Subregions with inadequate streamflow Increased demand is causing significant competition among major users of water. Streamflow in 14 of the 106 subregions is inadequate to support navigation, hydropower, recreation, fish, wildlife, and other instream uses in an average year. Inadequate means that 70% or more of the water is consumed offstream during a given year, In a dry year, nine more subregions are in the 70% or more depletion category.

1 2

70% or more depleted in dry year

3

Less than 70 % depleted

70% or more depleted in average year

Figure 5A.2 Inadequate surface water supply for instream use in the United States. (From COUNCIL on Environmental Quality, 1981, Environmental Trends.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5A.6 Velocity of Low Flows and Average Length of Streams in the United States

Water Resource Region New England Delaware-Hudson Eastern Great Lakes Western Great Lakes Chesapeake Bay Ohio Cumberland Tennessee Southeast Upper Mississippi Lower Mississippi Upper Missouri Lower Missouri Upper Arkansas, Red Lower Arkansas, Red, and White Western Gulf Rio Grande and Pecos Colorado Great Basin Pacific Northwest Central Pacific South Pacific

Mean Velocity (mi/hour)

Average Stream Length (miles)

Mean Depth at Velocities Given in Col. 1 (ft)

Mean Flow at Velocity Given in Col. 1 (ft3/sec)

11⁄2 11⁄2 11⁄2 11⁄2 11⁄2 1 11⁄2 11⁄2 11⁄2 1 11⁄2 11⁄2 1 11⁄2 11⁄2 1 11⁄2 1 1 1 11⁄2

100 75 50 50 75 100 100 75 150 150 150 250 125 200 175 300 150 150 100 150 100 50

4.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 3.5 2.0 3.5 4.0 1.5 2.0 1.0 4.0 4.0 0.5

1,500 500 800 800 2,500 1,500 500 1,200 2,500 500 1,200 500 900 200 1,000 1,500 100 300 50 1,500 1,500 20

Note: Velocities are estimated for discharges which are exceeded 95 percent of the time. Stream lengths are estimated for representative streams in each region. For location of river basins see Figure 2.6. Source: From U.S. Geological Survey.

Table 5A.7 Annual River Flow Rates in Canada Annual Flow Ratesa(m3/sec) Ocean Basin Region Pacific

Arctic

Gulf of Mexico Hudson Bay

Atlantic

River Basin Region 1. Pacific Coastal 2. Fraser-Lower Mainlandd 3. Okanagan-Similkameend 4. Columbiae 5. Yukone 6. Peace-Athabasca 7. Lower Mackenzief 8. Arctic Coast-Islands 9. Missourie 10. North Saskatchewan 11. South Saskatchewan 12. Assiniboine-Rede 13. Winnipegd,e 14. Lower Saskatchewan-Nelsonef 15. Churchilld 16. Keewatin 17. Northern Ontariod 18. Northern Quebecd 19. Great Lakes 20. Ottawa 21. St. Lawrencee,f 22. North Shore-Gaspe´ 23. St. John-St. Croixe 24. Maritime Coastal 25. Newfoundland-Labrador

Canada

Reliableb(Low)

Mean

Highc

12,570 3,044 31 1,644 1,806 1,862 6,114 5,920 3 160 147 16 382 1,108 323 2,945 3,733 12,820 2,403 1,390 1,504 6,437 507 2,079 6,908 75,856

16,390 3,972 74 2,009 2,506 2,903 7,337 10,251 12 234 239 50 758 1,911 701 3,876 5,995 16,830 3,067 1,990 2,140 8,706 779 3,081 9,324 105,135

20,200 4,900 116 2,373 3,206 3,946 8,561 14,582 41 373 418 188 1,137 2,714 1,070 4,806 8,258 20,830 3,733 2,590 2,777 10,980 1,050 4,085 11,739 134,674

Note: For map of river basin regions see Figure 2.8. a b c d e f

From recorded flows except in Prairie basins where natural flows have been estimated. Flow equalled or exceeded in 19 years out of 20. Flow equalled or exceeded in 1 year out of 20. Excludes flow transferred into neighboring basin region; because this flow is recorded in importing basin, transfers have little effect on national total. Excludes inflow from United States portion of basin region. Excludes inflow from upper basin region.

Source: From Pearse, P.H., Currents of change, Final Report Inquiry on Federal Water Policy, Ottawa, Canada, 1985. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

5-35

Table 5A.8 Longest Rivers of the World Lengtha Name World Nile Amazon Yantze Mississippi Yenisey Huang Ho (Yellow) Ob Parana´ Congo Amur Africa Nile Congo Niger Zambezi Kasai Orange White Nile (al-Bahr al-Abyad) Lualaba Limpopo Jubba (Juba) Se´ne´gal Okavango (Kubango) Lomami Blue Nile (al-Bahr al-Azraq) Chari (Shari) Ubangi-Uele Awash

Rank in World (first 100)

Outflow

Miles

km

Mediterranean Sea South Atlantic Ocean East China Sea Gulf of Mexico Kara Sea Gulf of Cihli Gulf of Ob Rio de la Plata South Atlantic Ocean Sea of Okhotak

4,132 4,000 3,915 3,710 3,442 3,395 3,362 3,032 2,900 2,761

6,650 6,400 6,300 5,971 5,540 5,464 5,410 4,880 4,700 4,444

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Mediterranean Sea South Atlantic Ocean Bight of Blafra Mozambique Channel Congo River South Atlantic Ocean Nile River

4,132 2,900 2,600 2,200 1,338 1,300 1,295

6,650 4,700 4,200 3,500 2,153 2,100 2,084

1 9 16 24 63 66 67

Congo River Mozambique Channel Indian Ocean South Atlantic Ocean Okavango Swamp Congo River White Nile River

1,100 1,100 1,030 1,020 1,000 830 907

1,800 1,800 1,658 1,641 1,600 1,500 1,460

87 87 94 95 100

870 870 750

1,400 1,400 1,200

Lake Chad Congo River Lake Abe

America, North Mississippi-Missouri-Red Rock

Gulf of Mexico

3,710

5,971

4

Mackenzie-Slave-Peace Missouri-Red Rock St. Lawrence-Great Lakes

Beaufort Sea Mississippi River Gulf of Saint Lawrence

2,635 2,533 2,500

4,241 4,076 4,000

15 17 19

Mississippi Missouri Yukon–Nisutlin Rio Grande Yukon Nelson Saskatchewan Arkansas Colorado Ohio–Allegheny Red Columbia Saskatchewan Peace Snake Churchill Ohio Canadian Tennessee–French Broad

Gulf of Mexico Mississippi River Bering Sea Gulf of Mexico Bering Sea Hudson Bay Mississippi River Gulf of California Mississippi River Mississippi River North Pacific Ocean Lake Winnipeg Slave River Columbia River Hudson Bay Mississippi River Arkansas River Ohio River

2,348 2,315 1,979 1,885 1,875 1,600 1,459 1,450 1,306 1,270 1,243 1,205 1,195 1,038 1,000 981 906 900

3,779 3,726 3,185 3,034 3,018 2,575 2,348 2,333 2,102 2,044 2,000 1,939 1,923 1,670 1,609 1,579 1,456 1,448

20 21 28 29 31 46 55 56 65 68 71 76 79 93 99

Upper Columbia Brazos South Saskatchewan Fraser Colorado (of Texas) St. Lawrence North Saskatchewan Ottawa

Columbia River Gulf of Mexico Saskatchewan River Strait of Georgia Matagorda Bay Lake Ontario Saskatchewan River St. Lawrence

890 870 865 850 840 800 800 790

1,432 1,400 1,392 1,368 1,352 1,287 1,287 1,271

(Continued)

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5-36

Table 5A.8

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Lengtha

Name

Outflow

North Canadian Pecos Kuskokwim

Canadian River Rio Grande River Bering Sea

America, South Amazon-Ucayali-Apurimac Parana´ Madeira-Mamore´-Guapore´ Jurua Purus Sa´o Francisco Japura´ (Caqueta´) Ucayali-Apurimac Orinoco Tocantins Araguaia Paraguay Pilcomayo Negro (Guainia) Xingu Tapajos-Teles Pires Mamore´ Maran˜o´n-Hualiaga Guapore´ (Ite´nez) Parnaiba Madre de Dios Putumayo (Ic¸a) Solimo˜es Uruguay Magdalena Guaviare Ucayali Teles Pires Grande Cauca Iguac¸u Asia Yangtze Yenisey-Balkal-Selenga Huang Ho (Yellow) Oh-Irtysh Amur-Argun Lena Mekong Ob-Katun Irtysh–Chorny Irtysh Yenisey Ob Syrdarya–Arabelsu Nizhnyaya Tunguska Brahmaputra Indus Amur Euphrates Vilyuy Amu Darya–Pyandzh Kolyma–Kulu Ganges Ishim Salween Olenyok Aldan Syrdarya Chu Chiang (Pearl)-Hsi

Miles

km

Rank in World (first 100)

760 735 680

1,223 1,183 1,094

South Atlantic Ocean Rio de la Plata Amazon River Amazon River Amazon River South Atlantic Ocean Amazon River Amazon River South Atlantic Ocean Para´ River Tocantins River Parana´ River Paraguay River Amazon River Amazon River Amazon River Guapore´ River Amazon River Mamore River South Atlantic Ocean Beni River Amazon River Amazon River Rı´o de la Plata Caribbean Sea Orinoco River Maran˜o´n River Tapajo´s River Mamore´ River Magdalena River Parana´ River

4,000 3,032 2,082 2,040 1,995 1,811 1,750 1,701 1,700 1,677 1,632 1,584 1,550 1,400 1,300 1,238 1,200 1,184 1,087 1,056 1,056 1,000 1,000 990 930 930 910 870 845 838 808

6,400 4,880 3,350 3,283 3,211 2,914 2,816 2,738 2,736 2,699 2,627 2,550 2,500 2,253 2,100 1,992 1,931 1,905 1,749 1,700 1,700 1,609 1,609 1,593 1,497 1,497 1,465 1,400 1,360 1,349 1,300

2 8 25 26 27 33 37 40 41 42 44 47 51 59 66 72 77 80 90 92 92 99 99

East China Sea Kara Sea Gulf of Chihli Gulf of Ob Sea of Okhotsk Laptev Sea South China Sea Gulf of Ob Ob River Kara Sea Gulf of Ob Aral Sea Yenisey River Jamuna River Arabian Sea Sea of Okhotak Shatt-al-Arab Lena River Aral Sea East Siberian Sea Padma River Irtysh River Gulf of Martaban Laptev Sea Lena River Aral Sea South China Sea

3,915 3,442 3,395 3,362 2,761 2,734 2,700 2,696 2,640 2,549 2,268 1,876 1,857 1,800 1,800 1,755 1,740 1,647 1,578 1,562 1,560 1,522 1,500 1,424 1,412 1,374 1,365

6,300 5,540 5,464 5,410 4,444 4,400 4,350 4,338 4,248 4,102 3,650 3,019 2,989 2,900 2,900 2,824 2,800 2,650 2,540 2,513 2,510 2,450 2,400 2,292 2,273 2,212 2,197

3 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 18 22 30 32 34 34 36 38 43 48 49 50 52 54 57 58 60 62

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5A.8

5-37

(Continued) Lengtha

Name

Outflow

Miles

km

Rank in World (first 100)

Kolyma (Kolima) Tarim Chulym-Bely Iyus Irrawaddy Vitim-Vitimkan Indigirka-Khastakh Hsi Sungari Tigris Podkamennaya Tunguska Vitim Chulym Angara Indigirka Khatanga-Kotuy Ket Argun Shilka-Onon Tobol-Kokpektysay Alazeya–Kadylchan Han Shui Yana-Sartang Godavari Amga Sutleg Ili-Tekes Olyokma Amu Darya Taz Yamuna Kura Tavda-Lozva Liao Taseyeva-Chuna Vyatka Krishna Narmada Zeya Chu

East Siberian Sea Lop Nor Basin Ob River Andaman Sea Lena River East Siberian Sea South China Sea Amur River Shatt-al-Arab Yenisey River

1,323 1,261 1,257 1,238 1,229 1,228 1,216 1,197 1,180 1,159

2,129 2,030 2,023 1,992 1,978 1,977 1,957 1,927 1,900 1,865

64 69 70 72 73 74 75 78 81 83

Lena River Ob River Yanisey River East Siberian Sea Laptev Sea Ob River Amur River Amur River Irtysh River East Siberian Sea Yangtze River Laptev Sea Bay of Bengal Aldan River Indus River Lake Balkhash Lena River Aral Sea Gulf of Taz Ganges River Caspian Sea Tobol River Gulf of Liaotung Angara River Kama River Bay of Bengal Gulf of Cambay Amur River Betpak Dala Plateau

1,141 1,118 1,105 1,072 1,017 1,007 1,007 989 989 988 952 927 910 908 900 894 892 879 871 855 848 843 836 820 817 800 800 772 663

1,837 1,799 1,779 1,726 1,636 1,621 1,620 1,592 1,591 1,590 1,532 1,492 1,465 1,462 1,450 1,439 1,436 1,415 1,401 1,376 1,364 1,356 1,345 1,319 1,314 1,290 1,290 1,242 1,067

84 88 89 91 96 97 98

Europe Volga Danube Ural Dnepr Don Pechora Kama Oka Belaya Rhine Dnestr Northern Dvina-Sukhona

Caspian Sea Black Sea Caspian Sea Black Sea Sea of Azov Barents Sea Volga River Vola River Kama River North Sea Black Sea White Sea

2,193 1,770 1,509 1,367 1,162 1,124 1,122 932 889 865 840 809

3,530 2,850 2,428 2,200 1,870 1,809 1,805 1,500 1,430 1,392 1,352 1,302

23 35 53 61 82 85 86

Oceania Darling Murray Murrumbidgee Lachlan

Murray River Great Australian Bight Murray River Murrumidgee River

1,702 1,609 981 992

2,739 2,589 1,579 1,484

39 45

a

Conversions of rounded figures are rounded to nearest hundred miles or kilometres.

Source: From Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th edition, Copyright 1988 by Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Reprinted with permission.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5A.9 Large Rivers of the World

River

Country

Drainage Area (Thousands of sq mi)

Average Discharge at Mouth (Thousands of cfs)

Rank

North America a

Mississippi St. Lawrence Mackenzie Columbia Yukon

U.S.A. and Canada U.S.A. and Canada Canada U.S.A. and Canada Canada

Frazer Nelson Mobile Susquehanna

Canada Canada U.S.A. U.S.A.

1,244 498 697 258 360

611 500 280 256 180

7 11 17 19 24

92 414 42 28

113 80 58 38

32 37 43 48

7,500b 600 526 360 265 136 100

1 8 10 16 18 26 34

1,400 250 215 100

2 20 22 33

750 361 409 1,000 936

770 700 660 614 547

3 4 5 6 9

South America Amazon Orinoco Parana Tocantins Magdalena Uruguay Sao Francisco

Brazil Venezuela Argentina Brazil Colombia c

Brazil

2,231 340 890 350 93 90 260 Africa

Congo Zambezi Niger Nile

Congo Mozambique Nigeria Egypt

1,550 500 430 1,150 Asia

Yangtze Brahmaputra Ganges Yenisel Lena

China Bangladesh India U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R.

Irrawaddy Ob Mekong Amur Indus

Burma U.S.S.R. Thailand U.S.S.R. Pakistan

166 959 310 712 358

479 441 390 388 196

12 13 14 15 23

Kolyma Sankai (Si) Godavari Hwang Ho (Yellow) Pyasina

U.S.S.R. China India China U.S.S.R.

249 46 115 260 74

134 127 127 116 90

27 28 29 31 36

Krishna Indigirka Salween Shatt-al Arabd Yana

India U.S.S.R. Burma Iraq U.S.S.R.

119 139 108 209 95 Europe

69 64 53 51 35

39 40 44 45 49

Danube Pechora Dvina (Northern) Neva Rhine

Romania U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. Netherlands and Germany

315 126 139 109 56

218 144 124 92 78

21 25 30 36 38

Dnepr Rhone Po Vistula

U.S.S.R. France Italy Poland

194 37 27 76

59 59 51 38

41 42 46 47

a b c d

Includes Atchafalaya River. Department of Interior News Release, Feb. 24, 1964. Argentina and Uruguay. Tigris, Euphrates and Karun.

Source: From Young, L.L., U.S. Geological Survey, 1964.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

5-39

SECTION 5B

LAKES

Table 5B.10 Natural Fresh-Water Lakes of the United States of 10 sq. mi or More Name Alaska Iliamna Becharof Teshekpuk Naknek Tustumena Clark Dall Inlanda Imuruk Basina Upper Ugashik Kukaklek Lower Ugashik Nerka Nuyakuk Aropuk Tazlina Nanwhyenuk or Nonvianuk Nunavakpak Kaghasuka Skilak Chauekuktuli Chikuminuk Beverly Whitefish Aleknagik Brooks Kgun Nonvianuk Takslesluk George Nunavak Anukslak Unnamed Grosvenor Tetlin Chakachamna Imuruk Nunavakanuk Louise Minchumina Klutina Unnamed Unnamed Beluga Unnamed Unnamed Kenai Kyigayalik Tikchik Bering Kulik Upnuk Unnamed slough Teloquana Unnamed Unnamed Unnamed Five Day Slough Togiak Unnamed Black Ualik

Latitude

Longitude

Area (sq. mi)

59835 57850 70835 58835 60825 60810 60815 66830 65805 57850 59835 57830 59820 59850 61810 61850

155800 156825 153830 156800 150820 154800 163845 159850 165840 156825 155800 156855 158845 158850 163845 146830

1,000 458 315 242 117 110 100 95 80 75 72 72 69 64 57 57

59800 60845 60855 60825 60805 60815 59840 61820 59820 58830 61835 59800 61805 61815 61805 60855 58840 63805 61810 65835 62805 62820 63855 61840 61830 71805 61825 60805 61840 60825 61800 59855 60820 59850 60805 62840 60855 60830 61800 61830 62805 59835 59855 56825 59805

155825 162840 163840 150820 158850 158855 158845 160800 158845 155855 163850 155830 162855 148835 162830 164800 155815 142845 152830 163810 164840 146830 152815 145830 164830 156830 151830 164800 160825 149835 162830 158820 144820 158850 158855 163830 153855 161840 163845 164855 162800 159835 163815 159800 159830

56 53 52 38 34 34 33 33 31 31 31 31 31 29 29 28 27 27 26 26 25 23 23 22 22 21 20 20 20 19 19 19 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 14 14

(Continued)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5B.10

(Continued)

Name Walker Unnamed Unnamed Unnamed Amanka Whitefish Unnamed Crosswind Kakhomak Karluk Mother Goose Unnamed Unnamed Unnamed Unnamed Coleville Harlequin Unnamed Unnamed Bear Chignik Ewan Kontrashibuna Kukaklik Kulik Unnamed Miles Susitna Unnamed Unnamed Unnamed Unnamed Unnamed Name California Tahoeb Clear Eaglec Florida Okeechobee George Kissimmee Apopka Istokpoga Tsala Apopka Tohopekaliga Harris Orange East Tohopekaliga Griffin Monroe Jessup Weohyakapka Talquin Eustis Blue Cypress Hatchineha Lochloosa Idaho Pend Oreille Beard Coeur d’Alene Priest Graysf Henrys

Latitude

Longitude

67805 60820 60850 59850 59805 60855 71800 62820 59830 57820 57810 60825 59850 62815 70850 58845 59825 60825 60855 56800 56815 62825 60810 61840 58855 61845 60840 62825 60820 60825 60855 59855 62800

154825 164825 163830 163830 159810 154855 156800 146800 154810 154805 157820 164810 163825 162820 153830 155840 138855 164810 162820 160815 158850 145850 154800 160830 155800 160840 144845 146840 162800 162800 162810 163815 162800 County

Area (sq. mi) 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Area (sq. mi)

Placer, Eldorado Lake Lassen

193 65 41

Hendry, Glades, Okeechobee, Martin, Palm Beach Putnam, Marion, Volusia, Lake Osceola, Polk Orange Highlands Citrus Osceola Lake Alachua, Marion Osceola Lake Seminole, Volusia Seminole Polk Gadsden, Leon Lake Osceola, Indian River Polk, Osceola Alachua

700

Bonner Bear Lake Kootenai Bonner Bonneville, Caribou Fremont

70 55 48 43 30 29 27 26 19 14 14 13 12 11 11 10 10 10 148 110d 50 37 34 10

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

5-41

Table 5B.10

(Continued)

Name Iowa Spirit Louisiana Whiteg Grand Caddoh Catahoulai Grand Six Mile Fausse Pointe Lac des Allemands Verret Polourde Maine Moosehead Sebago Chesuncookj West Grand Flagstaff Spednik Grand Fallsk East Grandk Mooselookmeguntic Twin Chamberlain and Telos Graham Churchill and Eagle Baskahegan Umbagogl Brassua Square Millinocket Great Richardson Schoodic Sebec Aziscohos Canada Falls Rangeley Michigan St. Clairm Houghton Torch Charlevoixn Burt Mullet Gogebic Manistique Black Crystal Portage Higgins Hubbard Leelanau Indian Elk Glen Minnesota Lake of the Woodso Upper and Lower Red Rainyo Mille Lacs Leech Winnibigoshish Vermilion Lac La Croixo Cass

County

Area (sq. mi)

Dickinson

12

Vermilion Iberia, St. Mary, St. Martin DeSoto LaSalle Cameron St. Martin, St. Mary St. Mary, Iberia St. John the Baptist Assumption St. Martin, St. Mary, Assumption

83 64 60 32 32 30 24 23 22 18

Piscataquis, Somerset Cumberland Piscataquis Washington Somerset, Franklin Washington Washington Washington, Aroostook Oxford, Franklin Penobscot, Piscataquis Piscataquis Hancock Piscataquis Washington Oxford Somerset Aroostook Penobscot, Piscataquis Kennebec Oxford Piscataquis Piscataquis Oxford Somerset Oxford

117 45 43 37 28 28 27 26 26 25 22 19 17 16 16 15 14 14 13 13 11 11 10 10 10

Roscommon Antrim, Kalkaska Charlevoix Cheboygan Cheboygan Ontonagon, Gogebic Mackinac, Luce Cheboygan, Presque Isle Benzie Houghton Crawford, Roscommon Alcona Leelanau Schoolcraft Antrim, Grand Traverse Leelanau

460 31 29 27 27 26 21 16 16 15 15 15 14 13 12 12 10

Lake of the Woods Beltrami Koochiching, St. Louis Aitken, Crow Wing, Mille Lacs Cass Itasca, Cass St. Louis St. Louis Cass, Beltrami

1,485 451 345 207 176 109 77 53 46

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5B.10

(Continued)

Name

County o

Basswood Namakano Kabetogama Pepinp Mud Saganagao Pokegama Minnetonka Otter Tail Gull Pelican Traverseq Big Stoneq Crookedo Sandy Swan Island Bowstring Burntside Sand Pointo Trout St. Croixp Lac qui Parle Pelican Dead Minnewaska Thief Nett Osakis Bemidji Lida Montana Flathead Medicine McDonald Nevada Tahoeb New Hampshire Winnipesaukee Umbagogl Squam New York Champlaint Oneida Seneca Cayuga George Chautauqua Black Canandaigua Skaneateles Owasco North Carolina Mattamuskeetv Phelps Waccamaw Oregon Upper Klamath Crater South Dakota Traverseq Big Stoneq Tennessee Reelfoot Texas Caddoh

Lake St. Louis Itasca Goodhue, Wabasha Marshall Cook Itasca Hennepin, Carver Otter Tail Cass, Crow Wing St. Louis Traverse Big Stone St. Louis, Lake Aitkin Nicollet St. Louis Itaska St. Louis St. Louis St. Louis Washington Chippewa, Lac qui Parle Crow Wing Otter Tail Pope Marshall St. Louis, Koochiching Douglas, Todd Beltrami Otter Tail

Area (sq. mi) 46 44 40 39 37 32 24 22 22 20 19 18 17 17 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 10 10 10

Lake, Flathead Sheridan Flathead

197r 15s 10

Ormsby, Douglas

193

Belknap, Carroll Coos Gafton, Carroll Clinton, Essex Oswego, Oneida Seneca, Schuyler Cayuga, Seneca, Tompkins Warren Chautauqua St. Lawrence Ontario, Yates Onondaga, Cayuga Cayuga Hyde Washington Columbus

72 16 11 490u 80 67 66 44 21 17 17 14 10 67 25 14

Klamath Klamath

142w 21

Roberts Roberts

18 17

Lake, Obion

22

Marion

60

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

5-43

Table 5B.10

(Continued)

Name Utah Utah Beard Vermont Champlaint Washington Chelan Washington Ozette Wisconsin Winnebago Pepinp Poygan Koshkonong Mendota St. Croixp Green Wyoming Yellowstone Jackson Shoshone

County

Area (sq. mi)

Utah Rich Chittenden, Franklin

140 110 490u

Chelan King Clallam

55 35 12

Winnebago, Calumet, Fond du Lac Pierce, Pepin Winnebago Jefferson Dane St. Croix Green Lake

215 39 17 16 15 12 11

Yellowstone National Park Teton Yellowstone National Park

37x 39y 11

Note: Lakes are arranged by states; the Great Lakes are excluded. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v

w x y

May be salt water. California and Nevada. Mildly saline, less than 1,000 ppm. Idaho and Utah. 136 sq. mi including Mud Lake. Submerged marsh. Originally brackish; now kept fresh by controls on salt water intrusion. Louisiana and Texas. Shrinks to small area at extremely low stages. Includes Ripogenus and Caribou. Maine and Quebec. Maine and New Hampshire. Michigan and Ontario. Formerly called Pine. Minnesota and Ontario. Minnesota and Wisconsin. Minnesota and South Dakota. At normal high water; 188 sq. mi at medium low water; lake regulated for power between these limits. Includes 4 islands having area of about 1 sq. mi. New York, Vermont, and Quebec. Includes islands totaling about 55 sq. mi. The lake originally landlocked, was drained and provided with outlet and is fresh water; level regulated to some extent by control works on canals draining the area. At upper level; dam at outlet allows regulation so that area varies between 93 and 142 sq. mi. Includes islands totaling 3 sq. mi. Enlarged by dam; original area, 30 sq. mi.

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-44

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5B.11 Natural Fresh-Water Lakes of the United States of 100 sq. mi or More Name Lake of the Woods Iliamna Okeechobee Champlain St. Clair Becharof Upper and Lower Red Rainy Teshekpuk Naknek Winnebago Mille Lacs Flathead Tahoe Leech Pend Oreille Upper Klamath Utah Yellowstone Tustumena Moosehead Clark Bear Winnibigoshish Dall

Location

Area (sq. mi)

Minnesota and Ontario Alaska Florida New York, Vermont, and Quebec Michigan and Ontario Alaska Minnesota Minnesota and Ontario Alaska Alaska Wisconsin Minnesota Montana California and Nevada Minnesota Idaho Oregon Utah Wyoming Alaska Maine Alaska Idaho and Utah Minnesota Alaska

1,485 1,000 700 490 460 458 451 345 315 242 215 207 197 193 176 148 142 140 137 117 117 110 110 109 100

Note: The Great Lakes are excluded. Source: From U.S. Geological Survey.

Table 5B.12 Natural Fresh-Water Lakes of the United States, 250 ft Deep or More Name Crater Tahoe Chelan Pend Oreille Nuyakuk Deer Chauekuktuli Crescent Seneca Clark Beverley Nerka Tokatz Long Lower Sweetheart Cayuga Crater Cooper Champlain Kasnyku

Location Oregon California and Nevada Washington Idaho Alaska Alaska Alaska Washington New York Alaska Alaska Alaska Alaska Alaska Alaska New York Alaska Alaska New York, Vermont, and Quebec Alaska

Depth (ft) 1,932 1,645 1,605 1,200 930 877 700 624 618 606 500 475 474 470 459 435 414 O400 400 393 (Continued)

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SURFACE WATER

5-45

Table 5B.12 Name Chakachamna Ozette Aleknagik Sebago Swan Baranoff Payette Quinault Crescent Wallowa Chilkoot Odell Silver Grant

(Continued) Location Alaska Washington Alaska Maine Alaska Alaska Idaho Washington Alaska Oregon Alaska Oregon Alaska Alaska

Note: The Great Lakes are excluded. Source: From U.S. Geological Survey.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Depth (ft) 380 331 330 316 O314 303 O300 About 300 291 283 282 279 278 O250

5-46

Table 5B.13 Largest Lake in Each State of the United States

State AL

Largest Entirely Within State

Largest Partly in Another State

Shared With

Wheeler Illamna San Carlosa

AR

Ouachita

CA

Salton Sea

CO CT DE FL GA

John Martina Candlewood Lum’s Pond Okeechobee Sidney Lanier

HI ID

Koloaa Pend Oreille

IL

Crab Orchard

IN

Wawasee

IA KS KY

Spirit Tuttle Creeka Cumberland

LA ME MD MA MI

Pontchartrain Moosehead Deep Creek Quabbina Houghton

MN

Red

MS MO

Sardis Lake of the Ozarks

MT NE NV

Fort Pecka McConaughy Pyramid

NH NJ

Winnipesaukee Hopatcong

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

TN

Powell

UT

Bull Shoals

MO

Tahoe

NV

Clark Hilla

SC

Bear

UT

Michigan

WI, IN, MI

Michigan

WI, IL, MI

Kentucky

TN

Superior

WI, Ont, MN

Superior

WI, Ont, MI

Bull Shoals

AR

Mead

AZ

Man-made Man-made Natural Man-made Man-made Man-made Man-made Natural Natural Man-made Man-made Man-made Natural Man-made Man-made Man-made Natural Natural Man-made Natural Natural Natural Natural Man-made Man-made Man-made Natural Natural Man-made Man-made Natural Natural Natural Natural Man-made Man-made Man-made Man-made Man-made Natural Man-made Natural Man-made

Area sq. mi 104.84 107.97 1,033 30.6 252 62.65 111.31 360 192 28.72 8.46 0.31 700 57.96 111.09 0.66 133 136 10.96 22,400 4.09 22,400 8.84 24.68 78.51 247.34 630 117 7.03 38.6 31.3 31,800 451 31,800 15.31 93.75 111.31 382.81 55 187.5 247 71.55 4.19

Feet Above Sea Level 556 595 50 2,523 3,700 578 695 K231 6,229 3,765 429 44 18.7 1,035 330 233 2,063 5,930 405 578.8 859 578.8 1,402 1,075 723 375 S.L 1,028 2,462 530 1,139 600 1,175 600 234 — 695 2,250 3,276 3,800 1,221 504 924

Maximum Depth (ft) 58 60 — 249 580 207 243 46 1,685 118 85 12 — 180 190 22.5 1,150 30 33 923 68 923 — 56 — 145 15 246 — 150 20 1,333 31 1,333 — 125 243 220 150 330 589 120 58

Shoreline Length (miles) 1,063 962 188 — — 690 1,050 — 71 86 65 3.5 110 540 1,057 3.3 111.3 51.5 103 1,660 18 1,660 — 112 1,255 2,380 113 — — 118 30 2,980 123 2,980 60 1,375 1,050 1,600 50 70 550 128 35

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

AK AZ

Guntersville

Origin

NC ND OH

OK OR PA

Elephant Buttea Oneida MI, PA, OH, Ont

John H. Kerra

VA

Erie

MI, PA, NY, Ont

Texoma

TX

Erie

MI, NY, OH, Ont

Clark Hilla

GA

Kentucky

KY

Texoma

OK

Powell

AZ

Champlain

NY Que

John H. Kerra

NC

Bluestonea

VA

Superior

MN, MI, Ont

Norman Garrisona Grand

Eufaulaa Upper Klamath (incl. Agency Lake) Wallenpaupack

RI SC

Scituatea Marion

SD TN

Francis Case Watts Bar

TX

Texarkana

UT

Great Salt

VT

Bomoseen

VA

Smith Mountain

WA WV

F.D. Roosevelt Tygart

WI

Winnebago

WY

Yellowstone

a

Erie

Man-made Natural Natural

58.85 80 9,910

4,450 370 570

193 50 210

250 52 856

Man-made Man-made Man-made Man-made Natural

50.78 76.4 609.38 20 9,910

760 300 1,850 869 570

115 100 200 12 210

520 800 1,600 60 856

Man-made Man-made Natural

160.16 149.06 140.63

585 617 4,139

87 94 40

600 540 105

Man-made Natural Man-made Man-made Man-made Man-made Man-made Man-made Man-made Man-made Natural Man-made Natural Natural Man-made Man-made Man-made Man-made Man-made Natural Natural Natural

9 9,910 5.68 157.03 111.09 160.31 60.31 247.34 46.56 149.06 1,500 252 3.69 430 31.25 76.4 123.44 5.37 3.07 215.26 31,800 137

1,182 570 284 75 330 1,375 745 375 225 617 4,200 3,700 411 100 795 300 1,288 1,010 1,409 — 600 7,735

50 210 80 35 190 140 80 145 39 94 48 580 — 399 200 100 375

45 856 38 299 1,057 540 783 2,380 141 540 350 — — — 500 800 302 106 33 91.96 2,980 —

42 21.6 1,333 —

SURFACE WATER

NM NY

Reservoir.

Source: From National Geographic Society.

5-47

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-48

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Minne

sota

Lake Superior

Scale 0

50

100

200

300

Miles

Mich igan Wis cons in

M ic h

ig a n

n uro eH Lak

Province of Ontario

nt eO

ario

L a ke

Lak

Wisconsin Illinois

Michigan Indiana

e Lak

Eri

ork N ew Y

e

Pen ns yl

va ni a

Ohio

Figure 5B.3 The Great Lakes. (From U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Summary 1985—Hydrologic Events and Surface-Water Resources, Water-Supply Paper 2300.)

Average lake level (m, IGLD1985)

184

183.5

183

182.5

Sep,2001

Apr,1998

Nov,1994

Jun,1991

Jan,1988

Aug,1984

Oct,1977

Mar,1981

May,1974

Dec,1970

Jul,1967

Feb,1964

Sep,1960

Apr,1957

Nov,1953

Jun,1950

Jan,1947

Mar,1940

Aug,1943

Oct,1936

May,1933

Dec,1929

Jul,1926

Feb,1923

Sep,1919

182

Date (month, year) Figure 5B.4 Great Lakes water levels for Lake Superior graphed for consecutive years, Lake Superior: 1918–2003. (From www.usace. army.mil.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

5-49

Table 5B.14 Selected Facts about the Great Lakes System Outlet

Remarks

St. Marys River to Lake Huron Straits of Mackinac to Lake Huron St. Clair River to Lake St. Clair Detroit River to Lake Erie Niagara River and Falls to Lake Ontario St. Lawrence River to Atlantic Ocean

Largest surface area of all the freshwater lakes in the world. Outflow controlled by St. Marys River Compensating works Sixth largest surface area of world’s freshwater lakes Fifth largest surface area of world’s freshwater lakes Shallowest lake in the Great Lakes system Eleventh largest surface area of world’s freshwater lakes Outflow controlled by St. Lawrence Seaway and Power Project

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Summary 1985—Hydrologic Events and Surface-Water Resources, Water-Supply Paper 2300, 1985.

Table 5B.15 Great Lakes Physical Features and Population Superior a

Elevation Length Breadth

Average Deptha Maximum Deptha Volumea Water Area Land Drainage Areab Total Area Shoreline Lengthc Retention Time Population:U.S

Note:

f

Michigan

Huron

Erie 569 173 241 388 57 92 62 19 210 64 116 484 9,910 25,700 30,140

Ontario

(ft) (m) (mi)e (km) (mi)e (km) (ft)f (m) (ft)e (m) (cu. mi.)e (km3) (sq. mi)e (km2) (sq. mi)e

600 183 350 563 160 257 483 147 1,332 406 2,900 12,100 31,700 82,100 49,300

577 176 307 494 118 190 279 85 925 282 1,180 4,920 22,300 57,800 45,600

577 176 206 332 183 245 195 59 750 229 850 3,540 23,000 59,600 51,700

243 74 193 311 53 85 283 86 802 244 393 1,640 7,340 18,960 24,720

(km2) (sq. mi)e (km2) (mi)e (km) (yr)f (1990)g Canada (1991) Totals Outlet

127,700 81,000 209,800 2,726 4,385 191 425,548 181,573

118,000 67,900 175,800 1,638 2,633 99 10,057,026

134,100 74,700 193,700 3,827 6,157 22 1,502,687 1,191,467

78,000 40,050 103,700 871 1,402 2.6 10,017,530 1,664,639

64,030 32,060 82,990 712 1,146 6 2,704,284 5,446,611

607,121 St. Marys River

10,057,026 Straits of Mackinac

2,694,154 St. Clair River

11,682,169 Niagara River/ Welland Canal

8,150,895 St. Lawrence River

Totals

5,439 22,684 94,250 244,160 201,460 521,830 295,710 765,990 10,210d 17,017d 24,707,075 8,484,290 33,191,365

a Measured at low water datum; bLand Drainage Area for Lake Huron includes St. Marys River. Lake Erie includes the St. ClairDetroit system. Lake Ontario includes the Niagara River; cIncluding islands; dThese totals are greater than the sum of the shoreline length for the lakes because they include the connecting channels (excluding the St. Lawrence River).

Source: From www.epa.gov. Original Source:

e Coordinating Committee on Great Lakes Basic Hydraulic and Hydrologic Data, Coordinated Great Lakes Physical Data. May, 1992; fExtension Bulletins E-1866-70, Michigan Sea Grant College Program, Cooperative Extension Service, Michigan State University, E. Lansing, Michigan, 1985; g1990–1991 population census data were collected on different watershed boundaries and are not directly comparable to previous years.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Sep, 2001

Apr, 1998

Nov, 1994

Jun, 1991

Jan, 1988

Aug, 1984

Mar, 1981

Oct, 1977

May, 1974

Dec, 1970

Jul, 1967

Feb, 1964

Sep, 1960

Apr, 1957

Nov, 1953

Jun, 1950

Jan, 1947

Aug, 1943

Mar, 1940

Oct, 1936

May, 1933

Dec, 1929

Jul, 1926

Feb, 1923

Sep, 1919

Average lake level (m, IGLD1985)

Sep,2001

Apr,1998

Nov,1994

Jun,1991

Jan,1988

Aug,1984

Mar,1981

Oct,1977

May,1974

Dec,1970

Jul,1967

Feb,1964

Sep,1960

Apr,1957

Nov,1953

Jun,1950

Jan,1947

Aug,1943

Mar,1940

Oct,1936

May,1933

Dec,1929

Jul,1926

Feb,1923

Sep,1919

Average lake level (m, IGLD1985)

5-50 THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

178

177.5

177

176.5

176

175.5

175

Date (month, year)

Figure 5B.5 Great Lakes water levels for Lake Michigan/Huron graphed for consecutive years, Lake Michigan/Huron: 1918–2003. (From www.usace.army.mil.)

176

175.5

175

174.5

174

173.5

173

Date (month, year)

Figure 5B.6 Great Lakes water levels for Lake St. Clair graphed for consecutive years, Lake St. Clair: 1918–2003. (From www.usace. army.mil.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Nov, 2000

Aug, 1997

May, 1994

Feb, 1991

Nov,1987

Aug, 1984

May, 1981

Feb, 1978

Nov, 1974

Aug, 1971

May, 1968

Feb, 1965

Nov, 1961

Aug, 1958

May, 1955

Feb, 1952

Nov, 1948

Aug, 1945

May, 1942

Feb, 1939

Nov, 1935

Aug, 1932

May, 1929

Feb, 1926

Nov, 1922

Aug, 1919

Average lake level (m, IGLD1985)

Sep, 2001

Apr, 1998

Nov, 1994

Jun, 1991

Jan, 1988

Aug, 1984

Mar, 1981

Oct, 1977

May, 1974

Dec, 1970

Jul, 1967

Feb, 1964

Sep, 1960

Apr, 1957

Nov, 1953

Jun, 1950

Jan, 1947

Aug, 1943

Mar, 1940

Oct, 1936

May, 1933

Dec, 1929

Jul, 1926

Feb, 1923

Sep, 1919

Average lake level (m, IGLD1985)

SURFACE WATER 5-51

176

175.5

175

174.5

174

173.5

173

Date (month, year)

Figure 5B.7 Great Lakes water levels for Lake Erie graphed for consecutive years, Lake Erie: 1918–2003. (From www.usace.army.mil.)

76

75.5

75

74.5

74

73.5

73

Date (month, year)

Figure 5B.8 Great Lakes water levels for Lake Ontario graphed for consecutive years, Lake Ontario: 1918–2003. (From www.usace. army.mil.)

5-52

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Lake St. Lawrence EL.241 St. Marys River Lakes Michigan Huron EL. 600.4

EL. 578.7

573.1

Lake St. Francis EL.152

Niagara Falls

St. Clair River

Lake St. Louis EL.69

Lake Ontario

570.4

L.Erie Lake Superior

244.8

Lake St. Clair

925 FT. Michigan

Gulf of St. Lawrence

Detroit River

EL.20

EL.0

St. Lawrence River 752 FT. Huron

804 FT.

212 FT.

Niagara River

1333 FT.

379

60

223

89

236

35

150

77

28

52

33

350

Distances in miles

Figure 5B.9 Profile of the Great Lakes—St. Lawrence River Drainage System. (From International great lakes levels board. Regulation of Great Lakes water levels, Report to the international joint commission, Washington, 1973. With permission.)

4,212 1847-75 1875-77 1877-79 1879-81 1881-1901 1902-03 1903-38 1938-present

4,210

Water-surface altitude in feet

4,208 4,206 4,204

Traditional data Black Rock gage Farmington gage Lakeshore gage Garfield gages Midtake gage Saltair gage Boat Harbor gage

4,202 4,200 4,198 4,196

Estimated

4,194

Measured

4,192 4,190 1/1/1845

1/1/1865

1/1/1885

1/1/1905

1/1/1925

1/1/1945

1/1/1965

1/1/1985

11/15/2004

Figure 5B.10 Fluctuation in water-surface altitude of Gilbert Bay (south part), Great Salt Lake, 1847 to present. (From www.usgs.gov.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

5-53

Table 5B.16 Hydrologic Characteristics of the Great Lakes Lake Surface Elevation, in Feet, 1900–1984 Monthly Range (From Winter Low to Summer High)

Monthly Mean

Total Dissolved Solids, 1986 ppm

Mean Discharge (m2/sec)

Lake

Average

Maximum

Minimum

Average

Maximum

Minimum

Superior Michigan– Huron Michigan Huron St. Clair Erie Ontario

600.59 578.27

602.02 581.04

598.23 575.35

1.2 1.2

2.1 2.1

0.4 0.4

52 —

2,076 —

— — 573.34 570.44 244.71

— — 576.23 573.51 248.06

— — 569.86 567.49 241.45

— — 1.7 1.6 2.0

— — 3.3 2.8 3.6

— — 0.6 0.9 0.7

150 118 — 198 194

1,558 5,038 — 5,545 6,624

Note: Levels referenced to international Great Lakes datum 1955. Source: From U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Summary 1985—Hydrologic Events and Surface-Water Resources, Water-Supply Paper 2300 and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers data.

Table 5B.17 Principal Saline Lakes of the United States Present Area (sq. mi)

Lake California Salton Sea Owens Mono Goose (in California and Oregon) Eagle

350 Dry at times each year since 1943 76 About 100

Honey

Louisiana Pontchartrain Sabine (Louisiana and Texas) Calcasieu Maurepas Salvador Nevada Pyramid

Walker Winnemucca

Carson

41

Dry

625

Remarks About 650 sq. mi at highest stage in 1905–07 110 sq. mi in 1872, prior to diversions from Owens River; 35 sq. mi in 1943 Maximum, 89 sq. mi in 1919 Maximum, 186 sq. mi, 125 in California and 61 in Oregon; overflowed into Pitt River in 1869 and 1881; dry in 1930; 150 sq. mi in 1958 Some question as to whether Eagle Lake should be considered saline or fresh water. It has no surface outlet (Martin, 1962), but since 1924 it has been tapped by tunnel to Willow Creek. Salinity is considerably less than 1,000 ppm, according to California Dept. of Water Resources. During period 1895–1925 lake rose to highest level since at least 1650 (Harding, 1935); rise believed due to closing of subterranean outlet by earthquake in 1890 (Antevs, 1938) 90 sq. mi in 1867, possibly higher in 1890; dry in 1903; high in 1904; dry in 1924. Contained some water April 1958 to September 1960, and early in 1962

95

These lakes are connected with the Gulf of Mexico, and are subject to tidal fluctuation As above

90 90 70

As above As above As above

180

107 Dry

Nearly dry

Maximum size, 220 sq. mi. Low until 1860; reached extreme high level in 1862 and 1868 or 1869; nearly as high in 1890; began to drop in 1917 (Hardman and Venstrom, 1941) Maximum size, 125 sq. mi Maximum size, 180 sq. mi. Dry in 1840, but began to fill shortly thereafter (Zones, 1961). According to Russell (1885) the lake rose more than 50 ft and approximately doubled its area between 1867 and 1882. Was 87 ft deep in 1882. Dry since 1945 Maximum size, 41 sq. mi. A few water-filled pot holes remain. Once called South Carson Lake; received flow of Carson River before Lahontan Reservoir was built (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-54

Table 5B.17

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Present Area (sq. mi)

Lake Carson Sink

Dry

Ruby Franklin North Dakota Devils

24

Oregon Malheur and Harney

Goose (see California) Abert Summer Silver

Warner

Sevier

A shallow playa some 250 sq. mi in area shown on some maps as a body of water. Russell (1885) called it North Carson Lake. Dry in 1882, but probably has had some water at times since. Once received water from both Carson and Humboldt Rivers Maximum size, 37 sq. mi. Shown as swamp on recent maps of Army Map Service and Nevada Dept. of Highways Maximum size, 32 sq. mi. Shown as swamp on recent maps of the Army Map Service and Nevada Dept. of Highways 140 sq. mi in 1867; 70 sq. mi in 1883; 45 sq. mi in 1900; 10 sq. mi in 1940. Since 1940 lake has been rising

Probably dry

Malheur, the larger of the two lakes, overflows into Harney, which has no outlet. Maximum combined size, 125 sq. mi. Reported dry in 1931; high in late 1950s; about 1 sq. mi in 1961, and expected to go dry in 1962

52 Probably dry Dry

Maximum size, 60 sq. mi. Dry in 1930 or thereabouts, but fairly high in 1958 Maximum size, 70 sq. mi. Nearly dry in 1961 Maximum size, 15 sq. mi. Dry in 1961. Because of the transient nature of the lake, the water—whenever there is any—is relatively fresh; hay is raised on the dry lake bed A series of shallow lakes; combined area about 30 sq. mi in 1953, a wet year, estimated from Army Map Service map based on aerial photograph taken in 1953. Present lakes are all that is left of Pleistocene Warner Lake, which covered about 300 sq. mi and was about 270 ft deep

Probably less than 10

Utah Great Salt

Remarks

About 1,000 Dry

Maximum size since 1851, 2,400 sq. mi in 1870s; minimum, 950 sq. mi in October 1961; seasonal high in 1962 was 1,050 sq. mi in June Maximum size, 125 sq. mi; has been dry for several years

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey, 1963.

Table 5B.18 Hydrologic Data for Great Salt Lake and West Desert Pumping Project Great Salt Lake Dimensions Average depth Maximum depth Contents in dissolved minerals (mainly chloride, sodium, sulfate, magnesium, potassium with lesser amounts of calcium, lithium, bromium and borona) West Desert Pumping Project Flood control project by State of Utah to lower water level of Great Salt Lake Start of construction July 1986 Cost of construction and 1st year of operation Projected volume of diversion Water is lifted by 3 large pumps (capacity 1,000 cfs each) through 4.1 mi long outlet canal to evaporation pond (west pond) Surface area of west pond Rate of evaporation from west pond Salinity of water in west pond

80!35 mi 22 ft 42 ft 4–5 billion tons

71.7 million 2.73 million acre ft total

500 sq. mi 825,000 acre-ft/yr 350 g/L

Rock and earthfill Southern Pacific Transportation Co. railroad causeway separates the lake into two parts, Southern part of lake (60% of total area) receives 90% of lake’s freshwater inflow, Total annual inflow 1931–76 averaged 2.9 million acre-ft, Northern part of lake receives most of its water as brine flowing through culverts and causeway from southern part of lake, Lake salinity varies with lake level, Northern lake is 16% salt and about 3 times saltier than southern lake (June 1987). a For chemical analysis of brine see Chapter 6 Table 6.8. Source: From Compiled from information provided by Utah Division of Water-Resources, 1987 and U.S. Geological Survey Circular 913. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

5-55

4,203.0 Records for 2003 and 2004 water year are provisional

4,202.0

Date

Water-surface altitude, in feet

4,201.0 Boat Harbor

4,200.0

Saline

4,199.0

Altitude of lake surface

Nov 1

4,194.2 Boat Harbor

Nov 1

4,193.7 Saline

Nov 15

4,194.3 Boat Harbor

Nov 15

4,193.7 Saline

4,198.0 4,197.0 4,196.0 4,195.0 4,194.0

12/15/2004

11/15/2004

10/15/2004

9/15/2004

8/15/2004

7/15/2004

6/15/2004

5/15/2004

4/15/2004

3/15/2004

2/15/2004

1/15/2004

12/15/2003

11/15/2003

10/15/2003

9/15/2003

8/15/2003

7/15/2003

6/15/2003

5/15/2003

4/15/2003

3/15/2003

2/15/2003

1/15/2003

12/15/2002

11/15/2002

10/15/2002

4,193.0

Figure 5B.11 Fluctuation in water-surface altitude of both parts of Great Salt Lake during last 2 years. (From www.usgs.gov.)

Year 1960

1950

1940

1930

1920

1910

2.0

220

1.5 Evaporation

1.0

240 Water level

0.5

260 Surface inflow

280

Evaporation and surface inflow in millions of acre-feet

Water level in feet below mean sea level

200

0

Figure 5B.12 Water levels, evaporation and surface inflow of the Salton Sea, California. (From U.S. Geological survey, professional paper 486-C and California department of water resources bulletin 143-7, geothermal wastes and the water resources of the salton sea area, 1966. With permission.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-56

Table 5B.19 Long Term Average Min-Max Water Levels Jan Mean Max Min

601.51 602.69 1986 599.84 1926

Feb 601.31 602.46 1986 599.61 1926

Mar 601.21 602.40 1986 599.54 1926

Apr

May

Jun Lake Superior 601.90 602.89 1986 599.90 1926

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

602.13 603.08 1950 600.26 1926

602.20 603.22 1952 600.46 1926

602.23 603.22 1985 600.79 1926

602.13 603.38 1985 600.72 1925

602.00 603.31 1985 600.43 1925

601.77 603.05 1985 600.13 1925

a

601.31 602.62 1986 599.48 1926

601.64 602.82 1986 599.61 1926

579.36 581.99 1986 576.67 1964

579.20 581.99 1986 576.64 1964

579.00 582.35 1986 576.44 1964

578.81 581.96 1986 576.28 1964

578.64 581.56 1986 576.18 1964

574.77 577.20 1986 572.51 1934

574.67 577.10 1986 572.21 1934

574.44 576.90 1986 571.98 1934

574.15 577.30 1986 571.75 1934

573.88 576.84 1986 571.46 1934

573.88 576.77 1986 571.65 1964

571.92 574.25 1986 569.06 1934

571.69 573.95 1986 569.00 1934

571.39 573.59 1986 568.83 1934

571.06 573.95 1986 568.57 1934

570.83 573.65 1986 568.24 1934

570.83 573.82 1986 568.21 1934

246.03 248.23 1947 243.24 1934

245.67 247.97 1947 242.78 1934

245.18 247.41 1947 242.49 1934

244.78 246.78 1945 242.19 1934

244.55 246.65 1945 241.96 1934

244.49 246.72 1945 241.93 1934

183.53 183.82 1950 182.96 1926

183.55 183.86 1952 183.02 1926

186.56 183.86 1985 183.12 1926

183.53 183.91 1985 183.10 1925

183.49 183.89 1985 183.01 1925

183.42 183.81 1985 182.92 1925

a

Min

Mean Max Min

Mean Max Min

Mean Max Min

578.54 581.30 1987 576.12 1965

578.48 581.07 1986 576.08 1964

578.54 581.10 1986 576.05 1964

578.81 581.46 1986 576.15 1964

573.62 576.77 1986 570.47 1936

573.43 576.77 1986 570.51 1926

573.82 576.77 1986 571.03 1934

574.31 576.84 1986 571.92 1926

574.57 576.87 1986 572.24 1934

570.83 573.69 1987 568.27 1935

570.80 573.43 1987 568.18 1936

571.10 573.75 1986 568.24 1934

571.59 574.08 1985 568.83 1934

571.85 574.05 1986 569.03 1934

574.70 577.17 1986 572.34 1934 a Lake Erie 571.95 574.28 1986 569.06 1934

244.59 246.59 1946 246.16 1935

244.69 246.95 1952 242.06 1936

244.98 247.28 1952 242.59 1935

245.64 248.20 1973 242.88 1935

246.10 248.46 1973 243.14 1935

Lake Ontario 246.19 248.56 1952 243.41 1935

a

Lake Superior Mean Max Min

183.34 183.70 1986 182.83 1926

183.28 183.63 1986 182.76 1926

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

183.25 183.61 1986 182.74 1926

183.28 183.68 1986 182.72 1926

183.38 183.74 1986 182.76 1926

183.46 183.76 1986 182.85 1926

b

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Mean Max

Lakes Michigan–Huron 579.13 579.33 579.43 581.63 581.79 581.99 1986 1986 1986 576.57 576.64 576.71 1964 1964 1964 a Lake St. Clair

Mean Max Min

176.34 177.18 1987 175.60 1965

176.32 177.11 1986 175.59 1964

176.34 177.12 1986 175.58 1964

176.42 177.23 1986 175.61 1964

176.52 177.28 1986 175.74 1964

176.58 177.33 1986 175.76 1964 Lake St. Clair

Mean Max Min

174.84 175.80 1986 173.88 1936

174.78 175.80 1986 173.89 1926

174.80 175.80 1986 174.05 1934

175.05 175.82 1986 174.32 1926

175.13 175.83 1986 174.42 1934

Mean Max Min

173.99 174.86 1987 173.21 1935

173.98 174.78 1987 173.18 1936

174.07 174.88 1986 173.20 1934

174.22 174.98 1985 173.38 1934

174.30 174.97 1986 173.44 1934

Min

74.55 75.16 1946 73.81 1935

74.58 75.27 1952 73.78 1936

74.67 75.37 1952 73.94 1935

74.87 75.65 1973 74.03 1935

75.01 75.73 1973 74.11 1935

174.33 175.04 1986 173.45 1934 75.04 75.76 1952 74.19 1935

176.59 177.39 1986 175.77 1964

176.54 177.38 1986 175.76 1964

176.48 177.50 1986 175.70 1964

176.42 177.38 1986 175.65 1964

176.37 177.26 1986 175.62 1964

175.19 175.93 1986 174.50 1934

175.16 175.90 1986 174.41 1934

175.09 175.84 1986 174.34 1934

175.00 175.96 1986 174.27 1934

174.92 175.82 1986 174.18 1934

174.92 175.80 1986 174.24 1964

174.32 175.03 1986 173.45 1934

174.25 174.94 1986 173.43 1934

174.16 174.83 1986 173.38 1934

174.06 174.94 1986 173.30 1934

173.99 174.85 1986 173.20 1934

173.99 174.90 1986 173.19 1934

74.99 75.66 1947 74.14 1934

74.88 75.58 1947 74.00 1934

74.73 75.41 1947 73.91 1934

74.61 75.22 1945 73.82 1934

74.54 75.18 1945 73.75 1934

75.52 75.20 1945 73.74 1934

b

Lake Ontario Mean Max

176.61 177.39 1986 175.78 1964 b

175.17 175.92 1986 174.45 1934 Lake Erie

b

SURFACE WATER

Lakes Michigan–Huron

b

Note: Period of Records: 1918–2003. All levels in this table are referenced to the International Great Lakes Datum of 1985 (IGLD85). a English Units (ft). b Metric Units (m). Source: From www.usace.army.mil.

5-57

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5-58

Table 5B.20 Hydrologic Data for Closed Lakes

Lake Devils Lake, ND

Drainage Area (sq. mi) 3,000

Netc

2.5

1.2

0.40

14

2.25

1.0

0.07

25

2.0

0.75

0.15

2.25

1.0

Evaporation (ft/yr)

Response Timeb (yr)

Overflow Expressed as Depth Over Tributary Area (ft) 2.5

—

1938–41

25,000

10

230

0.038

50

—

1938–41

14,000

43

27

1877 1932 1872 1882 1882 1882 1949 1876 1905 1902 1912 1956—59 1901 1912 1912 1950 1951 1933

138,000 276,000 86,400 3,486 2,500 51,170 8,880 60,000 213,700 5,704 76,000 30,000 20,000 36,000 18,000 22,380 e 40,000 e 240,000 105,000

18 13 8 167 120 61 5 24 11 50 5

2,200 1,300 188 200 110 85 5 105 76 5.5 50 – 60 30 – 47 3,100 740 74

1950 1956 — — — —

50,000 12,000 10,700 11,000 220,000 148,000

9

Sevier Lake, UT Pyramid Lake, NV Walker Lake, NV Mono Lake, CA Elsinore Lake, CA Owens Lake, CA

16,000 2,650 3,500 600 717 2,900

3.7 4.2 4.2 4.1 4.5 5.5

3.2 3.7 3.8 3.3 3.2 5.0

0.35 0.04 0.075 0.043 0.68 0.10

3 65 45 35 3.0 10

Omak Lake, WA Lake Abert, OR

100 900

3.2 3.5

2.2 2.5

0.067 0.5

30 6

19 11

Summer Lake, OR

330

3.5

2.5

1.0

2

61

5,300 550,000

3.3 7.5

2.5 7.0

0.8 2.5

2 1.5

1.0 10

1,300

4.0

2.0

0.30

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

625,000 1,400,000 12,000 20,000

3.0 3.3 5.1 3.0

2.6 2.8 4.8 2.5

0.10 0.015 0.03 0.11

10

35 300 40 9

1.0 4 9 13 200 0.3 12

3.8

10 22 175

d

10 3 4.8 8.5 2.8 3.5 6.0 12 52 600 460 16

45 26 14 20 16

88 140 25,000 170,000 390 1,800

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

20

0.125

Aral Sea, U.S.S.R. Caspian Sea, Asia Dead Sea, Palestine Lake of Urmia, Iran

Lake Area (sq. mi)

—

2.7

Lake Corangamite, Australia

ppm

13 10 4.5 10 20

3.3

120

Date

Mean Depth (ft)

8,470 15,210 25,000 8,680 11,900

21,000

2,700

Salinity

1899 1923 1948 1952 1938–41

Basin, Lake, Saskatchewan Quill Lakes, Saskatchewan Redberry Lake, Saskatchewan Great Salt Lake, UT

Harney Lake, OR Lake Eyre, Australia

105

Gross

Coeffcient of Variation of Lake Areaa

Note: a b c d e

6,000 4,400 — —

3.3 3.4 — —

2.0 2.4 3.0 3.0

0.02 0.5 1.0 2.0

150 1 1.0 0.5

53 86 — —

1944 1959 — —

e 22,400 250,000 300,000 260,000

These lakes occupy topographic sinks with no discharges by surface streams or seepage and with a groundwater gradient toward the lake.

175 2 2.3 1.15

1,450 650 110 50

SURFACE WATER

Lake Van, Turkey Tuz Golu, Turkey Elton Lake, U.S.S.R. Baskuntschak Lake, U.S.S.R.

Coefficient of variation of lake area is equal to the standard deviation of lake volume divided by the area of the lake. Response time is the ratio of a change in lake volume to the corresponding change in rate of discharge. Net evaporation is gross evaporation minus precipitation. Before 1924. Milligrams per liter.

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey.

5-59

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5-60

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5B.21 Water Balance of the Major Lakes of the World Lake Caspian Sea Michigan and Huron Superior Victoria Aral Sea Tanganyika Baikai Nyasa Great Slave Erie Ontario Balkhash Ladoga Chad Eyre Maracaibo Onega Rudolf Titicaca a b

Observation Period

Volume (km3)

Inflow (km3/yr)

Precipitation (mm/yr)

Outflow (km3/yr)

1940–1966 1959–1966

78200 8200

289 142

246 780

10.8 161

1959–1966 1925–1959 1959–1969 Long-term 1901–1970 Long-term Long-term 1959–1966 1959–1966 1911–1966 1932–1958 1954–1962 Long-term Long-term Long-term Long-term Long-term

11600 2700 1020 18900 23000 7720 1070 545 1710 112 908 44 — — 295 — 710

47.6 17.9 49.5 25.8 60.3 34.2 136 190 210 15.7 69.1 45.8 4.2 19.6 15.9 16.0 7.7

760 1630 173 1000 405 1220 350 860 900 154 606 378 150 977 575 750 625

69.7 21.9 0 3.0 59.5 6.3 141 182 210 0 73.7 0 0 4.9 18.0 0.0 0.6

Inflow Factora

Outflow Factorb

Retentions Time (yr)

994 750

0.76 0.61

0.03 0.65

204 33

470 1570 1050 1690 416 2130 166 920 800 1020 344 2260 Dries up 2080 350 2610 1500

0.43 0.14 0.82 0.44 0.82 0.48 0.93 0.90 0.93 0.85 0.87 0.85 0.77 0.60 0.74 0.71 0.60

0.64 0.17 0 0.05 0.82 0.09 0.97 0.88 0.94 0 0.92 0 0 0.15 0.84 0 0.05

107 21 15 322 317 107 7.4 2.6 7.6 6.0 11 0.9 — — 14 — 55

Evaporation (mm/yr)

Percentage of inflow of the sum of inflow and lake precipitation. Percentage of outflow of the sum of outflow and lake evaporation.

Source: From Kuusisto, E.E., Lakes Their Physical Aspects, in Facets of Hydrology II, John C. Rodda, Editor, John Wiley and Sons 1985. Reproduced with permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

5-61

Table 5B.22 Major Lakes in the World Lake

Country

Caspian Seaa Ladozskoje Onezskoje Va¨nern Cudskoje with Pskovskoje Va¨ttern Saimaa Beloje Vygozero Ma¨laren Il’men’ Pa¨ya¨nne Inari Imandra Balaton Lac de Geneve Bodensee Ha¨lmaren Stor Sjo¨n Kubenskoje Loch Ness Garda Mjøsa Skadarsko Ohridsko Sniardwy Torne Tra¨sk Neusieler See Prespansko Neuchaˆtel Lago Maggiore Femund Como

U.S.S.R. Iran U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. Sweden U.S.S.R. Sweden Finland U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. Sweden U.S.S.R. Finland Finland U.S.S.R. Hungary Switzerland, France German Federal Republic, Switzerland, Austria Sweden Sweden U.S.S.R. Great Britain Italy Norway Albania, Yugoslavia Albania, Yugoslavia Poland Sweden Austria, Hungary Greece, Albania, Yugoslavia Switzerland Italy, Switzerland Norway Italy

Aral’skoje Morea Bajkali Balchas Tonle Sap Issyk-Kul’ Dongtinghu Rizaiyeh (Urumiyeh)a Zajsan Tajmyr Kukunora Chanka Vana Lob Nora Ubsa Nora Poyanghu Alakol’ Cho¨vsgo¨l Nuur Cany Tuza Namru Tsoa Taihu Char Us Nuur Tengiza

U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. Cambodia U.S.S.R. China Iran U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. China U.S.S.R. China Turkey China Mongolia China U.S.S.R. Mongolia U.S.S.R. Turkey China China Mongolia U.S.S.R.

Surface Area (km2)

Maximum Depth (m)

Volume (km3)

374,000 17,700 9,630 5,550 3,550 1,900 1,800 1,290 1,140 1,140 1,100 1,065 1,000 900 596 581 538

1,025 230 127 100 15 119 58 20 18 64 10 93 80 67 12 310 252

78,200 908 295 180 25 72 36 5.2 7.1 10 12 — 28 11 1.9 90 48

484 464 407 396 370 363 362 350 331 330 323 288 216 214 202 146

22 74 13 31 346 434 10 256 47 168 2 54 152 372 131 410

— 8.0 1.7 — 50 56 2.2 61 2.8 17 — 4.0 — — 6.0 —

68 1,741 26 12 702 10 16 8.5 26 38 10.6 145 5 — 20 54 270 10 — — — — 8

1,020 23,000 112 40 1,730 — 45 53 13 — 18.5 — (5) — — 58.6 480 4.5 — — — — —

Europe

Asia 64,100 31,500 18,200 10,000b 6,200 6,000c 5,800 5,510 4,560 4,220 4,190 3,760 3,500 3,350 2,700 2,650 2,620 2,500 2,500 2,460 2,210 1,760 1,590

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-62

Table 5B.22

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Lake

Country

Ebi Nora Chirgis Nuur Sevan Dalai Nur Ulyunger Nor Dead Seaa Seletyteniz Sasykkol’ P’asino Kulundinskojea Biwa ko Gandhi Karnaphuli Buir Nuur Markakol’ Ubinskoje Karakul’a Tungabharda Fumibhal Kronockoje Teleckoje

China Mongolia U.S.S.R. China China Israel, Jordan U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. Japan India Bangladesh, India Mongolia U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. India Thailand U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R.

Victoria Tanganyika

Chad Rudolf Mobutu Sese Seko Mweru Bangweulu Rukwa Tana Idi Amin Dada Kivu Mai Ndombe Kamnit Abaya Shirwa Tumba Faguibine Gab el Aulia Chamo Upemba Zwai Shala Langana L. de Guiers Hora Abyata Naivasha Awusa

Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda Tanazania, Zaire, Zambia, Burundi, Rwanda Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania Chad, Niger, Nigeria Kenya Uganda, Zaire Zambia, Zaire Zambia Tanzania Ethiopia Zaire, Uganda Zaire, Rwanda Zaire Nigeria Ethiopia Malawi Zaire Mali Sudan Ethiopia Zaire Ethiopia Ethiopia Ethiopia Senegal Ethiopia Kenya Ethiopia

Superior Huron Michigan Great Bear Great Slave Erie

Canada, U.S.A. Canada, U.S.A. U.S.A. Canada Canada Canada, U.S.A.

Surface Area (km2)

Maximum Depth (m)

Volume (km3)

1,420 1,480 1,230 1,100 1,000 940 777 736 735 728 688 663 656 610 449 440 380 378 300 245 223

— — 86 — — 400 3.2 — 10 4.9 103 64 33 11 30 3 238 47 123 128 325

— — 38 — — 188 1.5 — — — 27.5 39.2 13.8 — — — — 12.4 29.7 — 40

69,000 32,900

92 1,435

2,700 18,900

30,900

706

7,725

12 73 57 15 5 — 14 131 496 6 60 13 2.6 — 14 12 12.7 3.5 7 266 46.2 7 14.2 — 21

44.4 — 64.0 32.0 5.00 — 28.0 78.2 569 — 14.0 8.20 45.0 — 3.72 — — 0.90 1.10 37.0 3.82 0.64 1.56 — 1.34

406 229 281 137 156 64

11,600 3,580 4,680 1,010 1,070 545

Africa

Nyasa

16,600d 8,660 5,300 5,100 4,920e 4,500 3,150 2,500 2,370 2,325 1,270 1,160 1,040 765 620 600 551 530 434 409 230 213 205 140 130 North America 82,680 59,800 58,100 30,200 27,200 25,700

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5B.22

5-63

(Continued)

Lake

Country

Winnipeg Ontario Nicaragua Athabaska Dear Lake Winnipegosis Nipigon Manitoba Great Salta Forest Dubawant Mistassini Managua Saint Clair Lesser Slave Chapala Winnibago Marion Winnipesaukee

Canada Canada, U.S.A. Nicaragua Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada U.S.A. Canada, U.S.A. Canada Canada Nicaragua Canada Canada Mexico U.S.A. U.S.A. U.S.A.

Maracaibo Titicaca Poopo´a Buenos-Aires Lago Argentina Valencia

Venezuela Peru, Bolivia Bolivia Chile, Argentina Argentina Venezuela

Eyrea Amadeusa Torrensa Gairdnera George Taupo Te Anau Wakatipu Wanaka Manapouri Hawea a b c d e

Surface Area (km2) 24,600 19,000 8,430 7,900 6,300 5,470 4,800 4,720 4,660 4,410 4,160 2,190 1,490 1,200 1,190 1,080 818 465 181 South America 13,300 8,110 2,530 2,400 1,400 350 Australia up to 15,000 8,000 5,800 4,780 145 New Zealand 611 352 293 194 130 119

Maximum Depth (m)

Volume (km3)

19 236 70 60 — 12 162 28 14 21 — 120 80 7.2 3 10 6 — 55

127 1,710 108 110 — 16

35 230 3 — 300 —

— 710 2 — — —

20 — — — 3

— — — — 0.3

159 276 378 — — —

— — — — — —

Salt lakes. At low levels 3000 km2, at high levels 30,000 km2. At low levels 4000 km2, at high levels 12,000 km2. At low levels 7000–10,000 km2, at high levels 18,000–22,000 km2. At low levels 4000 km2, at high levels 15,000 km2.

Source: From U.S.S.R. National Committee for the International Hydrological Decade, Atlas of World Balance UNESCO, 1977.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

17 19 — — — — 5.3 — 10.2 4.1 2.8 3.8

5-64

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 5C

WATERFALLS

Table 5C.23 Major Waterfalls of the World Name and Location

ft Africa

Angola Duque de Braganca, Lucala R Ruacana, Cunene R Ethiopia Baratieri, Ganale Dorya R Dal Verme, Ganale Dorya R Fincha Tesissat, Blue Nile Rb Lesotho Maletsunyane Rhodesia-Zambia Victoria, Zambezi Rb South Africa Aughrabies, Orange Rb Howick, Umgeni R Tugela (5 falls)a Highest fall Tanzania-Zambia Kalambob Uganda Murchison, Victoria Nile R Zambia Chirombo, Leisa R

344 406 459 98 508 140 630 355 400 311 3,110 1,350 726 130 880 Asia

India Cauveryc Gersoppa (Jog), Sharavati Ra,c Japan Kegon, L. Chuzenjic Yudaki, L. Yuno

330 830 330 335

Australasia Australia New South Wales Wentwortha Highest fall Wollomombi Queensland Coomera Tully New Zealand Bowen (from Glaciers)b Helena Sterling Sutherland, Arthur Ra Europe Austria Upper Gastein Lower Gastein (Both on Ache R.) Golling, Schwarzbach Ra Krimml (Krimmler) France Gavarnie (C)a Great Britain–Wales Pistyll Cain, Afon Gain R Pistyll Rhaiadr Scotland Glomach

518 360 1,100 210 450 540 890 505 1,904

207 280 200 1,250 1,385

150 240 370 (Continued)

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SURFACE WATER

5-65

Table 5C.23

(Continued)

Name and Location Iceland Detti, Jokul R Gull, Hvita R Italy Toce (C) Norway Eastern Mardalsfossa Highest fall Western Mardalsfoss (Both on L. Eikesdal) Skjeggedal Skykkje, Skykkjua R Vettis, Morkedo¨la R Highest fall Vo¨ring, Bjoreia R Sweden Hando¨l, Hando¨l Cra Stora Sjo¨fallet, Lule Ra,b Tannforsen, Are R Switzerland Gie´troz (Glacier) (C)a Diesbacha Giessbacha Handegg, Aare R Iffigen Pissevache, La Salanfe R Reichenbacha Rhine Simmen, Simme Ra Sta¨uber Staubbach Tru¨mmelbacha North America Canada British Columbia Takakkaw (Daly Glacier)a Highest fall Panther, Nigel Cr Labrador Churchill Falls, Churchill R Mackenzie District Virginia, S. Nahanni R Quebec Montmorency Canada-United States Ontario-New York Niagara: American Horseshoe United States Arizona Mooney, Havasu Cr California Feather, Fall R Illilouette Nevada, Merced R Ribbonc Silver Strand Vernal, Merced R Yosemitea Bridalveil Yosemite (upper)b

ft 144 101 470 1,696 974 1,535 525 820 1,214 889 597 345 130 120 1,640 394 1,312 151 394 213 656 65 459 590 984 1,312

1,650 1,200 600 245 315 251

193 186

220 640 370 594 1,612 1,170 317 2,425 620 1,430 (Continued)

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5-66

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5C.23

(Continued)

Name and Location

ft b

Yosemite (lower) Colorado Seven Georgia Tallulaha Idaho Henry’s Fork (upper) Henry’s Fork (lower) Shoshone, Snake Rc Twin, Snake Rc Kentucky Cumberland Maryland Great Potomac R (C) Minnesota Minnehahac Montana Missouri New Jersey Passaicc New York Taughannock Oregon Multnomaha Highest fall Tennessee Fall Creek Rock House Creek Washington Fairy Falls Mt. Rainer National Pk Narada, Paradise R Sluiskin, Paradise R Palouse Snoqualmie Wisconsin Manitou, Black R Wyoming Yellowstone National Pk Tower Yellowstone (upper) Yellowstone (lower) Mexico El Salto Juanacatla´n, Rio Grande de Santiagoc South America Argentina-Brazil Iguazu´a Brazil Glass Herval Paulo Afonso, Sa˜o Francisco R Patos-Maribondo, Rio Grande Urubupunga, Alto Parana´ R Brazil-Paraguay Sete Quedas, or Guaira Alto Parana´ R Colombia Tequendama Bogota´ R

320 266 251 96 70 195 125 68 90 54 75 70 215 620 542 256 125 700 168 300 198 270 165

132 109 308

66

230 1,325 400 275 115 40 130

427 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

5-67

Table 5C.23

(Continued)

Name and Location

ft

Catarata de Candelas, Cusiana R Ecuador Agoyan, Pastaza R Guyana Kaieteur, Potaro R King Edward VIII, Semang R King George VI, Utshi R Marina, Ipobe Ra Highest fall Venezuela Angel Highest fall Cuquena´n

984 200 741 840 1,600 500 300 3,212 2,648 2,000

Note: Height-total drop in one or more leaps. If river names not shown, they are same as the falls. R—river; L—lake; (C)—Cascade-type. a b c

Falls of more than one leap. Falls that diminish greatly seasonally. Falls that reduce to a trickle or are dry for part of each year.

Source: From National Geographic Society.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-68

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 5D

GLACIERS AND ICE

Legend Glaciers (all sizes) Missing values Less than 0.05 km2 0.05– 0.1 km2 0.1–0.5 km2 0.5–1 km2 1–5 km2 5 – 10 km2 10 – 50 km2 50 – 100 km2 100 – 500 km2 500 – 1000 km2 Greater than 1000 km2

Map generated by the national geophysical data center

0

Figure 5D.13 World glacier inventory. (From www.ngdc.noaa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8677 km

SURFACE WATER

5-69

Legend Countries Glaciers (all sizes) Missing values Less than 0.05 km2 0.05– 0.1 km2 0.1–0.5 km2 0.5–1 km2 1–5 km2 5 – 10 km2 10 – 50 km2 50 – 100 km2 100 – 500 km2 500–1000 km2 Greater than 1000 km2

Map generated by the national geophysical data center

0

737 km

Figure 5D.14 Glacier inventory of western North America. (From www.ngdc.noaa.gov.)

Table 5D.24 Glacial Ice Coverage of the World Land Area

sq. mi

Continental Europe Continental Asia Continental North America Continental South America South polar regions North polar regions Africa New Zealand New Guinea Total

3,880 43,270 30,900 9,600 5,020,450 721,150 8 386 6 5,829,650

Source: From Huberty and Flock, Natural Resources, McGrawHill, Copyright 1959. Reproduced with permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5D.25 Glaciers in the United States

State Alaska Washington California Wyoming Montana Oregon Colorado Idaho Nevada Utah

Approximate Number of Glaciers (unknown) 950 290 100 200 60 25 20 5 1

Glacier Contribution to July–August Streamflow (Estimated) Total Glaciated Area (sq. mi)

Thousand Acre-feet

Million Gallons

29,000 160 19 19 16 8 0.6 0.6 0.1 0.04

150,000 870 65 80 65 40 2 2 0.4 0.1

49,000,000 280,000 21,000 26,000 21,000 13,000 650 650 130 33

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Summary 1985—Hydrologic Perspectives. Water-Supply Paper 2300.

Table 5D.26 Areas of Glaciers in the Western Conterminous United States Area (sq. km) Location Washington 1. North Cascades (northern Cascade Range)a 2. Olympic Mountains 3. Mount Rainier 4. Goat Rocks area 5. Mount Adams 6. Mount St. Helens Total Oregon 7. Mount Hood 8. Mount Jefferson 9. Three Sisters area 10. Wallowa Mountains Total California 11. Mount Shasta 12. Salmon-Trinity Mountains 13. Sierra Nevada Total Montana 14. Glacier National Park 15. Cabinet Range 16. Flathead-Mission-Swan Ranges 17. Crazy Mountains 18. Beartooth Mountains Total Wyoming 19. Big Horn Mountains 20. Absaroka Range 21. Teton Range 22. Wind River Range Total Colorado 23. Rocky Mountain Park-Front Range, others

Meier (1961a)

More Recent Source, Where Available

251.7 33.0 87.8 1.5 16.1* 7.3 397.4

267.0b 45.9c 92.1d 1.5 16.1* 5.92/2.16e 428.5/424.8

9.9 3.2 7.6 — 20.7

13.5d 3.2 8.3d *0.1 25.1

5.5 0.3 13.1 18.9

6.9d 0.3 50.0/63.0f 57.2/70.2

13.8 0.5 *1.2 *0.5 10.8 26.8

28.4g 0.5g *2.3g *0.4g 10.9g 42.5

0.3 0.7* 2.0 44.5 47.5

1.0g .7*g 1.7g 31.6g 37.5

1.7

1.5g (Continued)

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SURFACE WATER

Table 5D.26

5-71

(Continued) Area (sq. km) Meier (1961a)

Location Idaho 24. Sawtooth Mountains Utah 25. Wasatch Mountains Nevada 26. Wheeler Peak

More Recent Source, Where Available

—

1.0h*

—

0.2i

0.2

0.2

Note: Glacier areas in the first column are taken from Meier (1961a); dashes mean not determined by Meier. Glacier areas in the second column are from Meier (1961a) where a more recent source is not available. The change in area between 1961 and the more recent source is normally due to a more complete data set rather than a true change. An asterisk indicates that the value is estimated. a b c d e f

g h i

The region bounded by the Canadian border on the north, Snoqualmie Pass on the south, the Puget Lowlands on the west, and the Columbia and Okanogan Rivers on the east. Post and Others, 1971. Spicer, 1986. Driedger and Kennard, 1986. Brugman and Meier, 1981. Before/after eruption of 18 May 1980. Raub and Others, 1980; unpub. data. The 50 km2area includes glaciers plus moraine-covered ice; the 63 km2 area includes glaciers, moraine-covered ice, and small ice bodies not large enough to be considered glaciers. Graf, 1977. Estimated; various observers have reported numerous small glaciers. Timpanogos Cave, Utah, USGS 1:24,000-scale topographic map.

Source: From www.usgs.gov.

Table 5D.27 Variations in the Position of Glacier Fronts Addenda from Earlier Years NR

Glacier Name

PSFG NR

Method

1st Survey DMY

1

Colombia Alfombralese

CO0013B

A

2

Azufradoe

CO0005B

A

3

Azufradow

CO0005A

A

4

Lacabana

CO00007

A

5

Laplazuela

CO00006

A

6

Lagunillas

CO00008

A

7

Leonera alta

CO00009

A

13.1.1945 10.2.1959 11.1.1975 10.12.1985 13.1.1945 10.2.1959 11.1.1975 10.12.1985 13.1.1945 10.2.1959 11.1.1975 10.12.1985 10.2.1959 11.1.1975 10.12.1985 13.1.1945 10.2.1959 11.1.1975 13.1.1945 10.2.1959 11.1.1975 10.12.1985 13.1.1945 10.2.1959 11.1.1975 10.12.1985

2nd Survey DMY 10.2.1959 11.1.1975 10.12.1985 19.1.1987 10.2.1959 11.1.1975 10.12.1985 19.1.1987 10.2.1959 11.1.1975 10.12.1985 19.1.1987 11.1.1975 10.12.1985 19.1.1987 10.2.1959 11.1.1975 19.1.1987 10.2.1959 11.1.1975 10.12.1985 19.1.1987 10.2.1959 11.1.1975 10.12.1985 19.1.1987

Variations (m) K50.0 K50.0 K80.0 K20.0 60.0 K20.0 K130.0 ST K70.0 K20.0 K80.0 ST K200.0 K200.0 K20.0 K20.0 K30.0 K220.0 0.0 0.0 K50.0 K10.0 K330.0 K180.0 K100.0 K30.0 (Continued)

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5-72

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5D.27

(Continued)

NR

Glacier Name

PSFG NR

Method

1st Survey DMY

2nd Survey DMY

8

Nereidas

CO00014

C

1958 6.3.1986 5.5.1987 18.3.1988

6.3.1986 5.5.1987 18.3.1988 27.12.1990

9 10

Amalia Asia

RC00056 RC00055

A A

11

Balmaceda

RC00060

A

12

Bernardo

RC00037

A

13

Calvo

RC00053

A

14 15

Dickson EUROPA

RC00063 RC00049

A A

16

GREVE

RC00040

A

17

GREY

RC00062

A

18

HPS12

RC00043

A

19

HPS13

RC00045

A

20

HPS15

RC00046

A

21 22

HPS19 HPS28

RC00047 RC00051

A A

23

HPS29

RC00052

A

24

HPS31

RC00050

A

25

HPS34

RC00054

A

26

HPS38

RC00057

A

27

HPS41

RC00058

A

28

HPS8

RC00041

A

29

HPS9

RC00042

A

30

OCCIDENTAL

RC00039

A

31

FHIDRO

RC00036

A

32 33

PENGUIN PINGO

RC00048 RC00061

A A

1945 1945 1984 1945 1984 1945 1976 1945 1984 1945 1945 1981 1945 1976 1981 1984 1986 1945 1967 1981 1984 1945 1984 1945 1984 1981 1945 1984 1945 1984 1945 1970 1945 1984 1945 1984 1945 1984 1945 1976 1979 1984 1976 1979 1984 1945 1976 1984 1945 1976 1984 1981 1945 1984

1986 1984 1986 1984 1986 1976 1984 1984 1986 1984 1981 1986 1976 1981 1984 1986 1987 1967 1975 1984 1986 1984 1986 1984 1986 1986 1984 1986 1984 1986 1970 1984 1984 1986 1984 1986 1984 1986 1976 1979 1984 1986 1979 1984 1986 1976 1984 1987 1976 1984 1986 1986 1984 1986

Variations (m) K644.5 K40.0 K50.0 K150.0

Chile K6000.0 K195.0 K96.0 K2496.0 K80.0 K837.0 K304.0 0.0 0.0 K3120.0 K504.0 K234.0 K3317.0 K215.0 K102.0 K22.0 K80.0 K550.0 K 350.0 K180.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 K400.0 K351.0 K1028.0 K234.0 K120.0 K975.0 K252.0 K39.0 0.0 K 468.0 240.0 K360.0 0.0 K1240.0 K60.0 K265.0 66.0 K30.0 K35.0 K134.0 K93.0 K592.0 K 462.0 K1643.0 K216.0 134.0 K60.0 K1326.0 0.0 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5D.27

5-73

(Continued)

NR

Glacier Name

PSFG NR

Method

34

Pio XI

RC00044

A

35

Snowy

RC00059

A

36

Tempano

RC00038

A

37

Frias

RA00064

Variations (m)

1st Survey DMY

2nd Survey DMY

1925 9.1926 12.1928 1945 1951 1963 1969 1976 1981 1945 1984 1945 1976 1984

9.1926 12.1928 1945 1951 1963 1969 1976 1981 1986 1984 1986 1976 1984 1986

1000.0 400.0 K2500.0 5400.0 600.0 500.0 2400.0 310.0 K400.0 K936.0 0.0 K1178.0 K1264.0 K694.0

A

1984

1986

0.0

S00780

C

16.8.1984

15.9.1988

K38.0

KN00004

A

1899 3.9.1947 21.2.1947 21.2.1947 21.2.1947 21.2.1947 13.3.1986 21.2.1947 21.2.1947 1899 1.5.1934 1.1.1974 21.2.1947 21.2.1947 21.2.1947 1899 21.2.1947

21.2.1947 3.9.1987 3.9.1987 3.9.1987 3.9.1987 3.9.1987 1.9.1990 3.9.1987 3.9.1987 21.2.1947 21.2.1947 13.2.1978 3.9.1987 3.9.1987 3.9.1987 21.2.1947 3.9.1987

K120.0 K95.0 K60.0 K40.0 K9.0 K120.0 K25.0 K9.0 K250.0 K150.0 K130.0 K25.0 K245.0 K220.0 K230.0 K250.0 K70.0

Argentina

39

Sweden Hyllglaciaeren Kenya Cesar

40 41 42 43

Darwin Diamond Forel Gregory

KN00006 KN00010 KN00011 KN00009

A A A A

44 45 46 47

Heim Joseph Krapf Lewis

KN00012 KN00003 KN00001 KN00008

A A A A

48 49 50

Melhuish Northey Tyndall

KN00014 KN00013 KN00005

A A A

51

Poland Pod Bula

PL00111

C

9.9.1980 26.9.1981 25.9.1982 10.10.1983 30.9.1984 30.9.1985 29.9.1986 10.10.1987 25.9.1988 8.10.1989

26.9.1981 25.9.1982 10.10.1983 30.9.1984 30.9.1985 29.9.1985 10.10.1987 25.9.1988 8.10.1989 27.9.1990

K32.6 K7.0 13.0 K.3 K20.7 24.3 K10.3 17.7 3.3 K33.0

52

Dzhelo

SU07106

C

53

Leviy Karagemsk

SU07107

C

54

Mizhirgichiran

SU03043

C

6.9.1985 1986 1987 3.9.1988 6.9.1989 6.9.1985 2.9.1986 5.9.1987 3.9.1988 6.9.1989 6.9.1989

1986 1987 3.9.1988 6.9.1989 3.9.1990 2.9.1986 5.9.1987 3.9.1988 6.9.1989 5.9.1990 7.9.1990

KX KX K50.7 K19.6 K8.7 K19.0 1.1 K12.6 K11.0 K8.7 12.9

38

C.I.S

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-74

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5D.27

(Continued)

NR

Glacier Name

PSFG NR

Method

55 56

Muravlev NO. 122 (UNIV.)

SU06002 SU07108

C C

57

Praviy Karagems

SU07109

C

58

Shumskiy Pakistan Aling Bualtar Nepal Thulagi

SU06001

C

59 60 61

Note: NR Glacier Name PSFG Number Method

1ST Survey: 2ND Survey: Variation in Meters: Key to Symbols:

PK00035 PK00004 NP00013

A

1st Survey DMY

2nd Survey DMY

3.9.1989 6.9.1985 2.9.1986 5.9.1987 3.9.1988 6.9.1989 6.9.1985 2.9.1986 5.9.1987 3.9.1988 8.9.1989

26.8.1990 2.9.1986 5.9.1987 3.9.1988 6.9.1989 5.9.1990 2.9.1986 5.9.1987 3.9.1988 5.9.1990 27.8.1990

1970 1939

1989 1988

1958 1.11.1972 1.11.1977 1.11.1984

1.11.1972 1.11.1977 1.11.1984 1.11.1988

Variations (m) K3.3 K15.6 K6.4 K4.9 K5.5 K13.1 K18.6 K.5 2.3 K7.5 K9.4 KX CX K50.0 K50.0 K150.0 K850.0

Record number 15 alphabetic or numeric digits 5 digits identifying glacier with alphabetic prefix denoting country AZaerial photogrammetry BZterrestrial photogrammetry CZgeodetic ground survey (theodolite, tape etc.) DZcombination of a, b, or c EZother methods or no information Day, month, and year of survey Day, month, and year of following survey Variation in the position of the glacier front in horizontal projection expressed as the change in length between the surveys CX: Glacier in advance KX: Glacier in retreat ST: Glacier stationary SN: Glacier front covered by snow

Source: From World Glacier Monitoring Service by Wilfried Haeberli, Martin Hoelzle, Stephan Suter and Regula Frauenfelder. www.wgms.ch.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

5-75

Table 5D.28 Variations in the Postion of Glacier Fronts 1990–1995

NR 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

Glacier Name Canada Overlord Wedgemount U.S.A. Blue Glacier Cantwell Mccall Middle Toklat South Cascade Colombia Nereidas Peru Broggi Uruashraju Yanamarey Bolivia Chacaltaya Zongo Chile Bernardo Grey PIO XI Iceland Breidamjok EA Briedamjok EB Breidamjok WA Breidamjok WC Brokarjokull Falljokull Fjallsfitjar Fjallsj. Brmfj Fjallsj.G-Sel Flaajokull Gigjokull Gljufurarjokull Hagafellsjok E Hagafellsjok W Halsjokull Hoffellsj W Hrutarjokull Hyrningsjokull Jokulkrokur Kaldalonsjokull Kverkjokull Kviarjokull Leirufjjokull Morsarjokull Mulajokulls Nauthagajokull Oldufellsjokull Reykjafjardarj Satujokull Sidujok EM177 Skaftafellsj. Skalafellsjokul Skeidararj E1 Skeidararj E2 Skeidararj E3 Skeidararj W

Variations (m)

First Survey

Last Survey

Method

CD01590 CD02333

1928 1928

1990 1990

C A

US02126 US00320 US00001 US00315 US02013

1938 1950 1957 1954 1957

1990 1950 1971 1954 1990

C C C C A

K14.0

K42.0

CO00014

1958

1990

PE00003 PE00005 PE00004

1968 1968 1972

PSFG NR

RB05180 RB05150

1994

1995

K39.0

K50.0 K14.5

K6.0 K98.0 K285.0

K25.0

8.0

K5.4

K19.0

K30.0

K769.0 K38.0

K22.0

K29.0

K23.0

C

K50.0

K80.0

KX

KX

K260.0

1990 1990 1990

C C C

K36.7 K25.8 K7.2

K54.5 K32.7 K4.0

K22.2 K24.2 K22.0

K7.8 K24.1 K21.7

K17.4 K34.7 K35.8

1991 1991

C C

K5.2 K12.3

K4.7 1.1

K4.6 K10.2

K17.6 K6.4

500.0

400.0

700.0

K80.0 K600.0

K24.0 K57.0 K69.0

K25.0 K40.0 K16.0 K18.0 K3.0 K67.0 K15.0 K30.0 K7.0 7.0

RC00037 RC00062 RC00044

1945 1945 1925

1984 1975 1986

A A A

IS1126A IS1126B IS1125A IS1125C IS01427 IS01021 IS1024B IS1024A IS1024C IS1930A IS00112 IS00103 IS00306 IS00204 IS00117 IS02031 IS00923 IS00100 IS00007 IS00102 IS02500 IS00822 IS00200 IS00318 IS0311A IS00210 IS00114 IS00300 IS00530 IS0015B IS00419 IS1728A IS0117A IS0117B IS0117C IS00116

1932 1932 1932 1932

1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1987 1990 1972 1990 1989 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1985 1988 1989 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1989 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990

C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C

1932 1948 1948 1948 1930 1939 1934 1934 1972 1930 1948 1931 1965 1931 1963 1934 1966 1932 1933 1932 1967 1931 1964 1932 1932 1932 1932 1932

1991

1992 K27.3

1993 0.8

226.0 K352.0

KX K40.0 K62.0 K70.0 K12.0 K3.0 K9.0 K21.0 K25.0 5.0

3.0 K5.0 2.0 3.0 SN

K14.0 K39.0 K22.0 K25.0 6.0

5.0 K2.0 KX 9.0 K4.0

K14.0 K22.0 K3.0 K91.0 K8.0

KX 0.0 K52.0 49.0 1.0

K47.0 K11.0 K95.0 K12.0

K10.0 K8.0 K27.0 0.0 2.0 K28.0 K10.0 K3.0 86.0

147.0 64.0 0.0 429.0

K18.0 K20.0 11.0 K14.0 10.0 K20.0 KX K5.0 22.0 KX

0.0 K30.0

KX 20.0

K28.0 16.0

5.0 28.0

K6.0 13.0 KX K37.0 31.0 153.0 3.0 57.0 SN 0.0 K63.0 K6.0 5.0 K9.0 K16.0 K1.0 KX

K3.0

12.0

K11.0 K32.0 0.0 K15.0 K9.3

6.0 39.0 0.0 K52.0 K2.0

K25.0 KX 1117.0 K46.0

K8.0

K1.0 5.0 K5.0 25.0

K4.0

K149.0 K86.0 SN

K33.0 K11.0 K4.0 KX

K3.0 K56.0 2.0 K31.0 K7.0 K3.0 K77.0 (Continued)

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5-76

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5D.28

(Continued) Variations (m)

First Survey

Last Survey

Method

1991

NR

Glacier Name

PSFG NR

53 54 55 56

Solheimajok W Svinafellsj Tungnaarjokull Virkisjokull Norway Austerdalsbreen Brigsdalsbreen Engabreen Faabergstoelsb. Hansbreen Hellstugubreen Leirbreen Nigardsbreen Stegholtbreen Storbreen Styggedalsbreen Sweden Hyllglaciaeren Isfallsglac Karsojietna Mikkajekna Partejekna Passusjietna E Passusjietna W Rabots Glaciaer Riukojietna Ruopsokjekna Ruotesjekna Salajekna SE Kaskasatj GL Storglaciaeren Stour Raetta GL Suottasjekna Unnaraeita GL Vartasjekna France Argentiere Blanc Bossons Gebroulaz Mer De Glace Saint Sorlin Switzerland Allalin Alpetli (Kander) Ammerten Arolla (BAS) Basodino Bella Tola Biferten BIS Bluemlisalp Boveyre Breney Bresciana Brunegg Brunni Calderas Cambrena

IS0113A IS0520A IS02214 IS00721

1930 1932 1955 1932

1990 1990 1990 1990

C C C C

2.0 11.0 K81.0 KX

N31220 N37110 N67011 N31015 N12419 N00511 N00548 N31014 N31021 N00541 N30720

1906 1901 1903 1907 1936 1902 1910 1907 1907 1904 1903

1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1992

C C C C B C C C C C C

0.0 10.0 K24.0 K18.0 K309.0 K7.0

K6.0 56.0 K9.0

10.0 K7.0

21.0 K5.0

S00780 S00787 S00798 S00766 S00763 S00797 S00796 S00785 S00790 S00764 S00767 S00759 S00789 S00788 S00784 S00768 S00783 S00765

1965 1897 1905 1896 1965 1968 1968 1946 1963 1965 1965 1897 1910 1897 1963 1964 1963 1964

1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1989 1990 1990 1989 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990

C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C

0.0 0.0

F00002 F00031 F00004 F00009 F00003 F00015

1878 1871 1861 1730 1879 1904

1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990

CH00011 CH00109 CH00111 CH00027 CH00104 CH00021 CH00077 CH00107 CH00064 CH00041 CH00036 CH00103 CH00020 CH00072 CH00095 CH00099

1880 1893 1969 1884 1893 1945 1893 1883 1893 1889 1892 1896 1941 1882 1920 1889

1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990

57 58 59 60 61 62 60 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107

1992

1993

1994

1995

13.0 7.0 K9.0 KX

12.0 K11.0 K31.0 KX

K3.0 K7.0 K17.0 K22.0

13.0 5.0 1175.0 KX

5.0 35.0

7.0 75.0 18.0 10.0 K64.0 K3.0 K16.5 14.0 K3.0

15.0 80.0

15.0 65.0 115.0 44.0 42.0 K6.0 K14.5 50.0 K5.0 0.0 2.0

0.0 0.0 3.0 0.0 K15.0 K5.0 0.0 K4.0 K15.0 0.0 K11.0 K4.0

0.0

0.0 5.0 0.0 K10.0 K4.0 0.0 K2.0 K14.0 0.0 K10.0 K7.0 K10.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

C C C C C C

K11.0 K15.5 K110.0 K6.0 5.0 K2.7

A C C C C C C E C C C C C C C C

K8.0 0.0

K11.0

34.0 45.0 K9.0 36.0 K10.0 K1.5 4.0 K4.0 2.0 K2.0 K12.5 K12.0 K2.0

0.0 5.0 K13.5 K9.0 0.0 K18.6 0.0 K3.4

1.0 0.0 K5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0 K3.9 K10.0 K14.0 2.0 0.0 K3.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

K12.5 5.0 0.0 K1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

K13.0 K18.0 K66.0 K21.0 ST K6.2

K25.0 K26.0 K81.0 ST ST K1.8

K10.0 K27.0 K74.0 ST ST 2.6

K22.0 K23.5 K18.0 ST ST K3.4

K35.0 K2.0 K6.0 K26.0 K2.0 K13.0 K4.0 KX K11.0 K25.0 K11.0 K12.0 K5.0

K63.0 K9.0 K4.0 K10.0 K3.0 K1.0

K20.0 K6.0 K1.0 K15.0 CX K5.0

K24.0 K3.0 K2.0 K11.0 K25.0 K39.0 K7.0 KX K3.0

K17.0 K5.0

K9.0 K12.0

K11.0 K3.0 K4.0 K6.0 6.0 K9.0 K39.0 KX K7.0 K13.0 K8.0 K8.0 K8.0 KX K4.0 K17.0

K14.0 0.0 0.0 K2.0

KX K6.0 K37.0 K24.0 SN K3.0

K17.0 K27.0 K17.0 K4.0 K8.0 KX

K2.0 K14.0 K5.0 K7.0 K9.0 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5D.28

5-77

(Continued)

NR

Glacier Name

PSFG NR

108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166

Cavagnoli Cheillon Corbassiere Corno Damma Eiger EN Darrey FEE North Ferpecle Fiescher Findelen Firnalpeli Forno Gamchi Gauli Gietro Glaernisch Gorner Grand Desert Grand Plan Neve Gries (Aegina) Griess (Klausen) Griessen (OBWA) Grosser Aletsch Huefi Kaltwasser Kehlen Kessjen Laemmern Lang Lavaz Lenta Limmern Lischana Martinets Mittelaletsch Moiry Moming Mont Durand Mont Fort Mont Mine Morteratsch Mutt OB. Grindelwald Oberaar Ofental Otemma Palue Paneyrosse Paradies Paradisino Pierredar Pizol Plattalva Porchabella Prapio Punteglias Raetzli Rhone

CH00119 CH00029 CH00038 CH00120 CH00070 CH00059 CH00030 CH00013 CH00025 CH00004 CH00016 CH00075 CH00102 CH00061 CH00052 CH00037 CH00080 CH00014 CH00031 CH00045 CH00003 CH00074 CH00076 CH00005 CH00073 CH00007 CH00068 CH00012 CH00063 CH00018 CH00082 CH00084 CH00078 CH00098 CH00046 CH00106 CH00024 CH00023 CH00035 CH00032 CH00026 CH00094 CH00002 CH00057 CH00050 CH00009 CH00034 CH00100 CH00044 CH00086 CH00101 CH00049 CH00081 CH00114 CH00088 CH00048 CH00083 CH00065 CH00001

Variations (m)

First Survey

Last Survey

Method

1991

1992

1993

1994

1893 1919 1889 1893 1920 1893 1929 1879 1891 1891 1892 1894 1894 1893 1886 1889 1923 1883 1892 1893 1961 1929 1894 1886 1882 1891 1893 1928 1917 1888 1899 1895 1964 1895 1894 1970 1891 1911 1885 1892 1956 1879 1918 1880 1920 1922 1887 1894 1893 1898 1955 1921 1894 1969 1893 1898 1895 1924 1970

1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1989 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1989 1990 1990 1990 1986 1990 1990 1990 1990 1988 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1989 1990 1990

C C C C C C C C C C D C C C C A C C C C A C C A C C C A C C C C C C E C C C C C C C D C A D C C C C C E C C C C C C A

K16.0 K79.0 K15.0 K7.0 2.0 K28.0

K21.0 K60.0 K14.0 K13.0 K9.0 K16.0 K8.0 K5.0 K8.0 7.0 K22.0 K15.0 K22.0 K6.0 K21.0 KX

KX

K12.0 11.0

0.0 K7.0

K16.0 K9.0 K13.0 K65.0 K55.0 K23.0 K21.0 K32.0 K8.0 K24.0 K9.0 K30.0 KX K9.0 K34.0 K11.0 4.0 K17.0 K18.0 K5.0 K37.0 K33.0 K8.0 K41.0

1.0 K16.0 K8.0 K2.0 K38.0 K12.0 K16.0 K35.0 K5.0 K21.0 K1.0 K12.0 KX K35.0 K10.0 K4.0 6.0 K11.0 0.0 ST K60.0 K33.0 K4.0 K29.0 CX K5.0 K8.0 CX K11.0 K2.0 K6.0

K10.0 K19.0 K6.0 K61.0 K19.0 K3.0 K11.0 KX K5.0 K4.0 K73.0 K10.0 K9.0 K34.0 K9.0 4.0 K14.0 K28.0 K10.0 K7.0

K5.0 K5.0 K16.0 K6.0 K10.0 23.0 K221.0 K25.0 K5.0 K5.0 K53.0 K4.0 K13.0 K12.0 K7.0 K21.0 K12.0 KX K22.0 K10.0 K9.0 K15.0 K22.0 K20.0 K31.0

K52.0 K7.0 0.0 K18.0 K2.0 K9.0 K18.0 K26.0 1.0 K12.0 12.0 K8.0 K3.0 K92.0 K2.0 K7.0 KX K8.0 K4.0 K30.0 6.0 K8.0 K5.0 K6.0 K7.0 K50.0 K18.0 K42.0 K13.0 K7.0 0.0 K81.0 3.0 KX 5.0 1.0 K10.0 K10.0 KX KX K10.0

9.0 KX KX K17.0

K7.0 K16.0 KX K16.0 K12.0 K9.0 KX K22.0 K12.0

KX K2.0 K26.0 KX KX K6.0 K7.0 K386.0

K2.0 KX K2.0 K81.0 20.0 K7.0 K24.0 KX K60.0 K3.0 K40.0 K7.0 K1.0 4.0

K5.0 K56.0 K12.0

K6.0 K1.0 K11.0 K6.0 K5.0 KX K1.0 K32.0 8.0 5.0 K58.0 K12.0 0.0 K62.0 K20.0 K32.0 K9.0 K4.0 K10.0 K3.0 KX K14.0 K8.0 K15.0 0.0 K38.0 0.0 K7.0

1995

KX 0.0 K16.0 8.0 23.0 K18.0 K24.0 K7.0 K10.0 CX K13.0 K8.0 6.0 12.0 0.0 KX SN K4.0 K6.0 ST K22.0 K16.0 1.0 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-78

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5D.28

(Continued) Variations (m)

First Survey

Last Survey

Method

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

KX K47.0 KX 2.0 KX K6.0

K11.0 KX K6.0 KX K14.0 K6.0 K10.0

KX K30.0 KX 3.0 K9.0 K26.0 K7.0 K16.0 K43.0 KX K9.0 ST K6.0 K15.0 K18.0

K38.0

70.0

K2.0

K1.0 K20.0 K58.0 KX K2.0 K45.0 K5.0 K10.0 14.0

KX K84.0 KX K9.0 K11.0 K18.0 K1.0 27.0 K1.0 K10.0 K2.0 ST K15.0 K12.0 K3.0 K22.0 K14.0 CX ST 3.0 K40.0 KX K18.0 K24.0 K0.0 K27.0 6.0 2.0 KX K26.0 K5.0 K7.0 K43.0 K3.0 SN K3.0 K6.0

NR

Glacier Name

PSFG NR

167 168 169 170 171 172 172 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204

Ried Roseg Rosenlaui Rossboden Rotfirn Nord Saleina Sankt Anna Sardona Schwarz Schwarzberg Sesvenna Sex Rouge Silvretta Stein Steinlimmi Sulz Suretta Taelliboden Tiatscha Tiefen Trient Trift (Gadmen) Tsanfleuron Tschierva Tschingel Tseudet Tsidjiore Nouve Turtmann (West) UNT.Grindelwald Unteraar Val Torta Valleggia Valsorey Verstankla Vorab Wallenbur Zinal Zmutt Austria Aeu.Pirchi.Kar Alp.Kraeul F Alpeiner F Bachfallen F Baerenkopf K Berglas F Bieltal F Bockkogel F Brennkogl K Daunkogel F Diem F Dorfer K E.Gruebl F Eiskar G Fernau F Freiger F Freiwand K Frosnitz K Fruschnitz K Furtschagl K

CH00017 CH00092 CH00056 CH00105 CH00069 CH00042 CH00067 CH00091 CH00062 CH00010 CH00097 CH00047 CH00090 CH00053 CH00054 CH00079 CH00087 CH00008 CH00096 CH00066 CH00043 CH00055 CH00033 CH00093 CH00060 CH00040 CH00028 CH00019 CH00058 CH00051 CH00118 CH00117 CH00039 CH00089 CH00085 CH00071 CH00022 CH00015

1895 1894 1880 1891 1956 1888 1926 1895 1924 1915 1956 1898 1956 1894 1961 1912 1921 1922 1926 1925 1878 1921 1892 1943 1893 1890 1880 1883 1880 1893 1970 1971 1889 1926 1893 1893 1891 1892

1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1989 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1989 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990

C C E C C C C C C A C C A C C C C D C C C E C C C C C C E A C C C C C C C C

K6.0 0.0 KX 2.0 K5.0 K24.0 K12.0 K23.0 K8.0 6.0 K7.0 K22.0 K9.0 K5.0 K12.0 K10.0 48.0 K8.0 K10.0 K14.0 K19.0 KX K15.0 K9.0 K9.0 K12.0 K4.0 7.0 KX K17.0 K9.0 KX K9.0 K6.0 K29.0 K6.0 K15.0 3.0

K12.0 K12.0 KX 10.0 K12.0 K10.0 K5.0 K8.0 K3.0 K5.0 K5.0 KX K13.0 K7.0 K11.0 K5.0 K43.0 K2.0 K13.0 K7.0 K15.0 KX

A00229 A00321 A00307 A00304 A00702 A00308 A0105A A00302 A00727 A0310A A00220 A00509 A00317 A01301 A00312 A00320 A00706 A00507 A00722 A00406

1981 1975 1881 1922 1924 1891 1924 1922 1987 1891 1893 1896 1891 1992 1890 1974 1950 1923 1974 1978

1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1992 1990 1990 1990 1990 1986 1990

C C C C C C C E C C C C C C C C C C E E

3.5 K2.6 K8.5 K5.5 K3.4 K1.7 K8.9 KX K2.3 K2.6 K3.7 K6.3 K1.3

1.8 K8.6 K14.3 K11.3 K27.5 K10.0 K8.8 KX K9.3 K10.2 K1.6 K16.6 K13.2

K1.5 K2.9 K7.0 K3.0 KX KX

K4.0 K7.5 K4.4 K5.5

205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224

K19.0 K4.0 K22.0 K8.0 3.0 KX K30.0 SN K10.0 K19.0 K10.0 K19.0 K30.0 K2.0

KX

KX K6.0 K21.0 K2.0 16.0 K6.0 K12.0 KX K37.0 K2.0 K6.0 K9.0 KX KX K7.0 2.0

ST K43.0 9.0 K2.0 K25.0 K30.0 K22.0 K13.0 K4.0 0.0

K1.5 K2.8 K10.6 K8.4 K3.2 K5.6 K5.0 KX K11.5 K4.3 K3.8 K9.8 K6.4 K2.0 K2.9 K6.9 K1.1 K5.5

K3.0 K10.6 K7.7 K7.7 K5.3 K10.5 K12.6 KX K14.4 K6.5 K6.7 K13.6 K7.2 K.4 K7.2 K4.2 K10.9 K6.7

K5.0 K3.0 K10.3 SN K1.6

KX

KX

KX

K.8 K24.9 K11.2 4.4 K8.0 K7.1 K4.0 K4.8 K5.1 K13.2

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5D.28

5-79

(Continued)

NR

Glacier Name

PSFG NR

225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283

Gaiskar F Gaissberg F Gepatsch F Goessnitz K GR Goldberg Kee GR.Gosau G Grosselend K Gruenau F Gurgler F Guslar F Habach Kees Hallstaetter G Hinteraeis F Hochalm K Hochjoch F Hochmoos F Hofmanns K Horn K. (Schob.) Horn K. (Ziller) INN.Pirchlkar Jamtal F KA.Tauern K.S Kaelberspitz K Karles F Karlinger K Kesselwand F KL.Fleiss K Kleineiser K Kleinelend K Klostertaler M Klostertaler N Klostertaler S Krimmler K. East Krimmler K Kruml K Laengentaler F Landeck K Langtaler F Laperwitz K Larain F Liesenser F Litzner GL Marzell F Maurer K (GLO.) Maurer K (VEN.) Mittelberg F Mitterkar F Mutmal F Niederjoch F Obersulzbach K Ochsentaler GL Oedenwinkel K Pasterzen K Pfaffen F Pfandlscharten Praegrat K Rettenbach F Riffl K.N Rifflkar Kees

A00325 A00225 A00202 A01201 A0802B A01101 A01001 A00315 A00222 A00210 A00504 A01102 A00209 A01005 A00208 A00309 A00724 A01202 A00402 A00228 A00106 A0602B A01003 A00207 A00701 A00226 A00801 A00717 A01002 A0102B A0102A A0102C A0501B A0501A A00806 A00305 A00604 A00223 A00721 A00107 A00306 A00101 A00218 A00714 A00510 A00206 A00214 A00227 A00217 A00502 A00103 A00712 A00704 A00324 A00707 A00603 A00212 A00718 A0713A

Variations (m)

First Survey

Last Survey

Method

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1983 1891 1896 1982

1990 1990 1990 1990 1975 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1987 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1992 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1986 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990

C C C C C C C C C C E C C C C C E C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C E C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C E

K5.6 K6.5 K4.4 K3.3 K2.5 K2.2 0.9 6.0 K2.5 K11.5 KX 0.4 K17.2 0.3 K25.7 K4.0 KX K2.8 K2.7 1.4 K14.6 K2.1 K4.6 K9.2 K12.0 K17.5 K2.6 K.2 K4.3 K9.1 K4.1 K10.9

K11.5 K2.1 K6.2 K7.3 K12.1 K14.4 K6.7 K6.0 K6.3 K12.8

KX K17.2 K6.0 K10.9 K5.5 K4.0 K7.8 K17.2 K1.2 K12.8

K5.9 K5.8 K10.8 K21.1 K15.0 K8.2 K29.2 K12.7 K7.3 K13.8

K2.5 K7.5 K8.4 K6.6 K4.2 K10.5 K6.7 K15.3 K3.4 K10.5

K7.7 K23.4 K15.0 K25.5 K1.7

K22.4 K12.4 K32.2 K2.0

K8.7 K21.8 K6.1 K27.4 K2.0

K4.9 K13.1 K5.1 K31.4

K4.1 K7.7 K11.4 K11.1 K18.8 K7.1 K4.5 K37.0 K36.1 K10.8 K8.7 K6.0 K11.0 K4.2 K12.7 K10.8 K4.4

K4.3 K9.3 1.4 K7.1

1933 1898 1891 1895 1894 1843 1891 1898 1890 1946 1977 1983 1881 1982 1892 1961 1927 1950 1896 1965 1896 1961 1898 1964 1968 1924 1895 1985 1922 1979 1891 1974 1928 1922 1932 1891 1961 1896 1924 1891 1969 1891 1880 1901 1960 1879 1981 1931 1961 1952 1961 1961

K2.5 K1.5 K3.2 K.7 K18.0 KX K24.5 K7.7 4.5 K4.0 0.2 K12.1 K22.5 K8.1 K19.7 K6.1 K7.2 K4.7 K33.5 K6.1 K9.5 K4.5 K5.4 2.7 KX

K5.8 K8.7 0.4 K9.0 K27.1 K14.7 K13.0 K10.0 K22.3 K20.8 K4.7 K19.4 K7.4 K5.1 K11.4 K7.2 K7.0 K5.3 K1.4 K27.5 K23.7 K16.6 K1.7 K6.8 K7.6 K61.8 K6.3 K21.8 K21.4 K14.4 K13.6 K18.7 K1.4 K7.6 K11.5 K13.1 K9.2 K5.9 K8.6

K2.8 K4.7 0.1 K9.2 K7.1 K7.9 K84.0 K28.4 K13.0 K4.8 K2.9 K1.0 K3.8 K7.8 2.5 K6.5 K4.2

1.4 K2.0 KX K33.9 K2.2 1.4 K4.1 K7.6 K6.3 K16.6 SN SN

K6.0

K4.9 K12.5 K25.0

K15.8

K6.4 K1.7 1.7 K1.0 K8.8 KX K3.0 K16.1 K9.2 K14.8 K15.2 0.3 K17.5 K2.5

K16.1 0.9 K6.8 K3.9 K6.5 K6.5 K10.6 K24.2 K14.2 K18.5 K25.1 K3.2 K17.1 K15.0

K4.9 K3.3 K3.6 SN SN 0.9 SN K7.4 K6.4 K8.2 K9.2 0.3 K13.6 K6.5

K5.9 1.1

K14.4 K9.8 K4.7

K3.4 SN (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-80

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5D.28

(Continued) Variations (m)

First Survey

Last Survey

Method

1991

1992

1993

K10.6 K8.8 K9.6 K15.0 K4.1 K3.0 K2.8 K7.9 KX K3.6 K8.2 K5.2 K13.8 K15.0 K11.1 K11.5 K28.5 K13.4 K9.8 K7.9 K2.2 K20.3 K18.5 K12.8 K12.4

K3.8 K8.0 K15.5 K5.5 K5.6

NR

Glacier Name

PSFG NR

284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330

Rofenkar F Rotmoos F Schalf F Schattenspitz Schaufel F Schladminger G Schlappereben K Schlaten K Schlegeis K Schmiedinger K Schneeglocken Schneeloch G Schwarzenberg F Schwarzenstein Schwarzkarl K Schwarzkoepfl K Sexegerten F Simming F Simony K Sonnblick K Spiegel F Sulzenau F Sulztal F Taschach F Taufkar F Teischnitz K Totenfeld Triebenkarlas F Uebergoss.ALM Umbal K UNT.Riffel Kees Untersulzbach K VD.Kasten K Verborgenberg F Vermunt GL Vernagt F Viltragen K W.Tripp K Wasserfallwinkl Waxegg K Weissee F Wielinger K Wildgerlos Winkl K Wurfer K Wurten K Zettalunitz K Italy Agnello Alta (Vedretta) Amola Andollanord Antelao Inf Antelao Sup Aurona Barbadorso D Basei Belvedere Bessanese

A00215 A00224 A00219 A00108 A00311 A01103 A00805 A00506 A00405 A00726 A00109 A01104 A00303 A00403 A00716 A00710 A00204 A00318 A00511 A0601A A00221 A0314A A00301 A00205 A00216 A00723 A00110 A00323 A00901 A00512 A0713B A00503 A00719 A00322 A00104 A00211 A00505 A01004 A00705 A00401 A00201 A00725 A00404 A01006 A00715 A00804 A00508

1891 1891 1924 1973 1922 1933 1983 1891 1978 1981 1973 1969 1905 1881 1961 1954 1919 1922 1896 1963 1891 1891 1922 1924 1891 1975 1976 1978 1892 1896 1960 1896 1961 1977 1913 1888 1891 1925 1943 1895 1891 1980 1973 1928 1961 1896 1896

1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1986 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1980 1990 1909 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990

C C C C C C C C E C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C E C C C C C C E C C C C C C C C C C C C C C

K6.0 K1.0 K2.9 K2.7 K1.9 K1.4 K2.0 K4.6 KX K0.1 K5.8 K1.3 K6.8 5.5 K4.4 K7.0 K6.0 K1.9 K4.8 K2.1 K6.8 K4.0 K4.3 K4.9 K8.9 KX K2.7 0.1 K5.8 K18.2 K3.0 K5.0 KX K2.7 K7.4 K13.7 K3.9 0.4 K5.4 K6.2 K8.3 K47.0 6.1 K0.7 K5.0 K10.3 K3.4

I00029 I00730 I00644 I00336 I00967 I00966 I00338 I00778 I00064 I00325 I00040

1928 1923 1942 1927 1939 1934 1956 1935 1925 1927 1928

1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990

C C C C C C C C C C C

K2.5

331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341

K2.1 K12.0 K3.0 K4.7 K7.5 K11.3 K12.0 K11.0 K10.7 K6.4 K15.6 K3.0 K10.6 K49.0 K30.8 K26.3 K16.4 K12.5 K21.0

1994 K9.8 K8.0

1995 K7.3 K12.1 K18.1

K10.8 K17.0 K6.0 K6.3 K10.7 K17.5 K8.1 0.4 K4.4 K29.9 K35.8 K12.9 K3.4

K5.2 K11.1 K1.4 K.5 K10.5 KX K2.8 K7.7 K2.2 K15.3 K16.0 K19.7 K17.9 K39.0 K43.4 K11.5 K8.7 K10.4 K34.2 K21.6 K10.5 K6.2

K5.8 K6.7 K6.8 K12.0 K2.3 K14.8 K5.3 K22.6 K15.2 0.7 K9.8 K104.4 K7.8 K13.5 K6.2

K3.2 K14.3

K5.1 K16.3

K.3 K12.3

K24.3 K5.8 K6.1

K24.5 K4.4 K11.2

K68.5 K4.1 0.7

K2.3 K5.3 K15.9 K10.4

K7.4 K15.2 K16.5 K12.0 K5.5 K7.7 K8.0 K4.0 KX K20.0 K2.4 K16.8 K14.8 K21.1

K7.3 K4.3 K13.3 K12.0 SN 3.6 K38.0 K2.9 KX K8.4 K5.0

SN K10.0 K14.0 K3.0 K4.5 KX

KX K17.0 K16.0 K2.0 K3.0 K3.0 KX

0.0 2.0 K2.0

K2.0 0.0

K2.9 K6.8 KX K2.3 K4.3

K1.7 K12.0 K25.6 KX K12.2 K1.2 SN K5.5 K13.7

K1.0 K8.0 K2.0 K3.5

K8.5 K9.0 K24.0 K7.0 K2.5

K7.0 1.5 K2.0 0.0

K3.0 4.0 K1.0

K65.0 K1.0 K3.0 K3.0

K29.0 0.0 K4.0 K1.5

K3.3 K.1 K3.5 K7.9 KX

K2.6 K18.0

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5D.28

5-81

(Continued)

NR

Glacier Name

PSFG NR

342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400

Brenva Caspoggio Cevedale Chavannes Ciardoney Collalto Cristallo Croda Rossa Dosde OR Dosegu Fellaria OCC Fontana OCC Forcola Forni Gigante Centr Gigante OCC Goletta Gran Pilastro Hosand Sett LA Mare Lana LEX Blanche Lunga (Vedretta) LYS M. Nevoso OCC Malavalle Mandrone Marmolada Moncorve Nardis OCC Neves OR. Niscli Pendente Piode Pisgana OCC. Pizzo Scalino Pre De Bar Presanella Quaira Bianca Rosim Rossa (Vedr.) Rosso Destro Rutor Sassolungo OCC Serana (Vedr.) Sforzellina Solda Tessa Toules Travignolo Tresero Tza De Tzan Ultima (Vedr.) Valle Del Vento Vallelunga Valtournenche Venerocolo Venezia (Vedr.) Ventina

I00219 I00435 I00732 I00204 I00081 I00927 I00937 I00828 I00473 I00512 I00439 I00780 I00731 I00507 I00929 I00930 I00148 I00893 I00357 I00699 I00913 I00209 I00733 I00304 I0931X I00875 I00639 I00941 I00131 I00640 I00902 I00633 I00876 I00312 I00577 I00443 I00235 I00678 I00889 I00754 I00697 I00920 I00189 I00926 I00728 I00516 I00762 I00829 I00221 I00947 I00511 I00259 I00729 I00919 I00777 I00289 I00581 I00698 I00416

Variations (m)

First Survey

Last Survey

Method

1929 1928 1923 1930

1990 1990 1990 1989 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1989 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1989 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1981 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1989 1990 1990 1990

C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C

1932 1949 1932 1925 1915 1925 1923 1880 1930 1930 1929 1932 1926 1899 1930 1929 1923 1927 1930 1928 1896 1925 1924 1925 1932 1919 1933 1924 1920 1911 1929 1951 1931 1926 1923 1952 1927 1930 1925 1925 1922 1926 1929 1925 1925 1927 1925 1932 1922 1927 1919 1925 1890

1991 8.0 K2.0 K15.0 K2.5 K2.0 0.0 K28.0 K13.0

K124.0 K2.0 K10.5 K5.0 K33.0 K3.0

3.0 K2.5 K9.0 K5.0 K11.5 K5.0 K10.0 K13.0 K5.5 K17.0 K19.0 KX K8.5 K6.5 0.0 K7.0 K11.0 K9.5 K10.5 K11.0 4.0

K12.0 K59.0 CX K9.0 K.5 K6.0 K9.5 1.0

1992

1993

K9.0 KX KX K5.0 K2.0 K7.5 K12.0 K4.0 K15.5 K60.0 K12.0

0.0 KX K17.0 1.5 K3.0 K8.0 K8.0

K43.0 K30.0 KX K7.0 K19.5 K7.5 K68.0 K8.0 K40.0 K26.0 K11.0 K6.0 K8.0 K14.0 K13.5 K5.0 K4.5 K19.0 K3.5 K9.0 K59.0 K8.0 K32.0 K4.5 K6.0 K6.5 K4.0 K8.5 K7.0 K11.0 K4.0 3.0 0.0 K12.0 K3.5 K10.0 KX K13.0 K10.0 K15.0 K1.5 K6.0 K38.5 K11.0

K32.0 KX K9.5 K14.5 K13.0 K22.0 K92.0 K5.0 K26.0 0.5 K23.5 K6.5 KX K5.0 K7.0 K14.0 K2.0 K2.0 K1.0 2.0 K13.0 0.0 K3.0 K34.0 KX K2.0 7.0 K12.5 K11.0 K7.0 K6.0 K17.0 K1.5 K2.5 K8.0 KX K12.0

1994

1995

K43.0 K16.0 K1.0 K2.0 K4.5 K6.0 K4.0 K37.0 K17.0 K9.5

K12.0 K19.0

K21.0 K95.0 K1.5 K6.5 0.0 K59.0 K9.0 KX K18.0 K12.0 K1.0 K8.0 K3.0 K10.0 K3.0 K12.5 K5.0 K51.0 K14.0 K16.0 K10.0 K7.5 K19.0 K10.0 K20.5 K10.5 KX K4.5 K8.0 K4.0

K2.0

K15.0 K8.0 K13.0 ST K9.0 K15.0 K15.0

K3.0 KX K15.0 K5.5 K2.5 K8.0 K14.5 K16.5 K10.0

K.5 K5.0 K17.5 K9.0 K22.0 K15.0 K18.0 K19.5 K21.5 K2.5 K4.0 6.5 K5.5 K3.5 K47.0 K12.0 K7.5 K2.5

K10.0 K12.0 K7.5 K15.0 K5.0 KX K10.0 K16.0 K8.5 0.0 K2.5 K6.5 K16.0 K5.0 K8.0 K86.0 K3.5 K6.0 K11.5 K4.5

K19.0 KX K14.0 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-82

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5D.28

(Continued) Variations (m)

First Survey

Last Survey

Method

NR

Glacier Name

PSFG NR

401 402 403

Vitelli Zai Di Dentro Zai Di Mezzo Kenya Cesar Darwin Diamond Forel Gregory Heim Joseph Krapf Lewis Northey Tyndall Poland Mieguszowieckie Pod Bula POD Cubryna C.I.S Abramov Alibekskiy Bezengi Bolshoy Azau Djankuat Dzhelo Garabashi Kara-Batkak Khakel Korumdu Kozelskiy Leviy Artru Levivy Karagemsk Maliy Aktru Maliy Azau Mizhirgichiran Muravlev NO. 122 (UNIV.) NO. 125 (VODOP.) NO. 462V (KULN.) Praviy Karagems Shumskiy TS.Tuyuksuyskiy Tseya Yugo-Vostochniy Yuzhniy China Urumqihe S.NO.1 Pakistan Aling Bualtar Karambar Nepal AX010 DX080 Gyajo Kongma Kongma Tikpe Rikha Samba

I00483 I00749 I00750

1921 1924 1930

1990 1979 1979

C C C

KN00004 KN00006 KN00010 KN00011 KN00009 KN00012 KN00003 KN00001 KN00008 KN00013 KN00005

1899 1919 1899 1899 1899 1899 1899 1899 1899 1899 1899

1987 1987 1987 1987 1990 1987 1987 1987 1990 1987 1987

A A A A A A A A A A A

PL00140 PL00111 PL00180

1958 1978 1978

1988 1990 1988

C C C

1.0 34.0 K1.0

K2.0 K14.1 1.0

2.4 K2.0

SU04101 SU03002 SU03006 SU03004 SU03010 SU07106 SU03031 SU05080 SU03003 SU07103 SU08005 SU07102 SU07107 SU07100 SU03032 SU03043 SU06002 SU07108 SU07105 SU03005 SU07109 SU06001 SU05075 SU03007 SU03018 SU03017

1967 1954 1956 1887 1965 1952 1887 1957 1957 1952 1948 1952 1952 1952 1887 1956 1966 1952 1956 1934 1952 1966 1956 1927 1957 1957

1990 1990 1990 1987 1990 1990 1987 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1987 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990 1991 1991

C C C B B C B C C C C D C D B C C C D C C C C C C C

K9.1

K12.9

K22.4

K3.0

K2.5

K69.0 K6.0 K18.0 0.0 K5.5

K3.0

K12.0

0.0

K6.8 K16.0 K3.5

K16.0 K19.0 K5.0

K11.0 0.0 K10.0 0.0

K1.0 ST 0.5

K22.0 ST K9.0

CN00010

1960

1990

C

404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453

PK00035 PK00004 PK00028 NP00005 NP00007 NP00011 NP00010 NP00009 NP00012

1991

K42.0 K61.0 K58.0

1989 1989 1978 1989 1989 1974

1993 K7.0 K2.5 K6.0

1994

1995

0.0 K5.0 K5.5

KX K4.0 K3.0

SN K1.0 2.0

2.0 13.1 1.0

K25.3 9.0

ST K8.0 K14.0

K25.0 K15.0 0.0 0.0 K30.0 0.0 0.0 K25.0 K25.0 0.0 K50.0

K7.0

K19.0

15.9 K3.5 K14.0 K1.0 K7.5 K12.0 K7.2 K17.0 K11.8

K6.5

1989 1988 1993 1978 1976 1970 1970 1974 1974

1992

K3.3

K10.0 K14.3 K7.2 8.0 K1.0 ST K3.0 K3.8 K12.0 61.0

K8.0 K4.8

ST 0.0

K7.0

ST

K8.4 K1.7 K11.4 K4.1

K7.3 K16.3 K1.5 K2.7

K13.8 4.2 3.5

K20.8 K5.0 17.0 K3.7

K3.4

K3.8

K6.8

K6.2

K1.7

K6.6 K1.5 K5.0

CX 1800.0

KX KX

C C C C C C

CX 25.0 K29.6 K75.6 K13.0 K53.7

K30.0

K205.7 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5D.28

5-83

(Continued)

NR

Glacier Name

PSFG NR

454

Yala New Zealand Abel Adams Almer Andy Ashburton Balfour Barlow Blair Bonar Brewster Burton Cameron Classen Colin Campbell Crow Dart Donne Douglas (KAR.) Douglas (RAK.) Evans Fitzgerald Fox Franz Josef Glenmary Godley Grey and Maud Hooker Horace Walker Ivory Jack Jackson Jalf Kahutea KEA LA Perouse Lambert LE Blanc Lindsay Lyell Marchant Marion Marmaduke Dixon MC COY Mueller Murchison Park Pass 1 Poet Ramsay Reischek Retreat Richardson Ridge Rolleston Sale Siege Sinclair Snow White

NP00004

455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 482 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511

NZ893A3 NZ08974 NZ888B1 NZ863C1 NZ688A1 NZ882B1 NZ893A2 NZ711D1 NZ863A1 NZ868C1 NZ888A1 NZ685B2 NZ711M1 NZ693C1 NZ664C2 NZ752C2 NZ851B2 NZ880B2 NZ685B1 NZ08972 NZ880B3 NZ882A1 NZ888B2 NZ711F1 NZ711M3 NZ711M2 NZ711H2 NZ880B1 NZ09011 NZ08751 NZ868B5 NZ08861 NZ685E1 NZ08971 NZ882B2 NZ08973 NZ868B3 NZ08671 NZ685C2 NZ880A1 NZ863B4 NZ664C1 NZ693C2 NZ711H1 NZ711J1 NZ752B1 NZ868B2 NZ685C3 NZ685C1 NZ906A1 NZ711E1 NZ711L1 NZ911A2 NZ906B1 NZ893A1 NZ693C3 NZ863B2

Variations (m)

First Survey

Last Survey

Method

1982

1989

C

1989 1987 1989 1987 1989 1985 1989 1989 1987 1989 1989 1988 1989 1988 1988 1989 1987 1987 1989 1988 1984 1989 1989 1989 1989 1989 1985 1987 1989 1989 1989 1989 1989 1989 1985 1989 1985 1989 1989 1986 1989 1989 1985 1989 1989 1989 1986 1983 1989 1989 1987 1989 1989 1993 1989 1985 1987

A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A

1980

1867

1989

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

K30.9

KX

KX

KX

KX

SN ST CX CX

CX KX ST ST CX KX KX CX ST KX

ST CX KX

CX KX CX KX

CX ST SN

CX CX

KX CX CX

KX

KX

KX

KX CX

SN

CX CX CX KX

ST

KX

SN

KX CX ST KX

SN

SN

CX SN

KX KX SN

KX CX

ST SN

KX KX CX

SN CX

KX

SN

SN

ST SN

SN

ST

KX

ST CX CX CX CX CX CX CX CX ST ST ST ST CX CX KX KX ST SN ST CX CX CX ST KX ST KX CX ST SN SN CX SN ST CX SN KX ST CX CX KX ST CX CX KX KX SN CX SN SN CX SN CX KX (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-84

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5D.28

(Continued)

NR

Glacier Name

PSFG NR

512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536

Snowball Spencer Strauchon Tasman Therma Thurneyson Tornado Unnamed NZ664C Unnamed NZ685C Unnamed NZ685F Unnamed NZ752E Unnamed NZ752I Unnamed NZ797G Unnamed NZ846 Unnamed NZ851B Unnamed NZ863B Unnsmrf NX868B Unnamed NZ911A Victoria Whitbourne White Whymper Wigley Wilkinson Zora Antarctica Bartley Clark CPI Hart Heimdall Meserve MPII Victoria Upper Wright Lower Wright Upper B

NZ863B3 NZ888A2 NZ880A2 NZ71111 NZ08641 NZ711B1 NZ863C2 NZ664C1 NZ685C4 NZ685F1 NZ752E1 NZ75211 NZ797G1 NZ08461 NZ851B1 NZ863B1 NZ868B4 NZ911A1 NZ882A1 NZ752C1 NZ664C1 NZ893B1 NZ873B2 NZ906B2 NZ868B1

537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544

Note: NR Glacier Name PSFG Number Method

1ST Survey: Last Survey: Variation in Meters: Key to Symbols:

AN00016 AN00012 AN00019 AN00003 AN00017 AN00013 AN00018 AN00011

First Survey

1983 1982 1985 1970 1983 1984 1975 1984

Variations (m)

Last Survey

Method

1987 1989 1986 1989 1987 1989 1986 1989 1989 1989 1989 1989 1989 1989 1989 1989 1980 1989 1989 1988 1989 1980 1989 1989 1986

A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A

1990 1990 1990 1991 1990 1990 1990 1990

C C C C C C C C

1991

KX

1992

1993

1994

1995

ST CX

ST

CX KX

KX

ST CX ST KX CX

CX

SN

SN

KX KX CX

SN SN SN CX SN SN CX ST SN

SN SN SN SN SN CX ST SN

SN

SN

CX KX

SN SN SN CX ST SN ST SN CX KX CX KX KX ST CX 0.2 2.6 K0.5

K1.8 0.0 3.5 K3.3 1.8 K1.8 K1.2

KX SN CX

1.3

0.6

Record number 15 alphabetic or numeric digits 5 digits identifying glacier with alphabetic prefix denoting country AZaerial photogrammetry BZterrestrial photogrammetry CZgeodetic ground survey (theodolite, tape etc.) DZcombination of a, b or c EZother methods or no information Year when glacier was first surveyed Last survey before reported period Variation in the position of the glacier front in horizontal projection expressed as the change in length between the surveys CX: Glacier in advance KX: Glacier in retreat ST: Glacier stationary SN: Glacier front covered by snow

Source: From World Glacier Monitoring Service by Wilfried Haeberli, Martin Hoelzle, Stephan Suter and Regula Frauenfelder www.wgms.ch.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

5-85

Table 5D.29 Changes in Area, Volume and Thickness Period NR

Glacier Name

1.1

U.S.A McCall US00001

2.1

Summary Data Switzerland Gries (Aegina) CH00003

From

Altitude To

From

To

Area Mean

1972

1993

2400 2300 2200 2100 2000 1900 1800 1700 1600 1500 1400 1400

2500 2400 2300 2200 2100 2000 1900 1800 1700 1600 1500 2500

110 720 1160 1360 890 810 530 450 600 360 240 7230

1923

1961

3300 3200 3100 3000 2900 2800 2700 2600 2500 2400 2300 2300 3300 3200 3100 3000 2900 2800 2700 2600 2500 2400 2300 2300 3300 3200 3100 3000 2900 2800 2700 2600 2500 2400 2300 2300 3300 3200 3100 3000 2900 2800 2700 2600 2500

3400 3300 3200 3100 3000 2900 2800 2700 2600 2500 2400 3400 3400 3300 3200 3100 3000 2900 2800 2700 2600 2500 2400 3400 3400 3300 3200 3100 3000 2900 2800 2700 2600 2500 2400 3400 3400 3300 3200 3100 3000 2900 2800 2700 2600

16 201 772 1572 1040 813 699 1303 613 716 112 7857 9 133 533 1574 1015 752 605 1082 563 297 127 6690 10 130 547 1597 1004 726 543 984 608 184 4 6337 10 90 430 1666 1061 727 573 850 678

2.2

Summary Data Gries (Aegina) CH00003

1961

1979

2.3

Summary Data Gries (Aegina) CH00003

1979

1986

2.4

Summary Data Gries (Aegina) CH00003

1986

1991

Area Change

K7 K68 K239 2 K25 K61 K94 K221 K50 K419 K15 K1167 1 3 14 23 K11 K26 K62 K98 45 K112 K123 K353 0 K40 K117 69 57 1 30 K134 70 K20 K4 K88 0 116 262 K66 K67 K69 K116 K231 127

Volume Change

Thickness Change

K248 K1383 K4284 K6126 K5019 K5110 K4286 K5070 K11774 K9733 K8730 K61762

K2257 K1921 K3693 K4504 K5639 K6308 K8086 K11267 K19624 K27037 K36374 K8543

K146 K2062 K11148 K28673 K19760 K18227 K21250 K45553 K28419 K56048 K22387 K247810 3 72 1055 4533 4385 3384 436 K7596 K5472 K8874 K9304 K12042 K40 K355 K3853 K1006 K2038 K2185 K1368 K4890 K2724 K1468

K9120 K10260 K14440 K18240 K19000 K22420 K30400 K34960 K46360 K78280 K199880 K31540 360 540 1980 2880 4320 4500 720 K7020 K9720 K29880 K73260 K1800 K3990 K2730 K7043 K630 K2030 K3010 K2520 K4970 K4480 K7980

K16413 14 K266 K1699 K8580 K6154 K4435 K3495 K7098 K7831

K2590 1350 K2950 K3950 K5150 K5800 K6100 K6100 K8350 K11550 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-86

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5D.29

(Continued) Period

NR

3.1

4.1

Glacier Name Summary Data Austria Hintereis F. A00209

Summary Data C.I.S Djankuat SU03010

From

Altitude To

From

To

Area Mean

Area Change

Volume Change

Thickness Change

2400 2400

2500 3400

164 6249

K11 K55

K1796 K41556

K10950 K6650

1979

1991

3700 3600 3500 3400 3300 3200 3100 3000 2900 2800 2700 2600 2500 2400 2300 2300

3800 3700 3600 3500 3400 3300 3200 3100 3000 2900 2800 2700 2600 2500 2400 3800

3 52 48 229 701 975 1535 1469 1221 909 968 662 280 156 9 9217

K1 K4 K16 K50 K66 K110 K260 K181 K112 K64 K70 K19 19 K39 K18 K991

K2 K82 K58 K944 K2694 K5155 K9390 K11802 K12738 K12846 K11516 K9636 K6046 K2529 K48 K85486

K667 K1576 K1208 K4122 K3843 K5287 K6117 K8034 K10432 K14132 K11897 K14556 K21593 K16212 K5333 K9275

1984

1992

3600 3500 3400 3300 3200 3100 3000 2900 2800 2698 2698 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410 3400 3400 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570

3990 3600 3500 3400 3300 3200 3100 3000 2900 2800 3990 3620 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410 3620 3620 3610 3600 3590 3580

207 532 358 370 427 361 292 286 183 97 3113 27 22 11 9 10 15 15 15 17 15 15 14 17 11 11 9 12 14 13 11 8 11 302 27 22 11 9 10

K41 81 K30 K10 K16 K2 K8 K1 K6 7 K26

303 K363 K165 404 439 K466 109 K589 K754 K510 K1592 1 4 3 3 4 5 3 1 K2 K4 K6 K7 K10 K6 K6 K5 K7 K8 K7 K6 K4 K6 K60 K21 K17 K8 K7 K8

1465 K683 K460 1092 1027 K1290 374 K2059 K4121 K5258 K511 40 170 290 380 370 320 190 60 K120 K280 K420 K520 K560 K550 K550 K560 K580 K550 K520 K520 K530 K550 K150 K770 K770 K760 K750 K750

5.1

Summary Data Muravlev SU06002

1981

1982

5.2

Summary Data Muravlev SU06002

1982

1983

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5D.29

5-87

(Continued) Period

NR

Glacier Name

From

Altitude To

5.3

Summary Data Muravlev SU06002

1983

1984

5.4

Summary Data Muravlev SU06002

1984

1985

From 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410 3400 3400 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410 3400 3400 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440

To 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410 3620 3620 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410 3620 3620 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450

Area Mean 15 15 15 17 15 15 14 17 11 11 9 12 14 13 11 8 10 301 27 22 11 9 10 15 15 15 17 15 15 14 17 11 11 9 12 14 13 11 8 10 301 27 22 11 9 10 15 15 15 17 15 15 14 17 11 11 9 12 14

Area Change

K1 K1

Volume Change K11 K10 K10 K11 K10 K9 K9 K12 K8 K8 K7 K10 K12 K11 K10 K7 K9 K225 K16 K14 K7 K6 K6 K10 K10 K10 K11 K9 K9 K8 K10 K6 K6 K5 K8 K8 K7 K6 K5 K6 K183 K21 K16 K8 K6 K6 K10 K11 K11 K13 K12 K13 K11 K14 K11 K11 K10 K13 K15

Thickness Change K720 K690 K680 K660 K650 K630 K650 K710 K740 K770 K800 K840 K870 K880 K880 K890 K880 K740 K580 K620 K650 K660 K640 K660 K660 K650 K630 K610 K600 K580 K570 K570 K590 K610 K650 K600 K570 K570 K590 K630 K620 K770 K720 K700 K650 K630 K690 K730 K740 K760 K800 K840 K780 K840 K970 K1040 K1070 K1090 K1060 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-88

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5D.29

(Continued) Period

NR

Glacier Name

From

Altitude To

5.5

Summary Data Muravlev SU06002

5.6

Summary Data Muravlev SU06002

1986

1987

5.7

Summary Data Muravlev SU06002

1987

1988

1985

1986

From 3430 3420 3410 3400 3400 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410 3400 3400 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410 3400 3400 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540

To 3440 3430 3420 3410 3620 3620 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410 3620 3620 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410 3620 3620 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550

Area Mean 13 11 8 9 300 27 22 11 9 10 15 15 15 17 15 15 14 17 11 11 9 12 14 13 11 8 8 299 27 22 11 9 10 15 15 15 17 15 15 14 17 11 11 9 12 14 13 11 8 8 299 27 22 11 9 10 15 15 15

Area Change

K1 K1

K1 K1

Volume Change K14 K11 K8 K9 K254 K17 K14 K7 K5 K6 K9 K9 K9 K11 K9 K9 K9 K12 K9 K9 K9 K12 K15 K15 K12 K9 K9 K225 K18 K14 K7 K5 K5 K9 K9 K9 K11 K9 K9 K8 K10 K8 K10 K10 K12 K13 K12 K10 K7 K7 K212 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2

Thickness Change K1040 K1040 K1030 K1030 K830 K620 K640 K630 K610 K600 K620 K620 K620 K630 K600 K600 K640 K720 K820 K860 K960 K1020 K1070 K1130 K1140 K1150 K1160 K740 K680 K630 K600 K560 K530 K580 K620 K630 K630 K600 K570 K550 K610 K740 K950 K1060 K1000 K930 K900 K890 K890 K880 K690 100 120 60 70 140 110 110 130 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5D.29

5-89

(Continued) Period

NR

Glacier Name

From

Altitude To

5.8

Summary Data Muravlev SU06002

1988

1989

5.9

Summary Data Muravlev SU06002

1989

1990

From 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410 3400 3400 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410 3400 3400 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410

To 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410 3620 3620 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410 3620 3620 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420

Area Mean 17 15 15 14 17 11 11 9 12 14 13 11 8 7 298 27 22 11 9 10 15 15 15 17 15 15 14 17 11 11 9 12 14 13 11 8 7 298 27 22 11 9 10 15 15 15 17 15 15 14 17 11 11 9 12 14 13 11 8

Area Change

K1 K1

Volume Change 2 2 1 K2 K4 K3 K3 K3 K5 K7 K6 K5 K4 K3 K25 K3 K4 K2 0 0 K2 K3 K4 K4 K5 K6 K5 K7 K5 K6 K5 K7 K10 K10 K9 K7 K6 K110 0 2 1 K1 K1 K6 K7 K7 K9 K10 K10 K11 K15 K9 K9 K8 K12 K14 K12 K10 K7

Thickness Change 150 110 40 K150 K230 K240 K310 K330 K450 K510 K500 K490 K490 K480 K80 K120 K190 K190 K30 20 K120 K200 K240 K260 K330 K370 K390 K390 K450 K520 K570 K600 K730 K790 K820 K840 K860 K340 K10 110 90 K90 K110 K370 K510 K490 K590 K690 K680 K760 K880 K860 K820 K840 K960 K1020 K950 K930 K920 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-90

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5D.29

(Continued) Period

NR

Glacier Name

5.1

Summary Data Muravlev SU06002

1990

1991

6.1

Summary Data Shumskiy SU06001

1989

1990

6.2

Summary Data Shumskiy SU06001

From

Altitude

1990

To

1991

From 3400 3400 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410 3400 3400 3720 3700 3680 3660 3640 3620 3600 3580 3560 3540 3520 3500 3480 3460 3440 3420 3400 3380 3360 3340 3320 3300 3280 3260 3240 3220 3200 3180 3160 3140 3140 3720 3700 3680

To 3410 3620 3620 3610 3600 3590 3580 3570 3560 3550 3540 3530 3520 3510 3500 3490 3480 3470 3460 3450 3440 3430 3420 3410 3620 3740 3720 3700 3680 3660 3640 3620 3600 3580 3560 3540 3520 3500 3480 3460 3440 3420 3400 3380 3360 3340 3320 3300 3280 3260 3240 3220 3200 3180 3160 3740 3740 3720 3700

Area Mean

Area Change

6 297 27 22 11 9 10 15 15 15 17 15 15 14 17 11 11 9 12 14 13 11 8 6 297 96 114 145 111 77 89 76 76 92 104 113 42 35 43 58 92 52 38 31 34 53 46 26 20 23 26 27 23 13 4 1779 96 114 145

K1 K1

K1 K1 K2

Volume Change K5 K165 K33 K25 K13 K12 K13 K22 K22 K22 K26 K24 K25 K22 K25 K19 K22 K19 K26 K31 K27 K22 K16 K12 K478 K42 K42 K46 K32 K30 K34 K29 K20 K28 6 K14 K24 K26 K36 K57 K87 K49 K27 K18 K27 K45 K45 K28 K20 K28 K36 K59 K54 K35 K11 K1023 K76 K89 K115

Thickness Change K910 K530 K1220 K1160 K1180 K1300 K1350 K1430 K1430 K1430 K1500 K1600 K1650 K1540 K1490 K1690 K1990 K2140 K2180 K2200 K2080 K2030 K2020 K1990 K1590 K440 K370 K320 K290 K390 K380 K380 K260 K300 60 K120 K580 K750 K840 K990 K950 K940 K700 K570 K800 K850 K980 K1060 K1020 K1200 K1400 2190 K2370 K2690 K2740 K600 K790 K780 K790 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5D.29

5-91

(Continued) Period

NR

Glacier Name

From

Altitude To

7.1

Summary Data TS.Tuyuksuysk SU05075

1990

1991

7.2

Summary Data TS.Tuyuksuysk SU05075

1991

1992

From 3660 3640 3620 3600 3580 3560 3540 3520 3500 3480 3460 3440 3420 3400 3380 3360 3340 3320 3300 3280 3260 3240 3220 3200 3180 3160 3140 3140 3800 3780 3760 3740 3720 3700 3680 3660 3640 3620 3600 3580 3560 3540 3520 3500 3480 3460 3460 3800 3780 3760 3740 3720 3700 3680 3660 3640 3620 3600 3580

To 3680 3660 3640 3620 3600 3580 3560 3540 3520 3500 3480 3460 3440 3420 3400 3380 3360 3340 3320 3300 3280 3260 3240 3220 3200 3180 3160 3740 3820 3800 3780 3760 3740 3720 3700 3680 3660 3640 3620 3600 3580 3560 3540 3520 3500 3480 3820 3820 3800 3780 3760 3740 3720 3700 3680 3660 3640 3620 3600

Area Mean 111 77 89 76 76 92 104 113 42 35 43 58 92 52 38 31 34 53 46 26 20 23 26 27 22 12 3 1776 117 150 184 200 166 138 73 51 54 48 70 55 99 56 54 53 50 37 1655 117 150 184 200 166 138 73 51 54 48 70 55

Area Change

K1 K1 K1 K3

Volume Change K84 K59 K82 K71 K65 K114 K177 K209 K69 K54 K67 K103 K187 K115 K90 K74 K67 K99 K97 K56 K44 K47 K51 K63 K56 K26 K7 K2513 K117 K159 K206 K234 K184 K135 K88 K72 K62 K55 K73 K70 K144 K96 K111 K118 K129 K120 K2173 K35 K39 K52 K74 K70 K63 K48 K38 K42 K37 K57 K51

Thickness Change K760 K770 K920 K940 K850 K1240 K1700 K1850 K1650 K1530 K1550 K1780 K2030 K2210 K2370 K2400 K1960 K1870 K2110 K2170 K2220 K2060 K1980 K2340 K2560 K2210 K2240 K1420 K1000 K1060 K1120 K1170 K1110 K980 K1200 K1410 K1150 K1140 K1040 K1280 K1460 K1710 K2060 K2220 K2590 K3230 K1330 K300 K260 K280 K370 K420 K460 K660 K740 K770 K770 K820 K930 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-92

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5D.29

(Continued) Period

NR

7.3

8.1

Glacier Name

From

Summary Data TS.Tuyuksuysk SU05075

1992

Summary Data Nepal AX010 NP00005

1978

Summary Data Note: NR Glacier Name Period From To Altitude Area Mean Area Change Volume Change Thick Change

Altitude To

1993

1991

From

To

Area Mean

3560 3540 3520 3500 3480 3460 3460 3800 3780 3760 3740 3720 3700 3680 3660 3640 3620 3600 3580 3560 3540 3520 3500 3480 3460 3460

3580 3560 3540 3520 3500 3480 3820 3820 3800 3780 3760 3740 3720 3700 3680 3660 3640 3620 3600 3580 3560 3540 3520 3500 3480 3820

99 56 54 48 40 17 1620 117 150 184 200 166 138 73 51 54 48 70 55 99 56 54 48 40 15 1618

5340 5320 5300 5280 5260 5240 5220 5200 5180 5160 5140 5120 5100 5080 5060 5040 5020 5000 4980 4960 4952 4952

5360 5340 5320 5300 5280 5260 5240 5220 5200 5180 5160 5140 5120 5100 5080 5060 5040 5020 5000 4980 4960 5360

6 12 12 29 65 101 62 60 35 24 19 15 16 20 31 21 15 15 7 3 1 568

Area Change

Volume Change

Thickness Change

K5 K10 K20 K35

K130 K88 K89 K96 K91 K38 K1138

K1310 K1570 K1650 K1990 K2270 K2230 K790

K2 2

134 213 252 196 183 104 58 46 40 61 40 69 32 22 K2 K27 K15 1406

891 1160 1259 1180 1324 1431 1141 846 835 866 734 696 567 400 K38 K681 K973 936

K2 K2 K2 K8 K23 K9 7 4 3 K3 K3 3 K6 K7 K16 7 K2 K4 2 1 0 K58

K97 K324 K353 K576 K378 K278 K229 K232 K271 K354 K564 K387 K321 K355 K145 K51 K18 K4934

K1500 K3200 K5700 K9600 K109000 K11400 K11800 K15900 K16700 K17900 K18500 K18800 K21000 K23200 K21700 K17500 K17500 K8689

Record number 15 alphabetic or numeric digits Period in which the changes take place Altitude interval in meters above sea level Mean area of altitude interval for period of change (thousand square meters) Change in area of altitude interval for period of change (thousand square meters) Change in volume of altitude interval for period of change (thousand cubic meters) Change in thickness of altitude interval for period of change (millimeters)

Source: From World Glacier Monitoring Service by Wilfried Haeberli, Martin Hoelzle, Stephan Suter and Regula Frauenfelder www.wgms.ch.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

5-93

SECTION 5E

FLOODS

[In thousands of cfs; for a typical 300 mi2 (780 km2) drainage basin; a mean annual flood is one that will be exceeded in about half the years; the probability of a mean annual flood in any given year is about 50%]

1 1 2

1

10

5 8

5

8

1

1

20 30

5

8

2

6

5

0.2

8

10

20

5

5

8

10

2

1

2

1

5

10

Miles 0 0

200

400

200 400 600 km

Figure 5E.15 Mean annual flood potential in the United States. (From U.S. Geological Survey, National Atlas Map 121, 1965.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-94

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

[In thousands of cfs; for a typical 300 mi2 (780 km2) drainage basin; a 10-year flood will be exceeded at irregular intervals that average 10 years; the probability of a 10-year flood in any given year is 10%]

2

10

50 30

5

20

5

10

2

5

10

0.5

2

2 2

30

20 10

10

10 5

5

20

20 0

Miles 200

400

0 200 400 600 km Figure 5E.16 Ten-year flood potential in the United States. (From U.S. Geological Survey, National Atlas Map 121, 1965.)

National meteorological centre

QP

F*/

We a

the

rg

uid

Community actions

ce

PF

*Q

an

River forecast center

Runoff Guidance

Weather service forecast office Weather service office

Local flash flood warning system Flash flood alarms Watches Warnings

NOAA** weather radio NOAA** weather wire News media Emergency planning

Radar satellite surface and upper air networks Flow of guidance information, watches, and warnings Observational data

Flow of observational data *QPF = Quantitative precipitation forecast **NOAA = National oceanic and atmospheric administration

Figure 5E.17 Flash flood warning system in the United States. (From National weather service, Operations of the national weather service. U.S. Department of Commerce, 1985.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

23 9 16 33

35

32 30 20 1

21 24

4 14

36 6

3

12

26

38

ATL ANT IC O CEA N

18

29 17

19

13

37

IF PAC

32

31 34

10

Explanation

IC

15

OC

8

EA

Dambreak flood

2

Tidal flood

36

Flash flood

11

Flood wave generated in Lake Okeechobee by hurricane

N

1

39 Those in Tables 3-26

40 22

2

28 ALASKA 0

600 Miles

HAWAII

0 100 Miles

27

7

5

25

L F G U

O F

C O X I M E

11 PUERTO RICO 100 Miles 0

Area affected by riverine floods. Variation of boundaries indicates incidents of overlap Numbers correspond to those in table, p. B40 0

100

200 Miles

Figure 5E.18 Distribution of great floods in the conterminous United States since 1889. (From Hays, W.W., Facing geologic and hydrologic hazards, Earth-Science considerations, U.S. geological survey professional paper 1240-B, 1981.)

5-95

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-96

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5E.30 Estimated U.S. Flood Damage, by Fiscal Year (Oct–Sep) Fiscal Year 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Damage (Millions Current Dollars)

Implicit Price Deflator

Damage (Millions 1995 Dollars)

9.243 315.187 88.155 61.700 25.832 2.070 10.365 27.366 18.903 123.327 287.137 433.339 108.970 13.861 40.067 26.092 91.548 220.553 99.789 159.251 68.930 281.321 213.716 108.586 129.903 1,076.687 254.190 121.752 74.170 784.672 305.573 352.145 224.939 121.281 111.168 147.680 86.574 179.496 194.512 1,221.903 116.645 291.823 443.251 889.135 173.803 323.427 4,442.992 1,805.284 692.832 1,348.834 1,054.790 988.350 1,028.970 3,626.030 — — — 3,693.572

— — — 0.12854 0.12385 0.11091 0.09796 0.09541 0.10071 0.10265 0.10377 0.10815 0.10499 0.10387 0.10530 0.11244 0.12120 0.12773 0.13058 0.13425 0.15056 0.16667 0.17615 0.17594 0.17788 0.19072 0.19368 0.19623 0.19817 0.20163 0.20846 0.21539 0.22059 0.22304 0.22620 0.22875 0.23180 0.23445 0.23792 0.24241 0.24934 0.25698 0.26809 0.28124 0.29623 0.31111 0.32436 0.34251 0.37329 0.40805 0.43119 0.45892 0.49164 0.53262 0.58145 0.63578 0.67533 0.70214

— — — 480 209 19 106 287 188 1,201 2,767 4,007 1,038 133 381 232 755 1,727 764 1,186 458 1,688 1,213 617 730 5,645 1,312 620 374 3,892 1,466 1,635 1,020 544 491 646 373 766 818 5,041 468 1,136 1,653 3,161 587 1,040 13,698 5,271 1,856 3,306 2,446 2,154 2,093 6,808 — — — 5,260 (Continued)

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SURFACE WATER

5-97

Table 5E.30

(Continued)

Fiscal Year 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Note:

Damage (Millions Current Dollars)

Implicit Price Deflator

Damage (Millions 1995 Dollars)

3,540.770 379.303 5,939.994 1,442.349 214.297 1,080.814 1,636.366 1,698.765 672.635 16,364.710 1,120.149 5,110.714 6,121.753 8,934.923 2,465.048 5,450.375 1,336.744

0.72824 0.75117 0.76769 0.79083 0.81764 0.84883 0.88186 0.91397 0.93619 0.95872 0.97870 1.00000 1.01937 1.03925 1.05199 1.06677 1.09113

4,862 505 7,737 1,824 262 1,273 1,856 1,859 718 17,069 1,145 5,111 6,005 8,597 2,343 5,109 1,225

— Data unavailable.

Source: From U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2001.

Table 5E.31 Comparison of Damage Estimates by State, 1955–1978 and 1983–1999.

State Rhode Island Delaware Massachusetts New Hampshire Hawaii Connecticut Vermont Wyoming Maine New Jersey Alaska (29 yr) Maryland & DC Nevada Michigan N. Dakota S. Dakota Colorado S. Carolina New Mexico Utah Montana Idaho Wisconsin Georgia Virginia Arizona Minnesota Florida N. Carolina Oregon Washington

Region New England New England New England New England New England Arid West New England

Arid West N. Central N. Central Arid West Arid West Arid West Arid West

Southeast Arid West Southeast Pacific NW Pacific NW

Median Damage (All Years)

Maximum Damagea

Years with No Estimate

Years with 0!Est 1.0

Years with Est O100

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.14 0.16 0.21 0.41 0.51 0.57 0.66 0.73 0.84 1.04 1.21 1.61 1.86 1.91 2.27 2.40 2.48 3.99 4.06 4.32

143 7 774 56 44 1,881 194 53 77 749 383 681 616 528 3,280 796 1,866 40 34 712 229 1,507 943 307 1,042 306 1,006 410 2,919 3,143 363

33 32 25 23 23 21 20 17 20 18 14 15 13 17 14 10 11 5 16 7 10 9 11 5 9 7 4 6 5 2 5

5 7 5 6 2 6 9 14 3 5 4 14 12 11 9 13 10 18 6 14 10 10 8 7 9 9 12 9 5 6 7

1 0 2 0 0 2 1 0 0 8 1 1 1 3 4 4 4 0 0 2 1 2 4 3 6 4 7 5 3 4 3 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-98

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5E.31

(Continued)

State Louisiana Tennessee Alabama Arkansas Mississippi W. Virginia Kansas Oklahoma Pennsylvania Nebraska New York Illinois Iowa Kentucky Indiana Ohio Missouri California Texas a

Region

Median Damage (All Years)

Maximum Damagea

Years with No Estimate

Years with 0!Est 1.0

Years with Est O100

5.60 6.01 6.10 6.87 8.07 8.60 8.61 8.97 10.39 13.89 14.60 15.31 17.18 17.67 19.29 22.06 25.42 45.64 77.44

3,097 193 351 712 1,157 782 575 1,045 8,590 307 2,305 2,754 5,987 453 310 313 3,577 2,007 691

7 2 4 2 1 1 3 4 3 4 7 1 4 1 0 3 0 3 1

7 8 4 6 3 7 4 8 7 4 3 3 6 7 3 5 7 4 1

10 1 3 4 4 5 6 5 6 4 6 8 9 7 3 4 12 13 16

Lower Miss. Southeast Southeast Lower Miss. Lower Miss. Ohio R. Central Central Upper Miss. Upper Miss. Upper Miss. Ohio R. Ohio R. Ohio R. Upper Miss.

Estimates of maximum damage can be misleading. For example, in Idaho the maximum was caused by failure of the Teton Dam in 1976; the worst damage directly from precipitation and streamflow is estimated at $120 million. In Texas, the maximum appears small but much greater damage occurred in a year not covered by this table ($3.76 billion in 1979). States are ordered by increasing median damage. Missing estimates are treated as zero; all estimates are in millions of 1995 dollars.

Source: From Pielke, Jr., R.A., M.W. Downton, and J.Z. Barnard Miller, 2002: Flood Damage in the United States, 1926–2000: A Reanalysis of National Weather Service Estimates. Boulder, CO: UCAR, www.flooddamagedata.org.

Table 5E.32 Damage in Thousands of Current Dollars

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

Deflator

AL

AK

0.20163 0.20846 0.21539 0.22059 0.22304 0.22620 0.22875 0.23180 0.23445 0.23792 0.24241 0.24934 0.25698 0.26809 0.28124 0.29623 0.31111 0.32436 0.34251 0.37329 0.40805 0.43119 0.45892 0.49164 0.53262

3,379 720 2,324 872 0 670 12,625 3,529 1,280 5,343 723 2,366 1,695 408 88 10,891 2,170 2,278 5,439 1,731 91,815 4,710 4,760 3,000 a

98,550 0 0 0 8,631 1,090 1,500 0 0 0 200 0 0

AZ 226 0 0 0 100 0 325 1,000 0 55 11,330 3,050 3,576 188 0 5,000 3,476 20,868 0 2,605 927 6,000 15,590 131,360 0

AR 61 255 27,938 6,202 3,090 580 3,503 91 2,500 598 143 5,055 1,497 21,099 3,411 639 2,549 1,780 129,579 8,746 21,387 0 130 23,900 2,620

CA 165,767 8,745 13 33,063 4 516 95 2,780 11,834 229,168 11,321 24,347 1,370 0 423,296 47,798 3,522 1,132 9,480 27,124 1,845 120,100 28,500 124,230 25,900

CO 2,567 5,135 2,901 240 0 0 0 80 50 0 452,293 707 0 0 66 2,040 0 15 121,383 0 0 35,540 1,250 70 50

CT

DE

379,360 0 0 0 0 750 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 528 0 0 15,414 1,950 0 9,360 7,100 1,570 0 a

117 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5E.32

(Continued) Deflator

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

0.58145 0.63578 0.67533 0.70214 0.72824 0.75117 0.76769 0.79083 0.81764 0.84883 0.88186 0.91397 0.93619 0.95872 0.97870 1.00000 1.01937 1.03925 1.05199 1.06677 1.09113 Deflator

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

5-99

0.20163 0.20846 0.21539 0.22059 0.22304 0.22620 0.22875 0.23180 0.23445 0.23792 0.24241 0.24934 0.25698 0.26809 0.28124 0.29623 0.31111 0.32436 0.34251 0.37329 0.40805 0.43119 0.45892 0.49164 0.53262 0.58145 0.63578 0.67533 0.70214 0.72824 0.75117 0.76769 0.79083 0.81764 0.84883 0.88186 0.91397

AL

29,431 23,000 1,700 0 755 1,721 178 120,000 15,055 320 0 112,696 0 1,649 1,354 368,938 4,663 3,087 FL

AK

0 7,150 50 0 20,000 500 6,000 0 0 7,302 0 74,000 10,025 0 1,271 314 0 110 GA

AZ

179,938 223,000 1,350 3,000 7 71 33,636 3,220 258 5,189 228,900 1,616 6,618 701 85 66 12,796 90 HI

AR

CA

500,000 5,000 19,823 2,240 15,045 12,612 2,320 143,056 12,006 909 2,680 2,024 0 205 12,874 2,045 1,777 2,773

673,000 0 0 402,000 1,015 52,353 38,738 570 3,376 93,152 165,920 1,792 1,495,960 13,205 2,086,125 621,588 14,176 9,238

ID

IL

CO

100 107,050 7,000 166 0 0 481 130 2,820 1,602 100 1,242 18,240 4,058 358,890 2,550 50,675 297 IN

CT

DE

0 81,700 0 0 5,000 0 800 10 16 10,366 0 1,316 0 2,092 52 40 1,112 6,010

0 5,000 50 0 0 0 1,600 0 0 2 0 741 0 300 0 0 0 0

IA

KS

105 1,891 0 0 150 12,047 317 1,481 0 426 144 548 95 46 2,858 145 476 41,206 2,282 23,050 15,839 0 140 3,720 21,990

1 212 1,068 323 0 392 5,236 0 445 3,641 397 1,628 23 133 79 348 243 328 5,143 405 3,002 8,130 4,160 0 0

0 0 0 400 0 0 0 0 2,300 0 0 0 1,029 2,500 0 0 500 0 0 3,869 0 270 0 0 11,000

1,371 6,222 20,896 3 500 0 939 8,112 2,766 11,704 4,184 0 792 0 111 38 1,187 355 0 36,118 378 650,000 0 60 0

102 1,026 1,206 17,970 1,506 7,503 11,553 891 513 3,044 30,564 577 2,629 2,576 9,095 9,124 462 5,927 258,704 75,068 20,598 3,370 7,190 50 32,250

1,003 4,021 66,748 52,302 12,958 2,649 13,306 670 8,266 12,327 20 3,098 4,618 22,463 6,672 2,300 1,690 4,700 6,326 15,805 12,317 3,680 8,160 38,960 16,000

35 51 1,543 7,508 128 7,612 9,389 6,778 70 240 32,462 904 4,416 1,650 6,233 977 684 13,262 12,724 56,367 7,300 160 0 0 2,000

474 33 9,164 4,606 4,061 1,947 13,397 1,826 168 370 29,792 97 15,093 2,304 10,991 4,138 1,644 1,646 53,772 3,700 3,255 1,330 46,350 0 7,000

0 200,000 30,000 7,275 645 50,350 2,109 500 0

0 5,050 0 2,000 1,470 230 1,792 30,658 106,158

0 6,055 3,100 0 2,050 35,647 3,392 665 23,715

2,200 1,000 0 2,005 17 0 178 113 2,574

202,500 7,992 11,500 104,705 150,000 102 1,600 71,045 19,834

20,000 22,194 50,000 2,500 1,906 89 716 105,550 89,504

0 600,550 50 45,307 16,755 0 7,286 351,401 195,703

0 50,050 5,000 181,700 152,000 0 3,394 2,048 16,551 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-100

Table 5E.32

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Deflator

FL

GA

HI

ID

IL

IN

IA

KS

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

0.93619 0.95872 0.97870 1.00000 1.01937 1.03925 1.05199 1.06677 1.09113 Deflator

41,938 2,080 182,605 18,536 158,001 49,707 431,311 60,080 499,080 KY

1,156 7,340 300,000 8,845 2,581 464 166,291 8,520 2,101 LA

9,260 2,910 3,700 0 1,935 0 0 0 400 ME

224 0 0 2,096 49,400 125,060 1,005 1,297 85 MD

189 2,640,140 32,606 27,240 107,585 4,295 2,380 3,666 3,113 MA

45,424 9,550 2,852 6,789 21,575 68,598 19,611 50,124 819 MI

50,800 5,740,000 9,124 3,498 165,265 3,680 168,101 111,221 14,877 MN

10,127 551,070 10,437 8,874 3,969 102 4,888 60,030 250 MS

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

0.20163 0.20846 0.21539 0.22059 0.22304 0.22620 0.22875 0.23180 0.23445 0.23792 0.24241 0.24934 0.25698 0.26809 0.28124 0.29623 0.31111 0.32436 0.34251 0.37329 0.40805 0.43119 0.45892 0.49164 0.53262 0.58145 0.63578 0.67533 0.70214 0.72824 0.75117 0.76769 0.79083 0.81764 0.84883 0.88186 0.91397 0.93619 0.95872 0.97870 1.00000 1.01937 1.03925 1.05199 1.06677 1.09113

6,629 568 55,233 3,817 2,480 3 12,969 16,885 36,917 35,476 1,044 1,671 17,583 6,036 8,075 707 6,099 15,841 10,491 5,218 26,302 0 101,000 100,000 0

30 0 4,147 2,842 0 112 6,074 1,908 0 30 0 250 0 2,810 251 1,000 0 100 334,904 10,343 90,204 0 48,040 145,000

0 0 0 0 61 0 800 0 0 0 0 528 0 0 300 0 0 0 11,200 3,000 0 3,360 4,190 0 0

5,450 888 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 53 0 125 0 200 15 8,600 220,739 0 0 27,200 4,900 0 150 69,000

155,982 0 0 0 0 6,400 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 35,000 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 1,000 0 0

0 1,278 0 0 0 1,181 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 13 0 0 10 530 240 54,358 790 0 0 0

0 11 9,128 17 50 212 552 1,290 26 0 97,603 4,300 0 1,197 67,168 4,350 15 64,318 242 16,939 139,726 0 7,870 65,000 13,140

3,132 1,270 2,693 13,826 280 744 15,918 1,982 19 3,152 1,931 2,706 1,192 6,269 1,900 3,586 12,431 10,248 226,885 27,827 70,990 2,840 2,780 0

100 180,236 460 25 68 250 27,445 5,664 9,034 46,870 4,980 2,544 17,673 21,323 470,915 16,639 506 17,631

651,000 6,550 8,050 1,515,250 1,175 8,708 322,118 115,901 221,720 4,191 4,020 675 3,097,250 121 4,359 17,845 5,979 153

375 10,050 45 5,000 61,250 0 3,200 0 16,336 2,179 3,040 9,323 0 4,916 26,845 0 1,580 2,814

100 10,015 50 0 51 0 1,600 23 48 339 0 4,524 1,620 90,481 198 334 9,715 2,452

0 50,560 0 21,500 47,480 0 0 50 9,716 176 160 0 0 2,663 75,024 13,510 250 206

0 0 80,000 405,000 15 206 180 627 6,133 355 1,600 6,236 2,900 26,690 325 18,190 325 25,430

310 5,000 500 1,501 27,800 555 17,600 3,032 1,280 1,760 964,050 1,867 3,750 460 743,218 2,529 466 43,112

812,600 6,050 2,000 651 6,380 39,420 3,635 21,805 313,359 1,010 4,480 1,352 1,092 200 32,774 3,498 1,769 408

Deflator 1955 1956

0.20163 0.20846

MO 666 167

a

MT 63 317

NE 1,500 865

NV 7,398 237

a

NH

NJ 0 0

23,102 0

NM 1,066 0

a

NY 30,072 1,089 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5E.32

5-101

(Continued) Deflator

1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

0.21539 0.22059 0.22304 0.22620 0.22875 0.23180 0.23445 0.23792 0.24241 0.24934 0.25698 0.26809 0.28124 0.29623 0.31111 0.32436 0.34251 0.37329 0.40805 0.43119 0.45892 0.49164 0.53262 0.58145 0.63578 0.67533 0.70214 0.72824 0.75117 0.76769 0.79083 0.81764 0.84883 0.88186 0.91397 0.93619 0.95872 0.97870 1.00000 1.01937 1.03925 1.05199 1.06677 1.09113

MO

MT

NE

NV

NH

9,618 38,718 6,018 13,506 27,375 557 152 6,591 33,976 2,781 39,080 890 36,601 14,926 191 5,783 231,438 62,594 7,611 810 52,500 2,000 0

33 1 82 57 0 147 148 54,389 253 0 2,947 0 388 581 412 595 0 4,217 24,123 50 0 19,060 0

5,983 3,064 3,753 8,884 674 2,630 13,394 5,146 1,368 11,628 40,644 6,029 1,826 0 5,941 73 10,388 126 0 0 1,590 67,000 0

0 0 0 0 891 762 2,858 2,454 4 307 45 1 0 138 0 0 0 1,000 6,200 200 0 0 0

0 0 4,500 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 800 400 0 0 0 19,100 0 0 0 610 900 0

0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,438 166,690 580 0 138,700 15,050 50,868 0 60,687 0 95,880 14,720

50,000 96,293 100 155,000 100,550 69 16,067 1,842 1,960 2,044 3,429,630 37,864 25,415 871 692 10,227 36,862 109,760

0 663 0 38,674 0 0 2,194 1,758 10,743 1,403 6,720 3,392 510 2,243 2,874 3,001 184 30

0 100,550 500 28,482 25,890 61 29,772 36,536 53,615 6,683 294,500 2,710 5,129 31,233 10,273 1,483 22,765 23,456

1,000 0 0 20,650 13 12 23 51 2 1,621 0 160 11,970 370 640,110 1,300 25,009 221

75 6,000 50 5,962 19,100 0 0 1,200 0 0 0 0 110 4,000 10,952 700 1,002 515

0 334,200 0 0 17,050 50 1,600 1 16,002 500 0 3,520 0 36,720 38,700 750 800,000 179,100

Deflator 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968

0.20163 0.20846 0.21539 0.22059 0.22304 0.22620 0.22875 0.23180 0.23445 0.23792 0.24241 0.24934 0.25698 0.26809

NC 625 831 788 3,201 506 100 1,400 0 0 15,816 88 198 1,168 0

ND 2 0 100 0 28 136 0 0 0 0 5,192 9,700 0 0

OH 753 1,056 7 4,867 54,840 191 1,217 6,512 22,359 28,039 0 1,893 6,622 20,074

OK 977 0 35,665 169 8,907 2,638 2,483 792 413 798 2,508 12 3 3,021

OR 9,515 6,376 310 363 20 360 757 1,550 299 187,101 5,679 2,283 1,044 538

NJ

NM

a

PA 141,381 7,199 1,048 3,582 21,109 3,072 612 15 5,397 16,938 0 705 7,251 421

NY

0 0 0 0 0 0 620 1,235 4,833 1,048 0 0 0 0 0 6,613 251 0 577 500 0 14,450 3,210

166 42 5,667 7,229 608 0 33,102 3,275 0 0 777 0 3,383 3,953 1,000 747,674 5,000 0 60,064 38,020 10,600 0

6,000 23,000 24,000 0 10 0 3,378 1,187 1,567 32,264 210 2,000 954 1,285 380 713 3,980 160

0 217,500 24,700 30,820 75,275 230 38,271 6,530 19,603 1,862 55,480 25,707 1,485 220,011 55,909 38,627 18,715 18,498

RI 28,830 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 588 9,000

a

SC 74 0 60 680 122 72 369 97 89 1,809 268 140 579 0 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-102

Table 5E.32

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Deflator

1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

0.28124 0.29623 0.31111 0.32436 0.34251 0.37329 0.40805 0.43119 0.45892 0.49164 0.53262 0.58145 0.63578 0.67533 0.70214 0.72824 0.75117 0.76769 0.79083 0.81764 0.84883 0.88186 0.91397 0.93619 0.95872 0.97870 1.00000 1.01937 1.03925 1.05199 1.06677 1.09113

NC

OH

OK

OR

PA

RI

SC

1,338 2,326 965 10,772 39,004 1,028 7,932 9,120 52,500 0 0

37,436 13,832 1,266 537 0 8,291 154,715 2,420 80 13,000 20,100

87,916 2,478 782 12,929 8,317 1,500 15,513 40 370 1,520 60,000

762 5,212 23,166 12,006 38,119 29,083 300 52,640 12,720 0 0

938 2,518 4,350 12,977 2,699 64,017 7,898 1,170 10,690 0 0

3,310 365 20,899 2,786,294 5,935 0 270,600 440 330,020 6,630 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

470 40,000 50 1,990 20,461 0 21,072 1,075 2,694 12,927 1,400 2,032 26,596 42,119 17,994 16,135 3,117,160 7,605

0 5 0 315 4,943 0 16,000 0 32 0 413,600 58,552 44,366 220 3,408,298 2,583 100,355 191,177

0 10,122 10,000 10,000 20,518 2 52,240 40,846 55,165 20,078 25,800 39,913 28,511 22,721 66,666 181,409 963 8,839

0 268,000 15,030 802,250 22,250 3,437 2,121 40,650 90 10,871 44,720 166 3,275 0 155 262 9,578 11,691

7,300 52,900 50 33,900 900 125 98 1,070 9,010 32 1,760 0 11,320 3,203,500 173,200 10 2,100 5,734

0 75,500 100 71,540 28 62 7,106 792 8,342 1,805 440 16,194 10,385 494,862 3,136 1,103 27,642 27,476

0 5 0 0 550 0 0 50 174 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

SD

TN

UT

VT

226 210 169 10 4 0 281 1,272 64 70 1,746 1,577 453 1,260 237 222 1,033 358 2,270 0 212 0 300 0 130

0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 692 0 0 0 100 680 0 0 40 66,466 0 200 0 2,710 0 0

Deflator 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

ND

0.20163 0.20846 0.21539 0.22059 0.22304 0.22620 0.22875 0.23180 0.23445 0.23792 0.24241 0.24934 0.25698 0.26809 0.28124 0.29623 0.31111 0.32436 0.34251 0.37329 0.40805 0.43119 0.45892 0.49164 0.53262 0.58145

11 10 3,969 0 0 3,417 1 3,030 0 0 740 470 1,125 123 31,898 19 0 165,086 0 268 0 5,500 0 250 49,000

977 279 5,118 128 0 226 2,263 651 6,262 156 2,472 1,608 1,090 648 1,090 13,260 86 6,634 66,273 2,243 12,700 200 21,000 0 0

TX 5,165 3,715 78,881 18,101 2,886 8,093 2,846 1,948 20 5,435 39,395 28,001 98,259 24,267 12,878 3,150 26,538 20,605 136,758 41,707 23,074 33,390 2,450 132,730 2,000,000

VA 10,695 0 139 0 28 211 231 0 5,937 0 2 0 581 0 123,552 148 1,158 180,770 1,615 100 18,340 0 268,700 10,000 24,800

a

WA 1,165 6,472 1,664 50 4,914 0 130 0 1,013 11,817 1,012 592 1,910 611 2,722 380 3,908 21,029 0 21,318 42,289 2,500 5,630 0 3,100

625 52 295 69 7,674 78 1,477 11,210 260 60 0

0 1,110 100 3,070 31,771 0 370 677 11,871 0 17,920 6,228 28,169 668 1,105 4,044 75 2,885 WV 5,187 3,185 11,052 1,170 709 370 3,455 5,914 17,624 4,169 49 1,868 14,235 47 5,996 297 1,653 37,974 3,359 10,375 5,913 3,260 50,500 2,900 2,000 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5E.32

5-103

(Continued) Deflator

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

0.63578 0.67533 0.70214 0.72824 0.75117 0.76769 0.79083 0.81764 0.84883 0.88186 0.91397 0.93619 0.95872 0.97870 1.00000 1.01937 1.03925 1.05199 1.06677 1.09113

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

0.20163 0.20846 0.21539 0.22059 0.22304 0.22620 0.22875 0.23180 0.23445 0.23792 0.24241 0.24934 0.25698 0.26809 0.28124 0.29623 0.31111 0.32436 0.34251 0.37329 0.40805 0.43119 0.45892 0.49164 0.53262 0.58145 0.63578 0.67533 0.70214 0.72824 0.75117 0.76769 0.79083 0.81764 0.84883 0.88186 0.91397 0.93619 0.95872

Deflator

SD

0 206,015 55 6,665 3 0 16 3,000 2,934 3,460 763,380 20,399 12,270 360 100,541 50 619 0

TN

40,100 50,500 1,550 15,150 95 5,165 11,482 18,059 13,109 204 5,070 51,039 1,264 2,740 23,479 25,427 554 230

WI

WY

50 335 0 0 1,791 996 1,442 57 142 0 14,067 361 0 0 4,763 0 0 0 6,121 50 3,041 0 0 71,000 0

200 11 526 3 0 0 0 0 899 138 390 0 1,096 0 0 500 503 0 304 48 0 100 100 16,320 0

0 6,000 2,300 80,000 2,992 32 160 31,159 180 29,305 903,660

0 0 40,000 250 16 0 1,602 44 2,160 0 0

TX

0 51,500 38,650 34,100 546,515 2,226 341,098 386,886 188,766 199,356 56,990 1,721 85,050 407,066 136,472 163,407 612,634 25,130

UT

500,000 50,500 0 479,000 250 0 15,403 56 6,005 24 160 0 1,500 312 10,100 4,485 1,314 679

VT

0 51,600 0 0 10,500 0 50 15,657 19 2 7,550 1,502 5,150 5,123 170 23,805 1,036 1,845

VA

30 55,055 290 800,000 1,510 0 39,363 3,472 984 7,371 0 16,169 66,759 153,516 898 2,381 255,062 1,368

WA

16,943 1,500 0 20,351 30,150 11 320 58,770 227,634 176 2,080 160 250 370,060 54,675 3,120 2,371 488

WV

0 229,000 1,050 600,000 125 1 1,010 8,930 908 5,791 620 5,397 8,595 224,172 18,391 35,506 363 11,003

(Continued)

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5-104

Table 5E.32

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Deflator

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 a

0.97870 1.00000 1.01937 1.03925 1.05199 1.06677 1.09113

WI 62,052 675 218,025 93,346 82,825 9,305 74,298

WY 0 0 181 192 22 0 20

Damage estimate available for large region, but not for individual state.

Source: From Pielke, Jr., R.A., M.W. Downton, and J.Z. Barnard Miller, 2002: Flood damage in the United States, 1926–2000: A Reanalysis of National Weather Service Estimates. Boulder, CO: UCAR, www.flooddamagedata.org.

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Total damage, 1955–1978 and 1983–1999 (millions 1995$)

State PA CA IA LA MO TX IL OR ND NY NC VA MN NJ CO MS KY OK CT ID WV SD KS WI AR IN OH FL UT AZ NE WA MA AL MD MI NV GA TN AK MT VT ME NM SC RI HI NH WY DE 0

1000

2000

3000

Damage:

4000

5000

6000

7000

Worst year

8000

9000 10000 11000 12000 All years

Figure 5E.19 States ranked by estimated total damage during 1955–1978 and 1983–1999. (From Pielke, Jr., R.A., M.W. Downton, and J.Z. Barnard Miller; Flood damage in the United States, 1926–2000: A Reanalysis of National Weather Service Estimates. Boulder, CO:UCAR, 2002, www.flooddamagedata.org.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

U.S. Total Flood Damage, 1934–2000

60 M Ii S s S s Ii N n G g

12 9

Per capita damage (1995$)

Damage (billions 1995$)

15

6 3 0 1930

U.S. Per Capita Flood Damage, 1934–2000

70

18

M Ii S s S s Ii N n G g

50 40 30 20 10

1940

1950

1960

(a)

1970

1980

1990

0 1930

2000

1940

1950

1960

(b)

Water year

1970

1980

1990

2000

Water year

U.S. flood damage per unit wealth, 1934–1998 $ Damage per million $ Tangible wealth

1500

900

600

300

0 1930

(c)

M Ii s S s S Ii n N g G

1200

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

Water year

Figure 5E.20 Estimated annual flood damage in the United States, 1934–1999: (a) Total flood damage, (b) Flood damage per capita, (c) Flood damage per million dollars of tangible wealth. (From Pielke, Jr., R.A., M.W. Downton, and J.Z. Barnard Miller; Flood damage in the United States, 1926–2000: A Reanalysis of National Weather Service Estimates. Boulder, CO:UCAR, 2002, www.flooddamagedata.org.)

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Total damage in period (millions 1995$) Period = 1955–1978

State PA CA NY TX CO CT MO ID NJ VA LA KY MN IL MS OR IN OH MA AR MD OK KS SD ND NE WV IA AZ TN NC AK WA MT FL AL WI VT RI MI GA NM NV NH SC ME WY UT HI DE 0

1000

2000

3000

4000

Damage: Figure 5E.21A

5000

6000

7000

Worst year

8000

9000 10000 11000 12000 All years

States ranked based on total flood damage during 1955–1978. (From Pielke, Jr., R.A., M.W. Downton, and J.Z. Barnard Miller; Flood damage in the United States, 1926–2000: A Reanalysis of National Weather Service Estimates. Boulder, CO:UCAR, 2002, www.flooddamagedata.org.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Total damage in period (millions 1995$) Period = 1983–1999 State IA LA CA MO ND IL TX OR NC MN FL VA WI MS OK NJ UT WV SD KS AR NY KY AZ WA PA NE MI AL NV GA OH CO IN TN MA ID ME VT CT AK MD NM SC HI MT NH WY DE RI 0

1000

2000

3000 Damage:

4000

5000

6000

7000

Worst year

Figure 5E.21B States ranked based on total flood damage during 1983–1999.

Figure 5E.21A

(Continued )

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8000

9000 10000 11000 12000 All years

SURFACE WATER

5-109

Average annual damage per capita, 1983–1999 (1995$)

State ND IA SD LA OR UT MO WV MS NV OK KS NC NE AR MN WI IL VA VT AK AZ KY TX CA ID CO AL NJ WA ME WY MT IN GA FL HI NM MI PA TN OH NY NH MA CT SC MD DE RI

363 170 104 95 72 49 49 46 38 33 30 28 28 27 25 24 19 19 18 15 15 14 14 12 12 11 10 10 10 10 8 8 6 6 6 6 6 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 0 0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Figure 5E.22 States ranked based on average annual flood damage per capita, 1983–1999. (From Pielke, Jr., R.A., M.W. Downton, and J.Z. Barnard Miller; Flood damage in the United States, 1926–2000: A Reanalysis of National Weather Service Estimates. Boulder, CO:UCAR, 2002, www.flooddamagedata.org.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-110

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5E.33 California 1998 El Nin˜o Disaster: Estimated and Actual Public Assistance Costs, in Thousands of Current Dollars

County State agencies Alameda Amador Butte Calaveras Colusa Contra Costa Del Norte Fresno Glenn Humboldt Kern Lake Los Angeles Marin Mendocino Merced Monterey Napa Orange Riverside Sacramento San Benito San Bernardino San Diego San Francisco San Joaquin San Luis Obispo San Mateo Santa Barbara Santa Clara Santa Cruz Solano Sonoma Stanislaus Sutter Tehama Trinity Tulare Ventura Yolo Yuba Total a

IDE

PDA

Actual Cost (By 6/1/01)

Estimate

Prop. of Actual

Estimate

Prop. of Actual

30,091 18,471 258 1,726 131 4,652 5,631 271 1,701 3,802 7,748 12,312 1,889 31,229 6,449 2,836 2,327 26,182 468 12,617 3,130 2,366 6,455 7,525 6,977 3,859 2,657 4,006 21,951 15,816 13,638 12,459 3,346 11,779 2,122 1,039 881 1,091 2,149 20,391 909 592 315,929

7,129 12,971 235 665 — 25,000 3,885 — 820 21,250 1,049 — 1,395 5,660 3,319 4,259 490 20,181 720 3,992 — — 26,870 — — 12,300 655 772 16,110 75 9,846 13,673 3,628 11,180 — 1,582 20,000 1,970 — 3,302 4,321 196 239,500

0.24 0.70 0.91 0.39 — 5.37 0.69 — 0.48 5.59 0.14 — 0.74 0.18 0.51 1.50 0.21 0.77 1.54 0.32 — — 4.16 — — 3.19 0.25 0.19 0.73 0.00 0.72 1.10 1.08 0.95 — 1.52 22.70 1.81 — 0.16 4.75 0.33 0.86a

14,497 8,176 176 706 162 1,829 4,760 461 1,052 9,884 1,753 10,306 3,044 35,516 5,447 3,846 734 11,822 448 16,720 5,964 3,066 10,595 30,429 9,180 3,703 3,155 4,915 26,328 12,954 13,310 6,320 8,564 4,127 909 758 616 975 919 14,350 4,484 249 297,204

0.48 0.44 0.68 0.41 1.24 0.39 0.85 1.70 0.62 2.60 0.23 0.84 1.61 1.14 0.84 1.36 0.32 0.45 0.96 1.33 1.91 1.30 1.64 4.04 1.32 0.96 1.19 1.23 1.20 0.82 0.98 0.51 2.56 0.35 0.43 0.73 0.70 0.89 0.43 0.70 4.93 0.42 0.94

Proportion of actual cost ($279 million) of cases with an IDE.

Source: From Pielke, Jr., R.A., M.W. Downton, and J.Z. Barnard Miller, 2002: Flood Damage in the United States, 1926–2000: A Reanalysis of National Weather Service Estimates. Boulder, CO: UCAR, www.flooddamagedata.org.

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5-111

Preliminary Damage Assessment (PDA)

Initial Damage Estimate (IDE) 32.00

32.00

16.00

16.00

8.00

8.00

4.00

4.00

2.00

2.00

1.00

1.00

0.50

0.50 0.25

0.25 0.25

0.50

1.00

2.00

4.00

8.00

Actual costs, as of 6–1–01

16.00

32.00

0.25

0.50

1.00

2.00

4.00

8.00

16.00

32.00

Actual costs, as of 6–1–01

Figure 5E.23 Flood damage estimates in California 1998 El Nino disaster (millions of dollars) estimated flood damage in California counties in the 1998 El Nino disaster, compared with actual cost as of June 1, 2001: (A) Initial damage estimate, (B) Preliminary damage assessment. (From Pielke, Jr., R.A., M.W. Downton, and J.Z. Barnard Miller; Flood damage in the United States, 1926–2000: A Reanalysis of National Weather Service Estimates. Boulder, CO:UCAR, 2002, www.flooddamagedata.org.)

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150,000 100,000 80,000

I

50,000

S.k.

Mad

ch Pak

USA Mad

20,000

USA

15,000

Ph

Ja

Ja

USA

Mex (Ch) Ja USA Ta Au

10,000 8,000

2

ion uat

Nc (Fr) (Ch) Ta

198

100,000 80,000

Sit

USA

5,000

50,000

2

n

196

S.k

30,000

Pak Ja

2,000

Mad

20,000

(Ch) USA USA Ta Ph. Ja Ja Ja Ja USA Nik

USA

1,500

Ha (USA)

Mex Ta (Ch)

NC. (Fr.)

1,000

USA Ta (Ch)

USA NC. (Fr.)

15,000 10,000 6,000

Au

Nz

Discharge, m3/sec

Situ

ch.

USA Nk

atio

3,000

Mad.

4,000

Mex. NC. (Fr.)

3,000

Ha (USA) Ta (Fr.) Cub.

2,000 1,000 800,000

100,000

80,000

50,000

30,000

20,000

15,000

8,000

5,000

3,000

2,000

1,500

800

500

300

200

150

100 80

50

30

20 15

Basin area, km2 Figure 5E.24 Relationship between maximum flood flows in the world and size of drainage basin. (From Rodier, J.A., and Roche, M. World Catalogue of Maximum Observed Floods, International Assoc. Hydrological Sciences Publ. No. 143, 1984.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Discharge, m3/sec

30,000

SURFACE WATER

5-113

Year 1975

Year 2000

Other areas including: Public lands and buildings, mining, utilities, and rural industries Unaccounted

Urban

Other areas including:

Urban

Agricultural

Public lands and buildings, mining, uitilities, and rural industries

Agricultural

$4,300,000,000 (1975 Dollars)

$3,400,000,000

Figure 5E.25 Trends in distribution of annual flood losses in the United States, 1975–2000. (From Hays, W.W., Facing Geologic and Hydrologic Hazards, Earth-Science Considerations, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1240-B, 1981.)

Table 5E.34 Great Floods in the United States Since 1889

Numbera

Type of Flood

1 2 3

b

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

d

c d

c b,e d d d b f d d d d d e d d d d d d d c d

Date May 1889 September 8, 1900 May–June 1903 March 1913 September 14, 1919 June 1921 September 1921 Spring 1927 November 1927 March 12–13, 1928 September 13, 1928 May–June 1935 March–April 1936 January–February 1937 March 1938 September 21, 1938 July 1939 May–July 1947 June–July 1951 August 1955 December 1955 June 27–30, 1957 December 1964 June 1965 September 10, 1965 January–February 1969

Location Johnstown, Pennsylvania, Dam failure Hurricane–Galveston, Texas Kansas, Lower Missouri, and Upper Mississippi River Ohio River and Tributaries Hurricane–South of Corpus Christi, Texas Arkansas River, Colorado Texas Rivers Mississippi River Valley New England Rivers St. Francis Dam failure, Southern California Lake Okeechobee, Florida Republican and Kansas Rivers Rivers in Eastern United States Ohio and Lower Mississippi River Basins Streams in Southern California New England Licking and Kentucky Rivers Lower Missouri and Middle Mississippi River Basins Kansas and Missouri Hurricane Diane floods–Northeastern United States West coast rivers Hurricane Audrey–Texas and Louisiana California and Oregon South Platte River Basin, Colorado Hurricane Betsy–Florida and Louisiana Floods in California

Lives Lost

Estimated Damages (Millions of Dollars)

3,000 6,000 100

— 30 40

467 600–900 120 215 313 88 450 1,836 110 107 137 79 600 78 29 28 187 61 390 40 16 75 60

147 22 25 19 284 46 14 26 18 270 418 25 306 2 235 923 714 155 150 416 415 1,420 399 (Continued)

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Table 5E.34

Numbera 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 a b c d e f

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Type of Flood c,d

c b e c,d d d c,d

b e e b,e d c

Date August 17–18, 1969 July 30–August 5, 1970 February 1972 June 1972 June 1972 Spring 1973 June–July 1975 September 1975 June 1976 July 1976 April 1977 July 1977 April 1979 September 12–13, 1979

Location

Lives Lost

Hurricane Camille–Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama Hurricane Celia–Texas Buffalo Creek, West Virginia Black Hills, South Dakota Hurricane Agnes floods–Eastern United States Mississippi River Basin Red River of the North Basin Hurricane Eloise floods-Puerto Rico and Northeastern United States Teton Dam failure, Southeast Idaho Big Thompson River, Colorado Southern Appalachian Mountains area Johnstown–Western Pennsylvania Mississippi and Alabama Hurricane Frederic floods–Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida

Estimated Damages (Millions of Dollars)

256

1,421

11 125 237 105 33 !10 50

453 10 165 4,020 1,155 273 470

11 139 22 78 !10 13

1,000 30 424 330 500 2,000

Number corresponds to those shown on Figure 3.12. Dam break flood. Tidal flood. Riverine flood. Flash flood. Flood wave generated in Lake Okeechobee by hurricane.

Source: From Hays, W.W., 1981, Facing Geologic and Hydrologic Hazards, Earth–Science Considerations, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1240-B.

Table 5E.35 Sources of Flood Damage Estimates Source National weather service flood damage data sets Insurance records (National flood insurance program, private insurers) Disaster assistance records (Federal emergency management agency) State and local government records Newspaper archives

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Timespan

Spatial Scale

Scope

1925–present

Nation State Basin

1969–present

Nation Community

1992–present

Nation State

Varies

State

Federal and state outlays for public assistance, individual assistance, and temporary housing in presidentially declared disasters Varies

Varies

Community

Varies

Estimates of direct physical damage from significant flooding events that result from rainfall or snowmelt Personal property claims made by individuals holding flood insurance

SURFACE WATER

5-115

Table 5E.36 Major Flood Disasters of the World Date 1228 1642 1887 1889 May 31 1900 Sep 8 1903 June 15 1911 1913 Mar 25–27 1915 Aug 17 1928 Mar 13 1928 Sep 13 1931 Aug 1937 Jan 22 1939 1946 Apr 1 1947 1951 Aug 1953 Jan 31 1954 Aug 17 1955 Oct 7–12 1959 Nov 1 1959 Dec 2 1960 Oct 10 1960 Oct 31 1962 Feb 17 1962 Sep 27 1963 Oct 9 1966 Nov 3–4 1967 Jan 18–24 1967 Mar 19 1967 Nov 26 1968 Aug 7–14 1968 Oct 7 1969 Jan 18–26

Location

Deaths

Holland China Huang He River, China Johnstown, PA Galveston, TX Heppner, OR Chang Jiang River, China Ohio, IN Galveston, TX Collapse of St. Francis Dam, Santa Paula, CA Lake Okeechobee, FL Huang He River, China Ohio, Miss. Valleys Northern China Hawaii, Alaska Honshu Island, Japan Manchuria Western Europe Farahzad, Iran India, Pakistan Western Mexico Frejus, France Bangladesh Bangladesh German North Sea coast Barcelona, Spain Dam collapse, Vaiont, Italy Florence, Venice, Italy Eastern Brazil Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Lisbon, Portugal Gujarat State, India Northeastern India So. CA

100,000 300,000 900,000 2,200 5,000 325 100,000 732 275 450 2,000 3,700,000 250 200,000 159 1,900 1,800 2,000 2,000 1,700 2,000 412 6,000 4,000 343 445 1,800 113 894 436 464 1,000 780 100

Date

Location

1969 Mar 17 1969 Aug 20–22 1969 Sep 15 1969 Oct 1–8 1970 May 20 1970 July 22 1971 Feb 26 1972 Feb 26 1972 June 9 1972 Aug 7 1973 Aug 19–31 1974 Mar 29 1974 Aug 12 1976 June 5 1976 July 31 1976 Nov 17 1977 July 19–20 1978 June–Sep 1979 Jan–Feb 1979 July 17 1979 Aug 11 1980 Feb 13–22 1981 Apr 1981 July 1982 Jan 23 1982 May 12 1982June 6 1982 Sep 17–21 1982 Dec 2–9 1983 Feb–Mar 1983 Apr 6–12 1984 May 27 1984 Aug–Sep 1985 July 19

Deaths

Mundau Valley, Alagoas, Brazil Western Virginia South Korea Tunisia Central Romania Himalayas, India Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Buffalo Creek, WV Rapid City, SD Luzon Is., Philippines Pakistan Tubaro, Brazil Monty-Long, Bangladesh Teton Dam collapse, ID Big Thompson Canyon, CO East Java, Indonesia Johnstown, PA Northern India Brazil Lomblem Is., Indonesia Morvi, India So. CA., AR Northern China Sichuan, Hubei Prov., China Nr. Lima, Perui Guangdong, China So. Conn El Salvador, Guatemala IL., MO., AR CA coast AL., LA, MS., TN Tulsa, OK S. Korea Northern Italy, dam burst

218 189 250 500 160 500 130 118 236 454 1,500 1,000 2,500 11 139 136 68 1,200 204 539 5,000–15,000 26 550 1,300 600 430 12 1,300C 22 13 15 13 200C 361

Source: From The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1988. Copyright Pharos Books, A Scripps Howard Co., New York. Reproduced with permission.

Table 5E.37 Maximum Flood Flows in the World

Country U.S.A. (California) U.S.A. (California) U.S.A. (Hawaii) U.S.A. (Hawaii) Cuba Tahiti Mexico New Caledonia Taiwan New Caledonia

Station San Rafael San Rafael L. San Gorgonio Beaumont Halawa Waa¨ilua Lihue Buey San Miguel Papenoo San Bartolo Ouinne Embouchure Cho Shui Ouaa¨le`me derniers rapides

Basin Area (km2)

Maximum Discharge (m3/sec)

KaValue

Year

3.2

250

5.194

1973

4.5

311

5.226

1969

12

762

5.494

1965

58

2,470

5.819

1963

73

2,060

5.623

1963

78 81 143

2,200 3,000 4,000

5.650 5.859 5.845

1983 1976 1975

259 330

7,780 10,400

6.225 6.389

1979 1981

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5E.37

(Continued)

Country New Caledonia U.S.A. (New York)

New Zealand U.S.A. (California) Mexico Australia Taiwan Japan Japan U.S.A. (Texas) India Taiwan Japan U.S.A. (Texas) North Korea Japan Philippines

Japan U.S.A. (Texas) U.S.A. (California) U.S.A. (Texas) Madagascar North Korea South Korea Pakistan China Madagascar India China U.S.S.R. Brazil

Station Yate´ Little Nemaha Syracuse Haast Roaring Billy M.F. American Cithuatian Paso del Mojo Pioneer Pleystowe Hualien Hualien Bridge Nyodo Ino Kiso Imujama W. Nueces Bracketville Macchu Tam Shui Taipei Bridge Shingu Oga Pedernales Johnson City Daeryong Gang Yoshino Iwazu Cagayan Echague Isabella Tone Yattajima Nueces Uvalde Eel Scotia Pecos Comstock Betsiboka Ambodiroka Toedong Gang Mirim Han Koan Jhelum Mangla Hanjiang Hankang Mangoky Banyan Narmada Garudeshwar Chang Jiang Yitchang Lena Kusur Amazonas Obidos

Basin Area (km2)

Maximum Discharge (m3/sec)

KaValue

Year

435 549

5,700 6,370

5.810 5.826

1981 1950

1,020

7,690

5.765

1979

1,360

8,780

5.770

1964

1,370

13,500

6.156

1959

1,490

9,840

5.840

1918

1,500

11,900

6.011

1973

1,560 1,680

13,510 11,150

6.111 5.910

1963 1961

1,800

15,600

6.156

1959

1,900 2,110

14,000 16,700

6.060 6.199

1979 1963

2,350 2,450

19,025 12,500

6.290 5.873

1959 1952

3,020 3,750 4,244

13,500 14,470 17,550

5.830 5.844 5.980

1975 1974 1959

5,110

16,900

5.871

1947

5,504

17,400

5.870

1935

8,060

21,300

5.917

1964

(9,100) 11,800

26,800 22,000

6.110 5.780

1954 1927

12,175

29,000

6.060

1967

23,880 29,000

37,000 31,100

6.047 5.739

1925 1929

41,400

40,000

5.868

1583

50,000

38,000

5.698

1933

88,000

69,400

6.210

1970

1,010,000

110,000

5.197

1870

2,430,000 4,640,000

189,000 370,000

5.520 6.760

1967 1953

Note: Arranged by size of drainage basin. Flood coefficient KZ10 [(1K(log(Q)K6)/(log(A)K8)] where Q is the largest flood in m3/sec; A is the basin area in km2. Source: From Rodier, J.A., and Roche, M., 1984, World Catalogue of Maximum Observed Floods, International Assoc. Hydrological Sciences Publ. No. 143. Reproduced with permission. a

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Table 5E.38 Tornadoes, Floods, and Tropical Cyclones in the United States, 1931–1984 Item a

Tornadoes, number Lives lost, total Most in a single tornado Property loss of $500,000 and over Floods: Lives lost Property loss (mil. dot.) North Atlantic tropical cyclones and hurricanes:b Number reaching U.S. coast Hurricanes only Lives lost in U.S.

1931– 1935

1936– 1945

1946– 1955

1956– 1965

1966– 1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

830 909 37 15

1,514 1,896 216 56

2,969 1,751 169 130

6,572 924 44 191

8,030 1,172 58 428

835 44 5 46

852 43 22 46

788 53 16 59

852 84 42 73

866 28 5 92

783 24 5 55

1,046 64 10 92

931 34 3 95

907 122 16 125

368 187

953 1,484

808 3,350

557 2,721

1,528 10,225

187 1,000

212 1,393

125 1,000

103 4,000

97 1,500

90 1,000

155 3,500

200 4,100

126 4,000

21 12 494

41 19 768

40 21 495

33 14 692

25 13 504

2 1 9

1 1 —

2 — 35

5 3 11

2 1 2

2 — —

1 — —

2 1 22

2 1 4

Note: — Represents zero. a A violent, rotating column of air descending from a cumulonimbus cloud in the form of a tubular- or funnel-shaped cloud, usually characterized by movements along a narrow path and wind speeds from 100 to over 300 miles per hour. Also known as a “twister” or “waterspout.” b Tropical cyclones have maximum winds of 39–73 miles per hour; hurricanes have maximum winds of 74 miles per hour or higher. Source: From Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1987 and data from the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

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Table 5E.39 Tornadoes: Floods, Tropical Storms, and Lightning: 1993–2003 Weather type Tornadoesa Lives lost Injuries Property loss (mil. dol.) Floods and flash floods: Lives lost Injuries Property loss (mil. dol.) North Atlantic tropical storms and hurricanesb Number of hurricanes reaching U.S. mainland Direct deaths on U.S. mainland Property loss in U.S. (mil. dol.) Lightning: Deaths Injuries

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003, prel.

33 (NA) (NA)

69 (NA) (NA)

30 650 410.8

26 705 719.6

67 1,033 730.7

130 1,868 1,714.2

94 1,842 1,989.9

41 882 423.6

40 743 630.1

55 968 801.3

54 1,087 1,263.2

103 (NA) (NA) 8

91 (NA) (NA) 7

80 57 1,250.5 19

131 95 2,120.7 13

118 525 6,910.6 7

136 6,440 2,324.8 14

68 301 1,420.7 12

38 47 1,255.1 15

48 277 1,220.3 15

49 88 655.0 12

85 65 2,540.9 (NA)

1

—

2

2

1

3

3

—

—

1

(NA)

2 57.0

9 973.0

17 5,932.3

37 1,436.1

1 667.6

9 3,546.6

19 4,190.1

— 8.1

24 5,187.8

51 1,104.4

14 1,879.5

43 295

69 577

85 433

52 309

42 306

44 283

46 243

51 364

44 371

51 256

44 237

Note: — Represents zero. NA Not available. a

U.S. National Weather Service, Internet site !www.spc.noaa.gov/climo/torn/monthlytomstats.htmlO (accessed 14 April 2004). A violent, rotating column of air descending from a cumulonimbus cloud in the form of a tubular- or funnel-shaped cloud, usually characterized by movements along a narrow path and wind speeds from 100 to over 300 miles per hour. Also known as a “twister” or “waterspout.” b National Hurricane Center (NHC), Coral Gables, FL, unpublished data. For data on individual hurricanes, see the NHC web site at www.nhc.noaa.gov/. Tropical storms have winds of 39–73 miles per hour, hurricanes have winds of 74 miles per hour or higher. Source: From, except as noted, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Storm Data, monthly. See also NOAA website at www.nws.noaa.gov/om/hazstats.shtml and www.nws.noaa.gov/om/severeweather/sum03.pdf (released 03 March 2004).

Table 5E.40 Deaths, Injuries, and Damage Caused by Floods in the United States, 1965–1985

Fiscal Year 1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 Totals

No. of Events

Persons Killed

Persons Injured

Dwellings Destroyed

Dwellings Damaged

Dwellings Destroyed & Damaged

67 NA NA NA NA 49 77 78 83 90 70 68 106 148 122 115 133 149 121 48 —

22 16 38 24 51 22 519 105 71 48 55 165 196 143 79 NA 70 69 65 9 —

102 161 824 284 783 58 16,587 1,559 366 500 2,071 1,469 3,712 3,842 1,121 NA 2,561 1,988 1,478 29 —

91 108 84 71 83 105 7,346 3,229 1,417 803 1,377 3,581 1,489 2,659 887 NA NA NA NA NA —

9,131 22,353 14,224 17,674 33,769 6,993 133,805 81,467 31,309 25,008 26,179 35,942 48,508 56,646 37,439 NA NA NA NA NA —

9,222 22,461 14,308 17,745 33,852 7,098 141,151 84,696 32,726 25,811 27,556 39,523 49,997 59,305 38,326 19,578 46,256 48,874 41,578 2,308 762,371

Note: Based on American National Red Cross data which are by fiscal year (July 1–June 30). Source: From Rubin, C.B., Yezer, A. M., Hussain, Q, and Webb, A., 1986, Summary of Major Natural Disaster Incidents in the U.S. 1965–85, Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center, George Washington University Spec. Publ. 17. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 5E.41 Deaths Caused by Floods in the United States in 1987 State AL AR GA HI IL IN KY MA MI MN NY OK OR PA PR SC TN TX VA VT Total Percent

Boat

Open

Other

Outside

Perm. Home

Playing

Auto

All

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1%

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 4%

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1%

0 0 0 2 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 10 14%

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1%

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 3%

2 4 4 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 10 2 0 0 7 0 3 14 1 1 52 74%

2 4 4 3 1 2 2 1 1 2 11 3 1 1 7 1 3 17 3 1 70 99%a

Note: By location; flash floods and floods. a

Rounding to the nearest percent causes the column to sum to less than 100 percent.

Source: From Peters, B.E., 1988, National Weather Service, Fort Worth, TX.

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q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 5E.42 Flood Fatalities

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Table 5E.43 Major Natural Disasters in the United States, 1965–1985

Type of Disaster Ice and snow events Hurricanes/tropical storms Earthquakes Dam and levee failures Rains, storms & floodinga High winds & waves Coastal storms & flooding Tornadoes Drought/water shortage Totals

Number

Federal Outlay (thousands of current dollars)

Federal Outlay (thousands of 1982 dollars)

19 39 7 7 337 2 7 109 4 531

151,427 1,173,141 203,881 55,764 1,684,702 125,313 158,261 441,685 1,134 3,995,308

205,511 1,947,939 405,706 80,806 2,439,852 120,536 205,357 648,352 5,344 6,059,403

Note: Federally-declared disasters, by type. a Includes land, mud, and debris flows and slides. Source: From Rubin, C.B., Yezer, A.M., Hussain, Q, and Webb, A., 1986, Summary of Major Natural Disaster Incidents in the U.S. 1965– 85, Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center, George Washington University Spec. Publ. 17.

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Table 5E.44 No. 375. Major U.S. Weather Disasters: 1990–2003 Event Southern California wildfires Hurricane Isabel Midwest severe storms and tornadoes Storms and hail Widespread drought Western fire season Tropical Storm Allison

Western fire season Hurricane Floyd Drought/heat wave Oklahoma-Kansas tornadoes Arkansas-Tennessee tornadoes Texas flooding Hurricane Georges Hurricane Bonnie Southern drought/heat wave Minnesota severe storms/hail Southeast severe weather Northeast ice storm Northern plains flooding MS and OH valleys flooding and tornadoes West Coast flooding Hurricane Fran Southern Plains severe drought Pacific Northwest severe flooding Blizzard of ’96 followed by flooding Hurricane Opal Hurricane Marilyn TX/OK/LA/MS severe weather and flooding

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Dry weather, high winds, and resulting wildfires in southern CA burned 743,000 acres & destroyed 3,700 homes Category 2 hurricane makes landfall in eastern NC, causing damage along coasts of NC, VA, and MD with wind damage and flooding in NC, VA, MD, DE, WV, NJ, NY and PA Numerous tornadoes over the Midwest, MS River valley, and OH/TN River valleys with record 400 tornadoes in one week Sever storms and large hail over southern plains, lower MS River valley, and TX Moderate to extreme drought over large portions of 30 states Major fires over 11 western states from Rockies to west coast Tropical storm produced rainfall and severe flooding in coastal portions of TX & LA & damage in MS, FL, VA. and PA Storms, tornadoes, and hail in TX, OK, KS, NE, IA, MO, IL, IN, WI, MI, OH, KY, and PA

Estimated cost Time period Oct–early Nov 2003

(bill. dot.) 2.5

Deaths 22

September 2003

over 4

47

Early May 2003

over 3.1

41

Early April 2003 Spring to fall 2002 Spring to fall 2002 June 2001

over 1.6 over 10 over 2 5.0

— — 21 43

April 2001

1.7

3

Springer-summer 2000

over 4.0

140

Severe drought and heat over south-central and southeast states cause significant losses in agriculture and related industries Severe fire season in western states Category 2 hurricane in NC, causing severe flooding in NC and some flooding in SC, VA, MD, PA, NY, NJ, DE, RI, CT, MA, and VT Drought/heatwave over eastern U.S. Category F4–F5 tornadoes hit OK, KS, TX, and TN Two outbreaks of tornadoes in 6-day period

Spring-summer 2000 September 1999

over 2.0 6.0

— 75

Summer 1999 May 1999 January 1999

1.0 1.0 1.3

256 55 31

Severe flooding in southeast Texas from 2 heavy rain events with 10–20 in. totals Category 2 hurricane in Puerto Rico, Florida Keys, and Gulf coasts fo LA, MS, AL, and FL Category 3 hurricane in eastern NC and VA Severe drought and heat wave from TX/OK to the Carolinas Very damaging severe thunderstorms with large hail over wide areas of Minnesota Tornadoes and flooding related to strong El Nino in the southeast Intense ice storm hits ME, NH, VT, and NY Severe flooding in Dakotas and Minnesota due to heavy spring snowmelt Tornadoes and severe flooding hit the slates of AR, MO, MS, TN, IL, IN, KY, OH, and WV

Oct–Nov 1998 September 1998 August 1998 Summer 1998 May 1998 Winter/Spring 1998 January 1998 April–May 1997 March 1997

1.0 3–4 1.0 6.0 1.5 1.0 1.4 2.0 1.0

31 16 2 200 1 Over 130 16 11 67

Flooding from rains and snowmelt in CA, WA, OR, ID, NV, & MT Category 3 hurricane in NC and VA Drought in agricultural areas of TX & OK Flooding from heavy rain & snowmelt in OR, WA, ID, and MT.

Dec 1996–Jan 1997 Sep 1996 Fall 1995-summer 1996 Feb 1996

2–3 5.0 Over 4 1.0

36 37 (NA) 9

Heavy snowstorm followed by severe flooding in Appalachians, Mid-Atlantic, and Northeast

Jan 1996

3.0

187

Category 3 hurricane in FL, AL, parts of GA, TN, & Carolinas. Category 2 hurricane in Virgin Islands Flooding, hail, & tornadoes across TX, OK, parts of LA, MS, Dallas & New Orleans hardest hit

Oct 1995 Sep 1995 May 1995

Over 3 2.1 5–6

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Midwest and Ohio Valley hail and tornadoes Southern drought/heat wave

Description

Southeast ice storm California wildfires Midwest flooding Drought/heat wave Storm/blizzard Nor’easter of 1992 Hurricane Iniki Hurricane Andrew Oakland Firestorm Hurricane Bob TX/OK/LA/AR Flooding

Flooding from frequent winter storms across much of CA Severe fire season in western states due to dry weather Flooding from torrential rain & thunderstorms across southeast TX Flooding due to 10–25 inch rain across GA, AL, part of FL intense ice storm in pts of TX, OK, AR, LA, MS, AL, TN, GA, SC, NC, & VA Out-of-control wildfires over southern CA Extreme flooding across central U.S. Extreme drought/heatwave across southeastern U.S. “Storm of the Century” hits entire eastern seaboard Slow-moving storm batters northeast U.S. coast, New England. Category 4 hurricane hit Hawaiian Island of Kauai Category 4 hurricane hit FL & LA Oakland, CA firestorm due to low humidity & high winds Category 2 hurricane-mainly coastal NC, Long Island, & New England Torrential rains cause flooding along Trinity, Red, and Arkansas rivers

Jan–Mar 1995 Summer-Fall 1994 Oct 1994 July 1994

3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

27 (NA) 19 32

Feb 1994 Fall 1993 Summer 1993 Summer 1993 Mar 1993 Dec 1992 Sep 1992 Aug 1992 Oct 1991 Aug 1991 May 1990

3.0 1.0 15–20 1.0 3–6 1–2 1.8 27.0 1.5 1.5 1.0

9 4 48 (NA) 270 19 7 58 25 18 13

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California flooding Western Fire Season Texas flooding Tropical Storm Alberto

Note: 5.0 represents $5,000,000,000. Covers only weather related disasters costing $1 billion or more. — Represents zero. NA not available or not reported. $del. Source: From U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. National Climatic Data Center, “Billion Dollar U.S. Weather Disasters, 1980–2003” (release date: March 2, 2004). See also !www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/reports/billionz.html#TOPO (released 02 March 2004).

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Table 5E.45 Deaths, Injuries, and Damage Caused by Hurricanes in the United States, 1965–1985

Fiscal Year

No. of Events

Persons Killed

Persons Injured

Dwellings Destroyed

Dwellings Damaged

Dwellings Destroyed & Damaged

5 NA NA NA NA 5 4 0 0 2 3 1 3 1 6 2 1 2 4 0 —

72 0 19 2 272 9 2 0 0 3 32 2 0 0 20 NA 0 2 16 0 —

25,202 13 11,396 45 9,062 4,498 235 0 0 8 4,409 23 8 0 6,765 NA 0 961 3,094 0 —

2,059 6 388 1 6,046 1,887 36 0 0 45 4,642 15 6 1 6,897 NA NA NA NA 0 —

148,607 316 29,405 705 48,734 34,442 24,258 0 0 2,514 31,670 498 142 3 65,033 NA NA NA NA 0 —

150,666 322 29,793 706 54,780 36,329 24,294 0 0 2,559 36,312 513 148 4 71,930 14,865 3 7,454 18,663 0 449,341

1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 Totals

Note: Based on American National Red Cross data which are by fiscal year (July 1–June 30). Source: From Rubin, C.B., Yezer, A.M., Hussain, Q, and Webb, A., 1986, Summary of Major Natural Disaster Incidents in the U.S. 1965– 85, Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center, George Washington University Spec. Publ. 17.

Table 5E.46 Public and Private Outlays for Hurricane Damage in the United States, 1965–1985

State

Year

LA FL MS

1965 1965 1965

TX FL MS LA AL

1967 1968 1969 1969 1969

TX LA FL

1970 1971 1972

NY VA PA MD WV OH

1972 1972 1972 1972 1972 1972

LA

1974

Federal Outlay (in Thousands of Dollars)

Insurance Payment (in Thousands of Dollars)

38,543 1,706 1,783 42,032 9,925 640 74,524 15,167 918 90,609 35,808 1,160 3,361

98,098 16,815 351,531 23,309 1,294 1,453 495,861 4,565

14,721

States Affected

500,000

LA,FL,MS

34,800 2,580 165,300

TX FL MS,LA,AL,FL

309,950 4,730 97,853

TX LA,MS FL,NY,VA,PA MD,WV,OH,GA SC,NC,MI,DE DC,NJ,CT,RI MA,VT,ME

LA (Continued)

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Table 5E.46

(Continued) Federal Outlay (in Thousands of Dollars)

State

Year

NY CA AL

1976 1976 1979

6,773 8,507 189,893

MS FL

1979 1979

TX TX HI TX NC MS AL FL

1980 1980 1982 1983 1984 1985 1985 1985

PA

1985

33,684 3,691 227,268 31,817 386 11,920 40,038 3,460 18,929 4,647 13,933 37,509 9,233

CT RI NJ NY MA

1985 1985 1985 1985 1985

LA FL TOTAL NOZ39

1985 1985

Insurance Payment (in Thousands of Dollars)

21,359 5,846 4,613 38,750 13,862 93,663 23,962 7,238 1,173,141

States Affected

22,697 NA 752,510

NY,NJ,CT,MA — AL,MS,FL,GA SC,NC,VA,MD DC,DE,PA,NJ NY,CT,MA

57,911 NA 137,000 675,520 36,000 543,304

TX — HI TX NC,SC MS,AL,FL,LA

418,750

PA,CT,RI,NJ NY,MA,NC,VA MD,DE,NH,VT ME

44,000 77,600 3,895,226

LA,MS,AL,FL FL,GA

Source: From Rubin, C.B., Yezer, A.M., Hussain, Q, and Webb, A., 1986, Summary of Major Natural Disaster Incidents in the U.S. 1965–85, Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center, George Washington University Spec. Publ. 17.

Table 5E.47 U.S. Hurricane Strikes by Decade Number of Hurricanes by Saffir-Simpson Category to Strike the Mainland U.S. Each Decade. Saffir-Simpson Categorya Decade 1900–1909 1910–1919 1920–1929 1930–1939 1940–1949 1950–1959 1960–1969 1970–1979 1980–1989 1990–1999 2000–2009 1900–1999 a

1

2

3

4

5

All 1–5

Major 3–5

5 8 6 4 7 8 4 6 9 3 1 61

5 3 4 5 8 1 5 2 1 6 0 39

4 5 3 6 7 7 3 4 5 4 0 48

2 3 2 1 1 2 2 0 1 0 0 14

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1b 0 3

16 19 15 17 23 18 15 12 16 14 1 165

6 8 5 8 8 9 6 4 6 5 0 65

Only the highest Saffir-Simpson Category to affect the U.S. has been used. This reflects the Hurricane Andrew reanalysis and upgrade from Category 4 to Category 5 Source: From www.nhc.noaa.gov. b

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SECTION 5F

FLOOD PREVENTION

Table 5F.48 Strategies and Tools for Achieving Flood Hazard Reduction Nonstructural A. Modify susceptibility to flood damage and disruption 1. Floodplain regulations a. State regulations for flood hazard areas b. Local regulations for flood hazard areas (1) Zoning (2) Subdivision regulations (3) Building codes (4) Housing codes (5) Sanitary and well codes (6) Other regulatory tools 2. Development and redevelopment policies a. Design and location of services and utilities b. Land-right acquisition and open-space use c. Redevelopment and renewal d. Permanent evacuation 3. Disaster preparedness and response planning 4. Floodproofing 5. Flood forecasting and warning systems and emergency plans B. Modify the impact of flooding on individuals and the community 1. Information and education 2. Flood insurance 3. Tax adjustments 4. Flood emergency measures 5. Postflood recovery Structural C. Modify flooding 1. Dams and reservoirs 2. Dikes, levees, and floodwalls 3. Channel alterations 4. High-flow diversions and spillways 5. Land treatment measures 6. On-site detention measures Source: From U.S. Water Resources Council, 1981.

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Table 5F.49 Structural Adjustments as Floodproofing Measures

Measure Seepage control Sewer adjustment Permanent closure Openings protected Interiors protected Protective coverings Fire protection Appliance protection Utilities service Roadbed protection Elevation Temporary removal Rescheduling Proper salvage Watertight caps Proper anchorage Underpinning Timber treatment Deliberate flooding Structural design Reorganized use

Material Protected St–Co St–Co St–Co St–Co St St–Co St–Co Co Co St St–Co Co Co Co Co St–Co St St St–Co St–Co Co

Prerequisites

Class of Measure

Structural

Hydrologic

P–C P–C P C–E P–C P–C–E P E P–C–E P–E P–C–E E E — P–C P–C P P E P P

Well constructed None Impervious walls Impervious walls None None None None None Sound structure Sound structure None Alternatives None None Sound structure Sound structure None None Design Alternatives

None H–W H–S H–S–W S–W H–W–F None W S–W–V H–W–V–D S–W–V–F W–F W None W S–W–V–D V None None H–S None

StZstructure; PZpermanent; HZhydrostatic pressure; FZflood-to-peak interval; CoZcontent; CZcontingent; SZstage of flood; VZvelocity of flow; EZemergency; WZwarning; DZduration of flood. Source: From Schaeffer, Univ. Chicago, Dept. Geography Research Paper, 1960.

Table 5F.50 Flood Safety Rules Before the Flood 1. Keep on hand materials like sandbags, plywood, plastic sheeting, and lumber 2. Install check valves in building sewer traps, to prevent flood water from backing up in sewer drains 3. Arrange for auxiliary electrical supplies for hospitals and other operations which are critically affected by power failure 4. Keep first aid supplies at hand 5. Keep your automobile fueled; if electric power is cut off, filling stations may not be able to operate pumps for several days 6. Keep a stock of food which requires little cooking and no refrigeration; electric power may be interrupted 7. Keep a portable radio, emergency cooking equipment, lights and flashlights in working order When You Receive a Flood Warning 8. Store drinking water in clean bathtubs, and in various containers. Water service may be interrupted 9. If forced to leave your home and time permits, move essential items to safe ground; fill tanks to keep them from floating away; grease immovable machinery 10. Move to a safe area before access is cut off by flood water During the Flood 11. Avoid areas subject to sudden flooding 12. Do not attempt to cross a flowing stream where water is above your knees 13. Do not attempt to drive over a flooded road—you can be stranded, and trapped After the Flood 14. Do not use fresh food that has come in contact with flood waters 15. Test drinking water for potability; wells should be pumped out and the water tested before drinking 16. Seek necessary medical care at nearest hospital. Food, clothing, shelter, and first aid are available at Red Cross shelters 17. Do not visit disaster area; your presence might hamper rescue and other emergency operations 18. Do not handle live electrical equipment in wet areas; electrical equipment should be checked and dried before returning to service 19. Use flashlights, not lanterns or torches, to examine buildings; flammables may be inside 20. Report broken utility lines to appropriate authorities During any flood emergency, stay tuned to your radio or television station. Information from NOAA and civil emergency forces may save your life. Source: From Environmental Science Services Administration, 1966. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5F.51 Methods of Flood Control and Organization Solutions for the flood problem fall into two distinct classes. The first includes those aimed at preventing the overflow of valley lands. The second embraces measures for human adjustment to the flood hazard The overflow of the valley lands may be prevented, or reduced in frequency and extent, by 1. Providing an additional or an alternative channel to carry flood flows; 2. Increasing the capacity of the existing channel, so that the same flood may be passed downstream at lesser heights, thus reducing flood damages—a solution commonly known as channel improvement; 3. Reducing flood heights and damages by holding back a part of the floodwaters by means of reservoirs; 4. Constructing levees and flood walls to prevent the spread of floodwaters, or 5. Any combination of the above. Measures of the second class, aimed at adjustment to the hazard include 1. Zoning of the flood plain to inhibit the development of high damageable values in hazardous areas; 2. Abandonment of efforts to use parts of the flood plain; 3. Use of flood forecasting so that damage may be minimized by removal of people and movable property; 4. Use of flood insurance, not to reduce flood damages, but to spread out the cost of floods over a period of years and thus minimize economic shock; 5. Flood relief in the event of disasters. Source: From Task Force on Water Resources and Power, 1955.

SECTION 5G

FLOOD CONTROLS WORKS

Table 5G.52 Upstream Flood Control Works in the United States Flood Prevention Cost Region North Atlantic South Atlantic-Gulf Great Lakes Ohio Tennessee Upper Mississippi Lower Mississippi Souris-Red-Rainy Missouri Arkansas-WhiteRed Texas-Gulf Rio Grande Upper Colorado Lower Colorado Great Basin Columbia-North Pacific California Alaska Hawaii Puerto Rico-Virgin Islands Total

Watershed Area

Land Treatment

Reservoirs

Channel Improvement

Total

No. 120 163 21 89 21 49 104 21 184 153

1,000 acres 4,906 8,897 879 4,442 1,440 2,052 6,895 2,882 4,938 12,438

Mil. dol. 27.0 93.9 11.3 45.5 11.8 10.9 80.6 3.8 118.9 94.4

Mil. dol. 108.8 88.6 6.4 78.8 18.8 23.8 65.9 4.0 176.4 274.1

Mil. dol 52.5 75.5 7.8 30.7 10.1 8.4 65.9 15.8 31.1 27.5

Mil. dol. 181.3 258.0 25.5 155.0 40.7 43.1 212.4 23.6 326.4 369.0

83 29 6 10 13 24

14,616 1,512 517 884 871 768

65.2 4.7 3.2 5.6 5.6 5.7

113.6 14.3 9.7 17.0 8.8 15.0

24.9 2.0 4.3 7.7 1.2 6.8

203.7 21.0 17.2 30.3 15.6 27.5

31 0 5 3

1,402 0 278 252

11.2 0 0.5 2.7

25.7 0 0.9 3.2

77.2 0 10.3 7.6

114.1 0 11.7 13.5

1,129

70,869

602.5

1,046.8

467.3

2,089.6

Projects

Note: Data covers the existing and approved program of the Soil Conservation Service only. In addition, there have been many projects in upstream areas constructed by the Corps of Engineers, the Bureau of Reclamation, and the Bureau of Land Management. Neither the totals nor regional data are available, but this construction amounted to over 1,000 projects, with an estimated cost of about $1 billion. Source: From U.S. Water Resources Council, 1968. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

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Table 5G.53 Downstream Flood Control Works in the United States Reservoirs Region North Atlantic South Atlantic-Gulf Great Lakes Ohio Tennessee Upper Mississippi Lower Mississippi Souris-Red-Rainy Missouri Arkansas-WhiteRed Texas-Gulf Rio Grandec Upper Colorado Lower Colorado Great Basin Columbia-North Pacific California Alaska Hawaii Puerto Rico-Virgin Islands Totald a b c d

Levees and Floodwalls a

Channel Improvement

Projects

Storage

Cost

Projects

Structures

Cost

Projects

Improvement

Cost

No. 5 7 1 36 17 14 5 5 56 43

1,000 af 492 3,090 377 12,500 11,590 3,020 4,400 1,030 20,700 24,800

Mil. dol. 36.0 49.8 23.4 600.0 180.2 54.0 76.7 1.8 656.0 635.5

No. 36

Mil. dol. 144.4 154.4 1.3 202.0 0 242.0 841.0 2.7 193.6 52.4

No. 25 23 9

7 7 39

Miles 54 185 28 138 0 70 3,348 224 75 563

Mil. dol. 27.3 5.1 7.1

2 50 56

Miles 132 876 7 252 0 861 1,621 2 1,130 1,023

20 4 3 6 6 24

8,600 795 1,500 12,100 386 15,210

234.2 31.1 5.5 59.6 7.4 320.7

5 5 8 2 4 103

128 205 5 7 33 546

121.4 7.6 0.2 3.2 1.6 28.1

8 7 1 1 3 27

106 114 1 4 23 55

94.4 10.5 20.0 0.5 1.4 27.7

11 0 0 0

3,720 0 0 0

186.5 0 0 0

13 2 4 0

1,515 3 6 0

260.6 0.6 0.2 0

12 1 4 0

84 1 3 0

91.4 0.1 0.2 0

263

124,310

426C

8,352

5,076

1,354C

3,158

b

6 65 0 65 b

2,257

b

0 19 b

193C

Does not include cost of flood control storage in Bureau of Reclamation projects. Not reported. Does not include some facilities constructed by the International Boundary and Water Commission. Rounded.

Source: From U.S. Water Resources Council, 1968.

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b

0 8.7 980.0 2.9 22.2 54.0

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SECTION 5H

WATER AREAS — UNITED STATES

Table 5H.54 Coastline of the United States (by State) General Coastlinea State U.S. Atlantic coast Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Maine Maryland Massachusetts

Statute Miles

Tidal Shorelineb

Kilometers

Statute Miles

Kilometers

12,383 2,069 — 28 580 100 228 31 192

19,924 3,329 — 45 933 161 367 50 309

88,633 28,673 618 381 3,331 2,344 3,487 3,190 1,519

142,610 46,135 994 613 5,360 3,771 5,596 5,133 2,444

13 130 127 301 — 40 187 112

21 209 204 484 — 64 301 180

131 1,792 1,850 3,375 89 384 2,876 3,315

211 2,883 2,977 5,430 143 618 4,627 5,334

Gulf coast Alabama Florida

1,631 53 770

2,624 85 1,239

17,141 607 5,095

27,580 977 8,198

Louisiana Mississippi Texas

397 44 367

639 71 591

7,721 359 3,359

12,423 578 5,405

7,623 5,580 840

12,265 8,978 1,352

40,298 31,383 3,427

64,839 50,495 5,514

Hawali Oregon Washington

750 296 157

1,207 476 253

1,052 1,410 3,026

1,693 2,269 4,869

Arctic coast Alaska

1,060

1,706

2,521

4,056

New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina Virginia

Pacific coast Alaska California

Note: — Represents zero. a Figures are lengths of general outline of seacoast. Measurements were made with a unit measure of 30 min of latitude on charts as near the scale of 1:1,200,000 as possible. Coastline of sounds and bays is included to a point where they narrow to width of unit measure, and includes the distance across at such point. b Figures obtained in 1939–1940 with a recording instrument on the largest-scale charts and maps then available. Shoreline of outer coast, offshore islands, sounds, bays, rivers, and creeks is included to the head of tidewater or to a point where tidal waters narrow to a width of 100 ft. Source: From Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1987.

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Table 5H.55 Land and Water Area of States and Other Entities: 2000 Water Area Total Area State and Other Area Total United States Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Other areas Puerto Rico U.S. Minor Outlying Islands Virgin Islands of the U.S.

Note:

Land Area

Sq. mi.

Total

Sq. km.

Sq. mi.

Sq. km.

Inland (sq. mi.)

Coastal (sq. mi.)

Great Lakes (sq. mi.)

Territorial (sq. mi.)

Sq. mi.

Sq. km.

3,800,286 3,794,083 52,419 663,267 113,998 53,179 163,696 104,094 5,543 2,489 68 65,755 59,425 10,931 83,570 57,914 36,418 56,272 82,277 40,409 51,840 35,385 12,407 10,555 96,716 86,939 48,430 69,704 147,042 77,354 110,561 9,350 8,721 121,590 54,556 53,819 70,700 44,825 69,898 98,381 46,055 1,545 32,020 77,117 42,143 268,581 84,899 9,614 42,774 71,300 24,230 65,498 97,814

9,842,696 9,826,630 135,765 1,717,854 295,254 137,732 423,970 269,601 14,357 6,447 177 170,304 153,909 28,311 216,446 149,998 94,321 145,743 213,096 104,659 134,264 91,646 32,133 27,336 250,494 225,171 125,434 180,533 380,838 200,345 286,351 24,216 22,588 314,915 141,299 139,389 183,112 116,096 181,036 254,805 119,283 4,002 82,932 199,731 109,151 695,621 219,887 24,901 110,785 184,665 62,755 169,639 253,336

3,540,999 3,537,439 50,744 571,951 113,635 52,068 155,959 103,718 4,845 1,954 61 53,927 57,906 6,423 82,747 55,584 35,867 55,869 81,815 39,728 43,562 30,862 9,774 7,840 56,804 79,610 46,907 68,886 145,552 76,872 109,826 8,968 7,417 121,356 47,214 48,711 68,976 40,948 68,667 95,997 44,817 1,045 30,110 75,885 41,217 261,797 82,144 9,250 39,594 66,544 24,078 54,310 97,100

9,171,146 9,161,923 131,426 1,481,347 294,312 134,856 403,933 268,627 12,548 5,060 159 139,670 149,976 16,635 214,314 143,961 92,895 144,701 211,900 102,896 112,825 79,931 25,314 20,306 147,121 206,189 121,489 178,414 376,979 199,099 284,448 23,227 19,211 314,309 122,283 126,161 178,647 106,056 177,847 248,631 116,075 2,706 77,983 196,540 106,752 678,051 212,751 23,956 102,548 172,348 62,361 140,663 251,489

259,287 256,645 1,675 91,316 364 1,110 7,736 376 699 536 7 11,828 1,519 4,508 823 2,331 551 402 462 681 8,278 4,523 2,633 2,715 39,912 7,329 1,523 818 1,490 481 735 382 1,304 234 7,342 5,108 1,724 3,877 1,231 2,384 1,239 500 1,911 1,232 926 6,784 2,755 365 3,180 4,756 152 11,188 713

671,550 664,707 4,338 236,507 942 2,876 20,037 974 1,809 1,388 18 30,634 3,933 11,677 2,131 6,037 1,427 1,042 1,197 1,763 21,440 11,715 6,819 7,031 103,372 18,982 3,945 2,120 3,859 1,247 1,903 989 3,377 606 19,016 13,229 4,465 10,040 3,189 6,174 3,208 1,295 4,949 3,191 2,399 17,570 7,136 945 8,237 12,317 394 28,976 1,847

79,018 78,797 956 17,243 364 1,110 2,674 376 161 72 7 4,672 1,016 38 823 756 316 402 462 681 4,154 2,264 680 423 1,611 4,783 785 818 1,490 481 735 314 396 234 1,895 3,960 1,724 378 1,231 1,050 490 178 1,008 1,232 926 5,056 2,755 365 1,006 1,553 152 1,830 713

42,241 42,225 519 27,049 — — 222 — 538 371 — 1,311 48 — — — — — — — 1,935 613 1,843 977 — — 590 — — — — — 401 — 981 — — — — 80 — 9 72 — — 404 — — 1,728 2,537 — — —

60,251 60,251 — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1,575 235 — — — — — — — 38,301 2,546 — — — — — — — — 3,988 — — 3,499 — — 749 — — — — — — — — — — 9,358 —

77,777 75,372 200 47,024 — — 4,841 — — 93 — 5,845 455 4,470 — — — — — — 2,189 1,647 110 1,314 — — 148 — — — — 68 507 — 479 1,148 — — — 1,254 — 314 831 — — 1,324 — — 446 666 — — —

5,325 141

13,790 365

3,425 3

8,870 7

1,900 138

4,921 359

67 138

16 —

— —

1,817 —

737

1,910

134

346

604

1,564

16

—

—

588

One square mileZ2.59 sq. km. Area is calculated from the specific boundary recorded for each entity in the U.S. Census Bureau’s geographic TIGER database; —, Represents or rounds to zero.

Source: From U.S. Census Bureau, 2000 Census of Population and Housing, Summary Population and Housing Characteristics, Series PHC-1; and unpublished data from the Census TIGERe data base.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5H.56 U.S. Wetland Resources and Deepwater Habitats by Type: 1986 and 1997 Wetland or Deepwater Category All wetlands and deepwater habitats, total All deepwater habitats, total Lacustrinea Riverineb Estuarine Subtidalc All wetlands, total Intertidal wetlandsd Marine intertidal Estuarine intertidal non-vegetated Estuarine intertidal vegetated Freshwater wetlands Freshwater non-vegetated Freshwater vegetated Freshwater emergente Freshwater forestedf Freshwater shrubg

1986

1997

Change, 1986 to 1997

144,673.3 38,537.6 14,608.9 6,291.1 17,637.6 106,135.7 5,336.6 133.1 580.4 4,623.1 100,799.1 5,251.0 95,548.1 26,383.3 51,929.6 17,235.2

144,136.8 38,645.1 14,725.3 6,255.9 17,663.9 105,491.7 5,326.2 130.9 580.1 4,615.2 100,165.5 5,914.3 94,251.2 25,157.1 50,728.5 18,365.6

K536.5 107.5 116.4 K35.2 26.3 K644 K10.4 K2.2 K0.3 K7.9 K633.6 663.3 K1,296.9 K1,226.2 K1,201.1 1,130.4

Note: In thousands of acres (144,673.3 represents 144,677,300). Wetlands and deepwater habitats are defined separately because the term wetland does not included permanent water bodies. Deepwater habitats are permanently flooded land lying below the deepwater boundary of wetlands. Deepwater habitats include environments where surface water is permanent and often deep, so that water, rather than air, is the principal medium within which the dominant organisms live, whether or not they are attached to the substrate. As in wetlands, the dominant plants are hydrophytes; however, the substrates are considered nonsoil because the water is too deep to support emergent vegetation. In general terms, wetlands are lands where saturation with water is the dominant factor determining the nature of soil development and the types of plant and animal communities living in the soil and on its surface. The single feature that most wetlands share is soil or substrate that is at least periodically saturated with or covered by water. Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water. a

b c

d e

f g

The lacustrine system includes deepwater habitats with all of the following characteristics: (1) situated in a topographic depression or a dammed river channel: (2) lacking trees, shrubs, persistent emergents, emergent mosses or lichens with greater than 30 percent coverage; (3) total area exceeds 20 acres. The riverine system includes deepwater habitats contained within a channel, with the exception of habitats with water containing ocean derived salts in excess of 0.5 parts per thousand. The estuarine system consists of deepwater tidal habitats and adjacent tidal wetland that are usually semi-enclosed by land but have open, partly obstructed, or sporadic access to the open ocean, and in which ocean water is at least occasionally diluted by freshwater runoff from the land. Subtidal is where the substrate is continuously submerged by marine or estuarine waters. Intertidal is where the substrate is exposed and flooded by tides. Intertidal includes the splash zone of coastal waters. Emergent wetlands are characterized by erect, rooted herbaceous hydrophytes, excluding mosses and lichens. This vegetation is present for most of the growing season in most years. These wetlands are usually dominated by perennial plants. Forested wetlands are characterized by woody vegetation that is 20 ft tall or taller. Shrub wetlands include areas dominated by woody vegetation less than 20 ft tall. The species include true shrubs, young trees, and trees or shrubs that are small or stunted because of environmental conditions.

Source: From U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Status and Trends of Wetlands In the Conterminous United States, 1986 to 1997, January 2001.

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Upland

Upland

Marine system (Ocean)

LEGEND System boundary Estuarine system

Upstream limit of saltwater

Riverine system Barrier Island

Lacustrine system Palustrine system Rocky shore Intertidal beach Tidal flat Aquatic bed

Reservoir dam

Emergent wetland Forested wetland

Upland

Wetlands occur in every state of the country and due to regional differences in climate, vegetation, soil and hydrologic conditions, they exist in a variety of sizes, shapes and types. Although more abundant in other areas, wetlands even exist in deserts. Wetlands and deepwater habitats are divided into five ecological systems: (1) Marine, (2) Estuarine, (3) Riverine, (4) Lacustrine, and (5) Palustrine. The Marine System generally consists of the open ocean and its associated coastline. It is mostly a deepwater habitat system, with marine wetlands limited to intertidal areas like beaches, rocky shores and some coral

reefs. The Estuarine System includes coastal wetlands like salt and brackish tidal marshes, mangrove swamps, and intertidal flats, as well as deepwater bays, sounds and coastal rivers. The Riverine System is limited to freshwater river and stream channels and is mainly a deepwater habitat system. The Lacustrine System is also a deep water dominated system, but includes standing waterbodies like lakes, reservoirs and deep ponds. The Palustrine System encompasses the vast majority of the country’s inland marshes, bogs and swamps and does not include any deepwater habitat.

Figure 5H.26 Major wetland types in the United States. (From Tiner, R.W., Jr., Wetlands of the United States: Current Status and Recent Trends, U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5H.57 Water Areas for Selected Major Bodies of Water: 2000 Area Body of Water and State Atlantic Coast water bodies Chesapeake Bay (MD-VA) Pamlico Sound (NC) Long Island Sound (CT-NY) Delaware Bay (DE-NJ) Cape Cod Bay (MA) Albemarle Sound (NC) Biscayne Bay (FL) Buzzards Bay (MA) Tangier Sound (MD-VA) Currituck Sound (NC) Pocomoke Sound (MD-VA) Chincoteague Bay (MD-VA) Gulf Coast water bodies Mississippi Sound (AL-LA-MS) Laguna Madre (TX) Lake Pontchartrain (LA) Florida Bay (FL) Breton Sound (LA) Mobile Bay (AL) Lake Borgne (LA-MS) Matagorda Bay (TX) Atchafalaya Bay (LA) Galveston Bay (TX) Tampa Bay (FL) Pacific Coast water bodies Puget Sound (WA) San Francisco Bay (CA) Willapa Bay (WA) Hood Canal (WA) Interior water bodies Lake Michigan (IL-IN-MI-WI) Lake Superior (MI-MN-WI)a Lake Huron (MI)a Lake Erie (MI-NY-OH-PA)a Lake Ontario (NH)a Great Salt Lake (UT) Green Bay (MI-WI) Lake Okeechobee (FL) Lake Sakakawea (ND) Lake Oahe (ND-SD) Lake of the Woods (MN)a Lake Champlain (NY-VT)a Alaska water bodies Chatham Strait Prince William Sound Clarence Strait Iliamna Lake Frederick Sound Sumner Strait Stephens Passage Kvichak Bay Montague Strait Becharof Lake Icy Strait

Note: a

Sq. mi.

Sq. km.

2747 1622 914 614 598 492 218 215 172 116 111 105

7115 4200 2368 1591 1548 1274 565 558 445 301 286 272

813 733 631 616 511 310 271 253 245 236 212

2105 1897 1635 1596 1323 802 702 656 635 611 549

808 264 125 117

2092 684 325 303

22,342 20,557 8,800 5,033 3,446 1,836 1,396 663 563 538 462 414

57,866 53,243 22,792 13,036 8,926 4,756 3,617 1,717 1,459 1,394 1,196 1,072

1,559 1,382 1,199 1,022 792 791 702 640 463 447 436

4,039 3,579 3,107 2,646 2,051 2,048 1,819 1,659 1,198 1,158 1,130

Includes only that portion of body of water under the jurisdiction of the United States, excluding Hawail. One square mileZ2.59 sq. km.

Area measurements for Lake Champlain, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, Lake Ontario, Lake St. Clair, Lake Superior, and Lake of the Woods include only those portions under the jurisdiction of the United States.

Source:

From U.S. Census Bureau, unpublished data from the Census TIGERe data base.

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Table 5H.58 Wetlands Lost in the United States State or Region

Original Wetlands (acres)

Wetlands in 1984 (acres)

Percentage of Wetlands Lost

2,333,000 5,000,000 94,000 24,000,000 11,200,000 5,000,000 18,400,000 11,300,000 30,000 2,500,000 2,000,000 10,000,000

26,470 450,000 8,460 5,200,000 3,200,000 2,000,000 8,700,000 5,635,000 15,000 1,503,000a 1,300,000 6,750,000

99 91 91 78 71 60 53 50 50 40 35 32

Iowa’s natural marshes California Nebraska’s rainwater basin Mississippi alluvial plain Michigan North Dakota Minnesota Louisiana’s forested wetlands Connecticut’s coastal marshes North Carolina’s pocosins South Dakota Wisconsin a

Only 695,000 acres of pocosins remain undisturbed; the rest are partially drained, developed or planned for development. Source: From Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States: Current Status and Recent Trends, U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service.

Table 5H.59 Change in Wetland Area for Selected Wetland and Deepwater Categories, 1986 to 1997 Area in Thousands of Acres Wetland/Deepwater Category Marine intertidal Estuarine intertidal non-vegetateda Estuarine intertidal vegetatedb All intertidal wetlands Freshwater non-vegetatedc Freshwater vegetatedd Freshwater emergent Freshwater forested Freshwater shrub All freshwater wetlands All wetlands Deepwater habitats Lacustrinee Riverine Estuarine subtidal All deepwater habitats All wetlands and deepwater habitatsa,b

Note: a b c d e

Estimated Area, 1986

Estimated Area, 1997

Change, 1986–97

Change (in Percent)

133.1 (19.6) 580.4 (10.7) 4,623.1 (4.0) 5,336.6 (3.8) 5,251.0 (4.1) 95,548.1 (3.0) 26,383.3 (8.1) 51,929.6 (2.8) 17,235.2 (4.2) 100,799.1 (2.9) 106,135.7 (2.8)

130.9 (19.9) 580.1 (10.6) 4,615.2 (4.0) 5,326.2 (3.8) 5,914.3 (3.9) 94,251.2 (3.0) 25,157.1 (8.4) 50,728.5 (2.8) 18,365.6 (4.1) 100,165.5 (2.9) 105,491.7 (2.8)

K2.2 (88.5) K0.3 (*) K7.9 (75.1) K10.4 (73.0) 663.3 (13.4) K1,296.9 (17.1) K1,226.2 (18.2) 1,201.1 (23.8) 1,130.4 (25.7) 633.6 (36.5) K644.0 (36.0)

K1.7

14,608.9 (10.6) 6,291.1 (9.6) 17,637.6 (2.2) 38,537.6 (4.4) 144,673.3 (2.4)

14,725.3 (10.5) 6,225.9 (9.4) 17,663.9 (2.2) 38,645.1 (4.4) 144,136.8 (2.4)

116.4 (*) K35.2 (*) 26.3 (95.6) 107.5 (*) K536.5 (30.7)

0.8

K0.1 K0.2 K0.2 12.6 K1.4 K4.6 K2.3 6.6 K0.6 0.6

K0.6 0.1 0.3 K0.4

The coefficient of variation (CV) for each entry (expressed as a percentage) is given in parentheses. Statistically unreliable.

*

Includes the categories: estuarine intertidal aquatic bed and estuarine intertidal unconsolidated shore. Includes the categories: estuarine intertidal emergent and estuarine intertidal shrub. Includes the categories: palustrine aquatic bed, palustrine unconsolidated bottom and palustrine unconsolidated shore. Includes the categories: palustrine emergent, palustrine forested and palustrine shrub. Does not include the great lakes.

Source:

From Dahl, T.E. 2000. Status and trends of wetlands in the conterminous United States 1986 to 1997. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, 82pp. http://training.fws.gov.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5H.60 Estuarine and Marine Intertidal Wetland Area and Change, 1986 to 1997 Area in Thousands of Acres Estimated Area, 1986

Wetland Category Marine Intertidal

Area (as Percent) of All Intertidal Wetland, 1997

130.9 (19.9)

K2.2 (88.5)

2.5

Estuarine Unconsolidated shore

551.3 (10.9)

550.8 (10.8)

K0.5 (* )

10.3

Estuarine aquatic bed

29.1 (27.1) 580.4 (10.7)

29.3 (26.9) 580.1 (10.6)

0.2 (* ) K0.3 (* )

0.6

Estuarine emergent

3,956.9 (4.1)

3,942.4 (4.1)

K14.5 (49.2)

74.0

Estuarine shrub

666.2 (12.6) 4,623.1 (4.0)

672.8 (12.6) 4,615.2 (4.0)

6.6 (76.5) K7.9 (75.1)

12.6

26.3 (95.6)

—

Estuarine intertidal Vegetatedb

Changes in coastal deepwater area, 1986–1997 17,637.6 17,663.9 (2.2) (2.2)

Estuarine Subtidal Note:

b

Gain or Loss, 1986–1997

133.1 (19.6)

Marine and estuarine intertidal Non-vegetateda

a

Estimated Area, 1997

13.4

86.6

The coefficient of variation (CV) for each entry (expressed as a percentage) is given in parentheses. * Statistically unreliable.

Includes the categories: estuarine unconsolidated shore and estuarine aquatic bed. Includes the categories: estuarine emergent and estuarine shrub.

Source: From Dahl, T.E. 2000. Status and trends of wetlands in the conterminous United States 1986 to 1997. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, 82pp. http://training.fws.gov.

(mid-1950's to mid-1970's) 8% Urban development 7

5% Other development

5

4

1

Scrub–shrub wetland

2

Emergent wetland

3

Forested wetland

87% Agriculture

Millions of acres lost to agriculture

6

Palustrine wetland types Figure 5H.27 Causes of recent wetland losses in the conterminous United States. (From Tiner, R.W., Jr., Wetlands of the United States: Current Status and Recent Trends, U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 5H.61 Major Causes of Wetland Loss and Degradation Human Threats Direct 1. Drainage for crop production, timber production and mosquito control 2. Dredging and stream channelization for navigation channels, flood protection, coastal housing developments, and reservoir maintenance 3. Filling for dredged spoil and other solid waste disposal, roads and highways, and commercial, residential and industrial development 4. Construction of dikes, dams, levees and seawalls for flood control, water supply, irrigation and storm protection 5. Discharges of materials (e.g., pesticides, herbicides, other pollutants, nutrient loading from domestic sewage and agricultural runoff, and sediments from dredging and filling, agricultural and other land development) into waters and wetlands 6. Mining of wetland soils for peat, coal, sand, gravel, phosphate and other materials Indirect 1. Sediment diversion by dams, deep channels and other structures 2. Hydrologic alterations by canals, spoil banks, roads and other structures 3. Subsidence due to extraction of groundwater, oil, gas, sulphur, and other minerals Natural Threats 1. Subsidence (including natural rise of sea level) 2. Droughts 3. Hurricanes and other storms 4. Erosion 5. Biotic effects, e.g., muskrat, nutria and goose “eat-outs” Source: From Tiner, R.W. Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States: Current Status and Trends, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Table 5H.62 Major Wetland Values Fish and Wildlife Values Fish and shellfish habitat Waterfowl and other bird habitat Furbearer and other wildlife habitat Environmental Quality Values Water quality maintenance Pollution filter Sediment removal Oxygen production Nutrient recycling Chemical and nutrient absorption Aquatic productivity Microclimate regulator World climate (ozone layer) Socio-economic Values Flood control Wave damage protection Erosion control Groundwater recharge and water supply Timber and other natural products Energy source (peat) Livestock grazing Fishing and shellfishing Hunting and trapping Recreation Aesthetics Education and scientific research Source: From Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States: Current Status and Trends, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

1 SUPER IOR

19 8

10

13

LAKE MICHIGAN

O C E A N

12

20

4

N

7

E

A

18

O

C F I C I A P

C

2

A T L A N T I C

21

5 16

F G U L

11

O F

M E X I C O

9 3

14 6

17

15

Priority area name 1 Praire Patholes and Parklands 2 Central valley of California 3 Yukon-Kuskokwim delta 4 Middle-upper Atlantic coast 5 Lower Mississippi river delta and Red river basin 6 Izembek Lagoon 7 Upper Mississippi river and northern lakes 8 Northern great plains 9 Yukon flats 10 Intermountain west (great basin) 11 Tesheluk lake

12 Middle-upper pacific coast 13 Klamath basin 14 Upper Alaska Penninsula 15 Copper river delta 16 West-central Gulf coast 17 Upper cook inlet 18 San Francisco bay 19 NE United States - SE Canada 20 Sandhills and rainwater basin 21 Playa lakes

Figure 5H.28 Principal waterfowl habitat areas in the United States. (From Tiner, R.W. Jr., Wetlands of the United States: Current Status and Recent Trends, U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984.)

Freshwater wetlands 14% Deepwater 12% Other uplands 30%

Urban development 24%

Agriculture 1%

Rural development 19%

Figure 5H.29 Percent of estuarine and marine wetlands lost to freshwater wetlands, deepwater, or upland categories between 1986 and 1997. (From Dahl, T.E. Status and trends of wetlands in the conterminous United States 1986 to 1997. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, 82pp, 2000.) (http://training.fws.gov.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Estuarine wetland loss to urban or rural development Insufficient Data Figure 5H.30 Areas along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts where estuarine wetlands were lost to urban or rural development (shown in orange) between 1986 and 1997. (From Dahl, T.E. Status and trends of wetlands in the conterminous United States 1986 to 1997. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, 82pp, 2000.) (http://training.fws.gov.)

Silviculture 23%

Rural development 21% Agriculture 26%

Urban development 30%

Figure 5H.31 Change in wetlands converted to various land uses between 1986 and 1997. (From Dahl, T.E. Status and trends of wetlands in the conterminous United States 1986 to 1997. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, 82pp, 2000.) (http://training.fws.gov.)

Silviculture 2%

Urban and rural development 25% Miscellaneous lands 25%

Agriculture 51%

Figure 5H.32 Current upland classification of areas where emergent wetlands were lost between 1986 and 1997. (From Dahl, T.E. Status and trends of wetlands in the conterminous United States 1986 to 1997. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, 82pp, 2000.) (http://training.fws.gov.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5H.63 Effect of Wetlands on Flood Peak Reduction in Wisconsin Wetland Present in a Basin (percent)

2

1 2 3 5 10 15 30

19 28 34 42 51 56 64

Storm Recurrence Interval (years) 25 50

100

Percentage of Flood Peak Reduction 22 33 39 48 58 63 71

26 38 45 54 63 70 77

27 39 46 55 64 71 79

Source: From Conger, D.H., 1971, Estimating Magnitude and Frequency of Floods in Wisconsin, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Rept.

Table 5H.64 Terms Descriptive of Water Landscapes Fluvial Types Bayou Braided stream Brook Canal Connecting stream Creek Disappearing stream Feeder stream

Fluvial lakes Freshet Inlet Influent Intermittent stream Interrupted stream Misfit river Outlet Raft

Rill River Slough Spring Stream Torrent Vigorously meandering stream Watercourse Waterway

Lacustrine Types Aestival ponds Alkali lakes Alluvial dam lakes Alpine lakes Bar lake Barrier lake Bayou Blind lake Blowout pond Bog lake Borrow pit pond Caldera lake Chain of lakes Charco Cirque lake Clear lake Closed lake Crater lake Dead lake Deflation lake Delta lake Doline lake Drainage lake Dry lake Dugout pond Dune lake Dystrophic lake Effluent lake Evanescent lake Extinct lake Farm pond Finger lake Fission lake

Fluvial lake Fluviatile lake Fosse lake Glacial lake Grass lake Headwaters lake Holding pond Holm lake Hot springs Impoundment Intermittent lake Kettle lake Lagoon Lake Lakelet Landslide lake Laguna Lateral lake Marl lake Marsh lake Meadow lake Mesotrophic lake Mill pond Mirror lake Moat lake Morainal lake Nova lake Oligotrophic lake Open lake Oriented lake Oxbow Palodolac Perched lake Perennial lake

Pit lake Playa Pond Pool Pothole Puddle Quarry pond Raft lake Reflection basin Rejuvenated lake Reservoir Ria lakes Rift lakes Riverine lakes Rock lakes Sag pond Salt lakes Satellite lakes Scour lakes Seepage lakes Senescent lake Sink lakes Slough Snag lake Strath lake Swarm of lakes Tailing pond Tanks Tarn Thaw lakes Tundra lakes Vernal & autumnal ponds Walled lakes

Source: From Litton, R.B., Tetlow, R.J., Sorensen, J., and Beatty, R.A., 1974, Water and Landscape, Water Information Center, Inc. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

Table 5H.65 Aesthetic Evaluation of Rivers Aesthetic factors Landscape Views and vistas Diversity of flora and geologic features Color Form and contrasts Sensual stimuli Temperature regime Winds and other aerial features Sounds Odors Visual patterns Intellectual interests Opportunities for interpretive programs Ecology Geology Wildlife Range and diversity of subjects available for study Emotional interest Physical stimuli Intellectual potentials Possibility for adventure Interaction of flora, fauna, and people Access Climatic factors Obstacles or discomforts Troublesome flora and fauna Access Climatic factors Culture Quality of land use management construction Scenic pollution Historic artifacts Subjective analysis of most important factors in viewing river — most significant in deriving-pleasurable feelings Vista Color Vegetation (amount and variety) Spaciousness Serenity Naturalness Riffles in water Turbidity Lack of pollution Source: From Morisawa, M., and Murie, M., 1969, Evaluation of Natural Rivers. Antioch College, Water Resources Research, Yellow Springs, OH, in Litton, R.B. and others, 1974, Water and Landscape, Water Information Center, Inc. Reprinted with permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-141

5-142

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 5I OCEANS AND SEAS

Table 5I.66 Dimensions of the Oceans Ocean

Area (109m2)

Mean Depth (meters)

Volume (1015m3)

Arctic North Pacific South Pacific North Atlantic South Atlantic Indian Antarctic

14,090 83,462 65,521 46,772 37,364 81,602 32,249

1205 3858 3891 3285 4091 4284 3730

17.0 322.0 254.9 153.6 152.8 349.6 120.3

Source: From U.S. Naval oceanographic office, 1966.

Table 5I.67 Maximum Depths of the Oceans Depth Name of Area

Location

Mariana trench Tonga trench Philippine trench Kermadec trench Bonin trench Kuril trench Izu trench New Britain trench Yap trench Japan trench Peru-Chile trench Palau trench Aleutian trench New Hebrides trench North Ryukyu trench Mid America trench

11820 0 N 23816 0 S 10838 0 N 31853 0 S 24830 0 N 44815 0 N 31805 0 N 06819 0 S 08833 0 N 36808 0 N 23818 0 S 07852 0 N 50851 0 N 20836 0 S 24800 0 N 14802 0 N

Puerto Rico trench So. Sandwich trench Romanche gap Cayman trench Brazil basin

19855 0 N 55842 0 S 0813 0 S 19812 0 N 09810 0 S

Java trench Ob trench Diamantina trench Vema trench Agulhas basin

10819 0 S 09845 0 S 35850 0 S 09808 0 S 45820 0 S

Eurasia basin

82823 0 N

Ionian basin

36832 0 N

Pacific Ocean 142812 0 E 174844 0 W 126836 0 E 177821 0 W 143824 0 E 150834 0 E 142810 0 E 153845 0 E 138802 0 E 142843 0 E 71814 0 W 134856 0 E 177811 0 E 168837 0 E 126848 0 E 93839 0 W Atlantic Ocean 65827 0 N 25856 0 E 18826 0 W 80800 0 W 23802 0 W Indian Ocean 109858 0 E 67818 0 E 105814 0 E 67815 0 E 26850 0 E Arctic Ocean 19831 0 E Mediterranean Sea 21806 0 E

m

Fathoms

ft

10,924 10,800 10,057 10,047 9,994 9,750 9,695 8,940 8,527 8,412 8,064 8,054 7,679 7,570 7,181 6,662

5973 5906 5499 5494 5464 5331 5301 4888 4663 4600 4409 4404 4199 4139 3927 3643

35,840 35,433 32,995 32,963 32,788 31,988 31,808 29,331 27,976 27,599 26,457 26,424 25,194 24,836 23,560 21,857

8,605 8,325 7,728 7,535 6,119

4705 4552 4226 4120 3346

28,232 27,313 25,354 24,721 20,076

7,125 6,874 6,602 6,402 6,195

3896 3759 3610 3501 3387

23,376 22,553 21,660 21,004 20,325

5,450

2980

17,881

5,150

2816

16,896

Source: From The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1987. Copyright Pharos Books, a Scripps Howard Co., New York. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

5-143

Table 5I.68 Water Residence Times of the Oceans

A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K.

3

4

Ocean volume (km !10 ) Surface ocean volume (200 m) (km3!106) Ocean flow compensation (km3/yr) Total compensation time: A/C (yr) Surface-only compensation time: B/C (yr) Stream runoff to oceans (km3/yr) Runoff residence time: A/F (yr) Surface runoff residence time: B/F (yr) Atmospheric cycling (precipitation minus evaporation) (km3/yr) Whole-ocean atmospheric-cycling residence time: A/I (yr) Atmospheric-cycling surface ocean residence time: B/I (yr)

North Polar

Atlantic

Pacific

Indian

8.85 1.7 3,000 2,950 570 2,600 3,400 650 400

350 19.6 K17,100 20,500 1,150 19,400 18,000 1,000 K36,500

695 35.4 C28,000 25,000 1,250 21,100 57,500 2,900 15,900

295 15.5 K13,900 21,200 1,100 5,600 52,700 2,800 K19,500

Total 1,349 72.2 0

39,700 34,000 1,800 K39,700

22,125

9,600

43,700

15,100

34,000

4,250

500

2,200

1,000

1,800

Source: From Speidel, D.H., and Agnew, A.F., 1979, The Natural Geochemistry of our Environment, in An Overview of Research in Biogeochemistry and Environmental Health, Committee Print 825, Committee on Science and Technology. U.S. House of 77–239.

Table 5I.69 Water Balance of the Oceans

Ocean Pacific Southern sector Without southern sector Atlantic Southern sector Without southern sector Indian Southern sector Without southern sector Arctic World

Area 1000 km3

Precipitation

Evaporation

Inflow of Water from Continents

Water Balance

mm

1000 km3

mm

1000 km3

mm

1000 km3

178,700 25,300

1460 1140

260 28.9

1510 684

269.7 17.3

83 72

14.8 1.8

30 530

5.1 13.4

153,400

1510

231.1

1640

252.4

85

13.0

K50

K8.4

91,700 15,500

1010 1190

92.7 18.4

1360 466

124.4 7.2

226 37

20.8 0.6.

K120 760

K10.9 11.8

76,200

975

74.3

1540

117.2

265

20.6

K300

K22.7

76,200 28,500

1320 1240

100.4 35.4

1420 688

108.0 19.6

81 30

6.1 0.8

K20 580

K1.5 16.6

47,700

1360

65.0

1850

88.4

111

5.3

K380

K18.1

14,700 361,300

361 1270

5.3 458.0

220 1400

8.2 505.0

355 130

5.2 47.0

500 0

7.3 0

Source: From UNESCO, 1977, Atlas of World Water Balance. Reproduced with permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

mm

1000 km3

5-144

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5I.70 Dimensions of Individual Seas Sea Tributary to Arctic Ocean Norwegian Sea Greenland Sea Barents Sea White Sea Kara Sea Laptev Sea East Siberian Sea Chukchi Sea Beaufort Sea Baffin Bay Tributary to North Atlantic North Sea Baltic Sea Mediterranean Sea Black Sea Marmara Azov Caribbean Sea Gulf of Mexico Gulf of St. Lawrence Hudson Bay Tributary to South Atlantic Gulf of Guinea Tributary to Indian Ocean Red Sea Persian Gulf Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal Andaman Sea Great Australian Bight Tributary to North Pacific Gulf of California Gulf of Alaska Bearing Sea Okhotsk Sea Japan Sea Yellow Sea East China Sea Sulu Sea Celebes Sea In both North and South Pacific South China Sea Makassar Strait Molukka Sea Ceram Sea Tributary to South Pacific Java Sea Bali Sea Flores Sea Savu Sea Banda Sea Ceram Sea Timor Sea Arafura Sea Coral Sea

Area (109m2)

Mean Depth (m)

Volume (1012m3)

1383 1205 1405 90 883 650 901 582 476 689

1742 1444 229 89 118 519 58 88 1004 861

2408 1740 322 8 104 338 53 51 478 593

600 386 2516 461 11 40 2754 1543 238 1232

91 86 1494 1166 357 9 2491 1512 127 128

55 33 3758 537 4 0.4 6860 2332 30 158

1533

2996

4592

450 241 3863 2172 602 484

558 40 2734 2586 1096 950

251 10 10561 5616 660 459

177 1327 2304 1590 978 417 752 420 472

818 2431 1598 859 1752 40 349 1139 3291

145 3226 3683 1365 1713 17 263 478 1553

3685 194 307 187

1060 967 1880 1209

3907 188 578 227

433 119 121 105 695 187 615 1037 4791

46 411 1829 1701 3064 1209 406 197 2394

20 49 222 178 2129 227 250 204 11470

Source: From U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office, 1966; amended.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SURFACE WATER

5-145

Table 5I.71 Average Rise and Fall of Tides in the United States and Canada Location East Coast Quebec Halifax, NS St. John, NB Eastport, ME Portland, ME Boston, MA Newport, RI New London, CT Bridgeport, CT New York (The Battery) Port Jefferson, NY Albany, NY Newark, NJ Sandy Hook, NJ Philadelphia, PA Cape May, NJ Washington, DC Cape Hatteras, NC Wilmington, NC Charlotte, SC Savannah, GA Miami, FL Key West, FL Mobile, AL Galveston, TX San Juan, PR West Coast Vancouver, BC Seattle, WA San Francisco, CA Los Angeles, CA San Diego, CA a

Feet 13.7 4.4 20.8 18.4 9.1 9.5 3.5 2.6 6.7 4.5 6.6 4.6 5.1 4.7 6.2 4.6 2.8 3.6 4.2 5.2 7.9 2.4 1.3 1.5a 1.0 1.1 10.6a 7.7 4.1 3.8 4.0

Diurnal range.

Source: From National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Survey Tide Tables.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-146

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 5I.72 Temperatures and Salinities of the Oceans Temperature North Atlantic 1. North Polar water 2. Subarctic water 3. North Atlantic central water 4. North Atlantic water 5. North Atlantic bottom water 6. Mediterranean water South Atlantic 1. South Atlantic central water 2. Antarctic intermediate water 3. Subantarctic water 4. Antarctic circumpolar water 5. South Atlantic deep and bottom water 6. Antarctic bottom water Indian Ocean 1. Equatorial water 2. Indian central water 3. Antarctic intermediate water 4. Subantarctic water 5. Indian Ocean deep and Antarctic circumpolar water 6. Red Sea water South Pacific 1. Eastern South Pacific water 2. Western South Pacific water 3. Antarctic intermediate water 4. Subantarctic water 5. Pacific deep water and Antarctic circumpolar water North Pacific 1. Subarctic water 2. Pacific equatorial water 3. Eastern North Pacific water 4. Western North Pacific water 5. Arctic intermediate water 6. Pacific deep water and Arctic circumpolar water

K1 to C2 C3 to C5 C4 to C17 C3 to C4 C1 to C3 C6 to C10

34.9 34.7 to 34.9 35.1 to 36.2 34.9 to 35.0 34.8 to 34.9 35.3 to 36.4

C5 to C16 C3 to C5 C3 to C9 C0.5 to C2.5 0 to C2 K0.4

34.3 to 35.6 34.1 to 34.6 33.8 to 34.5 34.7 to 34.8 34.5 to 34.9 34 to 36

4 to 16 6 to 15 2 to 6 2 to 8 0.5 to 2 9

34.8 to 35.2 34.5 to 35.4 34.4 to 34.7 34.1 to 34.6 34.7 to 34.75 35.5

9 to 16 7 to 16 4 to 7 3 to 7 (K1) to 3

34.3 to 35.1 34.5 to 35.5 34.3 to 34.5 34.1 to 34.6 34.6 to 34.7

2 to 10 6 to 16 10 to 16 7 to 16 6 to 10 (K1) to 3

33.5 to 34.4 34.5 to 35.2 34.0 to 34.6 34.1 to 34.6 34.0 to 34.1 34.6 to 34.7

Source: From U.S. Oceanographic Office, 1966.

Table 5I.73 Composition of Sea Water Constituent

Concentration (ppm)

Chloride Sodium Sulfate Magnesium Calcium Potassium Bicarbonate Bromide Strontium Boron Fluoride Rubidium Aluminum Lithium Barium Iodide Silicate Nitrogen

18,980 10,560 2,560 1,272 400 380 142 65 13 4.6 1.4 0.2 0.16–1.9 0.1 0.05 0.05 0.04–8.6 0.03–0.9 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Salinity

SURFACE WATER

5-147

Table 5I.73

(Continued) Concentration (ppm)

Constituent Zinc Lead Selenium Arsenic Copper Tin Iron Cesium Manganese Phosphorous Thorium Mercury Uranium Cobalt Nickel Radium Beryllium Cadmium Chromium Titanium

0.005–0.014 0.004–0.005 0.004 0.003–0.024 0.001–0.09 0.003 0.002–0.02 w0.002 0.001–0.01 0.001–0.10 %0.0005 0.0003 0.00015–0.0016 0.0001 0.0001–0.0005 8!10K11 — — — Trace

Source: From U.S. Geological survey.

Table 5I.74 Approximate Mineral Content of One Cubic Mile of Sea Water Mineral Sodium chloride Magnesium chloride Magnesium sulfate Calcium sulfate Potassium sulfate Calcium carbonate Magnesium bromide Bromine Strontium Boron

Weight (in tons) 120,000,000 18,000,000 8,000,000 6,000,000 4,000,000 550,000 350,000 300,000 60,000 21,000

Mineral Fluorine Barium Iodine Arsenic Rubidium Silver Copper, Manganese, Zinc, Lead Gold Radium Uranium

Weight (in tons) 6,400 900 100 to 12,000 50 to 350 200 up to 45 10 to 30 up to 25 about 1/6 (ounce) 7

Source: From Smith, The Sun, the Sea, and Tomorrow; Potential Sources of Food, Energy and Minerals from the Sea, Charles Scribners, 1954. With permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-148

Longitude 30E

60E

90E

120E

150E

180

150W

120W

90W

60W

30W

GM

30E 90N

90N

L

-1.0

75N

-1.0

-1.0

-1.0

-1.0

0.0

-1.0

3.0

-1.0 1.0

60N

5.0 5.0

45N

7.0 13.0

25.0

14.0

27.0

28.5

22.0

23.0

30S

19.0

20.0

24.0

15N

25.0 22.0

20.0

21.0 20.0

19.0 13.0

15.0

6.0

7.0

60S

2.0 1.0

-1.0

13.0

9.0

11.0 2.0

0.0

4.0

5.0 3.0

30S

18.0

17.0

9.0

8.0

18.0

21.0

17.0

12.0

11.0

10.0

3.0

15S 19.0

23.0

23.0 14.0

EQ

26.0

25.0

24.0

22.0

45S

30N

22.0

24.0 18.0

45N

17.0

27.0 27.0

27.0

26.0

25.0

14.0

27.0

26.0

27.0

15S

26.0 28.0

28.0 28.5 29.0

28.5 28.0

25.0

25.0

27.0

EQ

23.0

23.0

24.0

28.0 28.5

21.0 18.0

60N

-1.0

10.0

45S

1.0

60S

-1.0

75S

75S

90S

90S 30E

60E

90E

120E

Minimum value = –1.93

150E

180

150W

120W

Maximum value = 29.93

90W

60W

30W

GM

30E

Contour interval: 1.00

Figure 5I.33 Annual mean temperature (8C) at the surface. (From World Ocean Atlas 2001, Ocean Climate Laboratory/NODC, www.nodc.noaa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Above 30.0 29.0 - 30.0 26.0 - 29.0 23.0 - 26.0 20.0 - 23.0 17.0 - 20.0 14.0 - 17.0 11.0 - 14.0 8.0 - 11.0 5.0 - 8.0 2.0 - 5.0 –1.0 - 2.0 –4.0 - –1.0 Below –4.0

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Latitude

19.0

26.0

H

15N

18.0

9.0

75N

11.0

13.0

9.0

20.0

6.0 7.0

8.0

6.0

15.0

30N

3.0

5.0

6.0

2.0

SURFACE WATER

Longitude 30E

60E

90E

120E

150E

180

150W

120W

90W

60W

30W

GM

30E

90N

90N –1.0

–1.0

–1.0

75N

3.0

0.0

–1.0

–1.0

5.0 9.0

24.0

19.0

21.0 18.0

23.0

23.0

27.0

27.0 28.0

28.5

EQ

28.0 29.0 28.5

28.5 28.0

25.0 23.0

30S

19.0

20.0

30N

22.0 24.0

15N

25.0

EQ

26.0 25.0 22.0

24.0

15S

24.0

19.0

23.0

22.0 18.0

45N

27.0 27.0

27.0

26.0

14.0 17.0

27.0

28.0

26.0

27.0

15S

26.0

25.0

26.0

60N

25.0

22.0

H

15N

18.0

14.0

20.0 25.0

13.0

13.0

15.0

30N

10.0

8.0

9.0

75N

11.0

7.0

7.0

6.0

45N

Latitude

6.0

2.0

60N

5.0

6.0

2.0

0.0

23.0 20.0 14.0

20.0

19.0 13.0

45S 3.0

21.0 18.0

17.0 13.0 8.0

9.0

1.0

11.0

5.0

0.0

3.0

30S

16.0

2.0 4.0

2.0 –1.0

9.0

10.0

7.0

60S

17.0

13.0

12.0

11.0

20.0

21.0

10.0

45S

1.0

–1.0

60S

–1.0

L

75S

75S

90S

90S 30E

60E

90E

120E

Minimum value = –1.88

150E

180

150W

120W

Maximum value = 29.71

90W

60W

30W

GM

Above 30.0 29.0 - 30.0 26.0 - 29.0 23.0 - 26.0 20.0 - 23.0 17.0 - 20.0 14.0 - 17.0 11.0 - 14.0 8.0 - 11.0 5.0 - 8.0 2.0 - 5.0 –1.0 - 2.0 –4.0 - –1.0 Below –4.0

30E

Contour interval: 1.00

Figure 5I.34 Annual mean temperature (8C) at 10 m depth. (From World Ocean Atlas 2001, Ocean Climate Laboratory/NODC, www.nodc.noaa.gov.)

5-149

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-150

Longitude 30E

60E

90E

120E

150E

180

150W

120W

90W

60W

30W

GM

30E

90N

75N

90N –1.0

–1.0

0.0

–1.0 1.0

2.0

75N

6.0

0.0

60N

6.0

4.0 5.0 4.0

45N

7.0

6.0

15.0 20.0

30N

24.0

25.0

14.0

Latitude

EQ

19.0

27.0

H

28.0

15S

26.0 22.0

30S

18.0

9.0

28.0

15N

27.0

10.0

26.0 22.0

9.0 7.0

4.0 2.0

–1.0

1.0

22.0 20.0

20.0

18.0

16.0 11.0

10.0

3.0

30S

17.0

13.0

11.0

8.0

6.0 1.0

5.0

0.0

15S 19.0

23.0

14.0

12.0

25.0

24.0

24.0

16.0 11.0

EQ

27.0

8.0

–1.0

24.0

25.0

19.0 15.0

30N

22.0

23.0 21.0

3.0

60S

26.0

25.0

19.0

17.0

13.0

45S

23.0

23.0

21.0

45N

25.0

22.0

27.0

25.0

24.0

18.0

23.0

28.0 27.0 28.5 29.0

27.0

15.0 19.0

27.0

28.0

28.5

60N

12.0

9.0

45S

2.0

–1.0

60S

–1.0

L

75S

75S

90S

90S 30E

60E

90E

120E

Minimum value = –1.96

150E

180

150W

120W

Maximum value = 29.57

90W

60W

30W

GM

Contour interval: 1.00

Figure 5I.35 Annual mean temperature (8C) at 20 m depth. (From World Ocean Atlas 2001, Ocean Climate Laboratory/NODC, www.nodc.noaa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

30E

Above 30.0 29.0 - 30.0 26.0 - 29.0 23.0 - 26.0 20.0 - 23.0 17.0 - 20.0 14.0 - 17.0 11.0 - 14.0 8.0 - 11.0 5.0 - 8.0 2.0 - 5.0 –1.0 - 2.0 –4.0 - –1.0 Below –4.0

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

27.0

16.0

13.0

26.0

15N

11.0

10.0

8.0

9.0

9.0 10.0

2.0

SURFACE WATER

Longitude 30E

60E

90E

120E

150E

180

150W

120W

90W

60W

30W

GM

30E 90N

90N 0.0

-1.0

75N

2.0

1.0

75N

6.0

7.0 9.0

60N 4.0

5.0

5.0 6.0

45N

2.0 8.0

7.0

24.0

18.0

27.0

28.0 28.5

H 27.0

15S 22.0 18.0

26.0

25.0

9.0

21.0

23.0 20.0

19.0 15.0

10.0

3.0

16.0 11.0

9.0

8.0 7.0

60S

2.0 -1.0

0.0

EQ 22.0

23.0

18.0

4.0

18.0 13.0 8.0

16.0

11.0 6.0 1.0

5.0

30S 18.0 9.0

L

75S

45S

2.0

-1.0

3.0

1.0

15S

20.0

21.0 19.0

15.0 11.0

10.0

24.0

26.0

14.0

12.0

15N

27.0

22.0

19.0

17.0

24.0

24.0

29.0

23.0

21.0

30N

25.0

27.0

27.0

13.0

45S

19.0

25.0

24.0

30S

20.0

25.0

28.0

45N

16.0

22.0

27.0 28.5

EQ

60N

13.0

17.0

23.0 22.0 25.0

23.0

26.0

26.0

15N Latitude

19.0

20.0 25.0

13.0

14.0

15.0

30N

11.0

9.0

9.0

8.0

60S

75S

90S

90S 30E

60E

90E

120E

Minimum value = –1.96

150E

180

150W

120W

Maximum value = 29.52

90W

60W

30W

GM

Above 30.0 29.0 - 30.0 26.0 - 29.0 23.0 - 26.0 20.0 - 23.0 17.0 - 20.0 14.0 - 17.0 11.0 - 14.0 8.0 - 11.0 5.0 - 8.0 2.0 - 5.0 –1.0 - 2.0 –4.0 - –1.0 Below –4.0

30E

Contour interval: 1.00

Figure 5I.36 Annual mean temperature (8C) at 30 m depth. (From World Ocean Atlas 2001, Ocean Climate Laboratory/NODC, www.nodc.noaa.gov.)

5-151

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-152

Longitude 30E

60E

90E

120E

150E

90N

180

150W

120W

90W

60W

30W

30E 90N

L

75N

75N

60N

60N 2.30

45N

1.45 1.45

1.45

2.25 1.50

EQ 15S

2.40 2.20

EQ

1.50

1.85

1.20

1.40

1.45

1.20

1.15

1.00

1.00

1.15

0.00 -0.25

-0.05

1.65

0.70

1.40 0.90

1.35

2.40

30S

1.50

1.20

0.45

0.70

0.90 0.35

-0.10

0.45

0.45

0.50

45S

0.55

0.00

1.05 0.85

15S

1.65

0.90

1.60

1.25

0.90

0.05

1.25 1.70

1.55

1.40

1.05

0.85

60S

1.80

1.35

0.70

45S

2.35

1.70

1.25

30S

15N

1.40

1.40 1.40

30N

2.45

2.30

1.45

H

2.50

-0.25 -0.45

-0.40

-0.30

60S

0.20

75S

75S

90S

90S 30E

60E

90E

120E

Minimum value = –0.69

150E

180

150W

120W

Maximum value = 13.93

90W

60W

30W

GM

30E

Contour interval: 0.05

Figure 5I.37 Annual mean temperature (8C) at 4000 m depth. (From World Ocean Atlas 2001, Ocean Climate Laboratory/NODC, www.nodc.noaa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Above 2.95 2.90 - 2.95 2.75 - 2.90 2.60 - 2.75 2.45 - 2.60 2.30 - 2.45 2.15 - 2.30 2.00 - 2.15 1.85 - 2.00 1.70 - 1.85 1.55 - 1.70 1.40 - 1.55 1.25 - 1.40 1.10 - 1.25 0.95 - 1.10 0.80 - 0.95 0.65 - 0.80 0.50 - 0.65 0.35 - 0.50 0.20 - 0.35 0.05 - 0.20 –0.10 - 0.05 –0.25 - –0.10 –0.40 - –0.25 –0.55 - –0.40 –0.70 - –0.55 –0.85 - –0.70 –1.00 - –0.85 Below –1.00

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

1.55

15N

1.55

45N

2.55

2.35

1.50

30N

Latitude

GM

SURFACE WATER

Longitude 30E

60E

90N

31.4 33.8

75N

90E

120E

32.6

150E

180

30.8 30.2

32.4 26.2

30.2 29.6

28.6

34.6

120W

30.4

28.8

33.0

150W

90W

30W

GM

90N 33.4

33.6

30.0

29.0

30E

30.2

30.4

30.8 31.4

30.4

30.6

60W

27.4

34.2

32.4

75N

35.0 34.8

60N

33.0

35.4

L

45N

33.0

33.4 34.2

30N

35.6

32.4

32.8

45N

35.8

36.2

34.0

36.4

33.8

35.2

H

60N

34.8

34.2

32.6

32.4

35.0

37.0

36.6

34.6

30N

36.8

34.4

Latitude

15N

36.4 35.8

36.4

33.2

34.4 34.2

35.4

EQ

35.2

34.8

34.4 35.4

36.0

34.6

35.6

35.8

35.2

35.0 35.2

35.4 36.4

35.4

35.2 34.4

33.8

35.4 34.6

36.2 34.8

34.6

35.6 34.8

34.6

33.8 34.0

34.4

33.8

34.2

34.8

45S

34.2 34.0

34.0 33.8

34.0

30S

35.6

35.4

34.4

35.0

33.8

15S

35.8

36.6

36.2

35.8 35.0

60S

EQ

35.6

35.8

35.6

45S

33.8

35.0

34.0

34.8

30S

15N

36.0

35.8

34.0

35.2

35.0

15S

34.6

34.2

34.2

33.8

33.8

60S

34.2 34.4

75S

75S

90S

90S 30E

60E

90E

Minimum value = 2.37

120E

150E

180

150W

120W

Maximum value = 40.37

90W

60W

30W

GM

Above 37.4 37.2 - 37.4 37.0 - 37.2 36.8 - 37.0 36.6 - 36.8 36.4 - 36.6 36.2 - 36.4 36.0 - 36.2 35.8 - 36.0 35.6 - 35.8 35.4 - 35.6 35.2 - 35.4 35.0 - 35.2 34.8 - 35.0 34.6 - 34.8 34.4 - 34.6 34.2 - 34.4 34.0 - 34.2 33.8 - 34.0 33.6 - 33.8 33.4 - 33.6 33.2 - 33.4 33.0 - 33.2 Below 33.0

30E

Contour interval: 0.20

Figure 5I.38 Annual mean salinity (PSS) at the surface. (From World Ocean Atlas 2001, Ocean Climate Laboratory/NODC, www.nodc.noaa.gov.)

5-153

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-154

Longitude 30E

60E

90N

90E

31.4 31.2 33.6

75N

120E

150E

32.2

32.6

32.8

32.0

180 31.6

28.6

150W 31.2

31.4

30.2

29.8

28.8

34.6

120W

90W

30.8

31.4

31.2

30.4

60W

30W

GM

31.0

31.6

34.8

33.2

33.4

34.8

H

36.4 33.8 36.6

37.2

35.4

EQ

36.4

34.2

34.2

34.0

34.8

33.8

30N

36.8

15N

36.0

35.8

33.8

35.0

35.6

35.0

15S

34.8

34.4

34.6

35.4

30S

35.2

35.6

35.2

35.4

36.4

35.8

35.6

36.2

35.0

34.4

33.8

36.0

35.0

35.8

37.0

35.0

35.6

34.8

35.4 34.6

34.8

35.2

34.4

35.0

34.8

33.8 34.0

30S

35.6

34.6

34.4

33.8

34.6

34.2

34.2

60S

15S

36.2

35.8 35.0

45S

35.2

34.2

EQ

34.8

35.2

34.0

34.0

33.8

45S 60S

33.8

34.0

75S

34.2

34.2

33.8

75S

34.4

90S

90S 30E

60E

90E

Minimum value = 3.52

120E

150E

180

150W

120W

Maximum value = 40.37

90W

60W

30W

GM

Contour interval: 0.20

Figure 5I.39 Annual mean salinity (PSS) at 10 m surface. (From World Ocean Atlas 2001, Ocean Climate Laboratory/NODC, www.nodc.noaa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

30E

Above 37.4 37.2 - 37.4 37.0 - 37.2 36.8 - 37.0 36.6 - 36.8 36.4 - 36.6 36.2 - 36.4 36.0 - 36.2 35.8 - 36.0 35.6 - 35.8 35.4 - 35.6 35.2 - 35.4 35.0 - 35.2 34.8 - 35.0 34.6 - 34.8 34.4 - 34.6 34.2 - 34.4 34.0 - 34.2 33.8 - 34.0 33.6 - 33.8 33.4 - 33.6 33.2 - 33.4 33.0 - 33.2 Below 33.0

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

33.2

36.0

Latitude

34.0

34.4

15N

36.0

36.2

35.2

35.0

45N

32.6 35.6

33.2

34.2

30N

35.4

33.4

33.0

L 60N

34.8

34.2

32.6

75N

35.0

34.4

32.8

60N

45N

90N 33.6

33.8

30.8

32.6

30E

31.4

SURFACE WATER

Longitude 30E

60E

90E

90N

120E

33.8

75N

33.6

180

150W 30.6

30.8 29.2

120W

29.4

90W

60W

30W

GM

31.2

31.2

31.0

31.8

32.8

33.4

32.6

34.6

150E 31.6

32.2

31.4

31.4

31.6

90N 32.6

30.2

34.0

34.2

29.8

30.4

30E

75N

34.8

33.0

35.0

60N 32.8

34.6

32.6

45N

H

45N

35.8

36.2

34.0 33.8

35.2

35.0

32.8 35.6

32.8

34.2 34.8

35.4

32.6

33.4

30N

L 60N

33.0

30N

37.0

36.6

36.8 34.4

Latitude

15N 36.0

36.4

33.2 34.2

34.4

34.0 35.2

15S

35.0 34.8

35.8

36.2

35.0 35.0

35.2

35.6

34.8

35.2

36.4

36.8 35.6

36.2 35.8

35.0

35.0

34.4 33.8

33.8

33.8

34.0

34.2

34.0

34.0 34.2

34.8 34.2

34.4

34.0

34.0

75S

30S

35.6

34.6

35.0

34.6

15S

37.0

36.0

36.4

35.8 35.4

60S

EQ

35.8 35.6

34.4

35.6

45S

34.0

35.2

35.0

15N

34.2

35.4 35.2

30S

34.2

34.6

34.8

35.4

EQ

36.2

33.8

45S 60S

34.2

33.8

75S

90S

90S 30E

60E

90E

Minimum value = 3.55

120E

150E

180

150W

120W

Maximum value = 40.55

90W

60W

30W

GM

Above 37.4 37.2 - 37.4 37.0 - 37.2 36.8 - 37.0 36.6 - 36.8 36.4 - 36.6 36.2 - 36.4 36.0 - 36.2 35.8 - 36.0 35.6 - 35.8 35.4 - 35.6 35.2 - 35.4 35.0 - 35.2 34.8 - 35.0 34.6 - 34.8 34.4 - 34.6 34.2 - 34.4 34.0 - 34.2 33.8 - 34.0 33.6 - 33.8 33.4 - 33.6 33.2 - 33.4 33.0 - 33.2 Below 33.0

30E

Contour interval: 0.20

Figure 5I.40 Annual mean salinity (PSS) at 20 m surface. (From World Ocean Atlas 2001, Ocean Climate Laboratory/NODC, www.nodc.noaa.gov.)

5-155

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5-156

Longitude 30E

60E

90N

90E

31.8 33.8

34.0 34.2

75N

120E 32.4

150E 32.2

33.6

33.8

180

32.0

150W

120W

31.8

32.6

31.0 30.2

30.4

32.0

60W

30W

GM

31.2

31.4

30E 90N

31.6

32.8

34.2

30.4 34.4

31.2

34.8

90W 31.6

31.2

30.6

33.2

75N

35.0

L 60N

60N

33.6 33.0

33.0

34.6

33.4

34.8 35.0

H

32.8

33.2 32.8

34.2

30N

35.4

32.6

45N

35.6

36.2

34.0 33.8

35.2

45N

35.8

30N

37.0

36.6

36.8

Latitude

33.4

36.0

35.2

15S

34.8

34.6

35.6

36.4

35.6

36.2

34.0

15N 35.6

35.2 34.4

36.0

35.0

35.8

35.8

35.8 36.4

35.6

34.8

30S

34.6

35.2

34.4

35.0

34.0

33.8

34.2

33.8

34.2

60S 34.0

35.0 34.4

34.6

60S

34.2

33.8 34.2

75S

45S

34.0

34.0

34.0

33.8

15S

35.6

35.0

35.2 34.6

EQ 36.2

36.8

35.6

36.2

35.0

35.4

45S

36.0

33.8

34.2

34.2

35.4 35.2

30S

34.4 34.4 35.0

35.0 34.8

34.4

34.0

35.4

EQ

34.4

75S

90S

90S 30E

60E

90E

Minimum value = 3.59

120E

150E

180

150W

120W

Maximum value = 40.73

90W

60W

30W

GM

Contour interval: 0.20

Figure 5I.41 Annual mean salinity (PSS) at 30 m surface. (From World Ocean Atlas 2001, Ocean Climate Laboratory/NODC, www.nodc.noaa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

30E

Above 37.4 37.2 - 37.4 37.0 - 37.2 36.8 - 37.0 36.6 - 36.8 36.4 - 36.6 36.2 - 36.4 36.0 - 36.2 35.8 - 36.0 35.6 - 35.8 35.4 - 35.6 35.2 - 35.4 35.0 - 35.2 34.8 - 35.0 34.6 - 34.8 34.4 - 34.6 34.2 - 34.4 34.0 - 34.2 33.8 - 34.0 33.6 - 33.8 33.4 - 33.6 33.2 - 33.4 33.0 - 33.2 Below 33.0

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

15N

SURFACE WATER

Longitude 30E

60E

90E

90N

120E

150E

180

150W

120W

90W

60W

30W

GM

30E 90N

34.94

75N

75N

60N

60N

45N

45N

34.68

34.68

34.91 34.68

30N

15N

34.69

34.69

L Latitude

30N

34.90

H

34.68

34.89

34.90

15N

34.69

34.89 34.89

EQ

EQ

34.84

15S

34.83

34.72

34.78

34.70

30S

34.68

34.66

34.70

Above 34.94 34.92 - 34.94

34.75 34.68

34.66

60S

30S 34.79

34.72

34.72

45S

34.89

34.69

34.70

34.71

34.72

34.71

15S

34.69

34.72

45S

34.69

34.71

34.71

60S

34.68

34.70 34.70

75S

75S

90S

90S 30E

60E

90E

Minimum value = 34.47

120E

150E

180

150W

120W

Maximum value = 35.00

90W

60W

30W

GM

34.86 34.84 34.82 34.80 34.78 34.76 34.74 34.72 34.70 -

34.88 34.86 34.84 34.82 34.80 34.78 34.76 34.74 34.72

34.68 - 34.70 Below 34.68

30E

Contour interval: 0.01 5-157

Figure 5I.42 Annual mean salinity (PSS) at 4000 m surface. (From World Ocean Atlas 2001, Ocean Climate Laboratory/NODC, www.nodc.noaa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

34.90 - 34.92 34.88 - 34.90

5-158

Longitude 30E

60E

90E

90N

120E

150E

8.75

180 8.50

90W

60W

30W

GM

90N 8.25

H

8.00

8.75 7.00 7.25 7.00

6.50

6.00

5.75

6.25

5.75

5.25

5.50 5.00

45N 5.50

5.00

30N

4.75 4.75

15N

15N

4.50 4.75

Latitude

6.00

4.75

4.50

EQ

EQ 4.50

4.50 4.50

15S

4.75

4.75 5.00

30S

5.25

5.00

5.00 5.25

5.50

5.75

5.50

6.00

45S

6.00 7.50

7.00

7.75

60S

15S

4.75

6.25

5.50

7.25

6.75

8.00

8.00

45S

6.75

7.75

7.50 7.75

7.50

75S

6.50

7.00

30S

5.50

5.75

6.00

6.50

7.75

5.50

5.25

7.50 7.75

7.00

60S

7.75

7.50

75S

7.75

90S

90S 30E

60E

90E

120E

Minimum value = 4.07

150E

180

150W

120W

Maximum value = 9.64

90W

60W

30W

Contour interval:

GM

0.25

Figure 5I.43 Annual mean oxygen (mL/l) at the surface. (From World Ocean Atlas 2001, Ocean Climate Laboratory/NODC, www.nodc.noaa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

30E

Above 9.00 8.00 - 9.00 7.50 - 8.00 7.00 - 7.50 6.50 - 7.00 6.00 - 6.50 5.50 - 6.00 5.00 - 5.50 4.50 - 5.00 4.00 - 4.50 3.50 - 4.00 3.00 - 3.50 2.50 - 3.00 2.00 - 2.50 1.50 - 2.00 1.00 - 1.50 0.50 - 1.00 0.00 - 0.50 Below 0.00

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

L

5.25

60N

6.25

6.75

6.75 6.50

30N

75N

7.00

60N

45N

30E

8.75

9.25

8.75 7.75

75N

120W 9.00

8.50

8.50

150W

CHAPTER

6

Groundwater Melvin Rivera

CONTENTS Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section

6A 6B 6C 6D 6E 6F 6G 6H 6I 6J 6K

Groundwater — United States . Water Wells — United States . Water Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Injection Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . Pumping of Water . . . . . . . . . Subsidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aquifer Characteristics . . . . . . Soil Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artificial Recharge . . . . . . . . . Geophysical Logging . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

. . . . . . . . . . .

............................................. ............................................. ............................................. ............................................. ............................................. ............................................. ............................................. ............................................. ............................................. ............................................. .............................................

6–2 6–17 6–22 6–39 6–49 6–59 6–64 6–76 6–79 6–85 6–88

6-1 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-2

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 6A

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER — UNITED STATES

GROUNDWATER

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC EXPLANATION Unconsolidated sand and gravel aquifers 1

Basin and Range aquifers

2

Rio Grande aquifer system

3

California Coastal Basin aquifers

4

Pacific Northwest basin-fill aquifers

5

7

Puget-Willamette Lowland aquifer system Northern Rocky Mountains Intermountain Basins aquifer system Central Valley aquifer system

8

High Planes aquifer

6

9

Pacos River Basin alluvial aquifer

10

Mississippi River Valley alluvial aquifer

11

Seymour aquifer

12

Surfical aquifer system

13

Unconsolidated-deposit aquifer (Alaska)

14

South Coast aquifer (Puerto Rico)

Semiconsolidated sand aquifer

Scale Miles Kilometres

Sandstone aquifers 20

Colorado Plateaus aquifer

21

Denver Basin aquifer system

22

Lower Cretaceous aquifers

43

Basin and Range carbonate-rock aquifers

23

Rush Springs aquifer

44

Roswell Basin aquifer system

24

Central Oklahoma aquifer

45

Ozark Plateaus aquifer system

25

Ada-Varnoosa aquifer

46

Bialine aquifer

26

Early Mesozoic basin aquifers

47

Arbuckle Simpsion aquifer

59

27

New York sandstone aquifers

35

Southern Nevada volcanic-rock aquifers

48

Silarian-Devonian aquifers

60

28

Pennsylvantan aquifers

36

Northern California volcanic-rock aquifers

49

Ordovician aquifers

61

29

Mississippian aquifer of Michigan

37

Pliocene and younger basaltic-rock aquifers

50

Upper carbonate aquifers

Carbonate-rock aquifers

Basaltic and other volcanic-rock aquifers

15

Coastal lowlands aquifer system

30

Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer system

38

Miocene basaltic-rock aquifers

51

Eoxiden aquifer system

16

Texas coastal uplands aquifer system

31

Jacobsville aquifer

39

Volcanic and sedimentary-rock aquifers

52

Biscayne aquifer

53

New York and New England carbonate rock aquifers

54

Piedmont and Blue Ridge carbonate rock aquifers

17

Mississippi embayment aquifer system

32

Lower Tertiary aquifers

40

Snake River Plain aquifer system

18

Southeastern Coastal plain aquifer system

33

Upper Cretaceous aquifers

41

Columbia Plateaus aquifer system

Northern Atlantic Coastal plain aquifer system

34

Upper Tertiary aquifers (Wyoming)

42

Volcanic-rock aquifer-Overlain by sedimentary deposits where patterned (Hawaii)

19

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

58

Glacial deposit aquifers overlie bedrock aquifers in many areas Not a principal aquifer

55

Castle Hayne aquifer

56

North Coast Limestone aquifer system (Puerto Rico)

57

Kingshill aquifer (St. Croix)

6-3

Figure 6A.1 Principal aquifers of the United States. (From http://capp.water.usgs.gov.)

Sandstone and carbonate-rock aquifers

6-4

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Figure 6A.2 River valley aquifers in the United States. (From Water Information Center, 1973, Water Atlas of the United States. H.E. Thomas, The Conservation of Ground Water, McGraw-Hill, 1951. With permission.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(1) Geologic Age and Rock Type Cenozoic Quaternary Aluvium and related deposits (primarily. Recent and Pleistocene sediments and may include some of Pliocene age)

Glacial drift, especially outwash (Pleistocene)

Other Pleistocene sediments

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Western Mountain

Arid

Columbi Lava

Colorado

High

Unglaciated Central

Ranges

Basin

Plateau

Plateau

Plains

Region

S and G along water courses.

S and G along water courses

S and G deposits in valleys and along

S and G deposits in valleys and along

stream courses. Highly productive but not greatly developed

stream courses. Highly developed with local depletion. Storage

— P to M

large but perennial recharge limited-P

S and G deposits in northern part of region — I

S and G deposits especially in northern part of region and in some valleys — I

Alluvial Fm and other basin deposits in the southern part — M to P (see Alluvium above)

S and G deposits along streams,

U

Sand dune deposits —P (in part)

interbedded with basalt — I to M

S and G outwash, especially

U

reworked (see above) — I

in Spokane area — I

U

S and G outwash, much of it

U

and in terrace deposits — I (limited)

S and G outwash especially along northern boundary of region —I

Alluviated plains and valley fills — M to I

(8)

(9)

(10)

Glaciated Central

Unglaciated Appalachian

Glaciated Appalachian

(11) Atlantic and Gulf Coastal

Region

Region

Region

Plain

S and G along water courses

S and G along water courses and in terrace deposits. Not developed

—M

S and G outwash, terrace

S and G outwash in northern

S and G outwash, terrace

part. Not highly developed —M

deposits and lenses in till. Locally highly

deposits and lenses in till throughout region — P (in part)

U

U

developed —I U

S and G along water courses and in terrace and littoral

(12)

Special Comments

GROUNDWATER

Table 6A.1 Occurrence of Aquifers in the United States

The most widespread and important aquifers in the

deposits, especially in the Mississippi and tributary valleys.

United States. Well over one-half of all groundwater pumped in the United States is withdrawn from

Not highly developed in East and South. Some depletion

these aquifers. Many are easily available for artificial recharge and induced infiltration.

in Gulf Coast — I

Subject to saltwater contamination in coastal areas

S and G outwash in Mississippi Valley (see above) —I

Coquina, limestone, sand, and marl Fms in Florida — M

(Continued)

6-5

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(1) Geologic Age and Rock Type Tertiary Sediments, Pliocene

6-6

Table 6A.1

(Continued) (2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Western Mountain Ranges

Arid Basin

Columbi Lava Plateau

Colorado Plateau

High Plains

Unglaciated Central Region

U

U

S and G in valley fill and terrace

Some S and G in valley fill — M

deposits. Not highly developed —M

Ellensburg Fm in Washi-

U

Glaciated Central Region U

(9)

(10)

(11) Atlantic

Unglaciated Appalachian Region

Glaciated Appalachian Region

and Gulf Coastal Plain

Absent

Absent

S and G with huge storage but little recharge locally. Much

U

ngton — I; elsewhere —U

Ellensburg Fm in Washington

U

depletion —P (in part) Arikaree Fm — M

Fms in Gulf States — I

Arikaree Fm — M

— I; elsewhere —U

Flaxville and other terrace

Absent

Absent

New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia — Cohansey and Calvert Fms — I Delaware to North Carolina —

deposits, S and G in north western part — M

Tampa Ls, Alluvium Bluff Gp, and Tamiami Fm — I Eastern Texas — Oakville and

U

U

U

U

Brule, clay, locally — I; else where — U

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Special Comments

Dewitt Ss in Texas. Citronelle and LaFayette

St. Marys and Calvert Fms — I Georgia and Florida —

Oligocene

(12)

U

U

Absent

Absent

Catahoula Ss — I Suwannee Fm, Byram Ls, and Vicksburg Gp — I

Aquifers in coastal areas subject to saltwater encroachment and contamination

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Miocene

Ogalalla Fm in High Plains. Extensive

(8)

Knight and

U

U

Almy Fm in southwest Wyoming —M

Paleocene

U

U

Volcanic rocks, primarily basalt

U

Local flows — M

Mesozoic upper cretaceous

U

Ss lenses in southern California — M; elsewhere

U

Many interbeded basalt flows from Eocene to Pliocene — P U

Kngiht and

U

Claibourne

Almy Fm in southwest Wyoming, Chuska Ss, and Tohatchi

and Wilcox Gp in southern Illinois (?), Kentucky, and Missouri

Sh in northwest Arizona and northeast New Mexico —M

— M; elsewhere — U

U

Local flows — M

Absent

Absent

Absent

New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia — Pamunkey Gp — I. North Carolina to Florida — Ocal a Ls and Castle Hayne Marl — P (in part) Florida — Avon Park Ls, South Carolina to Mexican border,

Feet Union Gp — M

Feet Union Gp — M

Feet Union Gp — M

Absent

Absent

Absent

Absent

Absent

Absent

Absent

Dakota Ss and other not clearly distinguishable Ss a notable source of water from Minnesota and Iowa to the Rocky Mountains and south into New Mexico; also in Utah and Arizona — I In northwestern part of region Fox Hills and related Ss (Lennep, Colgate, etc.) locally valuable as water sources — M

—U

U

formations (Ocala Ls, especially) of the great Floridan aquifer. Subject to saltwater contamination in coastal areas but source of largest groundwater supply in southeastern United States

Claibourne Gp, Wilcox Gp — I Clayton Fm in Georgia —I Absent

U

New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware — Magothy and Raritan Fm — I North and South Carolina — Peedee and Black Creek

Ss of Montana Gp — M Ss members of Mesaverde Gp in Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona — M In Texas aquifers listed under col. 11 — I

Includes the principal

GROUNDWATER

Eocene

In coastal areas subject to saltwater encroachment and contamination. Ss aquifers of the central regions and the west primarily valuable when water from other sources is unavailable

Fms — I Alabama and Georgia — Ripley and Eutah Fms — I

(Continued)

6-7

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(Continued)

(1) Geologic Age and Rock Type

6-8

Table 6A.1

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Western Mountain Ranges

Arid Basin

Columbi Lava Plateau

Colorado Plateau

High Plains

Unglaciated Central Region

(8) Glaciated Central Region

(9)

(10)

(11) Atlantic

Unglaciated Appalachian Region

Glaciated Appalachian Region

and Gulf Coastal Plain

(12)

Special Comments

Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois — McNairy

U

Lower

U

U

In northern part of these regions

U

U

U

Woodbine Ss — I. New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware — Patapsco and Patuxent Fms — I West of Mississippi River, especially in Texas —

Jurassic

Locally — Ss Fm — M

Triassic

Locally — Ss and C Fms — M

Locally — Ss Fm

U

—M

U

Ss Fms. Some may not be developed — I Ss and C Fms used locally. Shinarump C and correlatives give rise to springs — I

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

U

U

Absent

Absent

Absent

U

U

Absent

Ss, C, jointed shale, and basalt beds of Newark Gp in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina — M

Edwards Ls and Ss in Trinity Gp — I U

Water from Ss, C, and Ls Fms west of Mississippi river, especially valuable when water from other sources is unavailable

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Lakota, Cloverly, and Kootenai Ss — M In southern part Purgatoire and Dakota Ss—M. Texas aquifers listed in col. 11—I

cretaceous

Ss — I Arkansas to Texas — Navarro Gp and Taylor Fm — I Texas —

U

U

U

Permian

DeChelly

U

Ss — I

San Andres

U

U

Absent

U

Jointed and weath-

U

GROUNDWATER

Paleozoic

Ls in Roswell Basin — P Quartermaster Gp gives

Kaibab Ls — M

rise to many springs — M Other Ss and Ls in Kansas,

Pennsylvanian

Tensleep Ss in Wyoming and other

U

U

U

U

Oklahoma, and Texas — M Ss and C beds from the Appalachians to Iowa and eastern Kansas — M to I

Ss elsewhere — M

Mississippian

Devonian

Silurian

Ls locally but little developed; springs arise from Ls in Rocky Mountains —M U

U

ered Sh, Ss, and C in Rhode Island and Massachusetts —M A few springs arise from Ls locally —U

U

Some springs arise from Ls locally —U

U

U

U

U

U

U

U

U

U

In Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Kentucky the Burlington, Keokuk, and St. Louis Ls — I Some Ss (primarily Chester) — M In Alabama and Tennessee — the Feet Payne chert, Gaspar Fm,

U

and St. Genevieve and Tuscumbia Ls — I In Kentucky many springs arise in Ls U, except locally in Michigan Jointed Ls, Ss, and Sh, (Traverse Fm), Illinois, some highly Missouri, Ohio metamorphosed (Columbia Ls), and M locally and Kentucky — M Ls and dolomite Fms in New York, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Illinois, and Iowa Better-known aquifers

U

Do

U

little used U

U

U

include Monroe dolomite and related carbonate Fms in Ohio — I; “Niagaran” dolomite in Illinois — P (in part)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-9

(Continued)

(1) Geologic Age and Rock Type Ordovician

6-10

Table 6A.1

(Continued) (2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Western Mountain Ranges

Arid Basin

Columbi Lava Plateau

Colorado Plateau

High Plains

Unglaciated Central Region

U

U

U

U

U

(8) Glaciated Central Region

In Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, eastern Indiana, southern Wisconsin, south-

(9)

(10)

(11) Atlantic

Unglaciated Appalachian Region

Glaciated Appalachian Region

and Gulf Coastal Plain

Locally Ls and Ss Fms; not highly developed — M

U

Ls Fms give rise to large springs in

U

(12)

Special Comments

eastern Minnesota, the St. Peter Ss — I Overlying and subjacent Ls and Ss where present in above states and in Kansas, Oklahoma, and New York — M to I

U

U

U

U

U

Jordan Ss, “Dresbach Fm” (Galesville Ss, Eau Claire Fm, Mt. Simon Ss) — P (in part) Ls and Ss Fms in

Precambrian

Weathered and jointed

(including crystalline rocks which may be younger)

rocks locally — M

U

U

U

southern Appalachians. Otherwise —U

Eastern New York and New England Ss Fms — M; otherwise — U

Missouri and Arkansas give rise to many large springs and yield water to many wells — P U Weathered and jointed rocks locally in Minnesota,

U

Do

Wisconsin, northern Michigan, Piedmont Plateau, New England — M to I. Some Ss in North Central States

Note: Abbreviations: (1) Aquifers: P, principal aquifer in region; I, important aquifer in region; M, minor aquifer in region; U, unimportant as an aquifer in region. (2) Rock terms; S, sand, Ss, sandstone; G, gravel; C, conglomerate; Sh, shale; Ls, limestone; Fm, formation; Gp, group. Source:

From Maxey, In Chow, Handbook of Applied Hydrology, McGraw-Hill, Copyright 1964. With permission.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Cambrian

In Kentucky and Tennessee — Ls Fm — M to I Ss beds in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and Illinois include

GROUNDWATER

6-11

Weste rn Rang es

High

d te ion g re

c la

an t on m

Nonglaciated Central region

and

Gulf

e Blu l a t C o as

Ri

dg lain P

HAWAII

0

500 MI

Ha w Is aiia la nd n s

0

800 KM

tal oas t C Plain

eas

tic

lan

At

Nonglaciated Central region

e

l ra nt e C

ed

Mir

d

g

on

N

uth

Alaska

ion

reg

So

ALASKA

ntr al

Glaciated Central region ia

Plains

Basins

Ce

Plains

High

Colorado Plateau and Wyoming Basin

No Ce ngla reg ntral ciate d ion

Alluvial

Nonglaciated Central region

Western Min Ranges

Plateau

Pi

ter n We s

Nonglaciated Central region

ed at

Lava

and Northeast Superior Uplands

ci la G

es

ng

Ra

Columbia

No Su r th pe ea r io st a r u nd pla nd s

Mountain

Figure 6A.3 Groundwater regions of the United States. (From Heath, R.C., Classification of ground-water regions of the United States, Groundwater, 20, 4, 1982.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-12

Table 6A.2 Principal Physical and Hydrologic Characteristics of Groundwater Regions in the United States

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

6-13

Table 6A.3 Basic Data Required for Groundwater Studies A. Maps, Cross Sections, and Fence Diagrams 1. Planimetric 2. Topographic 3. Geologic a. Structure b. Stratigraphy c. Lithology 4. Hydrologic a. Location of wells, observation wells, and springs b. Groundwater table and potentiometric contours c. Depth to water d. Quality of water e. Recharge, discharge, and contributing areas 5. Vegetative cover, location of wetlands 6. Soils 7. Aerial photographs B. Data on Wells and Springs 1. Location, depth, diameter, types of well, and logs 2. Static and pumping water level, hydrographs, yield, specific capacity, quality of water 3. Present and projected groundwater development and use 4. Corrosion, incrustation, well interference, and similar operation and maintenance problems 5. Location, type, geologic setting, and hydrographs of springs 6. Observation well networks 7. Water sampling sites C. Aquifer Data 1. Type, such as unconfined, artesian, or perched 2. Thickness, depths, and formational designation 3. Boundaries 4. Transmissivity, storativity, and permeability 5. Specific retention 6. Discharge and recharge 7. Ground and surface water relationships 8. Aquifer models D. Climatic Data 1. Precipitation 2. Temperature 3. Evapotranspiration E. Surface Water 1. Use 2. Quality 3. Runoff distribution, reservoir capacities, inflow and outflow data 4. Return flows, section gain or loss 5. Recording stations 6. Low flow data F. Environment 1. Location of hazardous waste sites or other potential sources of pollution 2. Use of herbicides, pesticides, fertilizers, and road salt 3. Site history G. Local Drilling Facilities and Practices 1. Size and types of drilling rigs locally available 2. Logging services locally available 3. Locally used materials, well designs, and drilling practices 4. State or local rules and regulations Source: From U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Groundwater Manual; Amended, 1977.

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6-14

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

23 17

23

25 1 9

13

19 4

12

3 24

21

14 18

2

5

10 22

11 20

8 6

15 Hawaii

16 Caribbean Islands

1 Northern Great Plains 14 Upper Colorado River basin 15 Oahu, Hawaii 2 High Plains 3 Central Valley, California 16 Caribbean Islands 17 Columbia Plateau 4 Northern Midwest 18 San Juan Basin 5 Southwest Alluvial Basins 6 Floridan 19 Michigan Basin 7 Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain 20 Edwards-Trinity 8 Southeastern Coastal Plain 21 Midwestern Basins and Arches 22 Appalachian Valleys and Piedmont 9 Snake River Plain 23 Puget-Willamette Lowland 10 Central Midwest 24 Southern California Alluvial Basins 11 Gulf Coastal Plains 12 Great Basin 25 Northern Rocky Mountain Intermontane 13 Northeast Glacial Aquifers The U.S. Geological Survey initiated the Regional Aquifer-System Analysis (RASA) Program in 1978 in response to Federal and State needs for information to improve management of the Nation's groundwater resources. The objective of the RASA Program is to define the regional geohydrology and establish a framework of background information—geologic, hydrologic, and geochemical—that can be used for regional assessment of groundwater resources and in support of detailed local studies. The program was completed in 1995. A total of 25 aquifer systems were studied under the RASA Program. Figure 6A.4 Regional aquifer study areas. (From http://water.usgs.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

6-15

Explanation Depth to saline ground water, in feet Less than 500 500 to 1,000 More than 1,000

0

Inadequate information

0

200 200

400 Miles

400 Kilometres

Figure 6A.5 Depth to saline groundwater in the United States (generalized from Feth and others, 1965). (From USGS fact sheet 075-03, October 2003.)

10° 5°

5°

10°

15° 15°

15°

20° 20°

20° 20° 25°

Figure 6A.6 Average shallow groundwater temperatures in the United States developed by Collins. (From www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-16

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6A.4 Estimated Groundwater in Storage, by Continent Continent Europe Asia Africa North America South America Australia Total Note:

0–100 m

100–200 m

200–2000 m

Total

0.2 1.3 1 0.7 0.3 0.1 3.6

0.3 2.1 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.2 6.2

1.1 4.4 3.0 2.4 1.8 0.9 13.6

1.6 7.8 5.5 4.3 3 1.2 23.4

In millions of km3; based on publications by soviet hydrologists.

Source: From Castany, G., Hydrogeology of deep aquifers, Episodes, 1981, 3, 1981.

Groundwater

0–25% 26–50 % 51– 75 % 76–100 % Aquifer areas Aquifer areas with a flow rate greater than 0.4 l/sec. Regions outside Canada Boundaries International Canada / Kalaallit Nunaat dividing line EEZ (200 mile)

0

590

1180

1770

2360 km

Figure 6A.7 Groundwater potential in Canada and a percentage of people using groundwater resources in Canadian municipalities over 10,000 people. (From www.atlas.gc.ca.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

6-17

SECTION 6B

WATER WELLS — UNITED STATES

300

KOREAN WAR WORLD WAR 2

400

DEPRESSION

500

WORLD WAR 1

Number of wells drilled, in thousands per year

600

200

100

0 1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960 1964

1980 1985

Year Figure 6B.8 Number of water wells drilled in the United States and relation to major events in the United Stated history. (From Hindall, S.M., Eberle, Michael,1987, National and regional trends in water-well drilling in the United States 1964–1984, U.S. Geological Survey, Open File Report 87–247; 1985 data from National Water Well Association.)

Table 6B.5 Number and Type of Water Wells and Boreholes Constructed in the United States in 1985 Application/type

1985

Commercial/industrial

49,379

Heat pump supply/return

18,029

Agricultural irrigation

21,583

Private household

488,918

Public supply

20,010

Monitoring

121,294 a

29,343

a

Lawn/turf irrigation

27,036

Other

34,482

Total

810,074

Livestock watering

Note: a

PRIVATE HOUSEHOLD WELLS 60.35% HEAT PUMP 2.23% PUBLIC 2.47% IRRIGATION 2.66% COMM/IND 6.1% OTHER 11.22%

Based on Water Well Journal Survey of 8,043 firms.

Included in “Other” category on pie chart.

Source: From McCray, Kevin. Copyright Water Well Journal September 1986. Reprinted with permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

MONITORING 14.97%

6-18

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

HAWAII

Figure 6B.9

ALASKA

LEGEND UNITS/SQ.MI. < 10 10 – 40 > 40

Density of housing units using on site domestic water supply systems in the United States [By county]. (From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Supply, Office of Solid Waste Management Programs, 1977, The Report to Congress: Waste Disposal Practices and Their Effects on Groundwater.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

6-19

Table 6B.6 Number and Type of Water Wells in the United States, 1988 Public Supplya

Community Supply

State

Irrigation

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California

N/A 10 6,125 21,078 67,770

1,706 1,283 2,533 3,220 8,143

1,013 454 1,650 1,073 3,320

267,202 32,391 43,226 213,672 359,584

Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia

17,809 N/A 559 29,017 4,492

3,116 5,373 1,141 11,337 4,139

1,465 1,073 497 4,650 2,460

84,459 241,130 52,701 573,059 405,078

N/A 7,371 1,107 N/A 2,210

219 3,114 10,018 16,100 5,052

218 1,312 1,492 1,805 3,674

536 88,853 443,681 546,381 236,709

18,658 N/A 4,558 N/A N/A

2,456 1,144 3,162 3,433 4,955

2,405 386 1,996 595 953

116,567 247,506 200,446 149,331 252,142

Massachussets Michigan Minnesota Missisippi Missouri

N/A N/A 4,250 N/A 3,700

2,894 12,188 13,163 3,109 3,996

1,384 1,138 2,467 2,257 1,633

132,119 934,184 382,572 150,816 305,853

Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey

997 61,361 2,332 N/A N/A

2,504 1,558 1,156 2,009 7,765

999 1,501 697 733 2,256

80,817 112,740 24,142 110,712 227,326

New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio

8,031 651 530 808 N/A

2,478 18,068 15,972 1,261 13,306

1,545 5,381 5,094 718 3,508

70,157 659,973 821,995 54,008 692,062

Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina

4,351 9,241 N/A N/A 185

3,265 3,330 17,477 916 3,376

2,181 1,267 5,578 169 2,174

164,506 178,407 800,292 33,987 297,435

South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont

1,266 320 59,636 2,295 N/A

1,244 3,125 13,297 1,961 1,739

872 1,006 9,207 1,164 653

56,512 258,997 490,453 14,511 58,380

Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming

N/A 5,853 N/A N/A 1,409

6,771 6,130 2,771 22,982 1,373

2,869 3,810 834 2,239 647

455,556 195,132 181,069 521,579 30,900

348,116

282,827

98,472

13,101,846 13,732,680

Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland

Totals Grand total

Household

Note: N/A, Not available. a Includes community supply (systems with at least 15 service connections used by year-round residents or regularly serving at least 25 year-round residents). Source: From National Water Well Association, 1988.

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6-20

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6B.7 Number of Water Wells Drilled in the United States, 1960–1984 Estimated Number of Wells Drilleda

State

1960

1964

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

Percent of Total Drilled in 1984

Percentage Change between Annual Totalsb 1960 and 1964

1964 and 1984

1980 and 1984

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California

4,000 726 1,400 5,000 9,100

4,500 1,000 1,520 5,000 10,000

5,960 2,440 2,190 4,010 17,100

6,420 2,400 2,220 5,910 15,900

5,920 2,400 2,380 2,750 11,300

5,570 2,800 2,710 3,320 11,000

6,260 2,700 2,760 4,200 14,300

1.6 0.68 0.7 1.1 3.6

C13 C38 C8.6 NC C10

C39 C170 C82 K16 C43

C5 C11 C26 C5 K16

Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida

3,100 6,500 3,800 12

5,910 6,500 3,440 12

4,910 5,470 2,000 ND

4,570 5,410 2,680 0

4,390 4,500 2,290 0

4,360 5,140 2,700 0

4,060 5,780 3,100 ND

1.0 1.5 0.78 ND

C91 NC K9.5 NC

K31 K11 K10 ND

K17 C6 C55 ND

33,900

55,000

40,200

40,500

38,900

43,200

45,600

C62

K17

C13

Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana

10,500 17 1,400 21,000 17,700

10,000 21 1,400 19,500 15,000

11,000 11 2,880 14,000 9,670

13,400 11 1,470 12,200 8,180

10,100 7 2,400 13,400 9,700

10,800 7 1,590 13,600 9,180

12,200 2 1,630 15,300 10,300

3.1 !0.1 0.35 3.9 2.6

K4.8 C24 NC K7.1 K15

C22 K90 C16 K22 K31

C11 K82 K43 C9.3 C6.5

9,000 4,700 9,880 974 1,500

15,000 5,500 9,620 2,620 1,700

5,890 4,530 5,060 6,050 2,860

6,850 5,050 5,100 6,830 2,570

4,120 3,380 4,800 6,580 2,440

3,780 3,420 5,440 5,180 3,470

3,140 3,910 5,740 5,560 3,900

0.79 1.0 1.4 1.4 1.0

C67 C17 K2.6 C170 C13

K79 K29 K40 C110 C130

K47 K14 C13 K8.1 C36

Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi

4,020 8,000 25,000 13,000 5,300

6,900 9,000 25,000 9,000 5,900

7,200 6,330 24,000 14,400 2,670

8,000 6,270 20,000 10,500 3,550

6,700 5,370 16,000 10,800 2,540

8,800 6,820 17,000 11,100 2,400

8,300 7,670 18,500 12,500 2,640

2.1 1.9 4.7 3.1 0.66

C72 C12 NC K31 C11

C20 K15 K26 C39 K55

C15 C21 K23 K13 K1

Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire

6,380 1,900 5,510 824 3,600

9,990 2,000 6,000 825 4,400

10,900 3,580 4,500 775 3,050

8,530 6,410 5,940 765 4,190

7,830 6,260 3,470 503 2,630

10,200 2,360 3,260 639 5,210

11,500 2,560 3,660 718 5,860

2.9 0.64 0.92 0.18 1.5

C57 C5.3 C8.9 NC C22

C15 C28 K39 K13 C33

C5.5 K28 K19 K7.4 C92

New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota

3,800 2,290 25,000 20,000 4,200

3,440 3,150 25,000 25,000 3,760

8,620 2,750 16,800 10,500 1,710

8,540 2,880 17,000 12,000 2,190

8,580 3,370 15,600 13,500 1,450

10,900 3,430 17,800 15,900 1,480

13,100 3,110 20,000 17,100 1,450

3.3 0.78 5.0 4.3 0.36

K9.5 C38 NC C25 K10

C280 K1.3 K20 K32 K61

K52 C13 C19 C63 K15

Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island

17,100 4,400 3,500 13,500 200

18,600 5,000 4,500 16,200 250

16,700 7,980 7,500 15,600 319

14,300 7,630 6,620 12,400 240

14,200 6,500 3,800 9,620 206

14,000 5,870 3,550 8,140 387

15,700 6,590 3,530 10,800 548

4.0 1.8 0.89 2.7 0.14

C8.8 C14 C29 C20 C25

K160 C32 K22 K33 C120

K6.0 K17 K53 K31 C72

South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah

5,300 6,080 10,000 19,000 630

5,400 5,430 8,000 25,000 650

11,400 2,210 7,080 16,200 630

5,340 1,820 7,130 17,700 547

4,640 1,590 6,710 21,700 507

7,780 1,330 7,600 17,700 488

8,740 1,500 8,020 21,200 548

2.2 0.38 2.0 5.3 0.14

C1.9 K11 K20 C32 C3.2

C62 K72 NC K15 K16

K23 K32 C13 C31 K13

Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin

1,240 8,500 1,400 5,500 11,000

1,460 10,000 1,700 5,900 12,000

3,100 10,900 5,040 3,280 11,600

2,280 8,830 4,290 3,510 9,900

1,900 9,060 3,550 2,730 9,590

2,330 15,300 4,320 2,580 10,400

3,050 16,900 4,030 2,900 11,700

0.77 4.3 1.0 0.73 2.9

C18 C18 C21 C7.3 C9.1

C110 C69 C137 K51 K2.5

K1.6 C55 K20 K12 C0.86

Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine

11

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

Table 6B.7

6-21

(Continued) Estimated Number of Wells Drilleda

State

1960

Wyoming Totals a b

1964

1980

1981

1982

1983

Percent of Total Drilled in 1984

1984

1,000

1,000

3,010

3,680

2,970

2,500

2,520

381,000

434,000

387,000

371,000

336,000

359,000

397,000

0.6 100

Percentage Change between Annual Totalsb 1960 and 1964

1980 and 1984

1964 and 1984

NC

C152

K16

C14

C8.5

C2.6

Numbers rounded to three significant figures. Numbers rounded to two significant figures.

Source: From Hindall, S.M., Eberle, Michael, national and regional trends in water-well drilling in the United States 1964–1984, U.S. Geological Survey, Open File Report, 87–247, 1987.

Table 6B.8 Regional Trends in Water-Well Construction in the United States, 1960–1984

1960

1964

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

Average Annual Total 1980 Through 1984

Northeast (includes DC) Southeast Great Lakes and Central Appalachians South-Central Northern Rockies and Northern Great Plains Southwest (includes Hawaii) Pacific Northwest (includes Alaska)

63,300 95,300 130,000

68,000 126,000 123,000

62,100 102,000 106,000

60,600 106,000 95,300

50,800 93,600 87,900

60,200 112,000 90,900

70,800 121,000 101,000

60,900 107,000 96,200

54,800 20,100

77,200 19,600

63,200 17,900

62,100 16,700

60,600 18,100

57,300 12,500

63,300 13,300

61,300 15,700

12,000 5,620

13,000 7,200

20,700 15,000

17,700 11,400

15,100 9,750

14,800 8,670

18,300 10,300

17,300 11,000

Totals

381,000

434,000

387,000

370,000

336,000

359,000

397,000

370,000

Number of Wells Drilled Region

Percentage of Total Wells Drilled

Northeast (includes DC) Southeast Great Lakes and Central Appalachians South-Central Northern Rockies and Northern Great Plains Southwest (includes Hawaii) Pacific Northwest (includes Alaska) Totals

Percentage Change between Annual Totals

1964

1984

1960 and 1964

1964 and 1984

1980 and 1984

16

18

C7.4

C4.1

C14

29 28

30 25

C32 K5.4

K3.9 K18

C19 K4.7

18 4.5

16 3.3

C41 K2.5

K18 K32

NC K26

3.0

4.6

C8.3

C41

K12

1.7

2.6

C28

C43

K31

C14

K8.5

C2.6

100

100

Source: From Hindall, S.M., Eberle, Michael, national and regional trends in water-well drilling in the United States 1964–1984, U.S. Geological Survey, Open File Report, 87–247, 1987. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-22

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 6C

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER WELLS

Method

Materials for Which Best Suited

Water Table Depth for Which Best Suited (m)

Usual Maximum Depth (m)

Usual Diameter Range (cm)

Usual Casing Material

Customary Use

Yield m3/daya

Augering Hand auger

Clay, silt sand, gravel less than 2 cm

2–9

10

5–20

Sheet metal

Domestic, drainage

15–250

Power auger

Clay, silt sand, gravel less than 5 cm

2–15

25

15–90

Concrete, steel or wrought-iron pipe

15–500

Driven Wells Hand, air hammer Jetted Wells Light, portable rig Drilled Wells Cable tool

Silt, sand, gravel less than 5 cm

2–5

15

3–10

Standard weight pipe

Domestic, irrigation, drainage Domestic, drainage

Silt, sand, gravel less than 2 cm

2–5

15

4–8

Standard weight pipe

Domestic, drainage

Unconsolidated and consolidated medium hard and hard rock

Any depth

450b

8–60

Steel or wrought-iron pipe

Rotary

Silt, sand, gravel less than 2 cm; soft to hard consolidated rock

Any depth

450b

8–45

Reservecirculation rotary

Silt, sand, gravel, cobble

2–30

60

Rotarypercussion

Silt, sand, gravel less than 5 cm; soft to hard consolidated rock

Any depth

600b

a b

15–200

Remarks Most effective for penetrating and removing clay. Limited by gravel over 2 cm. Casing required if material is loose Limited by gravel over 5 cm, otherwise same as for hand auger Limited to shallow water table, no large gravel

15–150

Limited to shallow water table, no large gravel

All uses

15–15,000

Steel or wrought-iron pipe

All uses

15–15,000

40–120

Steel or wrought-iron pipe

Irrigation, industrial, municipal

2500–20,000

30–50

Steel or wrought–iron pipe

Irrigation, industrial, municipal

2500–15,000

Effective for water exploration. Requires casing in loose materials. Mudscow and hollow rod bits developed for drilling unconsolidated fine to medium sediments Fastest method for all except hardest rock. Casing usually not required during drilling. Effective for gravel envelope wells Effective for large-diameter holes in unconsolidated and partially consolidated deposits. Requires large volume of water for drilling. Effective for gravel envelope wells Now used in oil exploration. Very fast drilling. Combines rotary and percussion methods (air drilling) cuttings removed by air. Would be economical for deep water wells

GROUNDWATER

Table 6C.9 Water Well Construction Methods and Applications

Yield influenced primarily by geology and availability of groundwater. Greater depths reached with heavier equipment.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-23

Source: From U.S. Soil Conservation Service, Engineering Field Manual for Conservation Practices, 1969.

6-24

Table 6C.10 Relative Performance of Different Drilling Methods in Various Types of Geologic Formations

Note: a

3 5 3 5 3

5 5 5 5 4

3

3

5

5 5 5

3 5 3

3 5 5

5

3

5 5 5

Reverse Rotary (Dual Wall)

Hydraulic Percussion

Jetting

Driven

Auger

3 3

1 1 1 1

5 5 5 1

5 5 5 1

5 5 5 5

5 5 3 5 4

5 5 5 5 5

3 3 3 3 4

3

3

5

3

6 6

3 5 3

3 5 3

5 5 5

5

6

2

5

5

3–1 5 3

2 5 5

5 6 6

1 5 3

5 5 5

1 5 5

3 3

3 1

4 3

5 3

3 1

4 4

3 1

3 3

3 3

4 5

5 5

3 3

4 4

3 3

Rate of Penetration: 1, Impossible; 2, Difficult; 3, Slow; 4, Medium; 5, Rapid; 6, Very rapid.

Assuming sufficient hydrostatic pressure is available to contain active sand (under high confining pressures).

Source: From Driscoll, F.G., 1986, Groundwater and Wells. Copyright Johnson Division.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Not recommended

6 6 6 4

Not applicable

5a 5a 5a 2–1

Not recommended

6 6 6 5

3 2 2

Not applicable

5 5 5 2–1

Reverse Rotary (with fluids)

Not recommended

2 2 2 3–2

Direct Rotary (DrillThrough Casing Hammer)

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Dune sand Loose sand and gravel Quicksand Loose boulders in alluvial fans or glacial drift Clay and slit Firm shale Sticky shale Brittle shale Sandstone — poorly cemented Sandstone — well cemented Chert nodules Limestone Limestone with chert nodules Limestone with small cracks or fractures Limestone, cavernous Dolomite Basalts, thin layers in sedimentary rocks Basalts — thick layers Basalts — highly fractured (lost circulation zones) Metamorphic rocks Granite

Cable Tool

Direct Rotary (with Air)

Not recommended

Type of Formation

Direct Rotary (with Fuids)

Direct Rotary (Down-the-Hole Air Hammer)

GROUNDWATER

6-25

Table 6C.11 Description of Drilling Methods Methods Without Drilling Fluids Displacement Boring Pros: † † Cons: † † † †

Does not require heavy equipment (by hand or lightweight equipment) Clean method for shallow well installation Method limited to shallow depths Method limited to soft soils and boulder, cobble-free zones Not efficient if necessary to install several wells Practical limitation up to w2 00 diameter sampler

Similar to the above method is “Direct Push Technology” or DPT. A common trade name is GeoProbe. DPT does not require heavy equipment, most units are pickup mounted or ATV mounted for easy accessibility Driven Wells Pros: † † Cons: † † †

Cost effective Easy access in most conditions Limited to shallow depths (! 50 ft) Limited to unconsolidated, soft formations relatively free of cobbles or boulders May require pre-drilling a hole of slightly greater diameter that the well point

Solid-Stem Auger Pros: † † † † Cons: † † †

Rapid and low-cost drilling in clayey formations Clean method, does not require circulation fluids No casing necessary where the formation is stable Allows collection of representative sample in semi-consolidated formations Practical limitation to 24 00 diameter Inefficient in loose, sandy material (depends on the depth) Inefficient below the water table (depends on the depth)

Hollow-Stem Auger (HSA) Pros: † † † Cons: † †

Allows collection of uncontaminated sample in unconsolidated formation Can be used as temporary casing to prevent caving Relatively rapid, especially in clayey formations

Ineffective through boulders Limited drilling in loose, granular soils, particularly below the water table where sample recovery can be compromised † Difficult to retrieve a sample in loose, granular soil because cuttings do not always want to come to the surface. Samples must be collected with a split spoon or a continuous corer, either of which can provide excellent samples if done correctly † Limited to rather shallow depths

Sonic Drilling Pros: Drilling can proceed with or without the use of drilling fluids Method can be utilized in unconsolidated and some consolidated formations Minimal disturbance to soil samples Good recovery of quasi-continuous samples Conventional air rotary or down-hole hammer methods can be employed through the outer drive casing † The rig can also be operated as a fluid rotary machine Cons: † A relatively new method that is not available everywhere † Relatively expensive compared to other drilling methods † † † † †

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-26

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6C.11

(Continued)

† Dry casing advancement generates heat that can affect the sample integrity † Maximum nominal diameter of less than 12 in. † Practical depth limitation of less than 500 ft Methods that Use Drilling Fluids Rotary (Direct) Drilling Pros: † † † Cons: †

High penetration rate Drilling operation requires a minimum amount of casing Rapid mobilization and demobilization

Use of a drilling fluid, both in terms of sample contamination and water management (in the case of water-based fluids and air injected by gasoline compressors) † Circulation of drilling fluid may be lost in loose/coarse formations, hence making difficult to transport drill cuttings † Difficult to collect accurate samples, i.e. a sample from a discrete zone since the cuttings accumulate at surface around the rim of the borehole

Reverse Circulation Rotary Drilling (RC) Pros: † Applicable to a wide variety of formations † Possible to drill large-diameter holes, both quickly and economically † Minimal disturbance to the formation due to the pressure being applied inside and outside the pipe string † Easier recovery of cuttings since the up-hole velocity is controlled by the size of the drill pipe and less subject to lost-circulation † No casing required during drilling and advantageous when high risks of caving inches. If there is a risk of caving, mud should be used as a stabilizer. In the case of air drilling, it presents the same risk than regular air rotary, since the flow is down the annular space Cons: † High water requirements (not for air drilling) † Collection of a representative sample is difficult due to potential material mixing † Rig size can render access difficult † Need for drilling mud management (not for air drilling) Dual-Wall Reverse Circulation Drilling Pros: † † † † † Cons: † † † †

Good sample recovery due to controlled up-hole fluid velocity Fast penetration in coarse alluvial or broken, fissured rock Possible to obtain continuous representative samples of the formation and groundwater Easy estimate of aquifer yield at many depths in the formation Reduction of lost-circulation problems Practical borehole diameter limited to 10 in. Maximum depth of w1,400 ft, although greater depths can be achieved in hard rock Possible to dry out or to not detect a thin of low-yield aquifer Possible sample contamination due to the oil used in the air-compressor unless quality air filters are used (this is true for all air methods, unless the contractor uses filters)

Cable-Tool Percussion Pros: † In situations where the aquifer is thin and yield is low, the method permits identification of zones that might be overlooked by other drilling methods † Recovery of representative soil samples at every depth, although samples are disturbed due to the impact of the blow which can affect material several feet below the bottom of the hole † Allows well construction with low chance of contamination † Borehole can be bailed at any time to determine approximate yield of the formation at a given depth † Easy access to rough terrain Cons: † Slow penetration rate † Due to the constant mixing of water, it is not possible to obtain groundwater samples during drilling

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

6-27

Table 6C.11

(Continued)

† Expensive casing for larger diameters † Difficult to pull back casing in some geologic conditions Air Percussion Down-the-Hole Hammer Pros: † † † † † Cons: †

Rapid removal of cuttings No use of drilling mud High penetration rate, especially in resistant rock formation (e.g. basalt) Easy soil and groundwater sampling during drilling Possible to measure yield estimate at selected depth in the formation Restricted to semi-consolidated to consolidated formations

Air Percussion Casing Hammer Pros: † Wells can be drilled in unconsolidated materials that could be difficult to drill with cable-tool or direct rotary method † No water-based fluid (drilling mud) is required in unconsolidated materials † Representative formation and groundwater samples can be collected † Borehole is fully stabilized during drilling operations through the use of casing † Rapid penetration rates even in difficult drilling conditions † Lost circulation problem is rarely a concern, except in very loose materials (e.g. mine waste rock) † Operates well in cold weather Cons: † Method does not permit yield measurements during drilling † When groundwater static levels are low, the high air pressure in the hole can prevent water from entering the borehole; a “rest” period is necessary to assess the true static level † Relatively expensive method (increased cost of driving casing in) † Very noisy (driving of casing) † Borehole diameter limited to 12 in. ODEX Percussion Down-the-Hole Hammer (Odex, Stratex, and Tubex are Trade Names) Pros: † † † † † †

Rapid removal of cuttings No use of drilling mud High penetration rate, especially in resistant rock formation (e.g. basalt) Easy soil and groundwater sampling during drilling Possible to measure yield estimate at selected depth in the formation Advantageous in unconsolidated formations with a high risk of caving (this is the probably the most important feature)

Cons: † Practically restricted to unconsolidated formations † Relatively a more expensive method Copyright 1990–2005 InfoMine Inc. Developed and maintained by InfoMine Inc.

Source: From technologyinfomine.com. With permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-28

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6C.12 Data on Standard and Line Pipe Commonly Used for Water Well Casing Schedule or Classa

Wall Thickness (in.)

Weight per Foot-Plain End (Pounds)

Inside Diameter (in.)

Suggested Maximum Setting (ft)b

5.200

— 40

0.219 0.237

10.10 10.79

4.062 4.026

1,190 1,060

6.625

7.390

— 40(S)

0.250 0.280

17.02 18.97

6.125 6.065

705 850

8

8.625

9.625

20 30 40(S)

0.250 0.277 0.322

22.36 24.70 28.55

8.125 8.071 7.981

420 525 695

10

10.750

11.750

20 30 40(S)

0.250 0.307 0.365

28.04 34.24 40.48

10.250 10.136 10.020

235 410 580

12

12.750

14.000

20 30 S 40c

0.250 0.330 0.375 0.406

33.38 43.77 49.56 53.56

12.250 12.090 12.000 11.938

140 320 435 515

14

14.000

15.000

10 20 30(S) 40

0.250 0.312 0.375 0.438

36.71 45.68 54.57 63.37

13.500 13.376 13.250 13.124

105 195 350 495

16

16.000

17.000

10 20 30(S) 40

0.250 0.312 0.375 0.500

42.05 52.36 62.58 82.77

15.500 15.376 15.250 15.000

70 140 240 495

18

18.000

19.000

10 20 S 30 40

0.250 0.312 0.375 0.438 0.562

47.39 59.03 70.59 82.06 104.76

17.500 17.376 17.250 17.124 16.876

50 100 170 270 495

20

20.000

21.000

10 20(S) 30 40c

0.250 0.375 0.500 0.594

52.73 78.60 104.13 123.06

19.500 19.250 19.000 18.802

35 125 295 445

22

22.000

—

10 20(S) 30

0.250 0.375 0.500

58.07 86.61 114.81

21.500 21.250 21.000

30 95 220

24

24.000

—

10 20(S) 30 40

0.250 0.375 0.562 0.688

63.41 94.62 140.80 171.17

23.500 23.250 22.876 22.624

20 70 240 410

26

26.000

—

10 S 20

0.312 0.375 0.500

85.73 102.63 136.17

25.376 25.250 25.000

30 55 135

28

28.000

—

10c (S) 20 30

0.312 0.375 0.500 0.625

92.41 110.41 146.85 182.73

27.376 27.250 27.000 26.750

25 45 105 210

30

30.000

—

10c (S) 20 30

0.312 0.375 0.500 0.625

99.08 118.65 157.53 196.08

29.376 29.250 29.000 28.750

20 35 85 170

Outside Diameter (in.)

Outside Diameter Couplings (in.)

4

4.500

6

Nominal Size (in.)

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

Table 6C.12 Nominal Size (in.)

6-29

(Continued) Outside Diameter (in.)

Outside Diameter Couplings (in.)

Schedule or Classa

Wall Thickness (in.)

Weight per Foot-Plain End (Pounds)

Inside Diameter (in.)

Suggested Maximum Setting (ft)b

32

32.000

—

10c (S) 20 30

0.312 0.375 0.500 0.625

105.76 126.66 168.21 209.43

31.376 31.250 33.000 32.750

20 30 70 140

34

34.000

—

10c S 20 30

0.312 0.375 0.500 0.625

112.43 134.67 178.89 222.78

33.376 33.250 33.000 32.750

15 25 60 115

36

36.000

—

10c (S) 20 30

0.312 0.375 0.500 0.625

119.11 142.68 189.57 236.13

35.376 35.250 35.000 34.750

10 20 50 100

a

ASA Standard B36.10 schedule numbers (S) indicates standard weight pipe. Maximum settings were estimated for the worst possible conditions in unconsolidated formation. A design factor of approximately 1.5 was used for steel with yield strength less than 40,000 lb/in2. A 50-percent increase in depth of setting beyond those given is considered safe under favorable conditions. c Indicates a non-API standard. Source: From Bureau of Reclamation, Groundwater Manual, 1977. b

Table 6C.13 Recommended Casing Diameters for Water Wells Yield, Gallons per Minute Less than 100 75–175 150–400 350–600 600–1,300 1,300–1,800 1,800–3,000 3,000–4,500 Over 4,500

Recommended Casing Size (in.) 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 30 30

I.D.a I.D. I.D. I.D. O.D.b O.D. O.D. O.D. O.D.

Note: For line shaft vertical turbine pumps 1800 rpm. a b

I.D., Inside Diameter. O.D., Outside Diameter.

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Manual of Water Well Construction Practices, EPA-570/ 9–75–001. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-30

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6C.14 Recommended Casing Sizes for Domestic Water Wells Yield at 50 00 Drawdown

Recommended Casing Diameter (in.)

Less than 8 gpm

2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6

8–16.5 gpm

Greater than 16.5 gpm

Pump Type Jet

Double Jet

X X X

X X X X

X X X

X X X X

X X

Submersible X X X X X X X X

X X

X X X

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Manual of Water Well Construction Practices, EPA-570/9–75–001. Table 6C.15 Recommended Maximum Depth of Setting for California Stovepipe Casing Gaugea Diameter (in.) 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 30

12

10

D

S

D

S

340 150 100 60 40 30 20

125 60 35 20 15

750 390 225 140 90 65 45 35 25 20 10

260 135 75 45 30 20

Thickness (in.)

8 D

6 D

3/16

1/4

5/16

3/8

X X 390 250 165 115 85 60 45 35 25

X X X X 275 190 140 105 80 60 40

X 320 180 115 75 55 35 X 20 X 10

X 750 435 270 180 125 90 X 50 X 25

X X 875 530 360 260 180 X 100 X 50

X X X X 630 445 320 X 185 X 95

Note: D, Telescoping; S, Single thickness; X, Not commonly made in these sizes. Includes similar sheet steel and steel-plate fabricated casing; in feet. a

U.S. Standard Gauge.

Source: From Bureau of Reclamation, Groundwater Manual, 1977. Table 6C.16 Recommended Diameter and Thickness of PVC Casing for Water Wells Nominal Size 1.5 2 2.5 3 4

Outside Diameter

Inside Diameter

Minimum Wall Thickness

Well Diameters 1.5 in. Through 4 in.-ASTMD 2241-73a SDR 21 (Type 1120–1220) 1.900 1.720 0.090 2.375 2.149 0.113 2.875 2.601 0.137 3.500 3.166 0.177 4.500 4.072 0.214 Well Diameters 5 in. Through 12 in.-ASTMD 1785-73a Schedule 40 (Type 1120–1220)

5 6 8 10 12 a

5.563 6.625 8.625 10.750 12.750

5.047 6.065 7.981 10.020 11.938

0.258 0.280 0.322 0.365 0.406

New ASTM Standards are currently under view.

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Manual of Water Well Construction Practices, EPA-570/9–75–001. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Gradation of Sand Very Fine Sand 6–7–8 Slot About the finest material that can be utilized for a water supply. A line composed of 12 grains would measure about 1/16 00 Fine Sand 9–10–12 Slot Often called “sugar sand.” Line of 6 or 7 average grains measures 1/16 00 Medium Sand 16–18–20 Slot Average grain size is about 4 grains 1/16 00 Medium and Coarse Sand Mixed Average grain size a little less than 1/32 00 , or between 2 and 3 grains to 1/16 00 Coarse Sand Average grain size a little over 1/30 (2 grains to 1/16 00 ) Coarse Sand and Fine Gravel Mixed Average grain size about 1/16 00 . In coarser gravels, No. 80 and No. 100 slot are often used a

Average Slot Size Thousandths of an inch

Minimum Suggested Length for Corresponding Screen Diametera and Desired Well Yield 11⁄4 00 Screen

2 00 Screen

3 00 Screen

4 00 Screen

5 00 Screen

6 00 Screen

7

300 gph– 5 ft 450 gph– 8 ft 600 gph–12 ft

450 gph– 6 ft 600 gph– 9 ft 900 gph–13 ft

600 gph– 8 ft 900 gph–11 ft 1200 gph–14 ft

600 gph– 6 ft 1200 gph–10 ft 1800 gph–14 ft

900 gph– 6 ft 1200 gph– 9 ft 1800 gph–11 ft

1200 gph– 8 ft 2000 gph– 2 ft 2400 gph–15 ft

10

300 gph–4 ft 450 gph–6 ft 600 gph–9 ft

450 gph–4 ft 600 gph–6 ft 900 gph–9 ft

600 gph–6 ft 900 gph–8 ft 1200 gph–10 ft

600 gph–4 ft 1200 gph–7 ft 1800 gph–10 ft

900 gph–5 ft 1200 gph–7 ft 1800 gph–8 ft

1200 gph–6 ft 1200 gph–9 ft 2400 gph–11 ft

18

300 gph–4 ft 450 gph–5 ft 600 gph–7 ft

600 gph–5 ft 900 gph–7 ft 1200 gph–9 ft

600 gph–4 ft 1200 gph–9 ft 1800 gph–13 ft

600 gph–3 ft 1200 gph–6 ft 1800 gph–9 ft

900 gph–4 ft 1200 gph–6 ft 1800 gph–7 ft

1200 gph–5 ft 2000 gph–8 ft 2400 gph–10 ft

25

300 gph–3 ft 450 gph–5 ft 600 gph–6 ft

600 gph–5 ft 900 gph–6 ft 1200 gph–8 ft

600 gph–4 ft 1200 gph–7 ft 1800 gph–11 ft

600 gph–3 ft 1200 gph–5 ft 1800 gph–8 ft

900 gph–4 ft 1200 gph–5 ft 1800 gph–6 ft

1200 gph–5 ft 2000 gph–7 ft 2400 gph–91 ft

35

450 gph–4 ft 600 gph–5 ft 900 gph–7 ft

600 gph–4 ft 900 gph–5 ft 1200 gph–7 ft

900 gph–4 ft 1200 gph–6 ft 1800 gph–10 ft

900 gph–3 ft 1200 gph–4 ft 1800 gph–7 ft

1200 gph–4 ft 1800 gph–6 ft 2000 gph–8 ft

1200 gph–4 ft 2000 gph–7 ft 2400 gph–8 ft

50

450 gph–4 ft 600 gph–5 ft 900 gph–7 ft

600 gph–4 ft 900 gph–5 ft 1200 gph–6 ft

900 gph–4 ft 1200 gph–6 ft 1800 gph–10 ft

900 gph–3 ft 1200 gph–4 ft 1800 gph–7 ft

1200 gph–4 ft 1800 gph–6 ft 2000 gph–7 ft

1200 gph–4 ft 2000 gph–6 ft 2400 gph–8 ft

GROUNDWATER

Table 6C.17 Well Screen Selection Chart for Small-Capacity Wells

Nominal size of screen.

Source: From Edward E. Johnson, Inc. With permission.

6-31

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-32

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6C.18 Recommended Minimum Screen Assembly Diameters Minimum Nominal Screen Assembly Diameter (in.)

Discharge (gal/min) Up to 50 50 to 125 125 to 350 350 to 800 800 to 1,400 1,400 to 2,500 2,500 to 3,500 3,500 to 5,000 5,000 to 7,000 7,000 to 9,000 Source:

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

From U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Groundwater Manual, 1977.

Table 6C.19 Cost of Water Well Screens 304SS Drive Points 1–1/4 00 PS 1.71 00 OD!1 00 ID

2 00 PS 2.38 00 OD ! 1.75 00 ID

3 00 PS All Drive 3.7 00 OD ! 3 00 ID

Price Model Number

Screen Length

Ship Wt/pc

W60

24 00 36 00 48 00 60 00

5 7 9 11

$106 $133 $160 $186

824 836 848 860

4 00 PS All Drive 4.69 00 OD ! 4 00 ID

Price W90

Model Number

Screen Length

Ship Wt/pc

W60

W90

Screen Length

Ship Wt/pc

Price W60

Screen Length

Ship Wt/pc

Price W60

$96 $120 $144 $169

924 936 948 960

24 00 36 00 48 00 60 00

8 11 14 16

$129 $159 $190 $220

$117 $144 $172 $200

24 00 36 00 48 00 60 00

10 14 17 22

$176 $224 $272 $320

24 00 36 00 48 00 60 00

13 17 21 25

$217 $279 $340 $404

Fittings are 304 SS MIP X Carbon Steel Point w/guardian plate or 304 SS MIP X MIP for open end extensions. For other screen lengths add $30/ft for 1 1⁄4 00 , $34/ft for 2 00 , $38/ft for 3 00 , and $49/ft for 4 00 . All Drive screens are MIPXFIP only, if cast iron point is required add; 3 00 PS-$80.00, 4 00 PS-$85.00 to the list price above. 304 SS Small Diameter Waterwell Screens a

Direct Attached Standard Fittings Per End

Dimensions

Screen OD Dima

Price per foot

Flush Threads

Misc Attach

Plate Btm w/WR

Sch40

Sch80

Clean and Bag

Ball Loopd

SS Pointe

Type-Max Depth Based on Collapse Strengtha

Nom Dia Wt/ft

W60

W90

ID

60

90

Weld Ringc

NPT Thd

Fig K Pkr w/WR

2P/3T 3.0#

2.60

2.50

2.02

$34

$31

$41

$39

n/a

$61

$37

$39

$13

$41

$79

W60–1000 W90–500

3P/4T 4.0#

3.74

3.64

3.16

$38

$34

$43

$41

n/a

$64

$39

$41

$21

$48

$92

4P/5T 5.0#

4.74

4.64

4.16

$49

$45

$49

$49

n/a

$72

$47

$49

$21

$50

$151

5P/6T 6.0#

5.63

5.53

5.05

$57

$52

$51

$60

$161

$86

$58

$60

$32

$61

n/a

W60–900 W90–300 W60–500 W90–200 W60–300 W90–100b

304 SS Small Diameter Environmental Screens a

Dimensions OD Dim

Direct Attached Standard Fittings Per End Screen Price per foot

a

Flush Threads

Misc Attach Type-Max Depth Based on Collapse Strengtha

Nom Dia Wt/ft

W60

W90

ID

60

90

Weld Ringc

NPT Thd

Fig K Pkr w/WR

1/2 00 PSb 1.0#

0.89

0.83

0.53

$30

$27

$20

$19

n/a

$30

$73

$80

$13

n/a

n/a

W60-2000 W90-1500

3/4 00 PSb 1.5#

1.09

1.06

0.73

$31

$28

$21

$21

n/a

$32

$73

$80

$13

n/a

n/a

W60-2000 W90-1000

Plate Btm w/WR

Sch40

Sch80

Clean and Bag

Ball Loopd

SS Pointe

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

Table 6C.19

6-33

(Continued) 304 SS Small Diameter Environmental Screens a

Direct Attached Standard Fittings Per End

Dimensions

Screen Price per foot

a

OD Dim

Flush Threads Fig K

Plate

Misc Attach Type-Max Depth Based

Nom Dia Wt/ft

W60

W90

ID

60

90

Weld Ringc

NPT Thd

Pkr w/WR

Btm w/WR

Sch40

Sch80

Clean and Bag

Ball Loopd

SS Pointe

on Collapse Strengtha

1 00 PSb 2.0#

1.33

1.27

0.88

$31

$28

$22

$28

n/a

$35

$66

$72

$13

n/a

$53

W60-2000 W90-1000

1-1/4 00 PS 1.5#

1.67

1.60

1.19

$30

$29

$24

$36

n/a

$36

$33

$36

$13

$38

$58

W60-1000 W90-600

1-1/2 00 PS 3.0#

2.01

1.95

1.54

$33

$31

$25

$38

n/a

$37

$36

$38

$13

$38

$62

W60-1000 W90-600

2 00 PS 3.0#

2.47

2.41

1.99

$34

$31

$41

$39

n/a

$61

$37

$39

$13

$41

$79

E60-1000 E90-600

2-1/2 00 PS 4.0#

3.03

2.93

2.45

$39

$35

$41

$39

n/a

$61

$37

$39

$21

$44

$81

W60-1000 W90-600

3 00 PS 4.0#

3.56

3.46

2.98

$38

$34

$43

$41

n/a

$64

$39

$41

$21

$48

$92

E60-1000 E90-300

4 00 PS 5.0#

4.56

4.46

3.98

$49

$45

$49

$49

n/a

$72

$47

$49

$21

$50

$151

6 00 PS 7.0#

6.64

6.54

6.02

$81

$80

$79

$106

n/a

$126

$104

$106

$32

$66

n/a

E60-500 E90-200

E60-250 E90-50 Minimum billing length is 3 ft for all diameters. For Tightwind or Super Construction Screen: Add 25% to Screen Price/Feet. Please specify water well or environmental when ordering. Must add “Clean & Bag” charge for environmental screen. Environmental screens supplied in “Shoulder to Shoulder” lengths. For loose plate bottom deduct (1) weld righ from plate bottom assembly.

a

Dimensions, weights and collapse strength are approximate (based on an average slot and depth).

b

Minimum order requirement for 1⁄2 00 through 1 00 PS is $300 (net). Standard weld ring length 2PS 00 through 6PS 00 is 1-1/2 00 . Bail Loop prices Do Not include plate. SS point is weld on. For threaded point add appropriate thread price.

c d e

Large Diameter “Free Flow” 304 Stainless Steel Direct Attached Standard Fittings Per End Standard Dimensionsf

Nom Diam 00

OD

ID

Screen Price Per Foot Max Depth Based on Collapse Strengthf

Weld Rings

Threads

100 ft

250 ft

600 ft

1000 ft

Std

4 00

6 00

Npt

Jws

Flush Sch40

Misc Attachments

Flush Sch80

Fig “K” Pkr w/WR

Plate Btm w/WR

Bail Loopg

Lift Lugsh

4 00 WR W/4 00 Collar $279

6 PS

6.70 6.00 Wt/Foot 6#

$81

$83

$85

$93

$79

$107

$131

$106

n/a

$104

$106

n/a

$126

$66

$84

8 00 Tel

7.50 6.75 Wt/Foot 10#

$88

$88

$96

$96

$108

$141

$173

n/a

$154

n/a

n/a

$435

$173

$70

$93

8 00 PS

8.63 7.88 Wt/Foot 12#

$95

$95

$99

$99

$126

$148

$183

$196

n/a

$193

$290

n/a

$202

$70

$93

10 00 Tel

9.50 8.68 Wt/Foot 13#

$119

$119

$129

$129

$144

$187

$230

n/a

$300

n/a

n/a

$460

$245

$70

$105

10 00 PS

10.75 9.88 Wt/Foot 14#

$135

$135

$135

$162

$149

$194

$238

$254

n/a

$292

$440

n/a

$253

$70

$105

12 00 Tel

11.25 10.40 Wt/Foot 18#

$143

$143

$143

$170

$169

$223

$276

n/a

n/a

n/a

N/a

$605

$287

$70

$116

12 00 PS

12.75 11.80 Wt/Foot 23#

$146

$146

$169

$192

$196

$249

$304

$387

n/a

$623

$924

n/a

$333

$70

$116

14 00 Tel

12.50 11.60 Wt/Foot 25#

$145

$145

$164

$189

$215

$280

$344

n/a

n/a

n/a

N/a

$809

$366

$76

$121

$338

$410

$512

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-34

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6C.19

(Continued) Large Diameter “Free Flow” 304 Stainless Steel Direct Attached Standard Fittings Per End

Standard Dimensionsf

Screen Price Per Foot Max Depth Based on Collapse Strengthf

Weld Rings

Threads

Misc Attachments Fig

Nom Diam

OD

ID

100 ft

250 ft

600 ft

1000 ft

Std

4 00

6 00

Npt

Jws

Flush Sch40

Flush Sch80

“K” Pkr w/WR

Plate Btm w/WR

Bail Loopg

Lift Lugsh

4 00 WR W/4 00 Collar

14P/16T

14.00 13.00 Wt/Foot 30#

$175

$175

$192

$209

$252

$329

$404

n/a

n/a

na

na

$923

$441

$76

$121

$601

16P/18T

16.00 15.00 Wt/Foot 35#

$185

$202

$215

$235

$302

$377

$464

n/a

n/a

n/a

N/a

$1,014

$529

$76

$128

$670

18P/20T

18.00

$214

$224

$255

$304

$360

$468

$576

n/a

n/a

n/a

N/a

$1,045

$630

$76

$128

$755

$845

16.70

Wt/Foot 40# 20 00 PS

20.00 18.80 Wt/Foot 42#

$252

$272

$295

$320

$382

$497

$611

n/a

n/a

n/a

N/a

n/a

$669

$76

$139

24 00 Tel

22.00 20.70 Wt/Foot 46#

$342

$348

$391

$407

$404

$525

$646

n/a

na

n/a

N/a

n/a

$707

$87

$139

24P/26T

24.00 22.75 Wt/Foot 58#

$369

$415

$493

$493

$462

$601

$739

n/a

n/a

n/a

N/a

n/a

$809

$87

$151

$998

26 00 PS

26.00

$436

$436

$527

$627

$539

$674

$830

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

$943

$87

$151

$1,102

24.40

Wt/Foot 62# 30 00 Tel

27.25 25.75 Wt/Foot 65#

$450

$490

$570

Call

$595

$774

$952

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

$1,041

$105

$169

30P/36T

30.00 28.30 Wt/Foot 74#

$530

$593

$633

Call

$671

$872

$1,074

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

$1,174

$105

$169

36 00 PS

36.00 34.30 $610 $696 $696 Call $773 $1,005 $1,237 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a $1,353 $105 $169 Wt/Foot 90# Call for pricing on screens deeper than 1000 feet. Standard weld ring lengths: 6 00 PS-16P/18T are 1-1/2 00 long; 18P/20T and larger are 2 00 long. To price Weld Rings longer than 6 00 , combine prices shown above. For Tightwind: Add 25% to Screen Price/Ft (Min TW slot !Z0.010 Inch). Minimum billing length for LG Diam SS is 3 feet. Furnished in Full Screen Lengths, unless specified otherwise at the time of order. f

Dimensions, weights and collapse strength are approximate (based on an average slot and depth). Standard weld ring length 2PS 00 through 6PS 00 is 1-1/2 00 . Bail Loop prices Do Not include plate.

g h

Large Diameter 304 Stainless Steel High Flow (HIQ) and Remediationi Direct Attached Standard Fittings Per End Standard Dimensionsi

Screen Price Per Foot Max Depth Based on Collapse Strengthi

Weld Rings

Threads

Misc Attachments

Flush Sch80

Fig “K Pkr w/WR

Plate Btm w/WR

Bail Loopj

Lift Lugsk

4 00 WR W/4 00 Collar $279

00

Nom Diam 00

OD

ID

100 ft

250 ft

600 ft

1000 ft

STD

4 00

6 00

NPT

JWS

Flush Sch40

6 PS

6.70 6.00 Wt/Foot 6#

$81

$89

$96

$96

$79

$107

$131

$106

n/a

$104

$106

n/a

$126

$66

$84

8 00 Tel

7.50 6.75 Wt/Foot 10#

$96

$105

$105

$110

$108

$141

$173

n/a

$153

n/a

n/a

$435

$173

$70

$93

8 00 PS

8.63 7.88 Wt/Foot 12#

$116

$116

$125

$125

$126

$148

$183

$196

n/a

$193

$290

n/a

$202

$70

$93

10 00 Tel

9.50

$131

$131

$141

$141

$144

$187

$230

n/a

$301

n/a

n/a

$460

$245

$70

$105

8.68

$338

Wt/Foot 13# 10 00 PS

10.75 9.88 Wt/Foot 14#

$155

$155

$186

$186

$149

$194

$238

$255

n/a

$292

$440

n/a

$253

$70

$105

12 00 Tel

11.25 10.40 Wt/Foot 18#

$163

$163

$194

$194

$179

$233

$276

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

$605

$304

$70

$116

$410

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

Table 6C.19

6-35

(Continued) Large Diameter 304 Stainless Steel High Flow (HIQ) and Remediationi Direct Attached Standard Fittings Per End Screen Price Per Foot Max Depth Based on Collapse Strengthi

Standard Dimensionsi

Nom Diam

OD

ID

Weld Rings

Threads

Misc Attachments

100 ft

250 ft

600 ft

1000 ft

STD

4 00

6 00

NPT

JWS

Flush Sch40

Flush Sch80

Fig “K 00 Pkr w/WR

Plate Btm w/WR

Bail Loopj

Lift Lugsk

4 00 WR W/4 00 Collar $512

00

12 PS

12.75 11.80 Wt/Foot 23#

$178

$178

$217

$217

$196

$249

$304

$388

n/a

$623

$924

n/a

$333

$80

$116

14 00 Tel

12.50 11.60 Wt/Foot 25#

$176

$176

$215

$215

$215

$280

$344

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

$809

$366

$76

$121

14P/16T

14.00

$206

$206

$226

$226

$252

$329

$404

n/a

n/a

na

na

$923

$441

$76

$121

$601

13.00

Wt/Foot 30# Large Diameter 304 Stainless Steel High Flow (HIQ)k 16P/18T

16.00

15.00

$210

$230

$230

$235

$302

$377

$464

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

$1,014

$529

$76

$128

$670

Wt/Foot 35# 18P/20T

18.00 16.70 Wt/Foot 40#

$285

$285

$285

$330

$360

$468

$576

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

$1,045

$630

$76

$128

$755

20 00 PS

20.00 18.80 Wt/Foot 42#

$340

$340

$355

$400

$382

$497

$611

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

$669

$76

$139

$845

24 00 Tel

22.00 20.70 Wt/Foot 46#

$380

$380

$421

$446

$404

$525

$646

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

$707

$87

$139

24P/26T

24.00

$420

$420

$488

$488

$462

$601

$739

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

$809

$87

$151

$998

$1,102

22.75

Wt/Foot 58# 26 00 PS

26.00 24.40 Wt/Foot 62#

$436

$436

$516

$527

$539

$674

$830

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

$943

$87

$151

30 00 Tel

27.25 25.75 Wt/Foot 65#

$525

$525

$570

Call

$595

$774

$952

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

$1,041

$105

$169

30P/36T

30.00 28.30 Wt/Foot 74

$575

$580

$610

Call

$671

$872

$1,074

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

$1,174

$105

$169

36 00 PS

36.00

$610

$680

$696

Call

$773

$1,005

$1,237

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

$1,353

$105

$169

34.30

Wt/Foot 90# Call for pricing on screens deeper than 1000 feet. Standard weld ring lengths: 6 00 PS-16P/18T are 1-1/2 00 long; 18P/20T and larger are 2 00 long. To price Weld Rings longer than 6 00 , combine prices shown above. For Tightwind: Add 25% to Screen Price/Ft (Min TW slot !Z0.010 Inch). Minimum billing length for LG Diam SS is 3 feet. Furnished in Full Screen Lengths, unless specified otherwise at the time of order. i j k

Dimensions, weights and collapse strength are approximate (based on an average slot and depth). Standard weld ring length 2PS 00 through 6PS 00 is 1–1/2 00 . Bail Loop prices do not include plate. 304 Stainless Steel Casingl Direct Attached Std Fittings Per End Dimensions

Loose Fittings

Flush Threads

Threaded

Sch

OD

ID

Wt Per ft

List Price per Foot

Sch 40

Sch 80

Thread

Ring

Bottom

Point

Cap/Plug

Cap

Cln and Bag

1 00 PS

5 10 40

1.315

1.185 1.097 1.049

0.88 1.42 1.70

$12 $15 $16

$66

$72

$28

$22

$28

$96

$94

$31

$13

1-1/4 00 PS

5 10 40

1.660

1.530 1.442 1.380

1.12 1.82 2.29

$15 $16 $18

$33

$36

$36

$24

$29

$56

$49

$34

$13

1-1/2 00 PS

5 10 40

1.90

1.770 1.682 1.610

1.29 2.10 2.74

$14 $16 $19

$36

$38

$38

$25

$30

$60

$52

$35

$13

Nom Diam

Npt

Weld

Plate

Locking

Add/Joint

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-36

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6C.19

(Continued) 304 Stainless Steel Casingl Direct Attached Std Fittings Per End Dimensions

Flush Threads

00

2 PS

3 00 PS

6 PS

Plate

Locking

Add/Joint

ID

Wt Per ft

Foot

Sch 40

Sch 80

Thread

Ring

Bottom

Point

Cap/Plug

Cap

Cln and Bag

5 10 40

2.375

2.245 2.157 2.067

1.62 2.66 3.69

$16 $21 $25

$37

$39

$39

$41

$34

$67

$52

$36

$13

5

3.50

$39

$41

$41

$43

$44

$90

$64

$43

$21

$47

$49

$49

$49

$48

$108

$65

$56

$21

$58

$60

$60

$54

$70

n/a

$92

$73

$32

$104

$106

$106

$79

$82

n/a

$101

$90

$32

5

4.50

5 10

5 10

10 40

10 00 PS

10 40

$29 $34 $40

3.95

$31

5.67 10.90

$38 $60

5.345 2.295

6.41 7.84

$49 $59

5.047

14.75

$92

6.407 6.357

7.66 9.38

$56 $65

6.065

19.15

$109

8.329 7.981

13.53 28.82

$104 $190

$193

$290

$196

$126

$88

n/a

$188

$186

n/a

10.420 10.020

18.83 40.86

$130 $255

$292

$440

$254

$149

$148

n/a

$316

$281

n/a

5.563

6.625

8.625

10.75

3.06 4.37 7.65

4.334

40 8 00 PS

3.334 3.260 3.068

4.260 4.026

40 00

Weld

OD

10 40 5 00 PS

Npt

Sch

10 40 4 00 PS

Threaded

List Price per

Nom Diam

Loose Fittings

12 00 PS

10 12.75 12.390 24.39 $172 $623 $924 $387 $196 $218 n/a $448 $372 n/a 40 12.000 50.03 $340 Minimum billing length is 3 ft. Sumps: Add Weld Ring and Plate Bottom price to the sump length needed (minimum billing is 3 ft). Sch40 & Sch80 Threads: 1 00 Z8 TPI; 1.25 & 1.5Z4 TPI; 2 00 O 2 TPI. Locking Cap Lugs are $7.00 and shipped loose. (Part Number 248242). 1 For Slip Cap deduct $7.00 from Locking Cap Price. * Price per foot includes beveling l

Must add “Clean & Bag” charge for environmental casing.

Table 6C.20 Intake Areas of Well Screens Wire-Wound Telescopic Screens Intake Areas (sq. in. per ft of Screen) Slot Opening Size Nom Diam (in.) 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 24 26

10-Slot

20-Slot

40-Slot

60-Slot

80-Slot

100-Slot

150-Slot

250-Slot

15 20 26 30 28 36 42 37 42 36 41 61 63

26 35 45 53 51 65 77 68 60 69 77 113 118

41 57 72 85 87 108 130 97 108 124 139 131 138

52 71 90 106 113 141 143 132 148 169 189 182 191

59 81 102 100 133 166 171 161 180 206 229 226 237

65 88 112 112 149 186 195 185 208 237 264 265 278

73 101 112 132 160 200 237 232 261 298 280 343 360

82 115 132 156 194 243 265 292 327 375 366 449 471 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

Table 6C.20

6-37

(Continued) Wire-Wound Telescopic Screens Intake Areas (sq. in. per ft of Screen) Slot Opening Size

Nom Diam (in.) 30 36

10-Slot

20-Slot

40-Slot

60-Slot

80-Slot

100-Slot

150-Slot

250-Slot

75 84

138 157

161 184

224 255

278 317

325 371

422 481

552 629

PVC Plastic Screens Intake areas (sq. in. per ft of screen) Slot Opening Size Size (in.) 1 ⁄4 11⁄2 2 3 4 5 6 8 1

6-Slot

8-Slot

10-Slot

12-Slot

15-Slot

20-Slot

25-Slot

30-Slot

35-Slot

40-Slot

3.0 3.4 4.3 5.4 7.0 8.1 8.1 13.4

3.4 4.5 5.5 7.1 9.0 10.6 10.6 17.6

4.8 5.5 6.8 8.8 11.3 13.1 13.2 21.7

3.0 6.5 8.1 10.4 13.5 15.5 15.6 25.7

7.0 8.1 10.0 12.8 16.5 19.1 19.2 31.5

8.9 10.2 12.8 16.5 21.2 24.7 25.0 40.6

10.8 12.3 15.4 20.0 25.8 30.0 30.5 49.3

12.5 14.2 17.9 23.2 30.0 34.9 35.8 57.4

14.1 16.2 20.3 26.5 3.9 39.7 40.7 65.0

15.6 17.9 22.4 29.3 37.7 44.2 45.4 72.3

Note: The maximum transmitting capacity of the screen can be derived from these figures. To determine GPM per feet of screen, multiply the intake area in square inches by 0.31. It must be remembered that this is the maximum capacity of the screen under ideal conditions with an entrance velocity of 0.1 ft/sec. Source: From Johnson Division of Signal Environmental Systems, Inc., St. Paul, MN. Table 6C.21 Optimum Well Screen Entrance Velocities Coefficient of Permeability (gallons per day per square foot)

Optimum Screen Entrance Velocities (ft/min) 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

O6000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 !500 Source: From Illinois State Water Survey, 1962. Table 6C.22 Chlorinated Lime Required to Disinfect a Well or Spring Capacity of Well or Spring in Gallons 50 100 200 300 400 500 1,000 2,000 3,000

Chlorinated Lime Required (25% Available Chlorine)

Approximate Volume of Water, in Gallons to be Used in Preparing Chlorine Solution

Pounds and Ounces — 1.5 — 3.0 — 6.0 — 9.0 — 12.0 — 15.0 1 14.0 3 12.0 5 10.0

5 5 5 5 5 5 10 15 20

Note: Values provide a dosage of approximately 50 parts per million of available chlorine. Source: From U.S. Public Health Service. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-38

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6C.23 Volume of Water in Well Per Foot of Depth Nominal Casing Size (in.) 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Schedule No.

Volume (Gallons per Foot of Depth)

40 40 40 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

0.66 1.04 1.50 2.66 4.19 5.80 7.16 9.49 11.96 14.73 17.99 21.58

Source: From U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Groundwater Manual 1977.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

6-39

SECTION 6D

INJECTION WELLS

Table 6D.24 Statistical Analysis of Injection Well Data Distribution of Injection Wells by Industry Type Type of Industry

Percentage of Existing Wells (%)

Refineries and natural gas plants Chemical, petrochemical, and pharmaceutical companies Metal products companies Other

20 55 7 18

Total Depth of Injection Wells Total Well Depth

Percentage of Wells (%)

0–1,000 ft 1,001–2,000 ft 2,001–4,000 ft 4,001–6,000 ft 6,001–12,000 ft over 12,000 ft

5 32 27 28 6 2 Type of Rock Used for Injection

Rock Type

Percentage of Wells (%)

Sand Sandstone Limestone and dolomite Other

33 41 22 4 Rate of Injection

Injection Rate

Percentage of Wells (%)

0–50 gpm 51–100 gpm 101–200 gpm 201–400 gpm 401–800 gpm over 800 gpm Unknown

23 11 25 19 3 1 18 Pressure at Which Waste Is Injected

Injection Pressure Gravity flow Gravity–150 psi 151–300 psi 301–600 psi 601–1,500 psi over 1,500 psi Unknown Source: From Water Well Journal, 1968.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Percentage of Wells (%) 11 19 15 6 13 2 34

6-40

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

EPA

THE UNDERGROUND INJECTION CONTROL PROGRAM

United States Environmental Protection Agency

30 Years Protecting Groundwater Through the safe Drinking Water Act

The Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program

District of columbia, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands

On December 16, 1974, President Ford signed the safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) into law. An original provision of the SDWA established the UIC Program to protect underground sources of drinking water from unsafe injection practices. This regulatory program ensures that injection activities: ate performed safely, protect current underground sources of drinking water that supply 90% of all public water systems: and preserve future underground water resources. Today, the UIC Program regulates more than 800,000 injection wells

Pacific Island Temtones

Represent well classes that are in operation

These five classes of injection wells protect source waters by:

Class II

Class III

Isolating hazardous, industrial and municipal waste through deep injection

Class I

Preserving drinking water resources by injecting oil and gas production waste.

Minimizing environmental impacts from solution mining operations.

US facilities produce billions of gallons of hazardous, industrial and municipal waste every year. Some of this waste is injected deep below any drinking water source, protecting the public. In the 30 years of the SDWA, Class I wells have isolated more than 4 trillions gallons of waste fluid - the amount of water that flows down the Mississippi River into the Gulf of Mexico every 17 days.

Each gallon of oil produced in the US results in an average of ten gallons of wastewater (brine). Most brine, about 1trillion gallons a year, is injected back into oil-bearing formations, preserving streams and rivers, and shallow drinking water resources.

Solution mining operation produce 50% of the salt used in the US as well as uranium. copper and sulfur. These injection wells provide needed minerals while limiting the impact to the environment.

In the 30 years of the SDWA, Class II wells have injected 30 trillions gallons of brine, which would fill enough 55 gallon oil drums to stretch from Earth to mars 10 times.

In the 30 years of the SDWA, Class III wells have safely mined 330 millions tons of salt, or enough salt to film salt shaker 7 times higher than the Statue of Liberty.

United States Environmental Protection Agency

Preventing ground water contamination by prohibitihg the shallow injection of hazardous waste (except as part of an authorized cleanup) Shallow injection wells used by large and small businesses to dispose of hazardous and radioactive wste threaten drinking water resources. About 50% of Americans rely on groundwater for drinking water, and the need for safe, reliable source in the future is increasing. Therefore, Class IV injection is prohibited outside approved remediation programs. * Few states authorize Class IV wells, therefore, they are not shown on the map.

For more information contact the safe Drinking Water Hotline at 1-800-426-4791 or visit WWW.epa.gov/safewater/uic

Figure 6D.10 The underground injection control program. (From www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Class IV*

Class V Managing the injection of all other fluids to prevent contamination of drinking water resources. More than 600,000 shallow injection wells are used for disposal, groundwater storage and prevention of salt water intrusion. When properly manged, these wells offer communities an option for wastewater disposal. In the 30 years of the SDWA, the Class V Program has identified and managed more than 300,000 injection wells. The challenge for the future is to identify the remaining wells and work with thier oweners to keep injection safe.

Office of Water EPA 816-H-05_001A January 2005

GROUNDWATER

6-41

Table 6D.25 Classes of Injection Wells Regulatory Definitions of Injection Wells (§144.6) The UIC Program provides standards, technical assistance and grants to State governments to regulate injection wells in order to prevent them from contaminating drinking water resources. EPA defines the five classes of wells according to the type of fluid they inject and where the fluid is injected. EPA has published regulations related to the sitting, drilling, construction and operation of many types of injection wells Class I wells are technologically sophisticated and inject hazardous In general, owners and operators of most new Classes I, II and III injection wells are required to: and non-hazardous wastes below the lowermost underground † Site the wells in a location that is free of faults and other adverse source of drinking water (USDW). Injection occurs into deep, geological features isolated rock formations that are separated from the lowermost USDW by layers of impermeable clay and rock † Drill to a depth athat allows the injection into formations that do not Class I wells are oil and gas production brine disposal and other related wells. Operators of these wells inject fluids associated with contain water that can potentially be used as a source of drinking oil and natural gas production. Most of the injected fluid is brine water. These injection zones are confined from any formation that that is produced when oil and gas are extracted from the earth may contain water that may potentially be used as a source of (about 10 barrels of brine for every barrel of oil) drinking water † Build to inject through an internal pipe (tubing) that is located Class III wells are wells that inject superheated steam, water, or inside another pipe (casing). This outer pipe has cement on the other fluids into formations in order to extract minerals. The outside to fill any voids occurring between the outside pipe and the injected fluids are then pumped to the surface and the minerals in hole that was bored for the well (borehole). This allows for multiple solution are extracted. Generally, the fluid is treated and layers of containment of the potentially contaminating injection re-injected into the same formation. More than 50 percent of the fluids salt and 80 percent of the uranium extraction in the U.S. is produced this way Class IV wells inject hazardous or radioactive wastes into or above † Test for integrity at the time of completion and every five years thereafter (more frequently for hazardous waste wells, underground sources of drinking water. These wells are banned §146.68(d)) under the UIC program because they directly threaten public † Monitor continuously to assure the integrity of the well health Class V wells are injection wells that are not included in the other Operators of Class I wells injecting hazardous waste are required to demonstrate that the waste will never return to the surface or classes. Some Class V wells are technologically advanced impact an underground source of drinking water (for 10,000 years). wastewater disposal systems used by industry, but most are “lowThese wells inject at 4,000 ft below the surface or more. Over 9 tech” wells, such as septic systems and cesspools. Generally, billion gallons of hazardous waste is injected into wells each year in they are shallow and depend upon gravity to drain or “inject” liquid the US waste into the ground above or into underground sources of The largest number of injection wells are shallow wells that inject nondrinking water. Their simple construction provides little or no hazardous fluids into very shallow aquifers that are or can be used protection against possible groundwater contamination, so it is as sources of drinking water. Some of the wells in this category are: important to control what goes into them † Drainage wells in industrial setting that can receive surface runoff contaminated with a variety of pollutants; † Septic tank systems and dry-wells used in automotive shops that receive fluids from repair and maintenance bays; † Cesspools that receive sewage from a community; † Agricultural drainage wells that may receive water contaminated with pesticides and fertilizers Source: From www.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-42

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6D.26 Underground Injection Control Program — Inventory of Wells

Class I Hazardous Waste Wells AK AL AR AZ CA CO FL IA IL IN KS KY LA MI MO MS MT ND NE NM NV NY OH OK OR PA SD TN TX UT VA WA WV WY EPA R2 EPA R6 EPA R8 EPA R9

Class I nonHazardous Waste Wells 6

6

10

1

6 5 136

3 4 6 17 9

1 7 44 1 28 15

6

1 2 1 5

10

1 2 11 10

60

46 3

23 tribal tribal tribal tribal

1

122

364

Class II Wells 925 347 1,078 24,955 787 64 1 8,949 1,340 16,371 3,429 3,824 1,459 211 881 897 377 704 5,577 12 503 2,890 11,448 2 1,897 63 14 51,998 256 252 1 700 4,666 12 2,674 723 542 146,878

Class III Facilities (Which May Contain Multiple Wells)

Class III Wells

Class IV Facilities (Which May Contain Multiple Wells)

1

3

3 1 2

15 73 35

5

157

15 3

67 22

1 19

1,879 104

6 3 1

126 47 1

1

10

86 1 1

5,789 4 3

2 1

3 12

31 8,211

1

164

16,577

5

1

Note: Types of wells: Class I, Deep industrial waste disposal; Class II, For oil and natural gas production; Class III, Related to mineral recovery; Class IV, Banned, inject hazardous or radioactive waste above USDWs; Class V, Generally shallow disposal wells. There are an estimated 650,000 Class V wells nationally. Class I through IV data from annual reporting by states and EPA Regions. The Class V estimate is based on state estimates and modeling of storm water and large capacity septics. Source: From www.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

6-43

0/2

9/15

0/28 0/1 0/6

0/12

4/1

4/7

10/3 0/3

5/41

0/3 1/0

0/12

6/10

0/1

2/5 64/49 17/25

1/122

0/4

Primacy State* Direct Implementation State* *See Section IV.B for explanation EPA Regions are outlined Number of wells in State denoted: Hazardous/Non hazardous Figure 6D.11 Number of class I wells by state. (From www.epa.gov EPA’s class I well inventory, 1999.)

VT WA

ME MT

OR

ND

MN WI

SD

ID

IA

NE UT

IL CO

KS OK

NM

AK

IN OH

AR

AL

DE DC

NC SC GA

No HW Wells 1–10 HW Wells

LA FL

HI

Figure 6D.12 UIC class I deep/high technology hazardous waste wells. (From www.epa.gov.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

NJ MD

WV VA TN

MS TX

PA

KY

MO

CA AZ

NY MI

WY NV

NH MA CT

11–20 HW Wells > 70 HW Wells

RI

6-44

Plugged

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Proposed

Existing

Type Municipal Industrial Reverse Osmosis (RO) Concentrate Combined Municipal & Nonmunicipal

Class I Facilities 1. Solutia (Monsanto) 2. Sterling Fibers (Cytec) 3. NW Pinellas County (exploratory) 4. Clearwater East 5. St. Petersburg NE 6. Albert Whitted 7. McKay Creek 8. South Cross Bayou 9. St. Petersburg NW 10. St. Petersburg SW 11. Kaiser 12. Manatee County SW 13. Atlantic Utillities 14. Miami-Dade North District Reg. 15. Knight's Trail Park RO (exploratory) 16. Venice Gardens RO 17. Englewood RO 18. Plantation RO (Sarasota CO.) 19. Gasparilla Island 20. North Port 21. North Fort Myers 22. Gulf Environmental Services 23. Sykes Creek (Merritt Island) 24. West Melbourne 25. Melbourne-D.B.Lee 26. Intercil (Harris Corporation) 27. Palm Bay (GDU-Port Malabar) 28. South Beaches 29. Ocean Spray (Hercules) 30. North Port St. Lucie 31. South Port St. Lucie 32. Stuart 33. Pratt & Whitney 34. Q.O. Chemicals 35. Encon 36. Palm Beach County RRF 37. East-Central Regional 38. Acme Improvement Dist. 39. Palm Beach Co. Sys. #3 40. Palm Beach Co. Sys. #9 41. Coral Springs Improvement Dist. 42. Margate 43. Royal Palm Beach 44. Sunrise 45. Plantation Utilites 46. G.T. Lohmeyer 47. Pembroke Pines (Century Village)

48. Sunset Park 49. Kendale Lakes 50. Miami-Dade South District Reg. 51. Broward County-North District Reg. 52. Gasparilla Island RO 53. North Martin County 54. Seacoast Utilities 55. East Port 56. Melbourne-Grant Street 57. City of Sarasota (exploratory) 58. Pahokee 59. Belle Glade 60. Fort Myers Beach 61. Charlotte County West Port 62. Rockledge 63. Palm Beach Co. Southern Regional 64. Plantation East RO 65. Burnt Store 66. Boynton Beach RO 67. Plantation RO (Broward Co.) 68. Marco Island RO 69. North Collier County 70. Zemel Road Landfil 71. Hollywood 72. Sarasota County Center Road 73. Fort Pierce Utilities Auth. 74. Miramar RO 75. Sanibel Island 76. Miramar 77. Venice Gardens East 78. South Collier County 79. Sunrise Sawgrass RO 80. Port St. Lucie Western LTC WTP 81. Cooper City RO 82. Fort Myers RO 83. Punta Gorda 84. Pompano Beach RO 85. Immokalee 86. South Collier County RO 87. Fort Pierce RO 88. Bonita Springs WRF 89. Port St. Lucie Westport 90. North Collier County WRF 91. Bonita Springs RO 92. Palm Bay RO 93. CPV Cana Power Plant 94. North Lee County WTP

23 62 3

0

Miles 95. Tropical Farms 96. Wellington 97. North Miami Beach RO 98. Pine Island 99. Tropicana 100. Peele-Dixie WTP 101. Deerfield Beach West WTP 102. Three Oaks

Figure 6D.13 Class I injection facilities. (From www.dep.state.fl.us.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

50

11

5 6 10

8 9

N

24 20 92 21

4

7

12 57

29 13

15 18 72 20 55 16 83 77 17 61 70 52 19 85 94 21 102 98 22 91 75 69 88 60 86 98 78 68

100

25 56 28

31 95

89

33

58 34 59 63

85

99 73 30

87

80 93

43 38

51 40 41

42 44,79 81 47 76

74 4897 49 50

53 32 35 54 36 37

96 66 39 101 84 45,64,67 100 46 71 14

GROUNDWATER

6-45

Table 6D.27 Class I Injection Well Status Status — November 2003 Map 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59

Facility Solutia (Monsanto) (I) Sterling Fibers (Cytec) (I) NW Pinellas County (EX) Clearwater East St. Petersburg NE Albert Whitted McKay Creek South Cross Bayou St. Petersburg NW St. Petersburg SW K.C. Industries (Kaiser) (HW) Manatee County SW Subregional Atlantic Utilities MDW&SA North District Regional Knight’s Trail (EX) Venice Gardens (RO) Englewood (RO) Plantation RO (Sarasota Co.) Gasparilla Island North Port North Fort Myers Utilities Gulf Environmental Services (MN) Sykes Creek (Merritt Island) West Melbourne Melbourne-D.B. Lee Intercil (Harris Corporation) (I) Palm Bay (GDU-Port Malabar) South Beaches Ocean Spray (Hercules) (I) North Port St. Lucie (MN) South Port St. Lucie Stuart Pratt and Whitney (I) QO Chemicals (I) Encon Palm Beach County RRF (I) East-Central Regional Acme Improvement District (MN) Palm Beach County System #3 (MN) Palm Beach County System #9 (MN) Coral Springs Improvement District Margate Royal Palm Beach Sunrise Plantation Regional (Broward Co.) G. T. Lohmeyer Pembroke Pines Sunset Park Kendale Lakes MDW&SA South District Regional Broward County-North District Regional Gasparilla Island RO North Martin County (MN) Seacoast Utilities East Port (Charlotte) Melbourne-Grant St. City of Sarasota (EX) Pahokee Belle Glade

Proposed

Active

Other

Total Wells

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

3 1 0 0 3 2 0 3 2 3 1 1 1 2 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 2 1 0 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 0 1 2 6 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 2 5 2 0 0 13 6 1 2 1 2 1 0 1 1

0 1SB 3PA 1PA 0 0 2PA 1PA 0 0 0 1EXM 1EXM 2IA 1EXM 0 1UC 1IA 0 0 1EXM 0 1EXM 0 1TA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4PA 0 0 1UC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1PA 1PA 4IA 0 0 0 0 0 0 1EXM 0 0

3 2 3 1 3 2 2 4 2 3 1 2 2 4 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 4 1 2 7 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 2 5 2 1 1 17 8 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-46

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6D.27

(Continued) Status — November 2003

Map 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

Facility Fort Myers Beach West Port (Charlotte) Rockledge Palm Beach County Southern Regional Plantation East RO (Broward County) Burnt Store (RO) Boynton Beach (RO) Plantation RO (Broward Co.) Marco Island (MN) North Collier County (RO) Zemel Road Landfill (I) Hollywood Sarasota County Center Road Fort Pierce Utility Authority Miramar RO Sanibel Island (MN) Miramar Venice Gardens East RO South Collier County Sunrise Sawgrass RO Port St. Lucie Western LTC WTP Cooper City RO Fort Myers RO Punta Gorda Pompano Beach RO Immokalee South Collier County RO Fort Pierce RO Bonita Springs RO Port St. Lucie Westport North Collier County WRF Bonita Springs WRF Palm Bay RO CPV Cana Power Plant North Lee County WTP Tropical Farms Wellington (MN) North Miami Beach RO Pine Island (MN) Tropicana Peele-Dixie WTP Deerfield Beach West WTP Three Oaks TOTAL

Proposed

Active

Other

Total Wells

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13

1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 0 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 126

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2UC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 EXM 0 0 2 UC 0 1UC 1UC 2UC 1UC 1 EX 0 1UC 2UC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 45

1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 184

Key to Abbreviations Facility EX — Exploratory well only HW — Hazardous waste I — Industrial (non-hazardous) RO — Reverse osmosis concentrate RRF — Resource recovery facility. Status TA — Temporarily abandoned well PA — Permanently abandoned well IA — Inactive well SB — Standby well UC — Under Construction/testing Source: From www.dep.state.fl.us.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

EX — Exploratory well EXI — Inactive exploratory well EXW — Exploratory well converted to an injection well EXM — Exploratory well converted to a monitor well EXP — Exploratory well plugged and abandoned.

GROUNDWATER

6-47

83° 28°

82°

81°

HILLSBOROUGH OSCEOLA

BREVARD

N CEA IC O ANT ATL

POLK

80°

INDIAN RIVER 20 MANATEE

OKEECHOBEE

HARDEE

ST. LUCIE 27

HIGHLANDS

23 DE SOTO

SARASOTA

21 MARTIN

27°

GLADES CHARLOTTE

19

15

GU

26 9

LF

LEE 4.6

24

LAKE OKEECHOBEE

HENDRY

11 13

PALM BEACH

OF

3

ME

5

XIC

8

1

O

7

18

10

BROWARD 28

COLLIER

26°

12 25 16

17

2 EXPLANATION DADE 14 SITE NUMBER IN TEXT

E

OILFIELD

R

0

MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER DEEP-WELL INJECTION SYSTEM

FRESHWATER INJECTION PILOT PROJECT 0 0

50 MILES 50 KILOMETERS

Figure 6D.14 Deep well injection systems. (From www.sofia.usgs.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

M

O

N

INDUSTRIAL DEEP-WELL INJECTION SYSTEM

25°

14

22

6-48

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6D.28 Summary of Deep-Well Injection Systems in Florida Injection Wells Injected Effluent Location Belle Glade, Palm Beach County Sunset Park, South Miami Mulberry, Polk County Kendale Lakes, South Miami Margate, Broward County St. Petersburg, Southwest plant Gainesville, Kanapaha plant West Palm Beach Vero Beach, Indian River County Miami-Dade Water and Sewer Authority a

Type

Pretreatment

Design Capacity First Year of Operation

Well Casings

Depth

ML/d

mgd

Number of Wells

m

Depth

ft

Number of Casings

m

fta

a

Industrial

Cooling

1966

5.6

1.5

2

975

3200

4

883

2900

Municipal

Secondary

1971

22.7

6.0

1

914

3000

3

563

1850

Industrial

None

1971

1.3

0.35

1

1371

4500

3

1219

4000

Municipal

Secondary

1973

22.7

6.0

1

975

3200

3

670

2200

Municipal

Secondary

1975

56.7

15.0

1

975

3200

3

731

2400

Municipal

Tertiary

1976

75.7

20.0

3

304

1000

3

274

900

Municipal

1976

28.3

7.5

3

304

1000

3

152

500

Municipal Industrial

Advanced wastewater treatment Secondary Neutralization

1978 1979

302.8 1.1

80.0 0.3

5 1

1097 914

3600 3000

4 4

914 731

3000 2400

Municipal

Secondary

1983

423.9

112.0

9

944

3100

4

792

2600

Rounded to nearest 100 ft.

Source: From Garcia-Bengochea, J.I., Protecting water supply aquifers in areas using deep-well wastewater disposal, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 75, 6, 1983. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

6-49

SECTION 6E

PUMPING OF WATER

Table 6E.29 Useful Factors in Preliminary Planning of Small Pumping Plants

Pump or Pipe Size (in.) 6 6 6 6 8 8 8 8 10 10 10 10 12 12 12 12 14 14 14 14 16 16 16 16 18 18 18 18 20 20 20 20 24 24 24 24 30 30 30 30

Gallons/min

Acre-Inches per 24 hr

Pipe Velocity (ft/sec)

Velocity Head (V2/2g ft)

Friction in Feet Per 100 Feet of Pipe

Horsepower Required for 10 ft Total Head. Pump and Transmission EfficiencyZ70 Percent

400 600 800 1,000 900 1,100 1,300 1,500 1,200 1,600 2,000 2,400 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 3,600 4,400 5,200 6,000 4,500 5,500 6,500 8,000 5,000 6,500 8,000 10,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 12,000 16,000 20,000 24,000

21.2 31.8 42.4 53.0 47.7 58.3 68.9 79.5 63.6 84.8 108.1 127.3 106.1 132.6 159.1 185.6 106.1 159.1 212.1 265.2 190.9 233.3 275.8 318.2 238.6 291.7 344.7 424.2 265.2 344.7 424.2 530.3 424.2 630.3 636.4 742.4 636.4 848.5 1061.0 1273.0

4.54 6.72 9.08 11.32 5.75 7.03 8.32 9.60 4.91 6.56 8.10 9.73 5.60 7.00 8.40 9.80 4.20 6.30 8.40 10.50 5.74 7.01 8.29 9.56 5.70 6.96 8.22 10.02 5.13 6.66 8.17 10.40 5.68 7.07 8.50 9.95 5.44 7.36 9.09 10.90

0.32 0.70 1.28 1.99 0.52 0.77 1.07 1.43 0.38 0.67 1.02 1.47 0.48 0.77 1.10 1.49 0.27 0.61 1.09 1.71 0.51 0.76 1.06 1.42 0.50 0.75 1.05 1.56 0.41 0.69 1.03 1.68 0.50 0.78 1.12 1.54 0.46 0.84 1.29 1.86

2.21 4.7 8.0 12.0 2.46 3.51 4.72 6.27 1.46 2.35 3.65 5.04 1.43 2.28 3.15 4.10 0.66 1.47 2.47 3.92 1.10 1.58 2.16 2.60 0.93 1.32 1.82 2.65 0.68 1.06 1.63 2.53 0.66 0.98 1.40 1.87 0.47 0.83 1.22 1.71

1.4 2.2 2.9 3.6 3.2 4.0 4.7 5.4 4.3 5.8 7.2 8.7 7.2 9.0 10.8 12.6 7.2 10.8 14.4 18.0 13.0 15.9 18.8 21.6 16.2 19.8 23.4 28.9 18.0 23.4 28.9 36.1 28.9 36.1 43.3 50.5 43.3 57.7 72.2 86.6

Source: From U.S. Department of Agriculture.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-50

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6E.30 Characteristics of Pumps Frequently Employed in Wells

Type of Pump

Practical Suction Lifta

Usual WellPumping Depth

Usual Pressure Heads

Reciprocating Shallow well

6–7 m

6–7 m

30–60 m

Deep well

6–7 m

Up to 180 m

Up to 180 m above cylinder

6 m max

3–6 m

30–45 m

Regenerative vane turbine type (single impeller) Deep well Vertical line shaft turbine (multistage)

8 m max

8m

30–60 m

Impellers submerged

15–90 m

Submersible turbine (multistage)

Centrifugal Shallow well straight centrifugal (single stage)

Jet Shallow well

Deep well Rotary Shallow well (gear type)

Disadvantages

Positive action; discharge against variable heads; pumps water containing sand and silt; especially adapted to low capacity and high lifts

Pulsating discharge; subject to vibration and noise; maintenance cost may be high; may cause destructive pressure if operated against closed valve

Smooth, even flow; pumps water containing sand and silt; pressure on system is even and free from shock; lowstarting torque; usually reliable and good service life Same as straight centrifugal except not suitable for pumping water containing sand or silt; self-priming

Loses prime easily; efficiency depends on operating under design heads and speed

30–250 m

Same as shallow well turbine

Pump and motor 15–120 m submerged

15–120 m

Same as shallow well turbine; easy to frostproof installation; short pump shaft to motor

Efficiency depends on operating under design head and speed; requires straight well large enough for turbine bowls and housing; lubrication and alignment of shaft critical; abrasion from sand Repair to motor or pump requires pulling from well; sealing of electrical equipment from water vapor critical; abrasion from sand

4–6 m below ejector

Up to 4–6 m below ejector

25–45 m

4–6 m below ejector

7–35 m 60 m 25–45 m max.

High capacity at low heads; simple in operation; does not have to be installed over well; no moving parts in well Same as shallow well jet

7m

7m

15–75 m

15–150 m

30–150 m

Usually Deep well submerged (helical rotary type) a

Advantages

Positive action; discharge constant under variable heads; efficient operation Same as shallow well/rotary; only one moving pump device in well

Same as straight centrifugal except maintains priming easily

Capacity reduces as lift increases; air in suction or return line will stop pumping Same as shallow well jet

Subject to rapid wear if water contains sand or silt; wear of gears reduces efficiency Same as shallow well rotary except no gear wear

Practical suction lift at sea level. Reduce lift 0.3 m for each 300 m above sea level.

Source: From U.S. Public Health Service, Manual of Individual Water-Supply Systems, Publication. 24, 1962.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

6-51

Table 6E.31 Selection of Pump Size and Diameter of Wells Anticipated Well Yield L1

In gal min

Less than 100 75–175 150–400 350–650 600–900 850–1,300 1,200–1,800 1,600–3,000

In ft3 minL1

In m3 minL1

Nominal Size of Pump Bowls (in.)

Optimum Well Diameter (in.)

Less than 13 10–23 20–53 47–87 80–120 113–173 160–240 213–400

Less than 0.38 0.28–0.66 0.57–1.52 1.33–2.46 2.27–3.41 3.22–4.93 4.55–6.82 6.06–11.37

4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16

6 ID 8 ID 10 ID 12 ID 14 OD 16 OD 20 OD 24 OD

Note: ID, inside diameter; OD, outside diameter. Source: From Health, R.C., Basic Ground-Water Hydrology, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2220, 1983.

Table 6E.32 Pumping Plant Performance Standards Standard Consumption of Fuel or Energy per Water Horsepowera

Type of Power Unit

0.091 gal hrK1 0.116 gal hrK1 0.145 gal hrK1 160 ft3 hrK1 0.885 kw-hr hrK1

Diesel engine Gasoline engine Propane engine Natural gas Electric motor a

Based on pump efficiency of 75 percent.

Source: From College of Agriculture, University of Nebraska.

Table 6E.33 Standard Fuel Requirements for Good Pumping Plants Fuel or Energy Required Pumping Rate (in gpm) 500

700

800

1000

Head (in ft)

Water Horsepower

Diesel (gal hrL1)

Gasoline (gal hrL1)

Propane (gal hrL1)

Natural Gas (ft hrL1)

Electricity (kwh hrL1)

100 150 200 100 150 200 100 150 200 100 150 200

13 19 25 18 27 35 20 30 40 25 38 50

11⁄4 13⁄4 21⁄4 13⁄4 21⁄2 31⁄4 13⁄4 23⁄4 33⁄4 21⁄4 31⁄2 41⁄2

11⁄2 21⁄4 3 2 31⁄4 41⁄4 21⁄2 31⁄2 43⁄4 3 41⁄2 6

2 23⁄4 33⁄4 23⁄4 4 51⁄4 3 41⁄2 6 33⁄4 53⁄4 71⁄2

190 280 380 270 400 530 300 450 610 380 570 760

14 21 29 20 30 40 23 34 46 29 43 57

Note: Based on performance standards in Table 6E.32. Source: From College of Agriculture, University of Nebraska. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-52

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6E.34 Pumping Costs in the Texas High Plains (THP) and in South/Central Texas (SCT) Per Acre-inch of Water at 100 ft Total Head from Irrigation Pumping Plant Efficiency Tests Conducted by the Texas Agricultural Extension Service Cost ($) Per Acre-Inches per 100 ft Head a

b

Type and Price

Region

Lowest

Highest

Average

Natural Gas @ $3.00 MCF Electricity @ $0.07/KWH Diesel @ $0.65/gal

THP SCT THP SCT THP SCT

0.40 0.31 0.49 0.29 0.57 0.36

3.93 1.96 3.10 20.20 1.91 3.43

0.81 0.76 1.35 1.49 0.77 0.83

a b

Assumed price — actual prices varied in each region. THP (Texas High Plains) results are from more than 240 efficiency tests. SCT (South/Central Texas) results are from 240 efficiency tests.

Source: From Texas Agricultural Extension Service, the Texas A&M University.

Table 6E.35 Irrigation Pumping Equipment Efficiency Equipment

Attainable Efficiency (Percent)

Pumps (centrifugal, turbine) Right-angle pump drives (gear head) Automotive-type engines Industrial engines Diesel Natural gas Electric motors Small Large

75–82 95 20–26 25–37 24–27 75–85 85–92

Source: From New L.L. Pumping plant efficiency and irrigation cost L-2218, Texas Agricultural Extension Service.

Table 6E.36 Typical Values of Overall Efficiency for Representative Pumping Plants, Expressed as Percent Power Source Electric Diesel Natural gas Butane, propane Gasoline

Recommended as Acceptable

Average Values from Field Testsa

72–77 20–25 18–24 18–24 18–23

45–55 13–15 9–13 9–13 9–12

Ranges are given because of the variation in efficiencies of both pumps and power units. The difference in efficiency for high and low compression engines used for natural gas, propane and gasoline must be considered especially. The higher value of efficiency can be used for higher compression engines. a Typical average observed values reported by pump efficiency test teams. Source: From New L.L. Pumping plant efficiency and irrigation cost L-2218, Texas Agricultural Extension Service. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

6-53

Table 6E.37 Nebraska Performance Criteria for Pumping Plants. Fuel Use by New or Reconditioned Plants Should Equal or Exceed These Rates

Energy Source

Water Horsepowerhoursa Per Unit of Energy

Energy Units

12.5 8.7 66.7c 0.885d

gal gal 1000 ftc Kwh

Diesel Gasolineb Natural gas Electricity a b c d

Based on 75 percent efficiency. Includes drive losses and assumes no cooling fan. Assumes natural gas content of 1000 btu ftK3 Direct connection-no drive.

Source: From College of Agriculture, University of Nebraska.

Table 6E.38 Approximate Maximum Flow Rate in Different Pipe Sizes to Keep Velocity%5 ft secL1 Pipe Diameter

Flow Rate (gpm)

1

6 10 15 25 35 50 110 200 310 440 780 1225 1760 3140

⁄2 ⁄4 1 11⁄4 11⁄2 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 3

Source: From Texas Agricultural Extension Service, the Texas A&M University.

Table 6E.39 Friction Losses in Feet of Head Per 100 ft of Pipe (for Pipes with Internal Diameters Shown) 4-inch

6-inch

8-inch

10-inch

12-inch

Pipe Size Flow rate (gpm)

Steel

Alum.

PVC

Steel

Alum.

PVC

Steel

Alum.

PVC

Steel

Alum.

PVC

Steel

Alum.

PVC

100 150 200 250 300 400 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000

1.2 2.5 4.3 6.7 9.5 16.0 24.1 51.1 87.0 131.4 184.1 244.9 313.4

0.9 1.8 3.0 4.8 6.2 10.6 17.1 36.3 61.8 93.3 130.7 173.9 222.5

0.6 1.2 2.1 3.2 4.3 7.2 11.4 24.1 41.1 62.1 87.0 115.7 148.1

— 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.3 2.2 3.4 7.1 12.1 18.3 25.6 34.1 43.6

— 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.5 2.4 5.0 8.6 13.0 18.2 24.2 31.0

— 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.6 3.4 5.7 8.6 12.1 16.1 20.6

— — 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.8 3.0 4.5 6.3 8.4 10.8

— — 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.6 1.3 2.1 3.2 4.5 6.0 7.7

— — 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.4 2.1 3.0 4.0 5.1

— — — 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.6 1.0 1.5 2.1 2.8 3.6

— — — 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.5 2.0 2.6

— — — — 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.7

— — 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5

— — — 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.1

— — 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7

Note: Flow rates below horizontal line for each pipe size exceed the recommended 5-feet-per-second velocity. Source: From Texas Agricultural Extension Service, the Texas A&M University. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-54

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6E.40 Friction Loss in Fittings. Friction Loss in Terms of Equivalent Length of Pipe (ft) of Same Diameter Inside Pipe Diameter (in.) Type of Fitting 45-degree elbow Long-sweep elbow Standard elbow Close return bend Gate value (open) Gate value (1/2 open) Check valve

4

5

5 7 11 24 2 65 100

6 9 13 30 3 81 110

6

8

10

12

7 11 16 36 3.5 100 30

10 14 20 50 4.5 130 40

12.5 17 25 61 5.5 160 45

15 20 32 72 7 195 35

Source: From Texas Agricultural Extension Service, the Texas A&M University.

Table 6E.41 Pumping Capacities of Aermotor Windmills Shown in the Table Below are Approximate, Based on the Mill Set on the Long Stroke, Operating in a 15 to 20 Mile Per Hour Wind Elevation in Feet to Which Water Can Be Raised a

Capacity Per Hour Gallons

Size of Aermotor Windmill

Size of Cylinder (in.)

6 ft

8–16 ft

6 ft

8 ft

10 ft

12 ft

14 ft

16 ft

1–7/8 2 2–1/4 2–1/2 2–3/4 3 3–1/2 3–3/4 4 5 6

125 130 180 225 265 320 440

180 190 260 325 385 470 640 730 830 1300 1875

120 95 77 65 56 47 35

175 140 112 94 80 68 50

27 17

37 25 17

260 215 170 140 120 100 76 65 58 37 25

390 320 250 210 180 155 115 98 86 55 38

560 460 360 300 260 220 160 143 125 80 55

920 750 590 490 425 360 265 230 200 130 85

570 900

The short stroke increases elevation by one-third, and reduces pumping capacities by one-fourth. a

Approximate Capacity.

Source: From Aermotor company. With permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

Overdraft of groundwater occurs when water is withdrawn from sources that cannot be renewed or is withdrawn more quickly than they can be recharged. Of the 106 Water Resources Council subregions, the overdraft in 8 is considered critical–that is, more than, 500 million gallons of water are withdrawn per day; and in 30, groundwater overdraft is moderate–21 to 500 million gallons per day. Groundwater overdraft is a serious problem in the High Plains from Nebraska to Texas and in parts of Arizona and California.

6-55

Groundwater overdraft in million gallons per day Critical (more than 500) Moderate (21–500) No overdraft

Figure 6E.15 Groundwater overdraft in the United States [Data as of 1975; by water resource subregion]. (From council on environmental quality, 1981, Environmental trends.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-56

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Figure 6E.16 Areas of water-table or Artesian water-level decline in excess of 40 ft in the United States [Decline in at least one aquifer since predevelopment]. (From U.S. Geological Survey, 1984, National Water Summary 1983—Hydrologic Events and Issues, Water-Supply Paper 2250.)

Water-level decline, in ft More than 200

NEVADA

100 to 200

UTAH

50 to 100

CALIFORNIA

ARIZONA NEW MEXICO

0 0

100

200 Miles

100 200 300 km

Figure 6E.17 Locations in the basins of Southern California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico where substantial groundwater level declines have been measured. (From http://water.usgs.gov.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

6-57

G

West Salt Harquahala Plain

Luke AFB

I

L

Water-level decline greater than 100 ft

A

Areas with fissures

Phoenix

0

Apache Junction

Mesa

River Basin East Salt River Basin

50 Miles

0

50 km

Queen Creek

L

A

P

A

Z M

A

R

I

C

O

P

Stanfield A Basin

Picacho Basin Casa Grande

Stanfield

P

I

N

Eloy

Picacho earth fissure

Avra Valley

ARIZONA

P

I

M

A

L G

Picacho Mts Picacho Pk

R

A

H

A

M

San Simon Tucson

Willcox

Tucson

Basin

A

Valley

Basin

MAP AREA

C

O

C

H

I

S

E

Figure 6E.18 Water-level decline greater than 100 ft and areas with fissures in Picacho, Arizona. (From http://water.usgs.gov.)

Water-level decline, 1864-1980, in ft Groundwater divide WISCONSIN

375

Milwaukee

350

Roc

k

L a ke

R.

Mi ch

i ga n

0

800

20

Chicago

ILLINOIS

x

Fo

50 Des

R.

600

R. P laines

INDIANA

400 0 0

50 Miles 100 Kilometers

Figure 6E.19 Chicago, Illinois water-level decline, 1864–1980, in ft. (From http://water.usgs.gov.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-58

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

0

Continuing subsidence 1974–1997

-40 -80 A

0.0

-12

-160

0 -8 0

Areas with declining water levels

Houston

Baytown

160

C B

Areas with rising water levels

-40 B 0 0 4 80 120

D

0.0 Subsidence C (ft) 0.8 1975

Line of equal groundwater Texas City E level change (interval 40 ft)

Subsidence 1.2 (ft) A

(Modified from Kasmarek and others, 1997)

2.4

1975

1985

1995

Some arrested subsidence 1974–1997

E D 1985

1995

Extensometer sites for measuring subsidence A B C D E

Addicks Lake Houston Baytown Clear Lake Texas City

Figure 6E.20 Change in groundwater levels in wells in the Evangeline aquifer, 1977–1997. (From http://water.usgs.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

6-59

SECTION 6F

Nevada

Las Vegas Valley

Idaho

Colorado

Raft River area Denver area

SUBSIDENCE

New Jersey

Atlantic City-Oceanside area Barnegat Bay-New York Bay Coastal area

Delaware

California Antelope Valley Coachella Valley Elsinore Valley La Verne Valley Lucerne Valley Mojave River Basin Oxnard Plain Pomona Basin Sacramento Valley Salinas Valley San Benito Valley San Bemardino area San Gabriel Valley San Jacinto Basin San Joaquin Valley San Luis Obispo area Santa Clara Valley Temecula Valley Wolf Valley

Bowers area Dover area

Virginia

Franklin-Suffolk area Williamsburg-West Point area

New Mexico

Albuquerque Basin Mimbres Basin

Arizona

Avra Valley East Salt River Valley Eloy Basin Gila Bend area Harquahala Plain San Sirman Valley Stanfield Basin Tucson Basin West Salt River Valley Willicox Basin

Louisiana

Baton Rouge area New Orleans area

Texas

Major unconsolidated aquifer system in the conterminous United States

Georgia

(modified from Clawges and Price, 1999)

Savannah area

Houston-Galveston Hueco Bolson-El Paso, Juarez

Figure 6F.21 Areas where subsidence has been attributed to the compaction of aquifer system due to groundwater pumpage (modified from Clawges and Price, 1999). (From http://water.usgs.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-60

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6F.42 Areas of Major Land Subsidence Due to Groundwater Overdraft

Location

Depositional Environment and Age

Japan Osaka Tokyo

Alluvial and shallow marine; Quaternary As above

Mexico Mexico City

Alluvial and lacustrine; late Cenozoic

Taiwan Taipei basin

Alluvial and lacustrine; Quaternary

United States Arizona, central California Santa Clara Valley San Joaquin Valley (three subareas) Lancaster area Nevada Las Vegas Texas Houston-Galveston area

Depth Range of Compacting Beds (m)

Maximum Subsidence (m)

Areas of Subsidence (sq km)

Time of Principal Occurrence

10–400 10–400

3 4

190 190

1928–1968 1920–1970C

10–50

9

130

1938–1970C

10–240

1.3

130

1961–1969C

Alluvial and lacustrine; late Cenozoic

100–550

2.3

650

1948–1967

Alluvial and shallow marine; late Cenozoic Alluvial and lacustrine; late Cenozoic

55–300 60–1000

4 2.9–9

Alluvial and lacustrine; late Cenozoic Alluvial; late Cenozoic Fluvial and shallow marine; late Cenozoic

650 11,000

1920–1970 1935–1970C

60–300(?)

1

(O0.3 ml) 400

1955–1967C

60–300

1

500

1935–1963

60–600(?)

1–1.5

6,860

1943–1964C

(O0.15 m) Louisiana Baton Rouge

Fluvial and shallow marine; Miocene to Holocene

50–600(?)

0.3

650

1934–1965C

Source: From Poland, J.F., Subsidence and its control, in underground waste management and environmental implications, Amer Assoc. Petr. Geologists, Memoir 18, 1972.

Table 6F.43 Amounts of Subsidence in Selected Areas in the Southwest Arizona Eloy West of Phoenix Tucson

Nevada 15 ft 18 ft !1 ft

Las Vegas

6 ft New Mexico Albuquerque “!” 1 ft Mimbres Basin 2 ft

Source: From http://geochange.er.usgs.gov. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

California Lancaster South west of Mendota Davis Santa Clara Valley Ventura

Texas 6 ft 29 ft 4 ft 12 ft 2 ft

El Paso Houston

1 ft 9 ft

GROUNDWATER

6-61

Area 0 Savannah New Orleans

2

Subsidence in meters 4 6

330

8

10

Georgia

150 Louisiana

Baton Rouge

650

Luke Queen Creek

Texas

12,000

Houston-Galveston 400

600 Arizona 700

Stanfield

1,000

Eloy Las Vegas Valley Raft River

300

Nevada Idaho

260

Sacramento Valley Santa clara Valley

500 650

Los Banos-Kettleman City Tulare-Wasco Arvin-Maricopa Lancaster

6,200 3,700

California

1,800 1,200

San Jacinto Valley 10+ Figure 6F.22 Magnitude of land subsidence from groundwater withdrawal in the United States [numbers in columns represent area in square kilometers]. (From Poland, J.F., Irrigation and Drainage division ASCE, 107,1981, IR2. Copyright American Society of Civil Engineers. Reprinted with permission.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-62

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Quatamary faults

La

sV eg

as

Ra

Line of approximately equal subsidence (meters); contour interval variable

ng

e

0

-0

-0.1 5

Northwest Bowl

.3

Eglington Fault 6

-0.

1.7

N

Line 1

-1.7

g Ve as l L w th or Bo

as

-0.09

-0.01

36°15 ′

-0.3 -0

Spring Mountains

3

-0 .

-0.

Line 3 Central -0.85 Bowl Line 10

6

-0.67

-0.5

-0.78

Line 6 Southern Bowl

hman Mounta in Frenc

.6

Line 2

.3 -0 15 -0.

6

-0.

0

Henderson

36°00′

0 0

2 1

4 2

McCullough Range

6 Kilometers 3

4Miles

115°15′

115°00′

Figure 6F.23 Revised subsidence contour map for Las Vegas Valley, 1963–2000, showing maximum subsidence measured in four localized bowls and location of level lines. (From http://water.usgs.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

6-63

95°15′

95°30′

95°45′

96°

Explanation

2

Line of equal land-surface subsidence — Interval 1 foot

95°

1

HARRIS-GALVESTON 2 COASTAL SUBSIDENCE DISTRICT 3

30°

94°45′

4

Houston Ship Channel

5

Houston

29°45′

FORT BEND SUBSIDENCE DISTRICT

6 7

8 9

94°30′ 29°30′

4 3 3

2

29°15′

5

1

TEXAS Study area

Galveston 0 29o30 30'

5

10

15

20 MILES

96o

29o15' 29 15'

95 9 5o

Figure 6F.24 Subsidence occurring between 1906 and 1987 in the Houston-Galveston region, Texas. (From http://water.usgs.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-64

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 6G

AQUIFER CHARACTERISTICS

Explanation Pores in sand and gravel Pores and fractures in sand stones Solution-enlarged openings in carbonate rocks

ALASKA

Fractures and other openings in basalt HAWAII

Fractures in igneous, metamorphic, and consolidated sedimentary rocks exclusive of sandstones and carbonate rocks 0

500 Mt

0

800 KM

Figure 6G.25 Types of water-bearing openings in dominant aquifers of the United States. (From Heath, R.C., Classification of groundwater regions of the United States, Groundwater, 20, 4, 1982, Reprinted with permission.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

6-65

Table 6G.44 Features of Groundwater Systems Useful in the Classification of Groundwater Regions Feature Component of the system

Water-bearing openings of dominant aquifer

Aspect Unconfined aquifer

Thin, discontinuous, hydrologically insignificant Minor aquifer, serves primarily as a storage reservoir and recharge conduit for underlying aquifer The dominant aquifer

Confining beds

Not present, or hydrologically insignificant Thin, markedly discontinuous, or very leaky Thick, extensive, and impermeable Complexly interbedded with aquifers or productive zones

Confined aquifers

Not present, or hydrologically insignificant Thin or not highly productive Multiple thin aquifers interbedded with non productive zones The dominant aquifer — thick and productive

Presence and arrangement of components

A single, hydrologically-dominant, unconfined aquifer Two interconnected aquifers of essentially equal hydrologic importance A three-unit system consisting of an unconfined aquifer, a confining bed, and a confined aquifer A complexly interbedded sequence of aquifers and confining beds

Primary openings

Pores in unconsolidated deposits Pores in semiconsolidated rocks Pores, tubes, and cooling fractures in volcanic (extrusive-igneous) rocks

Secondary openings

Fractures and faults in crystalline and consolidated sedimentary rocks Solution-enlarged openings in limestones and other soluble rocks

Composition of Insoluble rock matrix of dominant aquifer Soluble

Storage and transmission characteristics of dominant aquifer

Range in Conditions

Porosity

Significance of Feature Affects response of the system to pumpage and other stresses. Affects recharge and discharge conditions for the system. Determines susceptibility of the system to pollution

Controls water-storage and transmission characteristics. Affects dispersion and dilution of wastes

Essentially insoluble Both relatively insoluble and soluble constituents Relatively soluble

Affects water-storage and transmission characteristics. Has major influence on water quality

Large, as in well-sorted, unconsolidated deposits Moderate, as in poorly-sorted unconsolidated deposits and semiconsolidated rocks Small, as in fractures crystalline and consolidated sedimentary rocks

Controls response to pumpage and other stresses. Determines yield of wells. Affects long-term yield of system. Affects rate at which pollutants move

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-66

Table 6G.44

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Feature

Aspect

Range in Conditions

Transmissivity

Recharge and discharge conditions of dominant aquifer

Significance of Feature

Large, as in cavernous limestones, lava flows with flow tubes, and clean gravels Moderate, as in well-sorted, coarsegrained sands, and semiconsolidated limestones Small, as in poorly-sorted, fine-grained deposits and fractures rocks Very small, as in confining beds, which are commonly clay-rich In upland areas between streams Through channels of losing streams Largely or entirely by leakage across confining beds from adjacent aquifers

Recharge

Discharge

Affects (a) response to stress and (b) longterm yields. Determines susceptibility to pollution. Affects water quality

Through springs or by seepage to stream channels, lakes, estuaries, or the ocean By evaporation on flood plains and in basin “sinks” By seepage across confining beds into adjacent aquifers

Source: From Heath, R.C., Classification of ground-water systems of the United States, Ground-Water, 20, 4, 1982.

Table 6G.45 Geologic Origin of Aquifers Based on Type of Porosity and Rock Type Sedimentary Type of Porosity

Consolidated

Intergranular

Intergranular and fracture

Unconsolidated Gravelly sand Clayey sand Sandy clay

Breccia Conglomerate Sandstone Slate

Fracture

Volcanic Igneous and Metamorphic

Consolidated

Weathered zone of granitegneiss

Weathered zone of basalt

Zoogenic limestone Oolitic limestone Calcareous grit Limestone Dolomite Dolomitic limestone

Volcanic tuff Cinder Volcanic breccia Pumice Basalt Andesite Rhyolite

Granite Gneiss Gabbro Quartzite Diorite Schist Mica schist

Unconsolidated Volcanic ejecta, blocks, and fragments Ash

Source: From United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 1975, Ground-water storage and artificial recharge, Natural Resources, Water Series No.2. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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6-67

Table 6G.46 Rocks of Greatest Importance in Groundwater Hydrology Sedimentary Rocks

Igneous Rocks

Unconsolidated (Pores)

Consolidated (Pores, Fractures, and Solution Openings)

GRAVELa

Conglomerateb

Gneiss

SAND Silt Clay c Till Marl

SANDSTONE Siltstone Shale Tillite (rare) LIMESTONEDOLOMITE

Quartzite-schist Schist Slate-schist

Metamorphic Rocks (Fractures)

Intrusive (Fractures)

Extrusive (Pores, Tubes, Rubble Zones, and Fractures)

Granite and other coarse- BASALT and other finegrained igneous rocks grained igneous rocks

Marble

Coquina a b c

Capitalized names indicate rocks that are major sources of large groundwater supplies. Lowercase names indicate rocks of relatively wide extent that are sources of small to moderate groundwater supplies. Italic names indicate rocks that function primarily as confining beds.

Source: From Heath, R.C., Ground-water, in Perspectives on Water, Uses and Abuses, D. Speidel, editor, Copyright Oxford University Press, 1988. Reprinted With permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-68

Table 6G.47 Common Ranges in Hydraulic Characteristics of Groundwater Regions in the United States Common Ranges in Hydraulic Characteristics of the Dominant Aquifers

Transmissivity Region No 1

2

3

5 6 7 8 9 10 11

12

13

14

Geologic Situation

m2 dayL1

0.5–100 Mountains with thin soils over fractured rocks, alternating with narrow alluvial and, in part, glaciated valleys Alluvial basins Thicka alluvial (locally glacial) 20–20,000 deposits in basins and valleys bordered by mountains 2,000–500,000 Columbia lava Thick lava sequence interbedded plateau with unconsolidated deposits and overlain by thin soils Colorado plateau and Thina soils over fractured 0.5–100 Wyoming basin sedimentary rocks High plains Thick alluvial deposits over 1,000–10,000 fractured sedimentary rocks Nonglaciated central Thin regolith over fractured 300–10,000 region sedimentary rocks Glaciated central Thick glacial deposits over 100–2,000 region fractured sedimentary rocks Piedmont and Blue Thick regolith over fractured 9–200 Ridge crystalline and metamorphosed Northeast and Thick glacial deposits over 50–500 superior uplands fractured crystalline rocks Atlantic and gulf Complexly interbedded sands, silts 500–10,000 coastal plain and clays Southeast coastal plain Thick layers of sand and clay over 1,000–100,000 semi-consolidated carbonate rocks 200–50,000 Alluvial valleys Thick and gravel deposits beneath flood-plains and terraces of streams 10,000–100,000 Hawaiian islands Lava flows segmented by dikes, interbedded with ash deposits, and partly overlain by alluvium 100–10,000 Alaska Galcial and alluvial deposits in part perennially frozen and overlying crystalline, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks

m dayL1

ft dayL1

mm yrL1

in yrL1

m3 minL1

gal minL1

5–1,000

0.0003–15

0.001–50

3–50

0.1–2

0.04–0.4

10–100

2,000–200,000

30–600

100–2,000

0.03–30

0.001–1

0.4–20

100–5,000

20,000–5,000,000

200–3000

500–10,000

5–300

0.2–10

0.4–80

100–20,000

5–1,000

0.003–2

0.01–5

0.3–50

0.01–2

0.04–2

10–1,000

10,000–100,000

30–300

100–1,000

5–80

0.2–3

0.4–10

100–3,000

3,000–100,000

3–300

10–1,000

5–500

0.2–20

0.4–20

100–5,000

1,000–20,000

2–300

5–1,000

5–300

0.2–10

0.2–2

50–500

100–2,000

0.001–1

0.003–3

30–300

1–10

0.2–2

50–500

500–5,000

2–30

5–100

30–300

1–10

0.1–1

20–200

5,000–100,000

3–100

10–400

50–500

2–20

0.4–20

100–5,000

10,000–1,000,000

30–3000

100–10,000

30–500

1–20

4–80

1,000–20,000

2,000–50,000

30–2000

100–5,000

50–500

2–20

0.4–20

100–5,000

100,000–1,000,000

200–3000

500–10,000

30–1,000

1–40

0.4–20

100–5,000

1,000–100,000

30–600

100–2,000

3–300

0.1–10

0.04–4

10–1,000

Note: All values rounded to one significant figure; for map of regions, see Figure 6A.3. An average thickness of about 5 m was used as the break point between thick and thin. Source: From Heath, R.C., Classification of groundwater regions of the United States, Groundwater, 20, 4, 1982.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Well Yield

ft2 dayL1

Western mountain ranges

a

Recharge Rate

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

4

Region

Hydraulic Conductivity

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Table 6G.48 Representative Values of Porosity Material

Porosity, Percent 28a 32a 34a 39 39 43 46 42 33 37 30 26 45 49 92 38 35 43 6 34 31 41 17 43 45

Gravel, coarse Gravel, medium Gravel, fine Sand, coarse Sand, medium Sand, fine Silt Clay Sandstone, fine-grained Sandstone, medium-grained Limestone Dolomite Dune sand Loess Peat Schist Siltstone Claystone Shale Till, predominantly silt Till, predominantly sand Tuff Basalt Gabbro, weathered Granite, weathered a

These values are for repacked samples; all others are undisturbed.

Source: From Johnson, A. I., Specific Yield-Compilation of Specific Yields for Various Materials, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1662-D, 1967.

Table 6G.49 Representative Values of Specific Yield Material Gravel, coarse Gravel, medium Gravel, fine Sand, coarse Sand, medium Sand, fine Silt Clay Sandstone, fine-grained Sandstone, medium-grained Limestone Dune sand Loess Peat Schist Siltstone Till, predominantly silt Till, predominantly sand Till, predominantly gravel Tuff

Specific Yield, Percent 23 24 25 27 28 23 8 3 21 27 14 38 18 44 26 12 6 16 16 21

Source: From Johnson, A.I., Specific Yield-Compilation of Specific Yields for Various Materials, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1662-D, 1967.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6G.50 Drillers’ Terms Used in Estimating Specific Yield Crystalline Bedrock (fresh) Specific yield zero Granite Hard boulders Hard granite

Hard rock Graphite and rocks Rock (if in area of known crystalline rocks) Clay and Related Materials Specific yield 3 percent

Adobe Brittle clay Caving clay Cement Cement ledge Choppy clay Clay Clay, occasional rock Crumbly clay Cube clay Decomposed granite Dirt Good clay Gumbo clay Hard clay Hardpan (H.P.) Hardpan shale Hard shell Joint clay

Lava Loose shale Muck Mud Packed clay Poor clay Shale Shell Slush Soapstone Soapstone float Soft clay Squeeze clay Sticky Sticky clay Tiger clay Tule mud Variable clay Volcanic rock

Clay and Gravel, Sandy Clay, and Similar Materials Specific yield 5 percent Cemented gravel (cobbles) Cemented gravel and clay Cemented gravel, hard Cement and rocks (cobbles) Clay and gravel (rock) Clay and boulders (cobbles) Clay, pack sand, and gravel Cobbles in clay Conglomerate Dry gravel (below water table) Gravel and clay Gravel (cement) Gravel and sandy clay Gravel and tough shale Gravelly clay Rocks in clay Rotten cement Rotten concrete mixture Sandstone and float rock Silt and gravel Soil and boulders

Cemented sand Cemented sand and clay Clay sand Dry hard packed sand Dry and (below water table) Dry sand and dirt Fine muddy sand

Clay and sandy clay Cay and silt Clay, cemented sand Clay, compact loam and sand Clay to coarse sand Clay, streaks of hard packed Sand Clay, streaks of sandy clay Clay, water Clay with sandy pocket Clay with small streaks of sand Clay with some sand Clay with streaks of fine sand Clay with thin streaks of sand Porphyry clay Quicksandy clay Sand — clay Sand shell Shale and sand Solid clay with strata of cemented sand Sticky sand clay Tight muddy sand Very fine tight muddy sand Dry sandy silt Fine sandy loam Fine sandy silt Ground surface Loam Loam and clay Sandy clay loam

(Continued)

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6-71

Table 6G.50

(Continued) Clay and Gravel, Sandy Clay, and Similar Materials Specific yield 5 percent

Fine sand, streaks of clay Fine tight muddy sand Hard packed sand, streaks of clay Hard sand and clay Hard set sand and clay Muddy sand and clay Packed sand and clay Packed sand and shale Sand and clay mix Sand and tough shale Sand rock Sandstone Sandstone and lava Set sand and clay Set sand, streaks of clay Cemented sandy clay Hard sandy clay (tight) Sandy clay Sandy clay with small sand streaks, very fine Sandy shale Set sandy clay Silty clay Soft sandy clay Clay and fine sand Clay and pumice streaks Ash Caliche Chalk Hard lava formation

Sediment Silt Silty and clay Silty clay loam Silty loam Soft loam Soil Soil and clay Soil and mud Soil and sandy shale Surface formation Top hardpan soil Topsoil Topsoil and sandy silt Topsoil — silt

Decomposed hardpan Hardpan and sandstone Hardpan and sandy clay Hardpan and sandy shale Hardpan and sandy stratas Hard rock (alluvial) Sandy hardpan Semi-hardpan Washboard Hard pumice Porphyry Seepage soft clay Volcanic ash

Fine Sand, Tight Sand, Tight Gravel, and Similar Materials Specific yield 10 percent Sand and clay Sand and clay strata (traces) Sand and dirt Sand and hardpan Sand and hard sand Sand and lava Sand and pack sand Sand and sandy clay Sand and soapstone Sand and soil Sand and some clay Sand, clay, and water Sand crust Sand-little water Sand, mud, and water Sand (some water) Sand streaks, balance clay Sand, streaks of clay Sand with cemented streaks Sand with thin streaks of clay Coarse, and sandy Loose sandy clay Medium sandy

Sandy loam Sandy loam, sand, and clay Sandy silt Sandy soil Surface and fine sand Cloggy sand Coarse pack sand Compacted sand and silt Dead sand Dirty sand Fine pack sand Fine quicksand with alkali streak Fine sand Fine sand, loose Hard pack sand Hard sand Hard sand and streaks of sandy clay Hard sand rock and some water sand Hard sand, soft streaks Loamy fine sand Medium muddy sand Milk sand

(Continued)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6G.50

(Continued) Fine Sand, Tight Sand, Tight Gravel, and Similar Materials Specific yield 10 percent

Sandy Sandy and sandy clay Sandy clay, sand, and clay Sandy clay — water bearing Sandy clay with streaks of sand Sandy formation Sandy muck Sandy sediment Very sandy clay

More of less sand Muddy sand Pack sand Poor water sand Powder sand Pumice sand Quicksand Sand, mucky or dirty Set sand Silty sand Sloppy sand Sticky sand Streaks fine and coarse sand Surface sand and clay Tight sand

Boulders, cemented sand Cement, gravel, sand, and rocks Clay and gravel, water bearing Brittle clay and sand Clay & rock, some loose rock Clay and sand Clay, sand and gravel Clay, sand, and water Clay, silt, sand, and gravel Clay with sand Conglomerate, gravel, and Clay with sand streaks boulders More or less clay, hard sand Conglomerate, sticky clay, and boulders sand and gravel Mud and sand Dirty gravel Mud, sand, and water Fine gravel, hard Sand and mud with chunks Gravel and hardpan strata of clay Gravel, cemented sand Silt and fine sand Gravel with streaks of clay Silt and sand Hard gravel Soil, sand, and Hard sand and gravel clay Packed gravel Topsoil and light Packed sand and gravel sand Quicksand and cobbles Water sand sprinkled with Rock sand and clay clay Sand and gravel, cemented Streaks Float rock (stone) Sand and silt, many gravel Laminated Sand, clay, streaks of gravel Pumice Sandy clay and gravel Seep water Set gravel Soft sandstone Silty sand and gravel (cobbles) Strong seepage Tight gravel Gravel, Sand, Sand and Gravel, and Similar Materials Specific yield 25 percent Boulders Coarse gravel Coarse sand Cobbles Cobbles stones Dry gravel (if above water table Float rocks Free sand Gravel Loose gravel Loose sand Rocks

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Gravel and sand Gravel sand sandrock Medium sand Rock and gravel Running sand Sand Sand, water Sand and boulders Sand and cobbles Sand and fine gravel Sand and gravel Sand gravel Water gravel

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Table 6G.51 Representative Values of Hydraulic Conductivity Hydraulic Conductivity Material Gravel, coarse Gravel, medium Gravel, fine Sand, coarse Sand, medium Sand, fine Silt Clay Sandstone, finegrained Sandstone, mediumgrained Limestone Dolomite Dune sand Loess Peat Schist Slate Till, predominantly sand Till, predominantly gravel Tuff Basalt Gabbro, weathered Granite, weathered a

ft dayL1 490 890 1,500 150 40 8.2 0.62 0.00068 0.66 10 3 0.0033 66 0.26 19 0.66 0.00026 1.6 100

m dayL1 150 270 450 45 12

Type of Measurementa R R R R R

2.5 0.08 0.0002 0.2

R H H V

3.1

V

0.94 0.001 20 0.08 5.7

V V V V V

0.2 0.0008 0.49 30

V V R R

0.66

0.2

V

0.033 0.66 4.6

0.01 0.2 1.4

V V V

H is horizontal hydraulic conductivity, R is repacked sample, and V is vertical hydraulic conductivity.

Source: From Morris, D.A. and Johnson, A.I., U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1839-D, 1967.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS Unfractured

Fractured BASALT

Unfractured

Fractured SANDSTONE Fractured

Lava flow

Semiconsolidated

SHALE Unfractured

Fractured CARBONATE ROCKS Fractured SILT, LOESS

CLAY

Covernous

SILTY SAND CLEAN SAND Fine

Coarse GRAVEL

GLACIAL TILL

10−8

10−7

10−6

10−5 10−4

10−3

10−2 10−1

1

10

102

103

104

m d−1 10−7 10−6 10−5

10−7 10−6 10−5

10−4

10−4

10−3

10−3

10−2

10−2 10−1 ft d−1 10−1 gat

1

1

10

10

102

102

103

103

104

104

105

105

d−1 ft+x

Figure 6G.26 Hydraulic conductivity of selected consolidated and unconsolidated aquifers. (From Heath, R.C., Basic Ground-Water Hydrology, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2220, 1983.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 6G.52 Representative Permeability Ranges for Sedimentary Materials Material

Permeability, gal dayL1 ftL2

Material

Permeability, gal dayL1 ftL2

10K5–10K3 10K5–10K3 10K4–10K2 10K3–10K1 10K2–1 10K2–1 10K2–1 10K2–1 10K1–101

Very fine sand Fine sand Medium sand Coarse sand Gravel and sand Gravel Sandstone Limestonea Shale

1–102 101–103 102–103 102–104 102–104 102–104 101–103 1–102 1–102

Clay Silty clay Sandy clay Silty clay loam Sandy clay loam Silt Silt loam Loam Sandy loam a

Excluding cavernous limestone.

Table 6G.53 Temperature Correction for Permeability 8F

TC

8F

TC

8F

TC

8F

TC

40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

1.37 1.35 1.33 1.31 1.28 1.26 1.24 1.22 1.20 1.18 1.16 1.15 1.13

53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

1.11 1.09 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.03 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.93

66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78

0.92 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.79

79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90

0.78 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.69 0.68 0.67

Note: To convert coefficient of permeability computed at water temperature shown in table to coefficient of permeability at 608F, multiply by appropriate factor Tc.

Flow Velocities (cm/sec) Aquifer Type:

100

10

1

0.1

0.01

0.001

0.0001

0.00001

10−6

Conduit Flow Karst Diffuse Flow Karst

Sandstone (fractured and jointed) Volcanic Basalts (fractured and jointed) Fractured Metamorphic

Gravels and Conglomerates Alluvial Sand and Gravel Unconsolidated Sands Consolidated Sandstones Saprolite Glacial Till

LEGEND: Measured data point reported in literature Velocity ranges reported in literature Extrapolated velocity range interpreted from literature

Figure 6G.27 Groundwater flow velocity ranges. (From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987, Guidelines for Delineation of Wellhead Protection Areas, PB88-111430. Original Everett, A.G., 1987.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-76

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 6H

SOIL MOISTURE

Table 6H.54 Guide for Judging How Much of the Available Moisture Has Been Removed from Soil Feel or Appearance of Soil and Moisture Deficiency in Inches of Water Per Feet of Soil Soil Moisture Deficiency

Coarse Texture

Moderately Coarse Texture

Medium Texture

Fine and Very Fine Texture

0% (Field capacity)

Upon squeezing, no free Upon squeezing, no free Upon squeezing, no free Upon squeezing, no free water appears on soil water appears on soil water appears on soil water appears on soil but wet outline of ball is but wet outline of ball is but wet outline of ball is but wet outline of ball is left on hand left on hand left on hand left on hand 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0–25%

Tend to stick together slightly, sometimes forms a very weak ball under pressure 0.0–0.2

25–50%

Appears to be dry, will not Tends to ball under pressure but seldom form a ball with holds together pressure

50–75%

Appears to be dry, will not Appears to be dry, will not Somewhat crumbly but form a balla holds together from form a ball with pressure pressurea 0.5–0.8 0.8–1.2 1.0–1.5

75–100% (100% is permanent wilting)

Dry, loose, single-grained, Dry, loose, flows through flows through fingers fingers

Forms weak ball, breaks easily, will not slick

0.2–0.5

0.0–0.4

0.4–0.8

0.8–1.0 a

Forms a ball, is very pliable, slicks readily if relatively high in clay

Easily ribbons out between fingers, has slick feeling

0.0–0.5

0.0–0.6

Forms a ball somewhat plastic, will sometimes slick slightly with pressure. 0.5–1.0

Forms a ball, ribbons, out between thumb and forefinger 0.6–1.2 Somewhat pliable, will ball under pressurea 1.2–1.9

Powdery, dry, sometimes Hard, baked, cracked, sometimes has loose slightly crusted but crumbs on surface easily broken down into powdery condition

1.2–1.5

1.6–2.0

1.9–2.5

Ball is formed by squeezing a handful of soil very firmly.

Source: From Israelson and Hansen, Irrigation Principles and Practices, John Wiley & Sons, Copyright 1962. With permission.

Table 6H.55 Approximate Limits of Moisture Conditions in Most Irrigation Soils Approximate Limits, percent by Weight Item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 a

Soil-Moisture Condition Hygroscopic moisture content Hygroscopic coefficient Saturation capacity Field capacity Moisture equivalent Permanent wilting point Ultimate wilting point Moisture in wilting range Available moisture capacity Maximum available storage Gravity water in saturated soils

Lower

Upper

1– 1– 15 7 5

15 15 60 40 50 30 25 5 20 3 40

1 1– 5 1a 8

Inches per feet of soil depth. Source: From Houk, Irrigation Engineering, 1, John Wiley & Sons, Copyright 1951. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 6H.56 Water-Holding Characteristics of Various Soils Approximate Depth of Water Per Feet Depth of Soil in Plant Root Zone (in.) Soil Type

Field Capacity

Irrigation Desirable

Wilting Point

1.2 1.5 1.9 2.5 3.2 3.5 3.7 3.8 3.8 3.9

0.6 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8

0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.4

Sand Fine sand Sandy loam Fine sandy loam Loam Silt loam Light clay loam Clay loam Heavy clay loam Clay

Source: From U.S. department of agriculture.

Table 6H.57 Representative Physical Properties of Soils Total Available Moistureb Infiltrationa and Permeability (in./hr)

Total Pore Space (%)

Apparent Specific Gravity

Field Capacity (%)

Permanent Wilting (%)

Dry Weight Basis (%)

Volume Basis (%)

Inches Per Foot

Sandy

2 (1–10)

38 (32–42)

1.65 (1.55–1.80)

9 (6–12)

4 (2–6)

5 (4–6)

8 (6–10)

1.0 (0.8–1.2)

Sandy loam

1 (0.5–3)

43 (40–47)

1.50 (1.40–1.60)

14 (10–18)

6 (4–8)

8 (6–10)

12 (9–15)

1.4 (1.1–1.8)

Loam

0.5 (0.3–0.8)

47 (43–49)

1.40 (1.35–1.50)

22 (18–26)

10 (8–12)

12 (10–14)

17 (14–20)

2.0 (1.7–2.3)

Clay loam

0.3 (0.1–0.6)

49 (47–51)

1.35 (1.30–1.40)

27 (23–31)

13 (11–15)

14 (12–16)

19 (16–22)

2.3 (2.0–2.6)

Silty clay

0.1 (0.01–0.2)

51 (49–53)

1.30 (1.25–1.35)

31 (27–35)

15 (13–17)

16 (14–18)

21 (18–23)

2.5 (2.2–2.8)

Clay

0.2 (0.05–0.4)

53 (51–55)

1.25 (1.20–1.30)

35 (31–39)

17 (15–19)

18 (16–20)

23 (20–25)

2.7 (2.4–3.0)

Soil Texture

Note: Normal ranges are shown in parentheses. a b

Intake rates vary greatly with soil structure and structural stability, even beyond the normal ranges shown above. Readily available moisture is approximately 75% of the total available moisture.

Source: From Israelson and Hansen, Irrigation Principles and Practices, John Wiley & Sons, Copyright 1962. With permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

40 Saturated soil

Moisture content, percent by weight

Saturation capacity

Gravity water

30

Percolates following irrigation Available water * Field capacity, Moisture equivalent

20

Capillary storage for plant growth between irrigations

Capillary water Permanent wilting point

10

Hygroscopic water 0

Ultimate wilting point Hygroscopic coefficient

Wilting range † Unavailable water

Zero vapor pressure

Not available for plant use

Comb. water Ignition point * Part above field capacity available only temporarily. † Sustains plant life but not available for plant growth.

Figure 6H.28 Soil-moisture forms and properties for an assumed fine sandy loam soil. (From Houk, Irrigation Engineering, 1, John Wiley & Sons, Copyright 1951. With permission.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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6-79

SECTION 6I SPRINGS

Table 6I.58 Classification of Springs According to Magnitude of Discharge Magnitude First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth

Old System English Units

New System Metric Units

3

O10 m3/sec 1–10 m3/sec 0.1–1 m3/sec 10–100 L/sec 1–10 L/sec 0.1–1 L/sec 10–100 mL/sec !10 mL/sec

Greater than 100 ft sec 10 to 100 ft3 sec 1 to 10 ft3 sec 100 gal/min to 1 ft3/sec 10 to 100 gal/min 1 to 10 gal/min 1 pt/min to 1 gal/min Less than 1 pt/min

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey.

Table 6I.59 Number of First Magnitude Springs in the United States, by State Number

Rock type

Referencesa

Florida Idaho

27 14

— 3, 5

Oregon Missouri California Hawaii Montana Texas Arkansas

15 8 4 3 3 2 1

Limestone Limestone and basalt Balsalt Limestone Basalt do. Sandstone Limestone Basalt

State

a

3 3, 8 3 2, 6, 7 3, 4 1, 3 3

References are listed at back of book. 1, Brune (1975); 2, Hirashima (1967); 3, Meinzer (1927); 4, Moore, L. Grady, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., January 1977; 5, Ray, Herman A., U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., January 1977; 6, Stearns (1966); 7, Stearns and Macdonald (1946); 8, Vineyard and Feder (1974). Source: From www.flmnh.ufl.edu.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Figure 6I.29 First magnitude springs of Florida. (From www.dep.state.fl.us.)

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Table 6I.60 The 27 First-Magnitude Springs and Spring Groups of Florida — with Period of Record, Discharge and Representative Temperatures and Dissolved Solids — Known through December 1976 Spring and Number by County (Refer to Figures 11–15 and Figure 17) 9. 1. 2. 4. 5. 4. 3. 4. 19. 3. 1. 11. 1. 2. 4. 3. 5. 1. 5. 7. 8. 8. 1. 2. 5. 6. 13. a b c d

Alachua County Hornsby Spring Bay County Gainer Springs Citrus County Chassahowitzka Springs Crystal River Springs Homosassa Springs Columbia County Ichetucknee Springs Hamilton County Alapaha Rise Holton Spring Hernando County Weeki Wachee Springs Jackson County Blue Springs Jefferson County Wacissa Springs Group Lafayette County Troy Spring Lake County Alexander Springs Leon County Natural Bridge Spring St. Marks Spring Levy County Fannin Springs Manatee Spring Madison County Blue Spring Marion County Rainbow Springs Silver Glen Springs Silver Springs Suwannee County Falmouth Spring Volusia County Blue Spring Wakulla County Kini Spring River Sink Spring Wakulla Springs Spring Creek Springsa,d

Average Period of Record

Average (ft3/sec)

Number of Measurements

Water Temperature C

F

Dissolved Solids (mg/L)

1972–1975

163

76–250

2

22.5

73

230

1941–1972

159

131–185

7

22.0

72

60

1930–1972

139

32–197

81

23.5

74

740

1964–1975 1932–1974

916 175

b

125–257

90

25.0 23.0

75 73

144 1800

1917–1974

361

241–578

375

22.5

73

170

1975–1976 1976

608 288

508–699 69–482

4 3

19.0 —

66 —

130 —

1917–1974

176

101–275

364

23.5

74

150

1929–1973

190

56–287

10

21.0

70

116

1971–1974

389

280–605

20

20.5

69

150

1942–1973

156

148–205

4

22.0

72

171

1931–1972

120

74–162

13

23.5

74

512

1942–1973 1956–1973

106 519

79–132 310–950

5 130

20.0 20.5

68 69

138 154

1930–1973 1932–1973

103 181

64–139 110–238

8 9

22.0 22.0

72 72

194 215

1932–1973

115

75–145

6

21.0

70

146

1898–1974 1931–1972 1906–1974

763 112 820

487–1,230 90–129 539–1,290

402 11 155

23.0 23.0 23.0

73 73 73

93 1,200 245

1908–1973

158

60–220c

8

21.0

70

190

1932–1974

162

63–214

360

23.0

73

826

1972 1942–1973 1907–1974 1972–1974

176 164 390 2,003

— 102–215 25–1,920

1 6 276 1

20.0 20.0 21.0 19.5

68 68 70 67

110 110 153 2,400

Tidal affected. Continuous record, vane gage. Reverse flow of 365 ft3/sec measured on 02-10-33. See Figure 11.17.

Source: From www.flmnh.ufl.edu.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Discharge Range (ft3/sec)

a

a

6-82

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Twenty-three states in the United States have Thermal Springs that are included in the database. This table shows the number of Thermal Springs in each state. The first column shows the state abbreviation, the second shows the number of thermal spring in the state, and the third shows a graph of those counts. Nevada has 312 thermal springs, the largest number in any state. State Number of Springs AK

108

AR

6

AZ

60

CA

304

CO

47

FL

2

GA

7

HI

11

ID

232

MA

1

MT

61

NC

1

NM

77

NV

312

NY

1

OR

126

SD

2

TX

9

UT

116

VA

11

WA

30

WV

5

WY

132

Graph

Figure 6I.30 Thermal springs in the United States. (From www.ngdc.noaa.gov.)

Table 6I.61 Major Springs Reported in Other Countries

Spring Ras-El-Ain Stella Spring Rio Maule Spring Fontaine de Vaucluse Timaso Spring Komishimigawa Ain Zarka Sinn River El Gato Lanza a

Country

Average Discharge (ft3/sec)

Rock Type

Referencea

Syria Italy Chile France

1,370 1,290 1,000 800

Limestone do. Basalt Limestone

1,2 6 2 3, 6

Italy Japan Syria Syria Mexico Bolivia

800 700 490 430 185 135

do. Basalt Limestone do. Basalt do.

5 5 5 5 4, 7 5

References are listed at back of book. 1, Burdon and Safadi (1963); 2, Davis and DeWiest (1966, p. 63, 367–369); 3, Meinzer (1927, p. 91–92, 94); 4, Thomas (1975); 5, Thomas, H. E. (written commun., October 1974); 6, Vineyard and Feder (1974, p. 14); 7, Waring (1965, p. 61);

Source: From www.flmnh.ufl.edu. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

6-83

Table 6I.62 Natural Heat Flows of Some Hot Spring Areas of the World Area

Approximate Sizea (km2)

Maximum Recorded Temperatureb (8C)

British West Indies Qualibou, St. Lucia St. Vincent Dominica Montserrat

w0.1 w1 w1 w0.1

(S) 185 (S)O27 (S) 90 (S) 97

El Salvador Total of country Northern belt, total Southern belt, total Ahuachapa´n group El Playo´n de Ahuachapa´n Agua Shuca

— — — 80 w0.25 w0.25

— — — (D) 174 (S) boiling (S) boiling

Fiji Islands Savusavu

w1

(S) 100

Iceland Steam fields, total heat flow Hengill, total Do Hengill, southern part only Torfajo¨kull Reykjanes Tro¨lladyngja Krysuvik Kerlingafjo¨ll Vonarskard Grimsvo¨tn Kverkfjo¨ll Askja Na´mafjall Krafla Theistareykir Low temperature areas; about 250 areas Six lines of thermal springs, each Reykjavik Reykir Deilartunga line, total Deliartunga spring Italy (Larderello) Ischia and Flegreian Fields (Monta Amiata) Vulcano Japan Otaki, Kyushu Atami, Shizuoka-ken Do Ito, Shizuoka-ken Obama, Nagasaki-ken Beppu, Oita-ken Kawayu, Hokkaido Yunokawa, Hokkaido Yachigashira, Hokkaido Shikabe, Hokkaido Toyako, Hokkaido Noboribetsu, Hokkaido: Hot Lake area, total Jigokudani Valley (variable) Matsukawa, N. Honshu

—

—

50 — — 100 1 5 10 5 ? 12 10 25 2.5 0.5 2.5 —

(D) 230 — (D) 230 (S) boiling ? ? (D) 230 (S) boiling ? ? ? ? ? (S) boiling (S) boiling (D) 146

— w5 w5 — —

(S) 100 (D) 146 (D) 98 (S) 100 (S) 100

(w50) w10 (w3) w1

Total Heat Flowc (106 cal/sec) 8.6 18 17 1.6 200 50 O150 80 0.46 0.32 2 630 55–80 25–125 28 500 5–25 5–25 5–25 25–125 5–125 125–750 25–125 5–25 25–125 5–25 5–25 100 5–25 1.7 11 25–125 24

((D) 240) (D) 296 ((D) 165) (D) 194

(5) ? (?) ?

— 5 — — 1.5 w10 0.7 w1 ? w0.5 w3

(D) 185 (D) 180 — — (D) 180 (D) 150 (S) 65 (S) 66 (S) 69 (D) 113 (S) 55

? 16 22 44 57 19 8 4.0 0.5 1.2 2.2

w0.2 w0.3 —

(D) 112 (D) 160 (D) 189

14 w6–11.2 ?

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-84

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6I.62

(Continued) Approximate Sizea (km2)

Area Onikobe, N. Honshu Narugo, N. Honshu

(D) 185 (D) 175

? ?

w2 —

(D) 155 (D) 150

? ?

7 7 7 7 7

(D) 266 (D) 266 (D) 266 (D) 266 (D) 266

133 82 143 163 101

w15 w5 5 — —

(D) 295 (S) boiling (S) boiling — (S) 91

272 130 40 30 20

w1 w5 w1 w3 ? ? ?

(S) hot (S) boiling (S) boiling (S) boiling? (D) 277 (D) 285 (D)O160

New Zealand Wairakei, 1951, 1952 1954 1956? 1958, 1959 1958

Ngatamariki Rotokaua Ohaki Taupo Spa Kawerau (Onepu) 1959? 1962 Rotorua Union of South Africa Seven scalding springs United States California The Geysers Sulphur Bank Wilbur Springs area Casa Diablo — Hot Creek Alkali Lakes area (Salton Sea)

?

w1 w2 w5 O25(?) — (w50)

Nevada Steamboat Springs Bradys Springs Beowawe Wyoming Yellowstone Park, Wyoming Total, discharging water Total, calculated Norris Geyser Basin Upper Geyser Basin Mammoth-Hot River

b c

(S) 64

(D) 208 (D) 136 (S) 69 (D) 180 — (D)O270

12.6 52 12.8 36 25 18 — 1.7

0.4 0.2 0.4 70 — (4)

5 w2 w3

(D) 187 (D) 168 (D) 207

7 ? ?

9,000 w70 w70 w3 w10 w8

— (S) 138 (D) 205 (D) 205 (D) 180 (S) 73

— 207 500 8 90 34

w1

(D) 195

18 w2700

U.S.S.R. Pauzhetsk, Kamchatka Total a

Total Heat Flowc (106 cal/sec)

w80 —

Mexico Pathe´, Hidalgo Ixtlan, Michoacan

Waiotapu Orakei Korako Tikitere Tokopia Waikiti

Maximum Recorded Temperatureb (8C)

The limits of a hydrothermal area are very difficult to define and meaningful criteria are difficult to apply. Depending upon the definition, the “limits” of an area can vary by at least an order of magnitude. The definition used here is: “The rather broad boundaries containing specific areas with some surface evidence for abnormally high temperatures at depth. The evidence can consist of one or more of the following: hot springs, fumaroles, active hydrothermal alteration, and abnormally high near-surface geothermal gradient. Closely spaced ‘hot spots’ not separated by areas of approximately ‘normal’ gradient for the region are included in a single thermal area”. (S) indicates temperatures measured at the surface; (D) temperatures from drill holes. Most heat flows are relative to mean annual surface temperatures but a few are relative to 08 or 48C; such differences are small compared to the uncertainties and have not been modified. 1!106 cal/cm2/sec approximates the “normal” heat flow from 60 to 70 km2.

Source:

From U.S. Geological Survey, 1965.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

6-85

SECTION 6J

ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE

Table 6J.63 Artificial Recharge Projects in the United States and Other Countries United States Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Florida Georgia Hawaii Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota

2 3 2 42 3 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 5 3 3 2

Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina Ohio Oklahoma Pennsylvania South Carolina Tennessee Texas Utah Virginia Washington Wisconsin

Other Countries Denmark Fed. Rep. of Germany Finland Greece India Israel Italy Jamaica Japan

1 10 1 4 3 2 5 1 3

Morocco Namibia Netherlands New Zealand Oman Qatar Switzerland Thailand

Note:

1 1 2 4 1 3 1 1 3 3 4 3 2 1 9 1 4 4 1

1 1 20 2 1 1 1 2

Number of projects reported based on return of American Society of Civil Engineers’ questionnaires, 1988.

Source: From Johnson, A.I., Personal communication, October 30, 1988.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-86

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 6J.64 Operation and Maintenance Problems of Artificial Recharge Projects Problem

Manifestation

Silt

Lodging of particles within interstices of soil near the surface area, reducing the infiltration rate

Weeds

Increases percolation rate and shortens drying period required for working an area or removing silt from the basin. There is a disadvantage in that vegetative growth may be a fire hazard

Rodents

Leaks and failures of dikes and levees. Public nuisance near urban area Rodents and mosquito problem and possible injury to individuals. Potential problems of injury is greatest when depth of water is large in basins and pits

Public health and safety

Corrective Actions to be Considered (1) Desilt in retention reservoir and/or in uppermost series of basins. Flocculating agent such as “Separan” has been used with success. (2) Bypass water until concentration of silt will not be detrimental, with concentration depending upon soil condition. Ditches and furrows generally can accept waters containing higher concentrations of silt if sufficient velocity is maintained through the project to carry silt back to the main canal. (3) Scrape, harrow, and/or disc after proper drying. Period of drying usually ranges from one to seven days depending upon soil and weather conditions. (4) Remove silt after drying. Silt may be used to build up levees of basins or bridges of ditches or furrows. (5) Sustain vegetative growth. (6) Sluice the silt out of ditches and furrows, and from channels, with due regard to erosion problems. (7) Pump injection well to loosen silt from interstices and remove silt from the well. (1) Control by chemical means and/or remove when weeds become a fire hazard, especially around structures. Consider use of hand labor instead of mechanical means in order to maintain infiltration rates. However, if possible, leave vegetation undisturbed in wetted area. (2) Prolonged deep submergence will kill vegetation. (3) The control of weeds is generally not considered a problem in the operation of pits and shafts, or injection wells. (1) Set out poison about twice a year. (2) Use of traps. (1) Enclose area with fence and gates with locks. (2) Patrol area with particular attention to children and structural failures, before and during oper-ation, especially near inhabited area. (3) Vector control by use of mosquito fish, chemicals, and/or drying. (4) Rodent control by poisoning or traps. (5) Proper posting of signs when using chemical which is poisonous. (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

Table 6J.64

6-87

(Continued)

Problem

Manifestation

Maintaining of percolation rates

Reduction of percolation rates will decrease efficiency of system, increasing the unit cost of the amount of water actually recharged

Maintenance to diversion structures

Breakdown of spreading operations

Corrective Actions to be Considered (1) Proper treatment of water. Desilt water to concentration desired. Use chlorine or copper sulfate for control of bacterial slime and algae. Use of chemicals to reduce the possibility of chemical incrustation, which is usually deposition of calcium carbonate. (2) Schedule intermittent drying periods to prevent problems due to swelling of soil particles. Permit growth of vegetation to decrease the drying period by removing the water in the root zone and loosening the soil. Studies have shown that bermuda grass has been successfully used to maintain rates, even under prolonged periods of deep submergence. (3) Prevent aeration of water, especially when operating recharge wells, pits, and shafts. (4) Increase head of water generally by increasing depth of water. (5) Use hand labor whenever possible to decrease the possibility of using heavy equipment which will cause surface compaction especially when soil is wet. (6) Scrape, harrow, and/or disc after proper drying. (7) Remove silt, chemical incrustation, and/or any material decreasing infiltration rates after proper drying period. (8) Maintain the design velocity to reduce silting to a minimum in use of ditches and furrows. (9) Recondition injection wells by use of dry ice, hydrochloric acid, and/or sulfuric acid. (10) Prevent freezing of water during winter by continuous spreading. (11) Check the possibility of base exchange reactions. (12) Soil can be reconditioned by using organic material such as cotton gin trash, or chemical agents, such as krilium. (1) Systematic and routine maintenance check as well as patrolling when in operation. Attention should be given to wooden structures since they deteriorate faster due to frequent wetting and drying cycles. Also attention should be given to settlement of structures thus changing flow condition. (2) Attention should be given to undercutting of structure particularly on the downstream end with preventive maintenance primarily in the form of riprapping. (3) Sluicing of channel to remove silt and debris which have accumulated near and at diversion structure.

Source: From Richter and Chun, Proc. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., 1959. With permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-88

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 6K

GEOPHYSICAL LOGGING

Table 6K.65 Borehole Geophysical Logging Methods and Their Uses in Hydrologic Studies Method

Uses

Electric logging: Single-electrode resistance Determining depth and thickness of thin beds. Identification of rocks, provided general lithologic information is available, and correlation of formations. Determining casing depths Short normal (electrodes spacing of 16 in.) Picking tops of resistive beds. Determining resistivity of the invaded zone. Estimating porosity of formations (deeply invaded and thick interval). Correlation and identification, provided general lithologic information is available Long normal (electrode spacing of 64 in.) Determining true resistivity in thick beds where mud invasion is not too deep. Obtaining data for calculation of formationwater resistivity Deep lateral (electrode spacing Determining true resistivity where mud approximately 19 ft) invasion is relatively deep. Locating thin beds Limestone sonde (electrode spacing of 32 in.) Laterolog

Microlog

Microlaterolog

Spontaneous potential

Recommended Conditions Fluid-filled hole. Fresh mud required. Hole diameter less than 8 to 10 in. Log only in uncased holes

Fluid-filled hole. Fresh mud. Ratio of mud resistivity to formation-water resistivity should be 0.2 to 4. Log only in uncased part of hole

Fluid-filled hole. Ratio of mud resistivity to formation-water resistivity should be 0.2 to 4. Log only in uncased part of hole

Fluid-filled uncased hole. Fresh mud. Formations should be of thickness different from electrode spacing and should be free of thin limestone beds Detecting permeable zones and determining Fluid-filled uncased hole. May be salty mud. Uniform hole size. Beds thicker than 5 ft porosity in hard rock. Determining formation factor in situ Investigating true resistivity of thin beds. Fluid-filled uncased hole. Salty mud Used in hard formations drilled with very satisfactory. Mud invasion not too deep salty muds. Correlation of formations, especially in hard-rock regions Determining permeable beds in hard or well- Fluid required in hole. Log only in uncased consolidated formations. Detailing beds in part of hole. Bit-size hole (caved sections moderately consolidated formations. may be logged, provided hole Correlation in hard-rock country. enlargements are not too great) Determining formation factor in situ in soft or moderately consolidated formations. Detailing very thin beds Determining detailed resistivity of flushed Fluid-filled uncased hole. Thin mud cake. formation at wall of hole when mudcake Salty mud permitted thickness is less than three-eighths inch in all formations. Determining formation factor and porosity. Correlation of very thin beds Helps delineate boundaries of many Fluid-filled uncased hole. Fresh mud formations and the nature of these formations. Indicating approximate chemical quality of water. Indicate zones of water entry in borehole. Locating cased interval. Detecting and correlating permeable beds (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GROUNDWATER

Table 6K.65

6-89

(Continued)

Method Radiation logging: Gamma Ray

Neutron

Induction logging

Sonic logging

Temperature logging

Fluid-conductivity logging

Uses

Recommended Conditions

Differentiating shale, clay, and marl from other formations. Correlations of formations. Measurement of inherent radioactivity in formations. Checking formation depths and thicknesses with reference to casing collars before perforating casing. For shale differentiation when holes contain very salty mud. Radioactive tracer studies. Logging dry or cased holes. Locating cemented and cased intervals. Logging in oil-base muds. Locating radioactive ores. In combination with electric logs for locating coal or lignite beds Delineating formations and correlation in dry or cased holes. Qualitative determination of shales, tight formations, and porous sections in cased wells. Determining porosity and water content of formations, especially those of low porosity. Distinguishing between water- or oil-filled and gas-filled reservoirs. Combining with gamma-ray log for better identification of lithology and correlation of formations. Indicating cased intervals. Logging in oilbase muds Determining true resistivity, particularly for thin beds (down to about 2 feet thick) in wells drilled with comparatively fresh mud. Determining resistivity of formations in dry holes. Logging in oil-base muds. Defining lithology and bed boundaries in hard formations. Detection of water-bearing beds Logging acoustic velocity for seismic interpretation. Correlation and identification of lithology. Reliable indication of porosity in moderate to hard formations; in soft formations of high porosity it is more responsive to the nature rather than quantity of fluid contained in pores Locating approximate position of cement behind casing. Determining thermal gradient. Locating depth of lost circulation. Locating active gas flow. Used in checking depths and thickness of aquifers. Locating fissures and solution openings in open holes and leaks or perforated sections in cased holes. Reciprocal-gradient temperature log may be more useful in correlation work Locating point of entry of different quality water through leaks or perforations in casing or opening in rock hole. (Usually resistivity is determined and must be converted to conductivity.) Determining quality of fluid in hole for improved interpretation of electric logs. Determining fresh-water-salt-water interface

Fluid-filled or dry cased or uncased hole. Should have appreciable contrast in radioactivity between adjacent formations

Fluid-filled or dry cased or uncased hole. Formations relatively free from shaly material. Diameter less than 6 inches for dry holes. Hole diameter similar throughout

Fluid-filled or dry uncased hole. Fluid should not be too salty

Not affected materially by type of fluid, hole size, or mud invasion

Cased or uncased hole. Can be used in empty hole if logged at very slow speed, but fluid preferred in hole. Fluid should be undisturbed (no circulation) for 6 to 12 hr minimum before logging; possibly several days may be required to reach thermal equilibrium

Fluid required in cased or uncased hole. Temperature log required for quantitative information

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-90

Table 6K.65

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Method Fluid-velocity logging

Casing-collar locator

Caliper (section gage) survey

Dipmeter survey

Directional (inclinometer) survey

Magnetic logging

Uses

Recommended Conditions

Locating zones of water entry into hole. Determining relative quantities of water flow into or out of these zones. Determine direction of flow up or down in sections of hole. Locating leaks in casing. Determine approximate permeability of lithologic sections penetrated by hole, or perforated section of casing Locating position of casing collars and shoes for depth control during perforating. Determining accurate depth references for use with other types of logs Determining hole or casing diameter. Indicates lithologic character of formations and coherency of rocks penetrated. Locating fractures, solution opening, and other cavities. Correlation of formations. Selection of zone to set a packer. Useful in quantitative interpretation of electric, temperature, and radiation logs. Used with fluid-velocity logs to determine quantities of flow. Determining diameter of underreamed section before placement of gravel pack. Determining diameter of hole for use in computing volume of cement to seal annular space. Evaluating the efficiency of explosive development of rock wells. Determining construction information on abandoned wells Determining dip angle and dip direction (from magnetic north) in relation to well axis in the study of geologic structure. Correlation of formations

Fluid-filled cased or uncased hole. Injection pumping, flowing, or static (at surface) conditions. Flange or packer units required in large diameter holes. Caliper (section gage) logs required for quantitative interpretation

Fluid-filled or dry cased or uncased hole. (In cased holes does not give information on beds behind casing.)

Fluid-filled uncased hole. Carefully picked zones needing survey, because of expense and time required. Directional survey required for determination of true dip and strike (generally obtained simultaneously with dipmeter curves) Fluid-filled or dry uncased hole

Locating points in a hole to determine deviation from the vertical. Determining true depth. Determining possible mechanical difficulty for casing installation or pump operation. Determining true dip and strike from dipmeter survey Determining magnetic field intensity in bore- Fluid-filled or dry uncased hole hole and magnetic susceptibility of rocks surrounding hole. Studying lithology and correlation, especially in igneous rocks

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey, 1968.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Cased hole

GROUNDWATER

Table 6K.66 Geophysical Logging Quick Reference Guide

Source: From www.welenco.com.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6-91

CHAPTER

7

Water Use Katherine L. Thalman

CONTENTS Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section

7A 7B 7C 7D 7E 7F 7G 7H 7I 7J 7K 7L 7M 7N 7O 7P

Water Use — United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Use — World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Public Water Supply — United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . Public Water Supply — World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domestic Water Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bottled Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Industrial and Commercial Water Use — United States Industrial Water Use — World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Irrigation — United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Irrigation — World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Livestock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Navigation and Waterways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waterborne Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water–Based Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water in Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. ..............................

7-2 7-18 7-46 7-70 7-98 7-108 7-115 7-157 7-167 7-204 7-215 7-217 7-233 7-240 7-251 7-275

7-1 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-2

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 7A

WATER USE — UNITED STATES

Farm Pond Recreation Irrigation

Hydroelectric Plant

Municipal Water Works Steam Power Plant

City Sewage Treatment Plant

Navigation

Factory

Factory Rural Home

Well

Recharge Well

Well Septic Tank

Figure 7A.1 The many uses of water. (From Laas and Beicos, The Water in Your Life, Popular Library In 2nd Edition, 1967.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

7-3

Figure 7A.2 Total water withdrawals for all off-stream water-use categories in the United States, 2000. (From Hutson, S.S. et al., 2004, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2000, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, www.usgs.gov/ pubs/circ/2004/circ1268.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-4

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Groundwater withdrawals (bill gal/day)

250

200 er Th

tric lec e mo

power

150 tion

Irriga

100 Other industrial

50

Public supp 0 1950

1955

1960

ly Rural 1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

Year Note: The 2000 data for rural domestic and livestock and other industrial are partial totals. Figure 7A.3 Total water withdrawal for public supply, rural, irrigation, thermoelectric power, and other industries in the United States, 1950–2000. (Based on data from Hutson, S.S. et al., 2004, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2000, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, www.usgs.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Year

Population (million) Offstream use Total withdrawals Public supply Rural domestic and livestock Self-supplied domestic Livestock and aquaculture Irrigation Industrial Thermoelectric power use Other industrial use Source of water Ground Fresh Saline Surface Fresh Saline

1950a

1955b

1960c

1965d

1970d

1975c

1980c

150.7

164

179.3

193.8

205.9

216.4

229.6

180 14

240 17

270 21

310 24

370 27

420 29

440 34

2.1 1.5

2.1 1.5

2 1.6

2.3 1.7

2.6 1.9

2.8 2.1

3.4 2.2

1985c

Percentage Change 1995–2000

1990c

1995c

2000c

242.4

252.3

267.1

285.3

7

399 36.5

408 38.5

402 40.2

408 43.3

2 8

3.32 4.47e

3.39 4.5

3.39 5.49

3.59 f

6 —

89

110

110

120

130

140

150

137

137

134

137

2

40

72

100

130

170

200

210

187

195

190

195

3

37

39

38

46

47

45

45

30.5

29.9

29.1

g

—

34

47 0.6

50 0.4

60 0.5

68 1

82 1

83 0.9

73.2 0.65

79.4 1.22

76.4 1.11

250 53

260 69

h

140 10

180 18

190 31

210 43

290 71

265 59.6

259 68.2

264 59.7

83.3 1.26 262 61

WATER USE

Table 7A.1 Trends in Estimated Water Use in the United States, 1950–2000

9 14 K1 2

Note: Data for 1995 and earlier from Solley and others (1998). The water-use data are in billion gallons per day (thousand million gallons per day) and are rounded to two significant figures for 1950–80, and to three significant figures for 1985–2000; percentage change is calculated from unrounded numbers. —, not available. a b c d e f g h

48 States and district of Columbia, and Hawaii. 48 States and district of Columbia. 50 States and district of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and U.S. Virgin Islands. 50 States and district of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. From 1985 to present this category includes water use for fish farms. Data not available for all States; partial total was 5.46. Commercial use not available; industrial and mining use totaled 23.2. Data not available.

Source: From Hutson, S.S. et al., 2004, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2000, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, http://water.usgs.gov.

7-5

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-6

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

90

70

n

o

s

io

gr

a

ith

al

at

To

50

l ta

w

w

w

ig

60

d un

r te

a dr

Irr

Groundwater withdrawals (bill gal/day)

80

40 30 20

Public supply Self-supplied industria l Thermoelectric

10 Self-supplied domestic 0 1950

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975 Year

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

Figure 7A.4 Trends in groundwater use in the United States, 1950–2000. (Based on information from Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002, Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995 University of lllinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois Water Resources Center, Special Report 28, February 2002, environ.uivc.edu/iwrc and Hutson, S.S. et al., 2004, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2000, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, www.usgs.gov.)

Table 7A.2 Changes in Sectoral Withdrawals in the United States, 1950–1995 Withdrawals (bgd)

Change (bgd)

Percent Change

Sector

1950

1980

1995

1980–1995

1980–1995

1950–1980

1980–1995

Domestic Irrigation Thermoelectric Industrial Total

17.6 89.0 40.0 37.0 183.6

39.6 150.0 210.0 45.0 444.6

49.1 134.0 190.0 29.1 402.2

22.0 61.0 170.0 8.0 261.0

9.5 K16.0 K20.0 K15.9 K42.4

C125.0 C68.5 C425.0 C21.6 C142.2

C24.0 K10.7 K9.5 K35.3 K9.5

Note: This sectoral breakdown of the 1980–1995 change in total withdrawals shows a consistent decline in off-stream withdrawals for all sectors, with the exception of public supply and domestic use. Source:

From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002, Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995. Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, February 28, 2002. Reprinted with permission, http://info.geography.siu.edu/ geography_info/research/.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

7-7

Table 7A.3 Percent of United States Population Relying on Groundwater as a Source of Drinking Water, 1995 Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total United States Including P.R. and V.I. Source:

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

40 42 57 42 43 14 41 57 92 28 96 94 24 51 71 45 14 56 31 16 41 25 72 91 43 37 84 26 37 46 88 27 24 44 35 26 17 22 17 26 63 37 42 55 35 12 52 21 57 42 41

Abstracted from Solley, W.B. et al., 1998, Estimated use of water in the United States in 1995, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1200.

7-8

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Use

Source Surface water

Disposition

Domestic-commercial 0.8%

4.8%

19.2%

6.9% 84.9%

41,700 Mgal/d 12.2%

8.0% 4.1% 3.3%

80.8% 100,000 Mgal/d

10.3%

Public supply

Consumptive use

84.6%

29.3%

Industrial-mining 14.8%

62.5% 49.6%

40,200 Mgal/d

64.7%

87.9%

16.9%

37.5% 11.8%

28,000 Mgal/d

85.2%

8.2% Return flow

18.4%

0.3% 264,000 Mgal/d

14.0%

Thermoelectric 2.5%

77.6%

9.9%

99.5%

132,000 Mgal/d 38.7%

97.5%

33.2%

53.4% 0.1% 0.4%

241,000 Mgal/d 70.7%

Irrigation-livestock 9.5%

Groundwater

60.7% 63.2%

19.7% 5.6% 6.7% 0.7%

76,400 Mgal/d 22.4%

139,000 Mgal/d 40.9% 22.7%

67.3%

39.3% 36.8%

Figure 7A.5 Source, use, and disposition of freshwater in the United States, 1995. For each water-use category, this diagram shows the relative proportion of water source and disposition and the general distribtion of water from source to disposition. The lines and arrows indicate the distribution of water from source to disposition for each category; for example, surface water was 77.6 percent of total freshwater withdrawn, and going from "Source" to "Use" columns, the line from the surface-water block to the domestic and commercial block indicates that 0.8 percent of all surface water withdrawn was the source for 4.8 percent of total water (self-supplied withdrawals, public-supply deliveries) for domestic and commercial purposes. In addition, going from the "Use" to "Disposition" columns, the line from the domestic and commercial block to the consumptive use block indicates that 19.2 percent of the water for domestic and commercial purposes was consumptive use; this represents 8.0 percent of total consumptive use by all water-use categories. (From Solley, W.B. et al., 1998, Estimated use of water in the United States in 1995, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1200, www.usgs.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania

Thermoelectric Power

Public Supply Fresh

Domestic Fresh

Irrigation Fresh

Livestock Fresh

553 50.7 613 289 3,320 846 358 49.8 0

0 0.25 0 0 28.6 0 0 0 0

28.7 0.02 2,660 1,410 18,900 9,260 13.4 7.89 0.18

— — — — 227 — — 0.22 —

1.44 — — 10.4 380 — — 0 —

777 3.8 0 66.8 5.65 96.4 6.61 42.5 0

0 3.86 0 0 13.6 0 0 3.25 0

— 27.4 4.43 2.57 2.71 — — — —

— 49.5 0 0 0.46 — — — —

237 968 7.6 25.3 1,410 326 79.8 244 455 404 72.5 740 542 896 171 40.4 594 92.4 63.8 478 64.1 650 33.8 1,980 779 31.2 966 562 447 1,250

0 0 7.22 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.29 0 0 0.16 0 0 0 0 0 2.71 0 7.97 0

2,110 392 193 13,300 4.25 45.4 1.08 288 28.2 232 5.23 12.6 106 73.2 36.6 99.1 48.1 7,870 1,370 1,540 4.25 117 1,630 12.1 221 73.2 17.8 151 5,290 12.5

1.51 17.7 — 7.2 0 14.6 27.1 23.5 — 3.31 — 3.18 — 1.15 0 — 54.1 — 17.4 — — 0 — — 32.3 — 17.1 97.2 — —

0.21 7.72 — 1,920 — — — 2.27 — 115 — 14.8 — — — 49.8 81.3 — — — 13.1 0 — — 0 — 0 16.1 — —

74.7 333 0 19.7 259 2,300 11.7 6.74 222 2,400 237 49.9 26.2 589 97.8 124 33.5 29.3 2.6 5 37.9 66.2 1.67 152 267 10.7 645 19.1 183 1,030

1.18 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 227 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

57.8 2.05 — — — 78.3 30.3 17.4 — — — 4.1 — — 581 — 12.8 — 122 — 6.72 104 — — — — 35.5 0.23 — 20.9

0 0 — — — 0 0 0 — — — 0.02 — — 0 — 0 — 0 — 0 0 — — 0 — 0 0 — 0

Aquaculture Fresh

Industrial Fresh

Saline

Mining Fresh

Saline

Fresh

Saline

8,190 0 28.9 0 26.2 0 2,170 0 349 12,600 122 0 186 3,440 366 738 9.69 0

Total Fresh

Saline

9,550 0 111 53.4 3,300 0 3,950 0 23,200 12,600 10,300 0 565 3,440 466 741 9.87 0

629 12,000 3,110 3,240 61.7 4,960 0 0 208 0 0 15,300 11,300 0 12,900 6,700 0 9,460 2,530 0 2,680 2,240 0 2,820 3,250 0 3,970 5,580 0 8,730 108 295 423 377 6,260 1,200 108 3,610 783 7,710 0 9,260 2,260 0 3,150 318 148 632 5,620 0 6,450 110 0 8,100 2,810 0 4,390 24.7 0 2,050 235 761 362 648 3,390 1,590 45 0 1,710 4,040 5,010 6,190 7,850 1,620 9,150 902 0 1,020 8,590 0 10,300 143 0 990 12.8 0 5,940 6,970 0 9,290

12,000 91.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 295 6,490 3,610 0 0 148 0 0 0 0 761 3,390 0 5,010 1,620 0 0 0 0 0

Total 9,550 164 3,300 3,950 35,800 10,300 4,010 1,210 9.87 15,100 5,060 208 15,300 12,900 9,460 2,680 2,820 3,970 8,730 718 7,690 4,390 9,260 3,150 781 6,450 8,100 4,390 2,050 1,120 4,980 1,710 11,200 10,800 1,020 10,300 990 5,940 9,290

7-9

(Continued)

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WATER USE

Table 7A.4 Surface Water Withdrawals by Water-Use Category, 2000

(Continued)

State

Public Supply Fresh

Domestic Fresh

Irrigation Fresh

Livestock Fresh

Aquaculture Fresh

102 462 39.1 569 2,970 274 40.6 650 552 149 293 49.4 425 5.57

0 0 0.01 0 0 0 0.25 0 0.02 0.81 0 0 0 1.69

2.99 162 236 15.1 2,130 3,390 3.45 22.8 2,290 0.02 1.57 4,090 57.5 0.21

—

— — — —

27,300

58.9

80,000

25.2 172 — — — — — 6.02 — — — 747

0 — — — — 30.4 — — — 2,640

Industrial

Mining

Fresh

Saline

Fresh

2.09 514 1.96 785 1,200 8.38 4.86 365 439 958 364 1.47 0 3.12

0 0 0 0 906 0 0 53.3 39.9 0 0 0 0 0

— — — — 91.5 17.7 — — — — — 20.7 — —

14,900

1,280

1,240

Thermoelectric Power

Saline

Fresh

— — — — 0 177 — — — — — 0 — —

2.4 290 5,700 0 4.01 0 9,040 0 9,760 3,440 49.2 0 355 0 3,850 3,580 518 0 3,950 0 6,090 0 242 0 0 2,190 0 136

227

135,000

Saline

59,500

Total Fresh

Saline

110 6,840 306 10,400 16,300 3,740 404 4,880 3,800 5,060 6,780 4,400 483 10.6

290 0 0 0 4,350 177 0 3,640 39.9 0 0 0 2,190 136

262,000

61,000

Total 400 6,840 306 10,400 20,700 3,920 404 8,520 3,840 5,060 6,780 4,400 2,670 147 323,000

Figures may not sum of totals because of independent rounding. All values are in million gallons per day. —, data not collected.

Source: From Hutson, S.S. et al., Estimated use of water in the United States in 2000, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, 2004, http://water.usgs.gov/pubs/circ/2004/circ1268/.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Total Note:

7-10

Table 7A.4

State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania

Public Supply Fresh

Domestic Fresh

Irrigation Fresh

Livestock Fresh

281 29.3 469 132 2,800 53.7 66 45 0

78.9 10.9 28.9 28.5 257 66.8 56.2 13.3 0

14.5 0.99 2,750 6,510 11,600 2,160 17 35.6 0

— — — — 182 — — 3.7 —

2,200 278 243 219 353 345 303 172 71 349 29.6 84.6 197 247 329 319 278 56.1 266 151 33 400 262 583 166 32.4 500 113 118 212

199 110 4.82 85.2 135 122 33.2 21.6 19.5 41.2 35.7 77.1 42.2 239 80.8 69.3 53.6 17.3 48.4 22.4 40.9 79.7 31.4 142 189 11.9 132 25.5 68.3 132

2,180 750 171 3,720 150 55.5 20.4 3,430 1.14 791 0.61 29.8 19.7 128 190 1,310 1,380 83 7,420 567 0.5 22.8 1,230 23.3 65.8 72.2 13.9 566 792 1.38

31 1.66 — 27.7 37.6 27.3 81.8 87.2 — 4.03 — 7.18 — 10.2 52.8 — 18.3 — 76 — — 1.68 — — 89.1 — 8.2 53.6 — —

Aquaculture Fresh

Industrial Fresh

Mining

Saline

Fresh

Saline

ThermoElectric Power Fresh

Fresh

Total Saline

8.93 — — 187 158 — — 0.07 —

56 4.32 19.8 67 183 23.6 4.13 17 0

0 0 0 0.08 0 0 0 0 0

— 0.01 81.2 0.21 21 — — — —

— 90.4 8.17 0 152 — — — —

0 4.65 74.3 2.92 3.23 16.1 0.08 0.47 0

440 50.2 3,420 6,920 15,200 2,320 143 115 0

0 90.4 8.17 0.08 152 0 0 0 0

7.81 7.7 — 51.5 — — — 3.33 — 128 — 4.81 — — — 321 2.01 — — — 3.12 6.46 — — 7.88 — 1.36 0.29 — —

216 290 14.5 35.8 132 99.7 226 46.6 95.2 285 9.9 15.9 10.7 110 56.3 118 29.2 31.9 35.5 5.29 6.95 65.3 8.8 145 25.6 6.88 162 6.83 12.1 155

0 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

160 7.75 — — — 4.2 2.49 14 — — — 4.21 — — 6.9 — 4.1 — 5.64 — 0.08 6.12 — — 36.4 — 53.1 2.25 — 162

0 0 — — — 0 0 0 — — — 0 — — 0 — 0 — 4.55 — 0 0 — — 0 — 0 256 — 0

29.5 1.03 0 0 5.75 2.58 11.9 14.9 2.71 28.4 4.92 1.8 0 0 4.17 43.5 12.2 0 6.87 12 0.71 2.24 11.4 0 0.09 0 7.57 3.27 2.47 3.98

5,020 1,450 433 4,140 813 656 679 3,790 189 1,630 80.8 225 269 734 720 2,180 1,780 188 7,860 757 85.2 584 1,540 893 580 123 878 771 993 666

0 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 256 0 0

Total 440 141 3,430 6,920 15,400 2,320 143 115 0 5,020 1,450 434 4,140 813 656 679 3,790 189 1,630 80.8 225 269 734 720 2,180 1,780 188 7,860 757 85.2 584 1,540 893 580 123 878 1,030 993 666

7-11

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

Table 7A.5 Groundwater Withdrawals for Off-Stream Water-Use Categories in the United States, 2000

7-12

Table 7A.5

(Continued)

State

16.9 105 54.2 321 1,260 364 19.5 70.7 464 41.6 330 57.2 88.5 0.52 16,000

Domestic Fresh 8.99 63.5 9.52 32.6 131 16.1 20.7 133 125 39.6 96.3 6.57 0.88 0 3,530

Irrigation Fresh

Livestock Fresh

Aquaculture Fresh

0.46 106 137 7.33 6,500 469 0.33 3.57 747 0.02 195 413 36.9 0.29

— — 16.9 — 137 — — — — — 60.3 — — —

— — — — — 116 — — — — 39.8 — — —

56,900

1,010

1,060

Saline

Fresh

Saline

ThermoElectric Power Fresh

0 0 0 0 0.5 5.08 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

— — — — 129 8.6 — — — — — 58.8 — —

— — — — 504 21.5 — — — — — 222 — —

0 5.83 1.23 0 60.2 13.1 0.66 1.5 0.92 0 8.99 1.13 0 0

6.51

767

Industrial Fresh 2.19 50.9 3.16 56.3 244 34.3 2.05 104 138 9.7 83 4.31 11.2 0.22 3,570

Mining

1,260

409

Note: Figures may not sum to totals because of independent rounding. All values are in million gallons per day. —, data not collected. Source: From Hutson, S.S. et al., 2004, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2000, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, www.usgs.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Total Fresh

Saline

Total

28.6 330 222 417 8,470 1,020 43.2 314 1,470 90.9 813 541 137 1.03

0 0 0 0 504 26.5 0 0 0 0 0 222 0 0

28.6 330 222 417 8,970 1,050 43.2 314 1,470 90.9 813 763 137 1.03

83,300

1,260

84,500

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Total

Public Supply Fresh

WATER USE

Table 7A.6 Total Off-Stream Water Withdrawals by Source and State in the United States, 2000 Withdrawals (thousand acre-feet/yr)

Withdrawals (mil gal/day) By Source and Type Groundwater State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio

Population (thousands)

Fresh

4,450 627 5,130 2,670 33,900 4,300 3,410 784 572

440 50.2 3,420 6,920 15,200 2,320 143 115 0

0 90.4 8.17 0.08 152 0 0 0 0

16,000 8,190 1,210 1,290 12,400 6,080 2,930 2,690 4,040 4,470 1,270 5,300 6,350 9,940 4,920 2,840 5,600 902 1,710 2,000 1,240 8,410 1,820 19,000 8,050 642 11,400

5,020 1,450 433 4,140 813 656 679 3,790 189 1,630 80.8 225 269 734 720 2,180 1,780 188 7,860 757 85.2 584 1,540 893 580 123 878

0 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Saline

Surface Water Total 440 141 3,430 6,920 15,400 2,320 143 115 0 5,020 1,450 434 4,140 813 656 679 3,790 189 1,630 80.8 225 269 734 720 2,180 1,780 188 7,860 757 85.2 584 1,540 893 580 123 878

Total

Total

Fresh

Saline

Total

Fresh

Saline

Total

Fresh

Saline

Total

9,550 111 3,300 3,950 23,200 10,300 565 466 9.87

0 53.4 0 0 12,600 0 3,440 741 0

9,550 164 3,300 3,950 35,800 10,300 4,010 1,210 9.87

9,990 161 6,720 10,900 38,400 12,600 708 582 9.87

0 144 8.17 0.08 12,800 0 3,440 741 0

9,990 305 6,730 10,900 51,200 12,600 4,150 1,320 9.87

11,200 181 7,530 12,200 43,100 14,200 794 652 11.1

0 161 9.16 0.09 14,300 0 3,860 831 0

11,200 342 7,540 12,200 57,400 14,200 4,650 1,480 11.1

3,110 4,960 208 15,300 12,900 9,460 2,680 2,820 3,970 8,730 423 1,200 783 9,260 3,150 632 6,450 8,100 4,390 2,050 362 1,590 1,710 6,190 9,150 1,020 10,300

12,000 91.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 295 6,490 3,610 0 0 148 0 0 0 0 761 3,390 0 5,010 1,620 0 0

15,100 5,060 208 15,300 12,900 9,460 2,680 2,820 3,970 8,730 718 7,690 4,390 9,260 3,150 781 6,450 8,100 4,390 2,050 1,120 4,980 1,710 11,200 10,800 1,020 10,300

8,140 6,410 640 19,500 13,700 10,100 3,360 6,610 4,160 10,400 504 1,430 1,050 10,000 3,870 2,810 8,230 8,290 12,200 2,810 447 2,170 3,260 7,080 9,730 1,140 11,100

12,000 91.7 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 295 6,490 3,610 0 0 148 0 0 4.55 0 761 3,390 0 5,010 1,620 0 0

20,100 6,500 641 19,500 13,700 10,100 3,360 6,610 4,160 10,400 799 7,910 4,660 10,000 3,870 2,960 8,230 8,290 12,300 2,810 1,210 5,560 3,260 12,100 11,400 1,140 11,100

9,120 7,190 718 21,800 15,400 11,300 3,770 7,410 4,660 11,600 565 1,600 1,180 11,200 4,340 3,150 9,220 9,300 13,700 3,140 501 2,430 3,650 7,940 10,900 1,280 12,500

13,400 103 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 330 7,270 4,050 0 0 166 0 0 5.1 0 854 3,800 0 5,610 1,810 0 0

22,500 7,290 719 21,800 15,400 11,300 3,770 7,410 4,660 11,600 895 8,870 5,220 11,200 4,340 3,320 9,220 9,300 13,700 3,140 1,350 6,230 3,650 13,600 12,700 1,280 12,500

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-13

(Continued)

7-14

Table 7A.6

(Continued) Withdrawals (thousand acre-feet/yr)

Withdrawals (mil gal/day) By Source and Type Groundwater State

Fresh

Saline

Total

Fresh

Saline

3,450 3,420 12,300 1,050 4,010 755 5,690 20,900 2,230 609 7,080 5,890 1,810 5,360 494 3,810 109

771 993 666 28.6 330 222 417 8,470 1,020 43.2 314 1,470 90.9 813 541 137 1.03

256 0 0 0 0 0 0 504 26.5 0 0 0 0 0 222 0 0

1,030 993 666 28.6 330 222 417 8,970 1,050 43.2 314 1,470 90.9 813 763 137 1.03

990 5,940 9,290 110 6,840 306 10,400 16,300 3,740 404 4,880 3,800 5,060 6,780 4,400 483 10.6

0 0 0 290 0 0 0 4,350 177 0 3,640 39.9 0 0 0 2,190 136

285,000

83,300

1,260

84,500

262,000

61,000

Total Total 990 5,940 9,290 400 6,840 306 10,400 20,700 3,920 404 8,520 3,840 5,060 6,780 4,400 2,670 147 323,000

Total

Fresh

Saline

Total

Fresh

1,760 6,930 9,950 138 7,170 528 10,800 24,800 4,760 447 5,200 5,270 5,150 7,590 4,940 620 11.6

256 0 0 290 0 0 0 4,850 203 0 3,640 39.9 0 0 222 2,190 136

2,020 6,930 9,950 429 7,170 528 10,800 29,600 4,970 447 8,830 5,310 5,150 7,590 5,170 2,810 148

1,970 7,770 11,200 155 8,040 592 12,100 27,800 5,340 501 5,830 5,910 5,770 8,510 5,540 695 13

408,000

387,000

345,000

62,300

Saline 287 0 0 326 0 0 0 5,440 228 0 4,080 44.7 0 0 248 2,460 153 69,800

Note: Figures may not sum to totals because of independent rounding. Source: From Hutson, S.S. et al., 2004, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2000, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, usgs.gov/pubs/circ/2004/circ1268.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Total 2,260 7,770 11,200 481 8,040 592 12,100 33,200 5,570 501 9,900 5,960 5,770 8,510 5,790 3,150 166 457,000

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Total

Surface Water

Population (thousands)

7-15

Percent of total water withdrawal

WATER USE

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 Ground fresh

Surface water

Surface saline

Figure 7A.6 Total off-stream withdrawals by source in the United States, 1950–1995. (From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002, Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, February 28, 2002. Reprinted with permission. http://info.geography.siu.edu/geography_info/research/.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-16

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7A.7 Total and Percent of Withdrawals by Source in the United States, 1950–1995

Year

Total Withdrawals (bgd)

Groundwater Fresh (bgd)

Surface Water Fresh (bgd)

Surface Water Saline (bgd)

Groundwater Fresh (%)

Surface Water Fresh (%)

Surface Water Saline (%)

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

180 240 270 310 370 420 440 399 408 402

34 47 50 60 68 82 83 73 79 76

140 180 190 210 250 260 290 265 259 264

10 18 31 43 53 69 71 60 68 60

19 20 19 19 18 20 19 18 19 19

78 75 70 68 68 62 66 66 63 66

6 8 11 14 14 16 16 15 17 15

Source: From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002, Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, February 28, 2002. Reprinted with Permission. http://info.geography.siu.edu/geography_info/ research/.

Table 7A.8 Common Uses of Water in Relation to Consumptive and Nonconsumptive Uses Common Uses of Water Steam generation (locomotive or stationary) Air conditioning Evaporative Recirculating Other cooling (recirculating) Storage in surface reservoirs Irrigation by sprinkling Irrigation by flooding Cooking Processing foods, beverages, plastics Processing Petroleum products Paper and pulp Chemicals Metal products Atomic fission Stock watering Drinking Irrigation by furrow Washing Mining (metals, coal, oil)

Consumptive Steam released to atmosphere Cooling achieved by evaporation Some water evaporated with each use Some water evaporated with each use Evaporation from water surface Evaporation and transpiration Evaporation from ponds, transpiration Steam to atmosphere Some water goes into manufactured products

a

Proportion of consumptive use is increased by reuse of the nonconsumptive water Proportion of consumptive use is increased by reuse of the nonconsumptive water Proportion of consumptive use is increased by reuse of the nonconsumptive water Proportion of consumptive use is increased by reuse of the nonconsumptive water Evaporation from tanks Evaporation from tanks and ponds Perspiration Evapotranspiration Evaporation in drying

Cooling (once-through) Air conditioning (once-through) Fish culture Steam heating Year-round heat exchange

b

Sanitation (bath, toilet, dishwasher) Hydroelectric power Navigation

d

a b c d e

Nonconsumptive a

b

a a

Seepage underground Little seepage Seepage varies Contributes to sewage Carries organic compounds Carries chemicals Carries pulp and chemicals Carries toxic or other chemicals Carries sludge and soluble chemicals Carries radioactive materials Organic wastes into ground Organic wastes into sewage Dissolves chemicals from soil Carries sediment and soluble matter Carries natural brines and acids, sediments Water temperature increased by use Water temperature increased by use

c d d

e e

Steam condenses and is reused Requires storage of water and heat from one season to another Sewage carries chiefly organic wastes Takes water toward oceans Inland waterways require maintenance of flow

With efficient operation, nonconsumptive use is limited to that required for cooling and/or cleaning equipment. Increase in water temperature may cause increased evaporation. Consumptive use by evaporation from water surfaces; may be increased by aerators. Consumptive use is limited to losses through leaking pipes, valves, etc. Consumptive use is limited to evaporation from lakes, reservoirs, etc. that are required for continuous operation.

Source: From House of Representatives, U.S. Congress. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

7-17

Table 7A.9 United States Water Withdrawals and Consumptive Use Per Day by End Use, 1940–1995 Public supplya

Year Withdrawals 1940 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 Consumptive Use 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 a b c d e

f

Total (bil gal)

b

Per Capita (gal)

Irrigation (bil gal)

140 180 240 270 310 370 420 440 399 408 402

1,027 1,185 1,454 1,500 1,602 1,815 1,972 1,953 1,650 1,620 1,500

71 89 110 110 120 130 140 150 137 137 134

61 77 87 96 100 92 94 100

339 403 427 451 440 380 370 374

52 66 73 80 83 74 76 81

Total (bil gal) 10 14 17 21 24 27 29 34 38 41 43 3.5 5.2 5.9 6.7 7.1

Rural (bil gal)

Industrial and Misce (bil gal)

75 145 148 151 155 166 168 183 189 195 192

3.1 3.6 3.6 3.6 4.0 4.5 4.9 5.6 7.8 7.9 8.9

29 37 39 38 46 47 45 45 31 30 26

25 34 36 38 38

2.8 3.2 3.4 3.4 3.9 9.2 8.9 9.9

c

Per Capita (gal)

f

f

f

f

f

f

d

3.0 3.4 4.1 4.2 5.0 6.1 6.7 4.8

Steam Electric Utilities (bil gal) 23 40 72 100 130 170 200 210 187 195 190 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.9 3.2 6.2 4.0 3.7

Includes commercial water withdrawals. Based on U.S. Census Bureau resident population as of July 1. Based on population served. Rural farm and nonfarm household and garden use, and water for farm stock and dairies. For 1940 to 1960, includes manufacturing and mineral industries, rural commercial industries, air-conditioning, resorts, hotels, motels, military and other state and Federal agencies, and miscellaneous; thereafter, includes manufacturing, mining and mineral processing, ordnance, construction, and miscellaneous. Public supply consumptive use included in end-use categories.

Source: From U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstracts of the United States: 2000, www.census.gov. Original Source: From 1940–1960, U.S. Bureau of Domestic Business Development, based principally on committee prints, Water Resources Activities in the United States, for the Senate Committee on National Water Resources, U.S. Senate, thereafter, U.S. Geological Survey, Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 1995, circular 1200, and previous quinquennial issues.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-18

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 7B

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE — WORLD

Total Intakea

Mining

Other primary resource industries

Manufacturing industries Paper and allied products

Primary metal

Chemical and chemical products

Other manufacturing industries

Electric power and other utilities

Gross Water Usec

Total Discharged

Consumptione

Year

Quantity (mill m3)

Change from Previous Period (Percent)

1981 1986 1991 1996 1981 1986 1991 1996 1981 1986 1991 1996

3,125 3,559 3,991 4,098 624 544 489 681 251 180 183 231

— 13.9 12.1 2.7 — K12.8 K10.1 39.3 — K28.3 1.7 26.2

0 0 0 0 1,742 1,159 1,221 1,196 1,050 873 735 1,013

— — — — — K33.5 5.3 K2.0 — K16.9 K15.8 37.8

3,125 3,559 3,991 4,098 2,366 1,703 1,710 1,878 1,302 1,054 918 1,244

— 13.9 12.1 2.7 — K28.0 0.4 9.8 — K19.0 K12.9 35.5

713 807 902 1,062 621 542 489 672 188 118 111 138

— 13.2 11.8 17.7 — K12.7 K9.8 37.4 — K37.2 K5.9 24.3

2,412 2,752 3,089 3,036 3 2 1 9 63 62 71 92

— 14.1 12.2 K1.7 — K33.3 K50.0 800.0 — K1.6 14.5 29.6

1981 1986 1991 1996 1981 1986 1991 1996 1981 1986 1991 1996 1981 1986 1991 1996 1981 1986 1991 1996

3,170 3,082 2,943 2,505 2,074 2,057 1,610 1,428 3,188 1,694 1,326 1,182 1,721 1,548 1,532 1,282 18,166 24,963 28,288 28,664

— K2.8 K4.5 K14.9 — K0.8 K21.7 K11.3 — K46.9 K21.7 K10.9 — K10.1 K1.0 K16.3 — 37.4 13.3 1.3

4,612 3,121 2,206 3,141 1,325 1,945 1,689 1,416 1,285 1,494 979 1,357 2,286 1,880 1,808 1,067 1,868 3,776 3,374 11,617

— K32.3 K29.3 42.4 — 46.8 K13.2 K16.2 — 16.3 K34.5 38.6 — K17.8 K3.8 K41.0 — 102.1 K10.6 244.3

7,782 6,203 5,149 5,646 3,399 4,002 3,298 2,845 4,473 3,189 2,305 2,539 4,007 3,427 3, 340 2,349 20,034 28,740 31,662 40,281

— K20.3 K17.0 9.7 — 17.7 K17.6 K13.7 — K28.7 K27.7 10.2 — K14.5 K2.5 K29.7 — 43.5 10.2 27.2

2,989 2,876 2,758 2,277 2,003 2,014 1,518 1,308 2,963 1,630 1,231 1,083 1,588 1,422 1,357 1,131 18,084 24,702 28,183 28,183

— K3.8 K4.1 K17.4 — 0.5 K24.6 K13.8 — K45.0 K24.5 K12.0 — K10.5 K4.6 K16.7 — 36.6 14.1 0.0

181 206 185 228 71 43 92 120 225 64 95 99 133 126 175 151 82 261 105 481

— 13.8 K10.2 23.2 — K39.4 114.0 30.4 — K71.6 48.4 4.2 — K5.3 38.9 K13.7 — 218.3 K59.8 358.1

Sector/industry Business sector Primary resource industries Agriculture

Recirculationb

Quantity (mill m3)

Change from Previous Period (Percent)

Quantity (mill m3)

Change from Previous Period (Percent)

Quantity (mill m3)

Change from Previous Period (Percent)

Quantity (mill m3)

Change from Previous Period (Percent)

WATER USE

Table 7B.10 Major Withdrawal Uses of Water in Canada, 1981, 1986, 1991, and 1996

(Continued) 7-19

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(Continued) Total Intakea

Year Sector/industry 1981 1986 1991 1996

638 736 816 880

— 15.4 10.9 7.8

0 0 0 0

Subtotal, business sector

1981 1986 1991 1996

32,957 38,363 41,178 40,951

— 16.4 7.3 K0.6

14,168 14,248 12,012 20,807

Personal and government sectors

1981 1986 1991 1996

3,760 3,719 3,802 3,922

— K1.1 2.2 3.2

0 0 0 0

Total, whole economy

1981 1986 1991 1996

36,717 42,083 44,979 44,873

— 14.6 6.9 K0.2

14,169 14,248 12,012 20,807

c d e

Change from Previous Period (Percent) — — — —

Gross Water Usec

Quantity (mill m3)

Change from Previous Period (Percent)

Total Discharged

Quantity (mill m3)

Change from Previous Period (Percent)

Consumptione

Quantity (mill m3)

Change from Previous Period (Percent)

638 736 816 880

— 15.4 10.9 7.8

575 660 737 796

— 14.8 11.7 8.0

63 76 79 84

— 20.6 3.9 6.3

— 0.6 K15.7 73.2

47,126 52,613 53,189 61,760

— 11.6 1.1 16.1

29,724 34,771 37,286 36,650

— 17.0 7.2 K1.7

3,233 3,592 3,892 4,300

— 11.1 8.4 10.5

— — — —

3,760 3,719 3,802 3,922

— K1.1 2.2 3.2

3,363 3,338 3,374 3,482

— K0.7 1.1 3.2

397 381 428 440

— K4.0 12.4 2.8

— 0.6 K15.7 73.2

50,886 56,330 56,991 65,682

— 10.7 1.2 15.2

33,087 38,109 40,659 40,132

— 15.2 6.7 K1.3

3,630 3,973 4,320 4,740

— 9.4 8.7 9.7

Figures may not add up to totals due to rounding.

The quantity of water withdrawn from a water source. The amount of water used more than once in an industrial application. Gross water use equals total water intake plus recirculation. The quantity of water returned to the water source. Consumption is that part of water intake that is evaporated, incorporated into products or crops, consumed by humans or livestock, or otherwise removed from the local hydrologic environment.

Source: From Statistics Canada, “Human Activity and the Environment”, Annual Statistics 2003, Catalogue 16-201-XPE released December 3, 2003, page 12. Statistics Canada information is used with the permission of Statistics Canada. Users are forbidden to copy this material and/or redisseminate the data, in an original or modified form, for commercial purposes, without the expressed permission of Statistics Canada. Information on the availability of the wide range of data from Statistics Canada can be obtained from Statistics Canada’s Regional Offices, its World Wide Web site at www.statcan.ca, and its toll-free access number 1-800-263-1136. With permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

b

Quantity (mill m3)

Other industries

Note: a

Quantity (mill m3)

Change from Previous Period (Percent)

Recirculationb

7-20

Table 7B.10

WATER USE

7-21

Water withdrawal: World

3200 Assessment

Water withdrawal (km3)

2800 2400 Forecast

2000 1600 1200 800 400

(a)

0 1900

1925

Agricultural use

1950

1975

Industrial use

Water consumption:

Municipal use

Assessment

Water consumption (km3)

2025 Reservoirs

World

2500

(b)

2000

Forecast

2000

1500

1000

500 0 1900

1925

Agricultural use

1950 Industrial use

1975

2000 Municipal use

2025 Reservoirs

Figure 7B.7 Dynamics of water use in the world by kind of economic activity. (From Shiklomanov, I.A., 1999, Summary of the Monograph “World Water Resources at the Beginning of the 21st Century” Prepared in the Framework of IHP UNESCO, International Hydrological Programme, UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Scientific Programme in Water Resources, World Water Resources and Their Use a Joint State Hydrological Institute (SHI)/UNESCO Product, http://webworld.unesco.org/ water/ihp/db/shiklomanov/. Copyright q UNESCO 1999. Reproduced by permission of UNESCO.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-22

Table 7B.11 World Wide Freshwater Resources Availability and Use Renewable Water Resources (annual)a

Water Withdrawals (annual)

Internal Renewable Water Resources (IRWR)

Groundwater Recharge (km3)d World Asia (Excl. Middle

Surface Water (km3)d

Overlap (km3)

Natural Renewable Water Resourcesb

e

Total (km3)

Total (km3)

Sectoral Share (Percent)c

Per Capita (m2 person)f

Year

11,358

40,594

10,067

43,219

—

—

1990

2,472

10,985

2,136

11,321

—

—

—

Total (mill m3)

Per Capita (m3 person)

as a % of Renewable Water Resources

Agriculture

Domestic

Industry

Desalinated Water Production (mill m3)gg

3,414,000

650

—

71

9

20

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

— 0

East) Armenia

4.2

6.3

1.4

9.1

11

2,778

1994

2,925

784

28

66

30

4

Azerbaijan

6.5

6.0

4.4

8.1

30

3,716

1995

16,533

2,151

58

70

5

25

0

1,211

8,444

1990

14,636

133

2

86

12

2

0

Bangladesh

21

84

0

105

—

95

—

95

95

43,214

1987

20

13

0

54

36

10

0

Cambodia

18

116

13

121

476

34,561

1987

520

60

0

94

5

1

0

829

2,712

728

2,812

2,830

2,186

1993

525,489

439

20

78

5

18

0

17

57

16

58

63

12,149

1990

3,468

635

5

59

21

20

0

India

419

1,222

380

1,261

1,897h

1,822h

1990

500,000

592

32

92

5

3

0

Indonesia

455

2,793

410

2,838

2,838

13,046

1990

74,346

407

3

93

6

1

0

27

420

17

430

430

3,372

1992

91,400

735

22

64

19

17

0

China Georgia

Japan

Kazakhstan

69

0

75

110

6,839

1993

33,674

2,010

29

81

2

17

1,328

13

66

12

67

77

3,415

1987

14,160

742

22

73

11

16

0

Korea, Rep

13

62

11

65

70

1,471

1994

23,668

531

36

63

26

11

0

Kyrgyzstan

14

44

11

46

21h

4,078h

1994

10,086

2,231

55

94

3

3

0

Lao People’s Dem

38

190

38

190

334

60,318

1987

990

259

0

82

8

10

0

64

566

50

580

580

25,178

1995

12,733

636

3

77

11

13

0

35

35

13,451

1993

428

182

1

53

20

27

0

Korea, Dem

6.1

People’s Rep

Rep Malaysia Mongolia Myanmar

6.1

33

4.0

156

875

150

881

1,046

21,358

1987

3,960

103

0

90

7

3

0

Nepal

20

198

20

198

210

8,703

1994

28,953

1,451

17

99

1

0

0

Pakistan

55

47

50

52

223h

2,812h

1991

155,600

1,382

100

97

2

2

0

Philippines

180

444

145

479

479

6,093

1995

55,422

811

13

88

8

4

0

Singapore

—

—

—

—

—

—

1975

—

—

—

4

45

51

—

Sri Lanka

7.8

49

7.0

50

50

2,592

1990

9,770

574

22

96

2

2

0

Tajikistan

6.0

63

3.0

66

16h

2,587h

1994

11,874

2,096

81

92

3

4

0

210

410

6,371

1990

33,132

605

10

91

5

4

0

25h

5,015h

1994

23,779

5,801

116

98

1

1

0

50h

1,968h

1994

58, 051

2,598

132

94

4

2

0

Thailand

42

199

31

Turkmenistan

0.4

1.0

0

Uzbekistan

8.8

9.5

2

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1.4 16

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Bhutan

48

354

35

367

Europe

1,318

6,223

986

891

11,109

1990

822

7

87

4

10

0

—

6,590

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Albania

6.2

23

2.4

27

42

13,178

1995

1,400

440

3

71

29

0

—

Austria

6.0

55

6.0

55

78

9,629

1991

2,360

303

3

9

33

58

—

37

58

5,739

1990

2,734

266

5

35

22

43

0

12

18

1,781

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

36

38

9,088

1995

1,000

292

3

60

30

10

—

Belarus Belgium Bosnia and

18 0.9 —

37 12 —

18 0.9 —

—

54,330

WATER USE

Vietnam

Herzegovina

Bulgaria Croatia

6.4 11

Czech Rep

1.4

Denmark

4.3

Estonia

4.0

Finland

5.5

21

21

2,734

1988

13,900

1,573

58

22

3

75

—

0.5

38

105

22,654

1996

764

164

1

0

50

50

—

13

1.4

13

13

1,283

1991

2,740

266

21

2

41

57

—

1,123.0

1990

1,200

233

21

43

30

27

—

13

9,413

1995

158

106

1

5

56

39

0

—

3.7 12

3.0

13

6

107

110

21,223

1991

2,200

439

2

3

12

85

98

179

204

3,414

1999

32,300

547

16

10

18

72

—

Germany

46

106

45

107

154

1,878

1991

46,270

579

31

20

11

69

—

Greece

10

56

6.0

6.0

2.0

6.0

177

Hungary

107

2.0

100

France

2.2

20 27

7.8 6.0

58 6.0

74

6,984

1997

8,700

826

12

87

10

3

—

104

10,541

1991

6,810

659

6

36

9

55

—

Iceland

24

166

20

170

170

599,944

1991

160

622

0

6

31

63

—

Ireland

11

48

10

49

52

13,408

1980

790

232

2

10

16

74

—

Italy

43

171

31

—

183

191

3,330

1998

42,000

730

22

48

19

34

Latvia

2.2

17

2.0

17

35

14,820

1994

285

112

1

13

55

32

0

Lithuania

1.2

15

1.0

16

25

6,763

1995

254

68

1

3

81

16

0

—

Macedonia, FYR

—

Moldova, Rep

0.4

Netherlands

4.5

5.4 1.0 11

— 0.4 4.5

5.4

6

3,120.6

1996

1,850

936

30

74

12

15

1.0

12

2,726

1992

2,963

678

25

26

9

65

0

11

91

5,691

1991

7,810

519

9

34

5

61

—

Norway

96

376

90

382

382

84,787

1985

2,030

489

1

8

20

72

—

Poland

13

53

12

54

62

1,598

1991

12,280

321

20

11

13

76

—

Portugal

4.0

38

4.0

38

69h

6,837h

1990

7,290

736

11

48

15

37

—

Romania

8.3

42

8.0

42

212

9,486

1994

26,000

1,141

12

59

8

33

—

4,313i

4,507i

31,354i

1994

77,100

519

2

20

19

62

0

Russian Federation Serbia and

788

4,037i

512

3.0

42

1.4

44

209

19,815

1995

13,000

1,233

6

8

6

86

—

1.7

13

1.7

13

50

9,265

1991

1,780

337

4

—

—

—

—

—

Montenegro Slovakia

Slovenia

14

19

13

19

32

16,070

1996

1,280

642

4

1

20

80

Spain

30

110

28

111

112

2,793

1997

35,210

884

32

68

13

19

—

Sweden

20

170

19

171

174

19,721

1991

2,930

340

2

9

36

55

—

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-23

(Continued)

7-24

Table 7B.11

(Continued) Renewable Water Resources (annual)a

Water Withdrawals (annual)

Internal Renewable Water Resources (IRWR)

Groundwater Recharge (km3)d Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom

Middle East & N.

2.5 20 9.8

149

Surface Water (km3)d 40 50 144

Overlap (km3) 2.5 17 9.0

374

60

—

—

Sectoral Share (Percent)c

Natural Renewable Water Resourcesb

Totale (km3)

Total (km3)

Per Capita (m2 person)f

Year

Total (mill m3)

Per Capita (m3 person)

as a % of Renewable Water Resources

Agriculture

Domestic

Industry

Desalinated Water Production (mill m3)gg

40

54

7,464

1991

1,190

172

2

4

23

73

53

140

2,868

1992

25,991

500

17

30

18

52

0

145

147

2,464

1991

11,790

204

8

3

20

77

—

518

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

55

65

2,790

1987

26,110

2,007

72

99

1

0

0

14

14

460

1995

5,000

181

39

52

34

14

64 25

—

—

Africa Afghanistan Egypt Iran, Islamic Rep Iraq

— 1.7 1.3 49 1.2

13

1.0

58h

830h

1996

66,000

1,055

127

82

7

11

97

18

129

138

1,900

1993

70,034

1,122

59

92

6

2

2.9

34

0

35

75h

3,111h

1990

42,800

2,478

80

92

3

5

0

—

0.5

0

1.8

Israel

0.5

0.3

0

0.8

2

265.0

1997

1,620

287

108

54

39

7

Jordan

0.5

0.4

0.2

0.7

1

169.4

1993

984

255

151

75

22

3

Kuwait

0

0

0

0

0.02

9.9

1994

538

306

3,097

60

37

2

2.0 231

Lebanon

3.2

4.1

2.5

4.8

4h

1,219.5h

1996

1,300

400

33

68

27

6

0

Libyan Arab

0.5

0.2

0.1

0.6

1

108.5

1999

4,500

870

801

84

13

3

70

936

1998

11,480

399

43

89

10

2

363.6

1991

1,223

658

181

94

5

2

34

Jamahiriya

Moroco Oman

10 1.0

22 0.9

3.0 0.9

29 1.0

29 1

Saudi Arabia

2.2

2.2

2.0

2.4

2

Syrian Arab Rep

4.2

4.8

2.0

7.0

26h

Tunisia

1.5

3.1

0.4

4.2

5

Turkey United Arab

69

186

28

227

229h

110.6 1,541h 576.5

3,344h

3.4

1992

17,018

1,056

955

90

9

1

714

1995

12,000

844

55

90

8

2

0

1996

2,830

312

54

86

13

1

8.3

1997

35,500

558

17

73

16

12

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.2

0

55.5

1995

2,108

896

1,614

67

24

9

385

0.5

1.5

4.0

1.4

4.1

4

205.9

1990

2,932

253

123

92

7

1

10

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Emirates Yemen

Sub-Saharab

1,549

3,812

1,468

3,901

—

—

—

72

182

70

184

184

1,3203

1987

480

54

0

76

14

10

0

10

25

3,741

1994

145

27

1

67

23

10

0

14

9,209

1992

113

86

1

48

32

20

0

Africa Angola Benin

1.8

Botswana

1.7

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10 1.7

1.5 0.5

2.9

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Algeria

9.5

8.0

5.0

Burundi

2.1

3.5

2.0

Cameroon

13 3.6

13 4

1,024 538.3

1992

376

40

4

81

19

0

0

1987

100

19

4

64

36

0

0

0

100

268

95

273

286

18,378

1987

400

38

0

35

46

19

Central African Rep

56

141

56

141

144

37,565

1987

70

25

0

74

21

5

0

Chad

12

14

10

15

43

5,125

1987

180

34

1

82

16

2

0

Congo

198

222

198

222

832

259,547

1987

40

20

0

11

62

27

0

Congo, Dem Rep

421

899

420

900

1,283

23,639

1990

357

10

0

23

61

16

0

35

77

81

4,853

1987

709

62

1

67

22

11

0

26

26

53,841

1987

10

30

0

6

81

13

0

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0

Coˆte d’Ivoire

38

74

Equatorial Guinea

10

25

Eritrea

—

—

9.0 —

2.8

6

1,577.7

Ethiopia

40

110

40

110

110

1,666

1987

2,200

51

3

86

11

3

0

Gabon

62

162

60

164

164

126,789

1987

60

70

0

6

72

22

0

Gambia

0.5

3.0

0.5

3.0

8

Ghana

26

29

25

30

53

Guinea

38

226

38

226

226

Guinea-Bissau

14

12

10

16

31

17

0

20

30

Kenya

Lesotho

3.0

0.5

5.2

0.5

5.2

3h

5,836.0

1982

20

29

1

91

7

2

0

2,637

1970

300

35

1

52

35

13

0

26,964

1987

740

132

0

87

10

3

0

24,670

1991

17

17

0

36

60

4

0

947

1990

2,050

87

9

76

20

4

0

1,455.6h

0

1987

50

32

2

56

22

22

Liberia

60

200

60

200

232

70,348

1987

130

59

0

60

27

13

0

Madagascar

55

332

50

337

337

19,925

1984

16,300

1,611

8

99

1

—

0

16

17

1,461

1994

936

95

6

86

10

3

0

60

100

8,320

1987

1,360

167

2

97

2

1

0

Malawi Mali

Mauritania Mozambique

1.4 20

0.3 17

16 50

0.1 97

1.4 10

0 15

0.4 99

11

4,029

1985

1,630

923

23

92

6

2

1.7

216

11,382

1992

605

42

0

89

9

2

0

Namibia

2.1

4.1

0.04

6.2

18h

9,865h

1991

249

175

2

68

29

3

0

Niger

2.5

1.0

0

3.5

34

2,891

1988

500

69

2

82

16

2

0

286

2,384

1987

3,630

46

2

54

31

15

0

Nigeria

87

Rwanda

3.6

Senegal

7.6

Sierra Leone

50

Somalia

3.3

South Africa

4.8

Sudan Tanzania, United

7.0 30

214

5.2 24 150 5.7 43

28 80

80

3.6 5.0 40 3.0 3.0

5.0 28

221

5.2

5

638.2

1993

768

141

22

94

5

2

0

1987

1,360

202

5

92

5

3

0

26

39

3,977

160

160

33,237

1987

370

98

0

89

7

4

0

14

1,413

1987

810

119

8

97

3

0

0.1

45

50

1,131

1990

13,309

366

32

72

17

11

30

65h

1,981h

1995

17,800

637

32

94

4

1

0.4

82

91

2,472

1994

1,165

39

2

89

9

2

0

6.0

WATER USE

Burkina Faso

0

Rep Togo Uganda

5.7 29

11 39

5.0 29

12

15

3,076

1987

91

29

1

25

62

13

0

39

66

2,663

1970

200

21

1

60

32

8

0

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-25

(Continued)

7-26

Table 7B.11

(Continued) Renewable Water Resources (annual)a

Water Withdrawals (annual)

Internal Renewable Water Resources (IRWR)

Groundwater Recharge (km3)d Zambia Zimbabwe

North America

47 5.0

Surface Water (km3)d 80 13

Overlap (km3) 47 4.0

Sectoral Share (Percent)c

Natural Renewable Water Resourcesb

Totale (km3)

Total (km3)

Per Capita (m2 person)f

80

105

9,676

1994

1,706

190

14

20

1,530

1987

1,220

131

Year

Per Capita (m3 person)

Desalinated Water Production (mill m3)gg

Agriculture

Domestic

Industry

2

77

16

7

0

9

79

14

7

0

—

4,702

1,522

4,850

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

370

2,840

360

2,850

2,902

92,810

1991

45,100

1,607

2

12

18

70

—

United States

1,300j

1,862j

1,162j

2,800

3,051

10,574

1990

467,340

1,834

26

42

13

45

—

C. America &

359

1,050

231

1,186

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

— 0

—

Caribean Belize

—

—

—

16

19

78,763

1993

95

485

1

0

12

88

Costa Rica

37

75

0

112

112

26,764

1997

5,772

1,540

6

80

13

7

0

32

0

38

38

3,382

1995

5,211

475

14

51

49

0

0

Cuba Dominican Rep El Salvador

Guatemala Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico

6.5 12 6.2

34 2.2 39 3.9 139

21

12

21

21

2,430

1994

8,339

1,102

45

89

11

0

0

18

6

18

25

3,872

1992

729

137

4

46

34

20

0

101

25

109

111

9,277

1992

1,158

126

1

74

9

17

0

11

—

13

14

1,670

1991

980

139

8

94

5

1

0

87

30

96

96

14,250

5.5 361

0 91

9.4 409

9 457

1992

1,520

294

2

91

4

5

0

3,587.5

1993

900

371

10

77

15

7

0

4,490

1998

77,812

812

18

78

17

5

0

Nicaragua

59

186

55

190

197

36,784

1998

1,285

267

1

84

14

2

0

Panama

21

144

18

147

148

50,299

1990

1,643

685

1

70

28

2

0

Trinidad and Tobago

—

—

—

1997

297

233

8

6

68

26

0

—

South America

3.8

4

2,940.4

3,693

12,198

3,645

12,246

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Argentina

128

276

128

276

814

21,453

1995

—

28,583

822

4

75

16

9

0

Bolivia

130

277

104

304

623

71,511

1987

1,210

197

0

87

10

3

0

Brazil

1,874

5,418

1,874

5,418

8,233

47,125

1992

54,870

359

1

61

21

18

0

Chile

140

884

140

884

922

59,143

1987

20,289

1,629

3

84

5

11

0

Colombia

510

2,112

510

2,112

2,132

49,017

1996

8,938

228

0

37

59

4

0

Ecuador

134

432

134

432

432

32,948

1997

16,985

1,423

4

82

12

6

0

Guyana

103

241

103

241

241

314,963

1992

1,460

1,993

1

99

1

1

0

Paraguay Peru

41

94

41

94

336

58,148

1987

430

112

0

78

15

7

0

303

1,616

303

1,616

1,913

72,127

1992

18,973

849

1

86

7

7

0

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

1,670

Canada

—

Total (mill m3)

as a % of Renewable Water Resources

Uruguay

80

88

80

88

122

289,848

1987

460

1,171

0

89

6

5

0

23

59

23

59

139

41,065

1965

650

—

—

91

6

3

0

227

700

205

722

1,233

49,144

1970

4,100

382

1

46

44

10

0

Oceania

—

1,241

20

1,693

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Australia

72

440

20

492

492

25,185

1985

14,600

933

4

33

65

2

—

Fiji

—

—

—

29

29

34,330

1987

30

42

0

60

20

20

—

New Zealand

—

—

—

327

327

85,221

1991

2,000

588

1

44

46

10

—

Papua New Guinea

—

801

—

801

801

159,171

1987

100

29

0

49

29

22

0

Solomon Islands

—

—

—

45

45

93,405

1987

—

—

—

40

40

20

—

Developed

3,153

12,084

2,584

13,016

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Developing

8,128

28,500

7,483

29,289

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Venezuela

—

WATER USE

Suriname

Variable Definitions and Methodology: Internal Renewable Water Resources (IRWR) include the average annual flow of rivers and the recharge of groundwater (aquifers) generated from endogenous precipitation — precipitation occurring within a country’s borders. IRWR are measured in cubic kilometers per year (km3/year). Groundwater recharge is the total volume of water entering aquifers within a country’s borders from endogenous precipitation and surface water flow. Groundwater resources are estimated by measuring rainfall in arid areas where rainfall is assumed to infiltrate into aquifers. Where data are available, groundwater resources in humid areas have been considered as equivalent to the base flow of rivers. Surface water produced internally includes the average annual flow of rivers generated from endogenous precipitation and base flow generated by aquifers. Surface water resources are usually computed by measuring or assessing total river flow occurring in a country on a yearly basis. Overlap is the volume of water resources common to both surface and groundwater. It is subtracted when calculating IRWR to avoid double counting. Two types of exchanges create overlap: contribution of aquifers to surface flow, and recharge of aquifers by surface run-off. In humid temperate or tropical regions, the entire volume of groundwater recharge typically contributes to surface water flow. In karstic domains (regions with porous limestone rock formations), a portion of groundwater resources are assumed to contribute to surface water flow. In arid and semiarid countries, surface water flows recharge groundwater by infiltrating through the soil during floods. This recharge is either directly measured or inferred by characteristics of the aquifers and piezometric levels. Total internal renewable water resources is the sum of surface and groundwater resources minus overlap; in other words, IRWR Z Surface Water Resources C Groundwater Recharge — Overlap. Natural Renewable Water Resources, measured in cubic kilometers per year (km3/year), is the sum of internal renewable water resources and natural flow originating outside of the country. Natural Renewable Water Resources are computed by adding together both internal renewable water resources (IRWR — see above) and natural flows (flow to and from other countries). Natural incoming flow is the average amount of water which would flow into the country without human influence. In some arid and semi-arid countries, actual water resources are presented instead of natural renewable water resources. These actual totals, labeled with a footnote in the freshwater data table, include the quantity of flows reserved to upstream and downstream countries through formal and informal agreements or treaties. The actual flows are often much lower than natural flow due to water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions. Per Capita Natural Renewable Water Resources are measured in cubic meters per person per year (m3/person/year). Per capita values were calculated by using national population data for 2002. Water Withdrawals (annual), measured in million cubic meters, refers to total water removed for human uses in a single year, not counting evaporative losses from storage basins. Water withdrawals also include water from nonrenewable groundwater sources, river flows from other countries, and desalination plants. Per Capita Annual Withdrawals were calculated using national population data for the year the withdrawal data were collected. Water Withdrawals as a Percent of Renewable Water Resources is the proportion of renewable water resources withdrawn on a per capita basis, expressed in cubic meters per person per year (m3/person/year). The value is calculated by dividing water withdrawals per capita by actual renewable water resources per capita. Sector Share of water withdrawals, expressed as a percentage, refers to the proportion of water used for one of three purposes: agriculture, industry, and domestic uses. All water withdrawals are allocated to one of these three categories. Agricultural uses of water primarily include irrigation and, to a lesser extent, livestock maintenance. Domestic uses include drinking water plus water withdrawn for homes, municipalities, commercial establishments, and public services (e.g. hospitals). Industrial uses include cooling machinery and equipment, producing energy, cleaning and washing goods produced as ingredients in manufactured items, and as a solvent. (Continued) 7-27

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(Continued)

a b c d e f g h i j

Although data were obtained from FAC in 2002, they are long-term averages originating from multiple sources and years. For more information, please consult the original source at fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/agricult/agl/aglw/aquastat/water_res/index.stm. Natural renewable water resources include internal renewable water resources plus or minus the flows of surface and groundwater entering or leaving the country. Sectoral withdrawal data may not add up to 100 because of rounding. Groundwater and surface water cannot be added together to calculate total available water resources because of overlap — water that is counted in both the groundwater and surface water totals. At the country level, total internal renewable water resourcesZsurface waterCgroundwater — overlap. Regional and global totals represent a sum of available country-level data. Calculation is based on withdrawals from various years, and population data from 2002. Data on desalinated water originate from FAO country surveys conducted in various regions between 1992 and 2000. Data account for the portion of flow secured through treaties or agreements to other countries. River discharges in Siberia are not well documented and highly uncertain. Data are for the continental United States.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Desalinated Water Production, expressed in million cubic meters, refers to the amount of water produced by the removal of salt from saline waters — usually seawater — using a variety of techniques including reverse osmosis. Most desalinated water is used for domestic purposes. Most Freshwater resources data were provided by AQUASTAT, a global database of water statistics maintained by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. AQUASTAT collects its information from a number of sources — national water resources and irrigation master plans; national yearbooks, statistics and reports; FAO reports and project documents; international surveys; and, results from surveys done by national or international research centers. In most cases, a critical analysis of the information was necessary to ensure consistency among the different data collected for a given country. When possible, cross-checking of information among countries was used to improve assessment in countries where information was limited. When several sources gave different or contradictory figures, preference was always given to information collected at the national or sub-national level. This preference is based on the assumption by FAO that no regional information can be more accurate than studies carried out at the country level. Unless proven to be wrong, official rather than unofficial sources were used. In the case of shared water resources, a comparison among countries was made to ensure consistency at river-basin level. For more information on the methodology used to collect these data, please refer to the original source or: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO): Water Resources, Development and Management Service. October, 2001. Statistics on Water Resources by Country in FAO’s AQUASTAT Programme (available on-line at fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/water_res/index.stm). Rome: FAO. Frequency of Update by Data Providers: AQUASTAT was developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in 1993; data have been available on-line since 2001. Most freshwater data are not available in a time series, and the global data set contains data collected over a time span of up to 30 years. AQUASTAT updates their website as new data become available, or when FAO conducts special regional studies. Studies were conducted in Africa in 1994, the Near East in 1995–96, the former Soviet republics in 1997, selected Asian countries in 1998–99, and Latin America & the Caribbean in 2000. Data from the Blue Plan on Mediterranean water withdrawals were last updated in 2002. Most data updates include revisions of past data. Data Reliability and Cautionary Notes: While AQUASTAT represents the most complete and careful compilation of country-level water resources statistics to date, freshwater data are generally of poor quality. Information sources are various but rarely complete. Some governments will keep internal water resources information confidential because they are competing for water resources with bordering countries. Many instances of water scarcity are highly localized and are not reflected in national statistics. In addition, the accuracy and reliability of information vary greatly among regions, countries, and categories of information, as does the year in which the information was gathered. As a result, no consistency can be ensured among countries on the duration and dates of the period of reference. All data should be considered order-of-magnitude estimates. Groundwater Recharge tends to be overestimated in arid areas and underestimated in humid areas. Natural Renewable Water Resources vary with time. Exchanges between countries are complicated when a river crosses the same border several times. Part of the incoming water flow may thus originate from the same country in which it enters, making it necessary to calculate a “net” inflow to avoid double counting of resources. In addition, the water that is actually accessible to humans for consumption is often much smaller than the total renewable water resources indicated in the data table. Renewable Water Resources Per Capita contains water resources data from a different set of years than the population data used in the calculation. While the water resources data are usually long-term averages, inconsistencies may arise when combining it with 2002 population data. Water Withdrawals as a Percentage of Actual Water Resources are also calculated using per capita data from two different years. While this ratio can indicate that some countries are depleting their water resources, it does not accurately reflect localized over-extraction from aquifers and streams. In addition, the calculation does not distinguish ground and surface water. Sectoral Withdrawal Data may not add to 100 because of rounding. Evaporative losses from storage basins are not considered; users should keep in mind, however, that in some parts of the world up to 25 percent of water that is withdrawn and placed in reservoirs evaporates before it is used by an sector. Desalinated Water Production may exist in some countries where the volume of production is indicated to be zero, since AQUASTAT assumes that production is zero if no value has been given for those countries where information on water use is available.

7-28

Table 7B.11

Original Source:

Renewable Water Resources: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO): Water Resources, Development and Management Service. 2002. AQUASTAT Information System on Water in Agriculture: Review of Water Resource Statistics by Country. Rome: FAO. Available on-line at fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/agl/ aglw/aquastat/water_res/index.htm. Water Withdrawals: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO): Water Resources, Development and Management Service.2002. AQUASTAT Information System on Water in Agriculture. Rome: FAO. Avaliable on-line at www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/agricult/agl/aglw/aquastat/dbase/index.htm. Data for Mediterranean countries were provided directly to WRI from: J. Margat, 2002. Present Water Withdrawals in Mediterranean Countries. Paris: Blue Plan. Population Data (for per capita calculations): Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat. 2002.World Population prospects: The 2000 Revision. New York: United Nations. Data set on CD-ROM.

WATER USE

Source: From World Resources Institute, Earth trends environmental information, Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems, Data Tables, Freshwater Resources, www.earthtrends. wri.org. With permission.

7-29

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-30

Table 7B.12 Worldwide Freshwater Withdrawal, by Country and Sector

Region and Country

2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000

6.07 0.34 0.25 0.14 0.78 0.23 0.73 0.03 0.02

192 27 40 86 65 33 48 68 5

22 22 15 38 11 17 18 15 77

13 16 11 19 0 1 8 3 19

65 61 74 43 88 82 74 83 4

42 6 6 33 7 6 9 10 4

25 4 4 16 0 0 4 2 1

125 16 30 37 57 27 36 56 0

a

2000 1987 2000

0.23 0.01 0.36

32 14 7

19 48 52

1 5 16

80 47 31

6 7 4

0 1 1

25 7 2

a

2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000

0.04 0.93 0.01 68.65 0.11 0.30 2.65 0.13 0.03 0.52 1.52 0.11 1.58 0.05 0.11 4.81 14.97 1.01 6.93 1.70 0.61 12.76 0.64 0.27 2.19 8.00

13 61 15 1,008 243

59 23 11 8 83 4 1 48 22 37 8 9 30 40 28 8 3 15 1 9 25 8 11 33 4 21

30 12 0 14 16 1 6 11 11 15 2 1 6 41 15 3 2 5 0 3 14 2 2 5 1 10

10 65 89 78 1 95 93 40 67 48 90 91 64 19 56 89 96 81 99 88 60 90 87 63 95 69

8 14 2 77 202

4 7 0 140 39

1 40 13 791 2

a

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

USE Per-Capita Withdrawal (m3/p/yr)

38 105 24 26 193 93 52 22 34 753 861 92 552 659 517 440 33 156 203 62

Domestic (%)

Industrial (%)

Agricultural (%)

Domestic (m3/p/yr)

Industrial (m3/p/yr)

Agricultural (m3/p/yr)

Source

a a a a a a a a

b a

a a a a

2000 Population (millions)

31.60 12.80 6.20 1.62 12.06 6.97 15.13 0.44 3.64 7.27 0.71 2.98

51.75 15.14 0.69 68.12 0.45

a

0 51 5 10 15 8 16 9 10 62 24 14 4 58 132 37 4 51 9 13

2 12 3 4 4 1 3 9 5 23 13 4 1 19 74 7 1 7 1 6

35 43 16 13 174 84 33 4 19 668 823 74 547 582 312 396 28 98 193 43

a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a

69.99 1.24 1.24 19.93 7.86 1.18 30.34 2.29 3.26 6.39 17.40 10.98 12.56 2.58 1.18 28.98 19.56 1.733 10.81 128.79

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Africa Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo, Democratic Republic (formerly Zaire) Congo, Republic of Coˆte d’Ivoire Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria

Year

Total Freshwater Withdrawal (km3/yr)

2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000

0.08 1.59 0.38 3.30 15.31 37.31 0.83 2.00 0.17 2.73 0.30 1.74 2.61

10 167 78 286 331 1,251 843 59 36 278 13 191 210

48 6 5 0 17 3 3 6 45 16 45 16 10

14 4 2 0 10 1 6 1 8 2 15 8 5

39 90 93 100 73 97 92 93 47 82 39 76 86

5 10 4 1 56 33 23 4 16 44 6 31 20

1 6 1 0 35 9 48 1 3 7 2 14 10

4 151 73 285 241 1,209 773 55 17 227 5 145 180

a

1990 2000 2000 1990 2000 2000 1996 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 1997 1995

0.005 0.08 0.12 43.89 2.68 8.20 0.02 3.39 1.27 2.00 0.98 0.86 0.41 78.22 1.30 0.82 0.01 0.01

75 308 500 1,431 706 732 239 399 201 164 125 133 158 791 277 287 89 88

60 33 11 20 29 19 — 32 25 6 5 8 34 17 14 66 — —

20 44 89 69 17 12 — 2 16 13 1 11 17 5 3 5 — —

20 23 0 12 53 69 — 66 59 80 94 81 49 77 83 28 — —

45 103 56 280 208 139

15 136 443 982 120 89

15 69 1 168 377 504

g

a a a a a a a a a a a a

a a d a a h

128 50 11 6 11 54 137 40 191

7 32 22 1 15 27 43 7 15

264 119 131 118 107 77 610 230 81

a a a a a a a a a g g

2000 2000

0.30 563.00

221 2,026

67 13

27 46

6 41

149 257

60 933

12 836

2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000

29.07 1.39 59.30 12.54 10.71 16.98 1.64 0.49

785 167 350 824 275 1,343 1,876 89

16 13 20 11 50 12 2 20

9 3 18 25 4 5 1 9

74 83 62 64 46 82 97 72

129 22 71 93 138 167 32 18

74 6 63 208 10 71 17 8

581 139 216 524 126 1,104 1,828 64

a m

a a a a a a a a

7.67 9.50 4.87 11.53 46.26 29.82 0.98 33.69 4.68 9.84 22.46 9.13 12.42

0.07 0.26 0.24 30.68 3.80 11.20 0.07 8.50 6.32 12.22 7.82 6.49 2.59 98.88 4.69 2.86 0.15 0.11 1.34 277.83

37.03 8.33 169.20 15.21 38.91 12.65 0.87 5.50

7-31

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

Rwanda Senegal Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe North and Central America Antigua and Barbuda Barbados Belize Canada Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic El Salvador Guatemala Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama St. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago United States of America South America Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Guyana Paraguay

7-32

Table 7B.12

(Continued) USE

Year

Peru Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Asia Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Cambodia China Cyprus Georgia India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Korea Democratic People’s Republic Korea Rep Kuwait Kyrgyz Republic Lao People’s Dem Rep Lebanon Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Oman Pakistan Philippines Qatar Saudi Arabia

2000 2000 2000 2000

20.13 0.67 3.15 8.37

784 1,482 962 346

8 4 2 45

10 3 1 7

82 93 96 47

66 67 23 158

79 43 11 24

640 1,373 928 164

a

2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 1994 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000

23.26 2.95 17.25 0.30 76.39 0.42 0.92 4.09 549.76 0.18 3.61 645.84 82.77 72.88 42.70 2.04 88.43 1.02 35.01 9.02

909 806 2,204 485 595 207 2,788 365 431 228 666 641 389 954 1,848 336 699 161 2,068 377

2 30 5 40 3 4 nd 2 7 27 20 8 8 7 3 31 20 21 2 20

0 4 28 4 1 1 nd 1 26 1 21 5 1 2 5 7 18 4 17 25

98 66 68 57 96 95 nd 98 68 71 59 86 91 91 92 63 62 75 82 55

16 241 106 192 19 8

0 35 609 17 4 2

893 529 1,488 276 572 197

a

6 28 62 133 52 31 65 58 103 138 33 35 75

2 111 3 140 35 3 22 85 23 125 7 342 95

357 292 163 393 555 356 867 1,704 210 437 121 1,691 207

a

2000 2000 2000 2000

18.59 0.45 10.08 2.99

397 229 2,219 525

36 45 3 4

16 3 3 6

48 52 94 90

141 102 70 22

65 7 69 30

190 120 2,081 473

a

2000 2000 1987 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000

1.37 9.02 0.003 0.44 33.22 10.18 1.35 169.38 28.52 0.29 17.32

417 405 10 161 673 418 497 1,086 380 484 800

33 17 98 20 1 3 7 2 17 25 10

1 21 2 28 1 1 2 2 9 3 1

67 62 0 52 98 96 91 96 74 72 89

136 68 10 33 8 12 35 21 63 122 78

2 85 0 45 4 3 10 22 36 14 9

278 251 0 83 661 403 452 1,043 281 348 712

a

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Per-Capita Withdrawal (m3/p/yr)

Domestic (%)

Industrial (%)

Agricultural (%)

Domestic (m3/p/yr)

Industrial (m3/p/yr)

Agricultural (m3/p/yr)

Source

a a a

a a a a a e

k p a a a a a a a a a a

a a a

a e a a a a a a a a

2000 Population (millions) 25.66 0.45 3.27 24.17 25.59 3.66 7.83 0.62 128.31 2.03 0.33 11.21 1,276.30 0.79 5.42 1,006.77 212.57 76.43 23.11 6.08 126.43 6.33 16.93 23.91 46.88 1.97 4.54 5.69 3.29 22.30 0.29 2.74 49.34 24.35 2.72 156.01 75.04 0.60 21.66

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Region and Country

Total Freshwater Withdrawal (km3/yr)

1975 2000 2000 2000 2000 2001 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000

0.19 12.60 19.95 11.96 87.07 39.78 24.64 2.31 58.33 71.39 6.63

53 669 1,237 1,869 1,439 605 5,501 945 2,332 886 366

45 2 3 4 2 15 2 23 5 8 4

51 2 2 5 2 11 1 9 2 24 1

4 95 95 92 95 74 98 68 93 68 95

24 16 41 69 36 90 93 218 111 69 15

27 16 23 87 35 66 42 82 48 214 2

2 637 1,174 1,713 1,368 449 5,366 645 2,173 604 349

2000 1997 2000 1998 2002 2002 2002 2002 1999 2000 2001 1997 2001 2002 1980 1998 2001 2002 1999 2000 2000 2001 1996 2002 1990 2002 2000 2002 2001 2001 2002 2001 2000 1994 1980

1.70 3.56 2.79 7.44 6.59 1.91 0.67 1.41 2.33 30.90 38.00 8.70 4.55 0.16 1.07 42.00 0.26 3.13 0.06 0.02 2.31 8.80 2.40 11.73 7.29 7.24 76.69 1.09 0.30 38.60 2.69 2.54 37.52 11.75 8.77

487 429 271 725 793 187 127 994 450 523 460 821 464 567 299 734 108 848 133 53 518 554 545 303 745 322 525 203

27 35 23 13 3 41 32 56 14 16 12 16 9 34 23 18 55 78 42 74 9 6 23 13 10 9 19

11 64 46 85 78 57 26 39 84 74 68 3 59 66 77 37 33 15 45 1 58 60 67 79 12 34 63

62 1 30 1 19 2 42 5 3 10 20 81 32 0 0 45 12 7 13 25 33 34 10 8 78 57 18

130 151 64 96 24 76 41 554 61 82 57 134 43 193 68 134 60 662 56 39 49 34 123 39 72 28 98

54 274 126 620 621 107 32 392 377 390 312 26 272 374 232 270 36 131 60 0 298 333 364 238 90 111 333

302 4 82 9 149 4 54 49 12 51 91 661 149 1 0 331 13 56 17 13 171 188 57 25 583 183 93

670 302 343 739 201 368

13 37 24 12 22 16

c a a a a p a a a a a

a p a p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p a p p p p p a p

3.59 18.82 16.13 6.40 60.50 65.73 4.48 2.44 25.02 80.55 18.12 3.49 8.29 10.28 10.26 8.31 10.20 5.27 1.42 5.18 59.06 82.69 10.60 9.81 0.28 3.57 57.19 2.40 3.69 0.43 0.38 4.46 15.87 4.41 38.73 9.79 22.51 146.20 5.37

p

68 9 2 52 3 12

130 111 83 90 44 59

180 164 253 261 152 265

660 27 7 388 6 44

p p p a d c

39.80 8.90 7.41 50.80 58.34 23.81

7-33

19 54 74 35 75 72

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

Singapore Sri Lanka Syria Tajikistan Thailand Turkey Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen Europe Albania Austria Belarus Belgium Bulgaria Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russian Federation Slovak Republic Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom Yugoslavia,q former

(Continued)

Region and Country

Year

Oceania Australia Fiji New Zealand Papua New Guinea Solomon Islands

1995 2000 2000 1987 1987

Note:

7-34

Table 7B.12

Total Freshwater Withdrawal (km3/yr)

17.80 0.07 2.11 0.10

USE Per-Capita Withdrawal (m3/p/yr)

945 83 561 21

Domestic (%)

Industrial (%)

Agricultural (%)

Domestic (m3/p/yr)

Industrial (m3/p/yr)

15 11 49 56 40

10 11 9 43 20

75 78 42 1 40

139 9 272 12 0

95 9 53 9 0

Agricultural (m3/p/yr)

711 65 236 0 0

Source

f a a c c

2000 Population (millions)

18.84 0.85 3.76 4.81 0.44

Figures may not add to totals due to independent rounding. 2000 Population numbers: medium United Nations variant.

Source : From World’s Water 2004–2005 by Peter H. Gleick. Copyright q 2004 Island Press. Reproduced by permission of Island Press, Washington, DC.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Limitations: Extreme care should be used when applying these data — they are often the least reliable and most inconsistent of all water resources information. They come from a wide variety of sources and are collected using different approaches with few formal standards. Consistent data collection is needed in this area, using standard methods and assumptions. As a result, this table includes data that are actually measured, estimated, modeled using different assumptions, or derived from other data. The data also come from different years, making direct comparisons difficult, though the effort of FAO to standardize water-use data for 2000 has somewhat reduced this problem. Industrial withdrawals for Panama, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and the Grenadines are included in the domestic category. Another major limitation of these data is that they do not include the use of rainfall in agriculture. Many countries use a significant fraction of the rain falling on their territory for agricultural production, but this water use is neither accurately measured nor reported. a New FAO Aquastat estimates from www.fao.org. March 2004. b World Resources Institute, 1990, World resources 1990–1991, New York: Oxford University Press. c World Resources Institute, 1994, World resources 1994–1995, in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme and the United Nations Development Programme, New York: Oxford University Press. d Eurostat Yearbook, 1997. Statistics of the European Union, EC/C/6/Ser.26GT, Luxembourg. e UNFAO 1999. Irrigation in Asia in figures. Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations, Rome. f Nix, H. 1995. Water/Land/Life, Water Research Foundation of Australia, Canberra. g UNFAO. 2000. Irrigation in Latin America and the Caribbean. Food and Agricultural Organization, United Nations, Rome. h AQUASTAT web site January 2002. www.fao.org. k Ministry of Water Resources, China. 2001. Water resources bulletin of China, 2000. People’s Republic of China, Beijing, September. m Hutson, S. S., Barber, N. L., Kenny, J. E., Linsey, K. S., Lumia, D. S., and Maupin, M. A. 2004. Estimated use of water in the United States in 2000. United States Geological Survey, Circular 1268. Reston, Virginia. p See Wieland, U. 2003. Water use and waste water treatment in the European Union and in candidate countries. Eurostat Statistics in Focus, Theme 8. European Communities. And Eurostat. 2004. Statistics in Focus. europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/newcronos/queen/display.do?screenZdetail&languageZen&productZTHEME8&rootZ THEME8_ copy_151979619462/yearlies_copy_1067300085946/dd_copy_251110364103/dda_copy_649289610368/dda10512_copy_729379227605. q Includes Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Croatia.

WATER USE

7-35

Table 7B.13 Freshwater Abstractions by Major Use in Selected Countries, 1980–1999 Public Water Supply (b)

Canada Mexico U.S.A. Japan Korea Australia New Zealand Austria Belgium Czech Rep. Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Luxembourg The Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Slovak Rep. Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey UK Russian Fed.

Irrigation (b)

Manufacturing Industry No Cooling (b)

Electrical Cooling (b) Percent

1980

1985

1990

1999 (c)

1980

1985

1990

1999 (c)

1980

1985

1990

1999 (c)

1980

1985

1990

1999 (c)

11.3 7.5 9.1 14.9 10.9 — — 16.7 — 28.0 58.1 10.5 17.5 12.0 12.2 16.7 85.2 34.0 14.2 — 11.2 — 19.2 — — 11.8 23.3 42.6 — 43.7 9.7

11.1 — 10.8 16.5 14.8 12.3 — 17.8 — 32.1 — 10.2 16.9 12.4 11.9 14.8 85.7 — — — 11.9 30.1 18.9 — 28.3 11.6 32.8 43.2 14.4 52.8 —

11.3 — 11.4 17.7 21.8 — — 16.4 — 35.0 45.3 18.1 16.2 13.6 — 16.0 50.9 — 14.1 95.0 16.4 — 21.1 4.7 30.4 11.9 32.9 43.6 14.2 55.5 12.0

— 12.6 — 18.5 27.0 — — 17.0 9.8 42.0 58.4 17.4 19.4 13.7 9.9 12.7 47.4 — 18.0 62.6 28.6 — 21.2 6.8 37.5 13.2 35.1 41.4 14.7 53.1 18.7

7.4 82.1 38.7 67.4 80.5 74.3 — 1.5 — 1.1 7.5 — 14.1 — 82.5 7.0 — 12.1 57.3 — — — 2.0 — — 65.7 1.6 — — 0.6 —

7.0 — 40.5 67.1 76.4 69.9 — 1.6 — 1.4 — 0.5 12.8 — 83.7 4.6 — — — — — 3.4 3.4 — 5.9 65.7 3.2 — 73.7 0.7 —

7.1 — 40.2 65.9 68.4 — — 1.3 — 2.7 15.4 0.9 13.0 3.3 — 8.5 — — — 0.3 — — 3.3 59.3 12.6 64.2 3.2 — 53.9 1.5 —

— 82.7 — 66.1 60.1 74.6 — 1.5 0.1 0.4 18.6 1.7 11.0 0.4 87.4 1.2 — — 46.0 0.3 — — 0.8 79.1 0.8 68.2 3.7 — 75.1 1.1 —

8.6 10.4 10.4 17.6 8.6 — — 46.7 — 28.4 3.7 — 17.9 6.8 2.7 2.2 9.3 23.4 14.2 — 2.1 — 12.9 — — — 43.3 — — 13.8 —

8.9 — 6.6 16.6 8.8 5.5 — 45.7 — 26.7 — — 14.7 5.8 2.4 1.4 8.9 — — — 2.0 64.6 10.6 — 63.7 — 37.4 — 11.9 9.1 —

7.9 — 5.7 16.3 9.7 — — 39.0 — 24.5 17.8 69.0 11.8 15.8 — 1.4 6.0 — — 4.7 2.5 — 9.7 12.8 53.5 5.1 37.5 — 7.6 7.4 12.9

— 4.5 — 15.4 12.9 — — 36.1 5.1 21.7 8.4 67.4 12.8 14.3 1.3 0.2 6.4 — 17.0 23.2 4.3 — 4.7 3.4 58.4 4.7 28.3 — 10.3 5.4 12.0

39.9 0.1 40.4 — — — — 33.9 — 33.6 — — 50.4 60.4 1.8 49.7 — 25.9 12.5 — 65.4 — 50.7 — — 22.5 — 57.4 — 28.1 —

56.9 — 38.7 — — — — 33.7 — 31.3 — — 55.5 62.0 2.0 60.0 — — — — 70.4 — 53.1 — — 22.7 0.9 56.8 — 21.6 —

59.7 — 38.6 — — — — 41.9 — 29.3 — 10.6 59.1 60.1 — 62.2 — — — — 65.9 — 51.3 23.3 — 12.2 0.9 56.4 — 20.0 24.5

— 0.2 — — — — — 44.1 57.0 27.6 — 11.0 56.7 65.0 1.4 75.4 0.0 — 19.0 — 54.5 — 60.1 11.2 — 13.9 1.0 58.6 0.1 11.3 27.9

Note:

a) In general, the data for the four sectors will not sum to 100%, since “agricultural uses other than irrigation”, “agricultural uses other than irrigation”, “industrial cooling”, and “other uses” are not covered here. Exceptions occur when the % are based on partial totals or the categories presented include other uses. b) “Public water supply” refers to water supply by waterworks, and may include other uses besides the domestic sector. “Irrigation”, “Industry no cooling” and “Electrical cooling” refer to self supply (abstraction for own final use). c) Data refer to 1999 or latest available year. Data prior to 1995 have not been considered.

Note:

CAN, 1980, 1985 and 1990: 1981, 1986 and 1991 data; MEX, 1980: % based on totals excluding agricultural uses other than irrigation. Industry no cooling: includes cooling. Electrical cooling 1980: data include Secretariat estimates; U.S.A., Industry no cooling: includes cooling; JPN, Industry no cooling: includes industrial and electrical cooling; KOR, % based on partial totals: electrical cooling excluded. Public supply: data refer to domestic sector. Irrigation: includes other agric, uses. Industry no cooling includes cooling, 1999: 1997 data; AUS, 1980: 1977 data adjusted for average climatic year. 1985: data refer to fiscal year 1983/84 and to both waterworks and self-supply; public supply: data refer to domestic sector; industry no cooling: may include industrial and electrical cooling, 1999: 1996/97 data; NZL, % based on partial totals; AUT, % based on partial totals. Irrigation and industry no cooling: groundwater only. Electrical cooling (includes all industrial cooling): surface water only. 1990:1992 data; irrigation includes other agricultural abstractions. 1999: 1997 data; BEL, 1999: 1998 data including Secretariat estimates; CZE, Industry no cooling: includes cooling; DNK, 1980: 1977 data. 1990; % based on totals referring to groundwater abstractions only, which represent the majority of total freshwater abstractions (e.g. 95–99% for 1995). Industry no cooling: includes some industrial and electrical cooling (self-supply). 1999: 1998 data, Irrigation: 1995 data; FIN, % based on partial total: 1985 and 1990 exclude agricultural uses besides irrigation (1985 data); industry no cooling: includes cooling. Irrigation: 1999 data is country estimate; FRA, 1980 and 1999: 1981 and 1997 data. Irrigation: includes other agricultural uses, but irrigation is the main use. Industry no cooling: includes cooling. 1997: break in time series; DEU, % based on totals excluding agricultural uses other than irrigation. Industry no cooling: includes cooling. 1980 and 1985: 1979 and 1983 data, for western Germany only. 1990 and 1999: 1991 and 1998 data for total Germany; GRC, % based on partial totals excluding agricultural uses other than irrigation, 1999: 1997 data. Public water supply: supply by 42 out of 75 great water distribution enterprises; HUN, 1999: 1998 data; ISL, Public supply: includes the domestic use of geothermal water. Industry no cooling: includes cooling. After 1985, fish farming is a major user of abstracted water, explaining the change in the relative contribution of other sectors. 1990: 1992 data; IRL, Industry no cooling: includes cooling. Irrigation: includes other agricultural uses (e.g. rural domestic use). % based on totals including 1980 data for electrical cooling; ITA, % based on totals excluding agricultural uses besides irrigation. 1990 and 1999: 1989 and 1998 data; LUX, Industry no cooling: includes cooling. 1990: 1989 data, except for industry and electrical cooling (1983 data); irrigation; estimated data; NLD, % based on partial totals excluding all agricultural uses. 1980, 1985, 1990 and 1999: 1981, 1986, 1991 and 1996 data; NOR, Data include 1978 data for industry. 1985: 1983 data. Industry no cooling: includes industrial cooling; POL, % based on totals including abstractions for agriculture, which include aquaculture (areas over 10 ha) and irrigation (Arabic land and forest areas greater than 20 ha); animal production and domestic needs of rural inhabitants are not covered (selfsupply); PRT, % based on totals excluding agricultural uses besides irrigation. 1990 and 1999: 1991 and 1998 data; SLO, Irrigation: Secretariat estimates. Industry no cooling: includes cooling; ESP, % based on totals excluding agricultural uses other than irrigation. Industry no cooling: surface water only; includes industrial cooling. Electrical cooling: until 1990 data include total industrial use. 1990 and 1999: 1991 and 1997 data; SWE, Irrigation: 1980 and refer to 1976; since 1985 data are estimates for dry year. Industry no cooling: 1980 data refer to 1974 and include mining and quarrying and electrical cooling: 1985 and 1990 data refer to 1983. Electrical cooling: 1985 and 1990 data refer to 1983. 1999: 1995 data; CHE, % based on partial totals excluding all agricultural uses. Public supply: includes industry (total industry—ISIC 10–45 rev. 3), which totals 215 million m3 (1994), and other activities (101 million m3 (1994)). 1999: 1998 data; TUR, % based on totals excluding agricultural uses other than irrigation. 1985: % based on partial totals excluding electrical cooling. Industry no cooling: includes cooling. 1990: 1991 data. Electrical cooling 1999: estimation (1995 data); UKD, England and Wales only. Data include miscellaneous uses for power generation, but exclude hydroelectric power water use; RUS, 1990 and 1999: 1991 and 1996 data.

Source :

From Table 3.1C, OECD Environmental Data Compendium 2002, q OCED 2002, www.oecd.org.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-36

Table 7B.14 Worldwide Fresh Water Utilization by Purpose, 2000 Fresh Water Utilization by Purpose

World/ Continent

Total Volume of Fresh Water Utilization (km3/yr)

(km3/yr)

%

(km3/yr)

%

(km3/yr)

%

Utilization a as % of Resources

3820.3 1239.2 893.5 345.7 2581.1 265.1

377.4 165.2 131.3 33.9 212.2 50.4

9.9 13.3 14.7 9.8 8.2 19.0

790.7 509.1 395.6 113.5 281.6 27.4

20.7 41.1 44.3 32.8 10.9 10.3

2 652.2 564.9 366.6 198.3 2 087.3 187.3

69.4 45.6 41.0 57.4 80.9 70.7

8.9 9.0 10.2 7.1 8.9 2.0

322.6

25.1

7.8

19.5

6.0

278.0

86.2

62.5

98.1 977.4 917.8 0.1

6.9 71.2 58.7 0.0

7.0 7.3 6.4 34.2

2.8 192.3 39.6 0.0

2.9 19.7 4.3 27.6

88.3 714.0 819.6 0.1

90.1 73.0 89.3 38.2

2.5 11.2 52.1 0.0

—

—

—

—

—

208.4 2377.1 251.7 13.4 525.3 26.2 418.2

17.9 171.5 47.3 3.1 69.8 4.6 63.2

84.1 81.4 70.8 67.7 38.7 72.4 31.6

5.3 20.4 1.9 15.7 9.3 1.6 6.5

Industrial Use

8.6 7.2 18.8 22.9 13.3 17.6 15.1

—

15.2 270.2 26.1 1.3 252.3 2.6 223.0

Source: From FAO, 2003, Summary of Food and Agricultural Statistics, www.fao.org. With permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Agricultural Use

—

7.3 11.4 10.4 9.4 48.0 10.1 53.3

—

175.2 1 935.5 178.3 9.1 203.2 19.0 132.0

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

World Developed countries Industrialized countries Transition economies Developing countries Latin America and the Caribbean Near East and North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa East and Southeast Asia South Asia Oceania developing North America developing Continental groupings Africa Asia Latin America Caribbean North America Oceania Europe

Domestic Use

WATER USE

7-37

Water consumption:

World

2000

Water consumption (km3)

Assessment 1600

1200 Forecast 800

400

0 1900

(a)

1925

1950

2000

2025

Europe

North America

Africa

Asia

South America

Australia & Oceania

Water withdrawal: 3500 Assessment 3000 Water withdrawal (km3)

1975

World

2500 2000 Forecast 1500 1000 500

(b)

0 1900

1925

1950

1975

2000

Europe

North America

Africa

Asia

South America

Australia & Oceania

2025

Figure 7B.8 Dynamics of water use in the world by continents. (From Shiklomanov, I.A., 1999, Summary of the Monograph “World Water Resources at the Beginning of the 21st Century” Prepared in the Framework of IHP UNESCO, International Hydrological Programme, UNESCO’S, Intergovernmental Scientific Programme in Water Resources, World Water Resources and Their Use a Joint State Hydrological Institute (SHI)/UNESCO Product, http://webworld.unesco.org/water/ihp/db/shiklomanov/. Copyright q UNESCO 1999. Reproduced by permission of UNESCO.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-38

Table 7B.15 Freshwater Abstractions by Source, in Selected Countries 1980–1999 Surface Water (mill m3)

Groundwater (mill m3)

As % of Resources/ (a) (b)

1980

1985

1990

1999 (c)

1980

1985

1990

1999 (c)

1980

1985

1990

1999 (c)

1610 800 1870 710 540 1300 570 440 730 190 140 450 520 490 830 560 560 980 140 290 600 290 1110 210 1040 300 360 590 210 560 1600 560 600 950

1.7 16.2 19.9 21.2 34.3 6.8 0.6 4.2 45.1 12.4 12.3 2.1 15.9 22.3 12.1 4.7 0.1 32.1 3.7 4.9 0.7 17.9 15.2 1.4 36.8 1.5 4.8 16.6 17.4 1.9 11.0 13.9 19.4 11.8

37594 56003 517720 86000 17510 10900 1200 3342 — 3622 1205 3700 30972 42206 5040 4805 108 56200 — 9198 — 14184 — 2232 39920 4106 2589 16200 13514 113178 611300 271400 225600 998300

42383 — 467335 87200 18580 14600 1900 3363 — 3679 — 4000 34887 41216 5496 6267 112 52000 67 9302 2025 15453 — 2061 46250 2970 2646 19400 11533 117273 572000 282700 231000 977000

45096 — 468620 88900 20600 — — 3734 — 3623 1261 2347 37687 47873 — 6293 167 56200 59 7806 — 14248 8600 2116 36900 2968 2665 32200 12052 126083 581700 299100 235400 1006800

47250 78402 492260 89100 24800 24071 2000 3561 7442 1976 754 2328 30341 40591 8695 5653 156 56200 60 4425 2588 11275 11090 1149 40855 2668 2566 38900 11162 82064 617900 285600 221300 1043500

36733 39374 402750 74100 — — — 2207 — 2820 45 3510 25268 35344 3470 3551 5 — — 8190 — 11899 — 1575 34800 3511 1667 11800 11024 101799 — — — —

41486 — 366095 75300 — 12360 — 2195 — 2873 — 3680 28714 34225 — 4880 8 4000 22 8231 1620 13076 — 1390 40840 2348 1693 14100 9012 103407 — — — —

44059 — 358790 76600 — — — 2561 — 2787 — 2107 31486 — — 5266 7 — 32 6757 — 11928 — 1388 31400 2360 1724 25600 9344 111297 — — — —

— 53017 — 77300 22200 19109 1200 2496 6802 1419 20 2043 24240 33880 5023 4822 4 — 29 3427 — 9339 4800 684 35323 2026 1689 29552 8658 72420 — — — —

861 16629 114970 11900 — — — — — 802 1160 190 5704 6862 1570 1254 103 — — 1008 — 2285 — 657 5120 595 922 4400 2490 11379 — — — —

897 23500 101420 11900 — 2240 — 1168 — 806 — 320 6173 6991 — 1386 104 12000 45 1071 405 2377 — 671 5410 622 953 5300 2521 13866 — — — —

1037 24453 109830 12200 — — — 1135 — 836 1261 240 6201 — — 1026 160 — 27 1049 — 2320 — 728 5500 608 941 6600 2709 14786 — — — —

— 25385 — 11900 2600 4962 800 1065 641 557 734 285 6101 6710 3563 831 152 — 32 998 — 1936 6290 465 5532 642 877 6000 2504 11624 — — — —

Source: From Table 3.1C, OECD Environmental Data Compendium 2002, q OECD 2002, www.oecd.org.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Canada Mexico U.S.A. Japan Korea Australia N. Zealand Austria Belgium Czech Rep. Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Italy Luxembourg The Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Slovak Rep. Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey UK Russian Fed. N. America OECD/Europe EU-15 OECD

Total Abstractions (mill m3)

Per Capita/ (m3/Capita) (b)

a b c

CAN, 1980, 1985, and 1990: 1981, 1986, and 1991 data. 1999: WWF estimate for 1995; MEX, 1980: excluding agricultural uses besides irrigation. Data include Secretariat estimates for electrical cooling based on electricity generated in power stations in 1980. 1999: Total gross abstraction excluding 143 km3 used in hydroelectric energy generation; U.S.A., 1999: WWF estimate for 1995; JPN, 1999: 1997 data; KOR, Partial totals excluding electrical cooling. 1999: 1997 data; AUS, 1980: 1977 data adjusted for an average climatic year. 1985: fiscal year 1983/84. 1999: 1996/97 data; NZL, Partial totals excluding industrial and electrical cooling. 1980: composite total based on data for various years. 1999: 1993 estimates; AUT, Partial totals. Surface water: excluding agriculture, irrigation and industry except cooling. Groundwater: excluding industry and electrical cooling. 1999: 1997 data; BEL, 1999: 1998 data; data include Secretariat estimates; DNK, 1980 and 1999: 1977 and 1998 data. 1990 refer only to groundwater abstractions, which represent the majority of total freshwater abstractions (e.g. 95–99% for 1995); FIN, Partial totals. 1985 and 1990: exclude agricultural uses besides irrigations. 1999: includes country estimate for agriculture; FRA, 1980 and 1999: 1981 and 1997 data. 1997: Break in time series; DEU, Excluding agricultural uses besides irrigation. 1980 and 1985: 1979 and 1983 data for western Germany only. 1990 and 1999: 1991 and 1998 data for total Germany. Data include electrical cooling; GRC, Partial totals excluding agricultural uses besides irrigation. 1999: 1997 data including, for public water supply, data from 42 out of 75 great water distribution enterprises; HUN, 1999: 1998 data; ISL, Totals include the domestic use of geothermal water. 1990: 1992 data; IRL, 1999: 1994 data; totals include 1980 data for electrical cooling; ITA, Excluding agricultural uses besides irrigation. 1980: including 1973 estimates for industrial cooling. 1990 and 1999: 1989 and 1998 data; LUX, 1990: 1989 data, including 1983 data; NLD, Partial totals excluding all agricultural uses. 1980, 1985, 1990 and 1999: 1981, 1986, 1991 and 1996 data; NOR, Data include 1978 data for industry. 1985: 1983 data. 1999: data are estimates for 1994; POL, Totals include abstractions for agriculture, which refer to aquaculture (areas over 10 ha) and irrigation (arable land and forest areas greater than 20 ha); animal production and domestic needs of rural inhabitants are not covered (selfsupply); PRT, Excluding agricultural uses besides irrigation. 1990: 1991 data. 1999: 1998 data; ESP, Excluding agricultural uses besides irrigation. Groundwater: excluding industry. 1990 and 1999: 1991 and 1997 data; SWE, 1980, 1985 and 1990: include data from different years. 1999: 1995 data; CHE, Partial totals excluding all agricultural uses. 1999: 1998 data; TUR, Partial totals. Excluding agricultural uses besides irrigation. 1980 and 1985: excluding electrical cooling. 1990: 1991 data. 1999: total: country estimates; surface and groundwater: 1997 data; UKD, Partial totals. England Wales only. Data include miscellaneous uses for power generation, but exclude hydroelectric power water use; RUS, 1990: 1991 data; Totals, Rounded figures, including Secretarial estimates. OECD and EU until 1985: western Germany only. % of renewable resources: calculated using the estimated totals for internal resources (not total resources as for countries), and considering England and Wales only.

WATER USE

Note:

Data refer to total abstraction divided by total renewable resources, except for regional totals, where the internal resource estimates were used to avoid double counting. Total renewable resources represent the maximum quantity of water available on average. Data refer to 1999 or latest available year. Data prior to 1994 have not been considered. Data refer to 1999 or latest available year.

Source: From Table 3.1B, OECD Environmental Data Compendium 2002, q OCED 2002, www.oecd.org.

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q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-40

Table 7B.16 Worldwide Annual Groundwater Withdrawals and Desalinization Average Annual Groundwater Recharge

3

Total (km ) Years Vary X X

3

Per Capita (m ) Year 2000

Year

Total (km3)

X X

Sectoral Share (percent) Per Capita (m3) 106–124 X

a

Domestics

Industry

Agriculture

65 X

15 X

20 X

Desalinated Water Production (mill m3) 1990

X X

1995 X

4.2 6.5 21.0 X 17.6 828.8 17.2 418.5 455.0 27.0n 35.9 21.0b

1,193 842 163 X 1,576 649 3,469 413 2,145 213 2,211 874

X X 1990 X X 1988 1990 1990 X 1995h 1993q X

X X 10.7 X X 52.9 3.0 190.0 X 13.6 2.4 X

X X 50.9 X X 6.4 17.4 45.4 X 50.3 6.7 X

X X 97.6 X X 47.1 549.5 223.3 X 108.2 143.9 X

X X 13 X X X X 9 X 29 21 X

X X 1 X X X X 2 X 41 71 X

X X 88l X X 54 X 89m X 30o 8q X

X X X X X X X X X 40.0p 1,328.0r X

13.3b 13.6 38.0

284 2,894 6,994

1995h 1994t X

2.5 0.6 X

18.6 4.4 X

55.1 132.0 X

X 50 X

X 25 X

17s 25t X

X X X

64.0 6.1 156.0b X 55.0 180.0b X 7.8 6.0 41.9b 3.4 19.7 48.0

2,877 2,291 3,420 X 351 2,369 X 414 970 682 753 809 601

1995 1993 X X 1991 1980 X X 1994 1980 1994 1994 1990

0.4 0.4 X X 60.0 4.0 X X 2.3 0.7 0.4 7.4 0.8

0.6 5.8 X X 109.1 2.2 X X 37.7 1.7 11.9 37.6 1.7

19.0 149.1 X X 489.5 82.8 X X 398.7 15.0 100.3 334.3 11.9

62 X X X X 50 X X X 60 53 33 X

33 X X X X 50 X X X 26 9 11 X

5 X X X 90u X X X X 14 38 57v X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X 7.0 22.3b 18.0 0.9c X

X 2,248 2,716 1,758 89 X

X 1989 1995h 1989 1980 X

X 0.6 1.4 1.2 0.8 X

X 9.0 6.2 6.6 86.4 X

X 193.6 172.5 115.7 79.0 X

X 48 52 52 55 X

X X 43 13 22 X

X 52 5w 28x 4 X

X X X X X X

13.4y 11.0 X

1,629 2,459 X

1988 X 1995h

5.0 X 0.5

37.3 X X

566.1 X 48.0

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

600–700 X

Percentage of Annual Recharge

X X

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

World Asia (Excl Middle East Armenia Azerbaijan Bangladesh Bhutan Cambodia China Georgia India Indonesia Japan Kazakhstan Korea, Dem People’s Rep Korea, Rep Kyrgyzstan Lao People’s Dem Rep Malaysia Mongolia Maynmar Nepal Pakistan Philippines Singapore Sri Lanka Tajikistan Thailand Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Vietnam Europe Albania Austria Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Czech Rep

Annual Groundwater Withdrawals

30.0z 4.0 1.9bb 100.0dd 45.7b 10.3 6.8c 24.0b 3.5c 43.0 2.2 1.2 X 0.4 4.5hh 96.0b 36.0 5.1c 8.3hh 788.0 X X 28.9 20.0c 2.7 20.0 9.8 3.0 X

5,668 2,865 367 1,693 556 968 678 85,419 928 750 934 327 X 91 285 21,502 929 516 372 5,363 X X 729 2,245 366 396 167 282 X

1995h X 1995h 1994 1990 1990 1995h 1995h 1995 1992 X 1995 X X 1990 1985 1995h 1995 1993 1988 1995h 1994 1995h 1995h 1995h 1989 1995h X X

0.9 X 0.2 6.0 7.1 2.0 1.0 0.2 0.2 13.9 X 0.2 X X 1.0 0.4 2.0 3.1 3.6 12.6 0.6 0.2 5.4 0.6 0.9 4.0 2.5 X X

3.0 X 12.8 6.0 15.5 19.4 14.5 0.6 6.5 32.3 X 17.1 X X 23.3 0.4 5.5 60.1 43.7 1.6 X X 18.8 3.2 33.4 20.1 25.2 X X

169.8 X 47.8 103.8 89.4 195.7 96.5 558.9 62.3 243.2 X 55.1 X X 70.2 97.5 51.5 311.0 158.0 85.5 113.0 88.9 137.2 72.8 126.3 77.5 42.4 X X

40 X 65 56 48 37 35 X 35 39 X X X X 32 27 70 39 61 X X X 18 92 72 30 51 X X

22 X 11 27 47 5 48 X 38 4 X X X X 45 73 30 23 38 X X X 2 8 40 18 47 X X

38aa X 24cc 17 4ee 58 18ff X 29gg 58 X X X X 23ii Xjj Xkk 39ll 1mm X X X 80 Xnn Xoo 52pp 2qq X X

29.0b 1.7c 1.3c 42.0c 13.0c 0.5 0.6c X 4.8 0.7

1,276 54 19 620 562 80 87 X 1,463 116

X 1989 1995 1980 1985 1996 1993 1994 1991 1995

X 2.9 5.3 29.0 0.2 1.2 0.5 0.3 0.4 3.7

X 167.6 407.7 69.0 1.5 234.0 91.4 X 8.3 561.5

X 117.1 85.1 738.8 13.1 204.5 100.7 142.7 153.2 734.9

X 46 58 X 50 18 30 0 13 9

X 5 0 X 40 2 4 0 9 4

X 49 42rr X X 80tt 66vv 100ww 78 87yy

X 64.0 25.0 2.9ss X 20.0uu 2.0r 231.0r X 70.0xx

9.0 1.0 1.0c 6.6 4.2 20.0 0.1

317 376 44 409 433 300 49

1998 1985 1990 1993 1995 1995h 1995

2.7 0.4 14.4 1.8 1.6 7.6 1.6

29.8 41.9 1518.9 27.3 39.2 38.0 1333.3

97.9 280.7 899.3 133.5 181.8 124.0 724.1

16 X 10 13 10 31 X

X X X 4 4 9 19j

84zz X 90 83ddd 86 60ddd 81ccc

3.4aaa 34.0bbb 714.0bbb X 8.3 0.5 385.0bbb

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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(Continued)

WATER USE

Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungry Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Macedonia, FYR Moldova, Rep Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russian Federation Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom Yugoslavia Middle East & N. Africa Afghanistan Algeria Egypt Iran, Islamic Rep Iraq Israel Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Morocco Oman Saudi Arabia Syrian Arab Rep Tunisia Turkey United Arab Emirates

(Continued)

7-42

Table 7B.16

Average Annual Groundwater Recharge

Total (km3) Years Vary 1.5 X 72.0b 1.8c 1.7c 9.5c 2.1b 100.0b 56.0b 11.5b 198.0b 421.0b 37.7c 10.0b X 44.0b 62.0b 0.5b 26.3c 38.0b 14.0b 3.0c 0.5b 60.0b 55.0b 1.4b 20.0c 0.3c 17.0b 2.1b 2.5c 87.0b 3.6b 7.6b 50.0b 3.3b 4.8 7.0 30.0b

84 X 5,591 295 1,048 796 314 6,629 15,490 1,503 67,268 8,150 2,550 22,097 X 703 50,566 383 1,301 5,114 11,541 100 232 19,023 3,450 128 1,780 112 864 1,217 233 780 466 802 10,300 327 119 237 895

5.7c 29.0b

1,231 1,332

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Year 1985

eee

X X X X X X X X 1990 X X X X X X 1989 X X X X X X X 1984 X 1989 1985 X X 1988 X X 1985 X 1985 1980 1985 X X X

Total (km3) 1.4 X X X X X X X X 0.1 X X X X X X 0.0 X X X X X X X 4.8 X 0.1 0.9 X X 0.1 X X 0.3 X 0.3 1.8 0.3 X X X

Percentage of Annual Recharge

Sectoral Share (percent) Per Capita (m3)

88.5 X X X X X X X X 0.8 X X X X X X 0.0 X X X X X X X 8.7 X 0.5 293.3 X X 5.2 X X 3.3 X 9.1 37.3 4.0 X

139.2 X X X X X X X X 15.7 X X X X X X 0.6 X X X X X X X 482.9 X 11.6 498.3 X X 17.9 X X 39.2 X 45.8 64.9 13.0 X

X X

X X

Domestics

Industry

a

Agriculture

X X X X X X X X X 29 X X X X X X 100 X X X X X X X 0 X X X X X 58 X X 24 X X 11 X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 0 X X X X X X X X X X X X X 4 X X X X X 6 X X

X X X X X X X X X 71 X X X X X X 0 X X X X X X X Xd X X X X X 39 X X 72 X X 84 X X

X X

X X

X X

Desalinated Water Production (mill m3) 1990 10.0fff X X X X X X X X X 0.2 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 1.7 0.1 3.0 X 3.0 X 0.1 X 0.1 17.5 0.4 X X X

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Yemen Sub-Saharan Africa Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameron Central African Rep Chad Congo Congo, Dem Rep Coˆte d’Ivoire Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Senegal Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Tanzania, United Rep Togo Uganda

Per Capita (m3) Year 2000

Annual Groundwater Withdrawals

a b c d e f g h

47.1 5.0b XX 370.0b 1,514.0f X X 21.0b 8.0b 3.0b X 31.0b 2.5b 39.0b X 139.0b 59.0b 42.0b X X 128.0b 130.0b 1,874.0b 140.0b 510.0b 134.0b 103.0b 41.0b 303.0b 80.0b 23.0b 227.0b X 72.0c X 198.0b X X

5,137 428 X 11,878 5,439 X X 5,219 714 353 X 2.723 304 6,013 X 1,406 11,627 14,708 X X 3,456 15,609 11,016 9,204 12,051 10,596 119,582 7,459 11,807 191,787 6,892 9,392 X 3,812 X 51,270 X X

X X X 1889 1990 X

X X X 1.0 109.8 X

X X X 0.3 7.3 X

X X X 37.3 432.3 X

X X X 34 20 X

X X X 11 5 X

X X X 34e 62g X

X X X X X X

X X 1975 X X X X X X 1995h X X X X 1975 X 1987 X X X X X 1973 X X X X 1985 X X X X

X X 3.8 X X X X X X 25.1 X X X X 4.7 X 8.0 X X X X X 2.0 X X X X 2.2 X X X X

X X 47.5 X X X X X X 18.1 X X X X 3.7 X 0.4 X X X X X 0.7 X X X X 3.1 X X X X

X X 408.3 X X X X X X 275.4 X X X X 180.4 X 57.0 X X X X X 139.4 X X X X 143.2 X X X X

X X X X X X X X X 13 X X X X 11 X 38 X X X X X 25 X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X 23 X X X X 19 X 25 X X X X X 15 X X X X 20j X X X X

X X X X X X X X X 64I X X X X 70 X 38 X X X X X 60 X X X X 57k X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

WATER USE

Zambia Zimbabwe North America Canada United States C. America & Caribbean Belize Costa Rica Cuba Dominican Rep El Salvador Guatemala Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Trinidad and Tobago South America Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Guyana Paraguay Peru Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Oceania Australia Fiji New Zealand Papua New Guinea Solomon Islands

Estimates are typically approximate and therefore the sum of the sectoral data may not add to 100 percent. Sum of all groundwater flows, including base flow (as a constituent of surface water flows). Sum of all aquifer recharge flows. Sectoral data for Madagascar equal 0.32 percent for domestic for 1984 as reported by Margat 1990. Sectoral data for Canada are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 1.6 km3 from 1985 as reported by Margat 1990. Data for the United States are from Economic Commission for Europe (1992) without a specific date. Data reported by Margat (1990) are 660 km3 from a source dated 1974 and refer to the U.S. Including the 50 states and Puerto Rico. Sectoral data for the U.S. are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 101.3 km3 from 1985 as reported by Margat 1990. Data refer to 1995 or latest available year (generally from 1991, 1992, 1993, or 1994).

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-43

(Continued)

(Continued)

i

Sectoral data are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 23.5 km3 from around 1985 as reported by Margat 1990. Domestic and industrial withdrawals have been combined. k Sectoral data for Australia are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 2.46 km3 from 1983 as reported by Margat 1990. l Sectoral data for Bangladesh are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 3.4 km3 from 1979 as reported by Margat 1990. m Sectoral data are from around 1990 as provided by Shiklomonov; total withdrawal data also are from 1990 but are from FAO, Irrigation in Asia in Figures, p. 95. n Data are from FAO, Irrigation in Asia in Figures (1999) which states “The renewable potential of groundwater resources is estimated at about 27 km3/yr—.” A value of 185 km3/yr is provided by Margat (1990) cited from L’vovich 1974. o Sectoral data for Japan are from 1987 as provided by Shiklomonov 1997 based on groundwater withdrawal of 12.88 km3. p Data are from 1996. q Both withdrawal and sectoral data are estimated from a bar graph from FAO Report: Irrigation in the Former Soviet Union Countries in Figures, p. 116. r Data are from 1993. s Sectoral data for the Republic of Korea are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 1.2 km3 from around 1985 as provided by Margat 1990. t Kyrgystan data: FAO Irrigation in the Former Soviet Union Countries in Figures, p. 129, “In 1994, more than 0.6 km3 of water was withdrawn from groundwater.” We have entered a value of 0.6 but the figure may be higher; we have calculated the sectoral data from the figure in this report on page 129, using the 0.6 figure for total withdrawal. u Sectoral data for Pakistan are from Shiklomonov who reports “approximately 90 percent” for agriculture share; total withdrawal also is approximately 60 km3/yr for around 990 (table p. 57). v Sectoral data for Uzbekistan are from 1994 FAO Irrigation in the Former Sovet Union Countries in Figures estimated from a bar graph, p. 217. w Sectoral data for Austria are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 1.17 km3 from 1980 as reported by Margat 1990. x Sectoral data Belarus are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 1.06 km3 from 1985 as reported by Margot 1990. y Data for Bulgaria are from ECE (1992) and refer to the year 1988; Margat (1990) reports data from a 1989 source (Anonyme 1989) as 3.1 km3. z Data for Denmark are from ECE (1992) and refer to the year 1985; Margat (1990) reports data from a 1981 source (Anonyme 1981) as 4.3 km3. aa Sectoral data are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 1.32 km3 from 1977 as reported by Margat 1990. bb Data for Finland are from ECE (1992) without a year specified; Margat (1990) reports data from a 1989 source (Anonyme 1989) as 2.2 km3. cc Sectoral data are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 0.37 km3 from 1980 as reported by Margat 1990. dd Data are from Margat (1990) and refer to a source dated 1989 (Margat 1989); data reported from ECE (1992) is 26.0 km3 for 1981. ee Sectoral data are from Margat (1990) and combine his data for both Germanys. Margat’s total withdrawal data are from different dates for the two Germanys. Germany—RFA is 7.77 km3 from 1981 and Germany—ex DDR is from 1975; the combined total is 9.55 which is used to calculate the sectoral percentage. The sectoral data also are from 1981 (Germany RFA) and 1975 (Germany—ex DDR). ff Sectoral data are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 1.6 km3 from 1972 as reported by Margat 1990. gg Sectoral data for Ireland are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 0.17 km3 from 1980 as reported by Margat 1990. hh Sum of the total groundwater flow that is exploitable. ii Sectoral data are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 1.28 km3 from 1981 as reported by Margat 1990. jj Sectoral data for Norway are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 0.11 km3 from 1985 as reported by Margat 1990. kk Sectoral data are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 2.0 km3 from 1980–81 as reported by Margat 1990. ll Sectoral data are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 2.0 km3 from 1980 as reported by Margat 1990. mm Sectoral data are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 1.18 km3 from 1975 as reported by Margat 1990. nn Sectoral data for Sweden are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 0.48 km3 from 1985 as reported by Margat 1990. oo Sectoral data for Switzerland are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 1.0 km3 from 1983 as reported by Margat 1990. pp Sectoral data are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 4.22 km3 from 1985 at reported by Margat 1990. qq Sectoral data are calculated using a groundwater withdrawal value of 2.38 km3 from 1975 as reported by Margat 1990. rr Sectoral data are from 1992, Margat Blue Plan. ss Data are from 1991. tt Sectoral data are from 1994, Margat Blue Plan. uu Data are from Margat, personal communication February 2000. vv Groundwater withdrawal and sectoral data are estimated from a bar graph for 1993 from FAD water Report: Irrigation in the Near East Region in Figures, Rome, 1997, p. 115. ww Groundwater withdrawal and sectoral data are estimated from a bar graph for 1994 from FAD Water Report: Irrigation in the Near East Region in Figures, Rome, 1997, p. 124. xx Data are from 1994; from FAD irrigation in the Near East Region in Figures, p. 29. yy Sectoral percentages are calculated using groundwater withdrawal of 3.81 km3 which is an estimate provided with sectoral data for 1995 in Margat Blue Plan. zz Sectoral data are from 1991, Margat Blue Plan. aaa Data are from 1992. bbb Data are from 1995. ccc Sectoral percentage for UAE are a combination of data from text and a bar graph for 1995 from FAO Water Report: Irrigation in the Near East Region in Figures, Rome 1997, p. 266.

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Table 7B.16 j

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Sectoral data are from 1990, Margat Blue Plan. Groundwater withdrawal data are from Margat 1990, presented as two separate values, one for Yemen du Nord for around 1985 equal to 1 bill m3/yr; the other for Yemen du Sud for 1975 equal to 0.35 billion m3 per year. These two figures have been added. fff Data are from 1989. ggg Sectoral data are from Margat Blue Plan for 1989. hhh Sectoral data refer only to Mauritius Island only. eee

WATER USE

ddd

Technical Notes Source: From World Resources Institute, Earth Trends Environmental Information, Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems, Data Tables, Table FW.2 Groundwater and Desalinization, www.earthtrends.wri.org. Original Source: From Groundwater resources and withdrawal data: J. Margat, Les eau — souterraines sand le monde (Bureau de recherches ge´ologiques et minie`res [BRGM], De´partement eau, Orie´ans, France, December 1990); J. Margat and D. Valle´e, Water Resources and Uses in the Mediterranean Countries (Blue Plan, Sophia Antipolis, 1999); I.A. Shiklomanov, Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater Resources of the World (Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm, 1997); Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), OECD Environmental Data Compendium 1997 (OECD, Paris, 1997); and Economic Commission for Europe, The Environment in Europe and North America (United Nations, New York, 1992). Groundwater resources and desalinization activities: J. Margat, Le — Eau — Souterraines Dans Le Bassin Mediterraneen. Resources et Utilisations Plan Bleu, Doc. BRGM 282 (Ed. BRGM, Orle´ans, France, 1998); Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Irrigation in Africa in Figures, Water Reports No. 7 (FAO, Rome, 1995); FAO, Irrigation in the Near East Region in Figures, Water Reports No. 9 (FAO, Rome, 1997); FAO, Irrigation in the Former Soviet Union in Figures, Water Report No. 15 (FAO, Rome, 1997); FAO, Irrigation in Asia in Figures, Water Reports No. 18 (FAO, Rome, 1999); and FAO, Irrigation in Latin America in Figures, Water Reports (FAO, Rome, in preparation). Population data: United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, World Population Prospects, 1950–2050 (The 1998 Revision), on diskette (U.N., New York, 1999). Average annual groundwater recharge is the amount of water that is estimated to annually infiltrate soils, including water from rivers and streams that lose it to underlying strata. In general, this figure would represent the maximum amount of water that could be withdrawn annually without ultimately depleting the groundwater resource. These data are estimated in a variety of ways and caution should be used in comparing values for different countries. Per capita recharge is the amount of water that annually infiltrates soils on a per person basis, using 2000 population estimates from the U.N. Population Division. Annual total groundwater withdrawals refers to abstractions from all groundwater sources — even nonrenewable sources. The percentage of annual recharge refers to total groundwater withdrawals. Per capita annual withdrawals were calculated using national population data for the year of data shown. Sectoral share of withdrawals of groundwater is classified as domestic (drinking water, homes, commercial establishments, public services, and municipal use), industry including water withdrawn to cool thermoelectric plants), and agriculture (irrigation and livestock). Desalinated water production refers to the removal of salt from saline waters — usually seawater — using a variety of techniques including reverse osmosis. Most desalinated water is used for domestic purposes. Totals may not add due to rounding.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 7C

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY — UNITED STATES

WATER USE

Table 7C.17 Public Water Supply Supreme in the United States, 2003 System Size by Population Served

CWS

NTNCWS

TNCWS

Note:

# systems Pop. served % of systems % of pop # systems Pop. served % of systems % of pop # systems Pop. served % of systems % of pop Total # systems Total Population Served

Very Small 500 or Less

Small 501–3,300

Medium 3,301–10,000

Large 10,001–100,000

30,417 5,010,834 57% 2% 16,785 2,327,575 85% 37% 85,366 7,315,647 97% 31% 132,568

14,394 20,261,508 27% 7% 2,786 2,772,334 14% 44% 2,657 2,602,706 3% 11% 19,837

4,686 27,201,137 9% 10% 97 506,124 0% 8% 96 528,624 0% 2% 4,879

3,505 98,706,485 7% 36% 16 412,463 0% 7% 29 619,248 0% 3% 3,550

Water Source Type Very Large O100,000 361 122,149,436 1% 45% 2 279,846 0% 4% 4 12,269,000 0% 53% 367

Groundwater

Surface Water

Total

41,499 86,348,074 78% 32% 18,908 5,568,192 96% 88% 86,061 10,527,089 98% 45% 146,468 102,443,355

11,864 186,981,326 22% 68% 778 730,150 4% 12% 2,091 12,808,136 2% 55% 14,733 200,519,612

53,363 273,329,400 100% 100% 19,686 6,298,342 100% 100% 88,152 23,335,225 100% 100% 161,201

Active, current systems, from Safe Drinking Water Information System/Federal version (SDWIS/FED) 03Q4 frozen inventory table. CWS, Community Water System: A public water system that supplies water to the same population year-round; NTNCWS, Non-Transient Non-Community Water System: A public water system that regularly supplies water to at least 25 of the same people at least six months per year, but not year-round. Some examples are schools, factories, office buildings, and hospitals which have their own water systems; TNCWS, Transient Non-Community Water System: A public water system that provides water in a place such as a gas station or compground where people do not remain for long periods of time. Groundwater systems, groundwater (GW), purchased groundwater (GWP); Surface water systems, surface water (SW), purchased surface water (SWP), groundwater under the direct influence of surface water (GU), purchased groundwater under the direct influence of surface water (GUP).

Source:

From USEPA, FACTOIDS: Drinking Water and Groundwater Statistics for 2003, www.epa.gov.

7-47

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-48

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Total public water systems in the United States 161,201

Non-community 107,838 (67%)

Community 53,363 (23%)

Surface water 11,864 (22%)

Groundwater 41,499 (78%)

68% of population served (community)

Groundwater 104,969 (97%)

Surface water 2,869 (3%)

32% of population served (community)

Figure 7C.9 Number and type of public water systems in the United States in 2003. (From American Water Works Association, 1988, New Dimensions in Safe Drinking Water, Copyright AWWA modified with data from USEPA, FY2003, Drinking Water Factors, www.epa.gov.)

60

57

Population served Number of community water systems

50

Percent distribution

45 40

36

30

27

20 10

10

9

7

7

3

1

0 Very small (500 or less)

Small (501−3,300)

Medium (3,301−10,000) Large (10,001−100,000) Very large (> 100,000)

Size of water system Figure 7C.10 Size distribution of community water systems in the United States in 2003. (From American Water Works Association, 1988, New Dimensions in Safe Drinking Water, modified with data from USEPA, FACTOIDS: Drinking Water and Groundwater Statistics for 2003, www.epa.gov.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

Table 7C.18 Average Daily Production (MGD) by Primary Water Source in Public Supply Systems in the United States in 2000 (Based on a Survey of 1246 Systems) System Service Population Category 100 or Less

101– 500

501– 3,300

3,301– 10,000

10,001– 50,000

50,001– 100,000

100,001– 500,000

Over 500,000

All Sizes

0.011 G0.009

0.034 G0.009

0.158 G0.034

1.058 G0.193

2.628 G0.382

11.892 G1.643

17.631 G13.186

125.642 G23.115

0.313 G0.052

0.003 G0.004

0.019 G0.000

0.524 G0.552

0.872 G0.365

3.718 G1.154

11.225 G1.490

29.778 G4.390

144.963 G32.023

3.587 G1.236

% Groundwater Confidence Interval

66.7 G0.0

83.3 G0.0

58.1 G4.9

78.0 G11.1

84.5 G9.3

74.1 G3.6

73.0 G5.5

83.5 G14.8

78.6 G5.9

% Surface Water Confidence Interval

0.0 G0.0

0.0 G0.0

41.9 G4.9

7.4 G7.3

2.1 G3.9

12.4 G6.1

6.1 G3.1

0.0 G0.0

6.0 G3.9

33.3 G0.0 86

16.7 G0.0 88

0.0 G0.0 88

14.7 G9.6 53

13.4 G8.8 35

13.5 G6.4 20

20.9 G5.8 20

16.5 G14.8 5

15.4 G5.3 395

0.010 G0.007

0.071 G0.031

0.279 G0.059

0.935 G0.153

4.766 G1.430

11.041 G2.681

31.875 G2.733

271.287 G79.561

4.280 G0.995

0.014 G0.012

0.013 G0.010

0.269 G0.141

0.779 G0.318

4.253 G1.325

11.537 G1.682

42.431 G5.065

219.892 G96.067

8.636 G4.026

% Groundwater Confidence Interval

35.2 G19.6

24.0 G6.5

13.5 G10.3

18.9 G10.6

14.3 G6.5

10.4 G4.7

14.0 G2.9

8.9 G4.1

15.6 G4.1

% Surface Water Confidence Interval

64.8 G19.6

76.0 G6.5

69.4 G8.0

76.7 G8.5

81.5 G5.8

85.4 G5.0

82.8 G3.0

86.4 G4.1

77.7 G3.6

% Purchased Water 0.0 Confidence Interval G0.0 Observations 41 Primarily Purchased Water Systems 100% Purchased Water Average Daily Production 0.008 Confidence Interval G0.008 Mostly Purchased Water

0.0 G0.0 49

17.0 G13.0 56

4.4 G4.4 63

4.1 G4.3 64

4.3 G3.4 35

3.3 G1.6 70

4.7 G2.3 26

6.6 G3.7 404

0.017 G0.004

0.150 G0.046

0.886 G0.445

2.302 G0.918

9.595 G1.417

23.975 G3.277

129.602 G69.896

0.866 G0.309

Primary Source of Water Primarily Groundwater Systems 100% Groundwater Average Daily Production Confidence Interval Mostly Groundwater Average Daily Production Confidence Interval

% Purchased Water Confidence Interval Observations Primarily Surface Water Systems 100% Surface Water Average Daily Production Confidence Interval Mostly Surface Water Average Daily Production Confidence Interval

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-49

(Continued)

7-50

Table 7C.18

(Continued) System Service Population Category

Primary Source of Water

100 or Less

501– 3,300

3,301– 10,000

10,001– 50,000

50,001– 100,000

100,001– 500,000

Over 500,000

All Sizes

Average Daily Production Confidence Interval

* *

0.016 G0.000

0.103 G0.093

1.407 G0.490

5.595 G1.969

16.498 G8.407

32.220 G4.606

280.185 G68.668

5.538 G3.383

% Groundwater Confidence Interval

* *

33.3 G0.0

42.8 G4.6

28.4 G10.9

12.8 G7.3

22.4 G10.8

19.5 G4.4

11.2 G5.8

31.0 G7.3

% Surface Water Confidence Interval

* *

0.0 G0.0

0.0 G0.0

3.9 G6.1

6.9 G8.0

8.1 G9.2

8.3 G3.6

13.1 G6.0

2.8 G2.5

* * 6

66.7 G0.0 22

57.2 G4.6 47

67.7 G9.7 19

80.3 G10.3 17

69.5 G7.2 22

72.2 G4.7 23

75.7 G8.2 7

66.2 G6.1 163

0.011 G0.008 138

0.033 G0.007 166

0.166 G0.024 208

0.995 G0.131 170

3.589 G0.518 159

11.305 G1.093 116

28.811 G5.427 201

222.672 G41.741 58

% Purchased Water Confidence Interval Observations All Systems Average Daily Production Confidence Interval Observations Note:

1.103 G0.124 1,216

*No purchased water systems of this size in sample. Definitions: Production is the amount of water drawn from each source. It includes water delivered to customers and system losses. The tabulations presented in the Community Water System Survery 2000 are based on data collected from a sample of U.S. Water Systems, not from a census of every water system in the United States. A confidence interval is one way to gauge how precisely a given tabulation of survey data can be generalized to the entirety of U.S. Systems represented by the surveyed systems. Any result presented in the table must be viewed as the center of a range that would encompass the precise number that would be found if every U.S. water system could have been included in the tabulation, and not only those who were sampled and responded to the 2000 Community Water System Survey. The confidence interval expresses the range as a “plus/minus,” that is, an amount to be added to and subtracted from the calculated data point actually presented in the table. The confidence interval is designed to include the true value in the stated rage 95 perecent of the time. Source: From USEPA, 2002, Community Water System Survery 2000, EPA 815-R-02-005A, www.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

101– 500

WATER USE

7-51

Table 7C.19 Number and Percentage of Systems by Primary Source of Water in Public Supply Systems in the United States in 2000 (Based on a Survey of 1246 September) System Service Population Category Primary Source of Water

100 or Less

Primary Groundwater Systems 100% Groundwater Number 10,358 Percent 82 Mostly Groundwater Number 1,398 Percent 11 Primarily Surface Water Systems 100% Surface Water Number 790 Percent 6 Mostly Surface Water Number 43 Percent 0 Primarily Purchased Water Systems 100% Purchased Water Number 69 Percent 1 Mostly Purchased Water a Number a Percent All Number 12,658 Percent 100

101– 500

501– 3,300

3,301– 10,000

12,521 76

8,687 62

2,576 51

624 4

283 2

897 5

10,001– 50,000

50,001– 100,000

100,001– 500,000

Over 500,000

971 32

80 17

108 25

7 8

35,308 68

495 10

368 12

56 12

53 12

3 4

3,280 6

1,015 7

835 17

769 26

140 30

113 26

36 43

4,595 9

239 1

197 1

173 3

220 7

70 15

65 15

17 20

1,024 2

2,050 12

3,412 24

773 15

476 16

94 20

46 11

13 15

6,933 13

130 1

423 3

200 4

209 7

31 7

45 10

8 10

1,046 2

16,461 100

14,017 100

5,052 100

3,013 100

471 100

430 100

84 100

52,186 100

All Sizes

Note: The tabulations presented in the Community Water System Survey 2000 are based on data collected from a sample of U.S. Water Systems, not from a census of every water system in the United States. a

No purchased water systems of this size in sample.

Source: From USEPA, 2002, Community Water Systems Survey 2000, EPA 815-R-02-005A, www.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-52

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7C.20 Public Water Supply Systems in United States by State, 2003 Water System Type CWS AK AL AR AZ CA CO CT DC DE FL GA HI IA ID IL IN KS KY LA MA MD ME MI MN MO MS MT NC ND NE

434 461,264 607 5,167,519 730 2,482,867 799 4,766,531 3,140 36,207,653 836 4,923,405 573 2,660,903 2 595,000 226 790,178 1,925 16,281,037 1,678 7,119,376 116 1,285,174 1,140 2,526,314 748 924,721 1,797 11,300,507 853 4,499,532 912 2,581,726 424 4,588,463 1,131 4,878,378 517 8,955,179 501 4,502,328 395 615,264 1,447 7,197,342 963 4,040,822 1,456 4,864,516 1,168 3,007,045 667 659,667 2,430 6,431,967 321 551,709 610

NTNCWS

Water Source Type

TNCWS

Total

Groundwater

Surface Water

213 43,412 32 19,448 61 12,622 210 132,626 1,413 495,441 170 91,311 667 129,913

936 91,513 72 7,399 329 17,365 644 132,193 3,017 11,031,005 1,004 264,435 1,754 60,447

1,337 294,193 417 1,476,656 705 920,088 1,442 1,440,327 6,488 10,688,260 1,569 782,198 2,924 501,499

102 25,247 1,045 263,623 251 72,646 9 6,385 146 45,068 245 52,667 416 150,302 715 210,497 58 23,945 57 21,968 185 72,684 250 71,673 569 162,742 373 72,052 1,689 471,246 565 84,158 254 79,159 94 81,400 225 59,886 576 159,401 28 4,102 181

176 57,545 3,433 298,672 559 88,806 4 500 688 88,128 1,048 114,320 3,370 374,357 2,928 417,480 102 4,054 138 11,453 323 74,731 920 142,832 2,687 167,496 1,211 197,391 8,986 1,063,724 6,257 490,353 1,001 133,877 116 24,648 1,129 176,587 4,492 377,666 179 15,523 586

1,583 596,189 711 5,194,366 1,120 2,512,854 1,653 5,031,350 7,570 47,734,099 2,010 5,279,151 2,994 2,851,263 2 595,000 504 872,970 6,403 16,843,332 2,488 7,280,828 129 1,292,059 1,974 2,659,510 2,041 1,091,708 5,583 11,825,166 4,496 5,127,509 1,072 2,609,725 619 4,621,884 1,639 5,025,793 1,687 9,169,684 3,757 4,832,566 1,979 884,707 12,122 8,732,312 7,785 4,615,333 2,711 5,077,552 1,378 3,113,093 2,021 896,140 77,498 6,969,034 528 571,334 1,377

246 301,996 294 3,717,710 415 1,592,766 211 3,591,023 1,082 37,045,839 441 4,496,953 70 2,349,764 2 595,000 3 276,130 75 2,620,571 220 5,681,134 16 122,769 160 1,185,876 72 251,870 723 8,527,224 132 2,305,481 327 1,779,030 359 4,256,891 83 2,003,502 183 7,011,834 96 3,957,819 79 429,986 307 5,529,190 110 1,430,523 236 3,292,352 4 323,951 218 393,416 668 5,005,158 84 306,669 75

501 596,840 6,328 14,222,761 2,268 1,599,694 113 1,169,290 1,814 1,473,634 1,969 839,838 4,860 3,297,942 4,364 2,822,028 745 830,695 260 364,993 1,556 3,022,291 1,504 2,157,850 3,661 874,747 1,900 454,721 11,815 3,203,122 7,675 3,184,810 2,475 1,785,200 1,374 2,789,142 1,803 502,724 6,830 1,963,876 444 264,665 1,302

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

Table 7C.20

7-53

(Continued) Water System Type CWS

NH NJ NM NV NY OH OK OR PA RI SC SD TN TX UT VA VT WA WI WV WY

Total

NTNCWS

Water Source Type

TNCWS

Total

Groundwater

Surface Water

1,424,246 688 794,419 607 7,891,239 657 1,602,714 256 1,941,253 2,849 17,784,525 1,334 10,025,325 1,151 3,429,060 883 2,867,570 2,162 10,399,770 83 1,273,301 655 3,343,194 468 653,374 675 5,308,927 4,516 22,148,772 454 3,688,604 1,309 5,946,179 438 497,717 2,282 5,389,076 1,096 3,824,455 547 1,425,835 279 437,627

42,530 441 91,054 870 217,056 152 40,246 107 34,981 759 337,668 1,018 249,361 110 18,197 332 76,404 1,224 522,640 74 26,827 185 61,982 30 12,166 50 30,945 788 322,457 61 42,442 618 274,867 227 41,013 309 253,867 937 196,102 169 55,375 87 19,379

113,001 1,054 220,026 2,644 381,246 509 187,878 260 28,731 6,564 2,917,223 3,221 490,709 376 28,498 1,454 222,081 6,627 843,251 322 56,259 575 35,559 195 26,706 435 59,727 1,245 248,086 438 74,740 1,309 218,251 695 132,407 1,559 261,297 9,389 694,934 560 35,435 381 75,824

1,579,777 2,183 1,105,499 4,121 8,489,541 1,318 1,830,838 623 2,004,965 10,172 21,039,416 5,573 10,765,395 1,637 3,475,755 2,669 3,166,055 10,013 11,765,661 479 1,356,387 1,415 3,440,735 693 692,246 1,160 5,399,599 6,549 22,719,315 953 3,805,786 3,236 6,439,297 1,360 671,137 4,150 5,904,240 11,422 4,715,491 1,276 1,516,645 747 532,830

803,980 2,127 582,034 4,019 3,128,541 1,242 1,595,947 590 303,722 8,983 5,566,889 5,148 3,430,287 912 675,542 2,365 828,976 9,433 2,825,638 454 212,598 1,202 600,670 560 295,907 602 1,450,421 5,379 6,728,199 828 774,271 2,846 847,878 1,223 310,621 3,884 2,876,867 11,373 2,969,519 897 310,377 634 189,996

775,797 56 523,465 102 5,361,000 76 234,891 33 1,701,243 1,189 15,472,527 425 7,335,108 725 2,800,213 304 2,337,079 580 8,940,023 25 1,143,789 213 2,840,065 133 396,339 558 3,949,178 1,170 15,991,116 125 3,031,515 390 5,591,419 137 360,516 266 3,027,373 49 1,745,972 379 1,206,268 113 342,834

51,935 266,963,569

19,347 6,083,183

87,901 23,276,369

159,183

145,144 100,832,964

14,039 195,490,157

Note: First row is number of systems; Second row is population served. CWS, Community Water System; NTNCWS, Non-Transient Non-Community Water System; TNCWS, Transient NonCommunity Water System. Source: From USEPA, FACTOIDS: Drinking Water and Groundwater Statistics for 2003, www.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-54

Table 7C.21 Public Supply Freshwater Use in the United States, 2000 (Figures May Not Sum to Totals Because of Independent Rounding) Population (thousands)

Withdrawals (mill gall/day)

Served by Public Supply

Withdrawals (thousand Acre-Feet/yr)

By Source

By Source

Total

Population

Population (Percent)

Groundwater

Surface Water

Total

Groundwater

Surface Water

Total

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island

4,450 627 5,130 2,670 33,900 4,300 3,410 784 572 16,000 8,190 1,210 1,290 12,400 6,080 2,930 2,690 4,040 4,470 1,270 5,300 6,350 9,940 4,920 2,840 5,600 902 1,710 2,000 1,240 8,410 1,820 19,000 8,050 642 11,400 3,450 3,420 12,300 1,050

3,580 421 4,870 2,320 30,100 3,750 2,660 617 572 14,000 6,730 1,140 928 10,900 4,480 2,410 2,500 3,490 3,950 726 4,360 5,880 7,170 3,770 2,190 4,770 664 1,390 1,870 756 7,460 1,460 17,100 5,350 493 9,570 3,150 2,730 10,100 922

80 67 95 87 89 87 78 79 100 88 82 94 72 88 74 83 93 86 88 57 82 93 72 77 77 85 74 81 94 61 89 80 90 66 77 84 91 80 82 88

281 29.3 469 132 2,800 53.7 66 45 0 2,200 278 243 219 353 345 303 172 71 349 29.6 84.6 197 247 329 319 278 56.1 266 151 33 400 262 583 166 32.4 500 113 118 212 16.9

553 50.7 613 289 3,320 846 358 49.8 0 237 968 7.6 25.3 1,410 326 79.8 244 455 404 72.5 740 542 896 171 40.4 594 92.4 63.8 478 64.1 650 33.8 1,980 779 31.2 966 562 447 1,250 102

834 80 1,080 421 6,120 899 424 94.9 0 2,440 1,250 250 244 1,760 670 383 416 525 753 102 824 739 1,140 500 359 872 149 330 629 97.1 1,050 296 2,570 945 63.6 1,470 675 566 1,460 119

315 32.9 526 148 3,140 60.2 74 50.5 0 2,470 311 272 245 396 386 340 193 79.5 392 33.2 94.8 220 277 369 357 311 62.9 299 169 37 449 294 653 186 36.3 560 127 133 237 19

620 56.9 688 324 3,730 948 402 55.9 0 266 1,090 8.52 28.3 1,580 365 89.5 273 510 453 81.3 829 608 1,000 192 45.3 666 104 71.6 536 71.9 729 37.9 2,220 873 35 1,080 631 501 1,400 115

935 89.7 1,210 472 6,860 1,010 476 106 0 2,730 1,400 281 274 1,970 751 429 466 589 844 115 924 828 1,280 561 402 978 167 370 705 109 1,180 332 2,880 1,060 71.3 1,640 757 634 1,640 134

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

State

4,010 755 5,690 20,900 2,230 609 7,080 5,890 1,810 5,360 494 3,810 109 285,000

3,160 625 5,240 19,700 2,180 362 5,310 4,900 1,300 3,620 406 3,800 53.4 242,000

79 83 92 94 97 59 75 83 72 67 82 100 49 85

105 54.2 321 1,260 364 19.5 70.7 464 41.6 330 57.2 88.5 0.52 16,000

462 39.1 569 2,970 274 40.6 650 552 149 293 49.4 425 5.57 27,300

566 93.3 890 4,230 638 60.1 720 1,020 190 623 107 513 6.09 43,300

117 60.7 360 1,420 408 21.8 79.3 520 46.6 370 64.1 99.2 0.58 17,900

517 43.9 638 3,330 307 45.6 728 619 167 329 55.3 476 6.24 30,600

635 105 997 4,740 715 67.4 808 1,140 213 699 119 576 6.83 48,500

WATER USE

South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Total

Source: From Hutson, S.S. et al., 2004, Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2000, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, www.usgs.gov.

7-55

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-56

Table 7C.22 Water Produced by Selected Public Systems in the United States City/Countya Alaska Anchorage, AK Juneau, AK Fairbanks, AK Alabama Birmingham, AL Mobile Area, AL

Sheffield, AL Arkansas Little Rock, AR North Little Rock, AR Jonesboro, AR Russellville, AR Arizona Phoenix, AZ Tucson, AZ Scottsdale, AZ Tempe, AZ Peoria, AZ Tuscon Area, AZ

Flagstaff, AZ California Los Angeles, CA San Francisco, CA Oakland, CA

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Anchorage Water and Wastewater Utility City & Borough of Juneau Water Utility Golden Heart Utilities Birmingham Water Works Board Mobile Area Water and Sewer System Decatur Utilities Huntsville Utilities Madison County Water Department Sheffield Utilities Central Arkansas Water Central Arkansas Water, North Little Rock City Water and Light City Corporation City of Phoenix —Water Services Department Tucson Water City of Scottsdale Water Resources City of Tempe—Water Utilities Department City of Peoria Metropolitan Domestic Water Improvement District City Of Flagstaff Los Angeles Dept. of Water and Power San Francisco Public Utilities Commission East Bay Municipal Utility District

AWWA Study Groupc

Service Pop.b(000)

Total Number of Accounts

System Ownership

Daily Gallons Sold

Daily Capacity (MGD)

Max-Day Prod. (MGD)

B

217

53,432

City

21.75

79

49

C

30

8,430

City

3.29

10

6

C

48

6,146

Private

3.04

8

6

A

700

195,321

Dist./Auth.

77.53

188

140

B

259

89,168

Dist/Auth.

60.78

70

57

B B C

103 280 67

23,871 73,707 22,481

City City County

27.78 27.58 5.16

48 90 12

37 60 10

C

14

4,792

City

1.78

3

3

B C

366 N/R

132,267 N/R

Other N/R

53.91 N/R

174 N/R

106 N/R

C C

56 25

24,958 11,036

Other City

10.88 6.13

31 20

22 11

A

1,591

355,202

City

284.00

670

421

A B

680 219

211,337 81,598

City City

98.40 61.25

N/R 137

160 92

B

164

41,681

City

49.31

120

74

B C

106 45

37,300 16,974

City Dist./Auth.

20.27 8.59

54 20

28 14

C

60

16,948

City

7.50

22

12

A

3,890

673,542

City

539.38

600

417

A

2,390

170,653

City

246.99

400

381

A

1,300

377,094

Dist./Auth.

208.99

211

312

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Decatur, AL Huntsville, AL Madison County, AL

Utility

Contra Costa, CA Sacramento, CA Santa Clara, CA Riverside County, CA Long Beach, CA Riverside, CA Alameda County, CA San Bernardino,CA

Santa Ana, CA Palm Springs, CA Glendale, CA Oceanside, CA Escondido, CA Covina Area, CA Covina, CA Chula Vista, CA Azusa, CA Burbank, CA Mesa, CA Manteca, CA Mllpitas, CA Santa Cruz, CA Marin County, CA Colorado Denver, CO Colorado Springs, CO Arvada, CO

City of San Diego Water Department Contra Costa Water District City of Sacramento, Department of Utilities Santa Clara Valley Water District Eastern Municipal Water District Long Beach Water Department Riverside Public Utilities Alameda County Water District San Bernardino Municipal Water Department City of Santa Ana, Public Works Agency Desert Water Agency Glendale Water and Power City of Oceanside City of Escondido Suburban Water Systems Suburban Water Systems Sweetwater Authority Azusa Light & Water Burbank Water and Power Mesa Consolidated Water District City of Manteca City of Milpitas City of Santa Cruz Water Department North Marin Water District Denver Water Colorado Springs Utilities City of Arvada

A

1,357

261,348

City

207.36

294

274

A

430

60,019

Dist./Auth.

170.14

75

64

A

435

125,780

City

123.42

275

185

A

1,700

8

Dist./Auth.

118.63

220

N/A

A

501

89,576

Dist./Auth.

96.48

43

43

B

461

89,139

City

62.23

N/R

N/R

B B

319 323

59,178 78,274

City Dist/Auth.

60.29 45.29

72 91

102 75

B

160

41,218

City

42.27

70

70

B

344

47,468

City

40.38

132

57

B B

65 200

19,805 32,478

Dist/Auth. City

37.02 27.61

N/R 9

N/R 38

B B B

167 130 170

40,257 24,285 34,297

City City Private

27.15 27.08 23.65

28 67 7

28 67 N/A

B

128

32,601

Private

21.49

17

33

B C C

176 110 106

33,785 N/R 26,240

Dist./Auth. N/R City

21.04 19.44 19.02

36 8 9

31 N/R 38

C

111

23,530

Dist./Auth.

18.48

25

25

C C C

55 64 90

14,723 15,164 23,590

City City City

11.33 10.42 9.91

34 N/R 26

26 20 15

C

58

18,500

Dist./Auth.

9.66

25

19

A B

1,081 400

217,607 115,000

City City

197.86 64.98

645 232

419 182

C

105

31,855

City

15.70

52

38

WATER USE

San Diego, CA

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-57

(Continued)

7-58

Table 7C.22

(Continued)

City/Countya Longmont, CO

Grand Junction, CO Connecticut Bridgeport, CT New Haven, CT

Waterbury, CT

District of Columbia Greater Washington, DC Delaware New Castle County, DE Florida Miami, FL Orlando, FL Pinellas County, FL Orange County, FL Jacksonville, FL Fort Lauderdale, FL Palm Beach County, FL

Manatee County, FL Escambia County, FL Pompano Beach, FL Tallahassee, FL Hollywood, FL Cocoa, FL

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

AWWA Study Groupc

Service Pop.b(000)

Total Number of Accounts

System Ownership

Daily Gallons Sold

Daily Capacity (MGD)

Max-Day Prod. (MGD)

City of Longmont Water/Wastewater Utilities City of Grand Junction Water

C

79

23,717

City

12.22

30

32

C

26

9,193

City

5.25

16

12

Aquarion Water Company of CT South Central Connecticut Regional Water Authority City of Waterbury Bureau of Water The Metropolitan District Manchester Water Department

A

575

172,000

Private

96.27

99

151

B

391

106,467

Dist/Auth.

45.41

119

84

C

120

26,873

City

11.86

19

19

C C

359 56

93,520 15,301

Dist./Auth. City

4.98 4.77

105 12

88 9

Washington Aqueduct

A

1,000

3

Federal Gov.

178.42

350

229

United Water Delaware

C

106

35,185

Private

18.10

36

27

Miami-Dade Water and Sewer Department Orlando Utilities Commission Pinellas County Utilities Orange County Utilities JEA City of Fort Lauderdale Palm Beach County Water Utilities Department Manatee County Utility Operations Escambia County Utilities Authority Office of Environmental Services City of Tallahassee, Water Utility City of Hollywood City of Cocoa Utilities

A

2,343

408,187

County

271.89

434

363

A

395

123,464

City

78.13

183

107

B B B B B

636 596 860 168 440

109,602 98,001 240,469 55,553 140,188

County County City City County

67.50 46.69 42.99 41.15 39.40

86 110 60 90 73

80 80 46 64 61

B

340

79,840

County

36.76

51

61

B

216

91,298

Dist./Auth.

34.22

75

58

B

207

51,359

Dist/Auth.

27.17

46

32

B

252

70,688

City

26.87

59

49

B B

N/R 195

38,400 70,264

City City

23.38 23.37

41 60

28 34

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Hartford, CT Manchester, CT

Utility

City of Lakeland, FL

Osceola County, FL Jupiter, FL Cape Coral, FL Martin County, FL Winter Springs, FL Georgia Gwinnett County, GA DeKalb County, GA Augusta, GA Columbus, GA Macon, GA Savannah, GA Douglas County, GA

Hawaii Honolulu, HI Maui, HI

Hawaii County, HI Iowa Council Bluffs, IA Cedar Rapids, IA Des Moines, IA Waterloo, IA Ames, IA Idaho Boise, ID

Gainesville Regional Utilities City of Lakeland, Department of Water Utilities Tohopekaliga Water Authority Town of Jupiter Utilities City of Cape Coral Martin County Utilities City of Winter Springs

B

168

60,348

City

22.77

54

’ 37

B

156

50,116

City

22.67

51

34

C

151

40,931

Dist./Auth.

16.71

44

27

C C C C

62 100 67 30

23,397 40,000 20,626 14,500

City City County City

15.96 6.96 6.45 4.30

27 15 14 12

20 11 8 6

B B

700 659

202,198 180,673

County County

71.45 70.03

150 128

123 111

B

201

66,820

City

40.50

84

58

B B B

187 130 248

63,665 54,262 81,062

City Dist./Auth. City

N/R 26.08 22.18

90 76 113

49 43 87

C

76

31,277

Dist./Auth.

8.48

16

14

Honolulu Board of Water Supply County of Maui— Department of Water Supply Department of Water Supply

A

878

158,141

City

143.57

30

N/R

B

128

31,021

County

33.73

27

20

B

111

37,000

County

24.45

25

37

Council Bluffs Water Works Cedar Rapids Water Department Des Moines Water Works Waterloo Water Works City of Ames Water and Pollution Control

C

61

20,035

City

9.37

20

18

B

126

44,266

City

33.02

65

50

B

390

72,428

City

40.96

125

82

C C

100 51

24,497 14,035

City City

12.02 5.33

50 11

29 8

B

190

73,862

Private

41.14

100

91

Gwinnett County DPU DeKalb County Water & Sewer Augusta Utilities Department Columbus Water Works Macon Water Authority City of Savannah, Georgia Douglasville-Douglas County Water and Sewer Authority

United Water Idaho

WATER USE

Gainesville, FL

(Continued) 7-59

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-60

Table 7C.22

(Continued)

City/Countya Idaho Falls, ID Twin Falls, ID Illinois Chicago, IL Evanston, IL Rockford, IL Decatur, IL Lake Bluff Village, IL

South Bend, IN Columbus, IN Kansas Wichita, KS Johnson County, KS Kansas City, KS Leavenworth, KS Olathe, KS Kentucky Campbell County, KY Owensboro, KY Paducah, KY Winchester, KY Campbellsville, KY Louisiana Jefferson Parish, LA

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

AWWA Study Groupc

Service Pop.b(000)

Total Number of Accounts

System Ownership

Daily Gallons Sold

Daily Capacity (MGD)

Max-Day Prod. (MGD)

City of Idaho Falls City of Twin Falls Water Department

B C

52 36

23,500 13,097

City City

22.93 12.51

82 40

57 24

Chicago Department of Water City of Evanston City of Rockford Water Division City of Decatur Central Lake County Joint Action Water Agency City of Naperville

A

5,306

490,689

N/R

N/R

N/R

1,346

B B

357 155

14,327 52,100

City City

N/R 21.01

N/R 65

N/R 46

C C

90 180

31,515 9

City Dist./Auth.

19.39 19.17

36 38

31 32

C

139

39,906

City

15.48

33

N/A

B

155

58,068

City

22.58

50

38

B

103

43,441

City

21.53

64

47

C

36

15,455

City

N/R

28

19

B

414

135,552

City

55.53

160

115

B

369

123,386

Dist./Auth.

53.41

165

130

B

157

51,793

City

22.54

45

42

C

44

10,000

City

4.81

12

7

C

108

31,412

City

11.44

21

25

B

N/R

70,966

N/R

N/R

N/R

N/R

C

92

23,861

City

11.51

30

17

C C

70 33

22,180 10,974

City City

7.07 2.77

12 6

11 5

C

9

8,600

City

2.23

9

4

B

427

142,172

N/R

54.95

148

95

Evansville Water & Sewer Utility South Bend Water Works Columbus City Utilities Wichita Water & Sewer Utility Water District No. 1 of Johnson County, KS Kansas City Board of Public Utilities Leavenworth Water Department City of Olathe Northern Kentucky Water District Owensboro Municipal Utilities Paducah Waterworks Winchester Municipal Utilities Campbellsville Water Co. Jefferson Parish Water Department

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Naperville, IL Indiana Evansville, IN

Utility

Terrebonne Parish, LA

Lafourche Parish, LA Baton Rouge Area, LA Massachusetts Greater Boston Area, MA Boston, MA Cambridge, MA Maryland Laurel, MD Anne Arundel County, MD Frederick, MD Ocean City, MD Maine Portland, ME Kennebec ME Michigan Lansing, MI Kalamazoo, MI Ann Arbor, MI Port Huron, MI Grand Rapids, Ml Waterford, Ml

Minnesota Saint Paul, MN Dututh, MN Rochester, MN

Lafayette Utilities System Consolidated Waterworks District No. 1, Terrebonne Parish Lafourche Parish Water District No. 1 Louisiana Water Company

C

191

44,448

City

19.18

47

27

C

104

39,138

Dist./Auth.

10.94

24

20

C

78

28,087

County

9.11

18

12

C

88

31,794

Private

8.71

18

13

Massachusetts Water Resources Authority Boston Water and Sewer Commission Cambridge Water Department

A

2,200

47

Dist/Auth.

231.40

405

310

B

589

87,160

City

N/R

N/R

N/R

C

101

15,057

City

14.50

24

24

A

1,557

433,555

Dist./Auth.

138.73

315

253

B C C

324 55 30

98,469 16,582 7,030

County City City

34.27 4.92 3.99

42 10 18

N/R 8 12

Portland Water District Kennebec Water District

C C

200 25

48,421 8,853

Dist./Auth. Dist./Auth.

19.81 2.63

52 12

43 5

Lansing Board of Water S Light City of Kalamazoo Dept. of Public Utilities City of Ann Arbor Water Utilities City of Port Huron City of Grand Rapids Water System Waterford Township Water and Sewer Dept.

B

235

56,088

City

22.12

50

39

C

120

36,601

City

18.51

67

41

C

150

27,502

City

17.05

50

26

C B

57 280

12,774 76,540

City City

7.67 34.74

20 135

15 80

C

75

23,430

City

N/R

9

21

B

417

92,959

City

40.95

150

80

C C

99 90

27,555 32,400

N/R City

14.74 11.70

32 31

28 28

Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission Anne Arundel County City of Frederick Ocean City, MD Water Department

Saint Paul Regional Water Services City of Duluth Rochester Public Utilities

WATER USE

Lafayette, LA

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-61

(Continued)

7-62

Table 7C.22

(Continued)

City/Countya Missouri Louisville, MO Kansas City, MO

Springfield, MO Columbia, MO Cape Girardeau, MO Montana Great Falls, MT

Kalispell, MT North Carolina Charlotte, NC Greensboro, NC

Durham, NC Fayetteville, NC Asheville, NC Wilmington, NC Cary, NC Rocky Mount, NC Greenville, NC Chapel Hill, NC Dare County, NC North Dakota Bismarck, ND Fargo, ND Grand Forks, ND

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Louisville Water Company City of Kansas City, Missouri, Water Services Department City Utilities of Springfield, MO City of Columbia Water Department City of Cape Girardeau City of Great Falls Utilities Mountain Water Company City of Kafispell Charlotte-Mecklenburg Utilities City of Greensboro Water Resources Department City of Durham, Env. Res. Dept. Public Works Commission City of Asheville—Water Resources Dept. City of Wilmington Town of Cary City of Rocky Mount Greenville Utilities Commission Orange Water and Sewer Authority Dare County Water Department City of Bismarck Fargo Water Treatment Plant Grand Forks Water

AWWA Study Groupc

Service Pop.b(000)

Total Number of Accounts

System Ownership

Daily Gallons Sold

Daily Capacity (MGD)

Max-Day Prod. (MGD)

A

820

258,548

City

110.15

240

191

A

600

167,035

City

86.30

240

200

B

195

74,946

City

26.02

61

50

C

90

37,702

City

10.87

24

19

C

35

15,000

City

N/R

8

7

C

57

19,413

City

9.99

66

32

C

60

20,935

Private

7.79

60

38

C

22

6,427

City

1.89

9

8

A

700

212,503

City

93.97

242

156

B

250

93,215

City

26.11

54

41

B

181

69,794

City

25.52

61

38

B

138

73,783

City

20.01

50

40

C

126

46,666

Dist./Auth.

14.50

36

26

C C C C

103 114 68 68

40,400 33,900 24,006 28,381

City City City City

11.99 11.75 10.45 8.98

29 40 26 24

21 26 20 15

C

70

18,844

Dist./Auth.

7.27

20

14

C

32

13,706

County

4.62

13

12

C C

61 96

16,251 24,208

City City

9.60 9.33

30 30

29 24

C

50

12,754

City

6.80

17

11

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Missoula, MT

Utility

Lincoln, NE New Hampshire Concord, NH Manchester, NH New Jersey Morris County, NJ

New Mexico Albuquerque, NM

Nevada Reno, NV Washoe County, NV

New York New York, NY Suffolk County, NY New Rochelle, NY Rockland County, NY Onondaga County, NY Niagara Falls, NY Nassau County, NY Mohawk Valley, NY Elmira, NY Canton, NY Ohio Cleveland, OH Columbus, OH

Metropolitan Utilities District of Omaha Lincoln Water System

WATER USE

Nebraska Omaha, NE

A

550

180,540

Dist./Auth.

91.62

234

205

B

236

72,260

City

35.08

110

79

City of Concord Manchester Water Works

B C

41 150

11,000 27,114

City City

23.46 15.82

10 40

8 31

Southeast Morris County Municipal Utilities Authority

C

63

17,333

Dist./Auth.

6.90

21

21

City of Albuquerque Public Works Department

A

509

155,213

City

87.81

294

160

Truckee Meadows Water Authority Washoe County Department of Water Resources

B

290

82,904

Dist./Auth.

35.56

159

150

C

44

16,323

County

7.60

N/R

15

A

9,000

827,072

Dist./Auth.

1,236.16

1,661

1,650

A

1,200

357,614

Dist./Auth.

185.21

700

470

A

137

30,941

Private

150.79

50

31

B B

260 340

68,638 80,957

Private Dist/Auth.

N/R 38.94

N/R 70

N/R 59

C

55

19,503

Dist./Auth.

17.57

35

21

C

170

45,800

Private

15.62

50

33

C

120

37,800

Dist/Auth.

11.45

32

20

C C

65 8

17,575 1,400

City City

4.88 0.90

17 1

9 1

A

1,500

414,012

City

167.50

545

395

A

1,070

257,697

City

122.12

265

216

New York City Water Board Suffolk County Water Authority United Water New Rochelle United Water New York Onondaga County Water Authority Niagara Falls Water Board New York Water Service Corporation Mohawk Valley Water Authority Elmira Water Board Village of Canton Cleveland Division of Water City of Columbus, Division of Water

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-63

(Continued)

7-64

Table 7C.22

(Continued)

City/Countya Cincinnati, OH Akron, OH Canton, OH Dayton, OH Newark, OH

Oklahoma Tulsa, OK

Broken Arrow, OK Midwest City, OK Oregon Portland, OR Eugene, OR Salem, OR Medford, OR Washington County, OR Corvallis, OR Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA Delaware County, PA Westmoreland County, PA

Chester, PA Lancaster, PA Bucks County, PA Allentown, PA

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Greater Cincinnati Water Works City of Akron, Public Utilities Bureau City of Canton Water Department City of Dayton, Department of Water City of Newark, OH Division of Water and Wastewater Tulsa Metropolitan Utility Authority Oklahoma City Water Utility Broken Arrow City of Midwest City Portland Bureau of Water Works Eugene Water & Electric Board Salem Public Works Medford Water Commission Tualatin Valley Water District City of Corvallis Philadelphia Water Department Aqua Pennsylvania, Inc. Municipal Authority of Westmoreland County Chester Water Authority City of Lancaster, Bureau of Water Bucks County Water and Sewer Authority City of Allentown

AWWA Study Groupc

Service Pop.b(000)

Total Number of Accounts

System Ownership

Daily Gallons Sold

Daily Capacity (MGD)

Max-Day Prod. (MGD)

A

1,100

236,017

City

112.26

260

220

B

281

82,939

City

29.90

67

54

B

140

N/R

City

22.23

41

28

C

420

57,420

City

7.04

196

114

C

47

18,600

City

5.88

15

12

A

655

142,753

City

94.03

220

176

A

1,200

177,016

City

76.71

190

185

C C

88 55

30,286 18,060

City City

10.98 5.81

6 13

0 12

A

787

163,819

City

105.21

325

187

B

140

55,629

City

27.32

72

63

B B

170 114

40,760 25,385

City City

25.70 24.58

85 66

55 54

B

222

51,963

Dist./Auth.

23.13

N/A

N/A

C

52

15,217

City

5.59

25

14

A

1,665

476,931

City

177.60

540

334

A B

1,200 400

340,013 114,219

Private N/R

95.79 N/R

176 84

150 58

B C

200 115

38,617 42,886

Dist./Auth. City

29.45 15.63

60 34

41 26

C

194

15,671

County

15.40

35

21

C

123

32,670

City

12.28

39

26

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Oklahoma City, OK

Utility

North Wales, PA Williamsport, PA Lebanon, PA State College, PA Carlisle, PA Rhode Island Providence, RI South Carolina Greenville, SC Charleston, SC

Spartanburg, SC Horry County, SC Mount Pleasant, SC Georgetown County, SC

South Dakota Sioux—Falls, SD Tennessee Nashville, TN Erwin, TN Seliner, TN Texas Dallas, TX Houston, TX

San Antonio, TX Fort Worth, TX Austin, TX

City of Harrisburg, Bureau of Water North Wales Water Authority Williamsport Municipal Water Authority City of Lebanon Authority State College Water Authority Borough of Carlisle Municipal Authority

C

66

19,997

Dist./Auth.

8.92

20

11

C

90

26,923

Dist./Auth.

7.94

17

14

C

54

18,726

Dist./Auth.

6.91

13

8

C

57

17,152

City

4.79

8

9

C

65

12,341

Dist/Auth.

4.44

9

7

C

20

6,205

Dist./Auth.

1.75

7

5

Providence Water

B

600

73,493

City

57.91

144

120

Greenville Water System Commissioners of Public Works, Charleston, SC Spartan burg Water System Grand Strand Water & Sewer Authority Mount Pleasant Waterworks Georgetown County Water & Sewer District

B B

400 409

144,015 90,121

City Dist/Auth.

50.71 43.86

142 118

106 67

B

125

45,780

Dist/Auth.

23.55

N/R

N/R

C

160

41,552

Dist./Auth.

19.81

45

34

C

66

26,395

Dist./Auth.

5.90

7

11

C

46

14,455

Dist./Auth.

3.87

8

7

City of Sioux —Falls

C

139

38,853

City

19.53

55

52

Metro Water Services Erwin Utilities Setmer Utility Division

A C C

458 13 26

155,712 4,858 6,884

City City City

613.70 1.83 1.55

180 3 5

104 3 2

Dallas Water Utilities City of Houston, Public Works and Engineering San Antonio Water System Fort Worth Water Department Austin Water Utility

A A

1,979 1,954

314,722 412,000

City City

348.39 309.96

815 884

641 440

A

1,145

304,340

City

142.06

964

230

A

838

171,828

City

133.39

380

274

A

770

184,608

City

120.56

260

214

WATER USE

Harrisburg, PA

(Continued) 7-65

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-66

Table 7C.22

(Continued)

City/Countya El Paso, TX Arlington, TX Plano, TX Amarillo, TX Irving, TX Garland, TX Laredo, TX Midland, TX Waco, TX

Denton, TX Sugar Land, TX College Station, TX Bell County, TX Utah Salt Lake City, UT Salt Lake City, UT Provo, UT Virginia Richmond, VA Virginia Beach, VA Chesterfield County, VA Chesapeake, VA Charlottesville, VA Vermont Burlington, VT South Burlington, VT Washington Seattle, WA

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

El Paso Water Utilities City of Arlington Water Utilities City of Plano—Utility Operations City of Amarillo TX City of Irving Water Utilities City of Garland City of Laredo City of Midland City of Waco Water Utilities City of Tyler Water Utilities Denton Municipal Utilities City of Sugar Land College Station Utilities Central Texas WSC

AWWA Study Groupc

Service Pop.b(000)

Total Number of Accounts

System Ownership

Daily Gallons Sold

Daily Capacity (MGD)

Max-Day Prod. (MGD)

A B

696 346

173,653 92,755

City City

96.91 52.17

235 174

174 113

B

250

75,100

City

51.97

N/A

109

B B

175 198

63,360 43,584

City City

45.60 35.66

N/R 73

N/R 69

B B B B

221 178 96 150

62,068 56,203 32,494 37,206

City City City City

28.60 27.07 23.65 23.64

44 65 57 66

N/A 58 37 53

C

175

27,726

City

17.61

40

37

C

92

24,053

City

12.99

50

26

C C C

65 79 50

20,940 29,360 15

City City N/R

11.52 8.51 5.43

43 23 14

23 21 12

Salt Lake City Public Utilities Jordan Valley Water Conservancy District Provo City Water Resources

A

325

91,283

City

82.54

282

206

B

845

8,541

Dist./Auth.

62.64

200

159

B

112

17,372

City

21.64

73

53

City of Richmond City of Virginia Beach Public Utilities Chesterfield County Department of Utilities City of Chesapeake Public Utilities City of Charlottesville

A B

502 421

59,747 127,314

City City

83.70 31.90

132 60

127 31

B

250

88,001

County

29.24

12

11

C

167

57,613

City

16.02

10

12

C

40

13,153

City

5.48

N/A

N/A

Burlington Public Works South Burlington Water Department

C C

44 15

9,800 5,300

City City

4.59 N/R

12 N/R

7 N/R

Seattle Public Utilities

A

1,330

176,359

City

126.69

405

223

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Tyler, TX

Utility

Lakehaven, WA Olympia, WA Kennewick, WA Renton, WA Kent, WA Snohomish County, WA Wisconsin Green Bay, WI Oak Creek, WI Milwaukee, WI Kenosha, WI Janesville, WI River Falls, WI West Virginia Lubeck, WV Wyoming Cheyenne, WY Casper, WY Note: a b

Tacoma Public Utilities, Water Division Lakehaven Utility District City of Olympia City of Kennewick City of Renton Highline Water District Snohomish County PUD #1

B

300

91,376

City

52.66

134

93

C C C C C C

112 51 62 54 66 53

27 17,064 18,881 15,042 18,078 15,162

Dist./Auth. City City City Dist./Auth. Dist./Auth.

11.13 9.00 8.86 6.40 6.33 3.95

34 25 22 22 2 20

21 13 18 14 2 8

C C

103 60

35,466 9,503

City City

15.95 6.61

28 20

31 15

A C C C

831 118 61 13

160,976 28,319 22,299 3,755

City City City City

109.35 11.67 11.10 0.95

380 42 29 7

170 25 22 3

Lubeck Public Service District

C

11

3,794

Dist./Auth.

0.73

3

1

Cheyenne Board of Public Utilities City of Casper Public Utilities

C

53

19,998

City

13.71

32

N/R

C

54

18,785

City

9.21

52

28

Green Bay Water Utility Oak Creek Water and Sewer Utility Milwaukee Water Works Kenosha Water Utility Janesville Water Utility River Falls Municipal Utility

WATER USE

Tacoma, WA

Group A O75 mgd sold; Group B 20–75 mgd sold; Group C !20 mgd sold.

The primary city, county, or area served by the responding utility is listed. Includes retail and wholesale population.

Source: Adapted from 2004 Water and Wastewater Rate Survey by permission. Copyright q 2004, American Water Works Association. (Updated information available electronically from AWWA at 800-926-7337), www.awwa.org.

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q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-68

Table 7C.23 Summary of 2004 Residential and Industrial Water Charges by Public Water Systems (Based on a Survey of 266 Systems) Monthly Water Charges 5/8-inch Meter

Summary Statisticsa (11,220,000 gal)

Effective Date

Residential 0 cf (0 gal)

a b

4-inch Meter

8-inch Meter

Residential 500 cf (3,740 gal)

Residential 1,000 cf (7,480 gal)

Residential 1,500 cf (11,220 gal)

Residential 3,000 cf (22,440 gal)

Nonmanuf./ Commercial 3,000 cf (22,440 gal)

Commercial/ Light Industrial 50,000 cf (374,000 gal)

Industrial 1,000,000 cf (7,480,000 gal)

Industrial 1,500,000 cf

$12.29 $11.67 255

$19.85 $19.08 256

$28.12 $27.15 255

$53.35 $51.37 255

$52.81 $49.85 254

$759.42 $732.40 253

$13.734.00 $12,954.04 251

$20,611.53 $19,265.80 240

$12.00 $10.72 42

$19.31 $18.66 43

$27.63 $26.21 42

$54.77 $49.45 42

$52.57 $49.86 42

$772.28 $755.55 42

$13,943.78 $13,516,66 42

$20,993,93 $20,503.95 42

$11.47 $10.76 93

$18.11 $16.37 93

$25.66 $25.07 93

$48.42 $46.17 93

$45.84 $42.95 92

$689.73 $672.88 92

$12,681.52 $11,747.97 91

$18,248.64 $17,137.98 89

$13.03 $12.60 120

$21.40 $21.21 120

$30.19 $29.85 120

$56.68 $54.53 120

$58.24 $54.69 120

$808.76 $758.86 119

$14,470.99 $13,069.17 118

$22,393.52 $20,134.83 109

$15.10 $15.60 10

$23.74 $24.00 10

$62.05 $69.64 10

$104.96 $119.89 9

$104,96 $119.89 9

$623.62 $736.26 10

$13,995.92 $15,062,03 10

$22,312.50 $24,033.88 10

Seasonal and zonal water charges are not included in average and median charge calculations. The number of systems indicates the size of sample for which data was provided. Water charges for Canadian systems are presented in Canadian dollars. The exchange rate on July 21, 2004, was 1.3242 Canadian dollars to 1 US dollar.

Source: Adapted from 2004 Water and Wastewater Rate Survey by permission. Copyright q 2004, American Water Works Association. (Updated information available electronically from AWWA at 800-926-7337), www.awwa.org.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

All Systems (excluding Canadian systems) Average 11/26/01 $6.37 Median 1/1/03 $5.55 Number of Systems 263 257 Group A Systems (75-MGD Sold) Average 8/16/02 $5.76 Median 3/3/03 $4.75 Number of Systems 47 43 Group B Systems (20–75 MGD Sold) Average 11/24/01 $6.21 Median 1/1/03 $5.60 Number of Systems 93 93 Group C Systems (20 MGD Sold) Average 8/18/01 $6.71 Median 1/1/03 $5.85 Number of Systems 123 121 Canadian Systemsb Average 12/28/02 $7.76 Median 1/1/03 $6.71 Number of Systems 11 8

2-inch Meter

WATER USE

7-69

Table 7C.24 Unaccounted for Water by Ownership in Public Supply Systems in the United States in 2000 (Based on a Survey of 1246 Systems) System Service Population Category

Ownership Type

Public Systems Average Unaccounted for Water Confidence Interval % of Total Water Produced Confidents Interval Private Systems Average Unaccounted for Water Confidence Interval % of Total Water Produced Confidence Interval All Systems Average Unaccounted for Water Confidence Interval % of Total Water Produced Confidence interval

100 or Less

101– 500

501– 3,300

3,301– 10,000

10,001– 50,000

50,001– 100,000

100,001– 500,000

Over 500,000

All Sizes

0.003 G0.006 1.140 G1.419

0.001 G0.000 5.990 G7.067

0.017 G0.006 9.935 G3.763

0.113 0.296 G0.032 G0.074 11.562 8.528 G3.161 G1.861

1.166 G0.268 9.693 G2.044

2.152 G0.567 6.306 G1.556

18.272 G4.405 7.959 G1.027

0.188 G0.032 8.949 G2.211

0.000 G0.000 0.187 G0.269

0.001 G0.000 2.188 G2,660

0.012 G0.009 6.237 G3.940

0.100 0.287 1.055 3.050 G0.061 G0.110 G0.395 G0.835 10.686 12.330 11.093 10.636 G4.252 G4.511 G4.317 G2.582

7.347 G2.972 7.744 G4.017

0.019 G0.006 2.323 G1.237

0.000 G0.000 0.258 G0.269

0.001 G0.000 3.355 G2.859

0.016 G0.006 9.136 G3.218

0.111 0.294 G0.028 G0.064 11.435 9.135 G2.724 G1.747

17.258 G4.031 7.939 G1.001

0.098 G0.012 5.561 G1.305

1.152 G0.238 9.867 G1.864

2.227 G0.536 6.670 G1.508

Note: Unaccounted for water includes system losses, water for fire suppression, and water used in the treatment process. The tabulations presented in the Community Water System Survery 2000 are based on data collected from a sample of U.S. Water Systems, not from a census of every water system in the United States. A confidence interval is one way to gauge how precisely a given tabulation of survey data can be generalized to the entirety of U.S. Systems represented by the surveyed systems. Any result presented in the table must be viewed as the center of a range that would encompass the precise number that would be found if every U.S. water system could have been included in the tabulation, and not only those who were sampled and responded to the 2000 Community Water System Survey. The confidence interval expresses the range as a “plus/minus,” that is, an amount to be added to and subtracted from the calculated data point actually presented in the table. The confidence interval is designed to include the true value in the stated range 95 percent of the time. Source: From USEPA, 2002, Community Water System Survery 2000, EPA 815-R-02-005A, www.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 7D

PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY—WORLD

Table 7D.25 Groundwater Use in Canada, 1996

Province/Territory Newfoundland and Labrador Prince Edward Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Yukon Territory Northwest Territoriesc Canada a b c

Municipal Water Systems Reliant on Groundwaterb

Population Reliant on Groundwatera Number

Percent

Number

Percent

189,921 136,188 426,433 501,075 2,013,340 3,166,662 342,601 435,941 641,350 1,105,803 15,294 18,971 8,993,579

33.9 100.0 45.8 66.5 27.7 28.5 30.2 42.8 23.1 28.5 47.9 28.1 30.3

19 5 15 40 142 132 22 44 36 63 4 0 522

23.5 100.0 41.7 72.7 36.7 42.7 50.0 65.7 29.0 45.3 100.0 0.0 41.2

It is assumed that the population not covered by the Municipal Water Use Database is rural and that 90% of this population is groundwater reliant (except in Prince Edward Island, where 100% of the population is known to be groundwater reliant). Includes population and municipal water systems that are reliant on groundwater only, as well as those that are reliant on groundwater and surface water. Includes Nunavut.

Source: Statistics Canada, Human Activity and the Environment Annual Statistics 2003, Catalogue 16-201-XPE, released December 3, 2003, page 25. Statistics Canada information is used with the permission of Statistics Canada. Users are forbidden to copy this material and/or redisseminate the data, in an original or modified form, for commercial purposes, without the expressed permission of Statistics Canada. Information on the availability of the wide range of data from Statistics Canada can be obtained from Statistics Canada’s Regional Offices, its World Wide Web site at www.statcan.ca, and its toll-free access number 1-800263-1136. Original Source: From Statistics Canada, Environment Accounts and Statistics Division, special compilation using data from Environment Canada, Municipal Water Use Database; Statistics Canada, 1996, Quarterly Estimates of the Population of Canada, the Provinces and the Territories, 11:3, Catalogue no. 91–001, Ottawa.

Table 7D.26 Water Flows and Metering Rates in Canada, by Province / Territory and Municipal Population

Province/Territory Newfoundland P.E.I. Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Yukon N.W.T. Nunavut

Percentage of Flow from Surface Water 95.1 0.0 91.4 79.7 93.4 88.4 81.6 87.5 93.9 84.6 69.0 100.0 100.0

Total Average Daily Flow (Litres Per Capita) 971 529 667 1,314 777 533 410 517 519 651 803 424 105

Average Daily Residential Flow (Litres Per Capita) 664 218 351 416 395 285 223 236 282 425 556 204 88

Percentage of Residential Clients That Are Metered 0.0 13.4 89.1 49.6 16.2 89.9 96.6 98.5 82.3 26.5 52.8 97.3 76.7

Percentage of Business Clients That Are Metered 47.4 100.0 99.4 89.5 32.8 98.4 98.6 99.6 98.9 93.9 100.0 n/a 20.0 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

Table 7D.26

7-71

(Continued) Percentage of Flow from Surface Water

Province/Territory Municipal Population Under 2,000 2,000–5,000 5,000–50,000 50,000–500,000 More than 500,000 Total Responding Population

Total Average Daily Flow (Litres Per Capita)

Average Daily Residential Flow (Litres Per Capita)

715 732 665 596 614 622 23,822,869

446 466 397 326 300 335 23,822,869

61.2 57.3 78.9 88.9 99.6 89.2 21,634,144

Percentage of Residential Clients That Are Metered 42.4 35.4 47.5 61.7 69.0 60.6 24,235,565

Percentage of Business Clients That Are Metered 53.2 55.5 75.0 91.3 81.8 83.1 16,075,854

Note: n/aZnot applicable. Source: From Environment Canada, 2005, 2004 Municipal Water Use Report, Municipal Water Use 2001 Statistics, www.ec.gc.ca/ water/en/manage/use/e_data.htm, Environment Canada, 2005. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2006. Original Source: From values derived from the 2001 Municipal Water Use Database, Sustainable Water Use Branch, Environment Canada.

Daily water use (billions of liters per day)

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Residential 1983

Note:

Commercial 1986

1989

Industrial 1991

1994

1996

Other** 1999

*Water use values are based on (1) municipalities that responded in a given year, and (2) a national level estimate for all municipalities that did not respond, or in earlier years, were not surveyed. **The “Other” category includes: water lost through leakage; unaccounted water uses, such as water used in firefighting or to flush out pipes; and water that a municipality was unable to one of the other three sectoral categories.

Figure 7D.11 Canada—total daily municipal water use* by sector, 1983–1999. (From www.ec.gc.ca. Environment Canada, 2001, Urban Waler Indicators: Municipal Water Use and Wastewater Treatment, SOE Bulletin No. 2001-1, Environment Canada, 2001. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2006.)

Sources of municipal water

Municipal water use by sector

11% 31%

56% 13%

89%

Industrial, commercial, institutional System losses

(a)

Residential (single and multi-family)

(b)

Groundwater

Surface water

Figure 7D.12 Canada—municipal water use by sector and sources of municipal water, 2001. (From Environment Canada, 2005, 2004, Municipal Water Use Report, Municipal Water Use 2001 Statistics, www.ec.gc.ca/water/en/manage/use/e_data.htm, Environment Canada, 2005. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2006.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-72

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7D.27 Water Use (as a Percentage of Water Served) in Canada, by Province/Territory, by Sector, and Responding Population Province/Territory

Residential (%)

Commercial/Industrial (%)

System Losses (%)

Responding Population

73 42 59 50 56 53 55 46 56 65 68 45 78

21 41 25 41 25 35 36 44 35 28 32 30 16

6 17 16 9 19 12 9 10 9 6 n/a 25 6

279,376 43,037 462,020 309,203 5,892,601 8,157,365 775,398 613,659 2,327,245 2,986,953 17,635 23,135 6,204

70 68 61 57 51 56 52

24 27 31 33 31 31 35

5 6 9 10 18 13 13

243,218 662,738 4,035,190 8,344,616 8,608,069 21,893,832

Newfoundland P.E.I. Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Yukon N.W.T. Nunavut Municipal Population Under 2,000 2,000–5,000 5,000–50,000 50,000–500,000 More than 500,000 Total, 2001 Total, 1999 Note: n/aZnot applicable.

Source: From Environment Canada 2005, 2004 Municipal Water Use Report, Municipal Water Use 2001 Statistics, www.ec.gc.ca/ water/en/manage/use/e_data.htm, Environment Canada, 2005. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2006. Original Source: From values derived from the 2001 Municipal Water Use Database, Sustainable Water Use Branch, Environment Canada.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

7-73

Table 7D.28 Public Water System Characteristics of Selected Water Systems in Canada

City/County (a) Canadian Water Systems (d) Montreal, PQ

Vancouver, BC Edmonton, AB Winnipeg, MB

Regina, SK Barrie, ON Coquitlam, BC Victoria, BC Sault Ste Marie, ON

Strathcona County, AB Prince Albert, SK

Utility

Service de la gestion des infrastructures et de I’environnement Greater Vancouver Water District EPCOR Water Services Inc City of Winnipeg — Water and Waste Department City of Regina City of Barrie Water Section City of Coquitlam City of Victoria City of Sault Ste Marie Public Utilities Commission Strathcona County City of Prince Albert

Service Pop. (b) (000)

Total Number of System Accounts Ownership

Daily Gallons Sold

Daily Capacity (MGD)

Max-Day Prod. (MGD)

City

314.84

766

608

Dist/Auth.

306.34

N/R

406

1,845

335,255

2,021

17

872

198,707

Private

91.63

114

133

631

183,803

City

51.86

N/R

166

190 135

59,045 36,000

City City

17.37 9.26

53 26

39 26

114 90 75

33,647 18,843 25,366

City City City

15.19 12.93 7.73

N/R N/R 21

N/R N/R 17

76 40

18,077 10,500

City City

7.87 N/R

N/R 12

N/R 10

Note: N/R, Not Reported (a) The primary city, county, or area served by the responding utility is listed. (b) Includes retail and wholesale population. (d) Daily gallons sold, daily capacity, and max-day production for the Canadian systems have been converted to U.S. gallons (1 U.S. gallonZ0.8327 imperial gallons s 0.003785 m3). N/RZNot Reported. Source: Adapted from 2004 Water and Wastewater Rate Survey by permission. Copyright q 2004, American Water Works Association. (Updated information available electronically from AWWA at 800-926-7337), www.awwa.org.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-74

Table 7D.29 International Public Water System Characteristics, 2004 City/Service Area Osaka City, Japan Taichung, Chinese Taiwan Sao Paulo, Brazil

Rijswijk, Netherlands Seoul, South Korea

Alexandria, Egypt Yokohama, Japan Curitiba, Brazil Denmark Busan, South Korea Nagoya, Japan Leederville, Australia Leederville, Australia Adelaide, Australia Lisbon, Portugal Barcelona, Spain Sapporo, Japan Turin, Italy Concepcion, Chile Dublin, Ireland Bristol, United Kingdom Helsinki, Finland

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Osaka Municipal Waterworks Bureau Taiwan Water Supply Corporation Companhia de Saneamento Basico do Estado de Sao Pauto —SABESP VEWIN, The Netherlands Waterworks Association Office of Waterworks Seoul Metropolitan Government Water Supplies Department Sydney Water Provincial Waterworks Authority (PWA) Alexandria Water General Authority (AWGA) Yokohama Waterworks Bureau SANEPAR —Companhia de Saneamento do Parana’ DANVA — Danish Water and Waste Water Association Busan Metropolitan Waterworks Headquarters Nagoya Waterworks & Sewerage Bureau Water Corporation of Western Australia Water Corporation South Australia Water Corporation EPAL—Empressa Portuguesa das Aguas Livres Aguas de Barcelona Sapporo Waterworks Bureau Societa Metropolitana Acque Torino Spa Empresas de servicios sanrtarios del Bio–Bio Dublin City Council Bristol Water pic Helsinki Water

Service Pop.a(000) 2,619,494

System Ownership City

Gallons Sold (MGD)b

Active Water Accounts

Water Sourcec(%) Groundwater

Surface

Purchased

53,814.94

887,735

N/R

100

N/R

16,548,877

Dist/Auth.

1,421.59

5,424,515

19

79

2

24,972,000

State Owned

1,281.07

5,305,883

6

94

2

16,109,000

Dist/Auth.

831.31

7,231,025

61

39

0

10,280,183

Dist./Auth.

794.48

1,939,847

0

89

11

6,809,000 4,198,000 10,000,000

Dist./Auth. Dist./Auth. Dist./Auth.

N/R 376.57 372.74

2,545,717 1,638,000 1,897,758

0 0 14

25 0 60

75 100 26

4,500,000

Dist./Auth.

364.63

1,119,023

0

0

100

3,506,966 7,761,171

City Dist/Auth.

317.25 300.51

1,200,908 2,020,030

0 17

44 83

57 0

5,370,000

Private

280.91

1,287,000

98

2

0

3,701,000

Dist/Auth.

254.33

331,350

0

100

0

2,283,381

City

203.1

1,129,695

0

100

0

1,790,953

Dist/Auth.

180.11

754,810

62

38

0

1,817,750 1,492,000

Private Dist./Auth.

171.43 169.84

805,988 645,431

61 17

39 83

0 0

2,203,386

Dist./Auth.

158.76

334,544

13

87

0

2,848,869 1,836,629 1,437,536

City City City

138.17 129.9 121.26

208,021 809,456 144,627

38 0 81

11 100 19

51 0 1

1,962,726

Private

84.36

545,202

53

47

0

1,033,000 1,110,000 882,000

City Private City

65.78 56.25 52.26

221,005 473,001 25,809

0 20 0

21 80 100

79 0 0

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Wan Chai, Hong Kong Sydney, Australia Bangkok, Thailand

Utility

Oslo Water and Sewage Works Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority Angered, Sweden Gothenburg Water and Sewage Works Cluj, Romania R.A.J.A.C. CIuj Yucatan, Mexico Junta de Agua Potable y Alcantarillado de Yucatan Cebu City, Philippines Metropolitan Cebu Water District Uijeongbu, South Korea Uijeongbu City lasi, Romania Regia Aittonoma Judeteana Apa Canal Manukau City, New Zealand Manukau Water Timisoara, Romania Reg1a Autonoma Apa Si Canal Aquatim Timisoara Davao, Philippines Davao City Water District Wellington, New Zealand Wellington City Council Ljubljana, Slovenia Javno podjetje VodovodKanalizacija Zamboanga, Philippines Zamboanga City Water District Nicosia, Cyprus Water Board of Nicosia — Lemesos, Cyprus Water Board of Lemesos Bistrita, Romania Raja Aquabis Larnaca, Cyprus Water Board of Larnaca Kiev, Ukraine Ukrainian Water Association

521,000 2,600,000

City Dist./Auth.

39.28 36.92

51,300 210,000

0 11

100 89

0 0

471,500

City

34.31

39,500

0

100

0

410,000 652,000

County State Owned

28.51 26.20

26,058 215,679

0 100

0 0

100 0

785,760

Dist./Auth.

24.81

88,271

93

4

3

364,530 348,951

Dist./Auth. County

23.11 21.75

36,672 18,660

0 0

5 0

95 100

305,000 320,000

City City

21.12 18.82

91,594 21,643

0 31

0 69

100 0

Dist./Auth. City City

18.79 18.00 17.08

133,537 66,010 44,417

98 0 99

2 0 1

0 100 0

Dist./Auth. State Owned Dist./Auth. County Dist./Auth. Dist./Auth.

12.33 7.98 7.06 5.97 2.60 N/R

39,288 80,760 57,742 10,911 27,970 N/R

16 0 30 2 25 N/R

84 100 0 98 0 N/R

0 0 70 0 75 N/R

1,271,436 177,348 322,800 350,000 200,000 150,000 89,132 55,000 N/R

WATER USE

Oslo, Norway Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Note: N/R, not reported. a b c

Includes retail and wholesale population. Gallons sold has been converted to U.S. gallons. Due to rounding, water source percentages may not total 100.

Source: Adapted from 2004 Water and Wastewater Rate Survey by permission. Copyright q 2004, American Water Works Association. (Updated information available electronically from AWWA at 800-926-7337), www.awwa.org.

7-75

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-76

Table 7D.30 International Public Water System Charges, 2004 Monthly Water Charges (U.S. Dollarsa)

City/Service Area

6/1/97 7/1/94 8/28/03 1/1/03 5/20/02 2/1/95 7/1/03 6/9/98 1/1/03 4/1/01 12/13/03 N/R 7/1/01 4/1/97 7/1/01 7/1/03 7/1/03 12/31/02 12/31/03 4/1/97 1/1/03 11/14/03 12/31/03 4/1/03 12/12/03 1/1/03 7/7/03 11/21/03 7/1/03 9/19/99 7/1/01 1/1/02 8/1/03 N/R 11/1/03 6/1/00 6/30/03

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Rate Structure

0 m3 (0 gal)

15 m3 (3,960 gal)

30 m3 (7,920 gal)

85 m3 (22,400 gal)

150 m3 (39,600 gal)

1,000 m3 (264,000 gal)

25,000 m3 (6,600,000 gal)

IB-7 IB-4 IB-4 N/R Uniform IB-4 Uniform IB-11 IB-2 IB-7 IB-3 Uniform Uniform Flat IB-9 IB-7 IB-2 IB-4 IB-3 IB-7 IB-5 Flat Flat Uniform DB-3 Uniform IB-3 Uniform Uniform IB-11 IB-4 Uniform Uniform Uniform Uniform IB-5 Uniform

$8.98 0.50 3.24 N/R N/R N/R 5.05 N/R 0.18 7.31 5.06 127.01 N/R 6.65 8.43 29.91 8.65 0.87 9.25 12.13 N/R 1.02 N/R 2.43 2.50 6.40 0.15 7.68 N/R 1.79 1.94 N/R N/R 0.74 N/R 1.42 N/R

$13.57 1.00 5.77 N/R 4.90 7.71 16.69 3.74 0.21 15.43 8.86 N/R 7.75 17.92 13.11 N/R 15.54 5.02 20.60 21.31 53.28 6.49 N/R 18.29 29.03 16.85 0.24 45.37 N/R 1.79 3.01 6.75 6.91 N/R 4.50 2.17 N/R

$29.89 1.85 20.94 N/R 15.25 25.02 28.33 N/R 0.30 43.67 20.26 N/R 18.08 49.62 20.10 N/R 27.08 17.15 44.90 63.75 170.81 11.97 N/R 34.14 58.00 27.30 0.34 78.44 N/R 6.43 6.59 18.00 13.82 N/R 8.99 4.85 N/R

$137.82 5.50 87.99 N/R 60.29 88.83 71.01 N/R 0.73 188.44 91.39 N/R 54.54 241.93 58.59 N/R 69.38 N/R 120.54 185.51 270.64 32.05 N/R 92.71 163.76 65.60 N/R 140.29 N/R 23.85 44.51 96.33 39.14 N/R 25.48 24.22 N/R

$309.04 10.00 345.75 N/R 149.17 88.08 121.44 N/R 2.60 377.28 152.83 N/R 135.83 459.43 232.33 N/R 110.73 N/R 182.39 N/R 824.18 55.78 183.06 161.71 287.83 112.23 0.34 330.34 N/R 71.17 90.53 162.50 69.08 N/R 44.96 48.50 N/R

$3,035.73 53.52 2,500.48 N/R 1,280.83 587.18 783.82 N/R 15.87 3,213.39 1,025.50 N/R 1,295.83 3,115.09 679.76 N/R 764.58 N/R 1,214.10 N/R 5,472.69 366.11 1,175.08 1,064.00 1,817.02 708.29 0.34 934.64 N/R N/R 712.45 1,666.67 460.50 N/R 299.74 366.00 N/R

$86,581.68 295.09 40,873.08 N/R 26,562.50 14,679.49 19,682.38 25,794.07 416.55 94,102.28 25,665.50 N/R 30,326.67 7,864.15 13,781.67 N/R 19,240.31 N/R 30,292.45 N/R 129,604.52 9,128.35 28,914.13 20,404.29 43,428.81 17,438.15 0.34 15,068.47 N/R N/R 17,360.93 41,666.67 11,512.50 N/R 7,493.38 9,330.78 N/R

40,000 m3 (10,570,000 gal) $138,797.89 817.74 60,812.41 N/R 42,387.50 23,487.18 31,321.33 N/R 666.23 150,907.83 41,065.50 N/R 48,494.17 123,770.75 21,677.54 N/R 30,778.77 N/R 48,371.20 N/R 207,354.88 14,604.76 46,290.60 29,607.14 69,486.09 27,897.72 N/R 24,171.01 N/R N/R 27,772.94 66,666.67 18,420.00 N/R 11,989.41 14,933.77 N/R

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Osaka City, Japan Taichung, Chinese Taiwan Sao Paulo, Brazil Rijswijk, Netherlands Seoul, South Korea Wan Chai, Hong Kong Sydney, Australia Bangkok, Thailand Alexandria, Egypt Yokohama, Japan Curitiba, Brazil Danva, Denmark Busan, South Korea Nagoya, Japan Leederville, Australia Leederville, Australia Adelaide, Australia Lisbon, Portugal Barcelona, Spain Sapporo, Japan Turin, Italy Concepcion, Chile Dublin, Ireland Bristol, United Kingdom Helsinki, Finland Oslo, Norway Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Angered, Sweden Cluj, Romania Yucatan, Mexico Cebu City, Philippines Uijeongbu, South Korea Iasi, Romania Manukau City, New Zealand Timisoara, Romania Davao, Philippines Wellington, New Zealand

Effective Date

Note: a

12/31/02 11/1/02 1/1/02 1/1/02 11/1/03 1/1/02 N/R

Uniform IB-6 IB-7 IB-4 Uniform IB-5 N/R

$6.01 1.81 2.75 6.00 N/R 2.16 N/R

$8.32 2.78 14.84 13.00 5.28 7.80 N/R

$23.33 5.34 30.22 28.88 10.57 21.99 N/R

$34.87 13.02 162.09 131.04 29.94 107.68 N/R

$8.61 3.63 208.79 106.60 52.84 105.73 N/R

$35.16 10.66 1,483.52 1,644.60 352.24 964.08 N/R

$92.87 64.48 50,054.95 32,853.92 8,805.88 23,580.61 N/R

$346.81 115.73 81,373.63 492,780.28 14,089.41 N/R N/R

WATER USE

Ljubljana, Slovenia Zambonga, Philippines Nicosia, Cyprus Lemesos, Cyprus Bistrita, Romania Larnaca, Cyprus Kiev, Ukraine

N/R, not reported.

All charges have been converted to U.S. dollars based on conversion data provided by the utility.

Source: Adapted from 2004 Water and Wastewater Rate Survey by permission. Copyright q 2004, American Water Works Association. (Updated information available electronically from AWWA at 800-926-7337), www.awwa.org.

7-77

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Current Exchange Rates (USD/m3)

Canada

U.S.A.

Korea

Australia

N.Zealand

Austria

Belgium

Czech R.

Denmark

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Current PPPs (USD/m3)

1996

1998

1996

1998

1.70 0.63 0.75 — 1.02 0.93 0.80 0.88 0.60 0.29 — — — 1.16 0.70 1.29 0.95 1.13 0.36 — — — — — 0.93 0.80 0.80 — 0.76 0.98 — — 1.75 1.59 1.11 1.80 0.97 1.50 0.37 0.29 0.38 1.34

0.34 0.31 0.73 0.35 0.72 0.90 — 0.43 0.58 — 0.36 0.88 0.35 0.92 0.68 1.13 0.74 0.72 — 0.18 0.19 0.18 0.14 0.22 0.73 0.68 0.59 0.63 0.64 0.63 0.46 0.59 1.48 1.43 1.12 1.51 0.88 1.48 0.45 0.37 0.44 1.68

1.95 0.73 0.87 — 1.18 1.07 0.80 0.88 0.60 0.29 — — — 0.76 0.46 0.85 0.63 0.74 0.46 — — — — — 0.91 0.79 0.79 — 0.75 1.01 — — 1.36 1.24 0.87 1.51 0.82 1.26 0.86 0.67 0.88 0.93

0.43 0.39 0.92 0.45 0.92 1.14 — 0.43 0.58 — 0.36 0.88 0.35 0.74 0.54 0.90 0.59 0.58 — 0.38 0.41 0.37 0.29 0.46 0.89 0.82 0.72 0.76 0.78 0.80 0.58 0.75 1.35 1.30 1.01 1.45 0.84 1.42 1.06 0.88 1.05 1.32

Current Exchange Rates (USD/m3)

Germany

Greece

Hungary

Iceland Italy

Luxembourg Netherlands

Norway

Ponugal

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland

(national average) Berlin Dosseldorf Gelsenkirchen Hamburg Monchen Stuttgart Athens Thessaloniki Chanea Patras Budapest Debrecen Pecs Miskolc Reykjavik Hafnarflorour Rome Bologna Milan Naples Turin Luxembourg Amsterdam The Hague Utrecht Oslo Bergen Trondheim Lisbon Coimbra Porto Madrid Barcelona Bilbao Seville Stockholm Goteborg Malmo Beme Geneva Zurich

Current PPPs (USD/m3)

1996

1998

1996

1998

1.70 — — — — — — 0.77 0.82 — — 0.28 0.55 0.69 0.55 0.61 0.51 0.33 0.65 0.13 0.65 0.28 1.64 1.20 1.92 0.94 0.32 1.14 1.05 0.99 1.02 0.98 0.85 0.81 0.48 0.69 0.86 0.58 0.99 1.22 2.25 2.26

— 1.94 1.92 1.47 1.74 1.35 1.46 0.86 0.55 1.02 0.77 0.32 0.37 0.61 0.44 — — 0.28 0.61 0.13 0.57 0.28 1.60 1.02 1.91 0.94 0.47 1.30 0.80 0.97 0.72 1.02 0.81 0.78 0.41 0.57 0.76 0.59 0.54 1.33 2.14 1.88

1.47 — — — — — — 0.87 0.94 — — 0.58 1.16 1.45 1.16 0.53 0.44 0.32 0.63 0.13 0.64 0.27 1.28 0.99 1.59 0.78 0.22 0.81 0.74 1.24 1.28 1.23 0.87 0.83 0.49 0.70 0.60 0.40 0.69 0.74 1.35 1.36

— 1.70 1.68 1.29 1.53 1.19 1.28 1.05 0.68 1.25 0.94 0.71 0.83 1.35 0.98 — — 0.29 0.64 0.13 0.59 0.29 1.40 0.99 1.85 0.92 0.39 1.07 0.65 1.39 1.04 1.46 0.94 0.91 0.48 0.67 0.62 0.48 0.44 0.97 1.56 1.37

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Japan

Ottawa Toronto Winnipeg Vancouver London Edmonton Washington New York Los Angeles Orlando Miami Indianapolis Detroit Tokyo Osaka Sapporo Yokohama Nagoya (national average) Seoul Daegu Daeieon Inchon Pusan Sydney Brisbane Melbourne Canberra Perth Wellington Auckland North Shore City Vienna Salzburg Linz Brussels Antwerp Lie`ge Praha Brno Ostrava Copenhagen

7-78

Table 7D.31 Water Prices in Capitals or Major International Citiesa, 1996, 1998

Finland

France

Note:

0.89 0.98 0.85 0.90 1.32 1.36 — 0.93 1.73 1.39 1.33 1.78

1.26 1.32 0.76 0.86 — 1.19 1.35 0.87 1.46 1.16 1.06 1.45

0.62 0.68 0.66 0.70 1.03 1.06 — 0.73 1.35 1.08 1.03 1.38

0.98 1.03 0.66 0.75 — 1.04 1.17 0.76 1.28 1.02 0.93 1.27

Turkey

UK

Ankara Canakkale Eskisehir London Bristol Manchester Newcastle Cardiff

0.18 0.20 0.19 0.78 0.78 0.93 0.74 1.08

— — — 0.62 0.57 0.55 0.76 0.56

0.37 0.41 0.40 0.78 0.78 0.93 0.74 1.08

— — — 0.57 0.52 0.51 0.69 0.52

WATER USE

Aarhus Odense Helsinki Tampere Vaasa Turku Espoo Paris Banlieue Paris Bordeaux Lille Lyon a

Prices calculated on the basis of a family of four (two adults and two children) living in a house with garden rather than an apartment. Where there are water meters, the price is based on annual consumption of 200 m3. Where supply is normally unmeasured the average price has been used (Norway and UK). VAT is not included. KOR, 1996: national data. NZL, 1996: Secretariat estimates based on country data for water meter charges for the 1997/98 fiscal year, and considering an annual consumption of 200 m3. DEU, 1996: country data which refer to 1997 and are provisional. GRC, 1996 data refer to 1995; source: Ministry of Development. NOR, Unmeasured data: refer to the average price. TUR, 1996 data refer to 1995. UKD, Unmeasured data: refer to the average price.

Source: Table 3.2, OECD Environmental Data Compendium 2002, q OCED 2002, www.oecd.org.

7-79

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-80

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7D.32 Worldwide Unccounted for Water Location Africa (large city average) Algiers, Algeria Amman, Jordan Asia (large city average) Bahrain Bahrain Barbados Buenos Aires, Argentina Buenos Aires, Argentina Canada (average) Casablanca, Morocco Damascus, Syria Dubai, United Arab Emirates Gaza Gaza Haiphong, Vietnam Hanoi, Vietnam Hebron Johor Bahru, Malaysia Kansas, United States (average) Kansas, United States (range) Lae, Papua New Guinea Latin America and Caribbean (large city average) Lebanon (average) Male, Maldives Mandalay, Myanmar Mexico City, Mexico Mexico City, Mexico Nairobi, Kenya Nicosia, Cyprus North America (large city average) Oran, Algeria Penang, Malaysia Phnom Penh, Vietnam Poland (medium utility range) Rabat, Morocco Ramallah Rarotonga, Cook Islands Sana’a, Yemen Seoul, South Korea Singapore Singapore Sydney, Australia Tamir, Yemen Teheran, Iran Tunisia (large utility range) United Kingdom (small utility range)

Percent 1990 1990 1990 1990 1993 2000 1996 1993 1996 1990 1990 1995 1990 1995 1999 1998 1995 1990 1995 1997 1997 1995

1995 1995 1997 1999 2000 1990 1990 1990 1995 1995 1990 1990 1990 1995 1990 1996 1990 1995 1990 1990 1990 1990 1990

39 51 52 35–42 36 24 43 43 31 15 34 64 15 47 31 70 63 48 21 15 3–65 61 42 40 10 60 37 32 50 16 15 42 20 61 19–51 18 25 70 50 35 11 6 13.4 28 35 8–21 14–30

Source e a a e, f o o j n n b a, b a a a a m f a f h h f e a f f l l g b e a f f d b a f a p b f c b a a, d d

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

Table 7D.32

7-81

(Continued)

Location United States (average) Vietnam (average) Washington, DC, area suppliers a

b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p

Percent 1990s 1998 1999

12 50 10–28

Source b m k

Saghir, J., Sehiffler, M., and Woldu, M., 1999, World Bank Urban Water and Sanitation in the Middle East and North Africa Region: The Way Forward, the World Bank, Middle East and North Africa Region Infrastructure Development Group, December, available at worldbank.org/wbi/mdf/mdf3/papers/fnance/Saghir.pdf. Saghir, J., World Bank compilation. www.sydneywater.com.au/html/tsr/performanceindicators/esd2.html. World Bank benchmarking data, www.worldbank.org/watsan/topics/bench/bench_network_iup.html. World Health Organization, 2000, Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report, available at www.who.int/ water_sanitation_health/Globassessment/Global4-4.htm. Asian Development Bank, 1997, Second Water Utilities Data Book, Manila, Philippines, available at www.adb.org/Documents/ News/1997/nr1997111.asp. Makuro, M., 2000, Nairobi’s Response to the Water Crisis, UNCHS (Habitat) United Nations Centre for Human Settlements, Vol. 6, No. 3, available at unchs.org/unchs/english/hdv6n3/nairobi_response.htm. Kenny, J.F., 2000, Public Water-Supply Use in Kansas, 1987–97, USGS Fact Sheet 187-99, January, United States Geological Survey, available at ks.water.usgs.gov/Kansas/pubs/fact-sheets/fs.187-99.htm1#HDR2. AWWA recommends the use of audits to reduce unaccounted-for water, awwa.org/govtaff/watcopap.htm. Barbados Water, 1999, Managing Water Resources in an Integrated and Participatory Way Report of the First Stakeholder Meeting in Barbados, September 29–30, 1999, available at commonwealthknowledge.net/Thanni/wwevh.htm. League of Women Voters, 1999, Drinking Water Supply in the Washington DC Metropolitan Area: Prospects and Options for the 21st Century, available at www.dcwatch.com/lwvdc/lwv9903b.htm. Adelson, N., 2000, Water Woes: Private Investment Plugs Leaks in Water Sector, Business Mexico, available at mexconnect. com/mex_/travel/bzm/bzmwaterwoes.html. Trung, D.Q., Snow, R., Doukas, L., Thanh, N., and Trung, N., 1998, Water-loss reduction program in Vietnam, 24th WECD Conference, Water and Sanitation for All, Islamabad, Pakistan, available at Iboro.ac.uk/departments/cv/wedc/papers/24/S/trung.pdf. Esmay, J., 1998, Roundtable on Municipal Water, Vancouver, Canada, available at idrc.ca/industry/canada_e7.html. Qamber, M., 2000, Water Demand Management in State of Bahrain, Bahrain Ministry of Electricity & Water, available at emro.who.int/ceha/AmmanConferenceWaterDemandManagement.pdf. metro.seoul.kr/eng/smg/agenda/2-3.html.

Source: From World’s Water 2002–2003, by Peter H. Gleick. Copyright q 2002 Island Press. Reproduced by permission of Island Press, Washington DC.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-82

Table 7D.33 Population Supplied with Safe Drinking Water, by Country 1970–2000 Fraction of Population with Access to Drinking Water Region and Country

1970

1975

1980

1985

a,b

a,b

a,b

a,b

66 84

68 100

69

77 85 87 80 84 43 98 43 83 13

83 71 35 77 77

100 95 50

85 26 27 90 100

47

43

63 33

81 38

58

97 86 68

86 69

100 100 100 100 67 29 98 100 92

100 65 100 76

100

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1994

c

d

73 73 100

69 41

92 42

92

19

70 18

52

100 80 77 37 80 100 100

88 34 74 100 84 96 82 64 80

37

57

59 77 82 88

90 100 96 45

50 95 65

97 93 41 17

e

68

69 85 72 69 18 85 37

2000

31 98 71 89

42

50 88 47

61

1990

48

98 94

Rural

100 63 100

65 100

70 61 38 67 14 58

81 97 46 73 100 100 38

83 52 36 84 95 98 17

41 100 100

63 77 73 80 87 72 29 87 98 72 85 95 74 34 100 100 86

1970 a,b

1975 a,b

1980 a,b

61 20 26 10

20 39 26

10 15 31 20

21 21

1985

Total 1990

23

6 4

9 12

29

d

e

55 15 34 46 69 21 24 50

20 43 88 70 43 45

15 53

94 40 55

93

1

2 1 6 42 1

10 29 28

4 14 82 14

22

33 2 8 15 11 90 7 37 85 98

50 39 12 22

17 50 10

48

100 25 9

4 100 18

34 45 25

38 19

44

65 100 94 42

30 23

29 29 12

27 11

81 100 50 100

49 62 57 49 64 8 10 44 38 69 100 14 40

42 13 55 53 49 36 55 31 88 68 31 44 61 40 100 58 43

1980 a,b

77

26

80

37

a,b

27

23

86 18

1975

32

24

20

a,b

42 89 43 26 95 17 26

9

3 14

34 18

7 21

1970

49

17

20 64

2000

c

26 24

1994

a,b

26 18 31 23 25

1985 a,b

68 33 50 53 67 25 32 52

1990

e

35 54 91

32 50

94 38 63

45 44

6 12 35

15 3 15 58 11

17 61 51

8

17 17 87 25

60

51 18

36

27

71

72 90 64 95

77 100 95 43

45 90 32

16

45 15 10 26 15 96 21 41 84 99

59 56 18 21

60 21 53

36 53 31 56 16 100 59 15

62 74 60 27 96 51 45

20

43 84

35 14

78 52

24

32

2000

d

23

93

1994

c

13 100 56

76 56 62 53 53 52 30 29 45 37 76 98 52 32

46 24 70 62 64 48 49 49 91 72 47 57 65 37 100 82 60

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Data Source Africa Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Congo, Democratic Rep. Coˆte d’Ivoire Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique

Urban

35 100

90 98 100

79

84

79

65

82

92

68 58

80

58

23

100 90 100 100 37 76

87 46 63

66 41

60

74 100 47 64

95

100 100 100

98 100 95 100

96

100 70 81

19

26

32

49 20

60

66

68

55

48 45

67

25

38 95 7 22

26

28

65

20

21

31

92 86 80 85 72 88 100

99 100 83

1 14 13 9 5 17 17 22

12 100

2 22 43 29 36 10

31

31 17

29 16

13 100

37 45 22

98 36

7 42 41 31 18 41 32

99 26

42 55 26

45 44

30

58 89 32 27

80

75 100 53 100

82

100

67 56 39

20

27

33

47 38

40

67

68

55

50 45

68

43

53 95 24 34

42

50

78

39

34

28

70 50 43

86 75

80 69 42 38 46 48 77

86 100 69

12 15 19 13 17 49 22 37

65 98

14 38 50 37 39 16

51

38 60

35 42

65 100

52 56 49

100 99 68

31 53 54 70 20 58

100 99 64

33

57 53 39

77 59 57 41

63 99 34 43

54 54

84

50 64 85

90 100 74

96 100 76

89

99

100

98 100

85 96 74

68

87

78

72 59 56 99

92 56 85

37 81

99

94

91

98 99 83

59 15 14

56 27

34

20 47

28 77

12

100 88 97 94 97 46 97 81

10 48

14 3 13 79

94

29

49

82

83 33

91 45

99 85 67

40

40

15

37

18 8 40 46

14 30 45 93

43 35 48

23 53

40

47

62

98 82 70

74 56 37

72 55

60

40

53

38

100 61 93 94 88 45 82 59

34 62

39 12 41 86

63

54

62

90

91 62

98 67

92 93 71

50

51

47

55

46 19 59 51

37 38 49 96

62 41 64

28 65

73

83

69

83

98 95 79 100 74 94 94 92 46 90 71 86

7-83

85

100 82

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

Namibia Niger 37 36 41 Nigeria Reunion Rwanda 81 84 48 Sao Tome and Principe Senegal 87 56 77 Seychelles Sierra Leone 75 50 Somalia 17 77 South Africa Sudan 61 96 100 Swaziland 83 Tanzania 61 88 Togo 100 49 70 Tunisia 92 93 100 Uganda 88 100 Zambia 70 86 Zimbabwe North & Central America & Caribbean Anguilla Antigua and Barbuda Aruba Bahamas 100 100 100 Barbados 95 100 99 Belize 99 British Virgin Islands Canada Cayman 100 Islands Costa Rica 98 100 100 Cuba 82 96 Dominican 72 88 85 Republic Dominica El Salvador 71 89 67 Grenada 100 100 Guadeloupe Guatemala 88 85 90 Haiti 46 51 Honduras 99 99 93 Jamaica 100 100 55 Martinique Mexico 71 70 90

7-84

Table 7D.33

(Continued) Fraction of Population with Access to Drinking Water

Region and Country

1970

1975

1980

1985

58 100

100 100

67 100

76 100

100

79

100

100

Rural 1990

1994

2000

1970

1975

1980

1985

81

95 88

16 41

14 54

6 62

11 64

95

100

93

95

100

87

Total 1990

1994

2000

1970

1975

1980

1985

27

59 86

35 69

56 77

39 81

48 82

96

93

97

98

88

68

76 81 87 78 86 67

61 69 83 100 93 79

63 75 85 98 100 81

100 22 58

100 25 72 100

100 53 73 71 95 93

100 61 68

100 92

100 39 68 100 96 93

18

40

28

38

40

100

100

100

100

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

76 95 87 63

78 85 94 88 82

85 93 95 99 98 81

80

88 98 95 87 94 98 88

39

19

90 74

100

1994

2000

61 83

79 87

96

86

77

100

69 92 78 67 88 76

1990

100

12 2 28 13 28 7

26 6 28 33 8

63 5 8

75 5 15

59 38

87

1

5

94

100

17 10 51 17 73 20

17 13 56 29 76 31

60 9 18 79 2 53

65 8 17 94 27 65

71 9 24

45

36

75

71 91 58 51 96 93 58

8

17

19

5

11

100

0

30 61 82 44

22 31 37 48 55

24

30 55 54 66 73 51

100

56 33 55 56 63 34

66 34 70 64 36

75 11 35

84 13 47

92 75

98

3

9

99

100

54 36 72 84 86 50

56 43 77 87

72 21 50 88 81 86

76 28 55 83 85 89

81 34 55

8

17

23

57

100

53 87 86 55

55 72 85 76 70

79 79 87 94 91 71

79

84 94 79 77 95 98 84

12

13

61 60

89

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Montserrat The Netherlands Antilles Nicaragua Panama Puerto Rico St. Kitts St. Lucia St. Vincent Trinidad/ Tobago Turks/Caicos Islands United States of America United States Virgin Islands South America Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Falkland Islands (Malvinas) French Guiana Guyana Paraguay Peru Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Asia Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Bahrain

Urban

13

22

100

94

60 10 68 83

80 41 76 100

98

26 50 100

24

100

100 77 35 82

53 94 100

92

96

92 91 99 96

6 1 11 7

18 4 30 11

100 98 100 97

59

100

90 97

100

100

28

100

100

90 11

76 43

47

96 58

35

31

38

36

53

85 100 75 82 100 97

83

70 90 83 49

69

93

100

97

60

87 100

100

86 86

36

99 86

100

95 100

46 98

100 75

100 86 35 100 93

84 60

77 67 100 100

39 60

72 49 76 92 100 65 98 65 95

100 100 82

56

96 77 100 79

85 78 89

40 100

98 36

98 59 100

100 77 88

66

66

82 93 100

77 93

85 41 96 92

43 92

100 100 91 94

100 80

89 82

47

61

40 5 95

95 31 19 50 54

49 19

89 30

97 54

97 60

89

100

68 100

25 66 100

95

95

86 65 89 48

17 3 35 51

31 11 51 66

84 82 100 71

77

54

96 69 33 75 41

65

88

97

48

76

38

33

61 100

39

32

20

1

6

49 3

50 36

25

76 12

13

14

15

24

7

4 20 75 37

5 48 5 31 83 56

25 49 27 54

20 43 43 87

66 68 58 72

79 54 77

39 100

86 39

34

41

42 72

52 77

88

13

18 54

29

55

10

16

63 62

66

85

47 78

56

39 7

46

81 32

97 64

97 62

73 100

90

30 75 100

86

100 73 34 89 78

81 62 83 44

88 76 95 85

86

96

99

89

75

93

96 91 100 92

100

42 23 66

56 38

58 51

66 89

75 87

48

41

21

94 100 30 60

29

34

63 2

18

17

21

27

80 30 84 80

2

8 52 25 50 97 64

11

28 53 44 52

55 81

94 100 40

100 60

66 100 100

64

14 50

45

21 36 95 49

80 64

21 71

19

77 84

17

25

35 45 71 90 100 28 74 63 76

29

84 21

64

39 100

WATER USE

Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Darus Cambodia China Cyprus East Timor Gaza Strip Georgia Hong Kong India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Korea DPR Korea Rep Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Macau Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar (Burma) Nepal Oman Pakistan Philippines Qatar Saudi Arabia Singapore Sri Lanka Syria Tajikistan Thailand Turkey

77 90 100

79 89 82 74 38

38

100 60 68

44 63 60 85

81 39 88 87

46 85

95 100 83 80 80 83

(Continued)

7-85

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-86

Table 7D.33

(Continued) Fraction of Population with Access to Drinking Water

Region and Country

1970

1975

1980

1985

Rural 1990

1994

2000

1970

1975

95

45 88

100 85

1980

1985

Total 1990

1994

78

89

70 100

99

93

47

100 96 100

53

100

91 100

0 100

30

55

86

100

97 96

100

100

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

86 65

1975

96 81 85 85

32 18 25

2 43

100 100 43 100

95

100 94

100 100

84

100 88

100 82

99 100 95

92

39 25

88 15

56

66

25

33

32

72

100 100 63

53

19

10

23

94 45

71

70 53

100 69 18

100

63 45

100

95 94 100 100 100

1985

1990

1994

78 50 64 64

45 40

36

36

4 57

31 52

100

82

100

1980

2000

92

100

44

1970

81

100

100 94

2000

15

38

100

100 0

100

100

17

20 32

97 20

98

100

92 37

69

77

80

100

25

77 58 100 99 100 54

100 100 51 100

100 100 95

85 56 69 69

100 100 47 100

47

100

70

20

100 65

17

43

100 100 94

63

16

26

32

100

100

28

79 42

99 71

62

83

17

99 64

96

100 100 98

100 100 88

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen A R Yemen Dem Oceania American Samoa Australia Cook Islands Fiji French Polyneisa Guam Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia Nauru New Caledonia New Zealand Niue Northern Mariana Islands Palau Papua New Guinea Pitcairn Samoa Solomon Islands Tokelau Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu

Urban

a b c d e

97

75

94

67

69

WATER USE

Wallis and Futuna Islands Western Samoa

United Nations Environment Programme, 1989, Environmental Data Report, GEMS Monitoring and Assessment Research Centre, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. WRI 1988, World Health Organization data, cited by the World Resources Institute, 1988, World Resources 1988–89, World Resources Institute and the International Institute for Environment and Development in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme, Basic Books, New York. United Nations Environment Programme, 1993–94, Environmental Data Report, GEMS Monitoring and Assessment Research Centre in cooperation with the World Resources Institute and the UK Department of the Environment, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. WHO 1996, Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Monitoring Report: 1996 (Sector Status as of 1994), in collaboration with the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council and the United Nations Children’s Fund, UNICEF, New York. WHO 2000, Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report, available in full at who.int/water_sanitation_health/Globassessment/GlobalTOC.htm.

Source: From World’s Water 2002–2003, by Peter H. Gleick. Copyright q 2002 Island Press. Reproduced by permission of Island Press, Washington, DC.

7-87

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-88

Table 7D.34 Population Supplied with Access to Sanitation, by Country, 1970–2000 Fraction of Population with Access to Sanitation Region and Country

1970 1975

1980

1985

a,b

a,b

a,b

a,b

47 13

75 100

57 80 40 48

75

83 49 96

47

38 40 34

64

100

7

9

8 5

10 65

29 58 93 44 84 100 32

Rural 1990 c

25 60 100 64

92 70

95

85 44 100 100 88

98 51

63 100 51 75

100

63

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

90 34 54

6 70 46

50

42 60

88 79 99 95 43

46

23

81 98 14 53

81

59 77 20 61

99 98 60

80 54

56

a,b

40

78

96

47 54 21 89 13 100 9 100 79 5 100

51

100 63

29

55 90 8 100 62

83 53 32 69 1 38

22 6

1970

e

73

43

2000

d

45

23

67

1994

81

50 70 58

100 100

100 69

66 58 25 41 62 94 88 96 93 97 70 96 93 44 100 100

1975 a,b

1980 a,b

40 15 4

1

5 35 10 96

1985

Total 1990

a,b

c

16 20 28 6 56 1 9

20 35 85

100

16

9

20 10

8

8

40 2

40

45 10 9 54

48 12 69 9

100

47 8 6

9 30 6

67

11 50

16

4

11

4

6

100

51 100 5 48

50 91 46

26 24

96

17 1 13 19 14

16

27 60 0

18

23 36

14 2

17 81 7 2

3

10

3 51 21

86 16

100

72

90

85 32 23 13 98

81

99 4

a,b

7

17

1970

e

46

9 6

2000

d

10

1 6 5

1994

100 18

1975 a,b

1980 a,b

57 20 16

14 4

7 35 11

72

100

1

1

6 5

9 22

1985

c

19 33 40 9 58 43 10

21 45 89

5

1 6 4 35 64 41 34 81 96 30 70 98 100 19 99 42

39

1990

a,b

14

55 13

56

50 11 19 67

55 13

26 11 15 30 14

79

88

82

94

73 16 20

44 23

46

24 46

29 92 71 31

21

29 98

21

9

20

92

54 90 11 54

91 94 53

44 61

21 15

83 8 7 77 29

e

18 51

64

30

2000

d

18

50 33

14

1994

19

27

92

100

37 42 70 20 77 6 18 15 53 31 100 40

13 15 21 37 63 58 47 86 92 97 42 77 69 33 99 75

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Data Source Africa Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Congo, Democratic Republic Cote D’Ivoire Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco

Urban

70 24 71 80

71 61

88

69 96 79 85 12

57

83

94

55

17

23

12 1

3 5

52

56

50

2 6 35

79 79 36

32

57 100 75 40

95

98 100 76 100

23

99 87

4

98 69 96 99 99

93 100 59

55 15

34 76 18

13 100

10 25 14 12

10

95 46

10 5

25 58 9 16 30 34 15

13 100 75

45

84

94 89

70 11 4 11

4 21

17

26 17 5 45 8

38

40

48

31

8

31

20 1

3

7

53

57

51

60

13 85 55 10

22

2 100 22 100

87

100

73 48 86 17 72 64 51

94 100 21

56 15

36 12 47

12 4 37

15 17 35

16

1 62 76 16

66 100

22 36 17 15

66 13

94 42

65 100

15 36

21

8

46

58

70

39

11

28 86 62

45

46 22 36

14 55 30 55

26 96 57 23

24 18

88

100

69

66

57

85 71 76

98 96 75

43

93

10

68 75

99 51 83

95 91 64

54

16

4

85

78

18

17

72 44

42

88 96 61 98 50

26

43

38

59

20 10

12 13

52 17

16

78 97 61 76 16

11 43

16 1

90 34

43

75 78 68

63 100 50

93 100 42

57

99

100 95

43 41 20 63

WATER USE

Mozambique 53 Namibia Niger 10 30 36 Nigeria Reunion Rwanda 83 87 60 77 Sao Tome and Principe Senegal 100 87 Seychelles Sierra Leone 31 60 Somalia 77 44 South Africa Sudan 100 100 73 73 Swaziland 99 100 Tanzania 88 93 Togo 4 36 24 31 Tunisia 100 100 84 Uganda 84 82 32 Zambia 12 87 76 Zimbabwe North & Central America & Caribbean Anguilla Antigua and Barbuda Aruba Bahamas 100 100 88 100 Barbados 100 100 100 Belize 62 87 British Virgin Islands Canada Cayman Islands 94 96 Costa Rica 66 94 99 99 Cuba 57 100 Dominican 63 74 25 41 Republic Dominica El Salvador 66 71 48 82 Grenada Guadeloupe Guatemala 45 41 Haiti 42 42

100 96 52

93

91

95

92 66 78

96 95 71

83 97 61 85 28

58

42

15

23

92 87

37

39

35

58

59

68

30 19

24 21

60 25

24

(Continued) 7-89

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-90

Table 7D.34

(Continued) Fraction of Population with Access to Sanitation

Region and Country

1970 1975 64 100

87

53 100

78

Rural

1980

1985

1990

1994

2000

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1994

2000

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1994

2000

49 12

24 92

89

81

94 98

9 92

13 91

26 2

34 90

42

53

57 66

24 94

26 94

35 7

30 91

63

65

77 84

77

77

85

81

87

13

14

12

13

26

32

55

58

66

73

34 83

35 99

34

96 87

8 69

24 76

16 61

27

59

68 94

71

27 81

31 86

84 99

100 51

83

Total

96

100

36 73

95 16 52

99 28

97

97

69

63

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

80 37

100

96

100 93 73

75 33 86 100 96 98

73 95 57 100 59 60

100 89 67 78 59 57

97 31 76

5

13

38 84 84 56

77

92 97

88

97

95

81

100

87 25 85 33 75

78

58 55 82 76 87

89 82 85 98 97 70

64

85 97 95 90 100 96 86

38

25

62

92

93

88

98

100

79 4 24 10 8

92

83 9 11 13 7

94

16 13 45

17

16

15

35 4 1 10 4 17

35 10 1 4 13 29

80 80 0 79 6 12

79 83 12 48 59 5

14 32

16 3

18 38

33 34

48 38 40 93 51 37

81 60 20

10

72

30

57 81 95 40 34 89 69

1

8

100

85 12 58 29 47

97 18 32 48

93 6 36

96 10

82

83

21

21

83 61 43

78 86 36 88 51 52

69 21 63 84 65

86 85 49 62 59 50

26 71

41 44

64 48

63 64

86 46 59

85 66 77 97 85 59

58

79 87 95 76 83 95 74

8

12

44

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Honduras Jamaica Martinique Mexico Montserrat The Netherlands Antilles Nicaragua Panama Puerto Rico St. Kitts St. Lucia St. Vincent Trinidad/ Tobago Turks/Caicos Islands United States of America United States Virgin Islands South America Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Falkland Islands (Malvinas) French Guiana Guyana Paraguay Peru Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Asia Afghanistan

Urban

87

40

21

100 24

100 40 80

77 66

82 65

1

58 68 100

76

58

100 100

94

85 50 100 82

87 60 100 75

59

100

100

100 96

100

90 44 79 100 96

94

92

100

80

100 100

100 100

67

10

13

100 21

27 29 96

100 60

31 33

30

100 100

45

38

38

33

14 100 12 90 100 67

14 100 21 76 100 91

16

17 88 51 83

76

68

65

58

42 81 81 80 80 74

100 99 65

64 56

78

94 95 100 50 34 53 79 100 99 68

70 73 89

73 87 86 93

92

95

1 4 48

2 5 59 1

100

1 21 43

50

100 100

70

100 84

2

4

100

100

95

100 46 65

34

43

51 53

33 77

75 98 94 92 100 100 91 98 97 98

2 38

43

0 4 3

81 100

50 3 30 35

55 1

1

100

8

60 2

94 4 47 13

50

33

55

63 28

39

45

36

41

46

86

61

8

7

10 24 100

95

95

14 52 74 31

18 12 70 47

20 15 78 47

14 40 37

98 98 100 4

12

2 67

44 100 35

44 70

100

1 25 6 56

5 40 16 11

30 18

11

100 100 99 76

42

100 3

3 12 63 85

13

100 34

100

92

26 40 16 19

5

3

100 5

100

7 23 69

9 37

70

25

64

100 100

3

5

60 3

10 7

35 41

53 69

86 98

21

18 38 100

29 51 67 36

31 66 81 79

95

99 99 99 63

88 14 44 72

74

41 58 2 39

59

35

33

20

20 61 42 71

1

1

3 57 83 21

1 12 6 56 100 47

80 81

64

59

96 70

17

40

100 58 35

6

70 13

13 75

100

100

52

12

75 22 24

70 80 67 50

82 99 44

45

52

100 46

100

99

44

56 30 46

94 78 22 6

31 19 67

24

25 70

50

41 20 76 30

52 56

27 92 61 83 100 100 83 90 96 91 7-91

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

Armenia Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Darus Cambodia China Cyprus East Timor Gaza Strip Georgia Hong Kong India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Korea DPR Korea Rep Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Lao People’s Dem Rep Lebanon Macau Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar (Burma) Nepal Oman Pakistan Philippines Qatar Saudi Arabia Singapore Sri Lanka Syria Tajikistan Thailand Turkey

7-92

Table 7D.34

(Continued) Fraction of Population with Access to Sanitation

Region and Country

1970 1975

1980

1985

Rural 1990

1994

2000

1970

1975

93

23

100

60 70

83

100 85

100

100

100

96

100

100

86 80

100

100

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

97 100 95

1985

1990

1994

2000

1970

1975

22

100

100

1980

Total

99

100 91 98

43

100

100 100 75 99

91 100 99

100

0 100

100

100

82

100 92

95 57

88

2

55

10

87

93

99

54

95 98 100 100 90

100

100 65 95

85

49 45 46

100

5

3

80

99

83 21 41 94 80 68

100

1990

1994

100 71

100

35

11

92 2 40 73 25

78

100 70 31 31

100 100 12 97

26

13

21

35

99 91

96

70

75

44

17 100 100 85

92

100

100

100 5

100 100 100

15

15

76 60

1985

2000

80

100

100 73 99 81 86

100 87 99 99

1980

100 73 45 45

100 100 43 98

48

100

100 92

100 80

100 18

14

18

84

99

44

100

22

100 82

99 34

13 100

100 100

15

100

100

19

52 40

82

100 100 87

100 100

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen A R Yemen Dem Oceania American Samoa Australia Cook Islands Fiji French Polyneisa Guam Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia Nauru New Caledonia New Zealand Niue Northern Mariana Islands Palau Papua New Guinea Pitcairn Samoa Solomon Islands Tokelau Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu

Urban

a b c d e

86

88

83

83

84

WATER USE

Wallis and Futuna Islands Western Samoa

United Nations Environment Programme, 1989, Environmental Data Report, GEMS Monitoring and Assessment Research Center, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. WRI 1988, World Health Organization data, cited by the World Resources Institute, 1988, World Resources 1988–89, World Resources Institute and the International Institute for Environment and Development in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme, Basic Books, New York. United Nations Environment Programme, 1993–94, Environmental Data Report, GEMS Monitoring and Assessment Research Centre in cooperation with the World Resources Institute and the UK Department of the Environment, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. WHO 1996, World Health Organization, 1996, Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Monitoring Report: 1996 (Sector Status as of 1994), in collaboration with the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council and the United Nations Children’s Fund, UNICEF, New York. WHO 2000, World Health Organization, 2000, Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report, available in full at www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/ Globassessment/GlobalTOC.htm.

Source: From World’s Water 2002–2003, by Peter H. Gleick. Copyright q 2002 Island Press. Reproduced by permission of Island Press, Washington, DC.

7-93

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-94

Table 7D.35 Water Supply and Sanitation Coverage by Region, 1990 and 2000 1990 Population (millions) Population Served

Region

Total Population

Global Urban water supply Rural water supply Total water supply

(76% of regional population represented) 2,292 2,179 2,974 1,961 5,266 4,140

Urban sanitation Rural sanitation Total sanitation

(72% of regional population represented) 197 166 418 183 615 349

Urban sanitation Rural sanitation Total sanitation Asia Urban water supply Rural water supply Total water supply

197 418 615

1,029 2,151 3,180

690 496 1,186

% Serveda

113 1,013 1,126

95 66 79

415 1,946 2,361

82 35 55

31 235 266

84 44 57

30 212 242

85 49 61

57 718 775

94 67 76

339 1,655 1,994

67 23 37

(77% of regional population represented)

Urban sanitation Rural sanitation Total sanitation Oceania Urban water supply Rural water supply Total water supply

167 206 373

(88% of regional population represented) 1,029 972 2,151 1,433 3,180 2,405

Urban sanitation Rural sanitation Total sanitation Latin American and the Caribbean Urban water supply Rural water supply Total water supply

1,877 1,028 2,905

Population Unserved

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Population Served

(89% of regional population represented) 2,845 2,672 3,210 2,284 6,055 4,956 2,845 3,210 6,055

2,442 1,210 3,652

(96% of regional population represented) 297 253 487 231 784 484 297 487 784

251 220 471

(94% of regional population represented) 1,352 1,254 2,331 1,736 3,683 2,990 1,352 2,331 3,683

1,055 712 1,767

Population Unserved

% Serveda

173 926 1,099

94 71 82

403 2,000 2,403

86 38 60

44 256 300

85 47 62

46 267 313

84 45 60

98 595 693

93 75 81

297 1,619 1,916

78 31 48

(99% of regional population represented)

313 128 441

287 72 359

26 56 82

92 56 82

391 128 519

362 79 441

29 49 78

93 62 85

313 128 441

267 50 317

46 78 124

85 39 72

391 128 519

340 62 402

51 66 117

87 49 78

0 3 3

98 63 88

0 2

99 81

(64% of regional population represented) 18 18 8 5 26 23

Urban sanitation Rural sanitation

Total Population

18 8

18 7

0 3 3

100 62 88

0 1

99 89

(85% of regional population represented) 21 21 9 6 30 27 21 9

21 7

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Africa Urban water supply Rural water supply Total water supply

2,292 2,974 5,266

2000 Population (millions)

Europe Urban water supply Rural water supply Total water supply

26

(15% of regional population represented) 522 522 200 199 722 721

Urban sanitation Rural sanitation Total sanitation Northern America Urban water supply Rural water supply Total water supply

522 200 722

522 199 721

(99.9% of regional population represented) 213 213 69 69 282 282

Urban sanitation Rural sanitation Total sanitation a

25

213 69 282

213 69 282

1

96

0 1 1

100 100 100

0 1 1

100 100 100

0 0 0

100 100 100

0 0 0

100 100 100

30

28

(44% of regional population represented) 545 542 184 161 729 703 545 184 729

537 137 674

(99.9% of regional population represented) 239 239 71 71 310 310 239 71 310

239 71 310

2

93

3 23 26

100 87 96

8 47 55

99 74 92

0 0 0

100 100 100

0 0 0

100 100 100

WATER USE

Total sanitation

Due to rounding, coverage figures might not total 100% even if the population unserved is shown as 0.

Source: From World Health Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assesment Report 2000, Copyright q 2000 World’ Health Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund, www.wssinfo.org.

7-95

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-96

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Water Supply Actual and target global urban water supply coverage Population (billions)

8

Served

Target served

Unserved

Still unserved

Actual and target global rural water supply coverage Population (billions)

8

6

Target served

Unserved

Still unserved

6 0.127

4 0.113 2

Served

2.179

0.173

4

4.536

3.69

2.672

2

0

1.013 1.961

0.926 2.284

0.484 2.853

3.286

0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025

Sanitation Actual and target global urban sanitation coverage Population (billions)

8

Served

Target served

Unserved

Still unserved

6

Actual and target global rural sanitation coverage Population (billions)

8

Served

Target served

Unserved

Still unserved

6 0.289

4 0.415 2 1.877

0.403

4.536

4

3.528

2.442

0

2.00

1.043 3.286

2 0

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025

1.946

2.294 1.028

1.21

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025

Figure 7D.13 Actual and target global urban and rural water supply and sanitation coverage. (From World Health Organization and UNICEF, 2000, Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment Report 2000, Copyright q 2000 World’ Health Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund, www.wssinfo.org/en/welcome.html. With permission.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

7-97

Table 7D.36 Constraints in Improving Water Supply and Sanitation Services in Developing Countries Number of Countries Indicting Constraint Constraints Insufficiency of trained personnel (professional) Funding limitations Insufficiency of trained personnel (sub-professional) Operation and maintenanceb Logisticsb Inadequate cost-recovery framework Inappropriate institutional framework Insufficient health education efforts Intermittent water service Lack of planning and design criteria Noninvolvement of communities Inadequate or outmoded legal framework Inappropriate technology Insufficient knowledge of water resources Inadequate water resources Lack of definite government policy for sector Import restrictions

Very Severe

Severe

Moderate

Ranking Indexa

16

40

27

155

21 16

31 38

30 29

155 153

16 11 11

36 35 34

23 23 22

143 126 123

6 7 10 6 6 10

30 24 19 17 15 14

35 43 32 41 44 34

113 112 100 93 92 92

5 1

18 20

33 39

84 82

5 4

11 10

40 44

77 76

5

12

21

60

Note: Ranking and frequency of constraints as reported by 87 countries. a b

Ranking indexZ(No. very severe!3)C(No. severe!2)C(No. moderate!1). “Logistics” is ranked ahead of “Operation and maintenance” in the group of Least Developed Countries.

Source: World Health Organization, 1984. The International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, WHO Publ. 85. Reprinted with permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-98

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 7E

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DOMESTIC WATER CONSUMPTION

Population (thousands)

State

Total

Served by Public Supply Total

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania

4,450 627 5,130 2,670 33,900 4,300 3,410 784 572 16,000 8,190 1,210 1,290 12,400 6,080 2,930 2,690 4,040 4,470 1,270 5,300 6,350 9,940 4,920 2,840 5,600 902 1,710 2,000 1,240 8,410 1,820 19,000 8,050 642 11,400 3,450 3,420 12,300

3,580 421 4,870 2,320 30,100 3,750 2,660 617 572 14,000 6,730 1,140 928 10,900 4,480 2,410 2,500 3,490 3,950 726 4,360 5,880 7,170 3,770 2,190 4,770 664 1,390 1,870 756 7,460 1,460 17,100 5,350 493 9,570 3,150 2,730 10,100

Withdrawals (mil gal/day)

Self-Supplied Domestic Population

Population (Percent)

868 206 265 351 3,810 555 749 166 0 1,950 1,450 72.9 366 1,500 1,600 511 193 552 523 549 932 473 2,770 1,150 654 824 238 324 124 479 952 360 1,890 2,700 149 1,790 299 692 2,190

20 33 5 13 11 13 22 21 0 12 18 6 28 12 26 17 7 14 12 43 18 7 28 23 23 15 26 19 6 39 11 20 10 34 23 16 9 20 18

Withdrawals (thousand acre-feet/yr)

By Source Groundwater 78.9 10.9 28.9 28.5 257 66.8 56.2 13.3 0 199 110 4.82 85.2 135 122 33.2 21.6 19.5 41.2 35.7 77.1 42.2 239 80.8 69.3 53.6 17.3 48.4 22.4 40.9 79.7 31.4 142 189 11.9 132 25.5 68.3 132

By Source

Surface Water

Total

Groundwater

Surface Water

Total

0 0.25 0 0 28.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.22 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.29 0 0 0.16 0 0 0 0 0 2.71 0 7.97 0

78.9 11.2 28.9 28.5 286 66.8 56.2 13.3 0 199 110 12 85.2 135 122 33.2 21.6 27.5 41.2 35.7 77.1 42.2 239 80.8 69.3 53.6 18.6 48.4 22.4 41 79.7 31.4 142 189 11.9 134 25.5 76.2 132

88.4 12.2 32.4 31.9 288 74.9 63 14.9 0 223 123 5.4 95.6 152 137 37.2 24.2 21.9 46.2 40 86.4 47.2 268 90.6 77.7 60.1 19.4 54.3 25.2 45.8 89.3 35.2 159 212 13.3 148 28.5 76.5 148

0 0.28 0 0 32 0 0 0 0 0 0 8.09 0 0 0 0 0 8.97 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.45 0 0 0.18 0 0 0 0 0 3.04 0 8.93 0

88.4 12.5 32.4 31.9 320 74.9 63 14.9 0 223 123 13.5 95.6 152 137 37.2 24.2 30.8 46.2 40 86.4 47.2 268 90.6 77.7 60.1 20.8 54.3 25.2 46 89.3 35.2 159 212 13.3 151 28.5 85.5 148

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-99

(Continued)

WATER USE

Table 7E.37 Domestic Freshwater Use in the United States, 2000

(Continued) Population (thousands)

State

Self-Supplied Domestic

Withdrawals (thousand acre-feet/yr)

By Source

By Source

Total

Served by Public Supply Total

Population

Population (Percent)

Groundwater

Surface Water

Total

Groundwater

Surface Water

Total

1,050 4,010 755 5,690 20,900 2,230 609 7,080 5,890 1,810 5,360 494 3,810 109 285,000

922 3,160 625 5,240 19,700 2,180 362 5,310 4,900 1,300 3,620 406 3,800 53.4 242,000

127 847 129 453 1,190 56.2 247 1,770 993 505 1,750 87.5 12.8 55.2 43,500

12 21 17 8 6 3 41 25 17 28 33 18 0 51 15

8.99 63.5 9.52 32.6 131 16.1 20.7 133 125 39.6 96.3 6.57 0.88 0 3,530

0 0 0.01 0 0 0 0.25 0 0.02 0.81 0 0 0 1.69 58.9

8.99 63.5 9.53 32.6 131 16.1 21 133 125 40.4 96.3 6.57 0.88 1.69 3,590

10.1 71.2 10.7 36.6 147 18 23.2 150 140 44.4 108 7.36 0.99 0 3,960

0 0 0.01 0 0 0 0.28 0 0.02 0.91 0 0 0 1.89 66.1

10.1 71.2 10.7 36.6 147 18 23.5 150 140 45.3 108 7.36 0.99 1.89 4,030

Note: Figures may not sum to totals because of independent rounding. Source:

From Hutson, S.S. et al., 2004, Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2000, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, www.usgs.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Total

Withdrawals (mil gal/day)

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Table 7E.37

WATER USE

7-101

Table 7E.38 Groundwater and Surface Water Withdrawals in Public Supply and Rural Domestic Sectors, 1950–1995 Public Supply

Self-Supplied Domestic

Year

Total Withdrawals (bgd)

Groundwater (%)

Surface Water (%)

Total Withdrawals (bgd)

Groundwater (%)

Surface Water (%)

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

14.0 17.0 21.0 24.0 27.0 29.0 34.0 36.5 38.5 40.2

26 28 30 33 34 36 34 40 39 37

74 72 70 67 66 64 66 60 61 63

3.6 2.5 2.1 2.3 2.6 2.8 3.5 3.3 3.4 3.4

80 72 93 95 96 95 95 98 96 99

20 28 7 5 4 5 5 2 4 1

Source: From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002, Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995. Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, February 28, 2002. Reprinted with permission. http://info.geography.siu.edu/geography_info/ research/.

Table 7E.39 Population and Domestic Withdrawals, 1950–1995 Year

Domestic Withdrawals (bgd)

Population (millions)

Per Capita Withdrawals (gpcd)

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

17.6 20.6 24.6 28.0 31.5 33.9 39.6 44.3 46.4 49.1

150.7 164.0 179.3 193.8 205.9 216.4 229.6 242.4 252.3 267.1

116.8 125.6 137.2 144.5 153.0 156.7 172.5 182.7 183.9 183.8

Source: From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002, Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995. Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, February 28, 2002. Reprinted with permission. http://info.geography.siu.edu/geography_info/ research/.

Table 7E.40 Typical Urban Water Use by a Family of Four Daily Use Per Family

Drinking and water used in kitchen Dishwasher (3 loads per day) Toilet (16 flushes per day) Bathing (4 baths or showers per day) Laundering (6 loads per week) Automobile washing (2 car washes per month) Lawn watering and swimming pools (180 hr/yr) Garbage disposal unit (1 percent of all other uses) Total

Gal/day

%

Per Capita gal/day

8 15 96 80 34 10 100 3 346

2 4 28 23 10 3 29 1 100

2.00 3.75 24.00 20.00 8.50 2.50 25.00 0.75 86.50

Note: Assuming no water delivery losses. Source: From U.S. Water Resources Council, Second National Water Assessment, The Nation’s Water Resources 1975–2000; percentage added. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-102

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7E.41 Flow Rates for Certain Plumbing, Household, and Farm Fixtures Flow Pressurea (psi)

Location Ordinary basin faucet Self-closing basin faucet Sink faucet, 3/8 in. Sink faucet, 1/2 in. Bathtub faucet Laundry tub faucet, 1/2 in. Shower Ball-cock for closet Flush valve for closet (toilet) Flushometer valve for closet (toilet) Garden hose (50 ft, 3/4 in. sill cock) Garden hose (50 ft, 5/8 in. outlet) Drinking fountains Fire hose 1 1/2 in., 1/2 in. nozzle a b

Flow Rate (gpm)

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 15 15 30 15 15 30

2.0 2.5 4.5 4.5 6.0 5.0 5.0 3.0 15–40b 15.0 5.0 3.33 0.75 40.0

Flow pressure is the pressure in the supply near the faucet or water outlet while the faucet or water outlet is wide open and flowing. Wide Range due to variation in design and type of closet (toilet) flush valves.

Source: From U.S. Public Health Service, 1962, Manual of Individual Water Supply Systems.

Table 7E.42 Summary of California and Federal Plumbing Fixture Requirements California (Covers Sale and Installation)

Plumbing Device Showerheads Lavatory Faucetsa

a

Sink Faucets

Metering (self-closing) Faucetsb (public restrooms) Tub Spout Divertera Toilets (residential)

Flushometer valvesa

Toilets (Commercial)a

Urinals

a b c

Effective Date

CA 3/20/92 US 1/1/94 2.75 gpm CA 12/22/78 2.2 gpm CA 3/20/92 US 1/1/94 2.2 gpm CA 3/20/92 US 1/1/94 CA 7/1/92 Hot water maximum flow rates range from 0.25 to 0.75 gal/cycle and/or from US 1/1/94 0.5 gpm to 2.5 gpm, depending on controls and hot water system 0.1 (new), to 0.3 gpm (after 15,000 cycles CA 3/20/92 of diverting) 1.6 gpf CA 1/1/92 (new construction) CA 1/1/94 (all toilets for sale or installation) US 1/1/94 (non-commercial) 1.6 gpf CA 1/1/92 (new construction) CA 1/1/94 (all toilets) US 1/1/94 (commercial) US 1/1/97 (commercial) 1.6 gpf CA 1/1/94 (all toilets for sale or installation) US 1/1/97 1.0 gpf CA 1/1/92 (new) CA 1/1/94 (all) US 1/1/94

Energy Policy Act of 1992 (Covers Only Manufacture)

2.5 gpm

2.5 gpmc

2.5 gpmc 2.5 gpmc 0.25 gal/cycle (maximum water delivery per cycle)c (does not appear to be included in EPA)

1.6 gpf

3.5 gpf 1.6 gpf

1.6 gpf

1.0 gpf

California requirements are pre-existing and more stringent than federal law; therefore California requirements prevail in California. Federal law is more stringent than California requirements. Measured at a flowing water pressure of 80 pounds/sq.in.

Source: From California Department of Water Resources, 1998, “Urban, Agricultural and Environmental Water Use,” Californaia Water Plan Update Bulletin-160-98, California Dept. of Water Resources, Sacremento, CA, November 1998, www.water.ca.gov. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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7-103

Leaks 13.7% 9.5 gpcd

Other domestic 2.3% 1.6 gpcd Toilet 26.7% 18.5 gpcd

Faucets 15.7% 10.9 gpcd

Dishwasher 1.4% 1.0 gpcd

Total gpcd = 69.3

Clothes washer 21.7% 15.0 gpcd

Shower 16.8% 11.6 gpcd Bath 1.7% 1.2 gpcd

Figure 7E.14 From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002. Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual, EPA/ 625-R-00/008, February 2002. Original Soure: Mayer, P.W., DeOreo, W.B. et al., 1999. Residential End Uses of Water, American Water Works Association Research Foundation, Denver, Colorado.

Faucets10.8 gcd, 21.9%

Leaks5.0 gcd, 10.1%

Showers10.0 gcd,20.1%

Other domestic1.5 gcd, 3.1% Baths1.2 gcd, 2.4% Dish washers1.0 gcd, 2.0%

Clothes washer10.6 gcd, 21.4% Toilets9.6 gcd, 19.3% Total: 49.6 Gallons per capita per day (gcd) Presented by waterwiser - ®1999 American Water Works Association

Figure 7E.15 Typical single family home water use—with conservation. (Reprinted from Waterwiser www.waterwiser.org, by permission. Copyright q 1999, American Water Works Association.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-104

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7E.43 Indoor Residential Water Use by Fixture or Appliance Gal/Use: Average Range

Uses/Person/Day: Average Range

Gal/Person/Day: Average Rangea

% Total: Average Range

3.5 2.9–3.9 17.2b 14.9–18.6 See shower

5.05 4.5–5.6 0.75b 0.6–0.9 See shower

Leaks

40.5 — 10.0 9.3–10.6 1.4c — NA

0.37 0.30–0.42 0.10 0.06–0.13 8.1d 6.7–9.4 NA

Other domestic

NA

NA

Total

NA

NA

18.5 15.7–22.9 11.6 8.3–15.1 1.2 0.5–1.9 15.0 12.0–17.1 1.0 0.6–1.4 10.9 8.7–12.3 9.5 3.4–17.6 1.6 0.0–6.0 69.3 57.1–83.5

26.7 22.6–30.6 16.8 11.8–20.2 1.7 0.9–2.7 21.7 17.8–28.0 1.4 0.9–2.2 15.7 12.4–18.5 13.7 5.3–21.6 2.3 0.0–8.5 100

Fixture/Use Toilet Shower Bath Clothes washer Dishwasher Faucets

Note: Results from AWWARF REUWS at 1,188 homes in 12 metropolitan areas. Homes surveyed were served by public water supplies, which operate at higher pressure than private water sources. Leakage rates might be lower for homes on private water supplies. Results are averages over range. Range is the lowest to highest average for 12 metropolitan areas. a Gal/person/day might not equal gal/use multiplied by uses/person/day because of differences in the number of data points used to calculate means. b Includes shower and bath. c Gallons per minute. d Minutes of use per person per day. Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual, EPA/625-R-00/008, February 2002. Original Source:

Adapted from Residential End Uses of Water, by permission. Copyright q 1999 American Water Works Association and AWWA Research Foundation, www.awwa.org.

Table 7E.44 Household End Use of Water with and without Conservation Without Conservation Type of Use Toilets Clothes washers Showers Faucets Leaks Baths Dish washers Total indoor water use

With Conservation

Amount (gpcd)

Percent of Total (%)

Amount (gpcd)

Percent of Total (%)

Savings (%)

18.3 14.9 12.2 10.3 6.6 1.2 1.1 64.6

28.4 23.1 18.8 16.0 10.2 1.9 1.6 100

10.4 10.5 10.0 10.0 1.5 1.2 1.1 44.7

23.2 23.4 22.4 22.5 3.4 2.7 2.4 100

44 30 18 2 77 0 0 31

Note: These data are provided for illustrative purposes only and may not be applicable to a given situation. To the extent practical, planners use system-specific assumptions and estimates. gpcd, gallons per capita per day. Source: From USEPA, 1998 Water Conservation Plan Guidelines, August 6, 1998. Original Source: From AWWA Waterwiser, “Household End Use of Water without and with Conservation,” 1997 Residential Water Use Summary — Typical Single Family Home. With permission (waterwiser.org/wateruse/tables.htm.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

7-105

Table 7E.45 Potential Water Savings from Efficient Fixtures Fixturea

Fixture Capacityb

Water Use (gpd) Per Capita

Water Savings (gpd)

2.7-Person Household

2.7-Person Household

Per Capita

Toiletsc Efficient Low-flow Conventional Conventional Showerheadsd

1.5 gallons/flush 3.5 gallons/flush 5.5 gallons/flush 7.0 gallons/flush

6.0 14.0 22.0 28.0

16.2 37.8 59.4 75.6

na 8.0 16.0 22.0

na 21.6 43.2 59.4

Efficient Low-flow Conventional Faucetse

2.5 [1.71 gal/min 3.0 to 5.0 f2.61 gal/min 5.0 to 8.0 [3.4] gal/min

8.2 12.5 16.3

22.1 33.8 44.0

na 4.3 8.1

na 11.7 22.0

Efficient 2.5 [1.7] gal/min Low-flow 3.0 [2.0] gal/min 3.0 to 7.0 [3.3] gal/min Conventional Toilets, Showerheads, and Faucets Combined

6.8 8.0 13.2

18.4 21.6 36.6

na 1.2 6.4

na 3.2 17.2

Efficient Low-flow Conventional

21.0 34.5 54.5

56.7 93.2 147.2

na 13.4 33.5

na 36.4 90.4

na na na

Note: naZnot applicable a EfficientZpost-1994 Low-flowZpost-1980 ConventionalZpre-1980 b For showerheads and faucets: maximum rated fixture capacity (measured fixture capacity). Measured fixture capacity equals about twothirds the maximum. c Assumes four flushes per person per day; does not include losses through leakage. d Assumes 4.8 shower-use-minutes per person per day. e Assumes 4.0 faucet-use-minutes per person per day. Source:

From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1998, Water Conservation Plan Guidelines, August 6, 1998, www.epa.gov.

Original Source: From Amy Vickers, “Water Use Efficienty Standards for Plumbing Fixtures: Benefits of National Legislation,” American Water Works Association Journal. Vol. 82 (May 1990): 53.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-106

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7E.46 Various Water Requirements in Developing Countries Category

Typical Water Use

Schools Day schools Boarding schools Hospitals (with laundry facilities) Hostels Restaurants Cinema houses, concert halls Offices Railway and bus stations Livestock Cattle Horses and mules Sheep Pigs Poultry Chicken Source:

25–35 L/day per head 20–25 L/day per head 15–25 L/day per head 10–15 L/day per head 15–25 L/day per 100

From Vigneswaran, S., 1995, Water Treatment Processes: Simple Options, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton.

Original Source: IRC, 1981.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

15–30 L/day per pupil 90–140 L/day per pupil 220–300 L/day per bed 80–120 L/day per resident 65–90 L/day per seat 10–15 L/day per seat 25–40 L/day per person 15–20 L/day per user

WATER USE

7-107

Table 7E.47 Water Requirements for Various Types of Establishments in the United States Types of Establishments

Gal/day

Airports (per passenger) Apartments, multiple family (per resident) Bath houses (per bather) Camps: Construction, semipermanant (per worker) Day with no meals served (per camper) Luxury (per camper) Resorts, day and night, with limited plumbing (per camper) Tourist with central bath and toilet facilities (per person) Cottages with seasonal occupancy (per resident) Courts, tourist with individual bath units (per person) Clubs: Country (per resident member) Country (per nonresident member) Dwelling: Boardinghouse (per boarder) Luxury (per person) Multiple-family apartments (per resident) Rooming houses (per resident) Single family (per resident) Estates (per resident) Factories (gallons per shift) Highway rest area (per person) Hotels with private baths (2 persons per room) Hotels without private baths (per person) Institutions other than hospitals (per person) Hospitals (per bed) Laundaries, self-serviced (gallons per washing, i.e., per customer) Motels with bath, toilet, and kitchen facilities (per bed space) With bed and toilet (per bed space) Parks: Overnight with flush toilets (per camper) Trailers with individual bath units, no sewer connections (per trailer) Trailers with individual baths, connected to sewer (per person) Picnic: With bathhouses, showers, and flush toilets (per picnicker) With toilet facilities only (gallons per picnicker) Resturants with toilets facilities (per patron) Without toilet facilities (per patron) With bars and cocktail lounge (additional quantity per patron) Schools: Boarding (per pupil) Day with cafeteria, gymnasiums, and showers (per pupil) Day with cafeteria but no gymnasium or showers (per pupil) Day without cafeteria, gymnasiums, or showers (per pupil) Service stations (per vehicle) Stores (per toilet room) Swimming pools (per swimmer) Theaters (per seat) Workers: Construction (per person per shift) Day (school or offices per person per shift)

3–5 60 10 50 15 100–150 50 35 50 50 100 25 50 100–150 40 60 50–75 100–150 15–30 5 60 50 75–125 250–400 50 50 40 25 25 50 20 10 7–10 2 1/2–3 2 75–100 25 20 15 10 400 10 5 50 15

Source:

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

From USEPA, 1991, Manual of Individual and Non-Public Water Supply-Systems (EPA 570991004).

7-108

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 7F

BOTTLED WATER

Table 7F.48 Consumption of Bottled Water in the United States Ranked by Leading States, 1994–1999 Millions of Gallons State California Texas Florida New York Arizona Massachusetts Illinois Pennsylvania Louisiana Maryland/DC Total Top 10 New Jersey Ohio Connecticut Michigan Colorado Total Top 15 All Others Total U.S.

1999 Rank

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

882.2 290.2 179.9 179.9 107.4 95.8 110.3 87.1 84.2 81.3 2,098.10 66.7 58 40.6 34.8 20.3 2,318.60 583.3 2,901.90

928.1 326.3 202.7 193.2 117.2 104.5 117.2 95 95 91.9 2,271.10 72.9 63.4 44.3 38 25.3 2,515.00 652.5 3,167.50

1,003.70 362.2 231.1 210.4 131.1 110.4 124.2 103.5 103.5 96.6 2,476.60 79.3 69 48.3 41.4 24.1 2,738.70 710.6 3,449.30

1,038.30 400.2 256.8 237.9 143.5 124.6 128.4 113.3 113.3 101.9 2,658.20 86.8 71.7 52.9 45.3 26.4 2,941.30 834.5 3,775.80

1,048.90 451.9 298.5 269.5 153.4 141 136.8 124.8 120.2 111.9 2,857.00 99.5 78.8 62.2 49.8 33.2 3,180.40 965.6 4,146.00

1,130.70 519.2 339.4 303.2 176.1 158.9 156.8 141 136.5 125.4 3,187.20 111.1 88.9 70.5 57.1 40.1 3,554.90 1,091.20 4,646.10

11 12 13 14 15

Note: (r) Revised. Source: From International Bottled Water Association, www.bottledwater.org. Original Source: From Beverage Marketing Corp., www.beveragemarketing.com. Reprinted with permission.

Table 7F.49 Per Capita Consumption of Bottled Water in the United States by Region, 1994–1999 Gallons Per Person Region

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

Pacific Southwest Northeast South West West Central East Central Total

23.5 17.1 12.4 6.7 5.9 4.8 5 11.3

23.5 18.9 13.3 7.6 6.8 5.2 5.3 12

25.3 20.9 14.1 8.5 7.7 5.8 5.6 13

25.9 22.8 16.1 9.4 8 6.1 5.8 14

27.4 24.7 18.4 10.5 8 6.7 6.5 15.3

29.2 27.7 20.6 11.8 9.6 7.7 7.4 17

Note: (r) Revised. Source: From International Bottled Water Association, www.bottledwater.org. copyright 1999–2004 IBWA. Original Source: From Beverage Marketing Corp., U.S. Bureau of Census, www.beveragemarketing.com. Reprinted with permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

7-109

Table 7F.50 Bottled Water Market Volume, Growth, and Consumption in the United States, 1976–1999 Year

Millions of Gallons

Volume Change (%)

Gallons Per Capita

Annual Change (%)

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

354.3 388.6 468.1 547.2 605 691.1 782.6 910.1 1,058.50 1,214.20 1,365.70 1,554.00 1,777.20 2,029.40 2,237.60 2,286.50 2,422.00 2,623.90 2,901.90 3,167.50 3,449.30 3,775.80 4,146.00 4,646.10

— 9.70 20.50 16.90 10.60 14.20 13.20 16.30 16.30 14.70 12.50 13.80 14.40 14.20 10.30 2.20 5.90 8.30 10.60 9.20 8.90 9.50 9.80 12.10

1.6 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.4 3.9 4.5 5.1 5.7 6.4 7.2 8.2 9 9.1 9.5 10.3 11.3 12 13 14 15.3 17

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — 9.30 1.30 5.10 7.50 9.70 6.80 8.00 8.30 9.20 11.10

Note: (r) Revised. Source: From International Bottled Water Association, www.bottledwater.org. Copyright 2002 International Bottled Water Association. Original Source: From Beverage Marketing Corp., U.S. Bureau of Census, www.beveragemarketing.com. Reprinted with permission.

Table 7F.51 Consumption of Bottled Water in the United States by Type of Water, 1993–2003(P) Nonsparkling a

Sparkling a

Year

Volume

Change (%)

Volume

Change (%)

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003(P)

2,422.20 2,687.60 2,965.60 3,224.30 3,491.40 3,823.80 4,286.30 4,622.40 5,104.20 5,677.50 6,115.80

8.70 11.00 10.30 8.70 8.30 9.50 12.10 7.80 10.40 11.20 7.70

174.7 174.8 164.2 159 153.8 146.1 146 144.2 144 149.5 149.5

1.40 0.10 K6.10 K3.20 K3.30 K5.00 K0.10 K1.20 K0.10 3.80 0.00

Imports a

Volume 92.5 104 97.1 111.8 149.1 160.8 151.1 137.8 123.9 123.7 129.7

Total a

Change (%)

Volume

Change (%)

7.20 12.40 K6.60 15.10 33.40 7.80 K6.00 K8.80 K10.10 K0.20 4.90

2,689.40 2,966.40 3,226.90 3,495.10 3,794.30 4,130.70 4,583.40 4,904.40 5,372.10 5,950.70 6,395.00

8.20 10.30 8.80 8.30 8.60 8.90 11.00 7.00 9.50 10.80 7.50

Note: (P) Preliminary. a Millions of gallons. Source: From International Bottled Water Association, www.bottledwater.org. Original Source: From Beverage Marketing Corp., www.beveragemarketing.com. Reprinted with permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-110

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7F.52 Bottled Water Volume Producer Revenues and Per Capita Consumption in the United States, 1993–2003(P) Year

Millions of Gallons

Annual Change (%)

Millions of Dollars

Annual Change (%)

Gallons Per Capita

Annual Change (%)

2,689.40 2,966.40 3,226.90 3,495.10 3,794.30 4,130.70 4,583.40 4,904.40 5,372.10 5,950.70 6,395.00

8.20 10.30 8.80 8.30 8.60 8.90 11.00 7.00 9.50 10.80 7.50

$2,876.70 $3,164.30 $3,521.90 $3,835.40 $4,222.70 $4,666.10 $5,314.70 $5,809.00 $6,880.00 $7,725.00 $8,277.20

8.20 10.00 11.30 8.90 10.10 10.50 13.90 9.30 18.40 12.30 7.10

10.5 11.5 12.2 13.1 14.1 15.3 16.8 17.8 19.3 21.2 22.6

— 9.40 6.40 7.40 7.40 8.30 10.00 6.00 8.50 9.80 6.30

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003(P) Note: (P) Preliminary.

Source: From International Bottled Water Association, www.bottledwater.org. Original Source: From Beverage Marketing Corp., www.beveragemarketing.com. Reprinted with permission.

Table 7F.53 Global Bottled Water Market, Leading Countries’ Consumption and Compound Annual Growth Rates 1998–2003(P) 2003 Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Millions of Gallons Countries

1998

2003(P)

CAGR 1998/03(P) (%)

United States Mexico Brazil China Italy Germany France Indonesia Thailand Spain Top 10 Subtotal All Others World Total

4,130.70 2,873.00 1,251.80 934.6 2,038.70 2,169.10 1,733.20 722.2 1,014.40 981.1 17,848.80 5,340.70 23,189.50

6,395.00 4,354.70 2,840.10 2,805.80 2,791.00 2,727.20 2,351.40 1,963.30 1,302.50 1,213.90 28,744.90 9,278.40 38,023.30

9.10 8.70 17.80 24.60 6.50 4.70 6.30 22.10 5.10 4.40 10.00 11.70 10.40

Note: (P) Preliminary. CAGR, Compound annual growth rate. Source: From International Bottled Water Association, www.bottledwater.org. Original Source: From Beverage Marketing Corp., www.beveragemarketing.com. Reprinted with permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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7-111

Table 7F.54 Global Bottled Water Market, Per Capita Consumption by Leading Countries 1998–2003(P) Gallons Per Capita

2003 Rank

Countries

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Italy Mexico France United Arab Emirates Belgium-Luxembourg Germany Spain Switzerland Lebanon Saudi Arabia Cyprus Austria United States Czech Republic Portugal Global Average

1998

2003(P)

35.9 29.2 29.5 28.1 30.7 26.4 25.1 23.8 16.2 18.9 17.2 19.8 15.3 15.4 17.2 3.9

48.1 41.5 39.1 38.1 35.1 33.1 30.2 25.4 25.3 23.3 22.8 22.7 22.6 22.2 20.6 6

Note: (P) Preliminary. Source: From International Bottled Water Association, www.bottledwater.org. Original Source: From Beverage Marketing Corp., www.beveragemarketing.com. Reprinted with permission.

Table 7F.55 Bottled Water Consumption by Country in North America and South America, 1997–2002 Year (1000 m3) Region North America North America South America North America South America South America South America South America South America South America South America South America North America

Country United States Mexico Brazil Canada Argentina Colombia Venezuela, Republic of Bolivia Peru Chile Paraguay Uruguay Nicaragua Cuba

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002(P)

14,361.6 10,484.1 3,931.7 541.2 568.9 562.8 201.6

15,634.8 10,882.5 4,741.7 650.5 575.2 579.0 220.9

17,348.2 11,579.0 5,658.3 754.6 594.2 560.0 230.3

18,563.2 12,424.3 6,816.6 847.9 598.9 549.0 247.9

20,534.8 13,244.3 8,166.3 938.6 600.1 548.4 263.3

22,893.4 14,767.4 9,628.1 1,027.3 603.1 556.7 289.6

75.6 66.8 46.2 17.3 13.2 10.7

80.9 80.6 50.2 18.7 14.5 12.0

89.1 88.6 53.5 20.5 15.7 13.2

103.5 95.8 56.9 21.9 17.2 14.9

118.0 103.8 60.6 23.2 19.0 16.8

132.1 113.0 64.5 24.5 20.4 18.7

Note: (P) Preliminary. Not all of the water put into a water system reaches customers or is paid for by water users. This water is typically called “unaccounted-for water,” but it is measured and define in a variety of ways. Many in the water industry consider all water that is not metered and billed to customer accounts to be unaccounted-for water. High rates of unaccounted-for water result in financial losses and poor performance of the water agency. Source: From World’s Water 2004–2005, by Peter H. Gleick. Copyright q 2004 Island Press. Reproduced by permission of Island Press, Washington, DC. Original Source: Data were provided by the Beverage Marketing Corporation (BMC) to the author in 2003 and were used with permission, www.worldwater.org. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7F.56 Bottled Water Consumption by Country in Europe, 1997–2002 Year (1000 m3) Region Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe

Country Italy Germany France Spain Turkey Poland Russian Federation United Kingdom Belgium-Luxembourga Czech Republic Portugal Romania Switzerland Austria Hungary Greece Ukraine Netherlands Croatia Slovakia Bulgaria Sweden Slovenia Ireland Norway Denmark Finland Cyprus Lithuania Estonia Latvia

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002(P)

7,558.5 8,207.2 6,053.1 3,542.6 931.7 828.6 524.5 724.1 1,213.0 555.1 647.1 406.2 622.7 569.3 202.1 392.8 241.8 248.8 135.8 158.9 53.9 126.8 67.9 50.5 67.3 71.6 45.2 48.4 15.0 15.2 2.4

7,722.5 8,216.2 6,565.2 3,716.1 1,185.4 943.7 610.6 812.8 1,233.6 598.1 645.8 447.6 653.4 610.0 245.0 410.1 274.2 240.7 157.7 161.8 67.2 127.1 80.9 61.5 76.3 72.0 51.0 48.7 17.6 18.5 3.0

8,924.6 8,602.9 6,947.3 3,879.7 1,368.8 1,106.3 790.7 967.5 1,299.0 639.0 705.9 504.4 651.8 605.1 300.4 436.3 315.6 273.3 176.9 168.8 88.1 143.7 93.2 75.1 76.9 71.8 58.3 50.8 20.4 20.9 3.7

9,221.5 8,693.7 7,462.2 4,003.8 1,667.2 1,279.0 967.8 1,071.6 1,262.4 701.5 719.3 553.9 653.6 609.8 397.6 450.3 362.0 286.1 199.9 170.2 112.2 150.8 108.5 83.5 77.2 72.0 62.0 54.9 23.8 23.9 4.6

9,479.9 8,850.2 7,820.4 4,133.9 1,870.6 1,460.6 1,162.4 1,195.9 1,264.9 763.2 735.8 620.9 656.9 631.5 467.2 463.3 420.6 296.1 223.7 173.5 142.1 158.1 124.3 92.4 80.5 72.3 65.6 58.3 28.6 26.8 5.6

9,690.1 8,983.0 8,430.4 4,294.3 2,007.2 1,722.7 1,406.4 1,339.4 1,329.7 820.5 761.1 698.5 668.1 645.4 514.8 483.3 479.1 316.8 247.2 178.2 177.8 164.2 137.9 99.4 82.8 74.1 68.4 62.3 34.6 30.2 6.9

Note: (P) Preliminary. Not all of the water put into a water system reaches customers or is paid for by water users. This water is typically called “unaccounted-for water,” but it is measured and define in a variety of ways. Many in the water industry consider all water that is not metered and billed to customer accounts to be unaccounted-for water. High rates of unaccounted-for water result in financial losses and poor performance of the water agency. Source: From World’s Water 2004–2005, by Peter H. Gleick. Copyright q 2004 Island Press. Reproduced by permission of Island Press, Washington, DC. Original Source: Data were provided by the Beverage Marketing Corporation (BMC) to the author in 2003 and were used with permission, www.worldwater.org.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

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Table 7F.57 Bottled Water Consumption by Country in Asia, 1997–2002 Year (1000 m3) Region Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia

Country China Indonesia Thailand India Japan Korea, Republic of Philippines Pakistan China, Hong Kong SAR Malaysia Viet Nam Singapore Brunei Darussalam Bangladesha Fiji Islandsb

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002(P)

2,750.0 2,261.5 3,567.1 1,047.0 646.6 892.5 727.8 69.3 191.0 137.5 114.9 57.2 9.9 0.0 0.0

3,540.1 2,735.7 3,842.4 1,364.2 789.5 1,008.8 837.2 108.2 222.1 157.9 139.5 63.5 11.1 0.0 0.0

4,610.0 3,435.9 4,063.7 1,681.8 922.7 1,110.3 999.1 157.6 245.4 179.6 159.3 69.7 12.2 0.0 0.0

5,993.0 4,300.3 4,286.2 2,149.7 1,149.0 1,191.5 1,119.0 242.3 271.1 199.1 179.6 75.6 13.6 0.0 0.0

7,605.1 5,121.6 4,539.0 2,667.8 1,230.6 1,273.7 1,213.0 360.3 298.2 217.9 199.9 81.8 14.9 0.0 0.0

9,886.7 6,145.9 4,837.0 3,361.4 1,461.3 1,359.0 1,291.8 547.7 331.1 236.8 219.4 88.2 16.3 0.0 0.0

Note: (P) Preliminary. Not all of the water put into a water system reaches customers or is paid for by water users. This water is typically called “unaccounted-for water,” but it is measured and define in a variety of ways. Many in the water industry consider all water that is not metered and billed to customer accounts to be unaccounted-for water. High rates of unaccounted-for water result in financial losses and poor performance of the water agency. a b

Commercial bottled water essentially does not exist in Bangladesh. Consumption in Fiji is virtually nil, immeasurable in terms of thousands of cubic meters.

Source: From World’s Water 2004–2005, by Peter H. Gleick. Copyright q 2004 Island Press. Reproduced by permission of Island Press, Washington, DC. Original Source: Data were provided by the Beverage Marketing Corporation (BMC) to the author in 2003 and were used with permission, www.worldwater.org.

Table 7F.58 Bottled Water Consumption by Country in Africa/Mideast/Oceania, 1997–2002 Year (1000 m3) Region Mideast Oceania Mideast Mideast Mideast Mideast Mideast Africa Mideast Mideast Mideast Mideast Oceania All Others

Country Saudi Arabia Australia Lebanon United Arab Emirates Israel Egypt Kuwait South Africa Qatar Jordan Bahrain Oman Pacific Islandsa

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002(P)

1,297.7 304.2 180.7 229.9 100.2 133.7 68.2 30.9 33.0 27.9 26.7 16.1 10.2 507.9

1,490.1 354.9 214.8 245.3 111.7 145.7 77.5 41.1 38.1 31.1 28.4 18.2 10.9 595.3

1,610.0 389.6 239.8 256.1 132.6 167.7 95.6 57.9 42.8 35.7 31.4 20.3 12.0 737.1

1,769.9 443.3 275.3 269.9 170.3 188.4 112.5 68.8 47.2 40.3 34.1 23.2 12.9 891.0

1,938.0 488.0 309.7 285.2 224.9 208.6 128.4 81.2 51.6 44.4 36.7 26.2 14.0 1,032.7

2,116.3 566.5 346.2 326.4 283.4 234.6 144.0 96.3 56.2 48.5 39.5 29.5 15.1 1,233.6

Note: (P) Preliminary. Not all of the water put into a water system reaches customers or is paid for by water users. This water is typically called “unaccounted-for water,” but it is measured and define in a variety of ways. Many in the water industry consider all water that is not metered and billed to customer accounts to be unaccounted-for water. High rates of unaccounted-for water result in financial losses and poor performance of the water agency. a

Includes the Caroline Islands (Micronesia excluding Palau), the Marshall Islands, and the Northern Marianas (excluding Guam).

Source: From World’s Water 2004–2005, by Peter H. Gleick. Copyright q 2004 Island Press. Reproduced by permission of Island Press, Washington, DC. Original Source: Data were provided by the Beverage Marketing Corporation (BMC) to the author in 2003 and were used with permission, www.worldwater.org. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7F.59 Global Bottled Water Production Volume and Value and Per Capita Consumption, 2000–2003 Production Volume (mil L)

Region 2003

2002

2001

Production Value (mil USD) 2000

Africa & 12,400 11,220 9,200 8,720 Middle East Asia 33,465 30,100 24,030 19,990 Australia 695 650 850 740 Canada 1,490 1,310 920 820 East Europe 9,500 8,330 6,770 6,010 Latin 27,050 26,060 26,950 25,150 America 24,463 23,803 24,414 22,020 U.S.A.a West 44,020 39,970 38,210 36,350 Europe Total 153,083 141,443 131,344 119,800

Per Capita Consumption (L)

2003

2002

2001

2000

2003

2002

2001

2000

2,110

1,825

1,450

1,250

11

10

9

9

7,395 440 650 2,630 3,970

6,490 340 525 2,250 3,800

4,500 400 350 1,500 5,050

3,650 350 310 1,400 5,809

10 35 47 24 51

9 33 41 21 50

7 37 29 17 53

6 33 26 15 50

8,277 20,300

7,724 15,200

14,500 14,500

13,600 14,600

90 112

85 102

74 97

67 93

45,772

38,154

34,227

30,819

a

Beverage Marketing Corporation. Source: From International Council of Bottled Water Associations, Bottled Water Statistics.

Original Source: From Zenith International and Beverage Marketing Corporation, www.icbwa.org. Reprinted with permission.

Table 7F.60 Global Projected Bottled Water Sales Country/Region

1996 Sales (mil L)

Projected 2006 Sales (mil L)

Annual Percentage of Growth (%)

Australia Africa CIS Asia East Europe Middle East South America Pacific Rim Central America North America West Europe Total

500 500 600 1,000 1,200 1,500 1,700 4,000 6,000 13,000 27,000 57,000

1,000 800 1,500 5,000 8,500 3,000 4,000 37,000 25,000 25,000 33,000 143,800

11 4 13 12 14 3 7 18 11 4.5 2.5

Source: From World’s Water 2002–2003, by Peter H. Gleick. Copyright q 2002 Island Press. Reproduced by permission of Island Press, Washington, DC. Original Source: Modified from soc.duke.edu/-s142tm16/World%20Markets.htm. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

SECTION 7G

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL WATER USE — UNITED STATES

Withdrawals (mill gal/day)

Withdrawals (thousand acre-feet/yr)

By Source and Type Groundwater State

56 4.32 19.8 67 183 23.6 4.13 17 0 216 290 14.5 35.8 132 99.7 226 46.6 95.2 285 9.9 15.9 10.7 110 56.3 118 29.2 31.9 35.5 5.29 6.95 65.3 8.8 145 25.6 6.88 162 6.83 12.1 155

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Saline 0 0 0 0.08 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

By Type

Surface Water Total 56 4.32 19.8 67.1 183 23.6 4.13 17 0 216 290 15.4 35.8 132 99.7 226 46.6 95.2 285 9.9 15.9 10.7 110 56.3 118 29.2 31.9 35.5 5.29 6.95 65.3 8.8 145 25.6 6.88 162 6.83 12.1 155

Fresh 777 3.8 0 66.8 5.65 96.4 6.61 42.5 0 74.7 333 0 19.7 259 2,300 11.7 6.74 222 2,400 237 49.9 26.2 589 97.8 124 33.5 29.3 2.6 5 37.9 66.2 1.67 152 267 10.7 645 19.1 183 1,030

Saline 0 3.86 0 0 13.6 0 0 3.25 0 1.18 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 227 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total 777 7.66 0 66.8 19.3 96.4 6.61 45.7 0 75.9 363 0 19.7 259 2,300 11.7 6.74 222 2,400 237 277 26.2 589 97.8 124 33.5 29.3 2.6 5 37.9 66.2 1.67 152 267 10.7 645 19.1 183 1,030

Fresh 833 8.12 19.8 134 188 120 10.7 59.4 0 291 622 14.5 55.5 391 2,400 237 53.3 317 2,680 247 65.8 36.8 698 154 242 62.7 61.3 38.1 10.3 44.9 132 10.5 297 293 17.6 807 25.9 195 1,190

Saline 0 3.86 0 0.08 13.6 0 0 3.25 0 1.18 30 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 227 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total 833 12 19.8 134 202 120 10.7 62.7 0 292 652 15.4 55.5 391 2,400 237 53.3 317 2,680 247 292 36.8 698 154 242 62.7 61.3 38.1 10.3 44.9 132 10.5 297 293 17.6 807 25.9 195 1,190

Fresh 934 9.1 22.2 150 211 135 12 66.6 0 326 698 16.2 62.2 438 2,690 266 59.8 356 3,010 277 73.8 41.3 782 173 271 70.3 68.7 42.7 11.5 50.3 147 11.7 333 329 19.7 905 29.1 218 1,330

Saline 0 4.33 0 0.09 15.3 0 0 3.64 0 1.32 33.6 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 254 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total 934 13.4 22.2 150 226 135 12 70.3 0 328 731 17.2 62.2 438 2,690 266 59.8 356 3,010 277 328 41.3 782 173 271 70.3 68.7 42.7 11.5 50.3 147 11.7 333 329 19.7 905 29.1 218 1,330

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania

Fresh

Total

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Table 7G.61 Industrial Self-Supplied Water Withdrawals in the United States, 2000

2.19 50.9 3.16 56.3 244 34.3 2.05 104 138 9.7 83 4.31 11.2 0.22 3,570

0 0 0 0 0.5 5.08 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.51

2.19 50.9 3.16 56.3 244 39.4 2.05 104 138 9.7 83 4.31 11.2 0.22 3,580

2.09 514 1.96 785 1,200 8.38 4.86 365 439 958 364 1.47 0 3.12 14,900

0 0 0 0 906 0 0 53.3 39.9 0 0 0 0 0 1,280

2.09 514 1.96 785 2,110 8.38 4.86 419 479 958 364 1.47 0 3.12 16,200

4.28 565 5.12 842 1,450 42.7 6.91 470 577 968 447 5.78 11.2 3.34 18,500

0 0 0 0 907 5.08 0 53.3 39.9 0 0 0 0 0 1,280

4.28 565 5.12 842 2,350 47.8 6.91 523 617 968 447 5.78 11.2 3.34 19,700

4.8 633 5.74 944 1,620 47.8 7.75 526 647 1,090 501 6.48 12.5 3.74 20,700

0 0 0 0 1,020 5.69 0 59.7 44.7 0 0 0 0 0 1,440

4.8 633 5.74 944 2,640 53.5 7.75 586 692 1,090 501 6.48 12.5 3.74 22,100

WATER USE

Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Total

Note: Figures may not sum to totals because of independent rounding. Source:

From Hutson, S.S. et al., 2004, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2000, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, www.usgs.gov.

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q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7G.62 Self-Supplied Industrial Withdrawals by Source, 1950–1995 Year

Groundwater Fresh (%)

Groundwater Saline (%)

Groundwater Total (%)

Surface Water Fresh (%)

Surface Water Saline (%)

Surface Water Total (%)

Reclaimed Sewage (%)

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

— 93 94 93 88 91 92 89 83 84

— 7 6 7 12 9 8 11 17 16

7 9 17 16 18 24 25 20 26 23

— 82 85 78 83 84 87 84 83 91

— 18 15 22 17 16 13 16 17 9

93 91 83 84 82 76 75 80 74 77

— 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.5

Source: From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002, Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL February 28, 2002. Reprinted with permission. http://info.geography.siu.edu/geography_info/ research/.

Table 7G.63 Self-Supplied Industrial Withdrawals and Manufacturing Employment, 1950–1995

Year

Self-Supplied Industrial Withdrawals (bgd)

Industrial Withdrawals Per Capita (gpcd)

Total Manufacturing Employment (1,000s)

Per-Employee Withdrawals (gped)

Employment in Primary Metal Industries (1,000s)

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

37.0 39.0 38.0 46.0 47.0 45.0 45.0 30.5 29.9 29.1

246 238 212 237 228 208 196 126 119 109

15,241 16,882 16,796 18,062 19,367 18,323 20,285 19,248 19,076 18,469

2,428 2,310 2,262 2,547 2,427 2,456 2,218 1,585 1,567 1,576

1,276 1,321 1,073 1,243 1,206 1,115 1,140 788 746 713

Source: From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002, Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL February 28, 2002. Reprinted with permission. http://info.geography.siu.edu/geography_info/ research/. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

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Table 7G.64 Commercial Freshwater Use in the United States, 1995 Self-Supplied Withdrawals Source State

Total

Groundwater

Surface Water

4.9 11 21 0.4 77 7.7 25 2.8 0 50 33 45 9.8 16 45 18 4.9 8.0 10 9.8 19 12 16 46 18 13 0 0.3 7.1 12 17 18 136 7.3 0.1 28 6.6 4.4 16 1.5 1.7 6.1 2.0 33 3.8 9.6 28 24 36 17 0.9 1.2 0.1 939

0 0.1 0 100 309 0.9 1.5 0 0 0.2 13 0.4 297 88 48 25 0.3 14 0.7 1.7 14 0 25 20 0 0.5 0 0 14 18 1.2 1.6 65 0.3 0.2 41 16 752 14 0 0 4.1 18 11 0 16 13 0.4 9.2 0 0.6 1.5 0.6 1,950

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware DC Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico Virgin Islands Total

Total Use

4.9 11 21 100 385 8.6 27 2.8 0 50 46 46 306 104 93 43 5.2 22 11 11 33 12 41 66 18 14 0 3 21 30 18 20 200 7.6 0.2 68 23 756 30 1.5 1.7 10 20 44 3.8 26 41 24 46 17 1.6 2.7 0.8 2,890

Public-Supply Deliveries

Withdrawals and Deliveries

Consumptive Use

122 23 135 58 994 101 89 20 50 386 168 47 18 440 119 65 67 23 55 25 85 188 253 103 33 59 26 79 116 21 179 78 409 138 15 355 170 79 218 20 50 21 214 130 115 7.7 152 161 23 111 16 61 3.3 6,690

127 34 155 158 1,380 109 116 22 50 436 215 92 324 544 212 108 72 45 66 37 118 200 294 169 51 73 26 79 137 51 197 97 609 146 15 424 193 835 247 21 52 31 234 174 119 33 193 185 68 128 18 64 4.1 9,590

28 5.1 78 12 259 16 12 2.2 5.0 54 39 43 1.4 44 32 14 38 1.6 8.8 3.7 11 25 31 18 8.6 5.3 9.6 30 24 3.5 7.5 56 61 7.2 2.3 66 18 0.7 11 2.1 7.8 3.1 21 35 35 2.4 23 37 10 26 2.7 19 0.6 1,310

Note: Figures may not add to totals because of independent rounding. All values in million gallons per day. Source: From Salley, W.B. et al., 1998, Estimated use of water in the United States in 1995, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1200, www.usgs.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7G.65 Average Rates of Nonresidential Water Use from Establishment Level Data SIC Code

Use Rate (gal/employee day)

Sample Size

Construction General building contractors Heavy construction Special trade contractors

— 15 16 17

31 118 20 25

246 66 30 150

Manufacturing Food and kindred products Textile mill products Apparel and other textile products Lumber and wood products Furniture and fixtures Paper and allied products Printing and publishing Chemicals and allied products Petroleum and coal products Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products Leather and leather products Stone, clay, and glass products Primary metal industries Fabricated metal products Industrial machinery and equipment Electronic and other electrical equipment Transportation equipment Instruments and related products Miscellaneous manufacturing industries

— 20 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

164 469 784 26 49 36 2614 37 267 1045 119 148 202 178 194 68 95 84 66 36

2790 252 20 91 62 83 93 174 211 23 116 10 83 80 395 304 409 182 147 55

Transportation and public utilities Railroad transportation Local and interurban passenger transit Trucking and warehousing U.S. postal service Water transportation Transportation by air Transportation services Communications Electric, gas, and sanitary services

— 40 41 42 43 44 45 47 48 49

50 68 26 85 5 353 171 40 55 51

226 3 32 100 1 10 17 13 31 19

Wholesale trade Wholesale trade—durable goods Wholesale trade—nondurable goods

— 50 51

53 46 87

751 518 233

Retail trade Building materials and garden supplies General merchandise stores Food stores Automotive dealers and service stations Apparel and accessory stores Furniture and homefurnishings stores Eating and drinking places Miscellaneous retail

— 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59

93 35 45 100 49 68 42 156 132

1044 56 50 90 198 48 100 341 161

Finance, insurance, and real estate Depository institutions Nondepository institutions Security and commodity brokers Insurance carriers Insurance agents, brokers, and service Real Estate Holding and other investment offices

— 60 61 62 63 64 65 67

192 62 361 1240 136 89 609 290

238 77 36 2 9 24 84 5

Services Hotels and other lodging places Personal services Business services

— 70 72 73

137 230 462 73

1878 197 300 243

Category

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

7-121

Table 7G.65

(Continued) SIC Code

Use Rate (gal/employee day)

Sample Size

Auto repair, services, and parking Miscellaneous repair services Motion pictures Amusement and recreation services Health services Legal services Educational services Social services Museums, botanical, zoological gardens Membership organizations Engineering and management services Services, NEC

75 76 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 86 87 89

217 69 110 429 91 821 117 106 208 212 58 73

108 42 40 105 353 15 300 55 9 45 5 60

Public administration Executive, legislative, and general Justice, public order, and safety Administration of human resources Environmental quality and housing Administration of economic programs National security and international affairs

— 91 92 94 95 96 97

106 155 18 87 101 274 112

25 2 4 6 6 5 2

Category

Source: From Mays, L.W. ed., 1996, Water Resources Handbook, Copyright q The McGraw-Hill, Companies, Inc., NY. Reprinted with permission. Original Source:

From Planning and Management Consultants, Ltd. (1994; unpublished data).

Table 7G.66 Selected Commercial and Institutional Unit Use Coefficients CI Category

Unit

Barber shops Beauty shops Bus/rail depots Car washes Churches Golf/swim clubs Bowling alleys Residential colleges Hospitals Hotels Laundromats Laundry Medical offices Motels Drive-in movies Nursing homes New office buildings Old office buildings Jails and prisons Restaurants Drive-in restaurants Night clubs Retail space Elementary schools High schools YMCA/YWCA Service stations Theaters

Chairs Station Square foot Inside square foot Member Member Alley Student Bed Square foot Square foot Square foot Square foot Square foot Car stall Bed Square foot Square foot Person Seat Car stall Person served Sale square foot Student Student Person Inside square foot Seat

Gal/Unit/Day 54.60 269.00 3.33 4.78 0.14 22.20 133.00 106.00 346.00 0.26 2.17 0.25 0.62 0.22 5.33 133.00 0.19 0.14 133.00 24.20 109.00 1.33 0.11 3.83 8.02 33.30 0.25 3.33

Source: From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2000, Commercial and Institutional End Uses of Water, AWWA. Original Source:

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

From Crews, J.E. and Miller, M.A., 1983. Forecasting Municipal and Industrial Water Use. IWR Research Report 83R-3. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, www.awwa.org.

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Table 7G.67 Distribution of Commercial Water Use by Category in Selected Cities (Percent of CI Sector Use)

Commercial Users Reporting Year

Buffalo NY 1995

13.26 1.79 13.97 2.18

20.94 10.83 15.81 5.13

Burbank EB- MUD Glendale CA CA CA 1995 1994 1995 11.75 11.37

7.94 30.77 7.09 21.94

13.45 0.45 12.78 5.12

0.90

18.15 0.22 3.41 3.39

0.96

Santa Monica CA 1995

5.45 2.78 5.69 1.57

34.28 0.03 7.59 4.25 0.06

38.55

2.99 0.75 1.10 0.50

7.23 13.07

6.59

2.63

3.91 0.57

0.01

2.17 2.97

Orlando FL 1995

Portland OR 1995

17.53 6.73 12.29

34.86 30.94 9.7 0.8 0.45

31.05 6.82 5.64

San Diego CA 1995

Miami FL 1995

9.36 0.59 3.52 0.24

3.91 2.61 2.53 0.59

3.54 4.97

8.29

4.17

2.89 0.95

2.32 0.45 2.13 2.11

2.48

2.13

9.59

0.26

0.53

0.11

0.06

27.84

0.15

7.77

1.04

0.05

2.26 1.15

1.01

0.42 1.40

0.58

0.15 0.74

1.63 0

2.15 1.17 84.67

1.17 2.31 76.64

0.40 0.05 62.87

0.20 0.01 86.43

0.30 22.77

0.45 46.13

0.38 81.86

79.99

0.77 0.22 75.27

St. Paul MN 1994–95

Santa Rosa CA 1994

Weighted Average 1992–1995

15.96 16.87 13.03 3.12 0.46

28.12 0.25 15.4 0.3

14.80 12.40 9.20 6.15 5.72

11.97 0.21 3.37

7.54 0.43 5.88 4.83

5.48 2.36 1.73 1.15

3.14

4.98

0.44

1.11

1.43

0

0.26

0.72

0.61

0.3 1.12

0.58 0.43

1.23

0.28 0.20 62.28

10.32

2.54 0.33 67.38

1.24 0.16 71.98

66.9

Note: Tabular Valves are in percentages. a b c d e f g h

Hospitality includes restaurant/bar, overnight accommodations, and other group shelter. Office includes finance, insurance, real estate, and government. Irrigation includes parks, gardens, botanical, zoological, cemeteries, and open land. Miscellaneous commercial includes warehousing, warehouse-cold storage, and boat dock. Sales include grocery stores, convenience stores, and dry goods. Services include miscellaneous repair services, crematories, funeral homes, laboratories, and printing. Meeting and recreation include convention center, recreation and theaters, and amusement parks. Landscape includes landscape horticultural service, agriculture, soil preparation, crop services, veterinary, equestrian, livestock, poultry, and game propagation.

Source: From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002, Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL February 28, 2002. Reprinted with permission. http://info.geography.siu.edu/geography_info/research/. Original Source: Derived from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1997). Table 2.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Hospitalitya Warehousing Officesb Irrigationc Miscellaneous commerciald Salese Servicesf Laundries Vehicle dealers and services Meeting and recreationg Communication and research Landscapeh Transportation and fuels Car wash Passenger terminals Share of Reported CI Use

Austin TX 1992

Customer Category Description Urban irrigation Schools and colleges Hotels and motels Laundries and laundromats Office buildings Hospitals and medical offices Restaurant Food stores Auto shops Membership organizations Car washes a b c d e

Average Annual Daily Use (gpdc)a

Coefficient of Variation in Daily Use (gpdc)b

Percent of Total CI Use (%)

Percent of CI Customers (%)c

Percent Seasonal Use (%)d

Scaled Average Daily Use (gpdc)e

2,596 2,117 7,113 3,290 1,204 1,236

8.73 12.13 5.41 8.85 6.29 78.50

28.48 8.84 5.82 3.95 10.19 3.90

30.22 4.79 1.92 1.38 11.67 4.19

86.90 57.99 23.07 13.35 29.04 23.16

739.0 187.0 414.0 130.0 123.0 48.0

906 729 687 629 3,031

7.69 16.29 7.96 6.42 3.12

8.83 2.86 1.97 1.95 0.82

11.18 5.20 6.74 5.60 0.36

16.13 19.37 27.16 46.18 14.22

80.0 21.0 14.0 12.0 25.0

WATER USE

Table 7G.68 Characteristics of Significant Commercial and Institutional Categories in Five Participating Agencies

gpdc: gallons per day per customer. Coefficient of variation in daily use: The ratio of standard deviation of daily use to average of daily use. Percent of CI customers pertains to CI customers in agencies that have respective category only. Percent seasonal useZ[(total annual use —12!minimum month use]/total annual use. Scaled average daily useZaverage annual daily use in category!percent of total CI use attributed to the category.

Source: From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002, Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL February 28, 2002. Reprinted with permission. http://info.geography.siu.edu/geography_info/research/.

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Gross Water Used

Water Discharged

Water Pollutants Abatement

7-124

Table 7G.69 Water Use in Mining and Manufacturing in the United States, 1968–1983, and by Industry Group, 1983

Total

Industry

Percent Untreated

Capital Expenditures (mil dol)

Operating Cost (mil dol)

(NA) 2,300 2,430 2,131 564 3 73

1,365 1,605 1,592 1,037 133 8 116

78.8 54.3 67.3 31.9 39.8 12.5 26.7

(NA) 38 244 189 22 (Z) 14

(NA) 124 201 499 65 1 69

602 378

850 640

476 304

31.1 32.6

131 22

318 46

3,797 4,069 4,632 3,297 529 1,700 438 978 106 12,393 7,323

15,467 15,024 12,992 10,039 648 5 133 86 3 1,899 3,401

(NA)

34,199 23,796 759 29 200 132 3 5,537 6,229

14,276 14,144 11,682 8,914 552 4 116 71 3 1,768 2,980

69.5 56.5 59.7 54.9 64.5 (D) 52.6 63.4 100.0 27.1 67.0

(NA) 511 1,249 819 105 (D) (D) 4 2 66 187

(NA) 866 2,119 3,259 187 5 25 23 4 438 1,013

6,177 328

23,758 875

818 76

5,359 252

699 63

46.2 63.5

165 4

543 37

69

7

101

6

1

6

(D)

(S)

6

602

337

560

155

182

133

75.2

10

38

776 724 523 678

5,885 258 307 335

7,584 356 587 494

2,363 65 120 74

3,523 193 186 261

2,112 61 105 70

58.1 49.2 67.6 61.4

100 33 19 45

421 100 76 108

380 154

1,011 112

2,661 727

153 30

859 82

139 28

67.6 50.0

55 10

171 45

80

15

188

4

11

4

2

7

Quantity (bil gal)

Average per Establishment (mil gal)

Water Intake (bil gal)

1,801 1,687 1,056 1,534 135 16 275

3,694 3,965 3,554 3,328 735 5 119

2,051 2,350 3,366 2,169 5,444 313 433

1,408 1,665 1,473 1,197 170 2 45

555 553

1,452 1,018

2,616 1,841

9,402 10,668 9,605 10,262 2,656 20 761 223 66 600 1,315

35,701 43,413 44,494 33,835 1,406 34 333 218 7 7,436 9,630

260 375

Water Recycledb (bil gal)

c

(D)

Note: Based on establishments reporting water intake of 20 mil gal. This represented 95 percent and 96 percent of the total water use estimated for mining and manufacturing industries. Water intake refers to that which is used/consumed in the production and processing operations and for sanitary services. D, Withheld to avoid disclosing individual company data; NA, Not available; S, Figure does not meet publication standards; Z, Less than $500,000. a b c

Establishments reporting water intake of 20 million gallons or more. These counts do not apply to water pollutants abatement columns for manufacturing in 1983. Refers to water recirculated and water reused. Data estimated; not strictly comparable to other years.

Source: From U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1987. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Mining 1968 1973 1978 1983, total Metal mining Anthracite mining Bituminous coal, lignite mining Oil and gas extraction Nonmetallic minerals, exc. fuels Manufacturing 1968 1973 1978 1983, total Food and kindred products Tobacco products Textile mill products Lumber and wood products Furniture and fixtures Paper and allied products Chemicals and allied products Petroleum and coal products Rubber, misc. plastic products Leather and leather products Stone, clay, and glass products Primary metal products Fabricated metal products Machinery, exc. electrical Electric and electronic equipment Transportation equipment Instruments and related products Miscellaneous manufacturing

Quantity (bil gal)

Establishments Reportinga

WATER USE

Table 7G.70 Mining Water Use in the United States, 2000

Groundwater State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio

Withdrawals (mil gal/day)

Withdrawals, (thousand acre-feet/yr)

By Source and Type

By Type

Surface Water

Total

Fresh

Saline

Total

Fresh

Saline

Total

Fresh

Saline

Total

Fresh

Saline

Total

— 0.01 81.2 0.21 21 — — — —

— 90.4 8.17 0 152 — — — —

— 90.4 89.4 0.21 173 — — — —

— 27.4 4.43 2.57 2.71 — — — —

— 49.5 0 0 0.46 — — — —

— 76.9 4.43 2.57 3.17 — — — —

— 27.4 85.7 2.78 23.7 — — — —

— 140 8.17 0 153 — — — —

— 167 93.8 2.78 177 — — — —

— 30.7 96 3.12 26.6 — — — —

— 157 9.16 0 171 — — — —

— 188 105 3.12 198 — — — —

160 7.75 — — — 4.2 2.49 14 — — — 4.21 — — 6.9 — 4.1 — 5.64 — 0.08 6.12 — — 36.4 — 53.1

0 0 — — — 0 0 0 — — — 0 — — 0 — 0 — 4.55 — 0 0 — — 0 — 0

160 7.75 — — — 4.2 2.49 14 — — — 4.21 — — 6.9 — 4.1 — 10.2 — 0.08 6.12 — — 36.4 — 53.1

57.8 2.05 — — — 78.3 30.3 17.4 — — — 4.1 — — 581 — 12.8 — 122 — 6.72 104 — — 0 — 35.5

0 0 — — — 0 0 0 — — — 0.02 — — 0 — 0 — 0 — 0 0 — — 0 — 0

57.8 2.05 — — — 78.3 30.3 17.4 — — — 4.12 — — 581 — 12.8 — 122 — 6.72 104 — — 0 — 35.5

217 9.8 — — — 82.5 32.8 31.4 — — — 8.31 — — 588 — 16.9 — 128 — 6.8 110 — — 36.4 — 88.5

0 0 — — — 0 0 0 — — — 0.02 — — 0 — 0 — 4.55 — 0 0 — — 0 — 0

217 9.8 — — — 82.5 32.8 31.4 — — — 8.33 — — 588 — 16.9 — 132 — 6.8 110 — — 36.4 — 88.5

244 11 — — — 92.5 36.8 35.2 — — — 9.32 — — 659 — 19 — 143 — 7.62 124 — — 40.8 — 99.2

0 0 — — — 0 0 0 — — — 0.02 — — 0 — 0 — 5.1 — 0 0 — — 0 — 0

244 11 — — — 92.5 36.8 35.2 — — — 9.34 — — 659 — 19 — 148 — 7.62 124 — — 40.8 — 99.2

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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(Continued)

(Continued)

Groundwater State

Withdrawals (mil gal/day)

Withdrawals, (thousand acre-feet/yr)

By Source and Type

By Type

Surface Water

Total

Fresh

Saline

Total

Fresh

Saline

Total

Fresh

Saline

Total

Fresh

Saline

Total

2.25 — 162 — — — — 129 8.6 — — — — — 58.8 — — 767

256 — 0 — — — — 504 21.5 — — — — — 222 — — 1,260

258 — 162 — — — — 633 30.1 — — — — — 280 — — 2,030

0.23 — 20.9 — — — — 91.5 17.7 — — — — — 20.7 — — 1,240

0 — 0 — — — — 0 177 — — — — — 0 — — 227

0.23 — 20.9 — — — — 91.5 194 — — — — — 20.7 — — 1,470

2.48 — 182 — — — — 220 26.3 — — — — — 79.5 — — 2,010

256 — 0 — — — — 504 198 — — — — — 222 — — 1,490

258 — 182 — — — — 724 225 — — — — — 301 — — 3,490

2.78 — 205 — — — — 247 29.4 — — — — — 89.1 — — 2,250

287 — 0 — — — — 565 222 — — — — — 248 — — 1,660

290 — 205 — — — — 812 252 — — — — — 338 — — 3,920

Note: Figures may not sum to totals because of independent rounding; —, data not collected. From Hutson, S.S. et al., 2004, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2000, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, www.usgs.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Total

Source:

7-126

Table 7G.70

WATER USE

7-127

Table 7G.71 Changes in Manufacturing and Mining Employment and Industrial Withdrawals (Selected States), 1980–1995 State Decreasing Withdrawals/Decreasing Employment New York Pennsylvania Illinois New Jersey California Massachusetts Ohio Connecticut Michigan Increasing Withdrawals/Decreasing Employment Virginia South Carolina West Virginia Oregon Texas

Change in Industrial Withdrawals (mgd)

Change in Manufacturing Employment (employees)

K711 K1,687 K1,217 K1,247 K88 K277 K1,252 K240 K128

K578,907 K465,730 K305,198 K262,443 K265,131 K239,587 K248,244 K177,407 K112,866

112 218 543 635 1,131

K24,057 K26,298 K68,941 9,667 K111,709

Source: From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002, Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL February 28, 2002. Reprinted with permission. http://info.geography.siu.edu/geography_info/ research/.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-128

Table 7G.72 Water Use by Mineral Industries in the United States, 1983 Gross Water Useda Total

Industry Group and Industry

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Quantity (bil gal)

Percent of All Mineral Industries

Water Re-Circulated and Reused (bil gal)

Total (bil gal)

Untreated (bil gal)

Treated (bil gal)

100 22 13 7 (D) (Z) (D) (D) 1 (Z) 1 (Z) (Z) 4 4 4 44 20 23 1 1 (Z) 31 (D) 2 2 (Z) (Z) 6 4 2 (D) (Z) (Z)

1,197.1 170.2 45.7 89.7 (D) 7.3 5.8 1.6 14.4 10.5 3.9 2.2 2.2 45.3 45.3 45.3 601.6 436.6 146.7 18.4 17.5 0.8 377.8 1.3 46.5 39.0 3.3 4.2 123.1 85.1 38.0 (D) 15.0 4.4

100 14 4 7 (D) 1 (Z) (Z) 1 1 (Z) (Z) (Z) 4 4 4 50 36 12 2 1 (Z) 32 (Z) 4 3 (Z) (Z) 10 7 3 (D) 1 (Z)

2,131.1 564.3 375.9 133.7 (D) 5.0 (D) (D) 31.6 5.0 26.6 3.2 3.2 73.3 73.3 73.3 850.1 236.2 604.1 9.8 9.7 0.1 640.2 (D) 16.6 13.9 1.8 0.9 78.3 38.4 39.8 (D) 1.2 7.0

1,036.7 133.0 51.2 17.7 26.6 5.5 4.0 1.5 16.2 11.3 4.9 7.5 7.5 116.2 116.2 116.2 475.6 318.8 (D) (D) 16.7 (D) 304.3 1.0 45.6 39.7 2.6 3.3 67.0 57.3 9.7 (D) 13.4 2.6

331.2 52.8 40.3 (D) 0.7 1.2 (D) (D) 6.6 6.5 (Z) 0.9 0.9 30.5 30.5 30.5 147.5 84.7 (D) (D) 8.1 (D) 99.3 (D) 19.2 15.7 (D) (D) 25.6 23.3 2.3 (D) (D) (D)

705.5 80.2 11.0 (D) 25.9 4.3 (D) (D) 9.7 4.8 4.9 6.5 6.5 85.7 85.7 85.7 328.1 234.1 (D) (D) 8.5 (D) 205.0 (D) 26.4 24.1 (D) (D) 41.4 34.1 7.4 (D) (D) (D)

21 (Z) 4 15

149.6 (D) 26.9 60.2

12 (D) 2 5

535.1 (D) 98.6 429.3

141.3 (D) 12.4 63.4

(D) (D) (D) 0.3

(D) (D) (D) 63.1

Quantity (bil gal)

Percent of All Mineral Industries

1,534 135 15 29 14 28 20 8 42 34 8 16 16 275 275 275 555 312 161 82 67 14 553 3 178 97 46 35 248 215 33 35 11 16

3,328.3 734.5 421.6 223.4 (D) 12.4 (D) (D) 46.0 15.5 30.5 5.4 5.4 118.6 118.6 118.6 1,451.8 672.8 750.7 28.2 27.3 0.9 1,018.1 (D) 63.1 52.9 5.1 5.1 201.4 123.5 77.8 (D) 16.2 11.4

71 10 20 19

684.8 2.7 125.5 489.5

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

All mineral industries Metal mining Iron ores Copper ores Lead and zinc ores Gold and silver ores Gold ores Silver ores Miscellaneous metal ores Uranium-radium-vanadium ores Metallic ores, n.e.c. Anthracite mining Anthracite Bituminous coal and lignite mining Bituminous coal and lignite mining Bituminous coal and lignite Oil and gas extraction Crude petroleum and natural gas Natural gas liquids Oil and gas field services Drilling oil and gas wells Oil and gas field services, n.e.c. Nonmetallic minerals, except fuels Dimension stone Crushed and broken stone, including riprap Crushed and broken limestone Crushed and broken granite Crushed and broken stone, n.e.c. Sand and gravel Construction sand and gravel Industrial sand Clay, ceramic, and refractory minerals Kaolin and ball clay Clay, ceramic, and refractory minerals, n.e.c. Chemical and fertilizer mineral mining Barite Potash, soda, and borate minerals Phosphate rock

Establishments Reporting Water Intake of 20 bil gal or More During 1982 (Number)

Water Dischargedb

Water Intake

17 5 12

(D) (D) (D)

(D) (D) (D)

(D) 0.4 (D)

(D) (Z) (D)

1.4 (D) (D)

Note: D, Withheld to avoid disclosing data for individual companies; Z, Less than half the unit shown; n.e.c., not elsewhere classified. a b

(D) 0.3 (D)

(D) (D) (D)

0.7 (D) (D)

WATER USE

Miscellaneous nonmetallic minerals Talc, soapstone, and pyrophyllite Miscellaneous nonmetallic minerals, n.e.c.

Total gross water used is equal to sum of water intake plus water reciruclated and reused without regard to evaporation. Volume of water discharged may be greater than water intake due to mine water that is drained and discharged.

Source: From 1982 Census of Mineral Industries, U.S. Dept. of Commerce Bureau of the Census, 1985.

7-129

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7-130

Table 7G.73 Water Use by Manufacturing Industries in the United States, 1983 (Bil Gal) Gross Water Useda Water Intake Establishments Reporting Water Intake of 20 Mil Gal or More During 1982

Industry Group and Industry b

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10,262 2,656 552 205 104 217 26 498 17 111 67 40 263 489 52 224 26 36 117 34 119 19 19 10 4 21 32 14 76 61 15 151 35 20 37 44 10 154

33,835.2 1,406.2 119.5 56.5 13.9 47.3 1.8 69.8 1.3 15.2 14.2 2.0 37.0 201.4 21.5 81.3 (D) 7.2 70.4 (D) 147.0 0.9 12.7 (D) (D) 126.9 (D) 1.1 7.6 2.8 4.8 377.2 198.9 76.0 65.3 (D) (D) 103.3

Total 10,038.9 647.7 92.7 44.7 11.3 35.2 1.5 38.8 1.0 10.2 9.5 1.4 16.7 100.1 17.4 30.6 5.6 2.4 40.0 4.1 79.3 0.8 5.9 0.6 0.1 68.3 2.9 0.8 3.0 1.9 1.1 178.7 83.1 62.8 14.6 (D) (D) 34.1

1,310.7 219.0 49.5 16.9 7.8 24.0 0.8 17.9 0.3 3.9 2.4 1.1 10.3 38.6 10.3 13.9 1.8 2.1 8.1 2.5 19.7 0.5 3.6 0.6 0.1 12.9 1.9 0.3 2.3 (D) (D) 12.7 (D) (D) 0.9 2.1 1.0 10.4

Water Re-Circulated and Reused 23,796.3 758.6 26.8 11.8 2.6 12.1 0.3 30.9 0.2 5.1 4.8 0.6 20.3 101.3 4.1 50.7 (D) 4.9 30.4 (D) 67.6 0.1 6.9 (D) (D) 58.6 (D) 0.3 4.6 0.9 3.7 198.5 115.8 13.3 50.7 15.2 3.4 69.2

Total 8,913.7 552.0 85.5 41.9 9.8 32.4 1.4 35.9 0.9 9.3 8.6 1.1 16.0 88.6 13.4 26.3 4.9 1.9 38.8 3.4 74.3 0.5 3.8 0.4 0.1 66.6 2.1 0.7 2.0 1.1 0.9 142.0 63.0 54.9 9.6 (D) (D) 28.9

Untreated 4,889.8 355.8 28.7 14.7 4.1 9.0 0.9 29.4 0.8 6.6 7.1 1.1 13.9 46.7 7.0 13.8 1.8 0.8 21.5 1.8 65.7 (D) (D) (D) 0.1 59.7 1.1 0.6 1.7 1.0 0.8 93.8 40.1 39.1 (D) (D) (D) 18.4

Treated 4,023.9 196.1 56.8 27.2 5.6 23.4 0.6 6.4 0.1 2.7 1.5 0.1 2.1 41.9 6.5 12.5 3.0 1.1 17.3 1.6 8.6 (D) (D) (D) – 7.0 1.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 48.3 23.0 15.9 (D) (D) 0.3 10.6

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

All manufacturing industries Food and kindred productions Meat products Meat packing plants Sausages and other prepared meats Poultry dressing plants Poultry and egg processing Dairy products Creamery butter Cheese, natural and processed Condensed and evaporated milk Ice cream and frozen desserts Fluid milk Preserved fruits and vegetables Canned specialties Canned fruits and vegetables Dehydrated fruits, vegetables, and soups Pickles, sauces, and salad dressings Frozen fruits and vegetables Frozen specialties Grain mill products Flour and other grain mill products Cereal breakfast foods Rice milling Blended and prepared flour Wet corn milling Dog, cat, and other pet food Prepared feeds, n.e.c. Bakery products Bread, cake, and related products Cookies and crackers Sugar and confectionery products Raw cane sugar Cane sugar refining Beet sugar Confectionery products Chocolate and cocoa products Fats and oils

Total

From Public Water System

Water Discharged

2.8 70.4 0.8 6.3 23.0 308.7 (D) 19.5 2.7 17.2 14.3 (D) 71.9 (D) 4.5 (D) (D) (D) (D) 33.9 (D) 332.9 70.9 67.7 2.9 0.5 48.2 (D) 2.8 2.6 (D) 26.2 (D) 62.3 8.9 45.4 8.1 14.1 (D) (D) 40.5 30.2 (D) (D) 25.7 (D) 0.2

1.2 20.1 0.5 2.8 9.5 88.5 53.3 7.3 2.6 10.3 12.3 2.7 32.6 3.0 4.4 (D) 1.2 0.1 (D) 5.3 (D) 132.6 20.7 18.1 2.7 0.5 27.2 0.7 0.9 2.2 0.6 17.2 5.6 39.0 6.8 26.9 5.4 11.3 10.4 1.0 8.1 4.6 1.8 (D) 5.0 1.4 0.2

(D) (D) (D) 0.5 3.0 46.9 32.1 0.8 0.3 1.5 10.9 1.4 20.9 (D) (D) — 0.4 01 8.7 (D) (D) 70.2 (D) 11.0 0.7 (D) 20.6 (D) 08 (D) (D) 13.0 4.1 15.4 1.9 9.2 4.2 8.8 (D) (D) 5.7 3.2 1.4 1.1 2.3 0.2 0.2

1.5 50.4 0.3 3.6 13.5 220.3 (D) 12.1 0.1 6.9 2.0 (D) 39.3 (D) 0.1 30.4 (D) (D) 8.5 28.6 (D) 200.3 50.2 49.6 0.2 0.1 21.0 (D) 1.9 0.4 (D) 9.0 (D) 23.3 2.1 18.5 2.7 2.8 (D) (D) 32.4 25.6 (D) (D) 20.7 (D) —

(D) 18.2 (D) 1.5 7.8 68.2 41.4 6.5 2.3 9.0 6.8 2.3 26.5 (D) 4.3 (D) 0.9 (D) 11.3 4.0 3.1 115.6 17.9 14.5 2.6 0.4 25.3 0.7 0.8 2.1 0.5 16.2 4.9 33.6 6.2 22.5 4.8 9.8 (D) (D) 7.4 4.2 1.6 1.5 4.3 1.4 (D)

(D) 13.5 (D) 0.8 3.3 50.9 30.8 4.7 0.8 (D) 5.1 (D) 20.6 (D) 3.0 (D) 0.8 (D) 7.4 (D) (D) 61.2 13.2 9.4 (D) (D) 15.9 0.7 (D) 1.5 (D) 9.9 2.8 11.5 1.0 7.6 2.8 4.7 (D) (D) 4.0 2.8 0.9 0.4 1.6 0.1 (D)

(D) 4.7 (D) 8 4.5 17.3 10.7 1.8 1.5 (D) 1.7 (D) 5.9 (D) 1.3 (D) 0.1 — 3.8 (D) (D) 54.4 4.7 5.1 (D) (D) 9.3 (Z) (D) 0.7 (D) 6.3 2.1 22.1 5.2 14.9 2.0 5.1 (D) (D) 3.3 1.4 0.7 1.1 2.7 1.2 — (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-131

18 60 5 31 40 406 56 20 27 28 247 28 211 10 43 9 24 7 118 20 11 761 69 135 23 12 191 11 20 23 12 89 36 125 27 69 29 65 61 4 77 49 15 11 64 10 4

WATER USE

Cottonseed oil mills Soybean oil mills Vegetable oil mills, n.e.c. Animal and marine fats and oils Shortening and cooking oils Beverages Malt beverages Malt Wines, brandy, and brandy spirits Distilled liquor, except brandy Bottled and canned soft drinks Flavoring extracts and syrups, n.e.c. Miscellaneous foods and kindred products Canned and cured seafoods Fresh or frozen packaged fish Roasted coffee Manufactured ice Macaroni and spaghetti Food preparations, n.e.c. Tobacco products Cigarettes Textile mill products Weaving mills, cotton Weaving mills, manmade fiber and silk Weaving and finishing mills, wool Narrow fabric mills Knitting mills Women’s hosiery, except socks Hosiery, n.e.c. Knit outerwear mills Knit underwear mills Circular knit fabric mills Warp knit fabric mills Textile finishing, except wool Finishing plants, cotton Finishing plants, manmade Finishing plants, n.e.c. Floor covering mills Tufted carpets and rugs Carpets are rugs, n.e.c. Yarn and thread mills Yarn mills, except wool Throwing and winding mills Thread mills Miscellaneous textile goods Felt goods, except woven felts and hats Processed textile waste

7-132

Table 7G.73

(Continued) Gross Water Useda Water Intake

Industry Group and Industry

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

9 8 22 7 223 9 89 89 78 3 10 64 42 7 8 27 66 26 15 6 11 10 17 13 8 7 600 36 234 151 104 41 16 11 20 12 57

Total (D) (D) (D) (D) 218.2 (D) 168.5 168.5 25.9 (D) 0.4 (D) (D) 0.4 (D) 21.2 6.8 3.6 1.7 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) 7,435.8 1,020.0 3,908.6 2,353.9 125.2 16.0 26.2 (D) (D) (D) 16.8

Total 0.6 0.3 1.5 (D) 86.0 0.2 68.4 68.4 7.6 0.4 0.3 6.9 9.6 (D) (D) 8.5 3.4 1.9 1.5 0.2 0.6 0.6 0.5 (D) (D) (D) 1,899.3 283.2 1,009.5 538.7 56.5 6.5 5.6 32.1 8.9 3.3 6.6

From Public Water System 0.3 (D) 1.1 0.1 (D) 0.1 (D) (D) 1.9 (Z) 0.1 1.7 (D) — (D) 1.3 2.2 (D) (D) 0.2 (D) (D) 0.5 (D) (D) (D) 257.3 49.1 92.1 107.2 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D)

Water Re-Circulated and Reused (D) (D) (D) (D) 132.2 (D) 100.1 100.1 18.3 (D) 0.1 (D) (D) (D) (D) 12.7 3.4 1.7 0.2 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (Z) (Z) 5,536.5 736.8 2,899.0 1,815.2 68.7 9.4 20.6 (D) (D) (D) 10.3

Total 0.6 0.2 1.0 (D) 71.0 0.3 58.9 58.9 4.4 0.4 0.1 3.9 7.3 (D) (D) 6.6 3.3 1.8 1.5 0.2 0.6 0.6 0.5 (D) (D) (D) 1,768.1 282.7 958.2 462.3 55.0 6.2 5.5 (D) 9.4 3.2 5.9

Untreated (D) (D) 0.6 (Z) 44.9 (D) 39.4 39.4 (D) (Z) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) 2.9 (D) (D) (D) 0.4 0.4 (D) (D) (D) (D) 479.0 45.7 304.3 85.4 36.9 3.7 (D) (D) (D) (D) 4.5

Treated (D) (D) 0.5 (D) 26.1 (D) 19.5 19.5 (D) 0.3 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) 0.4 (D) (D) (D) 0.2 0.2 (D) (D) (D) (D) 1,289.1 237.0 653.9 377.0 18.1 2.4 (D) (D) (D) (D) 1.4

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Coated fabrics, not rubberized Tire cord and fabric Nonwoven fabrics Textile goods, n.e.c. Lumber and wood products Logging camps and logging contractors Sawmills and planning mills Sawmills and planning mills, general Millwork, plywood, and structural members Millwork Hardwood veneer and plywood Softwood veneer and plywood Miscellaneous wood products Wood preserving Particleboard Wood products, n.e.c. Furniture and fixtures Household furniture Wood household furniture Metal household furniture Office furniture Metal office furniture Partitions and fixtures Metal partitions and fixtures Miscellaneous furniture and fixtures Drapery hardware and blinds and shades Paper and allied products Pulp mills Paper mills, except building paper Paperboard mills Miscellaneous converted paper products Paper coating and glazing Bags, except textile bags Pressed and molded pulp goods Sanitary paper products Converted paper products, n.e.c. Paperboard containers and boxes

Establishments Reporting Water Intake of 20 Mil Gal or More During 1982

Water Discharged

6.2 0.9 (D) (D) 11.3 9,630.1 2,164.0 287.0 492.4 96.0 1,289.1 1,435.7 580.5 236.6 133.4 485.2 240.1 3.3 122.9 113.8 103.6 42.0 (D) (D) (D) 3.5 4,122.3 (D) (D) 3,765.5 1,381.4 757.4 559.0 64.9 178.9 (D) 53.4 (D) 93.6 6,177.3 6,170.3 4.9 1.8 3.0 2.2 (D) (D)

4.1 0.4 0.9 1.1 4.8 3,400.7 885.0 157.4 18.6 48.9 660.1 427.1 132.7 62.9 71.7 159.9 90.5 0.8 55.3 34.4 64.8 16.6 (D) (D) 2.3 2.1 1,515.9 (D) (D) 1,467.6 305.0 70.5 216.1 18.4 110.3 (D) (D) 1.6 63.3 818.4 814.4 2.6 0.8 1.8 1.4 0.2 1.3

04 0.4 0.4 (D) (D) 210.5 57.0 (D) 8.9 (D) 28.6 23.4 16.0 (D) (D) 4.1 19.9 0.8 5.3 13.9 8.5 4.3 (D) 1.3 (D) 1.5 78.6 (D) 7.0 (D) 14.5 12.1 (D) (D) 7.1 0.6 — (D) 5.8 137.7 135.9 1.0 (D) (D) 0.8 0.2 0.6

2.1 0.5 (D) (D) 6.5 6,229.4 1,279.6 129.6 473.8 47.1 629.0 1,008.6 447.9 173.7 61.7 325.3 149.6 2.5 67.7 79.4 38.8 25.4 (D) 8.0 (D) 1.4 2,606.4 21.3 287.2 2,297.9 1,076.4 686.9 342.9 46.5 68.6 (D) (D) (D) 30.3 5,358.9 5,355.9 2.3 1.0 1.3 0.7 (D) (D)

(D) 0.4 0.9 (D) 3.9 2,979.8 758.4 142.9 11.9 49.5 554.0 391.7 108.0 58.5 67.6 157.5 87.1 0.5 54.9 31.6 61.2 14.3 3.8 (D) (D) 2.1 1,381.0 6.5 30.9 1,343.5 202.7 45.2 142.2 15.3 95.7 (D) (D) 0.3 52.4 699.3 695.1 3.3 1.9 1.4 0.9 0.1 07

(D) 0.3 0.8 (D) 2.2 1,996.3 556.3 40.8 7.3 26.0 482.2 277.0 62.3 (D) (D) 123.1 55.8 0.3 (D) (D) 53.7 (D) (D) (D) (D) 1.7 815.2 (D) (D) 798.5 154.6 (D) (D) (D) 82.0 (D) (D) (D) (D) 323.4 321.0 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D)

(D) 0.1 (Z) (D) 1.7 983.6 202.1 102.1 4.6 23.5 71.9 114.6 45.8 (D) (D) 34.3 31.3 0.2 (D) (D) 7.5 (D) (D) (D) (D) 0.3 565.8 (D) (D) 545.0 48.1 (D) (D) (D) 13.7 0.9 (D) (D) (D) 375.9 374.1 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-133

17 21 14 5 18 1,315 301 32 76 22 171 206 143 22 7 34 112 17 23 72 108 32 22 25 29 41 296 10 75 211 116 59 34 18 135 31 13 14 73 260 202 39 15 24 19 7 12

WATER USE

Folding paperboard boxes Corrugated and solid fiber boxes Sanitary food containers Fiber cans, drums, and similar products Building paper and board mills Chemicals and allied products Industrial inorganic chemicals Alkalies and chlorine Industrial gases Inorganic pigments Industrial inorganic chemicals, n.e.c. Plastics materials and synthetics Plastics materials and resins Synthetic rubber Cellulosic manmade fibers Organic fibers, noncellulosic Drugs Biological products Medicinals and botanicals Pharmaceutical preparations Soaps, cleaners, and toilet goods Soap and other detergents Polishes and sanitation goods Surface active agents Toilet preparations Paints and allied products Industrial organic chemicals Gum and wood chemicals Cyclic crudes and intermediates Industrial organic chemicals, n.e.c. Agricultural chemicals Nitrogenous fertilizers Phosphatic fertilizers Agricultural chemicals, n.e.c. Miscellaneous chemical products Adhesives and sealants Explosives Carbon black Chemical preparations, n.e.c. Petroleum and coal products Petroleum refining Paving and roofing materials Paving mixtures and blocks Asphalt felts and coatings Miscellaneous petroleum and coal products Lubricating oils and greases Petroleum and coal products, n.e.c.

7-134

Table 7G.73

(Continued) Gross Water Useda Water Intake

Industry Group and Industry

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Total

Total

From Public Water System

Water Re-Circulated and Reused

Total

Untreated

Treated

375

327.8

76.0

27.4

251.8

62.6

39.8

22.8

47 3 24 82 219 69 65 602 16 120 75 45 26 100 10 4 5 30 9 5 11 160 20 65 23 51 15 125 17 13 12 22 42 12 7 776

121.5 0.1 58.0 26.8 121.4 6.5 (D) 336.7 20.9 92.2 38.3 53.9 (D) 115.2 (D) (D) (D) 2.1 (D) 0.4 0.9 16.7 (D) 4.5 7.0 4.3 (D) 70.4 (D) 8.2 3.6 22.2 27.4 2.4 (D) 5,885.2

(D) 0.1 (D) 8.3 41.9 6.1 (D) 154.7 4.8 13.3 7.1 6.2 7.2 80.0 1.4 (D) (D) 1.5 0.5 0.3 0.6 10.8 (D) 2.1 4.3 3.7 1.1 34.5 3.5 1.8 1.8 18.7 6.2 2.0 0.5 2,362.5

4.2 (Z) 3.0 4.6 15.6 2.7 (D) 24.0 (D) 8.7 4.0 4.7 (D) 2.4 0.8 — — 1.1 0.3 0.3 0.4 2.7 0.1 0.7 (D) (D) 0.5 (D) 1.0 0.8 0.5 0.8 (D) 0.3 (D) 108.7

(D) (Z) (D) 18.4 79.5 0.4 0.4 181.9 16.0 78.9 31.2 47.7 (D) 35.2 (D) (D) (D) 0.6 (D) 0.1 0.3 5.8 (D) 2.4 2.8 0.6 (D) 35.9 (D) 6.3 1.7 3.5 21.2 0.3 (D) 3,522.8

16.5 0.1 5.0 7.4 33.6 5.7 (D) 132.8 4.7 11.4 5.9 5.5 7.1 68.7 0.7 (D) (D) 1.1 0.4 0.3 0.4 6.5 0.3 1.5 3.2 1.5 1.1 31.5 3.5 1.4 0.9 18.8 4.4 2.0 0.5 2,112.0

8.2 0.1 (D) (D) 22.9 (D) (D) 99.5 (D) 7.1 3.8 3.3 (D) 58.6 0.5 (D) (D) 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.3 3.9 (D) 1.0 (D) 1.0 (D) 22.7 2.6 1.0 0.6 (D) 2.7 (D) (D) 1,227.9

8.3 (Z) (D) (D) 10.8 (D) (D) 33.3 (D) 4.3 2.1 2.2 (D) 10.1 0.2 (D) (D)/ 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 2.7 (D) 0.4 (D) 0.5 (D) 8.7 0.9 0.3 0.2 (D) 1.7 (D) (D) 884.1

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products Tires and inner tubes Rubber and plastics footwear Rubber and plastics hose and belting Fabricated rubber products, n.e.c. Miscellaneous plastics products Leather and leather products Leather tanning and finishing Stone, clay, and glass products Flat glass Glass and glassware, pressed or blown Glass containers Pressed and blown glass, n.e.c. Products of purchased glass Cement, hydraulic Structural clay products Ceramic wall and floor tile Clay refractories Pottery and related products Vitreous plumbing fixtures Vitreous china food utensils Porcelain electrical supplies Concrete, gypsum, and plaster products Concrete products, n.e.c. Ready-mixed concrete Lime Gypsum products Cut stone and stone products Miscellaneous nonmetallic mineral products Abrasive products Asbestos products Gaskets, packing, and sealing devices Minerals, ground or treated Mineral wool Nonclay refractories Nonmetallic mineral products, n.e.c. Primary metal industries

Establishments Reporting Water Intake of 20 Mil Gal or More During 1982

Water Discharged

4,990.5 4,908.4 11.3 4.5 18.0 48.3 218.1 200.8 (D) (D) 7.4 417.1 77.0 5.1 18.7 (D) (D) 13.5 213.2 43.8 93.5 9.1 12.0 30.6 24.3 15.5 14.2 (D) (D) 17.3 1.9 15.4 257.9 62.1 (D) (D) 30.8 (D) (D) (D) (D) 3.7 (D) (D) (D) 28.3 (D)

2,077.6 2,038.9 1.2 2.1 11.3 24.1 69.1 63.0 (D) (D) 4.2 125.6 (D) 0.7 7.2 67.8 (D) 3.7 79.9 18.6 37.0 3.9 7.1 6.6 6.8 2.4 1.7 0.2 0.5 4.1 1.5 2.6 65.4 6.6 6.2 0.4 14.9 (D) 1.0 0.4 (D) 3.0 0.6 2.1 0.3 7.0 1.2

62.2 53.9 0.4 1.4 1.4 5.2 22.6 18.8 1.4 0.4 2.0 3.6 (D) (D) 0.5 1.1 0.5 1.3 15.7 5.2 2.1 2.6 0.5 3.0 2.5 1.6 1.2 (D) (D) 1.8 1.3 0.4 38.1 5.6 5.2 0.4 4.0 0.2 0.8 (D) (D) 2.5 (D) (D) 0.3 4.4 (D)

2,912.9 2,869.5 10.1 2.5 6.7 24.1 149.0 137.8 (D) (D) 3.2 291.4 (D) 4.4 11.5 (D) 0.8 9.8 133.3 25.2 56.4 5.3 4.9 24.0 17.5 13.1 12.5 (D) (D) 13.2 0.4 12.8 192.5 55.5 (D) (D) 15.8 (D) (D) (D) (D) 0.7 (D) (D) (D) 21.4 (D)

1,868.1 1,.829.8 1.5 2.1 11.0 23.7 51.5 45.7 1.4 0.5 3.9 111.6 10.6 0.3 (D) 62.9 (D) 3.1 71.4 14.8 34.6 3.7 6.9 4.9 6.5 2.2 (D) (D) 0.5 4.0 1.5 2.6 61.4 6.0 5.6 0.4 14.5 (D) 0.9 (D) 2.9 3.0 0.7 2.1 0.2 6.0 1.1

1,113.7 1,090.9 (D) (D) 5.8 (D) 24.2 18.7 1.4 (D) (D) 51.6 8.0 (D) (D) (D) (D) 2.2 32.9 8.0 12.4 2.1 3.6 1.5 5.3 1.1 (D) (D) 0.1 2.1 0.5 1.6 29.7 1.5 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) 1.2 (D) (D) (D) 0.2 3.8 (D)

754.3 739.0 (D) (D) 5.2 (D) 27.3 27.0 — (D) (D) 60.0 2.5 (D) (D) (D) (D) 0.9 38.6 6.8 22.2 1.6 3.3 3.4 1.2 1.1 (D) (D) 0.4 1.9 1.0 1.0 31.7 4.4 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) 1.7 (D) (D) (D) — 2.2 (D) (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-135

259 137 13 34 32 43 154 93 7 10 44 71 20 5 5 24 17 34 170 29 23 40 6 26 46 46 29 6 11 42 28 14 724 89 80 9 72 4 28 4 36 25 6 12 7 76 11

WATER USE

Blast furnace and basic steel products Blast furnaces and steel mills Electrometallurgical products Steel wire and related products Cold finishing of steel shapes Steel pipe and tubes Iron and steel foundries Gray iron foundries Malleable iron foundries Steel investment foundries Steel foundries, n.e.c. Primary nonferrous metals Primary copper Primary lead Primary zinc Primary aluminum Primary nonferrous metals, n.e.c. Secondary nonferrous metals Nonferrous rolling and drawing Copper rolling and drawing Aluminum sheet, plate, and foil Aluminum extruded products Aluminum rolling and drawing, n.e.c. Nonferrous rolling and drawing, n.e.c. Nonferrous wire drawing and insulating Nonferrous foundries Aluminum foundries Brass, bronze, and copper foundries Nonferrous foundries, n.e.c. Miscellaneous primary metal products Metal heat treating Primary metal products, n.e.c. Fabricated metal products Metal cans and shipping containers Metal cans Metal barrels, drums, and pails Cutlery, hand tools, and hardware Cutlery Hand and edge tools, n.e.c. Hand saws and saw blades Hardware, n.e.c. Plumbing and heating, except electric Metal sanitary ware Plumbing fittings and brass goods Heating equipment, except electric Fabricated structural metal product Fabricated structural metal

7-136

Table 7G.73

(Continued) Gross Water Useda Water Intake

Industry Group and Industry

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10 30 11 5 8 49 5 44 122 36 6 42 4 34 138 126 12 35 7 14 6 8 118 4 54 4 8 11 9 28 523 47 35 41 28 13 69 31 8

Total (D) 22.2 0.7 (D) 1.6 8.4 (D) (D) 81.5 12.0 3.7 62.4 0.3 3.1 7.8 (D) (D) 9.5 (D) (D) (D) (D) 25.8 (D) 10.4 0.9 (D) (D) 0.2 (D) 306.5 66.2 (D) 40.1 39.2 0.9 51.2 42.6 0.3

Total 0.6 4.0 0.3 (D) 0.6 2.8 0.1 2.7 10.1 2.8 1.4 3.3 0.3 2.3 6.9 6.0 0.9 6.7 1.4 2.2 0.8 2.3 7.5 0.2 2.9 0.1 0.2 1.7 0.2 2.2 120.0 32.0 (D) 32.8 32.1 0.7 11.4 10.3 (D)

From Public Water System 0.6 2.6 0.2 (D) — 1.8 0.1 1.7 8.0 2.3 1.4 2.8 (D) (D) 4.8 (D) (D) 2.7 (D) (D) (D) 1.7 4.3 0.2 2.0 0.1 0.2 (D) 0.1 (D) 52.5 (D) 3.8 (D) (D) (D) 3.5 (D) (D)

Water Re-Circulated and Reused (D) 18.2 0.4 — 1.0 5.6 (D) (D) 71.5 9.2 2.3 59.2 — 0.8 1.0 (D) (D) 2.8 (D) (D) (D) (D) 18.3 (D) 7.4 0.8 (D) (D) (Z) (D) 186.4 34.1 (D) 7.3 7.1 0.2 39.8 32.3 (D)

Total 0.6 3.3 0.3 (D) 0.6 2.7 0.1 2.6 9.7 2.8 1.4 3.0 0.3 2.2 6.7 5.8 0.9 6.0 1.2 2.0 0.8 2.0 6.8 (D) 2.8 0.1 0.2 1.4 (D) 2.1 104.9 20.7 (D) 32.0 31.3 0.7 11.8 10.8 0.1

Untreated 0.2 1.7 0.2 (D) (D) 1.6 (D) (D) 7.7 1.9 1.1 (D) (D) 1.7 2.9 2.6 0.3 3.5 (D) 0.7 (D) 1.6 (D) (D) 2.1 (D) (D) 1.0 (D) (D) 71.2 12.8 (D) (D) (D) (D) 6.8 6.2 0.1

Treated 0.3 1.6 0.1 (D) (D) 1.1 (D) (D) 2.1 0.9 0.3 (D) (D) 0.5 3.8 3.2 0.5 2.6 (D) 1.3 (D) 0.4 (D) (D) 0.7 (D) (D) 0.4 (D) (D) 33.8 7.9 (D) (D) (D) (D) 5.1 4.6 (Z)

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Metal doors, sash, and trim Fabricated plate work (boiler shops) Sheet metal work Prefabricated metal buildings Miscellaneous metal work Screw machine products, bolts, etc. Screw machine products Bolts, nuts, rivets, and washers Metal forgings and stampings Iron and steel forgings Nonferrous forgings Automotive stampings Crowns and closures Metal stampings, n.e.c. Metal services, n.e.c. Plating and polishing Metal coating and allied services Ordnance and accessories, n.e.c. Small arms ammunition Ammunition, except for small arms, n.e.c. Small arms Ordnance and accessories, n.e.c. Miscellaneous fabricated metal products Steel springs, except wire Valves and pipe fittings Wire springs Miscellaneous fabricated wire products Metal foil and leaf Fabricated pipe and fittings Fabricated metal products, n.e.c. Machinery, except electrical Engines and turbines Internal combustion engines, n.e.c. Farm and garden machinery Farm machinery and equipment Lawn and garden equipment Construction and related machinery Construction machinery Mining machinery

Establishments Reporting Water Intake of 20 Mil Gal or More During 1982

Water Discharged

(D) (D) 3.2 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) 38.5 (D) 26.5 (D) (D) (D) 1.1 (D) 39.7 (D) (D) 32.5 (D) (D) (D) 18.3 17.8 0.5 334.8 (D) (D) 3.3 18.5 6.7 (D) 0.4 9.8 (D) 24.1 2.8 (D) 4.5 1.6 (D) (D)

0.8 4.0 3.0 (D) 0.2 (D) 0.3 6.4 (D) (D) (D) (D) 7.1 1.6 2.6 1.4 (D) 0.4 0.7 0.2 15.0 (D) (D) 9.6 9.2 0.2 (D) 1.7 1.5 0.2 74.1 3.4 1.6 1.9 9.5 4.8 (D) 0.2 3.8 (D) 9.4 1.8 2.6 2.1 1.0 (D) 1.5

(D) 1.8 (D) — 0.2 — 0.2 (D) — (D) — 0.3 4.1 0.8 1.4 1.0 — (D) 0.3 0.2 6.0 — — 8.7 8.4 0.2 — (D) (D) (D) 55.1 3.2 (D) (D) 6.6 (D) — 0.2 3.6 (D) 8.8 1.5 (D) 2.1 (D) — 1.5

(D) (D) 0.2 — (D) (D) (D) (D) (Z) 0.2 (D) (D) 31.4 (D) 23.9 (D) 0.1 (D) 0.4 (D) 24.7 (D) (D) 23.0 (D) (D) — 16.5 16.3 0.2 260.7 (D) (D) 1.4 9.1 2.0 (D) 0.2 6.1 (D) 14.7 1.0 (D) 2.3 0.6 (D) (D)

(D) 3.7 2.7 (D) (D) 0.4 0.3 6.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 (D) 6.1 1.5 2.4 0.7 (D) 0.4 0.7 0.2 13.3 12.3 (D) 9.6 9.3 0.2 0.1 1.5 1.3 0.2 70.3 4.7 2.9 1.8 9.4 5.0 0.6 0.2 3.5 0.1 9.1 1.7 2.5 2.2 0.9 0.2 1.5

(D) 3.6 (D) (D) (D) (D) 0.2 (D) 0.2 0.1 (D) (D) 4.7 1.2 1.7 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) 12.0 (D) (D) (D) (D) 0.2 0.1 0.8 0.6 0.2 42.5 (D) (D) (D) 7.4 4.5 0.5 0.1 2.2 0.1 5.7 (D) (D) 1.4 0.8 0.1 1.1

(D) 0.2 (D) — — (D) 0.1 (D) (Z) (Z) (D) (D) 1.4 0.3 0.7 (D) (Z) (D) (D) (D) 1.3 (D) (D) (D) (D) — — 0.7 0.7 (Z) 27.8 (D) (D) (D) 1.9 0.5 0.1 (Z) 1.3 — 3.4 (D) (D) 0.9 0.2 0.1 0.4 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-137

21 57 22 3 6 14 10 36 9 5 4 13 101 26 22 15 9 5 15 7 71 57 12 70 61 4 3 31 18 13 678 43 14 29 76 30 18 6 19 3 75 15 11 10 17 4 15

WATER USE

Oil field machinery Metalworking machinery Machine tools, metal cutting types Machine tools, metal forming types Special dies, tools, jigs, and fixtures Machine tool accessories Power driven hand tools Special industry machinery Food products machinery Paper industries machinery Printing trades machinery Special industry machinery, n.e.c. General industrial machinery Pumps and pumping equipment Ball and roller bearings Air and gas compressors Blowers and fans Speed changers, drives, and gears Power transmission equipment, n.e.c. General industrial machinery, n.e.c. Office and computing machines Electronic computing equipment Office machines, n.e.c. and typewriters Refrigeration and service machinery Refrigeration and heating equipment Measuring and dispensing pumps Service industry machinery, n.e.c. Miscellaneous machinery, except electrical Carburetors, pistons, rings, valves Machinery, except electrical, n.e.c. Electric and electronic equipment Electric distributing equipment Transformers Switchgear and switchboard apparatus Electrical industrial apparatus Motors and generators Industrial controls Welding apparatus, electric Carbon and graphite products Electrical industrial apparatus, n.e.c. Household appliances Household cooking equipment Household refrigerators and freezers Household laundry equipment Electric housewares and fans Household vacuum cleaners Household appliances, n.e.c.

7-138

Table 7G.73

(Continued) Gross Water Useda Water Intake

Industry Group and Industry

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

75 15 15 20 10 5 4 22 12 10 122 26 96 193 19 65 12 8 21 68 72 36 8 13 7 380 194 55 6 130 93 26 34 33 30 30 16

Total

Total

From Public Water System

Water Re-Circulated and Reused

Total

Untreated

Treated

17.8 1.2 2.7 2.8 0.4 (D) (D) (D) 2.6 (D) 61.4 9.2 52.2 166.0 (D) 78.0 (D) (D) 1.5 63.3 26.7

6.9 (D) 2.1 1.7 0.3 0.1 0.2 2.3 1.7 0.6 13.3 3.5 9.8 23.6 2.8 11.6 3.0 0.4 1.4 4.6 5.6

4.2 — 1.4 1.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 (D) (D) (D) 9.1 2.3 6.8 17.6 (D) 9.6 0.5 (D) 0.7 4.1 (D)

10.9 (D) 0.5 1.1 0.1 (D) (D) (D) 0.8 (D) 48.1 5.7 42.4 142.4 (D) 66.4 (D) (D) 0.2 58.7 21.0

6.0 0.8 2.1 1.6 0.3 0.1 (D) 2.4 1.8 0.5 11.7 3.2 8.5 21.9 2.6 10.7 2.9 0.4 1.2 4.2 5.1

4.3 0.6 1.7 1.0 0.2 (D) (Z) (D) (D) (D) 8.3 2.0 6.3 10.3 1.8 3.3 2.4 (D) (D) 1.8 (D)

1.7 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.1 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) 3.5 1.3 2.2 11.6 0.8 7.3 0.6 (D) (D) 2.4 (D)

(D) 0.6

1.9 0.4

(D) 0.4

(D) 0.3

1.5 (D)

0.7 (D)

0.8 (D)

17.0 (D) 1,011.3 (D) (D) (D) 229.7 (D) 54.2 (D) (D) 27.6 27.6 8.1

2.7 (D) 152.8 66.4 22.6 (D) 43.5 58.4 18.0 (D) (D) 16.3 16.3 3.1

(D) — 82.3 42.8 (D) — 22.0 (D) (D) 6.9 4.2 (D) (D) 2.4

14.2 (D) 858.6 (D) (D) (D) 186.2 (D) 36.2 (D) 21.5 11.3 11.3 5.0

2.7 0.2 139.2 59.6 21.0 0.2 38.4 54.1 (D) (D) 4.5 15.8 15.8 2.8

(D) 0.2 94.0 30.7 (D) (D) 19.2 43.6 (D) (D) (D) 12.6 12.6 1.8

(D) (Z) 45.2 28.9 (D) (D) 19.2 10.5 2.8 (D) (D) 3.2 3.2 1.0

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Electric lighting and wiring equipment Electric lamps Current-carrying wiring devices Noncurrent-carrying wiring devices Residential lighting fixtures Commercial lighting fixtures Lighting equipment, n.e.c. Radio and TV receiving equipment Radio and TV receiving sets Phonograph records and prerecorded tape Communication equipment Telephone and telegraph apparatus Radio and TV communication equipment Electronic components and accessories Electron tubes, all types Semiconductors and related devices Electronic capacitors Electronic resistors Electronic connectors Electronic components, n.e.c. Miscellaneous electrical equipment and supplies Storage batteries X-ray electromedical, and electrotherapeutic apparatus Engine electrical equipment Electrical equipment and supplies, n.e.c. Transportation equipment Motor vehicles and equipment Motor vehicles and car bodies Truck and bus bodies Motor vehicle parts and accessories Aircraft and parts Aircraft Aircraft engines and engine parts Aircraft equipment, n.e.c. Ship and boat building and repairing Ship building and repairing Railroad equipment

Establishments Reporting Water Intake of 20 Mil Gal or More During 1982

Water Discharged

3 34 17 12 5 10 5 4 154 5 57 10 12 11 14 10 15 40 16 23 25 5 80 28 13 14 8 3 22 8 13 15 7

5.0 30.2 19.7 5.2 5.4 5.3 5.2 (D) 112.0 (D) 21.6 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) 2.1 4.2 (D) (D) 77.7 (D) 15.4 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D)

1.0 6.5 2.8 3.3 0.4 1.2 1.1 (D) 29.8 0.2 4.2 1.0 0.8 0.4 1.7 0.3 (D) 2.2 (D) 1.4 17.3 (D) 4.3 1.5 (D) 1.0 0.6 (D) 0.8 (D) 0.6 1.2 0.6

0.9 6.0 (D) (D) 0.4 0.9 0.8 — 9.8 (D) 3.2 (D) (D) 0.3 1.3 (D) — (D) — 1.4 (D) — 3.4 1.3 — 1.0 0.3 — (D) — (D) (D) (D)

4.0 23.8 16.9 1.9 4.9 4.1 4.1 — 82.3 (D) 17.4 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) 2.0 (D) (D) 60.4 (D) 11.1 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) — (D) (D) (D)

0.9 4.9 2.2 2.3 0.4 1.1 1.0 (Z) 27.6 0.2 3.8 1.0 0.7 0.3 1.5 0.3 0.4 2.1 0.8 1.3 15.7 (D) 4.0 1.4 0.4 0.9 0.6 (D) 0.8 (D) (D) 1.1 (D)

0.6 4.0 1.8 1.9 0.3 0.7 0.7 (Z) 13.6 (D) 2.6 (D) (D) 0.3 0.7 0.2 (D) 1.5 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) 1.2 (D) (D) 0.6 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D)

0.3 0.9 0.4 0.5 (Z) 0.3 0.3 (Z) 13.9 (D) 1.2 (D) (D) (Z) 0.9 0.1 (D) 0.5 (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) 0.2 (D) (D) (Z) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D)

WATER USE

Motorcycles, bicycles, and parts Guided missiles and space vehicles, parts Guided missiles and space vehicles Space propulsion units and parts Space vehicle equipment, n.e.c. Miscellaneous transportation equipment Tanks and tank components Transportation equipment, n.e.c. Instruments and related products Engineering and scientific instruments Measuring and controlling devices Environmental controls Process control instruments Fluid meters and counting devices Instruments to measure electricity Measuring and controlling devices, n.e.c. Optical instruments and lenses Medical instruments and supplies Surgical and medical instruments Surgical appliances and supplies Photographic equipment and supplies Watches, clocks, and watchcases Miscellaneous manufacturing industries Toys and sporting goods Games, toys, and children’s vehicles Sporting and athletic goods, n.e.c. Pens, pencils, and office and art supplies Pens and mechanical pencils Costume jewelry and notions Costume jewelry Needles, pins, and fasteners Miscellaneous manufactures Manufacturing industries, n.e.c.

Note: Billion gallons. D., Withheld to avoid disclosing data for individual companies; Z, Less than half the unit shown; n.e.c., not elsewhere classified. a

Total gross water used is equal to sum of water intake plus water recirculated and reused without regard to evaporation. Excludes data for establishments classified as Apparel and Other Textile Products; Printing and Publishing; and Publishing; and administrative and auxiliary establishments for all major groups. Source: From 1982 Census of Manufacturers, U.S. Dept. of Commerce Bureau of the Census, 1986. National Aluminate Corp. With permission.

b

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Table 7G.74 Make-Up Water Required in Industrial Cooling Systems Temperature Drop Cycles of Concentration 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0

158F (gal)

208F (gal)

258F (gal)

308F (gal)

358F (gal)

45 30 25 22.5 21 20 19.2 18.7 18.3 18 17.7 17.5

60 40 33 30 28 26.7 25.7 25.0 24.5 24 23.7 23.3

75 50 42 37.5 35 33.2 32.0 31.8 30.7 30 29.5 29.1

90 60 50 45 42 40 38.7 37.5 36.8 36.1 35.5 35

105 70 58.5 52.5 49.1 46.9 45.1 44 43 42.1 41.5 40.9

Note: Estimated amounts in gallons per 1,000 gal/min recirculation. Source: From National Aluminate Corp.

Table 7G.75 Geographic Distribution of Water-Intensive Manufacturing Industries in the United States Paper Water Resource Region New England Mid-Atlantic South Atlantic Gulf Great Lakes Ohio Tennessee Upper Mississippi Lower Mississippi Souris-Red-Rainy Missouri Arkansas-White-Red Texas Gulf Rio Grande Upper Colorado Lower Colorado Great Basin Columbia-North Pacific California Alaska Hawaii Total

Chemicals

Petroleum Refining

Primary Metals

ML/daya

mgd

ML/day

mgd

ML/day

mgd

ML/day

mgd

9,401 7,104 31,627 8,156 2,471 4,151 2,101 6,471 510 99 1,809 3,814

2,541 1,920 8,548 2,196 668 1,122 568 1,749 138 27 489 1,031

1,598 15,736 13,590 10,859 21,108 1,342 2,882 19,920

432 4,253 3,673 2,935 5,705 2,525 779 5,384

10,704 1,417 6,389 3,193 973 2,638 10,744

2,893 383 1,727 863 263 713 2,904

643 10,341 4,329 38,298 33,562 395 2,752 2,186

174 2,795 1,170 10,351 9,071 107 744 591

2,527 3,455 41,425 1,010

683 934 11,196 273

1,986 7,425 32,996

537 2,007 8,918

381 1,653 4,495 103

103 447 1,215 28

432

117

13,819

3,735

399 48 1,798

108 13 486

44 40 614 1,017

12 11 166 275

136 1,949 1,646

37 527 445

4,310 1,306

1,165 353

2,682 162

725 44

215

26,124

148,543

40,147

2,170 14 84 23,676

795

96,658

8,029 51 310 87,601

104,251

28,176

Note: 1975 Data. a

Million liters per day.

Source: From Kollar, K.L. and MacAuley, P., 1980, Water requirements for industrial development, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., vol. 72, no. 1. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7G.76 Percentage of Gross Industrial Water Use by Purpose in the United States

Industry Meatpacking Poultry dressing Dairy products Canned fruits and vegetables Frozen fruits and vegetables Wet corn milling Cane sugar Beet sugar Malt beverages Textile mills Sawmills Pulp and paper mills Paper converting Alkalis and chlorine Industrial gases Inorganic pigments Industrial inorganic chemicals Plastic materials and resins Synthetic rubber Cellulosic man-made fibers Organic fibers, noncellulosic Paints and pigments Industrial organic chemicals Nitrogenous fertilizers Phosphatic fertilizers Carbon black Petroleum refining Tires and inner tubes Hydraulic cement Steel Iron and steel foundries Primary copper Primary aluminum Automobiles

Parameters of Water Use

Gross Water Use by Unit of Production

Percentage Noncontact Cooling

Percentage Process and Related

Percentage Sanitary and Miscellaneous

gal/lb carcass weight gal/bird poultry slaughter gal/lb milk processed gal/case 24–303 cans eq gal/lb frozen product gal/lb corn grind gal/ton cane sugar gal/ton beet sugar gal/barrel malt beverage gal/lb fiber consumption gal/bd ft lumber gal/ton pulp and paper gal/ton paper converted gal/ton chlorine gal/1,000 cu ft industrial gases gal/ton inorganic pigments gal/ton chemicals 100 percent basic gal/lb plastic gal/lb synthetic rubber gal/lb fibers gal/lb fibers gal/gal paint gal/ton chemical building blocks gal/ton fertilizer gal/ton fertilizer gal/lb carbon black gal/barrel crude oil input gal/tire car and truck tires gal/ton cement gal/ton steel net production gal/ton ferrous castings gal/lb copper gal/lb aluminum gal/car domestic automobiles

3.6 gal/lb 11.6 gal/bird 0.85 gal/lb 225 gal/case 11.2 /gal/lb 416 gal/bu 28,100 gal/ton 33,100 gal/ton 1,500 gal/bbl 34 gal/lb 5.4 gal/bd ft 130,000 gal/ton 6,600 gal/ton 29,800 gal/ton 636 gal/mcf 97,800 gal/ton 14,500 gal/ton 24 gal/lb 55 gal/lb 231 gal/lb 101 gal/lb 13 gal/gal 125,000 gal/ton 28,506 gal/ton 35,602 gal/ton 4.6 gal/lb 1,851 gal/bbl 518 gal/tire 1,360 gal/ton 62,600 gal/ton 12,400 gal/ton 53 gal/lb 49 gal/lb 36,500 gal/car

42 12 53 19 19 36 30 31 72 57 58 18 18 85 86 41 83 93 83 69 94 79 91 92 71 57 95 81 82 56 34 52 72 28

46 77 27 67 72 63 69 67 13 37 36 80 77 14 13 58 16 7 17 30 6 17 9 8 28 38 5 16 17 43 58 46 26 69

12 12 19 13 8 1 1 2 15 6 6 1 5 1 1 1 1 Z 1 1 4 1 Z 1 6 Z 3 1 1 8 2 2 3

Note: ZZless than 0.5 percent of gross water use; percentages may not add evenly due to rounding. Source: From Kollar, K.L. and MacAuley, P., 1980, Water requirements for industrial development, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., vol. 72, no. 1. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission.

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Table 7G.77 Industrial Water Use Per Employee in the United States Gross Water Use Per Employee Industry Group Food and kindred products Tobacco manufacturers Textile mill products Apparel and related products Lumber and wood products Furniture and fixtures Paper and allied products Printing and publishing Chemicals and allied products Petroleum and coal products Rubber and plastic products Leather and leather products Stone, clay, and glass products Primary metal industries Fabricated metal products Machinery, except electrical Electrical machinery Transportation equipment Instruments and related products Miscellaneous manufacturing

Intake Per Employee

L/day

gal/d

L/day

gal/d

15,540 22,570 6,660 370 5,920 440 43,930 370 149,110 603,100 10,730 740 11,470 78,440 2,960 3,700 9,250 17,020 4,440 1,110

4,200 6,100 1,800 100 1,600 120 38,900 100 40,300 163,000 2,900 200 3,100 21,200 800 1,000 2,500 4,600 1,200 300

10,360 1,480 2,960 370 3,700 370 42,920 370 56,240 94,350 3,700 703 5,550 44,030 1,110 1,480 1,110 2,220 1,110 2,960

2,800 400 800 100 1,000 100 11,600 100 15,200 25,500 1,000 190 1,500 11,900 300 400 300 600 300 200

Source: From Kollar, K.L. and MacAuley, P., 1980, Water requirements for industrial development, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., vol. 72, no. 1. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission.

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Table 7G.78 Water Use Versus Industrial Units of Production in the United States

Industry Meatpacking Poultry dressing Dairy products Canned fruits and vegetables Frozen fruits and vegetables Wet corn milling Cane sugar Beet sugar Malt beverages Textile mills Sawmills Pulp and paper mills Paper converting Alkalis and chlorine Industrial gases Inorganic pigments Industrial inorganic chemicals Plastic materials and resins Synthetic rubber Cellulosic man-made fibers Organic fibers, noncellulosic Paints and pigments Industrial organic chemicals Nitrogenous fertilizers Phosphatic fertilizers Carbon black Petroleum refining Tires and inner tubes Hydraulic cement Steel Iron and steel foundries Primary copper Primary aluminum Automobiles

Parameters of Water Use gal/lb carcass weight gal/bird poultry slaughter gal/lb milk processed gal/case 24–303 cans eq gal/lb frozen product gal/lb corn grind gal/ton cane sugar gal/ton beet sugar gal/barrel malt beverage gal/lb fiber consumption gal/bd ft lumber gal/ton pulp and paper gal/ton paper converted gal/ton chlorine gal/1,000 cu ft industrial gases gal/ton inorganic pigments gal/ton chemicals 100 percent basic gal/lb plastic gal/lb synthetic rubber gal/lb fibers gal/lb fibers gal/gal paint gal/ton chemical building blocks gal/ton fertilizer gal/ton fertilizer gal/lb carbon black gal/barrel crude oil input gal/tire car and truck tires gal/ton cement gal/ton steel net production gal/ton ferrous castings gal/lb copper gal/lb aluminum gal/car domestic automobiles

Gross Water Used by Unit of Production

Intake by Unit of Production

Consumption by Unit of Production

Discharge by Unit of Production

3.6 gal/lb 11.6 gal/bird 0.85 gal/lb 225 gal/case 11.2 gal/lb 416 gal/bu 28,100 gal/ton 33,100 gal/ton 1,500 gal/bbl 34 gal/lb 5.4 gal/bd ft 130,000 gal/ton 6,600 gal/ton 29,800 gal/ton 636 gal/mcf 97,800 gal/ton 14,500 gal/ton 24 gal/lb 55 gal/lb 231 gal/lb 101 gal/lb 13 gal/gal 125,000 gal/ton 28,506 gal/ton 35,602 gal/ton 4.6 gal/lb 1,851 gal/bbl 518 gal/tire 1,360 gal/ton 62,600 gal/ton 12,400 gal/ton 53 gal/lb 49 gal/lb 36,500 gal/car

2.2 gal/lb 10.3 gal/bird 0.52 gal/lb 107 gal/case 7.1 gal/lb 223 gal/bu 18,250 gal/ton 11,100 gal/ton 420 gal/bbl 14 gal/lb 3.3 gal/bd ft 38,000 gal/ton 3,900 gal/ton 22,200 gal/ton 226 gal/mcf 49,400 gal/ton 4,750 gal/ton 6.7 gal/lb 6.5 gal/lb 68 gal/lb 38 gal/lb 7.8 gal/gal 54,500 gal/ton 4,001 gal/ton 8,461 gal/ton 3.9 gal/lb 289 gal/bbl 153 gal/tire 830 gal/ton 38,200 gal/ton 3,030 gal/ton 17 gal/lb 12 gal/lb 11,464 gal/car

0.1 gal/lb 0.5 gal/bird 0.03 gal/lb 10 gal/case 0.2 gal/lb 18 gal/bu 950 gal/ton 390 gal/ton 90 gal/bbl 1.4 gal/lb 0.6 gal/bd ft 1,800 gal/ton 270 gal/ton 700 gal/ton 31 gal/mcf 1,600 gal/ton 470 gal/ton 0.6 gal/lb 1.4 gal/lb 4.6 gal/lb 1.1 gal/lb 0.4 gal/gal 2,800 gal/ton 701 gal/ton 1,277 gal/ton 0.9 gal/lb 28 gal/bbl 14 gal/tire 150 gal/ton 1,400 gal/ton 260 gal/ton 4.1 gal/lb 0.2 gal/lb 649 gal/car

2.1 gal/lb 9.8 gal/bird 0.48 gal/lb 98 cal/case 6.9/gal/lb 205 gal/bu 17,300 gal/ton 10,700 gal/ton 330 gal/bbl 12.8 gal/lb 2.7 gal/bd ft 36,200 gal/ton 3,600 gal/ton 21,600 gal/ton 193 gal/mcf 47,800 gal/ton 4,300 gal/ton 6.1 gal/lb 5.1 gal/lb 63 gal/lb 37 gal/lb 7.4 gal/gal 51,700 gal/ton 3,299 gal/ton 7,184 gal/ton 3.1 gal/lb 261 gal/bbl 139 gal/tire 680 gal/ton 36,800 gal/ton 2,760 gal/ton 13 gal/lb 11.8 gal/lb 10,814 gal/car

Source: From Kollar, K.L. and MacAuley, P., 1980, Water requirements for industrial development, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., vol. 72, no. 1. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission.

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Table 7G.79 Water Use Versus Standardized Units of Production in the United States

Parameters of Water Use

Gross Water Used by Unit of Production

Intake by Unit of Production

Consumption by Unit of Production

Discharge by Unit of Production

gal/lb carcass weight gal/ton ready-to-cook weight gal/lb milk processed gal/ton vegetables canned gal/ton vegetables frozen gal/lb corn grind gal/ton cane sugar gal/ton beet sugar gal/beer and malt liquor gal/ton textile fiber input gal/bd ft lumber gal/ton paper gal/ton paper converted gal/ton chlorine gal/ton weight of gas gal/ton pigments gal/ton chemical products gal/ton plastics gal/ton synthetic rubber gal/ton fibers gal/ton fibers gal/gal paint gal/ton chemical building blocks gal/ton fertilizer gal/ton fertilizer gal/ton carbon black gal/gal crude petroleum input gal/tire car and truck tires gal/ton cement gal/ton steel net tons gal/ton ferrous castings gal/ton copper gal/ton aluminum gal/car automobiles

7,194 gal/ton 7,389 gal/ton 1,692 gal/ton 19,700 gal/ton 22,500 gal/ton 14,869 gal/ton 28,102 gal/ton 33,145 gal/ton 49 gal/gal 69,808 gal/ton 5.4 gal/bd ft 130,047 gal/ton 6,584 gal/ton 29,840 gal/ton 16,080 gal/ton 97,800 gal/ton 14,500 gal/ton 47,061 gal/ton 110,600 gal/ton 462,230 gal/ton 202,123 gal/ton 13.2 gal/gal 124,700 gal/ton 28,506 gal/ton 35,602 gal/ton 9,200 gal/ton 44 gal/gal 518 gal/tire 1,355 gal/ton 62,601 gal/ton 12,407 gal/ton 106,000 gal/ton 96,300 gal/ton 36,500 gal/car

4,331 gal/ton 6,542 gal/ton 1,035 gal/ton 9,400 gal/ton 14,100 gal/ton 7,988 gal/ton 18,256 gal/ton 11,118 gal/ton 14 gal/gal 30,016 gal/ton 3.3 gal/bd ft 37,971 gal/ton 3,861 gal/ton 22,302 gal/ton 5,700 gal/ton 49,400 gal/ton 4,700 gal/ton 13,338 gal/ton 13,200 gal/ton 135,100 gal/ton 76,523 gal/ton 7.8 gal/gal 54,500 gal/ton 4,001 gal/ton 8,461 gal/ton 7,885 gal/ton 6.9 gal/gal 153 gal/tire 831 gal/ton 38,200 gal/ton 3,024 gal/ton 34,000 gal/ton 23,900 gal/ton 11,464 gal/car

78 gal/ton 296 gal/ton 63 gal/ton 850 gal/ton 300 gal/ton 643 gal/ton 944 gal/ton 386 gal/ton 3 gal/gal 3,008 gal/ton 0.63 gal/bd ft 1,178 gal/ton 273 gal/ton 676 gal/ton 780 gal/ton 1,600 gal/ton 470 gal/ton 1,078 gal/ton 2,800 gal/ton 9,200 gal/ton 2,153 gal/ton 0.4 gal/gal 2,800 gal/ton 701 gal/ton 1,277 gal/ton 1,771 gal/ton 0.7 gal/gal 14 gal/tire 146 gal/ton 1,400 gal/ton 260 gal/ton 8,200 gal/ton 381 gal/ton 649 gal/car

4,253 gal/ton 6,246 gal/ton 964 gal/ton 8,550 gal/ton 13,800 gal/ton 7,345 gal/ton 17,312 gal/ton 10,731 gal/ton 11 gal/gal 27,008 gal/ton 2.7 gal/bd ft 36,193 gal/ton 3,588 gal/ton 21,626 gal/ton 4,900 gal/ton 47,800 gal/ton 4,300 gal/ton 12,278 gal/ton 10,373 gal/ton 125,846 gal/ton 74,369 gal/ton 7.4 gal/gal 51,700 gal/ton 3,299 gal/ton 7,184 gal/ton 6,114 gal/ton 6.2 gal/gal 139 gal/tire 685 gal/ton 36,800 gal/ton 2,764 gal/ton 26,000 gal/ton 23,500 gal/ton 10,814 gal/car

Industry Meatpacking Poultry dressing Dairy products Canned fruits and vegetables Frozen fruits and vegetables Wet corn milling Cane sugar Beet sugar Malt beverages Textile mills Sawmills Pulp and paper mills Paper converting Alkalis and chlorine Industrial gases Inorganic pigments Industrial inorganic chemicals Plastic materials and resins Synthetic rubber Cellulosic man-made fibers Organic fibers, noncellulosic Paints and pigments Industrial organic chemicals Nitrogenous fertilizers Phosphatic fertilizers Carbon black Petroleum refining Tires and inner tubes Hydraulic cement Steel Iron and steel foundries Primary copper Primary aluminum Automobiles

Source: From Kollar, K.L. and MacAuley, P., 1980, Water requirements for industrial development, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., vol. 72, no. 1. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission.

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Table 7G.80 Typical Water Uses in Paper Mills Intake Requirement (Low Reuse)

Gross Water Use Purpose Kraft pulping (process use) Kraft pulping (cooling system) Bleaching Paper forming (process system) Paper forming (cooling system) Electric power coolinga Net totalsb

Intake Requirement (High Reuse)

ML/day

mgd

ML/day

mgd

ML/day

mgd

118 44 140 129 14 51 499

32 12 38 35 4 14 135

51 44 70 44 14 51 225

14 12 19 12 4 14 61

22 1.5 18 22 0.7 1.8 44

6 0.4 5 6 0.2 0.5 12.1

Note: 1,000 ton per day integrated bleached kraft paper mill. a b

Condenser cooling requirements for a steam electric plant producing half of the total electric power needs. Intake net totals are less than the sum of the individual components because much of the wastewater from high quality uses is cascaded to lower quality uses.

Source: From Kollar, K.L. and MacAuley, P., 1980, Water requirements for industrial development, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., vol. 72, no. 1. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission.

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Table 7G.81 Water Intake Requirements in the United States — Average Plants Versus High Recycling Plants Recycling Ratea

Intake

Parameters of Water Use

1973 Industry Average

BATb with Maximum Feasible Recycling

gal/lb carcass weight gal/bird poultry slaughter gal/lb milk processed gal/case 24–303 cans eq gal/lb frozen product gal/bu corn grind gal/ton cane sugar gal/ton beet sugar gal/barrel malt beverage gal/lb fiber consumption gal/bd ft lumber gal/ton pulp and paper gal/ton paper converted gal/ton chlorine gal/1,000 cu ft industrial gases gal/ton inorganic pigments gal/ton chemicals 100 percent basis gal/lb plastic gal/lb synthetic rubber gal/lb fibers gal/lb fibers gal/gal paint gal/ton chemical building blocks gal/ton fertilizer gal/ton fertilizer gal/lb carbon black gal/barrel crude oil input gal/tire car and truck tires gal/ton cement gal/ton steel net production gal/ton ferrous castings gal/lb copper gal/lb aluminum gal/car domestic automobiles

2.2 gal/lb 10.3 gal/bird 0.52 gal/lb 107 gal/case 7.1 gal/lb 223 gal/bu 18,250 gal/ton 11,100 gal/ton 420 gal/bbl 14 gal/lb 3.3 gal/ft 38,000 gal/ton 3,900 gal/ton 22,200 gal/ton 226 gal/mcf 49,400 gal/ton 4,750 gal/ton 6.7 gal/lb 6.5 gal/lb 68 gal/lb 38 gal/lb 7.8 gal/gal 54,500 gal/ton 4,000 gal/ton 8,500 gal/ton 3.9 gal/lb 289 gal/bbl 153 gal/tire 830 gal/ton 38,200 gal/ton 3,030 gal/ton 17 gal/lb 12 gal/lb 11,500 gal/car

0.5 gal/lb 1.7 gal/bird 0.13 gal/lb 29 gal/case 1.6 gal/lb 46 gal/bu 5,300 gal/ton 6,200 gal/ton 105 gal/bbl 1.8 gal/lb 0.8 gal/ft 10,700 gal/ton 750 gal/ton 860 gal/ton 18 gal/mcf 6,100 gal/ton 470 gal/ton 0.7 gal/lb 1.6 gal/lb 8.4 gal/lb 5.0 gal/lb 0.8 gal/gal 4,000 gal/ton 900 gal/ton 2,400 gal/ton 0.3 gal/lb 55 gal/bbl 18 gal/tire 180 gal/ton 5,300 gal/ton 1,080 gal/ton 4.5 gal/lb 2.9 gal/lb 2,200 gal/car

Industry Meatpacking Poultry dressing Dairy products Canned fruits and vegetables Frozen fruits and vegetables Wet corn milling Cane sugar Beet sugar Malt beverages Textile mills Sawmills Pulp and paper mills Paper converting Alkalis and chlorine Industrial gases Inorganic pigments Industrial inorganic chemicals Plastic materials and resins Synthetic rubber Cellulosic man-made fibers Organic fibers, noncellulosic Paints and pigments Industrial organic chemicals Nitrogenous fertilizers Phosphatic fertilizers Carbon black Petroleum refining Tires and inner tubes Hydraulic cement Steel Iron and steel foundries Primary copper Primary aluminum Automobiles a b

1973 Industry Average

BATb with Maximum Feasible Recycling

1.66 1.13 1.64 2.10 1.60 1.86 1.54 2.98 3.50 2.23 1.64 3.42 1.70 1.34 2.82 1.98 3.08 3.53 8.38 3.42 2.64 1.69 2.29 7.12 4.21 1.17 6.38 3.39 1.63 1.64 4.10 3.12 4.11 3.18

6.67 6.71 6.67 7.75 7.25 9.09 5.26 5.38 14.3 18.2 6.85 12.2 8.93 34.5 34.5 16.1 31.2 33.3 33.3 27.8 20.0 16.1 31.2 31.2 14.7 16.1 33.3 29.4 7.41 11.9 11.5 11.9 16.9 16.3

The recycling rate is obtained by dividing gross water use by intake. Best available technology economically achievable as defined by Water Pollution Control Act amendments of 1972.

Source: From Kollar, K.L. and MacAuley, P., 1980, Water requirements for industrial development, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., vol. 72, no. 1. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission.

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Table 7G.82 Water Recycling in the 20 Plants with the Highest Rates in 34 Major Water-Using Industries in the United States, 1970

Industry Meat packing plants Poultry dressing Fluid milk Canned fruit and vegetables Frozen fruit and vegetables Wet corn milling Beet sugar Malt liquors Shortening and cooking oils Cigarettes Weaving mills, cotton Weaving mills, synthetics Weaving and finishing, wool Pulp mills Papermills, except building paper Paperboard mills Alkalis and chlorine Industrial gases Cyclic intermediate and crudes Inorganic pigments Industrial organic chemicals Industrial inorganic chemicals Plastic materials and resins Cellulosic man-made fibers Organic fibers, noncellulosic Pharmaceutical preparations Fertilizers Petroleum refining Cement, hydraulic Blast furnaces and steel mills Electrometallurgical products Gray iron foundaries Primary copper Primary aluminum

Intakea

Mean Recycling Rateb

Highest Recycling Rateb

Tenth Highest Recycling Rateb

Twentieth Highest Recycling Rateb

49.732 3.473 8.118 10.673 17.353 53.986 58.949 64.350 48.106 60.765 74.289 88.114 19.163 713.440 723.008

20.335 1.990 0.859 3.419 9.259 32.109 16.829 12.675 5.425 2.292 1.186 0.717 2.637 208.179 71.057

2.45 1.75 9.45 3.12 1.87 1.68 3.50 5.08 8.87 26.51 62.64 122.89 7.27 3.43 10.18

7.05 4.28 71.71 18.24 7.13 11.91 22.24 10.00 113.53 33.39 285.31 558.25 93.44 7.57 76.54

2.41 1.30 7.92 2.50 1.97 2.31 2.97 2.85 8.23 15.31 64.25 111.27 24.19 3.84 8.96

1.85 1.14 3.96 1.76 1.39 1.11 1.84 1.11 1.30 1.11 27.99 48.53 1.18 1.41 6.06

272.670 198.798 141.450 327.354

14.515 87.167 1.490 55.446

18.79 2.28 94.93 5.90

50.00 25.11 157.80 160.00

14.68 1.79 84.83 13.45

8.22 1.12 46.23 2.24

120.387 962.830 505.919

50.222 35.142 16.670

2.40 27.40 30.35

15.22 48.18 70.95

1.53 23.20 30.10

1.11 15.80 23.81

704.229 209.801 392.335 70.621

5.131 48.088 151.969 15.385

137.25 4.36 2.58 4.59

613.60 20.83 28.06 104.73

27.37 4.30 2.82 7.36

13.81 1.37 1.16 1.11

282.251 2,026.521 20.868 394.549

23.373 30.221 4.320 29.050

12.08 67.06 4.83 13.58

90.60 251.05 97.35 95.13

9.72 44.08 2.58 18.66

2.45 34.36 1.77 6.76

22.732

1.827

12.44

65.81

25.64

5.07

35.396 78.473 65.519

10.254 33.218 15.723

3.45 2.36 4.17

15.23 9.85 10.10

2.86 2.23 3.50

1.82 1.18 1.66

Gross Water Usea

a

Billions of gallons per year: 1 bil galZ3.7 GL. The recycling rate is obtained by dividing gross water use by intake. Source: From Kollar, K.L. and MacAuley, P., 1980, Water requirements for industrial development, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., vol. 72, no. 1. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission.

b

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7G.83 Typical Unit Water Requirements for Energy Production in the United States Fuel and Process

Standard Unit

Coal Western coal mining Eastern coal mining Coal gasification Coal liquefaction Petroleum Oil and gas production Oil refining Oil shale production

Gas processing Nuclear fuels Power generation Fossil fuels Nuclear fuels Geothermal a

Gallons per Standard Unit

Gallons per Million Btu

Major Use

ton Ton MSCFa Barrel

6.0–14.7 15.8–18.0 72.0–158 1,134.0–1,750

0.25–0.61 0.66–0.75 72–158 31–200

Dust control and washing Dust control and washing Process and cooling Process and cooling

Barrel Barrel Barrel

1.7–3.0 43.0 145.4

3.05 7.58 30.1

MSCFa —

1.67 —

1.67 14.3

Well drilling and recovery Process and cooling Mining, cooling, processing, and waste disposal Cooling Mining and processing

kWh kWh —

0.41 0.80 —

120.16 234.46 527

Cooling Cooling Cooling and extraction

Million standard cubic feet.

Source: From United States Federal Energy Administration, 1974, “Project Independence,” Project Independence Report, p. 304: U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 20402.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

Table 7G.84 Thermoelectric Power Water Use by Energy Source and State, 1995 Fossil Fuel

Nuclear

Withdrawals, by Source and Type

State

Fresh

Saline

6.0 4.2 42 5.2 3.5 22 0.1 0.2 0

4,330 26 20 798 190 93 276 534 9.7

0 0 0 0 4,730 0 882 740 0

21 3.9 67 0 9.5 11 13 14 38 31 0.7 1.6 46 3.0 1.8 10 9.1 0 4.4 6.2 0.8 1.2 9.3 0 0.1 0 19 3.5

615 2,910 0 0 9,570 5,680 2,100 1,230 3,410 4,430 30 358 150 6,030 1,210 220 5,520 22 1,290 21 228 578 46 5,140 3,210 879 8,040 121

9,140 33 903 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 105 2,780 3,910 0 0 112 0 0 0 0 292 980 0 5,470 0 0 0 0

Surface Water

Saline

Groundwater Fresh

Fresh

Saline

30 3.1 54 27 9.4 41 5.9 0.2 0.8

0 0 0 0 2.8 0 74 2.9 0

0 0 0 0 0.1 0 0.1 0 0

862 0 0 967 12 0 484 0 0

0 0 0 0 4,690 0 2,300 0 0

862 0 0 967 4,710 0 2,780 0 0

54 52 0.7 0 144 114 7.8 45 203 212 3.5 3.7 0 50 28 8.0 40 22 12 28 4.3 3.7 48 103 56 25 309 60

0 0 9.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.7 32 0 0 0 3.6 0 0 0 0 0 9.9 0 109 0 0 0 0

0.3 1.0 0 0 1.3 0 2.0 0 0 0.1 0 0.2 0 0.1 0.1 32 0.4 0 0 0 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 122 0 0 7,520 0 8.1 22 0 1,020 0 0 0 2,340 886 0 21 0 1,060 0 0 0 0 1,420 2,660 0 137 0

1,810 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3,220 454 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 585 2,800 0 1,010 1,550 0 0 0

1,810 122 0 0 7,520 0 8.1 22 0 1,020 0 3,220 454 2,340 886 0 21 0 1,060 0 585 2,800 0 2,440 4,210 0 137 0

Consumptive Use Total 4,330 26 20 798 4,920 93 1,160 1,270 9.7 9,760 2,950 903 0 9,570 5,680 2,100 1,230 3,410 4,430 135 3,140 4,060 6,030 1,210 333 5,520 22 1,290 21 521 1,560 46 10,600 3,210 879 8,040 121

Fresh

Surface Water

Consumptive Use Total

Fresh

Saline

1.7 0 0 1.2 0.3 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1.3 0 0 0 0

1.2 93 0 0 263 0 2.6 13 0 10 0 0 0 76 20 19 11 0 0 0 0 0.7 0 68 1.5 0 27 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 0 20 17 0 0 0 (Continued)

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7-149

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma

Groundwater Fresh

Withdrawals, by Source and Type

(Continued) Fossil Fuel

Nuclear

Withdrawals, by Source and Type

State

Withdrawals, by Source and Type

Groundwater Fresh

Fresh

Saline

Total

Fresh

Saline

Groundwater Fresh

0 6.2 0 0.4 2.6 0 58 0 0.4 0.1 0.4 0.5 5.6 1.0 2.2 0 486

9.0 3,870 0 1,290 1.9 6,830 6,710 48 0.5 1,820 17 3,010 3,860 219 0 0 97,000

0 0 275 0 0 0 3,870 0 0 973 0 0 0 0 2,260 173 37,600

9.0 3,870 275 1,290 1.9 6,830 10,600 48 0.5 2,790 17 3,010 3,860 219 2,260 173 135,000

7.8 120 0 23 0.1 0.5 271 47 0.7 8.8 0.4 122 39 50 0.7 0.2 2,500

0 0 5.5 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 263

0 0 0 39 0 0 0.8 0 0 0.3 0.1 0 0.1 0 0 0 78

Surface Water

Consumptive Use

Surface Water

Consumptive Use

Fresh

Saline

Total

Fresh

0 2,050 0 3,470 0 1,470 2,820 0 452 2,080 358 0 1,970 0 0 0 34,300

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,760 0 0 0 0 0 0 20,200

0 2,050 0 3,470 0 1,470 2,820 0 452 3,830 358 0 1.970 0 0 0 54,500

0 119 0 28 0 0 26 0 3.2 0 9.8 0 20 0 0 0 815

Note: Figures may not add to totals because of independent rounding. All values in million gallons per day. Source: From Solley, W.B. et al., 1998. Esimated Use of Water in the United States in 1995, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1200, www.usgs.gov.

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Saline 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 82

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico Virgin Islands Total

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Table 7G.84

WATER USE

7-151

Table 7G.85 Thermoelectric Generation from Different Sources, 1960–1995

Year

Generation by Coal (%)

Generation by Petroleum (%)

Generation by Gas (%)

Generation by Nuclear (%)

Generation by Conventional Steam (%)

Generation by Internal Combustion (%)

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

65.88 66.50 55.25 51.20 58.23 64.67 62.21 61.56

7.37 7.25 13.84 16.94 11.93 4.29 4.33 2.01

26.49 25.82 29.20 17.93 17.26 13.34 10.43 11.35

0.26 0.43 1.71 10.33 12.59 17.70 23.03 25.08

99.31 99.04 97.90 85.96 87.53 82.74 77.40 75.12

0.72 0.58 0.46 0.32 0.15 0.05 0.04 0.03

Source: From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002. Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL February 28, 2002. Reprinted with permission. http://info.geography.siu.edu/geography_info/ research/.

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Table 7G.86 Thermoelectric Power Water Withdrawals by Cooling Type in the United States, 2000 Withdrawals for Once-Through Cooling Surface Water Fresh

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania

8,020 28.9 0 1,690 344 90.2 115 0 0 559 2,800 0 0 11,000 6,450 2,510 2,210 824 4,500 90.8 377 108 7,710 1,330 307 5,200 84.4 2,390 0 234 648 0 4,040 7,850 887 7,790 37.9 0 4,330

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Surface Water

Total

Groundwater Fresh

0 0 0 0 12,600 0 3,440 0 0

8,020 28.9 0 1,690 12,900 90.2 3,560 0 0

0 4.65 74.3 2.92 3.23 16.1 0.08 0.47 0

167 0 26.2 478 5.41 31.8 71.7 366 9.69

11,800 61.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 295 5,670 3,610 0 0 148 0 0 0 0 761 3,330 0 5,010 1,620 0 0 0 0 0

12,400 2,860 0 0 11,000 6,450 2,510 2,210 824 4,500 385 6,050 3,720 7,710 1,330 456 5,200 84.4 2,390 0 995 3,980 0 9,050 9,470 887 7,790 37.9 0 4,330

29.5 1.03 0 0 5.75 2.58 11.9 14.9 2.71 28.4 4.92 1.8 0 0 4.17 43.5 12.2 0 6.87 12 0.71 2.24 11.4 0 0.09 0 7.57 3.27 2.47 3.98

69.8 444 0 0 239 252 15.6 29.1 2,430 1,080 17.2 0 0.45 0 935 11.2 422 25.6 418 24.7 1.37 0 45 0 0 14.5 799 105 12.8 2,650

Saline

Fresh

Total

Saline

Total

Fresh

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 738 0

167 0 26.2 478 5.41 31.8 71.7 1,100 9.69

167 4.65 100 481 8.64 48 71.8 366 9.69

150 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 589 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 57.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

219 444 0 0 239 252 15.6 29.1 2,430 1,080 17.2 589 0.45 0 935 11.2 422 25.6 418 24.7 1.37 57.6 45 0 0 14.5 799 105 12.8 2,650

99.3 445 0 0 245 254 27.6 44 2,430 1,110 22.2 1.8 0.45 0 939 54.7 434 25.6 424 36.7 2.08 2.24 56.4 0 0.09 14.5 806 109 15.3 2,650

Saline

Total

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 738 0

167 4.65 100 481 8.64 48 71.8 1,100 9.69

150 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 589 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 57.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

249 445 0 0 245 254 27.6 44 2,430 1,110 22.2 591 0.45 0 939 54.7 434 25.6 424 36.7 2.08 59.9 56.4 0 0.09 14.5 806 109 15.3 2,650

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

State

Withdrawals for Closed-Loop Cooling by Source and Type

0 3,860 0 8,860 6,990 0 354 3,850 444 3,790 6,090 179 0 0 119,000

290 0 0 0 3,440 0 0 3,580 0 0 0 0 2,190 136 58,000

290 3,860 0 8,860 10,400 0 354 7,430 444 3,790 6,090 179 2,190 136 177,000

0 5.83 1.23 0 60.2 13.1 0.66 1.5 0.92 0 8.99 1.13 0 0 409

2.4 1,850 4.01 174 2,770 49.2 0.55 0 74.2 163 0 63.4 0 0 16,300

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,530

2.4 1,850 4.01 174 2,770 49.2 0.55 0 74.2 163 0 63.4 0 0 17,900

2.4 1,850 5.24 174 2,830 62.2 1.21 1.5 75.1 163 8.99 64.6 0 0 16,800

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,530

2.4 1,850 5.24 174 2,830 62.2 1.21 1.5 75.1 163 8.99 64.6 0 0 18,300

WATER USE

Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Total

Note: Figures may not sum to totals because of independent rounding. All values are in million gallons per day. Source: From Hutson, S.S. et al., 2004, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2000, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, www.usgs.gov.

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Withdrawals (mil gal/day)

Withdrawals (thousand acre-feet/yr)

By Source and Type

State

0 4.65 74.3 2.92 3.23 16.1 0.08 0.47 0 29.5 1.03 0 0 5.75 2.58 11.9 14.9 2.71 28.4 4.92 1.8 0 0 4.17 43.5 12.2 0 6.87 12 0.71 2.24 11.4 0 0.09 0 7.57 3.27 2.47

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By Type

Surface Water Fresh 8,190 28.9 26.2 2,170 349 122 186 366 9.69 629 3,240 0 0 11,300 6,700 2,530 2,240 3,250 5,580 108 377 108 7,710 2,260 318 5,620 110 2,810 24.7 235 648 45 4,040 7,850 902 8,590 143 12.8

Saline

Total Total

0 0 0 0 12,600 0 3,440 738 0

8,190 28.9 26.2 2,170 12,900 122 3,630 1,100 9.69

12,000 61.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 295 6,260 3,610 0 0 148 0 0 0 0 761 3,390 0 5,010 1,620 0 0 0 0

12,600 3,310 0 0 11,300 6,700 2,530 2,240 3,250 5,580 403 6,640 3,720 7,710 2,260 467 5,620 110 2,810 24.7 997 4,040 45 9,050 9,470 902 8,590 143 12.8

Fresh 8,190 33.6 100 2,180 352 138 187 366 9.69 658 3,250 0 0 11,300 6,700 2,540 2,260 3,260 5,610 113 379 108 7,710 2,270 362 5,640 110 2,820 36.7 236 650 56.4 4,040 7,850 902 8,590 146 15.3

Saline

Total

Fresh

0 0 0 0 12,600 0 3,440 738 0

8,190 33.6 100 2,180 12,900 138 3,630 1,100 9.69

9,180 37.6 113 2,440 395 155 209 411 10.9

12,000 61.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 295 6,260 3,610 0 0 148 0 0 0 0 761 3,390 0 5,010 1,620 0 0 0 0

12,600 3,310 0 0 11,300 6,700 2,540 2,260 3,260 5,610 408 6,640 3,720 7,710 2,270 510 5,640 110 2,820 36.7 997 4,040 56.4 9,050 9,470 902 8,590 146 15.3

738 3,640 0 0 12,600 7,510 2,850 2,530 3,650 6,290 127 425 121 8,640 2,540 406 6,320 123 3,160 41.1 265 729 63.2 4,530 8,800 1,010 9,630 164 17.2

Saline

Total

0 0 0 0 14,100 0 3,860 827 0

9,180 37.6 113 2,440 14,500 155 4,070 1,240 10.9

13,400 69.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 330 7,020 4,050 0 0 166 0 0 0 0 854 3,800 0 5,610 1,810 0 0 0 0

14,100 3,710 0 0 12,600 7,510 2,850 2,530 3,650 6,290 457 7,440 4,170 8,640 2,540 572 6,320 123 3,160 41.1 1,120 4,530 63.2 10,100 10,600 1,010 9,630 164 17.2

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon

Groundwater Fresh

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Table 7G.87 Thermoelectric Power Water Use in the United States, 2000

3.98 0 5.83 1.23 0 60.2 13.1 0.66 1.5 0.92 0 8.99 1.13 0 0 409

6,970 2.4 5,700 4.01 9,040 9,760 49.2 355 3,850 518 3,950 6,090 242 0 0 135,000

0 290 0 0 0 3,440 0 0 3,580 0 0 0 0 2,190 136 59,500

6,970 293 5,700 4.01 9,040 13,200 49.2 355 7,430 518 3,950 6,090 242 2,190 136 195,000

6,980 2.4 5,710 5.24 9,040 9,820 62.2 355 3,850 519 3,950 6,090 243 0 0 136,000

0 290 0 0 0 3,440 0 0 3,580 0 0 0 0 2,190 136 59,500

6,980 293 5,710 5.24 9,040 13,300 62.2 355 7,430 519 3,950 6,090 243 2,190 136 195,000

7,820 2.69 6,400 5.87 10,100 11,000 69.8 398 4,310 582 4,430 6,830 273 0 0 152,000

0 326 0 0 0 3,860 0 0 4,020 0 0 0 0 2,460 153 66,700

7,820 328 6,400 5.87 10,100 14,900 69.8 398 8,330 582 4,430 6,830 273 2,460 153 219,000

WATER USE

Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Total

Note: Figures may not sum to totals because of independent rounding. Source: From Hutson, S.S. et al., 2004, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2000, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, www.usgs.gov.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7G.88 Self-Supplied Thermoelectric Withdrawals and Production, 1950–1995

Year

Self-supplied Thermoelectric Withdrawals (bgd)

Withdrawals Per Capita (gpcd)

Thermoelectric Production (bil kWh)

Annual Growth Rate in Production (%)

Energy Production Per Capita (kWh/Capita/d)

Withdrawals Per Unit Production (gal/kWh)

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

40 72 100 130 170 200 210 187 195 190

264.5 438.2 560.4 674.3 841.1 938.8 934.5 788.8 789.3 726.8

232.8 433.8 609.6 861.0 1,283.3 1,614.2 2,004.9 2,177.9 2,517.6 2,694.4

— 13.26 7.04 7.15 8.31 4.69 4.43 1.67 2.94 1.37

4.2 7.2 9.4 12.2 17.4 20.8 24.4 25.2 27.9 28.2

62.7 60.6 59.9 55.1 48.4 45.2 38.2 31.3 28.3 25.7

Source: From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002, Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL February 28, 2002, Reprinted with permission. http://info.geography.siu.edu/geography_info/ research/.

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WATER USE

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SECTION 7H

INDUSTRIAL WATER USE — WORLD

Table 7H.89 Water Intake in Manufacturing (MCM/yr) by Purpose of Initial Use and Industry in Canada, 1996

Industry Group

Number of Plants

Processing

1,264 121 96 486 87 47 454 292 217 543 547

128.6 38.4 3.6 5.9 15.5 12.8 9.7 1,847.5 557.6 11.3 28.5

726

Food Beverages Rubber products Plastic products Primary textiles Textile products Wood products PaperCallied products Primary metals Fabricated metals Transportation equipment Nonmetallic mineral products PetroleumCcoal products ChemicalsCchemical products Total %

Cooling, Condensing, and Steam

Sanitary Services

Other

Total Intake

%

107.3 29.0 7.7 5.9 64.6 1.8 24.4 508.3 830.1 6.4 25.0

27.8 4.6 0.9 1.3 6.5 0.4 2.2 49.1 21.5 1.6 11.1

5.9 1.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 8.8 16.4 13.8 0.1 0.4

269.5 73.1 12.3 13.3 86.7 15.0 45.1 2,421.3 1,423.0 19.4 65.0

4.5 1.2 0.2 0.2 1.4 0.2 0.7 40.1 23.6 0.3 1.1

21.6

44.9

3.5

32.1

102.1

1.7

27

34.4

324.6

4.9

6.6

370.5

6.1

599

220.9

879.8

10.9

9.7

1,121.3

18.6

5,506

2,936.3 48.6

2,859.6 47.4

146.3 2.4

95.3 1.6

6,037.5 100.0

100.0

Source: From Scharf, D., Burke, D., Villeneuve, and Leigh, L., 1996. Industrial Water Use 1996, Scharf, D., Burke, D.W., Villeneuve, M., and Leigh, L., Environmental Economics Branch, Environment Canada, 2002. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2006. Table 7H.90 Water Intake in Manufacturing (MCM/yr) by Source and Industry Group in Canada, 1996 Brackish Water

Fresh Water

Industry Group Food Beverages Rubber products Plastic products Primary textiles Textile products Wood products PaperCallied products Primary metals Fabricated metals Transportation equipment Non-metallic mineral products PetroleumCcoal products ChemicalsC chemical products Total %

Self-Supplied

Self-Supplied

Number of Plants

Public Supplied Municipal

Surface

Ground

Other

Ground

Tidewater

Other

Total Intake

1,254 121 96 482 87 47 454 292

118.7 49.0 8.2 7.0 34.6 13.1 18.8 70.4

61.8 16.1 1.3 4.8 51.4 0.0 16.4 2,240.0

44.6 8.1 2.4 1.2 0.1 2.0 9.5 65.8

3.4 0.0 0.5 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 45.3

1.9 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0

38.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0

0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0

269.3 73.1 12.3 13.2 86.7 15.0 45.1 2,421.3

217 543 547

61.2 12.1 59.5

1,314.0 6.8 4.7

22.9 0.5 0.7

12.8 0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0 0.0

12.1 0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0 0.0

1,423.0 19.4 65.0

725

19.5

36.3

9.9

36.0

0.0

0.4

0.0

102.1

27

11.4

249.0

2.5

1.3

0.0

102.1

4.2

370.5

599

66.1

940.1

7.2

67.2

0.1

40.5

0.1

1,121.3

5,491

549.6 9.1

4,942.5 81.9

177.3 2.9

166.8 2.8

2.3 0.0

193.9 3.2

5.0 0.1

6,037.4 100.0

Source: From Scharf, D., Burke, D., Villeneuve, and Leigh, L., 1996. Industrial Water Use 1996, Scharf, D., Burke, D.W., Villeneuve, M., and Leigh, L., Environmental Economics Branch, Environment Canada, 2002. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2006. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7H.91 Competing Water Uses for Main Income Groups of Countries

World Low income Middle income Lower middle income Upper middle income Low and middle income East Asia and Pacific Europe and central Asia Latin America and Caribbean Middle East and North Africa South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa High income Europe Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)

Agricultural Use (%)

Industrial Use (%)

Domestic Use (%)

70 87 74 75 73 82 80 63 74 89 93 87 30 21

22 8 13 15 10 10 14 26 9 4 2 4 59 63

8 5 12 10 17 8 6 11 18 6 4 9 11 16

Source: From Water for People Water for Life, The United Nations World Water Development Report. Copyright q United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization - World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO-WWAP), 2003. Reproduced by permission of UNESCO. www.unesco.org. Original Source: From World Bank, 2001, World Development Indicators (WDI), Washington, DC, Available on CD-ROM, Copyright q International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, www.worldbank.org. Reprinted with permission.

Domestic use 8%

Domestic use 11%

Domestic use 8% Industrial use 10%

Agricultural use 30%

Industrial use 22% Agricultural use 70%

World

Industrial use 59%

High-income countries

Agricultural use 82%

Low- and middleincome countries

Figure 7H.16 Industrial use of water increases with country income. (From Water for People Water for Life, The United Nations World Water Development Report. Copyright q United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization - World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO-WWAP), 2003. Reproduced by permission of UNESCO. www.unesco.org. Original Source: World Bank, 2001, World Development Indicators (WDI), Washington, DC, Available on CD-ROM, Copyright q International Bank for Reconstruction and development/The World Bank, www.worldbank.org. Reprinted with permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7H.92 World-Industrial Water Efficiency

Country Algeria Angola Argentina Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Bangladesh Belarus Benin Bolivia Botswana Brazil Cameroon Central African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Congo Dem Rep. Costa Rica Coˆte d’Ivoire Croatia Czech Republic Denmark Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt, Arab Rep. El Salvador Estonia Ethiopia Finland Gabon Gambia Georgia Germany Ghana Guatemala Guinea Guinea Bissau Haiti Honduras India Indonesia Iran, Islamic Rep. Italy Jamaica Jordan Kenya Korea, Rep. Kyrgyztan Latvia Lithuania Malawi Malaysia Mali Mauritania Mauritius Mexico

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawal (bill m)3a 4.5 0.5 28.6 2.9 2.2 16.5 14.6 2.7 0.2 1.4 0.1 54.9 0.4 0.1 0.2 21.4 525.5 8.9 0.0 5.8 0.7 0.1 2.5 0.9 8.3 17.0 55.1 0.7 0.2 2.2 2.4 0.1 0.0 3.5 46.3 0.3 1.2 0.7 0.0 1.0 1.5 500.0 74.3 70.0 57.5 0.9 1.0 2.0 23.7 10.1 0.3 0.3 0.9 12.7 1.4 16.3 0.4 77.8

% for Industryb

Industrial Value Added (IVA) (mi US$)c

Population (mi)d

IVA/Industrial Annual Withdrawal (US$/m3/Capita)e

15 10 9 4 60 25 2 43 10 20 20 18 19 6 2 11 18 4 27 7 11 50 57 9 1 6 8 20 39 3 82 22 2 20 86 13 17 3 4 1 5 3 1 2 37 7 3 4 11 3 32 16 3 13 1 2 7 5

22,618 4,182 77,171 1,029 76,386 1,213 11,507 9,543 333 1,529 2,593 231,442 2,360 211 233 24,385 498,292 23,120 852 4,456 3,039 4,995 20,512 40,142 5,530 6,535 22,221 3,158 1,494 726 48,807 2,752 50 378 760,536 1,927 3,468 1,431 46 641 1,234 113,041 85,633 34,204 323,494 1,619 1,738 1,325 249,268 699 1,627 2,156 288 43,503 580 284 1,419 96,949

30 12 37 4 8 8 128 10 6 8 2 168 15 4 7 15 1,254 42 3 4 16 4 10 5 8 12 63 6 1 63 5 1 1 5 82 19 11 7 1 8 6 998 207 63 58 3 5 29 23 6 2 4 11 23 11 3 1 97

1.11 7.26 0.84 2.14 7.14 0.04 0.31 0.81 3.59 0.68 58.94 0.14 2.07 13.46 8.75 0.70 0.00 1.40 26.29 2.88 2.47 31.22 1.42 100.23 16.58 0.57 0.08 3.57 23.88 0.17 4.89 208.45 83.74 0.11 0.23 2.60 1.60 9.21 63.33 13.62 2.71 0.01 0.56 0.37 0.27 8.33 10.43 0.57 4.16 0.46 8.71 13.56 0.82 1.14 3.88 0.32 57.13 0.25 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7H.92

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Country Moldova Mongolia Morocco Mozambique Namibia The Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Norway Pakistan Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Russian Federation Rwanda Senegal Sierra Leone Slovak Republic Slovenia South Africa Sri Lanka Sweden Tanzania, United Republic of Thailand Togo Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Uganda Ukraine United Kingdom Uruguay Uzbekistan Venezuela Vietnam Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawal (bill m)3a

% for Industryb

Industrial Value Added (IVA) (mi US$)c

3.0 0.4 11.1 0.6 0.3 7.8 2.0 1.3 0.5 4.0 2.0 155.6 1.6 0.1 0.4 19.0 55.4 12.1 77.1 0.8 1.5 0.4 1.4 0.5 13.3 9.8 2.7 1.2 33.1 0.1 2.8 35.5 23.8 0.2 26.0 9.3 4.2 58.0 4.1 54.3 2.9 1.7 1.2

65 27 3 2 3 68 13 2 2 15 68 2 2 22 7 7 4 67 62 1 3 4 50 50 11 2 30 2 4 13 2 11 1 8 52 8 3 2 10 10 1 7 7

508 362 12,558 1,020 971 116,700 15,683 538 376 14,918 47,599 14,685 1,561 1,779 2,334 20,714 26,364 47,846 97,800 356 1,235 170 7,036 7,337 49,363 3,862 74,703 928 64,800 309 6,297 51,575 2,957 1,191 17,854 330,097 5,703 4,340 30,083 9,052 1,683 996 2,005

Population (mi)d 4 2 28 17 2 16 4 5 10 124 4 135 3 5 5 25 74 39 146 8 9 5 5 2 42 19 9 33 60 5 9 64 5 21 50 60 3 24 24 78 17 10 12

IVA/Industrial Annual Withdrawal (US$/m3/Capita)e 0.07 1.56 1.40 4.92 57.12 1.37 15.08 3.97 3.76 0.20 8.61 0.04 19.84 16.17 15.51 0.61 0.16 0.15 0.01 4.13 3.05 2.30 2.01 14.67 0.81 1.04 10.07 1.15 0.81 5.21 13.01 0.20 2.49 3.55 0.03 7.10 15.61 0.16 3.12 0.02 3.07 0.84 1.96

Note: The industrial water productivity shows the economic value (US$) obtained annually by industry per cubic meter of water used. Very high differences can be noted, between high-income countries such as the United Kingdom, showing a per capita industrial water efficiency of US$ 7.10/m3, and many low-income countries, such as Moldova, with only US$ 0.07/m3. Observe, however, that countries having small populations or highly specialized industries (high-value gems tourism)—such as Gabon, Namibia, or Mauritius—have also achieved high productivity. a b c d e

Data refer to any year from 1980 to 1999. Withdrawal shares are mostly estimated for 1987. US constant dollar 1995, data for 1999. Data estimated for 1999. Population is expressed in millions, U.S. constant dollar 1995.

Source: From Water for People Water for Life, The United Nations World Water Development Report. Copyright q United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization - World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO-WWAP), 2003. Reproduced by permission of UNESCO. www.unesco.org. Original Source: From World Bank, 2001, World Development Indicators (WDI), Washington, DC, Available on CD-ROM, Copyright q International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, www.worldbank.org. Reprinted with permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7H.93 Water Requirements for Selected Industries in the World

Industry, Product, and Country Food Products Bread or pastry, Belgium Bread, United States Bread, Cyprusa Canned food Belgium Fish, canned Fish, preserved Fruit Vegetables Canada Fruits and vegetablesa Cyprus Citrus/tomato juicea Grapefruit sectionsa Peaches/pearsa Grapesa Tomatoes, wholea Tomato pastea Peasa Carrotsa Spinacha Israel Citrus fruitsa Vegetablesa United States Apricots Asparagus Beans, green Beans, lima Beets, corn and peas Grapefruit juice Grapefruit sections Peaches and pears Pork and beans Pumpkin and squash Sauerkraut Spinach Succotash Tomato products Tomatoes, whole Industry average, fruits, vegetables, and juices (1965)a Meat Meat freezing, Cyprusa Meat freezing, New Zealand Meat packing, United Statesa Meat packing, Canadaa Meat products, Belgium Sausage factory, Finland Sausage factory, Cyprusa Slaughtering, Finland Slaughtering, Cyprusa Meat preserving, Israela Fish Fresh and frozen fish, Canadaa Canned fish, Canadaa Canning and preserving fish, Israela Poultry Poultry, Canadaa Chickens, Israela Chickens, United Statesa Turkeys, United Statesa Milk and Milk Products Butter New Zealanda

Unit of Product (Ton, Except as Specified)

Water Required per Unit (L) 1,100 2,100–4,200 600 400 1,500 15,000 8,000–80,000 10,000–50,000 2,800 16,000 10,000–15,000 30,000 2,000 21,000 10,000 16,000 30,000

Ton of raw citrus

4,000 10,000–15,000 21,200 20,500 9,300 69,800 7,000 2,800 15,600 18,100 9,300 7,000 950 49,400 34,800 20,500 2,200 24,000

Ton of carcass Ton of prepared meat Ton of carcass Ton of prepared meat Ton, live weight Ton of carcass Ton of prepared meat

Ton of raw fish Ton Ton of dressed chicken Per bird Per bird

500 3,000–8,600 23,000 8,800–34,000 200 20,000–35,000 25,000 4,000–9,000 10,000 10,000 30,000–300,000 58,000 16,000–20,000 6,000–43,000 33,000 25 75 20,000 (Continued)

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Table 7H.93

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Industry, Product, and Country Cheese Cyprusa New Zealanda United Statesa Milk Belgium Finland Israela Sweden United Statesa Milk powder New Zealanda South Africa Whey, United Statesa Dairy products, general, Canadaa Ice cream, United Statesa Yogurt, Cyprusa Sugar Denmarka Finland Francea Germany, Federala Great Britaina Israela Italya Republic of Chinaa United Statesa United Statesa Beverages Beer Belgium Canadaa Cyprusa Finland Francea Israela United Kingdoma United States Whiskey, United Statesa Distilled spirits, Israela Wine, Francea Wine, Israela Miscellaneous Food Products Chocolate confectionery, Belgium Gelatin (edible), United States Maize (wet milling), United States Maize syrup, United States Wheat milling, Cyprusa Wheat milling, Israela Potato flour, Finland Potato starch, Canadaa Macaroni, Cyprusa Molasses, Belgium Molasses, United States Pulp and Paper Groundwood pulp Finland Sulphate pulp China, Republic ofa China, Republic ofa Finland Swedena Swedena Sulphite pulp

Unit of Product (Ton, Except as Specified)

Water Required per Unit (L) 10,000 2,000 27,500

1,000 L

7,000 2,000–5,000 2,700 2,000–4,000 3,000 45,000 200,000 10,000 12,200 10,000 20,000

Ton of sugar beets Ton of sugar beets Ton of sugar beets Ton of sugar beets Ton of sugar beets Ton of sugar beets Ton of sugar beets Ton of sugar cane Ton of sugar beets (range) Ton of sugar beets (average)

4,800–15,800 10,000–20,000 10,900 10,400–14,000 14,900 1,800 10,500–12,500 15,000 3,200–8,300 6,000

Kiloliter Kiloliter Kiloliter (incl. cleaning bottles) Kiloliter Kiloliter Kiloliter Kiloliter Kiloliter Kiloliter of proof spirit Kiloliter Kiloliter Kiloliter

7,000–20,000 10,000–20,000 22,000–30,000 10,000–20,000 14,500 13,500 6,000–10,000 15,200 2,600–76,000 30,000 2,900 500

Liter of maize Liter of maize Ton of potatoes Ton of starch Hectoliter of raw material Hectoliter of 100 proof Ton of wood-pulp Ton of bleached pulp Ton of unbleached pulp Ton of pulp Ton of unbleached pulp Ton of bleached pulp

15,000–17,000 55,100–83,500 15.0–25.5 3.8–4.3 2,000 700–1,300 10,000–20,000 80,000–150,000 1,200 1,000–12,000 840 30,000–40,000 340,000 230,000 250,000–350,000 75,000–300,000 170,000–500,000 (Continued)

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Table 7H.93

7-163

(Continued)

Unit of Product (Ton, Except as Specified)

Industry, Product, and Country Finland Finland Swedena Swedena Wood pulp Swedena South Africa Blotting paper, Sweden Craft, printing and fine paper, Finland Printing paper, Republic of Chinaa Newsprint, Republic of Chinaa Newsprint, Canadaa Fine paper, Republic of Chinaa Fine paper, Sweden Newsprint paper, Sweden Packing and cartridge paper, Sweden Press paper, Finland Printing paper, Sweden Cardboard, Finland Paperboard, United States Paper and cardboard, Belgium Strawboard, United States Wallboard, Finland Wallboard, Swedena Industry average, United Statesa Industry average, United Kingdoma Industry average, Francea Petroleum and Synthetic Fuels Aviation gasoline, United States Aviation gasoline, Republic of Chinaa Gasoline, United States Gasoline, Republic of Chinaa Gasoline, polymerization, United States Kerosene, Belgium Synthetic gasoline, United States Oilfields, United States Oil refineries Belgiuma China, Republic ofa Sweden United Statesa Synthetic fuel From coal South Africa United States From natural gas, United States From shale, United States Chemicals Acetic acid, United States Alcohol, 100 proof, United States Alcohol, 190 proof, United States Alumina (Bayer process), United States Ammonia, synthetic, United States Ammonia (Naphtha, reforming), Japana Ammonium nitrate, Belgium Ammonium sulphate, United States Calcium carbide, United States Calcium metaphosphate, United States Carbon dioxide, United States Caustic soda and chlorine, Canadaa Caustic soda (Solvay process), United Statesa Caustic soda (Dual process), Federal Republic of Germanya Caustic soda (Dual process), Republic of Chinaa

Ton of bleached pulp Ton of unbleached pulp Ton of bleached pulp Ton of unbleached pulp Ton of dry pulp

Ton of pulp and paper Ton of paper and board Ton of pulp and paper Kiloliter Kiloliter Kiloliter Kiloliter Kiloliter Ton Kiloliter Kiloliter of crude petroleum Ton of crude petroleum Ton of crude petroleum

Kiloliter Kiloliter Kiloliter Liter Liter Ton of liquid NH3

Water Required per Unit (L) 450,000–500,000 250,000–300,000 300,000–700,000 140,000–500,000 50,000–100,000 150,000 350,000–400,000 375,000 340,000 190,000 165,000–200,000 800,000 900,000–1,000,000 200,000 125,000 200,000 500,000 125,000 62,000–376,000 180,000 109,000 125,000 50,000 236,000 90,000b 150,000 25,000 25,000 7,000–10,000 8,000 34,000 40,000 377,000 4,000 30,500 10,000

50,100 265,500 88,900 20,800 417,000–1,000,000 138 52–100 26,300 129,000 255,000 52,000 835,000 125,000 16,700 83,500 125,000 60,500 160,000 200,000 (Continued)

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Table 7H.93

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Industry, Product, and Country Caustic soda (Solvay process), Republic of Chinaa Cellulose nitrate, United States Charcoal and wood chemicals, United States Chlorine, Federal Republic of Germanya Ethylene, Israela Gases, compressed and liquified, Canadaa Glycerine, United States Gunpowder, United States Hydrochloric acid (salt process), United States Hydrochloric acid (synthetic process), United States Hydrogen, United States Lactose, United States Magnesium carbonate, basic United States Oxygen, United States Polyethylene, Federal Republic of Germanya Polyethylene, Israela Potassium chloride (sylvinite), United States Smokeless powder, United States Soap, Belgium Soap, Cyprusa Soap (laundry), United States Soda ash (ammonia soda process), 58 percent, United States Sodium chlorate, United States Sodium silicate, United States Stearine, soap and washing agents, Sweden Sulfuric acid, Belgium Sulfuric acid (chamber process), United States Sulfuric acid (contact process), United States Sulfuric acid, Federal Republic of Germanya Textiles Steeping, dressing, scouring and bleaching Steeping flax, Belgium Dressing flax, Sweden Scouring wool, Belgium Washing wool, Sweden Bleaching textiles, Belgium Dyeing Textiles, Belgium Textiles, France (range)a Textiles, France (average)b Finishing Wet finishing of textiles, Belgium Dyeing and finishing Cotton yarn, Israela Synthetic yarn, Israela Wool yarn, Israel Fabrics, Israela Mills Cotton Finland Sweden Canadaa Wool Finland Sweden Synthetic fibers Artificial silk, Sweden Rayon Belgium Finland Rayon staple, Belgium

Unit of Product (Ton, Except as Specified)

Ton of crude CaAc2 Cubic meter Ton of 20 Be HCI Ton of 20 Be HCI Ton of basic MgCO3 Ton of MgCO3 Cubic meter of O2

Ton of 40 Be water-glass Ton of fat Ton of 100 percent H2SO4 Ton of 100 percent H2SO4 Ton of SO3

Water Required per Unit (L) 150,000 41,700 271,000 12,600 16,000 60–70 4,600 401,000–835,000 12,100 2,000–4,200 2,750,000 835,000–918,000 18,000 163,000 243 231,000 (incl. 225,000 cooling water) 8,400 167,000–209,000 209,000 37,000 4,500 960–2,100 62,600–75,100 250,000 670 70,000–200,000 20,000–25,000 10,400 2,700–20,300 83,500 30,000–40,000 30,000–40,000 240,000–250,000 10,000 180,000 200,000 52,000–560,000 180,000 100,000–150,000 60,000–180,000 90,000–180,000 70,000–140,000 60,000–100,000

Square yard Ton of cloth or yarn Ton of wool

50,000–150,000 10,000–250,000 1.0 150,000–350,000 400,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 1,000,000–2,000,000 550,000 (Continued)

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Table 7H.93

7-165

(Continued)

Industry, Product, and Country Industrial duck products, Canadaa Carpets, Canadaa Mining and Quarrying Gold, South Africa Iron ore (brown), United States Bauxite, United Statesa Sulfur, United States Copper, Finland Copper, Israela Gravel, Israela Limestone and by-products, Belgium Iron and Steel Products Belgium Blast furnace, no recycling Blast furnace, with recycling Finished and semi-finished steel, no recyclinga Finished and semi-finished steel, with recycling Canada Pig ironb Open hearth steela France Smeltinga Martin process (Open hearth)a Thomas process (Bessemer converter)a Electric furnace steela Rolling millsa Germany, Federal Republic Steel worksa South Africa Steel Sweden Iron and steel works United States (average) Fully integrated millsa Rolling and drawing millsa Blast furnace smeltinga Electrometallurgical ferroalloysa Industry, consumptive use (est.)a Miscellaneous Products Automobiles, United Statesa Boilers, steam, United States Casein, New Zealanda Cement, Portland Belgiuma Cyprus (dry process)a Finland United States (wet process)a Ceramics and tiles, Belgium Coal:c Ruhr (Fed. Rep. Of Germany)a Great Britaina Netherlandsa Coal, Belgium Coal, coke and by-product coke, United States Coal washing, United States Condensers, surface, United States Distilling, grain Belgium United States Distilling, Sweden Electric power (conventional thermal) Sweden South Africa United Statesa

Unit of Product (Ton, Except as Specified) Square yard Ton of ore Ton of ore

Water Required per Unit (L) 22,000 20 1,000 4,200 300 12,500 3,750 3,100 400 200–6,500 58,000–73,000 50,000 61,000 27,000 130,000 22,000 46,000 15,000 10,000 40,000 30,000 8,000–12,000 12,500 10,000–30,000 86,000 14,700 103,000 72,000 3,800

Vehicle Horsepower-hour

38,000 15 55,000 1,900 550 2,500 900 1,800–2,000

Pound of condensed steam Hectoliter of grain treated Hectoliter of grain treated Kiloliter of 100 percent alcohol Ton of coal Kilowatt-hour (consumptive use) Kilowatt-hour

1,000 (min.)– 1,750 (avg.) !3,000 2,650 5,000–6,000 6,300–15,000 840 9.1–27.3 6,000–7,000 6,450 15,000–100,000 200,000–400,000 5 200 (Continued)

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Table 7H.93

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Industry, Product, and Country Republic of Chinaa Explosives Sweden United States Fertilizer plant, Finland Glass, Belgium Laundry Cyprusa Finland Sweden Leather, South Africa Leather factory, Finland Leather tanning, United Statesa Leather tanning, United Statesa Leather tanning, Cyprusa Non-ferrous metals, raw and semi-finished, Belgium Rock wool, United States Rubber, synthetic, United States Butadiene Buna S Grade GR-S Starch Belgium Sweden

Unit of Product (Ton, Except as Specified) Kilowatt-hour

Ton of saltpeter (25 percent nitrogen) Ton of washed goods Ton of washed goods Ton of washed goods Ton of hides Sq. meter of hide Sq. meter of hide Sq. meter of small animal skins

b c

Ton of maize Ton of potatoes

Figures based on newer data (post-1960). Does not include cooling water for power generating plants. Includes generation of electricity. If this is not included, the quantities above are reduced by about one-half.

Source: From Dept. of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations, 1969.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

230 800,000 835,000 270,000 68,000 45,000 20,000 30,000–50,000 50,100 50,000–125,000 20–2,550 (range) 440 (average) 110 80,000 16,700–20,900 83,500–2,750,000 125,000–2,630,000 117,000–2,800,000

Note: Water requirements for unit of product produced. Other figures based on older data (pre-1950). a

Water Required per Unit (L)

13,000–18,000 10,000

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

7-167

SECTION 7I IRRIGATION — UNITED STATES (Percent of diversions; bill gall / day) Net depletions 54% 86.4 Crop consumptive use 41% 65.6

Farm 37% losses 58.4 Farm 78% delivery 124.0 Gross 100% diversions 158.7

Total 59% losses 93.1

Delivery losses and spills 22% 34.7

Incidental losses 13% 20.8

Return flow 46% 72.3

Water supply sources Figure 7I.17 Irrigation water budget of the United States. (From Soil Conservation Service, America’s Soil and Water: Condition and Trends, 1981.)

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Table 7I.94 Acreage Irrigated with On-Farm and Off-Farm Pumped Water in the United States, 1994, 1998, and 2003 Groundwater 1994

— — — — — — — — — — —

2003

1994

1998

2003

1,699 11,207 17,331 22,006 15,696 542 26,853 19,024 14,418 317 537

1,523 4,803 15,278 13,124 13,972 592 21,219 33,598 13,103 567 509

172 67,262 700 33,427 779 117 37,406 9,762 3,469 33 42

290 64,840 1,480 40,131 1,289 162 26,487 12,289 5,230 52 208

184,943 292,643 270,362

228,137 301,550 315,241

286,450 400,925 345,408

116,109 24,929 35,196

134,858 16,382 37,668

140,338 23,335 45,436

251,551 — — 650,580 —

280,060 176,427 62,718 783,174 4,718

360,740 227,750 127,128 961,231 6,995

18,428 — — 56,363 —

12,347 42,329 4,109 49,155 5,428

2,446,630 5,408,543 93,983 178,827

2,577,611 5,069,036 103,714 137,788

2,430,557 6,974,942 152,714 233,600

18,945 133,254 27,321 54,117

11,005 13,209 16,387 6,411 207

10,264 14,559 25,636 6,619 247

— 746,071 450,029 —

14,079 1,032,746 435,770 28,515

24,451 772,907 518,239 31,157

2,581,693 557,431 624,182

3,722,635 709,207 1,078,511

3,421,365 633,455 1,115,676

— — — — —

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

— — — — — — — — — — —

Off-Farm Surface Water 1994

2003

55 (D) (D) 401 251 62 996 2,355 199 58 —

409 375 1 891 954 64 289 2,712 1,594 29 108

7,827 9,729 1,928

5,598 5,448 1,834

6,533 10,240 1,279

12,905 48,533 4,909 55,341 5,126

1,760 — — 1,744 —

289 960 1,138 2,702 2,037

46,457 183,012 14,846 52,406

75,062 121,860 25,381 39,400

59,251 544,246 37,272 72,576

14,032 120,610 6,256 60,221 939

10,386 85,237 9,119 28,077 532

— 246,527 169,433 —

33,087 274,388 218,532 32,306

26,994 418,190 194,926 22,017

271,512 240,593 25,361

349,574 219,653 39,012

509,914 186,544 46,834

— — — — —

— — — — — — — — — — —

1998

Total 1994

2003

1,913 77,382 18,324 55,150 16,367 718 63,508 29,176 17,916 408 579

2,213 69,088 18,163 53,734 16,151 818 46,679 48,545 19,633 648 825

305,481 326,781 306,096

367,992 322,346 351,023

432,665 434,500 391,763

1,274 129 2,147 4,156 2,355

271,725 — — 702,183 —

290,825 217,197 67,852 832,591 12,037

374,919 276,294 134,164 1,020,728 14,476

34,520 534,208 46,355 110,822

60,901 443,354 30,400 117,406

2,501,925 5,979,661 157,426 304,454

2,650,486 5,692,215 164,741 297,205

2,543,950 7,516,171 207,772 390,406

526 1,713 98 692 65

280 3,109 574 496 22

25,454 134,468 22,741 65,734 1,211

20,685 101,055 34,429 33,635 801

— 447,724 1,000 —

465 340,507 1,871 584

1,333 319,598 56 232

— 1,416,019 619,536 —

46,811 1,613,719 647,749 61,015

52,722 1,497,653 711 52,046

13,196 34,880 378

23,485 9,810 1,245

26,793 23,596 9,213

2,853,929 820,816 646,761

4,043,382 920,823 1,109,079

3,944,867 838,717 1,169,793

— — — — —

— — — — — — — — — — —

1998

— — — — —

WATER USE

Northeast Connecticut Delaware Maine Maryland Massachusetts New Hampshire New Jersey New York Pennsylvania Rhode Island Vermont Lake States Michigan Minnesota Wisconsin Corn Belt Illinois Indiana Iowa Missouri Ohio Northern Plains Kansas Nebraska North Dakota South Dakota Appalachia Kentucky North Carolina Tennessee Virginia West Virginia Southeast Alabama Florida Georgia South Carolina Delta States Arkansas Louisiana Mississippi

1998

On-Farm Surface Water

392,063 4,319,337

355,414 4,576,456

413,067 4,174,840

34,105 203,619

33,189 246,693

62,572 184,173

48,579 606,841

66,743 488,571

36,513 588,932

474,201 5,100,979

451,788 5,237,584

508,842 4,947,745

340,306 1,357,765 1,307,688 136,969 202,566 381,244 196,191 78,842

243,313 1,331,615 1,226,924 46,606 223,747 425,530 139,693 90,730

291,025 1,095,601 1,202,870 96,469 259,721 502,021 191,842 114,676

26,012 517,976 352,423 691,982 184,808 56,803 162,912 556,782

6,412 559,887 388,335 695,480 296,811 49,881 170,750 700,511

72,213 694,262 352,666 724,542 241,713 89,790 104,527 512,153

492,398 1,383,255 1,643,919 1,134,537 155,591 275,091 741,809 774,364

683,637 1,211,561 1,656,908 1,015,467 191,692 281,300 791,945 771,299

516,422 810,713 1,609,148 1,313,763 145,684 206,658 790,434 794,498

752,019 2,998,888 3,183,733 1,936,292 519,507 685,695 1,085,083 1,374,447

873,589 2,942,230 3,188,406 1,740,873 694,930 720,319 1,076,346 1,533,468

836,587 2,562,329 3,126,857 2,131,955 639,310 769,787 1,082,213 1,415,037

3,876,870 501,297 501,662 — — 28,816,442

3,071,740 304,579 445,927 2,424 43,996 32,222,665

3,823,115 421,642 484,392 2,128 33,938 32,342,820

628,817 564,577 163,723 — — 5,926,902

745,056 622,453 190,423 191 34,850 7,402,653

1,045,025 629,850 292 113 17,036 7,277,527

3,910,823 682,894 827,817 — — 13,919,132

5,120,793 650,475 963,804 3 46,893 16,408,547

4.166,854 720,621 1,041,882 11 50,999 13,867,438

7,245,487 1,587,152 1,434,800 — — 46,418,380

8,139,834 1,534,961 1,554,813 2,618 96,543 54,249,965

8,471,936 1,731,660 1,806,782 2,252 78,538 52,583,431

Source: Abstracted from: USDA, 2004, Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey (2003), vol. 3, Special Studies, Part 1,—2002; Census of Agriculture; USDA, 1999, 1998 Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey, Vol. 3, Special Studies, Part 1—1997 Census of Agriculture and USDA, 1994 Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey—1992, Census of Agriculture; (D) Withheld to avoid disclosing data for individual farms, www.nass.usda.gov.

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Southern Plains Oklahoma Texas Mountain Arizona Colorado Idaho Montana Nevada New Mexico Utah Wyoming Pacific California Oregon Washington Alaska Hawaii Total

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Table 7I.95 Growth of Irrigated Farmland in the United States, 1889–2002 Acreage Irrigated per Farm Irrigated (acres)

Change In Irrigated Acreage (mil acres)

Average Annual Growth in Irrigated Acreage (percent)

Year

Land in Farmsa (mil acres)

Irrigated Land in Farms (mil acres)

Share of Farmland Irrigated (percent)

1889 1900 1910 1920 1930 1939 1949 1959 1969 1974 1978 1982 1987 1992 1997

623 839 879 956 987 1,065 1,161 1,123 1,063 1017 1,015 987 964 946 932

3.6 7.5 14.4 19.2 19.5 18 25.8 33 39.1 41.2 50.3 49 46.4 49.4 55.1

0.6 0.9 1.6 2.0 2 1.7 2.2 3 3.7 4.1 5 4.9 4.8 5.2 5.9

67 70 89 83 74 60 84 108 152 174 179 176 159 177 197

NA 3.9 6.9 4.8 0.3 K1.5 7.8 7.2 6.0 2.1 9.1 K1.3 K2.6 3.0 5.7

NA 6.9 6.7 2.9 0.2 K0.9 3.7 2.5 1.7 1.1 2.8 K0.7 K1.1 1.3 2.2

955 938

56.3 55.3

5.9 5.9

182 184

NA K1.0

NA K0.4

Adjusted for coverageb 1997 2002

Note: NA, Not applicable. a b

Land in Farms includes agricultural land used for crops, pasture, or grazing. It also includes woodland and wasteland not actually under cultivation or used for pasture or grazing, provided it is part of the farm operator’s total operation. The 2002 Census of Agriculture estimates include an area-frame adjustment for incompleteness of the list frame. Similar estimates were calculated for 1997 for the purpose of comparison with the 2002 Census estimates.

Source: From U.S. Dept. of Commerce and U.S. Dept of Agriculture, Census of Agriculture, www.usda.gov.

Million acres 60

50

Inches 30 Million acres: ERS estimates Million acres: Census of agriculture Inches applied: National average Inches applied: Field index*

28

40

26

30

24

20

22

10

20

0 1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

18 2000

Year Figure 7I.18 Irrigation trends-in the United States, 1900–2000. (From Heimlich, R., 2003, Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators 2003, Agriculture Handbook No. (AH722), February 2003.) www.ers.usda.gov. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

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Table 7I.96 Irrigated Land in Farms, by Region and Crop, 1900–2000 Region

1900a

USDA Production Region Atlantic Regionsc — North Centrald — Northern Plains 200 Delta States 200 Southern Plains 100 Mountain States 5,300 Pacific Coast 2,000 United Statese 7,800 Irrigated Crop Corn for Grain Sorghum for grain Barley Wheat Rice Soybeans Cotton Alfalfa hay Other hay Vegetables Land in orchards Other irrigated land in farms

1949a

1969a

1978a

1982a

1987a

1992a

1997a

1998b

1999b

2000b

500 — 1,100 1,000 3,200 11,600 8,300 25,800

1,800 500 4,600 1,900 7,400 12,800 10,000 39,100

2,900 1,400 8,800 2,700 7,500 14,800 12,000 50,300

2,700 1,700 9,300 3,100 6,100 14,100 11,900 49,000

3,000 2,000 8,700 3,700 4,700 13,300 10,800 46,400

1,000 acres 3,200 2,500 9,600 4,500 5,400 13,300 10,800 49,400

3,600 2,800 10,200 5,700 6,000 14,400 12,400 55,100

3,600 2,800 10,100 6,300 5,900 14,300 12,200 55,200

3,500 2,900 10,200 6,000 5,900 14,400 12,300 55,300

3,500 3,000 10,500 5,900 5,800 14,200 12,400 55,300

3,200 3,500 1,600 1,900 2,200 700 3,100 5,000 2,900 1,500 2,400 11,100

8,700 2,000 2,000 3,000 3,000 1,300 4,700 5,900 3,000 1,900 3,000 11,800

8,500 2,200 1,900 4,600 3,200 2,300 3,400 5,500 3,000 1,900 3,300 9,200

8,000 1,300 1,300 3,700 2,400 2,600 3,500 5,500 3,100 2,000 3,400 9,500

10,600 900 1,100 4,000 3,100 4,200 4,900 6,000 3,600 2,400 4,100 10,300

10,700 600 1,000 3,700 3,400 4,400 4,600 6,300 3,400 2,500 4,100 10,500

9,900 800 1,000 3,400 3,500 4,800 4,800 6,400 3,500 2,600 4,200 10,400

10,200 600 1,000 3,300 3,100 5,200 5,300 6,300 3,300 2,700 4,300 10,300

9,700 1,600 1,100 4,100 3,100 2,500 3,700 5,700 2,900 2,200 3,600 9,100

Note: Indicates none or fewer than 5,000 acres. a b c d e

Census of Agriculture. Estimates constructed from the Census of Agriculture and other USDA sources. Northeast, Appalachian, and Southeast farm production regions. Lake States and Corn Belt production regions. Includes Alaska and Hawaii.

Source: From Heimlich, R., 2003, Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators 2003, Agriculture Handbook No. (AH722), February 2003, www.ers.usda.gov. Original Source: USDA, ERS, based on Census of Agriculture, various years (USDA, 1999a; USDC, 1994; and previous versions); and USDA, ERS data.

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Table 7I.97 Acreage and Value of Irrigated Cropland in the United States, 1982 Acreage

Value

Irrigated (million dollars)

Irrigated Share of Crop Value (percent)

Irrigated Share of Total Crop Valueb (percent)

2.8 0.7 1.4 0.6 1.0 1.0 0.7

3,440 901 1,144 375 1,226 1,883 491

17.2 53.2 16.7 20.0 100.0 58.4 4.4

4.5 1.2 1.4 0.5 1.7 2.5 0.6

358 393 246 179 379 549 211

235 66 84 93 NA 200 17

64.0 15.0 60.7

0.2 2.5 0.6

1,261 2,275 3,375

81.7 27.7 79.7

1.7 3.0 4.5

1,553 267 1,663

546 120 591

70.4 53.2 17.9

1.0 0.2 0.7

4,732 491 2,424

85.1 77.7 25.4

6.2 0.6 3.1

1,415 893 998

502 262 638

13.4

24,047

Irrigated (1,000 acres)

Share of Crop Irrigated (percent)

Share of Total Croplanda (percent)

Corn Sorghum Wheat Barley and oats Rice Cotton Soybeans

9,604 2,295 4,650 2,098 3,233 3,424 2,321

12.3 17.0 6.6 11.8 100.0 35.0 3.6

Irish potatoes Hay Vegetables and melons

812 8,507 2,029

Orchard crops Sugar beets Other cropsc

3,343 550 2,428

Totald

45,289

NA

NA

31.8

Irrigated Value per Acre (dollars)

531e

Rainfed Value per Acre (dollars)

176e

Note: NA, Not applicable. By crop; contiguous United States. a b c d e

This is the share each irrigated crop represents of the total acreage of crops produced in the 48 States in 1982. This is the share each irrigated crop represents of the total value of crops produced in the 48 States in 1982. Includes peanuts, tobacco, dry edible beans, and the minor acreage crops rye, flax, sugarcane, and dry edible pears. Includes about 932,000 acres of double-cropped land. Figures might not add to totals due to rounding. Average weighted by acreage.

Source: From Day, J.C. and Horner, G.L., 1987, U.S. Irrigation, extent and economic importance, U.S. Department of Agriculture Information Bulletin 523.

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Irrigated Land (1000 acres)

Withdrawals (1000 mil gal/day)

By Type of Irrigation State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon

By Source

Sprinkler

Micro-Irrigation

Surface

Total

Groundwater

68.7 2.43 183 631 1,660 1,190 20.6 81.1 0.32 515 1,470 16.7 2,440 365 250 84.5 2,660 66.6 110 35 57.3 26.6 401 546 455 532 506 4,110 192 6.08 109 461 70 193 200 61 392 1,160

1.3 0 14 0 3,010 1.16 0.39 0.71 0 704 73.8 105 4.7 0 0 0 2.14 0 0 0.95 3.32 2.35 8.67 0 0 1.43 0 0 0 0 15.7 7.17 8.73 3.7 0 0 1.5 4.02

0 0.07 779 3,880 5,470 2,220 0 0 0 839 0 0 1,300 0 0 0 647 0 830 0.03 0 0 4.87 26.9 966 792 1,220 3,710 456 0 3.7 530 1.84 0 26.7 0 113 1,000

70 2.5 976 4,510 10,100 3,400 21 81.8 0.32 2,060 1,540 122 3,750 365 250 84.5 3,310 66.6 940 36 60.6 29 415 573 1,420 1,330 1,720 7,820 647 6.08 128 998 80.6 196 227 61 507 2,170

14.5 0.99 2,750 6,510 11,600 2,160 17 35.6 0 2,180 750 171 3,720 150 55.5 20.4 3,430 1.14 791 0.61 29.8 19.7 128 190 1,310 1,380 83 7,420 567 0.5 22.8 1,230 23.3 65.8 72.2 13.9 566 792

Surface Water 28.7 0.02 2,660 1,410 18,900 9,260 13.4 7.89 0.18 2,110 392 193 13,300 4.25 45.4 1.08 288 28.2 232 5.23 12.6 106 73.2 36.6 99.1 48.1 7,870 1,370 1,540 4.25 117 1,630 12.1 221 73.2 17.8 151 5,290

Withdrawals (1000 acre-feet/yr) By Source

Total

Groundwater

Surface Water

Total

Application Rate (acrefeet/acre)

43.1 1.01 5,400 7,910 30,500 11,400 30.4 43.5 0.18 4,290 1,140 364 17,100 154 101 21.5 3,710 29.3 1,020 5.84 42.4 126 201 227 1,410 1,430 7,950 8,790 2,110 4.75 140 2,860 35.5 287 145 31.7 718 6,080

16.2 1.11 3,080 7,290 13,100 2,420 19 39.9 0 2,450 841 191 4,170 168 62.2 22.9 3,840 1.28 887 0.68 33.4 22.1 144 213 1,470 1,550 93 8,320 635 0.56 25.5 1,380 26.1 73.8 80.9 15.6 635 887

32.2 0.02 2,980 1,580 21,100 10,400 15 8.84 0.2 2,370 439 216 15,000 4.76 51 1.21 323 31.6 261 5.86 14.1 119 82 41.1 111 53.9 8,820 1,540 1,730 4.76 131 1,830 13.6 248 82.1 19.9 170 5,920

48.4 1.13 6,060 8,870 34,200 12,800 34 48.7 0.2 4,810 1,280 407 19,100 173 113 24.1 4,160 32.9 1,150 6.55 47.6 141 226 254 1,580 1,600 8,920 9,860 2,360 5.32 156 3,210 39.8 322 163 35.5 804 6,810

0.69 0.45 6.21 1.97 3.37 3.76 1.62 0.6 0.63 2.34 0.83 3.35 5.1 0.47 0.45 0.28 1.26 0.49 1.22 0.18 0.78 4.88 0.54 0.44 1.11 1.21 5.18 1.26 3.65 0.88 1.22 3.22 0.49 1.64 0.72 0.58 1.59 3.14

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(Continued)

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7I.98 Irrigation Water Use in the United States, 2000

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Table 7I.98

(Continued) Irrigated Land (1000 acres)

Withdrawals (1000 mil gal/day)

By Type of Irrigation

By Source

State

Sprinkler

Micro-Irrigation

Surface

Total

Groundwater

Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Total

28.9 4.48 166 276 51.2 4,010 526 4.95 64.3 1,270 2.21 355 190 15.5 0.2 28,300

7.17 0.29 3.66 0 5.35 89.4 1.68 0 13.9 49.9 0 0 4.73 33 0 4,180

0 0.05 17.5 78.3 3.96 2,390 880 0 0 252 0.98 0 964 5.35 0 29,400

36 4.82 187 354 60.5 6,490 1,410 4.95 78.2 1,570 3.19 355 1,160 53.8 0.2 61,900

1.38 0.46 106 137 7.33 6,500 469 0.33 3.57 747 0.02 195 413 36.9 0.29 56,900

Surface Water 12.5 2.99 162 236 15.1 2,130 3,390 3.45 22.8 2,290 0.02 1.57 4,090 57.5 0.21 80,000

Withdrawals (1000 acre-feet/yr) By Source

Total

Groundwater

Surface Water

Total

Application Rate (acrefeet/acre)

13.9 3.45 267 373 22.4 8,630 3,860 3.78 26.4 3,040 0.04 196 4,500 94.5 0.5 137,000

1.55 0.52 118 153 8.22 7,290 526 0.37 4 837 0.02 218 463 41.4 0.33 63,800

14 3.35 181 264 16.9 2,390 3,800 3.87 25.6 2,570 0.02 1.76 4,580 64.5 0.24 89,700

15.6 3.87 300 418 25.1 9,680 4,330 4.24 29.6 3,400 0.04 220 5,050 106 0.56 153,000

0.43 0.8 1.6 1.18 0.41 1.49 3.08 0.86 0.38 2.16 0.01 0.62 4.36 1.97 2.8 2.48

Note: Figures may not sum to totals because of independent rounding. Source: From Hutson, S.S. et al., 2004, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2000, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, www.usgs.gov.

WATER USE

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Table 7I.99 Irrigation Withdrawals by Source in the United States, 1950–1995 Year

Irrigation Withdrawals (bgd)

Percent from Surface Water Sources (%)

Percent of Total from Reclaimed (%)

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

89 110 110 120 130 140 150 137 137 134

77.5 72.8 63.8 64.3 64.5 59.5 59.2 66.7 62.6 63.3

— 0.10 0.68 0.44 0.28 0.26 0.19 0.32 0.38 0.54

Note: bgd, billion gallons per day. Source: From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002, Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, February 28, 2002, http://info.geography.siu.edu/ geography_info/research/. Reprinted with permission. Table 7I.100 Total Irrigation Withdrawals and Irrigated Acres in the United States, 1950–1995

Year

Total Irrigation Withdrawals (bgd)

USGS Estimated Total Irrigated Acres (thousands)

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

89 110 110 120 130 140 150 137 137 134

25,000 34,000 39,000 44,000 50,000 54,000 58,000 57,275 57,400 57,900

Average Depth of Water applied (ft/yr) (USGS Acreage Estimate)

Interpolated US Census Bureau Estimated Total Irrigated Acres (thousands)

Average Depth of Water Applied (ft/yr) (USCB Acreage Estimate)

3.20 2.68 2.41 2.95 2.80 2.96 2.93 2.68 2.67 2.59

26,634 30,274 33,942 37,470 39,546 43,519 49,676 47,432 48,196 52,796

3.00 3.01 2.77 3.47 3.54 3.68 3.42 3.24 3.17 2.84

Source: From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002, Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, February 28, 2002, http://info.geography.siu.edu/geography_info/research/. Reprinted with permission. Table 7I.101 Changes in Irrigation Withdrawals in Selected States, 1960–1995 and 1980–1995 State

1960–1995 Change (mgd)

1980–1995 Change (mgd)

California Nebraska Arkansas Colorado Wyoming Montana Florida Washington Idaho Kansas Oregon Mississippi New Mexico Arizona

10,894 5,350 5,016 3,735 3,495 3,446 2,809 2,769 2,048 1,583 1,368 1,232 1,193 972

K8,106 K1,750 836 K1,265 1,695 K2,454 469 69 K2,952 K2,217 268 762 K607 K1,428

Lower 48 States

49,960

K17,589

Note: mgd, million gallons per day. Source: From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002, Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, February 28, 2002, http://info.geography.siu.edu/geography_info/research/. Reprinted with permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7I.102 Number of Farms Supplied with Off-Farm Water from the Bureau of Reclamation and Other Federal Agencies, 2003 Farms Using Any Off-Farm Water

Farms Using Only Off-Farm Water

Supplier of Off-Farm Watera (Number of Farms)

Geographic Area Corn Belt Ohio Northern Plains Kansas Nebraska North Dakota South Dakota Southern Plains Oklahoma Texas Mountain Arizona Colorado Idaho Montana Nevada New Mexico Utah Wyoming Pacific California Oregon Washington Other States U.S. Total (all states) a

Supplier of Off-Farm Watera (Number of Farms)

Farms

Acres Irrigated with OffFarm Water

Quantity of OffFarm Water (acre-ft)

36

198

637

258

16

16 19 22 40

43 451 16 90

204 493 79 465

30,554 197,822 26,632 109,780

26,836 193,616 43,352 732,712

62 277 36 282

— 20 38

173 14 84

46 1,474

2 33

9 1,342

55 3,911

27,481 501,965

29,431 711,220

44 1,423

33

5 1,190

2,332,795 1,365,054 3,360,210 1,855,914 366,463 492,319 1,604,167 1,329,559

619 1,684 4,884 1,886 249 1,692 1,381 1,075

91 99 520 419 — 4 549 121

568 3,004 3,193 821 168 776 4,596 1,031

1,601 6,034 10,123 4,637 576 2,670 7,856 2,876

397,087 676,181 1,159,032 1,211,250 97,238 178,546 704,474 743,246

1,835,249 1,172,001 2,510,827 1,696,914 256,905 433,484 1,410,309 1,248,919

551 1,567 4,425 1,772 233 1,490 1,339 1,041

66 61 394 406 — 4 393 117

532 2,752 2,924 762 146 707 4,379 971

12,189,829 1,450,562 2,464,111 536,895 31,638,466

6,737 2,552 5,185 — 31,210

1,541 173 139 43 3,832

10,491 1,602 1,692 1,326 31,255

17,810 5,306 7,517 3,365 75,776

2,383,051 548,155 842,209 335,129 10,170,469

7,563,592 1,074,139 2,024,760 318,623 23,283,147

4,802 2,350 4,584 — 26,294

1,215 151 69 31 2,998

8,625 1,510 1,601 2,371 27,589

Farms

Acres Irrigated with OffFarm Water

Quantity of OffFarm Water (acre-ft)

203

2,355

1,234

16

1

315 1,736 90 491

60,901 443,354 30,400 117,406

56,658 488,295 46,896 740,110

114 1,268 46 302

64 4,208

36,513 588,932

40,668 916,727

1,726 6,476 11,059 4,861 623 2,944 8,429 2,999

516,422 810,713 1,609,148 1,313,763 145,684 206,658 790,434 794,498

22,558 5,615 8,271 3,737 86,405

4,166,854 720,621 1,041,882 470,900 13,867,438

Bureau of Reclamation

Other Federal Agencies

All Other Suppliers

Bureau of Reclamation

Other Federal Agencies

—

All Other Suppliers

33

Counts only include those reporting some or all of their water from a given source. Those reporting an unknown water supplier are excluded.

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WATER USE

Source: Abstracted from USDA, 2004, Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey (2003), vol. 3, Special Studies, Part 1, 2002; Census of Agriculture, www.nass.usda.gov.

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Table 7I.103 Irrigation in Areas of the United States with Declining Groundwater Supplies

Total Groundwater Irrigation State Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Florida Idaho Kansas Nebraska New Mexico Oklahoma Texas Total

1977 940 1,400 4,388 1,650 1,076 1,149 3,083 5,855 760 730 7,846 28,877

Irrigated Area with Declining Watera

1983 1,000 acres 938 2,337 4,265 1,660 1,610 1,450 3,504 7,025 805 645 6,685 30,924

1977

1983

—b —b —b 570 —b —b 1,950 1,842 560 507 6,425 —a

606 425 2,068 590 250 223 2,180 2,029c 560 523 4,565c 14,029

Percent of Irrigated Land Experiencing Declining Water Levels in 1983

65 18 48 36 16 15 62 29 70 81 73 45

Note: In 11 states with major groundwater irrigation. Total groundwater area irrigated was estimated for 1977 and 1983. Decline area irrigated was estimated from data for the latest year available. a b c

Only areas experiencing at least a six-inch average annual decline are included in these estimates. Data insufficient to make time comparisons. Data for 1984.

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Source: From Ogg, C.W., Hostetter, J.E., and Lee, D.J., 1988, Expanding the conservation reserve to achieve multiple environmental goals, J. of Soil and Water Conservation. Copyright 1988. Soil and Water Conservation Society. Reprinted with permission.

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WATER USE

U.S. harvested acres and crop sales, 1997 Cropland harvested 309 million acres

Crop sales $98 billion

16% 51%

49%

84%

Irrigated Nonirrigated

Irrigated Nonirrigated

Western harvested acres and crop sales, 1997 Cropland harvested 142 million acres

27%

Crop sales $45 billion

28%

73%

72%

Irrigated Nonirrigated

Irrigated Nonirrigated

Eastern harvested acres and crop sales, 1997 Acres 167 million

Crop sales $53 billion

7%

29% 93% 71%

Irrigated Nonirrigated

Irrigated Nonirrigated

Figure 7I.19 Percent of United States harvested acres and crop sales irrigated, 1997. (From United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, www.ers.usda.gov, from 1997 census of Agriculture Data.)

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Ranking by State Item

Unit

Number of farms in 2002 All farms

1000

Irrigated farms 2003

do

Percentage of farms with irrigated land in 2003

Percent

Irrigated land in 2003

Mil acre

Percentage of harvested cropland irrigated in 2003

Percent

Market value of crops sold in 2002 All farms

$bil

Major irrigated crops in 2003 Corn (all)

1000 acres

Wheat

do

Hay (all)

do

Energy expense for on-farm pumping of irrigation water in 2003 Total $mil Electricity

do

Natural gas

do

Acres irrigated by source of water in 2003 Wells

Thous. acre

On-farm surface

do

Off-farm suppliers

do

Water applied in irrigation by source in 2003 Total

Mil acre-feet

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

TX 230 CA 46.8 UT 67.1 CA 8.5 AZ 100

MO 107 NE 16.3 ID 59.6 NE 7.5 NV 96.8

IA 92.5 TX 15.4 NV 57.4 TX 4.9 CA 96.6

TN 90 ID 14.3 CA 55.8 AR 3.9 NM 94.3

KY 89 OR 14.2 WY 52.4 ID 3.1 FL 93.1

OK 87 WA 12.9 NM 44.9 CO 2.6 ID 92.1

CA 84 CO 11.6 CO 38.6 KS 2.5 WY 90.3

MN 79 UT 10.1 AZ 38.0 MT 2.1 WA 88.8

OH 78 MT 8.6 OR 34.6 WA 1.8 UT 88.0

WI 77 FL 8.3 WA 33.0 OR 1.7 HI 85.3

CA

IA

IL

FL

MN

TX

WA

NE

IN

ND

19.2

6.1

5.9

5.0

4.6

3.7

3.6

3.4

3.0

2.5

NE 4684 TX 657 CA 1353

KS 1298 ID 501 CO 1102

TX 831 KS 415 MT 1098

CA 665 CA 407 ID 862

CO 633 WA 278 WY 833

MO 307 CO 156 OR 741

IL 223 OR 143 UT 623

MI 200 OK 132 WA 510

AR 195 AZ 122 NE 483

MN 187 MT 119 NV 455

CA 378.0 CA 304.4 TX 123.5

TX 246.8 TX 105.0 KS 70.0

NE 219.2 ID 100.3 NE 47.8

KS 105.4 NE 83.1 CA 15.3

ID 102.8 WA 69.9 OK 8.2

WA 70.7 CO 52.4 AZ 5.3

AR 68.7 OR 31.6 NM 3.8

CO 58.8 NM 29.0 CO 3.7

NM 34.8 AR 24.6 AR 2.1

OR 32.8 AZ 22.7 LA 0.4

NE 6975 CA 1045 CA 4167

TX 4175 MT 725 ID 1609

CA 3823 CO 694 MT 1314

AR 3421 OR 630 WA 1042

KS 2431 WY 512 CO 811

ID 1203 AR 510 WY 794

MS 1116 FL 418 UT 790

CO 1096 ID 353 OR 721

MO 961 WA 292 TX 589

FL 773 NV 242 AZ 516

CA 24.8

NE 8.5

ID 6.1

TX 6.0

AR 4.3

CO 4.0

WA 3.9

AZ 3.8

OR 3.3

KS 3.1

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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(Continued)

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7I.104 Top 10 States in Irrigated Agriculture in the United States

7-180

Table 7I.104

(Continued) Ranking by State

Item

Unit

Wells

do

On-farm sources

do

Off-farm suppliers

do

Irrigation water applied per acre in 2003

Acre-feet

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

CA 9.7 CA 3.0 CA 12.2 MA 5.6

NE 7.9 OR 1.1 ID 3.4 AZ 4.5

TX 4.8 CO 1.1 WA 2.5 HI 4.0

AR 3.5 MT 0.8 AZ 2.3 CA 2.9

KS 3.0 AR 0.7 MT 1.9 NV 2.5

ID 2.1 WY 0.7 UT 1.6 SD 2.5

CO 1.5 FL 0.7 OR 1.5 NM 2.4

NM 1.2 ID 0.6 CO 1.4 WA 2.2

AZ 1.2 WA 0.6 WY 1.3 UT 2.1

MS 0.9 NV 0.5 TX 0.9 ID & OR 1.9

CA 6300 FL 2670

AZ 6000 GA 2200

FL 4180 CA 2000

UT 3500 MO 1540

WA 3200 LA 1280

NM 2650 OR 1200

OR 2250 MS 1140

ID 2200 AR 1100

MO 2150 NE 980

CO 2000 WA 950

Average land value per acre in 2003 Irrigated land

$ per acre

Nonirrigated cropland

do

Note: In selected categories. Source: Abstracted from: USDA, 2004, Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey (2003), vol. 3, Special Studies, Part 1, 2002; Census of Agriculture; USDA, Farms and Land in Farms, February 2003; USDA, Census of Agriculture State Data, State Summary Highlights 2002, USDA-NASS, Agricultural Statistics, 2003, www.nass.usda.gov.

WATER USE

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7I.105 Standards for Classification of Lands as Irrigable Land Characteristics Soils Texture Depth To sand, gravel, or cobble To bedrock Topography Slopes

Rock cover

Erosion Drainage Soil and topography Salinity Alkalinity

Minimum Requirements Loamy sand to permeably clay 18 in. of good free-working soil of the fine sandy loam or heavier, or from 24–30 in. of lighter textured soil At least 18 inches over shattered bedrock or tilted shale bedrock; or 24 in. over massive bedrock or hardpan Smooth slopes up to no more than 30 percent in general gradient in reasonably large-sized bodies sloping in the same plane; or undulating slopes which are less than 20 percent in general gradient No more than enough loose rock and rock outcroppings to moderately reduce productivity and interfere with cultural practices. Varies with soil depth and topographic conditions No more than moderate erosion, with very few gullies which are not crossable by tillage implements Such that moderate farm drainage may be required, but without excessive cost Total salts in the soil solution do not exceed 0.5 percent, except in readily drained soils where reclamation appears feasible The pH value is 9.0 or less, unless the soil is calcareous in which case higher values may be allowed. If there is evidence of black alkali a lower pH value may be limiting

Source: From California State Water Resources Board, 1955.

Table 7I.106 Summary of Losses and Waste of Irrigation Water During Delivery Average field evaporation before topsoil dries Surface waste, allowance for large projects Seasonal percolation losses, except on porous soils Losses of flow in farm ditches Deliveries to farms Consumptive use, diversified crops Irrigation efficiencies, common farm crops Irrigation efficiencies, fruit, and special crops Average irrigation efficiencies on large projects

0.5 in. per irrigation 10 per cent of diversions 0–1.5 acre-ft per acre 5–50 per cent per mile 1–7 acre-ft per acre 1–3.5 acre-ft per acre 20–50 per cent 35–70 per cent 30–50 per cent During Conveyance

Evaporation from canal surfaces Evapotranspiration at canal banks Canal seepage, large projects, mostly unlined canals Seepage losses, most canals lined Waste on large projects, ample water supplies Waste on large projects, limited water supplies Over-all efficiencies, large projects Diversions for large projects

Negligible Negligible 15–45 per cent of diversions 5–15 per cent of diversions 5–30 per cent of diversions 1–10 per cent of diversions 20–35 per cent 2–10 acre-ft per acre

Source: From Houk, Irrigation Engineering, vol.1, John Wiley & Sons, Copyright 1951. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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WATER USE

Table 7I.107 Typical Water-Application Losses and Irrigation Efficiencies for Different Soil Conditions General Soil Type Item a

Farm-lateral loss Surface runoff loss Deep percolation loss Field-irrigation efficiencyb Farm-irrigation efficiencyc a b c

Open, Porous (%)

Medium Loam (%)

Heavy Clay (%)

15 5 35 60 45

10 10 15 75 65

5 25 10 65 60

Unlined ditches (loss in new-lined ditches and pipelines is usually about one percent). For water measured at the field. For water measured at the farm headgate.

Source: From U.S. Department of Agriculture.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Suitabilities and Conditions of Use Irrigation Method

Crops

Topography

Water Supply

Soils

Remarks

Small rectangular basins

Grain, field crops, orchards, rice

Relatively flat land; area within each basin should be levelled

Can be adapted to streams of various sizes

Suitable for soils of high or low intake rates; should not be used on soils that tend to puddle

High installation costs. Considerable labor required for irrigating. When used for close-spaced crops, a high percentage of land is used for levees and distribution ditches. High efficiencies of water use possible

Large rectangular basins

Grain, field crops, rice

Flat land; must be graded to uniform plane

Large flows of water

Soils of fine texture with low intake rates

Lower installation costs and less labor required for irrigation than with small basins. Substantial levees needed

Contour checks

Orchards, grain, rice, forage crops

Irregular land; slopes less than 2 percent

Flows greater than 30 L (1 cubic foot) per second

Soils of medium to heavy texture which do not crack on drying

Little land grading required. Checks can be continuously flooded as for rice, water ponded as for orchards, or intermittently flooded as for pastures

Narrow borders up to 5 m (16 ft) wide

Pasture, grain, lucerne, vineyards, orchards

Uniform slopes less than 7 percent

Moderately large flows

Soils of medium to heavy texture

Borders should be in direction of maximum slope. Accurate crosslevelling required between guide levees

Wide borders up to 30 m (100 ft) wide

Grain, lucerne, orchards

Large flows, Land graded to uniform up to 600 L plane with maximum slope less than 0.5 percent (20 cubic feet) per second

Deep soils of medium to fine texture

Very careful land grading necessary. Minimum of labor required for irrigation. Little interference with use of farm machinery

Wild flooding

Pasture, grain

Irregular surfaces with slopes up to 20 percent

Can utilize small continuous flows on steeper land or large flows or large flows on flatter land

Soils of medium to fine texture with stable aggregate which do not crack on drying

Little land grading required. Low initial cost for system. Best adapted to shallow soils since percolation losses may be high on deep permeable soils

Benched terraces

Grain, field crops, forage crops, orchards, vineyards

Slopes up to 20 percent

Streams of small to medium size

Soils must be sufficiently deep that grading operations will not impair crop growth

Care must be taken in constructing benches and providing adequate drainage channels for excess water. Irrigation water must be properly managed. Misuse of water can result in serious soil erosion

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7I.108 Adaptations and Limitations of Common Irrigation Methods

(Continued) 7-183

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7I.108

(Continued) Suitabilities and Conditions of Use

Irrigation Method

Crops

Topography

Water Supply

Soils

Remarks

Straight furrows

Vegetables, row crops, orchards, vineyards

Uniform slopes not exceeding 2 percent for cultivated crops

Flows up to 350 L (12 cubic ft) per second

Can be used on all soils if length of furrows is adjusted to type of soil

Best suited for crops which cannot be flooded. High irrigation efficiency possible. Well adapted to mechanized farming

Graded contour furrows

Vegetables, field crops, orchards, vineyards

Undulating land with slopes up to 8 percent

Flows up to 100 L (3 cubic ft) per second

Soils of medium to fine texture which do not crack on drying

Rodent control is essential. Erosion hazard from heavy rains or water breaking out of furrows. High labor requirement for irrigation

Corrugations

Close-spaced crops such as grain, pasture, lucerne

Uniform slopes of up to 10 percent

Flows up to 30 L (1 cubic foot) per second

Best on soils of medium to fine texture

High water losses possible from deep percolation or surface run-off. Care must be used in limiting size of flow in corrugations to reduce soil erosion. Little land grading required

Basin furrows

Vegetables, cotton, maize Relatively flat land and other row crops

Flows up to 150 L (5 cubic ft) per second

Can be used with most soil types

Similar to small rectangular basins, except crops are planted on ridges

Zigzag furrows

Vineyards, bush berries, orchards

Flows required are usually Used on soils with low less than for straight intake rates furrows

Land graded to uniform slopes of less than 1 percent

This method is used to slow the flow of water in furrows to increase water penetration into soil

Source: From Bouher, L.J., 1974, Surface irrigation, FAO Agricultural Development Paper 95. Reprinted With permission.

WATER USE

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

7-185

Table 7I.109 Water Application Efficiencies of Irrigation Systems Type of System Surface Irrigation Basin Border Furrow Sprinkler Irrigation Hand move or portable Traveling gun Center pivot & linear move Solid set or permanent Trickle Irrigation With point source emitters With line source products

Attainable Efficiencies (%) 80–90 70–85 60–75 65–75 60–70 75–90 70–80 75–90 70–85

Source: From Solomon, K.H., 1998, Irrigation Systems and Water Application Efficiencies, Center of Irrigation Technology, Irrigation Notes, California State University, January 1998, www.wateright.org. Reprinted with permission.

Table 7I.110 Irrigation Efficiencies A. Field Efficiencies by Method of Irrigation Method of Irrigation Graded borders Basins and level borders Contour ditch Furrows Corrugations Subsurface

Range of Efficiency (percent) 60–75 60–80 50–55 55–70 50–70 Up to 80

B. Average Efficiencies for Selected Crops in California Crop Alfalfa and irrigated pasture Citrus Deciduous Truck Vineyard Walnuts

Average Efficiency (percent) 85 80 85 70 80 85

C. Sprinkler Efficiencies Climate Hot dry Moderate Humid or cool

Efficiency (percent) 60 70 80

Source: From U.S. Soil Conservation Service and California State Water Rights Board. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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WATER USE

Table 7I.111 Crop Irrigation Depths Crop

Humid Areas

Semiarid to Arid Areasa

Alfalfa Beans Beets (sugar) Broccoli Cabbage Clover (ladino) Corn (maize) Cotton Grapes

36–42 — — — — — 24–36 24–36 24–30

60–120 36–48 48–72 24 24 24 48–60 48–72 48–72

Orchards Citrus Deciduous

— 36–60

48–72 72–96

Pasture Peas Potatoes (white) Small grain Sorghum Soybeans Tobacco Tomatoes

18–36 — 12–24 18–30 20–30 18–36 15–24 —

36–48 36–48 26–48 48 — — — 72–120

Truck crops Shallow-rooted Medium-rooted Deep-rooted

9–12 12–24 24–30

— — —

Note: Soil depth in inches. a

Larger figure applies to arid areas.

Source: From U.S. Soil Conservation Service.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Coarse Sandy Soils

Light Sandy Loam

Medium Silt Loam

Clay Loam Soils

Slope Land Percent

Q per Unit

0–2

20 cfs per acre

Bordera or checks

0–2

1.5 cfs per 10 0 width

220 0

0.75 cfs per 10 0 width

440 0

0.5 cfs per 10 0 width

550 0 –880 0

0.33 cfs per 10 0 width

Furrows

0–2

220 0

0.01 cfs per each 0.005 each —

330 0

0.01 cfs per each 0.005 per each 0.002 per each

440 0 –660 0

0.008 cfs each

660 0

2–5 5–8

0.2 cfs per each — —

220 0 –440 0 110 0 –220 0

0.003 per each 0.001 per each

440 0 330 0

0–2 2–5 5–8 8–12

2 0 0 per hour 2 0 0 per hour 1.5 0 0 per hour 1.0 0 0 per hour

Irrigation Type Basins

a

Sprinkling

a

Length of Run

Q per Unit

Length of Run

7.5 cfs per acre

0.75 0 0 per hour 0.75 0 0 per hour 0.5 0 0 per hour 0.4 0 0 per hour

Q per Unit

Length of Run

5 cfs per acre

220 0

0.5 0 0 per 0.5 0 0 per 0.4 0 0 per 0.3 0 0 per

hour hour hour hour

Q per Unit

Length of Run

3 cfs per acre

Very Heavy Clay Soils

Q per Unit

Length or Run

2 cfs per acre 660 0 –880 0

3 cfs per 10 0 width 0.005 cfs per each 0.003 per each 0.001 per each

1,000 0

880 0 550 0 330 0

0.2 0 0 per hour 0.2 0 0 per hour 0.15 0 0 per hour

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7I.112 Water Requirements for Various Irrigation and Soil Types

The range in slope 0–2 per cent is in itself a very rough picture of field practices where the actual slopes, particularly with borders, tend to be closer to 0.2 or 0.3 per cent rather than this higher limit 2 per cent.

Source: From Calif. Agric. Exp. Station.

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WATER USE

Table 7I.113 Border Irrigation Relationships for Various Soils, Slopes, and Depths of Application Suggested Borderstrip Size Soil Texture

Slope of Land (percent)

Depth of Application (in.)

Width (ft)

Length (ft)

Size of Irrigation Stream (ft3/s)

0.25

2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6

50 50 50 40 40 40 30 30 30

500 800 1,320 300 500 900 200 300 600

8.0 7.0 6.0 2.75 2.50 2.50 1.25 1.00 1.00

2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6

50 50 50 40 40 40 30 30 30

800 1,320 1,320 500 1,000 1,320 300 600 1,000

7.0 6.0 3.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 1.0 1.0 1.0

2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6

50 50 50 40 40 40 30 30 30

1,320 1,320 1,320 1,320 1,320 1,320 660 1,320 1,320

4.0 2.5 1.5 2.5 1.25 0.75 1.0 1.0 0.67

Coarse

1.00

2.00

Medium

0.25

1.00

2.00

Fine

0.25

1.00

2.00

Source: From U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Table 7I.114 Irrigation Frequency in Relation to Soil Texture and Depth of Root Zone Wetted Soil Type Soil Depth Irrigated (in.) 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48

Sands

Loams

Clays

3 5 8 10 13 15 18 20

5 10 16 21 26 31 36 —

8 17 25 35 — — — —

Note: Approximate number of days between irrigations assuming water use to be 1 in./wk. Source: From U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soil Texture

Furrow Slope (percent)

Coarse

Medium

Maximum Allowable Nonerosive Furrow Stream (gal/min)

2

4

6

8

40 20 13 10 7 5 3 2

500 345 270 235 190 160 125 95

720 480 380 330 265 225 180 135

875 600 480 400 330 275 220 165

1,000 680 550 470 375 320 250 190

0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.50 2.00 3.00 5.00

Source: From U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Fine

Depth or Irrigation Application (in.) 2 4 6 8 Maximum Allowable Length of Run (ft) 820 560 450 380 310 260 210 160

1,150 800 630 540 430 370 295 225

1,450 975 775 650 530 450 360 270

1,650 1,120 900 760 620 530 420 320

2

4

6

8

1,050 730 580 500 400 345 270 210

1,500 1,020 820 750 570 480 385 290

1,750 1,250 1,000 850 700 600 470 350

2,140 1,460 1,150 990 800 675 550 410

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7I.115 Furrow Irrigation Relationships for Various Soils, Slopes, and Depths of Application

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q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Type Point-source emitters (drip/trickle/bubbler)

Surface or subsurface line-source emitter systems

Basin bubblers

Spray or mini sprinkler

Description Water is applied to the soil surface as discrete or continuous drops, tiny streams, or low volume fountain through small openings

Microtubes (spaghetti tubing) are classed as point-source emitters even though they are actually tubes rather than emitters. Microtubes consist of various lengths of flexible tubing that is small in diameter (0.020–0.040 in.). Typically, no other water control device is used. Because discharge orifices are small, complete filtration of water is required This type of irrigation uses surface or buried flexible tubing with uniformly spaced emitter points (or porous tubing). The tubing comes as layflat tubing, flexible tubing or as a semirigid tubing that retains its shape. Because discharge orifices are small, complete filtration of water is required The basin bubbler microirrigation system applies water to the soil surface in small fountain type streams. The discharge rate normally exceeds the infiltration rate of the soil, so small basins are used to contain the water until infiltration occurs. Discharge is generally from a small diameter (3/8–1/2 in.) flexible tube that is attached to a buried or surface lateral and located at each plant vine or tree. The typical emitter device is not used, and discharge pressures are very low (!5 Ib/in2) The discharge orifice is larger than that of the other systems, so little or no water filtration is required. Generally, screening of coarse debris and small creatures is sufficient. Drains must be provided to allow discharge of any collected sediment. Bubbler basins apply water to a larger soil volume than do drip emitters; therefore, only one outlet device is needed per plant or tree With spray or mini sprinkler micro irrigation systems, water is applied to the soil surface as spray droplets from small, low-pressure heads. The typical wetted diameter is 2–7 ft. The wetted pattern is larger than that of typical drip emitter devices, and generally fewer application devices are needed per plant. Spray and mini sprinklers also have less plugging problems and less filtration required than point-source emitters (drippers). Many spray heads only require the replacement of the orifice to change discharge rate. If an orifice becomes plugged, it is easily removed and cleaned or replaced. Spray or mini sprinkler head application patterns can be full, half circle, or partial circle (both sides)

Discharge Rate Discharge is in units of gallons per hour (gph) or gallons per minute (gpm) over a specified pressure range. Discharge rates typically range from 0.5 gph to nearly 0.5 gpm for individual drip emitters. Discharge rates are adjusted by varying the length of the tubing. The longer the tube, the greater the friction loss, which decreases the discharge rate. Flows for bubblers are generally less than 1 gal/min

Surface or subsurface line-source emitter systems have a uniform discharge units of gallons per hour per foot (gph/ft) or gallons per minute per 100 feet (gpm/100 ft) over a specified pressure range The streams have a point discharge rate greater than that for a typical drip or line source system, but generally less than 1 gal/min

Discharge rates are generally less than 30 gallons per hour (0.5 gph)

WATER USE

Source: From USDA, National Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Irrigation — Handbooks and Manuals — National Engineering Handbook Part 652—Irrigation Guide, www.info.usda.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7I.116 Types of Microirrigation Systems

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7-191

Table 7I.117 Advantages and Disadvantages of Microirrigation Advantages

Disadvantages

Little if any run-off and little evaporation occur, and deep percolation can be controlled with good water management. Water is applied at the point of use (plant transpiration) Systems are easily automated with soil moisture sensors and computer controlled for low labor requirements Soil moisture levels can be maintained at predetermined levels for start-stop operation

Microirrigation is considered expensive to install and maintain. In general, the cost of micro systems is greater than that for sprinkle or surface systems

Fertilizer can be efficiently added to irrigation water. With proper water management, there is minimum waste caused by deep percolation, and less opportunity for groundwater pollution Much of the soil surface remains dry, reducing weed growth and soil surface evaporation

The soil surface remains firm for use by farm workers and equipment

Frequent irrigations can be used to keep salts in the soil water more diluted and moved away from plant roots. Irrigation with water of higher salinity is possible (requires a high level of management). Where salts are present, soil-water movement must always be toward the edges of the wetted bulb (away from roots). A common mistake is to shut the system down when precipitation occurs, often creating soil-water movement into the plant root zone Microirrigation can be used on all terrain and most agricultural crops and soils and is often used on steep, rocky ground that is unsuitable for other forms of irrigation Low tension water availability to plants enhances growth and improves crop yield and quality

Frequent maintenance is essential, and a high level of management is required to obtain optimum application efficiencies Clogging is a major problem in all micro systems. Emitter outlets are very small, and can be easily clogged with chemical precipitates, soil particles, or organic materials. Clogging can reduce or stop water emission. Chemical treatment of the water is often necessary, and filters are almost always required. Filtration and treatment can be costly, especially where water is taken from surface sources containing sediment and debris. During installation, care should be taken to clean all construction debris from the inside of pipelines as this material can cause plugging Animals, especially rodents, can damage surface (and shallow subsurface) installed plastic pipe less than 4 in. in diameter

With low operating pressures, poor distribution uniformity can result because of elevation differences on undulating ground. Pressure regulators or pressure compensated emitters are then necessary. However, they require about 2 pounds per square inch for operation On steep terrain, automatic gravity draining of laterals to a low point within the field can cause low distribution uniformity, especially in low pressure, high volume systems. This problem is aggravated by frequent on-off cycles, but can be overcome by installing air-vacuum valves in a raised pipe arch (i.e., dog leg) at one or more locations in the lateral. Drains are installed just upstream of each pipe arch. This increases the number of sites affected by lateral pipe drainage, thus decreasing effects on distribution uniformity because each drain discharges less water When soil water is reduced in the plant root zone, light rains can move salts in surrounding soil into the plant root zone, which can constitute a potential hazard. Salts also concentrate below the soil surface at the perimeter of the soil volume wetted by each emitter. If the soil dries between irrigations, reverse movement of soil water can carry salts from the perimeter back into the root zone. To avoid salt damage to roots, water movement must always be away from the emitter and from the plant root zone. In high soil salinity areas or when using high saline or sodic water for irrigation, one may need to irrigate when it rains A smaller volume of soil is wetted at each plant. Plants can be quickly stressed if the system fails (i.e., pump failure, water source cutoff, pipeline or valve failure). Daily checking of the system is necessary even when all or part is automated. Storing a 3-day plant-water supply in the soil is recommended along with daily replacement of water used Multiple emitters at each plant are recommended to decrease effects of manufacturer variability, to increase area of root development, and to reduce risk of plant damage should an emitter become plugged

Source: From USDA, National Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Irrigation — Handbooks and Manuals — National Engineering Handbook Part 652—Irrigation Guide, www.info.usda.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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WATER USE

Table 7I.118 Percentage of Water Obtained by Plants from Various Depths in the Soil Water Obtained from Item

Crop

1 2 3 4

Cotton .do .do Alfalfa

5

Orange trees, mature

Soil Heavy clay Sandy loam Clay loam Fine sandy loam Sandy loam

First Foot (Percent)

Second Foot (Percent)

Third Foot (Percent)

Fourth Foot (Percent)

Fifth Foot (Percent)

Sixth Foot (Percent)

66.0 34.6 33.2 47.0

15.9 27.2 25.6 15.0

6.1 20.7 17.3 15.0

5.2 12.5 12.6 12.0

5.7 4.9 6.7 8.0

1.1 — 4.5 3.0

37.0

30.0

15.0

11.0

4.0

3.0

Source: From Univ. of California Agric. Extension and U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Table 7I.119 Irrigation Frequency and Amount of Water to Be Applied by Sprinkling Irrigation When Varying Amounts of Available Water Remain on the Soil Interval in Days between Irrigations and Depth in Inches to Be Applied When Different Amounts of Available Water Remain in the Soil Time Since Planting in Days 0–9 9–18 18–27 27–36 36–45 45–54 54–63 63–72 72–81 81–90

Consumptive Use of Water (in./day)

Maximum Depth of Average Available Root Depth of Zone (in.) Rooting (in.)

0.05 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.05

2 6 11 16 21 26 31 35 38 41

0.2 0.6 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.5 3.8 4.2

75%

50%

25%

0%

Days

Depth Inches

Days

Depth Inches

Days

Depth Inches

Days

Depth Inches

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11 20

0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.7

2 5 7 8 10 12 14 17 21 41

0.4 0.7 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.1 2.4 2.7 2.9 3.1

3 8 10 13 15 17 21 25 33 61

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 2.9 3.3 3.7 4.0 4.2

4 10 13 17 20 24 28 34 44 82

0.6 1.3 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.7 4.2 4.7 5.1 5.5

Note: Length of growing period is 3 months; soil texture is coarse. Source: From Israelson and Hansen, Irrigation Principles and Practices, John Wiley & Sons, Copyright 1962. With permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7I.120 Acres Irrigated by Method of Irrigation and Irrigation Water Used by Source in the United States, 1998 and 2003 1998 Irrigation Method (acres irrigated) Sprinklers Center pivot — low pressure Center pivot — medium pressure Center pivot — high pressure Linear move towers Solid set and permanent Side roll Big gun or traveler Hand move Gravity flow Down rows or furrows Controlled flooding Uncontrolled flooding Other gravity Drip, trickle, or low-flow Subirrigation Irrigation Water Used by Source Total: Acre-feet (million) Wells: Acre-feet (million) Percent On-farm: Acre-feet (million) Percent Off-farm: Acre-feet (million) Percent Average Acre-Feet of Water Applied

2003

24,865,142 9,292,022 7,419,409 1,983,869 284,756 1,222,683 2,033,825 765,794 1,862,784 27,273,419 14,025,125 8,472,646 3,273,796 1,501,852 2,259,176 549,655

Percent Change

26,937,835 9,696,930 9,657,353 1,938,808 344,162 1,177,953 1,825,901 633,188 1,663,540 23,124,131 11,723,084 8,847,392 2,297,956 255,699 2,988,101 279,522

97.3 43.8 45 11.9 12 41.5 43 1.79

C8.3 C4.4 30.2 K2.3 20.9 K3.7 K10.3 K17.3 K10.7 K15.2 K16.4 C4.4 K29.8 K83 C32.3 K49.2

86.9 43.5 50 11.8 14 31.6 36 1.65

Source: From USDA, 2004, Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey (2003) Vol. 3, Special Studies, Part 1, 2002; Census of Agriculture, www.nass.usda.gov.

Table 7I.121 Sprinkler Irrigation in the United States, 1998 and 2003 Region and State Eastern states Arkansas Florida Georgia IIlinois Indiana Iowa Louisiana Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Wisconsin All other states Subtotal Western states Arizona California Colorado Idaho Kansas Montana Nebraska Nevada New Mexico North Dakota

1998 (Acres)

2003 (Acres)

Share of Total in 2003 (Percent)

Acreage Change, 1998–2003 (Percent)

579,218 301,735 613,379 288,513 212,606 65,879 105,525 354,350 311,627 350,358 342,009 352,699 602,638 4,480,536

550,123 176,384 596,133 372,212 271,231 128,824 99,285 418,778 416,901 377,268 412,214 389,434 500,499 4,709,286

2.0 0.7 2.2 1.4 1.0 0.5 0.4 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.9 17.5

K5.0 K41.5 K2.8 29.0 27.6 95.5 K5.9 18.2 33.8 7.7 20.5 10.4 K16.9 5.1

81,385 1,528,038 1,290,045 2,186,806 2,054,238 570,550 3,686,495 179,859 346,535 121,389

152,754 1,723,040 1,246,601 2,202,917 2,283,103 773,008 5,605,283 211,890 389,774 171,673

0.6 6.4 4.6 8.2 8.5 2.9 20.8 0.8 1.4 0.6

87.7 12.8 K3.4 0.7 11.1 35.5 52.0 17.8 12.5 41.4 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7I.121

WATER USE

(Continued)

Region and State Oklahoma Oregon South Dakota Texas Utah Washington Wyoming Subtotal U.S. Total (excluding Hawaii and Alaska)

1998 (Acres)

2003 (Acres)

Share of Total in 2003 (Percent)

335,014 769,310 199,855 3,195,982 427,319 1,263,572 234,847 18,471,239 22,951,775

433,099 1,048,211 287,014 3,506,636 472,180 1,450,274 262,994 22,220,451 26,929,737

1.6 3.9 1.1 13.0 1.8 5.4 1.0 82.5 100.0

Acreage Change, 1998–2003 (Percent) 29.3 36.3 43.6 9.7 10.5 14.8 12.0 20.3 17.3

Source: From USDA, 1999, 1998 Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey, vol. 3, Special Studies, Part 1 1997 Census of Agriculture, USDA, 2004, Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey (2003), vol. 3, Special Studies, Part 1, 2002 Census of Agriculture, www.nass.usda.gov.

Table 7I.122 Water Applications for Selected Crops in the United States, 2003

Crop Corn for grain or seed Corn for silage or greenchop Sorghum for grain or seed Wheat for grain or seed Barley for grain or seed Rice Cotton Soybeans for beans Beans, dry edible Alfalfa and alfalfa mixtures (dry hay, haylage and greenchop) All other hay (dry hay, haylage, grass silage, and greenchop) Sugarbeets for sugar Potatoes Vegetables Orchards Total

Average Application Rate AF/Acre

Irrigated Acreage Harvested 1000 Acres

Estimated Water Use Million AF

Share of Total Water Used Percent (%)

1.2 2.2 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.3 1.4 0.8 1.6 2.3

9,750 1,313 1,108 3,269 991 2,995 4,080 5,347 458 6,222

11.7 2.9 1.1 4.9 1.5 6.9 5.7 4.3 0.7 14.3

15 4 1 6 2 9 7 6 1 19

1.7

3,254

5.5

7

2.7 1.8 2.1 2.2

562 1,033 2,081 4,105 46,567

1.5 1.9 4.4 9.0 76

2 2 6 12 100

Source: Abstracted from Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey (2003), vol. 3, Special Studies, Part 1, 2002; Census of Agriculture issued November 2004, www.nass.usda.gov. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7I.123 Depth of Irrigation Water Applied, by Region and Crop, 1969–1998 1969a

1974a

1979b

1984b

1988b

1994b

1998b

Inchesc Region Atlanticd North Centrale Northern Plains Delta States Southern Plains Mountain States Pacific Coast United Statese Crop Corn for grain Sorghum for grain Barley Wheat Rice Soybeans Cotton Alfalfa Other hays Vegetables Land in orchards a b c d e

8.0 7.5 16.0 15.5 18.0 30.5 32.5 25.2

11.0 8.0 17.5 17.0 18.5 28.5 33.5 25.0

13.0 8.5 15.0 17.5 17.5 26.5 33.5 23.2

14.0 9.0 13.5 17.5 16.5 24.5 33.5 22.1

12.5 10.0 14.5 18.0 17.0 24.5 34.5 22.3

10.5 7.5 12.0 13.0 17.0 24.0 32.5 20.2

13.0 8.0 12.0 16.5 17.0 24.5 33.0 20.9

18.5 19.0 30.0 23.5 28.0 12.0 23.0 32.5 22.0 25.0 29.0

19.5 19.0 26.5 24.0 28.5 11.0 25.5 30.5 21.0 25.5 30.0

16.5 16.5 23.0 21.0 30.0 10.5 26.0 28.0 20.0 25.5 30.0

16.0 14.5 18.5 16.5 33.5 9.5 24.5 28.0 21.0 27.0 31.0

16.0 14.5 18.0 16.0 32.5 10.0 24.0 29.0 19.5 26.5 31.5

13.5 13.5 19.0 17.0 27.0 8.5 20.0 26.5 20.5 24.0 27.0

14.5 12.5 19.5 17.0 28.5 10.0 19.0 29.0 24.5 24.0 28.0

Census of Agriculture. Estimates constructed by State/crop from the Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey and ERS estimates of irrigated area. Includes Alaska and Hawaii. Northeast, Appalachian, and Southeast production regions. Lake States and Corn Belt farm production regions.

Source: From Heimlict. R., 2003, Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators 2003, Agriculture Handbook No. (AH722), February 2003, www.ers.usda.gov. Original Source: USDA, ERS, based on USDC Census of Agriculture, various years; Farm and Ranch Irrigation Surveys (USDA, 1999b; USDC, 1996; USDC, 1990, and previous versions).

Table 7I.124 Irrigation System versus Crops Grown Crop Category Irrigation System Surface Basins, borders Furrows, corrugations Contour levee-rice Sprinkler Side (wheel) roll lateral Hand move Iateral Fixed (solid) set Center pivot, linear move Big guns-traveling, stationary Micro Point source Line source Basin bubbler Mini sprinklers & spray heads Subirrigation a b c d

a

2b

3c

4d

X X X

X

X

X X

1

X X X X

X

X X X X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X X X X X

Row or bedded crops: sugar beets, sugarcane, potatoes, pineapple, cotton, soybeans, corn, sorghum, milo, vegetables, vegetable and flower seed, melons, tomatoes, and strawberries. Close-growing crops (sown, drilled, or sodded): small grain, alfalfa, pasture, and turf. Water flooded crops: rice and taro. Permanent crops: orchards of fruit and nuts, citrus groves, grapes, cane berries, blueberries, cranberries, bananas and papaya plantations, hops, and trees and shrubs for windbreaks, wildlife, landscape, and ornamentals.

Source: From USDA, National Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Irrigation-Handbook and Manuals – National Engineering Handbook Part 652-Irrigation Guide, www.info.usda.gov. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7I.125 Typical Life and Annual Maintenance Cost Percentage for Irrigation System Components System and Components

Life (yr)

Annual Maint. (% of Cost)

10–15 15C 15C 10C 15C 15C 15C 15C 10C 15C 10C

2–6 2 2 3 4 2 5 6 6 6 6

Sprinkler systems Handmove Side or wheel roll End tow Side move w/drag lines Stationary gun type Center pivot—standard Linear move Cable tow Hose pull Traveling gun type Fixed or solid set Permanent Portable Sprinkler gear driven, impact & spray heads Valves

20C 15C 5–10

1 2 6

10–25

3

Micro systema Drip Spray Bubbler Semi-rigid, buried Semi-rigid, surface Flexible, thin wall, buried Flexible, thin wall, surface Emitters & heads Filters, injectors, valves

1–20 5–10 5–10 15C 10–20 10 10 1–5 5–10 10C

2–10 3 3 2 2 2 2 10 6 7

a b c

System and Components

Life (yr)

Surface & subsurface systems

Annual Maint. (% of Cost)

15

5

Related components Pipelines buried thermoplastic buried steel surface aluminum surface thermoplastic buried nonreinforced concrete buried galv. steel buried corrugated metal buried reinforced PMP gated pipe, rigid, surface surge valves

25C 25 20C 5C 25C 25C 25C 25C 10C 10C

1 1 2 4 1 1 1 1 2 6

Pumps pump only w/electric motors w/internal combustion engine

15C 10C 10C

3 3 6

25C

1

15C 10 20C

5 5 1

Wells Linings nonreinforced concrete flexible membrane reinforced concrete

b

Land grading, leveling Reservoirs

c

With no disturbance from tillage and harvest equipment. Indefinite with adequate maintenance. Indefinite with adequate maintenance of structures, watershed.

Source: From USDA, National Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Irrigation-Handbook and Manuals – National Engineering Handbook Part 652-Irrigation Guide, wcc.nrcs.usda.

Table 7I.126 Energy Requirement and Energy Costs for Various Irrigation Systems in the United States Cost of Energy (Dollars)

Traveling big guns Center-Pivot (High) 75 (Low) 50 Skid-Tow Gated pipe without reuse Gated pipe with reuse Auto-surface Drip trickle

Total Lift (Feet)

Field Efficiency (Percent)

Potential Efficiency

Water Per Acre (Inches)

Fuel Per Acre (Gallons)

1973

1979

1980

389

70

75

17

91.1

$13.67

$74.70

$113.88

273 215 215 120

80 80 75 60

85 85 80 70

15 15 16 20

56.4 44.4 47.4 33.1

8.46 6.66 7.11 4.97

46.25 36.41 38.87 27.14

70.50 55.50 59.25 41.38

120

70

85

17

28.1

4.22

23.04

35.13

120 150

85 85

92 92

14 14

23.1 28.9

3.47 4.34

18.94 23.70

28.88 36.13

Note: Diesel fuel only. Based on 100 foot of lift from groundwater reservoir; 12 in. net of water; pumping plant operating at 75% of Nebraska performance standard of 10.94 water horsepower hours per gallon of diesel fuel or 14.6 brake horsepower hours per gallon of diesel fuel. Fuel cost per gallon: $0.15–1973, $0.82–1979; $1.25–1980. Source: From Fischbach, P.E., 1980, Energy Requirements of Auto-Surface Irrigation, Copyright, The Irrigation Assoc., 1980 Technical Conference Proceedings. Reprinted with permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7I.127 On-Farm Energy Expense in the United States, 1998 and 2003 1998

2003

On-Farm Energy Pumping Expenses

Expenses ($1,000)

Expenses Per Acre Irrigated (Dollars) Wells and Surface Water

Total energy expenses for pump Electricity Natural gas LP gas, propane, and butane Diesel fuel Gasoline and gasohol

1,223,106

31.92

801,184 206,900 27,716 182,832 4475

39.75 33.99 16.99 17.78 28.14

Expenses Per Acre Irrigated (Dollars) Expenses ($1,000)

Water from Wells

Surface Water

1,551,847

39.50

26.39

953,247 281,029 34,053 281,490 2,027

42.64 57.25 27.21 25.09 11 60

29.84 33.67 22.68 16.27 18.05

Source: Abstracted from USDA, 1999, 1998 Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey, vol. 3, Special Studies, Part 1, 1997 Census of Agriculture. USDA, 2004, Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey (2003), vol. 3, Special Studies, Part 1, 2002; Census of Agriculture, nass.usda.gov.

Table 7I.128 Supply Sources and Variables Costs of Irrigation Water, 1998a

Water Source Groundwater Only sourcee Combined sources Onfarm surface water Only source Combined sources Off-farm surface waterg Only source Combined sources Total Only source Combined sources

Acre Irrigated (Million)

Share of Acres Irrigatedb (Percent)

23.5 6.3

47 13

4.2 2.7

Average costb ($/Acre)

Cost Rangeb ($/Acre)

32c

7–69d

Pumping cost varies with energy prices, depth to water, and efficiency of pumping system

n/a

0–15f

Costs are very low in most cases. Some water is pumped from surface sources at higher costs, since energy is required

41h

10–85i

Most actress relying on off-farm sources are located in West

n/a

n/a

The sum of acres is greater than the irrigated total in the Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey due to double counting of combined water sources

8 5

10.3 4.8

21 10

37.9 13.8

76 27

Comments

Note: n/a indicates data not available. a b c d e f g h i

These values include only energy costs for pumping or purchased water costs. Management and labor costs associated with irrigation decisions, system maintenance, and water distribution are not included. Available data are from the 1998 Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey. Reported national average energy expense for the on-farm pumping of irrigation water. Range in State energy expenses for the onfarm pumping of irrigation water. Only source means that farms used no other irrigation water source. Cost estimates based on engineering formulas with an efficient electric system. Included a minor amount of groundwater supplied from off-farm suppliers. Reported average cost for off-farm supplies. Range in reported State average cost of water from off-farm suppliers for State irrigating 50,000 or more acres from off-farm sources. If all States are included, the range expands to $2–$175 per acre.

Source: From Helmich, R., 2003, Agricultural Resource and Environmental Indicators 2003, Agricultural Handbook No (AH 777) February 2003, ers.200usda.gov. Original Source: USDA, ERS based on USDA (1999), 1998 Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7I.129 Distribution of Irrigation Withdrawals, Acres, Annual Application and Estimated Pumping Costs: 1995

State California Idaho Colorado Texas Montana Nebraska Wyoming Washington Oregon Arkansas Arizona Utah Florida Kansas New Mexico Mississippi Nevada 48-State Total/Average

Irrigation Withdrawals (mgd)

Irrigated Acres (1,000)

Irrigation Depth (ft/yr)

Surface Irrigation (% area)

Estimated Pumping Cost ($1995/ac/yr)

28,894 13,048 12,735 9,451 8,546 7,550 6,595 6,469 6,168 5,936 5,672 3,533 3,469 3,383 2,993 1,742 1,644 132,969

9,484 3,011 3,307 6,313 1,810 7,449 1,991 2,120 1,844 3,511 1,088 1,143 2,134 3,086 959 1,374 560 58,066

3.42 4.86 4.32 1.68 5.29 1.14 3.71 3.42 3.75 1.90 5.84 3.47 1.82 1.23 3.50 1.42 3.29 2.57

47.4 33.2 75.9 55.7 71.0 47.1 85.3 24.1 41.6 85.0 73.5 63.2 48.9 32.0 56.7 71.7 75.7 54.9

76.38 39.02 34.74 40.48 16.24 18.99 20.83 41.83 30.83 20.10 71.62 28.91 19.81 24.55 53.55 17.43 49.96 34.63

Source: From Dziegielewski, B. et al., 2002, Analysis of Water Use Trends in the United States: 1950–1995, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, February 28, 2002, http://info.geography.siu.edu/geography_info/research/. Reprinted with permission.

Table 7I.130 Fuel Energy Requirements for Pumping One Acre-Foot of Water at One Pound Per Square Inch Percentage of Water Pump Efficiency (Unit Fuel Per Acre-Foot Per psi) Energy Electricity Diesel Gasoline Natural gas LPG a

Horsepower Hoursa 1.206 per kWh 12.35 per gal 9.875 per gal 79 per MCFb 7.9 per gal

65

60

55

4.0503 0.4000 0.5004 0.0625 0.6254

4.3876 0.4330 0.5417 0.0677 0.6771

4.7866 0.4659 0.5830 0.0729 0.7287

This column refers to the assumed number of horsepower hours produced per unit of fuel. MCF equals 1,000 ft3. Source: From Sloggett, G., 1985, Energy and U.S. Agriculture: Irrigation Pumping, 1974–83, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Economic Report 545.

b

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Year 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Natural Gas (cents/ft3)

Electricity (cents/kwh)

Industriala Prices

Industrialb Prices

Realc

Nominal 0.271 0.342 0.359 0.314 0.312 0.445 0.524 0.402 0.578

[R] [R] [P]

0.294 0.364 0.376 0.325 0.319 0.445 0.512 0.387 0.547

Nominal [R] [R] [R] [R] [R] [R] [R] [R] [P]

4.66 4.60 4.53 4.48 4.43 4.64 5.04 4.88 4.95

[R]

Petroleum (dollars/gal) All Grades Nominal

Realc 5.06 4.90 4.75 4.64 4.53 4.64 4.92 4.69 4.68

[R] [R] [R] [R] [R] [R] [R] [R]

1.21 1.29 1.29 1.12 1.22 1.56 1.53 1.44 1.64

On-Highway Diesel Fueld

Realc 1.31 1.37 1.35 1.16 1.25 1.56 1.50 1.39 1.55

[R] [R] [R] [R] [R] [R] [R] [R]

1.11 1.24 1.20 1.04 1.12 1.49 1.40 1.32 1.51

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7I.131 Natural Gas, Electricity, and Petroleum Prices by Sector in the United States, 1995–2003

Note: RZRevised, PZPreliminary. a Residential, commercial, and industrial prices do not include the price of natural gas delivered to consumers on behalf of third parties. b Retail customers are classified as “Commercial” or “Industrial” based on NAICS (North American Industry Classification System) codes or usage falling within specified limits by rate schedule. c In chained (2000) dollars, calculated by using gross domestic product implicit price deflators. Corrected for inflation. d Nominal dollars. Source: DOE, Annual Energy Review 2003, www.eia.doe.gov.

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WATER USE

1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 1970

1974

1978

1982

1986

1990

1994

1998

2002

Diesel (dollars per gall)

Gasoline (dollars per gall)

Electricity (*10 cents per kWh)

Natural gas (cents per ft3)

Figure 7I.20 Nominal prices of major fuel sources: 1970–2002. (From Miranowski, J.A., Energy Demand and Capacity to Adjust in Agricultural Production, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Outlook Forum 2005 on Feb. 24 and 25, 2005.) www.usda.gov.

2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 1970

1974

1978

1982

1986

1990

1994

1998

2002

Diesel (dollars per gall)

Gasoline (dollars per gall)

Electricity (*10 cents per kWh)

Natural gas (cents per ft3)

Figure 7I.21 Real prices of major fuel sources: 1970–2002 (1996 dollars). (From Miranowski, J.A., Energy Demand and Capacity to Adjust in Agricultural Production, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Outlook Forum 2005 on Feb. 24 and 25, 2005.) www.usda.gov. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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3 Quadrillion BTUs

Electricity

LP gas

Natural gas 2 Diesel 1

Gasoline

0 1965

Fertilizers and pesticides 1975

1970

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

80 63

70 60

33

40

45

50 32

20

19

30 19

Dollars per acre (current dollars)

Figure 7I.22 Total energy used on farms, 1965–2002. (From Miranowski, J.A., Energy Demand and Capacity to Adjust in Agricultural Production, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Outlook Forum 2005 on Feb. 24 and 25, 2005.) www.usda.gov.

10 0 US

California Nebraska Texas Arkansas Total Electricity Natural gas, LP gas, propane and butane Diesel and gasoline

Idaho

Figure 7I.23 Average irrigation costs per acre—by energy source. (From Miranowski, J.A., Energy Demand and Capacity to Adjust in Agricultural Production, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Outlook Forum 2005 on Feb. 24 and 25, 2005.) usda.gov/oce/forum/Archives/pastyears.htm.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7I.132 Irrigation Technology and Water Management: Conventional Methods and Improved Practices System and Aspect Onfarm conveyance Gravity application systems Release of water Length of irrigation run Field gradient Field runoff Furrow management Pressurized application systems Pressure requirements Water distribution

Automation Versatility Water management Assessing crop needs

Conventional Technology or Management Practice Open earthen ditches

Concrete or other ditch linings; aboveground pipe; belowground pipe

Dirt or canvas checks with siphon tubes Length of field, often one-half mile or more Natural field slope, often substantial; uneven field surface Water allowed to move off field

Ditch portals or gates; gated pipe; gated pipe with surge flow or cablegation Shorter runs, one-quarter mile or less

Full furrow wetting; furrow bottoms uneven High pressure, typically above 60 pounds per square inche (psi) Large water dispersal pattern

Handmove systems; manually operated systems Limited to specific crops; used only to apply irrigation Judgment estimates

Timing of applied water

Fixed calendar schedule

Measurement of water

Not metered

Drainage

Source: From USDA, ERS.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Improved Technology or Management Practice

Runoff to surface-water system or Evaporation ponds; percolation to aquifers

Land leveled to reduce and smooth field surface gradient Applications controlled to avoid runoff; tailwater return systems Alternate furrow wetting; furrow bottoms smooth and consistent Reduced pressure requirements, often 10–30 psi More narrow water dispersal through sprinkler droptubes, improved emitter spacing, and low-flow systems Self-propelled systems; computer control of water applications Multiple crops; various uses—irrigation, chemigation, manure applications, frost protection, crop cooling Soil moisture monitoring; plant tissue monitoring; weather-based computations Water applied at needed by crop; managed for profit (not yield); managed for improved effectiveness of rainfall Measured using canal flumes, weirs, and meters; external and in-pipe flow meters Applications managed to limit drainage; reuse through tailwater pumpback; dual-use systems with subirrigation

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Table 7I.133 Efficient Water Management Practices for Agricultural Water Suppliers in California List A-Generally Applicable EWMPs Prepare and adopt and water management plan Designate a water conservation coordinator Support the availability of water management services to water users Improve communication and among water suppliers, water users, and other agencies Evaluate the need, if any for change in institutional policies to which the water supplier is subject Evaluate and improve efficiencies of the water supplier’s pumps List B-Conditionally Applicable EWMPs Facilitate alternative land use Facilitate using available recycled water that otherwise would not be used beneficially, meets all health and safety criteria and does not cause harm to crops or soil Facilitate financing capital improvements for on-farm irrigation systems Facilitate voluntary water transfers that do not unreasonably affect the water user, water supplier, the environment, or third parties Line or pipe ditches and canals Increase flexibility in water ordering by, and delivery to, water users within operational limits Construct and operate water supplier spill and tailwater recovery systems Optimize conjunctive use of surface and groundwater Automate canal structures List C-Other EWMPs Water measurement and water use reporting Pricing or other incentives Source: From California Department of Water Resources 1998, “Urban, Agricultural and Environmental Water Use,” California Water Plan Update Bulletin-160-98, California Dept. of Water Resources, Sacremento, Calif., November 1998, water.ca.gov.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 7J

IRRIGATION — WORLD

Table 7J.134 Water Use in the Agriculture Industry by Province, in Canada, 1996 Province Newfoundland and Labrador Prince Edward Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Canada

Livestock Watering (1000 m3)

Irrigation (1000 m3)

Total (1000 m3)

483 1,904 3,199 2,369 45,001 59,233 23,843 39,890 61,468 14,682 252,071

144 1,715 2,272 1,443 58,394 114,000 24,670 271,370 2,609,000 763,110 3,846,117

627 3,618 5,471 3,812 103,395 173,233 48,513 311,260 2,670,468 777,791 4,098,188

Note: There is no significant agricultural activity in the Territories. Source: From Statistics Canada “Human Activity and the Environment,” Annual Statistics 2003, page 14.Statistics Canada information is used with the permission of Statistics Canada. Users are forbidden to copy this material and/or redisseminate the data, in an original or modified form, for commercial purposes, without the expressed permissionof Statistics Canada. Information on the availability of the wide range of data from Statictics Canada can be obtained from Statistics Canada’s Regional Offices, its World Wide Web site at statcan.ca, and its toll-free access number 1-800-263-1136.

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Table 7J.135 Land Areas under Irrigation in Various Countries of the World, 1961–1997 Country and Region

1961

Africa Algeria 229 Angola 75 Benin 0 Botswana 1 Burkina Faso 2 Burundi 3 Cameroon 2 Cape Verde 2 Chad 5 Congo 0 Congo, Dem. Rep. (formerly Zaire) Coˆte d’Ivoire 4 Djibouti 1 Egypt 2,568 Eritrea Ethiopia 150 Gabon 4 Gambia 1 Ghana 0 Guinea 20 Guinea Bissau 17 Kenya 14 Lesotho 3 Liberia 0 Libya 121 Madagascar 300 Malawi 1 Mali 60 Mauritania 20 Mauritius 8 Morocco 875 Mozambique 8 Namibia 4 Niger 16 Nigeria 200 Reunion 3 Rwanda 4 Sao Tome and 10 Principe Senegal 70 Sierra Leone 1 Somalia 90 South Africa 808 Sudan 1,480 Swaziland 36 Tanzania 20 Togo 2 Tunisia 100 Uganda 2 Zambia 2 Zimbabwe 22 North and Central America Barbados 1 Belize 0 Canada 350 Costa Rica 26 Cuba 230

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

1997

233 75 2 2 2 5 4 2 5 0

238 75 2 1 4 5 7 2 5 1

244 75 4 1 8 5 10 2 6 2 0

253 75 5 2 10 10 14 2 6 1 7

338 75 6 2 12 14 21 2 10 1 9

384 75 6 2 20 14 21 3 14 1 10

555 75 10 1 25 14 21 3 17 1 11

560 75 20 1 25 14 21 3 20 1 11

6 1 2,672

20 1 2,843

34 1 2,825

44 1 2,445

54 1 2,497

66 1 2,648

150 4 1 0 20 17 14 3 0 130 330 1 60 20 12 895 16 4 16 200 5 4 10

155 4 1 7 50 17 29 3 2 175 330 4 61 30 15 920 26 4 18 200 5 4 10

158 4 1 7 50 17 40 3 2 200 465 13 60 30 15 1,060 40 4 18 200 5 4 10

160 4 1 7 90 17 40 3 2 225 645 18 60 49 16 1,217 65 4 23 200 5 4 10

162 4 1 7 90 17 42 3 2 300 826 18 60 49 17 1,245 93 4 30 200 8 4 10

162 4 1 6 90 17 54 3 2 470 1,000 20 78 49 17 1,258 105 4 66 230 11 4 10

73 1 3,283 28 190 7 2 11 93 17 67 3 2 470 1,087 28 85 49 18 1,258 107 7 66 235 12 4 10

73 1 3,300 28 190 7 2 11 95 17 67 3 2 470 1,090 28 86 49 18 1,251 107 7 66 233 12 4 10

85 2 90 890 1,550 40 28 2 100 3 2 34

78 6 95 1,000 1,625 47 38 4 200 4 9 46

78 13 100 1,017 1,700 56 52 6 200 4 18 70

62 20 125 1,128 1,800 58 120 6 243 6 19 80

90 28 180 1,128 1,946 62 127 7 300 9 28 90

94 28 180 1,290 1,946 67 144 7 300 9 30 100

71 29 200 1,270 1,946 69 150 7 361 9 46 150

71 29 200 1,270 1,950 69 155 7 380 9 46 150

1 0 380 26 330

1 1 421 26 450

1 1 500 36 580

1 1 596 61 762

1 2 748 110 861

1 2 718 118 900

1 3 720 126 910

1 3 720 126 910

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7J.135 Country and Region Dominican Republic El Salvador Guadeloupe Guatemala Haiti Honduras Jamaica Martinique Mexico Nicaragua Panama Puerto Rico Saint Lucia St. Vincent Trindad and Tobago United States South America Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador French Guiana Guyana Paraguay Peru Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Asia Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Bahrain Banglaesh Bhutan Brunei Darsm Cambodia China Cyprus Gaza Strip Georgia Hong Kong India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakstan Korea, DPR Korea, Rep. Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) 1961

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

1997

110

115

125

140

165

198

225

259

259

18 1 32 35 50 22 1 3,000 18 14 39 1 0 11

20 1 43 40 66 24 1 3,200 18 18 39 1 1 11

20 2 56 60 66 24 1 3,583 40 20 39 1 1 15

33 1 72 70 70 32 2 4,479 67 23 39 1 1 18

110 2 87 70 72 33 5 4,980 80 28 39 1 1 21

110 2 102 70 72 33 4 5,285 83 30 39 1 1 22

120 2 117 75 74 33 4 5,600 85 31 39 2 1 22

120 2 125 90 74 33 3 6,100 88 32 40 3 1 22

120 2 125 90 74 33 3 6,500 88 32 40 3 1 22

14,000

15,200

16,000

16,690

20,582

19,831

20,900

21,400

21,400

980 72 490 1,075 226 440 1 90 30 1,016 14 27 60

1,110 75 610 1,100 235 450 1 109 30 1,060 15 35 62

1,280 80 796 1,180 250 470 1 115 40 1,106 28 52 70

1,440 120 1,100 1,242 300 506 1 120 55 1,130 33 57 90

1,580 140 1,600 1,255 400 500 1 125 60 1,160 42 79 137

1,620 125 2,100 1,257 465 300 2 127 65 1,210 55 97 171

1,680 110 2,700 1,265 680 290 2 130 67 1,450 59 120 180

1,700 78 3,169 1,265 1,037 240 2 130 67 1,753 60 140 200

1,700 88 3,169 1,270 1,061 250 2 130 67 1,760 60 140 205

2,160 2,260 2,340 Formerly included in Soviet Union Formerly included in Soviet Union 1 1 1 426 572 1,058 8 10 18

2,430

2,505

2,586

3,000

1 1,441 22 0 89 42,776 30 10

1 1,569 26 1 100 45,467 30 10

1 2,073 30 1 130 44,581 30 11

2 2,936 39 1 160 47,965 36 11

6 33,730 3,900 5,900 1,567 180 3,171 36

3 38,478 4,301 4,948 1,750 203 3,055 37

3 41,779 4,300 6,800 1,750 233 2,952 48

2 45,144 4,410 7,000 3,525 206 2,846 63

900 1,277 1

1,120 1,307 1

1,270 1,325 2

1,420 1,345 3

40

115

119

130

2,800 290 1,453 4 3,429 39 1 270 49,857 40 12 469 2 53,000 4,687 7,264 3,525 199 2,745 75 2,380 1,460 1,206 5 1,077 155

2,800 290 1,455 5 3,693 40 1 270 51,819 40 12 470 2 57,000 4,815 7,265 3,525 199 2,701 75 2,149 1,460 1,163 5 1,074 164

62 100 89 30,402 33,579 38,113 30 30 30 8 8 9 Formerly included in Soviet Union 9 8 8 24,685 26,510 30,440 3,900 3,900 3,900 4,700 4,900 5,200 1,250 1,350 1,480 136 151 172 2,940 2,943 3,415 31 32 34 Formerly included in Soviet Union 500 500 500 1,150 1,199 1,184 0 0 1 Formerly included in Soviet Union 12 13 17

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

Table 7J.135 Country and Region Lebanon Malaysia Mongolia Myanmar (Burma) Nepal Oman Pakistan Philippines Qatar Saudi Arabia Sri Lanka Syria Tajikistan Thailand Turkey Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam West Bank Yemen Europe Albania Austria Bel-Lux Belarus Bulgaria Bosnia Herzegovina Croatia Czechoslovakia Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Italy Latvia Lithuania Macedonia Malta Moldova Rep. Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom

7-207

(Continued) 1961

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

1997

41 61 68 228 236 262 5 5 10 536 753 839 70 86 117 20 23 29 10,751 11,472 12,950 690 730 826 1 1 1 343 353 365 335 341 465 558 522 451 Formerly included in Soviet Union 1,621 1,768 1,960 1,310 1,400 1,800 Formerly included in Soviet Union 30 35 45

86 308 23 976 230 34 13,630 1,040 1 375 480 516

86 320 35 999 520 38 14,680 1,219 3 600 525 539

86 334 60 1,085 760 41 15,760 1,440 5 800 583 652

86 335 77 1,005 900 58 16,940 1,560 6 900 520 693

2,419 2,200

3,015 2,700

3,822 3,200

4,238 3,800

50

53

58

63

105 340 84 1,555 1,134 62 17,200 1,550 13 1,620 570 1,089 719 4,642 4,186 1,750 68

117 340 84 1,556 1,135 62 17,580 1,550 13 1,620 600 1,168 720 5,010 4,200 1,800 72

1,000 8 282

1,542 9 289

1,770 10 302

1,840 10 348

4,281 2,000 9 485

4,281 2,300 9 485

331 4 1

371 4 1

399 4 1

423 4 1

1,128

1,197

1,229

1,263

340 4 24 115 800 2

340 4 35 115 800 2

3

3

136

123

187

282

180

391

410

430

40 680 448 875 156 2,400

60 870 460 961 134 2,400

62 1,050 470 1,099 138 2,425

64 1,300 482 1,195 204 2,711

1

1

1

1

430 40 231 625 1,474

480 74 100 630 2,301

530 90 100 630 2,956

555 97 100 630 3,109

2,818 45 25

3,029 70 25

3,217 99 25

3,402 114 25

86

140

152

164

24 481 4 64 1,630 475 1,325 210 2,698 20 9 61 1 309 565 127 100 632 3,110 5,362 217 2 3,527 115 25 2,585 108

24 476 4 64 1,670 475 1,385 210 2,698 20 9 55 2 309 565 127 100 632 3,089 4,990 190 2 3,603 115 25 2,466 108

Formerly included in Soviet Union 1,000 980 980 10 10 9 207 231 260 156 4 1 Formerly included 720 Formerly included

205 284 4 4 1 1 in Soviet Union 945 1,001 in Yugoslavia

Formerly included in Yugoslavia 108 116 126 Formerly included in Czechoslovakia 40 65 90 Formerly included in Soviet Union 2 7 16 360 440 539 321 390 419 430 576 730 133 100 109 2,400 2,400 2,400 Formerly included in Soviet Union Formerly included in Soviet Union Formerly included in Yugoslavia 1 1 1 Formerly included in Soviet Union 290 330 380 18 25 30 295 275 213 620 621 622 206 230 731 Formerly included in Soviet Union Formerly included in Czechoslovakia Formerly included in Yugoslavia 1,950 2,226 2,379 20 22 33 20 23 25 Formerly included in Soviet Union 108 105 88

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7J.135 Country and Region Yugoslavia Yugoslav SFR Former Soviet Union Oceania Australia Fiji New Zealand Total Irrigated Area (000 ha) Rate of Change over Period Average Annual Change (%)

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) 1961

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

121 118 130 Formerly included in Yugoslavia 9,400 9,900 11,100

133

145

164

170

14,500

17,200

19,689

20,800

1,469 1 150 187,559

1,500 1 183 209,233

1,700 1 256 223,304

1,832 1 280 242,185

1,001 1 77 138,813

1965

1,274 1 93 149,740

1,476 1 111 167,331

1995

1997

65

65

2,500 3 285 260,083

2,700 3 285 267,727

0.08

0.12

0.12

0.12

0.07

0.08

0.07

0.03

1.97

2.35

2.42

2.31

1.35

1.69

1.48

1.47

Note: Data for the former Soviet Union after 1990 are split among the separate independent states, now included in Asia and Europe. Data from Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia after 1990 are now split among several independent states. Original Source Food and Agriculture Organization, 1999. Web site at www.fao.org. Source: From World’s Water 2000–2001, by Peter H. Gleick. Copyright q 2000 Island Press. Reproduced by permission of Island Press, Washington, DC.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Canada Mexico U.S.A. Japan Korea Australia N.Zealand Austria Belgium Czech R. Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy The Netherl. Norway Poland Portugal Slov.R. Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey UK Russ.F. N.America Australia OECD EU OECD World

1980

1985

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

5,960 49,800 205,820 30,550 13,070 15,000 1,830 40 130 — 3,910 600 8,700 4,600 9,610 1,340 — — 24,000 4,800 740 1,000 6,300 — 30,290 700 250 27,000 1,400 49,940 261,580 16,830 126,640 95,080 448,670 2,097,160

7,480 52,850 198,310 29,520 13,250 17,000 2,560 40 170 — 4,100 620 10,500 4,700 11,240 1,380 — — 24,250 5,300 900 1,000 6,300 — 32,170 990 250 32,000 1,520 58,050 258,640 19,560 139,300 101,900 460,270 2,251,380

7,180 56,000 209,000 28,460 13,450 18,320 2,800 40 180 — 4,300 640 13,000 4,820 11,950 2,040 — — 27,110 5,550 970 1,000 6,310 — 34,020 1,140 250 38,000 1,640 61,220 272,180 21,120 155,780 110,700 490,990 2,443,060

7,200 58,000 209,000 28,250 13,350 20,120 2,830 40 180 — 4,350 640 13,500 4,820 12,020 2,100 — — 27,100 5,570 970 1,000 6,310 — 33,880 1,160 250 40,000 1,360 60,540 274,200 22,950 156,950 110,930 495,700 2,479,660

7,200 61,000 214,000 28,020 13,000 20,690 2,850 40 180 — 4,350 640 14,000 4,820 12,890 2,240 — — 27,000 5,600 970 1,000 6,310 — 34,030 1,150 250 40,000 1,080 55,530 282,200 23,540 157,900 112,090 504,660 2,514,540

7,200 62,000 215,000 27,820 12,700 21,070 2,850 40 180 240 4,550 640 14,770 4,850 13,300 2,060 — — 27,000 5,600 1,000 1,000 6,310 2,990 34,530 1,150 250 40,000 1,080 52,980 284,200 23,920 161,540 114,000 510,180 2,555,470

7,200 63,000 217,000 27,640 12,350 24,080 2,850 40 180 240 4,650 6,40 15,000 4,850 13,520 2,100 — — 27,000 5,650 1,100 1,000 6,310 2,350 36,570 1,150 250 41,860 1,080 51,580 287,200 26,930 165,540 116,640 519,660 2,579,820

7,200 64,000 218,000 27,450 12,060 24,000 2,850 40 240 240 4810 640 16,300 4,850 13,830 2,100 — — 26,980 5,650 1,270 1,000 6,320 2,170 35,270 1,150 250 41,860 1,080 53,620 289,200 26,850 166,050 117,160 521,610 2,614,280

7,200 65,000 220,000 27,240 11,760 23,900 2,850 40 300 240 4,810 640 17,500 4,850 14,140 2,100 — — 26,980 5,650 1,270 1,000 6,500 1,940 36,030 1,150 250 42,000 1,080 51,080 292,200 26,750 168,470 119,670 526,420 2,638,870

7,200 65,000 222,820 27,010 11,630 23,800 2,850 40 350 240 4,760 640 1,9070 4,850 1,4820 2,100 — — 26,980 5,650 1,270 1,000 6,500 1,710 36,340 1,150 250 42,000 1,080 49,900 295,020 26,650 170,800 122,230 531,110 2,673,220

7,200 65,000 223,000 26,790 11,590 23,650 2,850 40 350 240 4,600 640 20,000 4,850 14,220 2,100 — — 26,980 5,650 1,270 1,000 6,500 1,740 36,520 1,150 250 43,800 1,080 46,630 295,200 26,500 172,980 122,580 533,060 2,686,880

7,200 65,000 224,000 26,590 11,530 22,510 2,850 40 350 240 4,470 640 21,000 4,850 14,410 2,100 — — 26,980 5,650 1,270 1,000 6,500 1,780 36,550 1,150 250 45,000 1,080 46,000 296,200 25,360 175,310 123,670 534,990 2,699,340

7,200 65,000 224,000 26,410 11,490 23,850 2,850 40 350 240 4470 640 22,000 4,850 14,510 2,100 — — 27,000 5,650 1,270 1,000 6,500 1,830 36,550 1,150 250 45,000 1,080 46,000 296,200 26,700 176,480 124,790 537,280 2,716,890

WATER USE

Table 7J.136 Irrigated Areas for Selected Countries of the World, 1980–2000

Note: Units are given in km2. a. Areas equipped to provide water to the crops. These include areas equipped for full and partial control irrigation, spate irrigation areas, and equipped wetland or inland valley bottoms. All figures are rounded to the nearest 10 km2. † JPN, Rice irrigation only; † KOR, Rice irrigation only; † BEL, Data for Belgium include Luxembourg.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-209

Source: Table 10.2, OECD Environment Data Compendium 2002, q OECD 2002, www.oecd.org.

7-210

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7J.137 Irrigation Water Use Per Country in the Year 2000 Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

Irrigation Water Requirements (km3)

Water Requirement Ratio in Percentages (%)

Water Withdrawal for Agriculture (km3)

Water Withdrawal as Percentage of Renewable Water Resources (%)

65 14.32 184 814 1210.644 24.8 622.531 14.4 8233 12.5 3.6 476.11 285.5 43 922 2829.569 2132 832 1283 112.4 81 38.12 20.995 432 58.3 25.23 6.3 110 164 8 53.2 111.27 226 241 14.025 95.929 1896.66 2838 137.51 75.42 9.404 0.88 30.2 77.135 69.7 333.55 4.407 0.6 337 17.28 580 100 11.4 457.222 29 216.11 1045.601 17.94

8.78 1.45 0.04 3.43 19.09 0.06 0.26 0.02 6.21 0.21 0.06 1.2 0.22 0.07 1.59 153.9 1.23 0 0.03 0.36 0.17 1.41 0.56 2.67 28.43 0.19 0.09 0.56 0.02 0.01 0.06 0.4 0.41 0.45 0.18 0.17 303.24 21.49 21.06 11.2 0.01 0.29 0.3 1.49 2.67 0.81 0.37 2.56 3.58 0.2 1.68 2.06 0.44 18.53 4.28 0.22 9.79 0.07

38 37 20 16 25 30 23 30 17 30 30 30 30 35 20 36 25 30 30 25 28 25 25 19 53 25 32 22 30 30 26 25 30 28 20 25 54 28 32 28 25 39 30 30 30 30 40 60 25 25 30 30 29 31 37 39 30 40

22.84 3.94 0.21 21.52 76.35 0.19 1.16 0.06 36.63 0.69 0.19 4 0.73 0.19 7.97 426.85 4.92 0 0.11 1.43 0.6 5.64 2.24 13.96 53.85 0.76 0.29 2.47 0.05 0.02 0.25 1.61 1.36 1.6 0.93 0.69 558.39 75.6 66.23 39.38 0.02 0.76 1.01 4.96 8.92 2.7 0.92 4.27 14.31 0.81 5.6 6.87 1.5 60.34 11.48 0.55 32.64 0.17

35 27 0 3 6 1 0 0 0 5 5 1 0 0 1 15 0 0 0 1 1 15 11 3 92 3 5 2 0 0 0 1 1 1 7 1 29 3 48 52 0 86 3 6 13 1 21 712 4 5 1 7 13 13 40 0 3 1

Afghanistan Algeria Angola Argentina Bangladesh Benin Bolivia Botswana Brazil Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Chad Chile China Colombia Congo, Republic of Congo, Dem Republic of Costa Rica Coˆte d’Ivoire Cuba Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guatemala Guinea Guyana Haiti Honduras India Indonesia Iran, Islamic Rep of Iraq Jamaica Jordan Kenya Korea, Dem People’s Rep Korea, Republic of Laos Lebanon Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Mali Mauritania Mexico Morocco Mozambique Myanmar Namibia

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

Table 7J.137

7-211

(Continued) Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

Irrigation Water Requirements (km3)

Water Requirement Ratio in Percentages (%)

Water Withdrawal for Agriculture (km3)

Water Withdrawal as Percentage of Renewable Water Resources (%)

210.2 196.69 33.65 286.2 222.67 147.98 336 1913 479 5.2 2.4 39.4 160 13.5 50 50 64.5 122 4.51 26.26 91 409.944 14.7 4.56 229.3 66 139 1233.17 891.21 4.1 105.2 20

2.45 0.3 0.62 1.65 72.14 0.05 0.08 5.07 6.33 0.01 6.68 0.43 0.12 0.98 2.34 2.92 14.43 0.18 0.12 8.52 0.56 24.83 0.02 1.21 11.27 0.03 0.66 1.24 15.18 2.53 0.26 0.67

25 27 30 30 44 20 23 31 30 30 43 30 33 30 21 24 40 30 16 45 30 30 30 54 40 30 22 31 31 40 19 30

9.82 1.08 2.08 5.51 162.65 0.23 0.35 16.42 21.1 0.03 15.42 1.43 0.35 3.28 11.12 12 36.07 0.62 0.76 18.93 1.85 82.75 0.08 2.23 27.86 0.12 3.03 3.97 48.62 6.32 1.32 2.24

5 1 6 2 73 0 0 1 4 1 643 4 0 24 22 24 56 1 17 72 2 20 1 49 12 0 2 0 5 154 1 11

Nepal Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Pakistan Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Rwanda Saudi Arabia Senegal Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sri Lanka Sudan Suriname Swaziland Syrian Arab Republic Tanzania, United Rep of Thailand Togo Tunisia Turkey Uganda Uruguay Venezuela, Boliv Rep of Vietnam Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe

Source: From Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). AQUASTAT - FAO’s Information System on Water and Agriculture, www.fao.org. Reprinted with permission.

Table 7J.138 Summary Results of Agricultural Water Use and Comparison with Water Resources, 2000 Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

Irrigation Water Requirements (km3)

Water Requirement Ratio (%)

Water Withdrawal for Agriculture (km3)

Water Withdrawal as Percentage of Renewable Water Resources (%)

13,409 541 3,518 8,609 2,469 28,545

45 109 31 232 397 814

24 40 32 34 44 38

187 274 97 693 895 2146

1 51 3 8 36 8

Latin America Near East and North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa East Asia South Asia 90 developing countries

Source: From Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), AQUASTAT - FAO’s Information System on Water and Agriculture, www.fao.org. Reprinted with permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-212

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7J.139 Irrigated Area, by World Region, 1961–2001 Thousand Hectares Region

1961

1965

1970

1975

1980

Africa Asia Europe North & Central America Oceania South America U.S.S.R. World

7,410 90,166 8,468 17,950 1,079 4,661 9,400 139,134

7,795 97,093 9,401 19,526 1,368 5,070 9,900 150,153

8,483 109,666 10,583 20,939 1,588 5,673 11,100 168,032

9,010 121,565 12,704 22,833 1,620 6,403 14,500 188,635

9,491 132,377 14,479 27,597 1,684 7,392 17,200 210,220

Region Africa Asia Europe North & Central America Oceania South America U.S.S.R. World

1985 10,331 141,922 16,018 27,471 1,957 8,296 19,689 225,684

1990 11,235 155,009 17,414 28,913 2,114 9,499 20,800 244,984

1995 12,383 180,508 26,104 30,473 2,689 10,086

2000 12,700 190,014 25,382 31,223 2,674 10,489

2001 12,813 190,385 25,347 31,344 2,674 10,489

262,243

272,482

273,052

Note: After 1990, all irrigated area in the former U.S.S.R. is split among Europe and Asia. Source: From World’s Water 2004–2005, by Peter H. Gleick. Copyright q 2004 Island Press. Reproduced by permission of Island Press, Washington, DC.

Table 7J.140 Agricultural Land Use for Developing Countries Arable Land (mi ha) Total Developing countries 1997–99 956 2015 1,017 2030 1,076 Sub-Saharan Africa 1997–99 228 2015 262 2030 288 Near East and North Africa 1997–99 86 2015 89 2030 93 Latin America and Caribbean 1997–99 203 2015 223 2030 244 South Asia 1997–99 207 2015 210 2030 216 East Asia 1997–99 232 2015 233 2030 237 Source:

Rainfed 754 796 834 223 256 281

Harvested Land (mi ha)

Irrigated 202 221 242 5.3 6 6.8

Total

Rainfed

885 977 1,063

628 671 722

154 185 217

150 179 210

Cropping Intensity (%)

Irrigated 257 306 341 4.5 5.7 7

Total

Rainfed

Irrigated

93 96 99

83 84 87

127 138 141

68 71 76

67 70 75

86 95 102

60 60 60

26 29 33

70 77 84

43 45 46

27 32 37

81 86 90

72 75 78

102 110 112

185 203 222

18 20 22

127 150 172

112 131 150

16 19 22

63 67 71

60 64 68

86 95 100

126 123 121

81 87 95

230 248 262

131 131 131

100 117 131

111 118 121

103 106 109

124 134 137

161 155 151

71 78 85

303 317 328

193 186 184

110 131 144

130 136 139

120 120 122

154 168 169

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), World Agricultrure: towards 2015/2030 Summary Report, www.fao.org. Reprinted with permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

7-213

Table 7J.141 Irrigated Land and Percentage of Arable Land That Is Irrigated Irrigated Land Area (1000 ha) 1980

1990

2001

1980

1990

2001

210,220 58,926 37,355 21,571 151,294 13,811 17,982 3,980 59,722 55,798 1 —

244,984 66,286 39,935 26,351 178,698 16,794 24,864 4,885 65,624 66,529 2 —

273,052 67,988 43,226 24,762 205,064 18,613 27,808 5,221 74,605 78,813 4 —

15.7 9.0 9.9 7.9 21.9 10.8 21.8 3.2 37.0 28.6 0.2 —

17.6 10.2 10.5 9.8 24.1 12.5 28.8 3.7 33.9 33.9 0.4 —

19.5 11.1 11.8 10.0 26.0 12.5 32.3 3.6 35.0 40.3 0.7 —

9,491 132,377 1,074 12,737 21,178 1,684 14,479

11,235 155,009 1,269 15,525 21,618 2,114 17,414

12,813 190,385 1,308 17,305 23,220 2,674 25,347

6.0 31.3 22.0 10.4 9.0 3.6 11.5

6.7 33.8 23.3 12.0 9.3 4.2 14.0

7.0 37.4 22.2 12.1 10.5 5.1 8.8

World/Continent World Developed countries Industralized countries Transition economies Developing countries Latin America and the Caribbean Near East and North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa East and Southeast Asia South Asia Oceania developing North America developing Continental groupings Africa Asia Caribbean Latin America North America Oceania Europe

As % of Arable Land

Source: From Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2003, Summary of Food and Agricultural Statistics, www.fao.org. Reprinted with permission.

Table 7J.142 Irrigated (Arable) Land: Past and Projected Annual Growth (% p.a.)

Irrigated Land in Use (mi ha)

Land in Use as % of Potential (%)

Balance (mi ha)

1961/63 (1)

1979/81 (2)

1997/99 (3)

2015 (5)

2030 (6)

1961– 1999 (7)

1997/99– 2030 (8)

1997/99 (9)

2030 (10)

1997/99 (11)

2030 (12)

3 15

4 18

5 26

6 29

7 33

2.0 2.3

0.9 0.6

14 62

19 75

32 17

30 11

Sub-Saharan Africa Near East/North Africa Latin America and the Caribbean South Asia excl. India East Asia excl. China

8

14

18

20

22

1.9

0.5

27

32

50

46

37 12 40 10

56 17 59 14

81 23 71 19

87 24 78 22

95 25 85 25

2.2 1.9 1.5 2.1

0.5 0.2 0.6 0.9

57 84 64 40

67 89 76 53

61 4 41 29

47 3 27 23

All above excl. China excl. China/India

103 73 48

151 106 67

202 150 93

221 165 102

242 182 112

1.9 2.1 2.0

0.6 0.6 0.6

50 44 41

60 54 50

200 188 132

161 157 114

Industrial countries Transition countries World

27 11 142

37 22 210

42 25 271

1.3 2.6 1.8

Source: From Food and Agriculture Organization, of the United Nations (FAO), World Agriculture Towards 2015/2030, www.fao.org. Reprinted with permission. Original Source: From Columns (1)–(3): FAOSTAT, November 2001. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-214

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7J.143 Irrigation Lending by Continent and Decade Irrigation Lending (% of global amount) Decade

Asia

America

Africa

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990–91 Total

75 75 66 73 61 69

25 12 12 12 23 13

13 13 11 16 12

Projects (% of global number)

Europe

Asia

America

Africa

9 4

67 71 47 47 60 50

33 20 14 13 17 14

10 31 34 23 30

5

Average Irrigation Lending Amount (1991 US$M)

Europe

Asia

America

Africa

7 5

70 89 61 76 69 71

47 51 37 44 93 47

112 18 16 47 21

5

Europe

World

55 39

62 84 44 49 68 51

48

Source: From Jones, W.I., 1995, The World Bank and Irrigation, The World Bank, Washington, DC, Copyright q International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, www.worldbank.org. Reprinted with permission.

Table 7J.144 Average Unit Costs for World Bank Irrigation Projects

All Satisfactory Unsatisfactory Gravity Pump (mostly from groundwater) Mixed New construction Rehabilitation Rehabilitation and extension Paddy Nonpaddy Selected areas East and South Asia East Asia South Asia India Europe Middle East Africa North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America and Caribbean

Unit Cost ($/ha)

Number

Adjusted Unit Cost ($/ha)

Number

Adjusted/ Unadjusted Ratio

4,837 2,643 9,294 5,584 3,766

191 128 63 113 52

7,950 2,906 18,637 10,355 4,415

184 125 59 112 46

1.64 1.10 2.01 1.85 1.17

3,727 7,740 1,633 3,171 6,374 3,886

26 86 34 55 73 118

3,846 12,915 5,258 3,834 11,063 5,950

26 81 34 54 72 112

1.03 1.67 3.22 1.21 1.74 1.53

2,831 4,291 1,370 1,421 4,743 5,062 12,925 4,911 18,269 3,923

112 56 56 30 17 9 30 12 18 20

4,694 7,379 1,746 1,596 4,759 4,663 20,833 5,226 31,238 10,283

107 56 51 27 17 7 30 12 18 20

1.66 1.72 1.27 1.12 1.00 0.92 1.61 1.06 1.71 2.62

Note: Two measures of unit cost are used. “Unit cost” is defined as the actual project cost ($US) measured at evaluation divided by the completion command area (hectares) measured at evaluation. “Adjusted unit cost” is “unit cost” with the denominator adjusted by the completion achievement of construction target (%) measured at evaluation. Two projects, Lake Chad Polders (Chad) and Black Bush Irrigation (Guyana), had completion command areas measured at evaluation equal to zero. This resulted in infinite measures of unit cost, and thus they were not included in the calculation of averages. Source: From Jones, W.I., 1995, The World Bank and Irrigation, The World Bank, Washington, DC, Copyright q International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, www.worldbank.org. Reprinted with permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

7-215

SECTION 7K

LIVESTOCK

Table 7K.145 Water Requirements for Farm Animals and Poultry Horse, work Mule Cattle Holstein calves (liquid milk or dried milk and water supplied) 4 weeks of age 8 weeks of age 12 weeks of age 16 weeks of age 20 weeks of age 26 weeks of age Dairy heifers—Pregnant Steers Maintenance ration Fattening ration Range cattle Jersey cowsa Milk production 5–30 lbs/day Holstein cowsa Milk production 20–50 lbs/day Milk production 80 lbs/day Dry Pigs Body weight—30 lbs Body weight—60–80 lbs Body weight—75–125 lbs Body weight—200–380 lbs Pregnant sows Lactating sows Sheep On range of dry pasture On range (salty feeds) On rations of hay and grain or hay, roots and grain On good pasture Chickens (100 birds) 1–3 weeks of age 3–6 weeks of age 6–10 weeks of age 9–13 weeks of age Pullets Nonlaying hens Laying hens (moderate temperatures) Laying hens (temperature 90 8F) Turkeys (100 birds) 1–3 weeks of age 7–4 weeks of age 9–13 weeks of age 15–19 weeks of age 21–26 weeks of age

12 12

1.2–1.4 1.6 2.2–2.4 3.0–3.4 3.8–4.3 4.0–5.8 7.2–8.4 4.2 8.4 4.2–8.4 7.2–12 7.8–22 23 11 0.6–1.2 0.8 1.9 1.4–3.6 3.6–4.6 4.8–6.0 0.6–1.6 2.0 0–0.7 Little, if any 0.4–2.0 1.4–3.0 3.0–4.0 4.0–5.0 3.0–4.0 5.0 5.0–7.5 9.0 1.1–2.6 3.7–8.4 9–14 17 14–15

Note: Gallons per day. Allow 15–20 additional gallons per day for each cow for flushing stables and washing dairy utensils. Source: From U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.

a

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-216

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7K.146 Livestock Freshwater Use in the United States, 2000 Withdrawals (mi/gal/day)

Withdrawals (thousand acre-feet/yr)

By Source Groundwater Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Total

— — — — 182 — — 3.7 — 31 1.66 — 27.7 37.6 27.3 81.8 87.2 — 4.03 — 7.18 — 10.2 52.8 — 18.3 — 76 — — 1.68 — — 89.1 — 8.2 53.6 — — — — 16.9 — 137 — — — — — 60.3 — — — 1,010

By Source

Surface Water — — — — 227 — — 0.22 — 1.51 17.7 — 7.2 0 14.6 27.1 23.5 — 3.31 — 3.18 — 1.15 0 — 54.1 — 17.4 — — 0 — — 32.3 — 17.1 97.2 — — — — 25.2 — 172 — — — — — 6.02 — — — 747

Total — — — — 409 — — 3.92 — 32.5 19.4 — 34.9 37.6 41.9 109 111 — 7.34 — 10.4 — 11.3 52.8 — 72.4 — 93.4 — — 1.68 — — 121 — 25.3 151 — — — — 42 — 308 — — — — — 66.3 — — — 1,760

Groundwater — — — — 204 — — 4.15 — 34.7 1.86 — 31 42.1 30.6 91.8 97.7 — 4.52 — 8.05 — 11.4 59.2 — 20.5 — 85.2 — — 1.88 — — 99.9 — 9.19 60 — — — — 18.9 — 153 — — — — — 67.6 — — — 1,140

Surface Water — — — — 255 — — 0.25 — 1.69 19.9 — 8.07 0 16.4 30.4 26.3 — 3.71 — 3.56 — 1.29 0 — 60.6 — 19.5 — — 0 — — 36.2 — 19.2 109 — — — — 28.2 — 192 — — — — — 6.75 — — — 838

Total — — — — 458 — — 4.39 — 36.4 21.7 — 39.1 42.1 47 122 124 — 8.23 — 11.6 — 12.7 59.2 — 81.1 — 105 — — 1.88 — — 136 — 28.4 169 — — — — 47.1 — 346 — — — — — 74.4 — — — 1,980

Note: Figures may not sum to totals because of independent rounding. —, data not collected. Source:

From Hutson, S.S. et al., 2004, Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2000, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, www.usgs.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

7-217

SECTION 7L

NAVIGATION AND WATERWAYS

Table 7L.147 Projected Flows Required for Efficient Navigation on Inland Waterways of the United States Critical Flowa (ft3/s) Waterway

1,959

New England, existing waterways: all Middle Atlantic, existing waterways Great Lakes to Hudson River and Champlain Canals Delaware

South Atlantic Existing waterways Cape Fear River above Wilmington, NC Savannah River below Augusta, GA Altamaha River below junction of Ocmulgee and Oconee Rivers Okeechobee Waterway Apalachicola below Jim Woodruff lock and dam Alabama River below Selma, AL Warrior system Possible future waterways Santee-Congaree

Ocmulgee River below Macon, GA Cross-Florida Barge Canal Chattahoochee River below Atlanta, GA Flint River below Albany, GA Coosa River Tennessee-Tombigbee

Arkansas-White-Red Existing waterways White River (to mile 168.7) Ouachita-Black Waterways under construction Verdigris River (at Catoosa, OK)

Arkansas (at Webber Falls) Arkansas (at Short Mountain) Arkansas (at Dardanelle) Arkansas (Dardenelle to mouth) Possible future waterways: Overton-Red Waterway Gulf-Southwest Waterways under construction: Guadalupe to Victoria

1,980

2,000

Comments

0

0

0

2,000

2,000

2,000

b

b

b

50 5,000 1,000

100 5,800 5,000

c

50 9,300

50 9,300

c

3,000 540

3,000 540

c

—

5,200

c

— — — — — —

300 700 300 200 300 1,246

c

6,500 100

10,000 100

10,000 100

—

115

115

— — — — —

300 530 505 1,000 300

300 530 505 1,000

—

0–1,800

0–1,800

All waterways are in tidal reaches Available flow 13,000 c.f.s. If depth increased to 45 ft minimum flow will have to be increased by 2,900, c.f.s. to repel salinity

c c

c

c

c

Project might be found feasible if river developed for power Authorized project

c c c c

Do Completed project. (1,246 c.f.s. to be diverted from the Tennessee River.)

Provision of 9-ft waterway as part of multiplepurpose development of the Arkansas River Do Do Do Do Authorized project

For periodic flushing (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-218

Table 7L.147

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Critical Flowa (ft3/s)

Waterway Possible future waterways Trinity River (below Dallas) Trinity River (above Dallas) Missouri River Basin, existing waterways Missouri at Sioux Cityd Missouri at Omahad Missouri at Nebraska City Missouri at Kansas Cityd Missouri at mouthd Upper Mississippi Basin Existing waterways Main stem, pools 1–10 Main stem, pools 11–22 Main stem, pools 24–26 Main stem, Missouri to Ohio Minnesota St. Croix Illinois Waterway Fox River Possible future waterways Kaskaskia River Big Muddy River Tittabawassee River Ohio River Basin Existing waterways Ohio River (main stem) Allegheny River Monongahela River Kanawha River Kentucky River Green River Cumberland River Possible future waterways Big Sandy River (main stem) Big Sandy River (Levisa Fork) Lake Erie-Ohio River Canal Lower Mississippi River Existing waterways Main stem at Cairo Main stem below Arkansas Ouachita-Black Possible future waterways Yazoo below Greenwood Columbia River Basin Existing waterways Main stem at Bonneville Main stem at The Dallas Willamette, mouth to Salem Willamette, Salem to Corvallis Snake, mouth to Ice Harbor Waterways under construction Main stem John Day to McNary Snake, Ice Harbor to Lewiston Possible future waterways Main stem head McNary Pool to Rock Island Snake, Lewiston to mile 174

1,959

1,980

2,000

Comments

— —

400 150

800 325

—

30,000

30,000

28,000 31,000 35,000

28,000 31,000 32,500

28,000 31,000 32,500

—

35,000

35,000

375 2,000 70,000 54,000 0 0 720e 300

750 2,000 25,000 75,000 0 0 1,826e,f 300

940 2,000 25,000 75,000 0 0 1,826e,f 300

0 0 0

200 200 200

300 400 200

c

c

c

100 340 300 100 150 100

140 440 400 150 250 150

150 670 400 200 400 250

0 0 0

329 176 430

329 176 430

100,000 140,000 100

120,000 150,000 150

120,000 150,000 150

100

100

40,000 700 6,000 5,000 300

40,000 1,500 6,000 5,000 1,000

40,000 2,500 6,000 5,000 2,000

110,000 —

1,500 1,000

2,500 2,000

—

36,000

—

—

500

—

1,000

Authorized project Do Could be reduced to 25,000 by dredging

Could be reduced to 27,500 by dredging

Not required in winter Do Required all year Do Mississippi backwater Do Not required in winter

River canalized

Under study Do (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

Table 7L.147

7-219

(Continued) Critical Flowa (ft3/s)

Waterway Snake, mile 174 to mile 188 Snake, mile 188 to mile 232 North Pacific Coast, Possible future waterways Skagit, mouth to Concrete Central Valley, existing waterways Sacramento San Joaquin above Mossdale a b c d e f

1,959

1,980

2,000

— — —

500 350 10,000

1,000 700 10,000

5,000 100

5,000 100

5,000 100

Comments

Shallow draft Do

Rate below which streamflow cannot drop without reducing the efficiency of navigation. Anticipated flows will meet the needs of navigation. Estimates not available. Flows required from April through November, assuming continuation of open river navigation. Canalization now being studied. If Missouri canalized these flows would be greatly reduced. Average annual flow required at Lockport, III. Includes 250 c.f.s. to prevent reversal of flow into Lake Michigan when storm runoff occurs. Excludes 120 c.f.s. of present industrial usage which bypasses Lockport lock. Requirements for recommended duplicate lock system.

Source: From Select Committee on National Water Resources, U.S. Senate, 1960; amended.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-220

Table 7L.148 Navigation Locks and Dams in the United States (Operable as of May 2005) Locks Depth of Miter Sill

Project

River Mile

Type of Structurea

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Status

Community in Vicinity

Width of Chamber

Chamber Useable Length

Upper

Lower

Authorized Channel

Dam

Type

Length (ft)

Year Opened

Length (miles)

Depth (ft)

Width (above) (ft)

Width (below) (ft)

1 1 1

Claiborne, AL Camden, AL Benton, AL

84 84 84

600 600 600

30 45 45

16 16 16

13 13 13

Moveable Moveable Moveable

1,603.0 9,900.0 1,496.0

1973 1969 1974

61 103 88

9 9 9

200 200 200

200 200 200

1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3

Aspinwall, PA Cheswick, PA Natrona, PA Freeport, PA Clinton, PA Kittanning, PA Templeton, PA Rimer, PA

56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56

360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360

11 14 11 12 12 13 18 22

11 12 9 10 11 11 14 11

12 11 10 11 11 10 10 11

Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter

1,393.0 1,436.0 876.0 780.0 1,140.0 916.0 984.0 950.0

1934 1934 1927 1927 1928 1930 1931 1938

8 10 6 6 9 7 10 10

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200

200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200

1 1 1

Chattahoochee, FL Gordon, GA Fort Gaines, GA

82 82 82

450 450 450

33 25 88

14 19 18

14 13 13

Moveable Moveable Moveable

6,359.0 750.0 1,325.0

1957 1963 1963

47 29 85

6 9 9

100 100 100

100 100 100

1 1 1

Chesapeake, VA Chesapeake, VA South Mills, NC

72 52 52

530 300 300

3 12 12

16 12 12

16 12 12

Miter Miter Miter

NA NA NA

1932 1940 1941

6 22 22

12 50 6

200 50 50

200 50 50

2 1 2 1

Berwick, LA New Iberia, LA Charenton, LA Berwick, LA

45 36 45 45

90 160 0 300

0 8 0 14

0 9 0 9

0 8 0 9

Sector Miter Sector Sector

NA 175.0 NA NA

1950

80 35 80 125

8 6 8 8

80 80 80 80

80 80 80 80

1

Buffalo, NY

70

625

5

22

22

Fixed

NA

1914

6

21

200

200

1 1 1 1 1 1

Coffeeville, AL Demopolis, AL Eutaw, AL Tuscaloosa, AL Holt, AL Adger, AL

110 110 110 110 110 110

600 600 600 600 600 600

34 40 22 28 64 68

13 13 13 18 19 13

13 13 13 18 13 13

Moveable Moveable Moveable Moveable Moveable Moveable

1,185.0 1,485.0 1,832.0 800.0 1,138.0 1,170.0

1965 1962 1962 1991 1969 1975

97 48 77 43 18 43

9 9 9 9 9 9

200 200 200 200 200 200

200 200 200 200 200 200

1

West Lake, LA

56

575

0

0

0

Sector

450.0

1968

15

13

56

56

1

Cape Canaveral, FL

90

600

3

13

13

Sector

NA

1965

6

12

100

100

1 1 1

Kings Bluff, NC Browns Landing, NC Tolars Landing, NC

40 40 40

200 200 300

11 9 9

9 12 9

9 12 9

Miter Miter Miter

275.0 229.0 220.0

1915 1917 1935

32 24 20

8 8 8

100 100 100

100 100 100

1913

1

Chicago, IL

80

600

4

27

23

Sector

NA

1939

1

21

470

190

1 1

Matagorda, TX Matagorda, TX

75 75

1,180 1,180

12 12

15 15

15 15

Sector Fixed

520.0 520.0

1944 1944

3,700 3,700

12 12

125 125

125 125

1 1 1 1

Cascade Locks, OR The Dalles, WA Rufus, WA Plymouth, WA

86 86 86 86

650 650 650 650

65 88 110 103

19 15 15 15

24 15 15 21

Miter Vertical Vertical Miter

2,680.0 8,735.0 5,900.0 7,365.0

1938 1957 1968 1953

1,080 1,000 1,600 64

14 14 14 14

300 250 250 250

300 250 250 250

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Alabama-Coosa Rivers Claiborne Lock & Dam 117.5 L Millers Ferry Lock & Dam 178 L Jones Bluff Lock & Dam 281.2 L Allegheny River, PA and NY Lock & Dam 2 6.7 L Lock & Dam 3 14.5 L Lock & Dam 4 24.2 L Lock & Dam 5 30.4 L Lock & Dam 6 36.3 L Lock & Dam 7 45.7 L Lock & Dam 8 52.6 L Lock & Dam 9 62.2 L Apalachicola, Chattahoochee, & Flint Rivers, GA, AL and FL Jim Woodruff Lock & Dam 106.3 L Gordon, GA (no name given) 46.7 L Walter F George Lock & Dam 75.1 L Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway between Norfolk, VA & St. Johns River, FL Great Bridge Guard Lock 12.2 L Deep Creek Lock 10.6 L South Mills Lock 33.2 L Bayou Teche, LA Bayou Teche, LA (FCMR&T) 4 F Keystone Lock 72 L Bayou Teche, LA (FCMR&T)–Grand Lake 35.7 F Berwick Lock 1.5 L Black Rock Channel & Tonawanda Harbor, NY Black Rock Lock 4 L Black Warrior & Tombigbee Rivers, AL Coffeeville Lock 116.6 L Demopolis Lock & Dam 213.2 L Warrior Lock & Dam 262 L William Bacon Oliver Lock & Dam 337.6 L Holt Lock and Dam 347 L John Hollis Bankhead Lock & Dam 366 L Calcasieu River And Pass, LA Calcasieu Salt Wtr Barrier 38.9 B Canaveral Harbor, FL Canaveral Lock 3 L Cape Fear River, NC Lock & Dam 1 39 L Lock & Dam 2 71 L William O. Huske Lock & Dam 95 L Chicago Harbor Chicago Lock 327.2 L Colorado River, TX Colorado River East Lock 441.1 L Colorado River West Lock 441.8 L Columbia River, OR and WA Bonneville Lock & Dam 145.3 L The Dalles Dam 191.7 L John Day Lock & Dam 216.5 L McNary Lock & Dam 292 L

b

Lift at Normal Pool Level

1 3

Palatka, FL Inglis, FL

84 84

600 600

20 28

14 18

15 15

Miter Miter

5,100.0

1968 1968

21 11

12 12

0 0

0 0

1 1 1 1

Grand Rivers, KY Ashland City, TN Carthage, TN Old Hickory, TN

110 110 84 84

800 798 400 397

57 26 59 60

24 14 14 14

13 12 13 13

Miter Miter Miter Miter

9,959.0 801.0 1,138.0 3,605.0

1964 1956 1973 1957

118 68 72 97

9 9 9 9

300 200 150 150

300 200 150 150

1

Ocklawaha, FL

30

125

22

8

8

50.0

1969

0

8

0

0

1

Intracoastal City, LA

84

590

4

16

16

Sector

401.0

1968

250

12

120

120

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Algiers, LA Harvey, LA New Orleans, LA Plaquemine, LA Port Allen, LA Morgan City, LA Abbeville, LA Lake Charles, LA Freeport, TX Freeport, TX

75 75 75 56 84 75 110 75 75 75

797 415 626 790 1,188 1,148 1,190 1,194 750 750

18 20 17 21 45 11 5 4 0 0

13 12 31 14 13 13 11 13 15 15

13 12 31 14 14 13 11 13 15 15

Sector Miter Miter Sector Miter Sector Sector Sector Sector Sector

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 520.0 520.0

1956 1935 1923 1952 1961 1956 1934 1950 1943 1944

384 384 384 64 64 384 384 384 3,700 3,700

16 12 12 12 12 16 16 16 12 12

150 120 150 120 120 150 200 200 125 125

150 120 150 120 120 150 200 200 125 125

1 1

Spottsville, KY Calhoun, KY

84 84

600 600

8 14

12 12

15 12

Miter Miter

760.0 512.0

1956 1956

54 45

9 9

150 150

150 150

1

Troy, NY

45

493

17

16

13

Fixed

1,495.0

1916

2

14

200

200

1 1 1 1 1 1

Beardstown, IL Creve Coeur, IL Utica, IL Marseilles, IL Morris, IL Lockport, IL

110 110 110 110 110 110

600 600 600 600 600 600

10 11 19 24 22 39

16 15 17 19 17 20

13 12 14 14 12 15

Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter

1,066.0 3,446.0 1,280.0 778.5 1,615.5 500.0

1939 1938 1933 1933 1933 1933

78 73 14 27 15 35

9 9 9 9 9 9

300 300 300 300 300 300

300 300 300 300 300 300

1

Chicago, IL

110

1,000

4

18

18

Sector

1960

7

9

300

300

1

Joliet, IL

110

600

34

18

14

Miter

2,373.0

1933

5

9

160

160

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Winfield, WV Winfield, WV Winfield, WV Marmet, WV Marmet, WV London, WV London, WV

110 56 56 56 56 56 56

800 360 360 360 360 360 360

28 28 28 24 24 24 24

18 18 18 18 18 18 18

18 12 12 12 12 12 12

Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter

700.0 700.0 700.0 557.0 557.0 557.0 557.0

1936 1,935 1935 1934 1934 1934 1934

37 37 37 16 16 8 8

9 9 9 9 9 9 9

300 300 300 150 150 150 150

300 300 300 150 150 150 150

1

Modoc, IL

84

600

29

19

11

Miter

120.0

1973

35

9

225

225

1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Carrollton, KY Lockport, KY Gest, KY Frankfort, KY Tyrone, KY High Bridge, KY High Bridge, KY Camp Nelson, KY Valley View, KY Ford, KY Irvine, KY

38 38 38 38 38 52 52 52 52 52 52

145 145 145 145 145 147 147 146 148 148 148

8 14 13 13 15 14 15 19 17 17 18

8 8 9 6 10 9 9 11 11 9 10

15 6 6 7 6 6 7 6 7 6 6

Miter Fixed Miter Fixed Fixed Fixed Fixed Fixed Fixed Fixed Fixed

424.0 400.0 465.0 534.0 556.0 413.0 350.0 257.0 362.0 472.0 208.0

1839 1839 1844 1844 1844 1891 1897 1900 1907 1907 1906

27 11 23 17 14 21 23 18 19 25 20

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

150 150 150 150 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

150 150 150 150 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Moveable

256.75

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-221

(Continued)

WATER USE

Cross Florida Barge Canal Henry Holland Buckman Lock 20 L Inglis Lock Dam And and Spillway 92 L Cumberland River, TN & KY Barkley Lock & Dam 30.6 L Cheatham Lock & Dam 148.7 L Cordull Hull Lock & Dam 313.5 L Old Hickory Lock & Dam 216.2 L Four Rivers Basins Oklawaha River [no name] 66.9 L Freshwater Bayou, LA Freshwater Bayou Lock 1.2 L Gulf Intracoastal Waterway between Apalachee Bay, FL & Mexican Border Algiers Lock 0 L Harvey Lock 0 L Inner Harbor Nav Canal Lock 7 L Bayou Sorrel Lock 37.5 L Port Allen Lock 64.1 L Bayou Boeuf Lock 93.3 L Leland Bowman Lock 162.7 L Calcasieu Lock 238.5 L Brazos East Gate 400.8 F Brazos West Gate 401.1 F Green & Barren Rivers, KY Green River Lock & Dam 1 9.1 L Green River lock Lock & Dam 2 63.1 L Hudson River, NY Troy Lock & Dam 153.8 L Illinois Waterway, IL Lagrange Lock & Dam 80.2 L Peoria Lock & Dam 157.7 L Starved Rock Lock & Dam 231 L Marseilles Lock & Dam 244.6 L Dresden Island Lock & Dam 271.5 L Lockport Lock 291.1 L Thomas J. O’Brien Lock & Dam–Calumet River Thomas J. O’Brien Lock & Dam 326.5 L Brandon Road Lock &Dam–Illinois River Brandon Road Lock & Dam 286 L Kanawha Lock & Dam, WV Winfield Locks & Dam Main 800 31.1 L Winfield Locks & Dam Main 1 31.1 L Winfield Locks & Dam Main 2 31.1 L Marmet Locks & Dam Main 1 67.7 L Marmet Locks & Dam Main 2 67.7 L London Locks & Dam Main 1 82.8 L London Locks & Dam Main 2 82.8 L Kaskaskia River, IL Kaskaskia River Navigation Lock 0.8 L Kentucky River, KY Lock & Dam 1 4 L Lock & Dam 2 31 L Lock & Dam 3 42 L Lock & Dam 4 65 L Lock & Dam 5 82.2 L Lock & Dam 6 96.2 L Lock & Dam 7 117 L Lock & Dam 8 139.9 L Lock & Dam 9 157.5 L Lock & Dam 10 176.4 L Lock & Dam 11 201 L

7-222

Table 7L.148

(Continued) Locks Depth of Miter Sill

Project

River Mile

2006by byTaylor Taylor&&Francis FrancisGroup, Group,LLC LLC qq2006

Upper

Lower

Type of Structurea

Status

L L L

2 2 2

Ravenna, KY Willow, KY Heidelberg, KY

52 52 52

148 148 148

17 18 17

10 10 9

6 6 6

L L

1 1

Seattle, WA Seattle, WA

28 80

123 760

26 26

16 36

L L L L L L L L L

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Arkansas Post, AR Arkansas Post, AR Grady, AR Pine Bluff, AR Redfield, AR Little Rock, AR Little Rock, AR Conway, AR Morrilton, AR

110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110

600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600

30 20 20 14 17 18 18 16 19

L L L L L L L L L

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Russellville, AR Ozark, AR Fort Smith, AR Spiro, OK Salisaw, OK Webber Falls, OK Muskogee, OK Inola, OK Tichnor, AR

110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110

600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600

C C

1 1

Abbeville, LA Creole, LA

75 56

L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2

Granite City, IL Granite City, IL East Alton, IL East Alton, IL Winfield, MO Clarksville, MO Saverton, MO Quincy, IL Canton, MO Keokuk, IA Gladstone, IL New Boston, IL Muscatine, IL Rock Island, IL Rock Island, IL LeClaire, IA LeClaire, IA Clinton, IL Bellevue, IA Dubuque, IA Guttenburg, IA Lynxville, WI Genoa, WI Dresbach, MN

110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 80 110 110 110 110 110 110 110

b

Community in Vicinity

Width of Chamber

Authorized Channel

Dam

Depth (ft)

Width (above) (ft)

Width (below) (ft)

19 9 26

6 6 6

100 100 100

100 100 100

1916 1916

0 8

30 30

0 100

0 150

277.0 1,120.0 1,260.0 1,190.0 1,050.0 1,190.0 980.0 1,200.0 1,797.0

1967 1967 1968 1968 1968 1968 1969 1969 1969

3 37 16 20 22 17 31 21 29

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

300 300 250 250 250 250 250 250 250

300 300 250 250 250 250 250 250 250

1,210.0 900.0 1,050.0 840.0 1,090.0 720.0 210.0 210.0 300

1969 1969 1969 1970 1970 1970 1970 1970 2004

51 36 27 17 30 35 20 23 10

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

250 250 250 250 250 250 150 150 300

250 250 250 250 250 250 150 150 300

11 5

6 15

60 200

60 200

15 15 40 40 32 27 24 18 21 46 27 20 26 10 0 29 29 34 26 32 33 31 23 12

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

350 350 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

350 350 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

Length (ft)

Year Opened

Fixed Fixed Fixed

240.0 248.0 248.0

1910 1915 1917

16 29

Miter Miter

235.0 235.0

16 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18

15 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14

Fixed Tainter Tainter Tainter Tainter Tainter Tainter Tainter Tainter

55 34 20 21 48 30 21 21 20

18 18 18 14 16 16 15 15 18

14 15 14 14 14 14 14 14 15

Tainter Tainter Tainter Moveable Moveable Moveable Moveable Moveable Miter

525 500

0 0

0 0

0 0

Sector Sector

NA NA

1,200 600 1,200 600 600 600 600 600 600 1,200 600 600 600 600 360 600 320 600 600 600 600 600 600 600

21 21 24 24 15 15 10 10 10 38 10 8 9 16 16 11 11 11 9 12 8 9 11 8

15 15 23 42 19 19 18 17 15 15 17 16 17 27 27 20 21 19 17 19 15 16 22 18

15 15 18 18 12 12 14 12 12 13 14 13 12 11 11 13 14 13 13 13 12 13 14 12

Vertical Miter Vertical Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Vertical Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter

3,000.0 3,000.0 990.0 990.0 1,140.0 1,200.0 3,084.0 2,955.0 2,144.0 8,809.0 6,960.0 3,196.0 3,555.0 1,203.0 1,203.0 2,703.0 2,703.0 1,407.0 8,369.0 4,784.0 763.0 811.0 935.0 940.0

Type

1962 1962 1989 1989 1939 1940 1938 1938 1936 1913 1937 1939 1937 1934 1934 1922 1939 1939 1938 1937 1937 1937 1937 1937

Length (miles)

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Lock & Dam 12 220.9 Lock & Dam 13 239.9 Lock & Dam 14 249 Lake Washington Ship Canal Hiram M. Chittenden Lock AUX —1 [Ballard Locks] 0 Hiram M. Chittenden Lock [Ballard Locks] 0 McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System, AR and OK Norrell Lock & Dam [Lock & Dam 1] 10.3 Lock & Dam 2 13.3 Joe Hardin L & D [Lock & Dam 3] 50.2 Emmett Sanders Lock & Dam [Lock & Dam 4] 66 Lock & Dam 5 86.3 David D. Terry Lock & Dam [Lock & Dam 6] 108.1 Murray Lock & Dam [Lock & Dam 7] 125.4 Toad Suck Ferry Lock & Dam [Lock & Dam 8] 155.9 Arthur V. Ormond L & D [Lock & 176.9 Dam 9] Dardanelle Lock & Dam [Lock & Dam 10] 205.5 Ozark Lock & Dam [Lock & Dam 12] 256.8 James W. Trimble Lock & Dam [Lock & Dam 13] 292.8 W.D. Mayo Lock & Dam [Lock & Dam 14] 319.6 Robert S. Kerr Lock & Dam & Res [Lock & Dam 15] 336.2 Webbers Falls Lock & Dam [Lock & Dam 16] 366.6 Chouteau Lock & Dam [Lock & Dam 17] 5 Newt Graham Lock & Dam [Lock & Dam 18] 26 Montgomery Point Lock & Dam 0.5 Mermentau River, LA Schooner Bayou Control Structure 3.4 Catfish Point Control Structure 25 Mississippi River between Missouri River & Minneapolis, MN Chains Of of Rocks L/D 27 185.5 Chains Of of Rocks L/D 27 AUX —1 185.5 Mel Price Lock & Dam [Locks No 26 Main) 200.8 Mel Price Lock & Dam [Locks No 26 AUX) 200.8 Lock & Dam 25 241.4 Lock & Dam 24 273.4 Lock & Dam 22 301.2 Lock & Dam 21 324.9 Lock & Dam 20 343.2 Lock & Dam 19 364.3 Lock & Dam 18 410.5 Lock & Dam 17 437.1 Lock & Dam 16 457.2 Lock & Dam 15 482.9 Lock & Dam 15 AUX —1 482.9 Lock & Dam 14 493 Lock & Dam 14 AUX —1 493 Lock & Dam 13 522.5 Lock &Dam 12 556.7 Lock & Dam 11 583 Lock & Dam 10 615.1 Lock & Dam 9 647.9 Lock & Dam 8 679.2 Lock & Dam 7 702.5

Chamber Useable Length

Lift at Normal Pool Level

& Dam 6 & Dam 5A & Dam 5 & Dam 4 & Dam 3 & Dam 2 & Dam 1 Main Chamber 1

St. Anthony Falls Lower Lock & Dam St. Anthony Falls Upper Lock & Dam Monongahela River, PA and WV Lock & Dam 2 Lock & Dam 2 AUX Lock & Dam 3 Lock & Dam 3 AUX Lock & Dam 4 Lock & Dam 4 AUX Maxwell Lock & dam Maxwell Lock & dam AUX Grays Landing Lock & Dam L&D8 Morgantown Lock & Dam Hildebrand Lock & Dam Opekiska Lock & Dam Ohio River Emsworth Lock & Dam Emsworth Lock & Dam AUX Dashields Lock & Dam Dashields Lock & Dam AUX Montgomery Lock & Dam Montgomery Lock & Dam AUX New Cumberland Lock & Dam New Cumberland Lock & Dam AUX Pike Island Lock & Dam Pike Island Lock & Dam Hannibal Locks & Dam Hannibal Locks & Dam AUX Willow Island Locks & Dam Willow Island Locks & Dam AUX Belleville Locks & Dam Belleville Locks & Dam AUX Racine Locks & Dam Racine Locks & Dam AUX Robert C. Byrd Robert C. Byrd AUX Greenup Locks & Dam Greenup Locks & Dam AUX Capt Anthony Meldahl Lock & Dam Capt Anthony Meldahl Lock & Dam AUX Markland Locks & Dam Markland Locks & Dam AUX Mcalpine Locks & Dam Mcalpine Locks & Dam AUX Cannelton Lock & Dam Cannelton Lock & Dam AUX Newburgh Lock & Dam Newburgh Lock & Dam AUX John T. Myers Lock & Dam John T. Myers Lock & Dam AUX Smithland Lock & Dam Smithland Lock & Dam AUX

714.3 728.5 738.1 752.8 796.9 815.2 847.6 847.6 853.3 853.9

L L L L L L L L L L

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Trempealeau, WI Winona,MN, MN Minneiska, MN Alma, WI Red Wing, MN Hastings, MN Minn. St. Paul, MN Minn. St. Paul, MN Minneapolis, MN Minneapolis, MN

110 110 110 110 110 110 56 56 56 56

600 600 600 600 600 500 400 400 400 400

6 5 9 7 8 12 38 38 25 49

17 18 18 17 17 22 13 13 14 16

13 13 12 13 14 13 8 10 10 14

Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter

893.0 682.0 1,619.0 1,367.0 365.0 822.0 574.0 579.0 188.0 NA

1936 1936 1935 1935 1938 1948 1932 1917 1956 1963

14 10 15 44 18 32 6 6 1 4

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 200 100

300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 200 100

11.2 11.2 23.8 23.8 41.5 41.5 61.2 61.2 82 90.8 102 108 115.4

L L L L L L L L L L L L L

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Braddock, PA Braddock, PA Elizabeth, PA Elizabeth, PA Monessen, PA Monessen, PA Maxwell, PA Maxwell, PA Grays Landing, PA Point Marion, PA Morgantown, WV Morgantown, WV Opekiska, WV

110 56 56 56 56 56 84 84 84 84 84 84 84

720 360 720 360 720 360 720 720 720 720 600 600 600

9 9 8 8 17 17 20 20 15 19 17 21 22

15 15 11 11 20 20 20 20 27 16 17 14 18

16 16 11 11 10 10 14 14 18 35 14 15 14

Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter

748.0 748.0 670.0 670.0 535.0 535.0 460.0 460.0 576.0 682.0 410.0 530.0 366.0

1951 1951 1907 1907 1932 1932 1964 1964 1995 1925 1950 1959 1964

13 13 18 18 20 20 24 24 21 11 6 7 7

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

6.2 6.2 13.3 13.3 31.7 31.7 54.4 54.4 84.2 84.2 126.4 126.4 161.7 161.7 203.9 203.9 237.5 237.5 279.2 279.2 341 341 436.2 436.2 531.5 531.5 606.8 606.8 720.7 720.7 776.1 776.1 846 846 918.5 918.5

L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Emsworth, PA Emsworth, PA Glenwillard, PA Glenwillard, PA Monaca, PA Monaca, PA Stratton, OH Stratton, OH Warwood, WV Warwood, WV Hannibal, OH Hannibal, OH Newport, OH Newport, OH Reedsville, OH Reedsville, OH Letart, WV Letart, WV Hogsett, WV Hogsett, WV Greenup, KY Greenup, KY Chilo, OH Chilo, OH Warsaw, KY Markland, KY Louisville, KY Louisville, KY Cannelton, IN Cannelton, IN Newburgh, IN Newburgh, IN Mount Vernon, IN Mount Vernon, IN Hamletsburg, IL Hamletsburg, IL

110 56 110 56 110 56 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110

600 360 600 360 600 360 1200 600 1200 600 1200 600 1200 600 1200 600 1200 600 1200 600 1200 600 1200 600 1200 600 1200 600 1200 600 1200 600 1200 600 1200 1200

18 18 10 10 18 18 21 21 18 18 21 21 20 20 22 22 22 22 23 23 30 30 30 30 35 35 37 37 25 25 16 16 18 18 22 22

17 16 13 13 16 16 17 17 17 17 38 38 35 35 37 37 37 37 41 41 45 45 45 45 50 50 49 19 40 40 31 31 34 34 34 34

13 13 18 18 15 15 15 15 18 18 17 17 15 15 15 15 15 15 18 18 15 15 15 15 15 15 12 11 15 15 15 15 16 16 12 12

Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter

1,717.0 1,717.0 1,585.0 1,585.0 1,379.0 1,379.0 1,315.0 1,315.0 1,315.0 1,315.0 1,098.0 1,098.0 1,128.0 1,128.0 1,206.0 1,206.0 1,173.0 1,173.0 1,132.0 1,132.0 1,287.0 1,287.0 1,756.0 1,756.0 1,395.0 1,395.0 8,725.0 8,725.0 2,054.0 2,054.0 2,275.6 2,275.6 3,504.0 3,504.0 2,962.0 2,962.0

1921 1921 1929 1929 1936 1936 1961 1961 1965 1965 1972 1972 1973 1973 1969 1969 1970 1970 1937 1937 1962 1962 1962 1962 1963 1963 1963 1963 1971 1971 1975 1975 1975 1975 1980 1980

6 6 7 7 18 18 23 23 30 30 36 36 35 35 36 36 34 34 42 42 62 62 95 95 95 75 75 75 114 114 55 55 70 70 73 73

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-223

(Continued)

WATER USE

Lock Lock Lock Lock Lock Lock Lock

7-224

Table 7L.148

(Continued) Locks Depth of Miter Sill

Project

Gen Jos Wheeler Lock Gen Jos Wheeler Lock AUX Guntersville Lock [Lock 5, CH 1, Main Channel] Guntersville Lock [Lock 5, CH 1, AUX] Nickajac Lock Chickamauga Lock Watts Bar Lock

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Chamber Useable Length

110 110 110 110

1200 600 1200 600

12 12 12 12

15 15 15 15

11 11 10 10

LaBelle, FL Fort Myers, FL Port Mayaca, FL

50 56 56

225 400 400

11 3 2

12 13 17

1

Stuart, FL

50

225

13

L

1

Moore Haven, FL

50

250

1

L

1

Simmesport, LA

75

117.2 226.8 281.7 25

L L L L

1 1 1 1

Columbia, LA Felsenthal, AR Calion, AR Jonesville, LA

29.7 40.8 43.9

L L L

1 1 1

44 74 116.4 169 200

L L L L L

1 1 1 1 1

Community in Vicinity

Width (above) (ft)

Width (below) (ft)

20 20 24 24

9 9 9 9

300 300 300 300

300 300 300 300

1937 1965 1977

16 8 5

8 8 8

90 90 100

90 90 100

170.0

1944

15

8

80

80

89.8

1953

16

8

90

90

Miter

1,100.0

1963

7

12

120

120

18 13 13 15

Miter Miter Miter Miter

400.0 350.0 350.0 450.0

1972 1984 1984 1972

109 55 50 92

9 9 7 9

100 100 100 100

100 100 100 100

10 10 10

10 10 10

Miter Miter Miter

NA NA NA

1951 1951 1951

11 3 5

7 7 7

80 80 80

80 80 80

22 23 25 25 22

13 23 18 18 23

Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter

630.0 348.0 432.0 690.0 663.0

1984 1986 1992 1994 1994

30 42 40 31 28

9 9 9 9 9

200 200 100 200 200

200 200 100 200 200

Year Opened

Miter Miter Miter Miter

2,998.0 2,978.0 3,560.0 3,560.0

1928 1928 1929 1929

15 13 17

Sector Sector Sector

104.0 1,150.0 116.0

15

13

Sector

2

10

11

Sector

1190

35

11

11

84 84 84 84

600 600 600 600

18 18 12 30

18 18 18 18

Pearl River, LA Bush, LA Sun, LA

65 65 65

274 274 274

27 15 11

Larto, LA Ruby, LA Colfax, LA Coushatta, LA Caspiana, LA

84 84 84 84 84

685 685 685 685 685

36 24 31 25 25

Type of Structurea

Status

938.9 938.9 962.6 962.6

L L L L

1 1 1 1

Brookport, IL Brookport, IL Mound City, IL Mound City, IL

93.6 122 38.5

L L L

1 1 1

15.3

L

78

b

Depth (ft)

Length (ft)

River Mile

Authorized Channel

Dam

Upper

Lower

Type

Length (miles)

187.2

L

1

Augusta, GA

56

360

15

14

12

Miter

360.0

1937

16

9

90

90

9.7 41.6 70.3 107.5

L L L L

1 1 1 1

Pasco, WA Kahlotus, WA Starbuck, WA Pomeroy, WA

86 86 86 86

650 650 650 650

103 103 101 105

15 15 15 15

14 15 15 15

Vertical Vertical Miter Miter

2,790.0 3,800.0 2,655.0 3,200.0

1962 1969 1970 1975

32 29 37 38

14 14 14 14

250 250 250 250

250 250 250 250

47 47 47

L L L

1 2 1

Sault Ste. Marie, MI Sault Ste. Marie, MI Sault Ste. Marie, MI

80 80 110

780 1320 1200

22 22 22

31 24 32

31 23 32

Leaf Leaf Leaf

1,300.0 1,300.0 1,300.0

1914 1914 1914

0 0 0

27 0 0

300 300 300

300 300 300

22.4 206.7 206.7 259.4 259.4 259.4 274.9 274.9 349 349 424.7 471 529.9

L L L L L L L L L L L L L

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Grand Rivers, KY Pickwick Dam, TN Pickwick Dam, TN Florence, AL Florence, AL Florence, AL Rogersville, AL Rogersville, AL Guntersville, AL Guntersville, AL Jasper, TN Chattanooga, TN Breendenton, TN

110 110 110 110 60 60 110 60 110 60 110 60 60

600 1000 600 600 300 300 600 400 600 360 600 360 360

57 55 55 94 49 45 48 48 39 39 39 49 58

24 19 16 11 13 11 15 15 17 17 13 10 12

13 17 17 11 13 11 13 13 18 18 11 14 12

Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter Miter

7,976.0 7,385.0 7,385.0 3,728.0 3,728.0 3,728.0 5,738.0 5,738.0 3,837.0 3,837.0 3,763.0 5,654.0 2,646.0

1944 1984 1937 1959 1927 1927 1933 1933 1939 1939 1967 1940 1942

184 53 53 16 16 16 74 74 76 76 46 59 72

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Lock & Dam 52 Lock & Dam 52 AUX Lock & Dam 53 Lock &Dam 53 AUX Okeechobee Waterway, FL S-78 Waterway (Ortona Lock & Dam) W.P.Franklin Lock/Cntl Strct [Olga Lock] S-308-B St. Lucie Lock & Dam St. Lucie Lock & Dam Moore Haven Lock Moore Haven Lock Old River, LA (MR&T) Old River Lock Ouachita & Black Rivers Below Camden, AR & LA Columbia Lock & Dam Felsenthal Lock & Dam [Lock & Dam No 3] H. K. Thatcher Lock & Dam [Lock & Dam No 4] Jonesville Lock & Dam Pearl River Lateral Canal Lock 1 Lock 2 Lock 3 Red River WW-Mississippi R to Shreveport, LA Lindy Claiborne Boggs [Red River Lock & Dam No. 1] John H.Overton [Red River Lock & Dam No. 2] Red River Lock & Dam No. 3 Red River Lock & Dam No. 4 Joe D. Waggonner Lock & Dam [5] Savannah River, GA New Savannah Bluff Lock & Dam Snake River, WA Ice Harbor Lock & Dam Lower Monumental Lock & Dam Little Goose Lock & Dam Lower Granite Lock & Dam St. Marys River, MI Macarthur Lock Davis Lock New Poe Lock Tennessee River, TN, AL, & KY Kentucky Lock Pickwick Landing Lock Pickwick Landing Lock AUX Wilson Lock Wilson Lock

Width of Chamber

Lift at Normal Pool Level

a b

602.3 23.1

L L

1 1

Lenoir City, TN Kingston, TN

60 75

360 400

72 58

12 13

12 13

Miter Miter

3,687.0 1,072.0

1943 1963

50 38

9 9

300 300

300 300

266.1 306.8 334.7 357.5 371.1 376.3 391 398.4 406.7 411.9

L L L L L L L L L L

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Gainesville, AL Aliceville, AL Columbus, MS Aberdeen, MS Amory, MS Smithville, AL Fulton, MS Fulton, MS Belmont, MS Tupelo, MS

110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110

600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600

36 27 27 27 30 25 25 30 30 84

15 15 15 15 15 18 18 18 18 18

15 15 15 15 15 18 18 18 18 18

Moveable Moveable Moveable Moveable Moveable Moveable Moveable Moveable Moveable Moveable

817.0 647.0 573.0 641.0 284.0 779.0 396.0 282.0 449.0 2,750.0

1978 1979 1981 1984 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985

49 41 28 23 14 15 7 8 5 65

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

26 26 26 26 26

L L L L L

1 1 1 1 1

West Linn, West Linn, West Linn, West Linn, West Linn,

40 40 40 40 40

198 198 198 198 198

10 10 10 20 10

6 6 6 6 6

8 8 8 8 8

NA NA NA NA NA

1872 1872 1872 1872 1872

0 0 0 0 24

6 6 6 6 6

150 150 150 150 150

150 150 150 150 150

OR OR OR OR OR

Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf

WATER USE

Fort Loudon Lock Melton Hill Lock & Dam (Clinch River) Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway AL, MS Howell Heflin Lock & Dam [Gainesville Lock & Dam] Tom Bevill Lock & Dam [Aliceville Lock & Dam] John C. Stennis Lock & Dam [Columbus Lock & Dam] Aberdeen Lock & Dam Amory Lock [Lock A] Glover Wilkins Lock [Lock B] Fulton Lock [Lock C] John Rankin Lock [Lock D] G.V. “Sonny” Montgomery Lock [Lock E] Jamie Whitten Lock & Dam [Bay Springs Lock & Dam] Willamette River at Willamette Falls 2 3 4 Willamette River At at Willamette Falls Willamette Falls Guard Lock

L, Lock & Dam; F-Flood Gate; B-Barrier; C-Control Structure.

1, Operational; 2, Seasonal; 3, Operational Weekend/Summer.

Source:

From USACE, Navigation Data Center, U.S. Waterway Data Lock Characteristics, www.iwr.usace.army.mil.

7-225

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-226

Table 7L.149 Lock Characteristics Operational Statistics—1999 Average Tow Size

River/ Lock

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Total Tonnage

Barges/ Tow

Tons/ Tow

Percent Chamber Available

Total Number

Avg Timeb

Chamber

River Mile

Main

117.5

1969

23

236,895

4

2,096

100.00

0

0.00

Main

11.5

1932

18

545,630

1

610

99.72

8

3.05

Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main

6.7 14.5 24.2 30.4 36.3 45.7 52.6 62.2

1934 1934 1927 1927 1928 1930 1931 1938

30 32 28 24 20 19 22 15

2,611,580 2,567,580 1,612,797 766,237 161,199 133,662 673,120 0

3 3 2 4 2 2 1 0

1,687 1,691 1,122 1,593 844 941 784 0

93.47 97.63 99.76 94.25 87.77 70.99 68.80 48.22

9 2 9 4 3 6 5 7

63.53 103.93 2.35 125.85 357.13 423.52 546.67 647.97

Main

106.3

1954

29

337,305

2

799

100.00

0

0.00

Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main

10.3 13.3 50.2 66.0 86.3 108.1 125.4 155.9 176.9 205.5 256.8 292.8 319.6 336.2 366.6

1967 1967 1968 1968 1968 1968 1969 1969 1969 1969 1969 1969 1970 1970 1970

37 44 45 43 40 39 41 51 53 50 46 38 57 53 54

8,797,103 8,826,997 8,048,954 8,043,052 7,431,516 7,387,876 6,490,453 6,364,044 5,973,962 5,993,626 4,361,324 4,608,165 4,132,431 4,155,658 4,007,128

6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 3 5 5 5

5,215 5,239 6,211 6,274 6,219 6,224 6,193 6,137 6,322 6,336 6,500 3,278 6,477 6,544 6,232

99.63 98.59 99.95 100.00 100.00 99.99 99.75 100.00 99.70 99.94 99.95 99.94 100.00 100.00 100.00

13 188 1 0 0 1 14 0 9 2 1 4 0 0 0

2.47 0.67 4.33 0.00 0.00 0.58 1.53 0.00 2.93 2.72 4.00 1.22 0.00 0.00 0.00

Main

1.5

1950

10

169,881

1

504

99.96

1

3.65

Main

25.0

1972

30

1,573,714

2

2,377

100.00

0

0.00

Main

4.0

1914

14

285,595

1

4,327

39.50

251

21.12

Main

262.0

1957

51

9,458,220

5

5,753

100.00

0

0.00

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Alabama Claiborne Albemarle & Chesapeake Canal Great Bridge Allegheny 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Apalachicola Jim Woodruff Arkansas Norrell 2 Joe Hardin Emmett Sanders 5 David D. Terry Murray Toad Suck Ferry Arthur V. Ormond Dardanelle Ozark—Jeta Taylor James W. Trimble W.D. Mayo Robert S. Kerr Webbers Falls Atchafalaya Berwick Black Jonesville Black Rock Channel Black Rock Black Warrior Armistead I. Seldon

Year Open

Average Processing Timea

Lock Closures

1968

3

627,857

2

1,618

100.00

0

0.00

78.0 122.0

1953 1965

15 15

21,326 14,285

1 1

117 121

64.70 65.71

384 367

8.05 8.18

3.0

1965

14

873,290

1

1,078

66.99

391

7.40

39.0 71.0 95.0

1915 1917 1935

20 19 20

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

100.00 85.96 85.48

0 2 3

0.00 614.98 423.98

327.2

1939

17

315,530

1

1,005

75.31

19

113.85

145.3 191.7 216.5 292.0

1993 1957 1968 1953

37 31 39 26

9,678,824 9,271,751 8,600,616 7,604,466

3 3 3 3

4,228 4,259 4,379 4,282

97.77 97.93 97.85 96.95

8 3 3 4

24.38 60.52 62.67 66.70

30.6 148.7 216.2

1964 1952 1954

56 61 55

9,072,278 9,542,172 3,933,051

8 8 5

5,305 6,101 4,733

99.07 95.94 94.45

33 112 27

2.47 3.17 18.00

10.6 33.2

1940 1941

20 23

300 0

0 0

300 0

78.31 80.60

5 6

379.95 283.18

1.2

1968

26

4,482,515

38

8,379

100.00

0

0.00

0.0 5.6 93.3 162.7 238.5

1935 1923 1954 1985 1950

35 46 38 30 36

4,215,364 19,416,663 22,193,235 40,563,247 39,525,354

2 3 2 3 3

880 2,143 1,689 2,895 2,948

98.98 90.23 98.53 95.65 96.07

32 479 23 40 59

2.78 1.78 5.62 9.53 5.83

0.0

1956

48

19,222,359

3

2,878

86.51

132

8.95

37.5 64.1

1952 1961

55 81

23,157,835 24,167,141

3 3

3,742 3,436

95.03 98.02

68 59

6.40 2.93

400.4 400.9 441.1 441.8

1943 1943 1944 1944

0 0 13 3

21,131,151 21,184,202 21,110,876 20,783,851

2 2 2 2

1,938 1,981 2,097 2,168

99.98 100.00 97.84 97.32

1 0 21 26

1.50 0.00 9.02 9.03

9.1 63.1

1956 1956

18 22

4,353,350 1,491,500

3 3

3,049 2,302

96.00 100.00

4 0

87.67 0.00 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-227

38.9

WATER USE

Calcasieu River Calcasieu Barrier Cntrl Caloosahatchee Moore Haven Main W. P. Franklin Main Canaveral Barge Canal Canaveral Main Cape Fear 1 Main 2 Main William O. Huske Main Chicago Harbor Channel Chicago Main Columbia Bonneville Main The Dalles Main John Day Main Mcnary Main Cumberland Barkley Main Cheatham Main Old Hickory Main Dismal Swamp Canal Deep Creek Main South Mills Main Freshwater Bayou Freshwater Bayou Main GIWW Harvey Main Inner Harbor Nvg Chnl Main Bayou Boeuf Main Leland Bowman Main Calcasieu Main Giww Algiers Canal Algiers Main Giww Port Allen–Morgan Cty Alt. Rte Bayou Sorrel Main Port Allen Main Giww Texas Brazos East Main Brazos West Main Colorado River East Main Colorado River West Main Green 1 Main 2 Main

7-228

Table 7L.149

(Continued) Average Tow Size

River/ Lock

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Total Tonnage

Barges/ Tow

Tons/ Tow

Percent Chamber Available

Total Number

Avg Timeb

Chamber

River Mile

Main

153.8

1916

23

13,819

1

494

58.56

6

604.97

Main Main Main Main

80.2 157.7 291.1 326.5

1939 1938 1933 1960

64 73 82 22

35,597,851 31,128,998 16,039,564 7,371,509

10 9 6 3

11,435 9,427 5,443 2,913

97.73 98.70 98.36 99.65

47 43 32 17

4.23 2.65 4.48 1.82

Main8 Main2 Main1 Main2 Main1 Main2 Main1

31.1 31.1 31.1 67.7 67.7 82.8 82.8

1997 1937 1937 1934 1934 1934 1933

56 0 0 161 172 85 119

19,521,262 0 0 7,801,139 6,928,584 2,315,757 4,184,898

9 0 0 6 6 4 5

6,711 0 0 3,807 3,739 1,722 3,864

99.01 100.00 100.00 98.19 95.06 96.99 97.44

50 0 0 60 47 211 216

1.73 0.00 0.00 2.65 9.20 1.25 1.03

Main

0.8

1973

14

583,183

2

1,122

99.46

4

11.80

Main Aux 1

1.3 1.3

1916 1916

28 13

1,816,245 1,931

2 2

1,408 149

96.19 96.88

3 1

111.38 273.00

Cntrl

25.0

1951

7

84,226

1

354

99.93

2

3.27

Main Aux 1 Main Aux Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Aux 1 Main Aux 1 Main

185.5 185.5 200.8 200.8 241.4 273.4 301.2 324.9 343.2 364.2 410.5 437.1 457.2 482.9 482.9 493.0 493.0 523.0

1953 1953 1990 1994 1939 1940 1938 1938 1936 1957 1937 1939 1937 1934 1934 1939 1922 1938

40 30 44 30 79 85 92 80 80 55 71 89 68 98 20 78 17 58

79,858,929 3,519,785 69,623,228 7,957,608 39,536,830 39,296,994 38,074,304 37,863,139 36,512,515 35,803,139 35,707,505 34,170,210 33,139,184 30,582,032 627,728 30,839,734 0 24,803,042

11 4 13 6 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 1 11 0 12

11,810 3,520 13,236 6,140 12,870 12,846 12,500 12,047 12,058 12,088 11,883 11,591 10,534 10,645 890 9,803 0 11,552

96.89 91.82 91.06 85.47 81.55 82.07 98.78 97.69 82.57 83.02 99.21 98.67 98.87 98.55 99.91 97.78 100.00 99.65

29 31 49 10 61 60 49 25 58 33 34 39 52 150 19 85 0 13

9.40 23.10 15.98 127.28 26.50 26.17 2.18 8.08 26.32 45.08 2.02 3.00 1.90 0.85 0.43 2.30 0.00 2.35

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Hudson Troy Illinois Lagrange Peoria Lockport Thomas J. O’Brien Kanawha Winfield Winfield Winfield Marmet Marmet London London Kaskaskia Kaskaskia Lake Washington Ship Canal Hiram M. Chittenden Hiram M. Chittenden Mermentau Catfish Point Mississippi 27 27 Melvin Price Melvin Price 25 24 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 15 14 14 13

Year Open

Average Processing Timea

Lock Closures

Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main Main

556.0 583.0 615.0 647.0 679.0 702.0 714.0 728.5 738.1 752.8 796.9 815.0 847.6 853.3 853.9

1938 1937 1936 1938 1937 1937 1936 1936 1935 1935 1938 1930 1930 1959 1963

56 52 48 47 47 38 42 33 39 35 30 36 20 24 20

24,426,919 22,495,873 22,005,796 18,820,219 16,826,021 15,856,894 15,793,578 12,760,903 12,770,886 12,340,409 11,549,156 11,539,256 2,071,780 2,066,980 2,064,130

12 11 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 9 2 2 2

11,555 10,621 11,182 11,800 11,195 10,592 10,593 10,266 10,274 10,033 9,616 9,490 1,734 1,733 1,727

86.96 87.19 77.79 78.06 78.01 78.53 78.02 77.56 74.76 73.85 74.13 73.86 69.07 69.05 69.04

22 18 4 14 7 7 6 6 4 5 5 6 5 5 5

51.95 62.35 486.32 137.28 275.15 268.70 320.88 327.68 552.83 458.12 453.30 381.63 541.97 542.27 542.40

Main Aux 1 Main Aux 1 Main Aux 1 Main Aux 1 Main Main Main Main Main

11.2 11.2 23.8 23.8 41.5 41.5 61.2 61.2 82.0 90.8 102.0 108.0 115.4

1905 1905 1907 1907 1932 1932 1963 1963 1993 1994 1950 1959 1964

57 18 37 25 45 25 33 37 30 30 26 24 23

20,725,032 399,555 15,810,950 2,180,600 12,824,375 387,050 4,114,250 9,265,800 5,772,720 5,211,735 383,435 26,235 27,910

7 1 4 2 5 2 5 5 5 5 4 3 2

6,032 249 2,800 1,458 2,933 732 2,033 4,520 3,090 3,192 2,062 1,093 1,469

99.92 98.59 91.13 98.93 99.15 99.96 95.76 99.86 99.97 99.86 100.00 100.00 100.00

1 2 7 35 6 3 1 3 5 3 0 0 0

6.73 61.63 111.02 2.68 12.42 1.20 371.33 4.12 0.50 4.13 0.00 0.00 0.00

Main Aux 1 Main Aux 1 Main Aux 1 Main Aux 1 Main Aux 1 Main Aux 1 Main Aux Main Aux 1

6.2 6.2 13.3 13.3 31.7 31.7 54.4 54.4 84.2 84.2 126.4 126.4 161.7 161.7 203.9 203.9

1921 1921 1929 1929 1936 1936 1959 1959 1965 1965 1973 1973 1972 1972 1969 1969

70 24 68 23 73 26 61 36 56 36 52 38 57 54 57 36

22,529,859 1,021,740 24,019,078 494,215 25,975,596 568,956 31,846,533 2,051,242 39,404,927 1,866,363 46,249,423 1,001,031 38,901,384 5,413,991 47,457,409 521,700

7 1 8 1 8 2 11 3 11 2 12 3 12 6 12 3

5,726 866 6,157 619 6,550 791 9,796 1,784 10,381 1,637 12,104 1,738 12,452 6,166 12,525 1,793

98.02 99.48 99.72 97.29 97.82 84.04 99.46 99.49 99.56 99.78 99.96 97.02 89.87 99.70 99.83 100.00

13 2 21 3 68 11 18 15 21 5 2 7 4 7 8 0

13.33 22.93 1.18 79.27 2.82 127.13 2.62 2.95 1.83 3.82 1.75 37.33 221.90 3.77 1.90 0.00

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-229

(Continued)

WATER USE

12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5A 5 4 3 2 1 Lower Saint Anthony Falls Upper Saint Anthony Falls Monongahela 2 2 3 3 4 4 Maxwell Maxwell Grays Landing Pt. Marion Morgantown Hildebrand Opekiska Ohio Emsworth Emsworth Dashields Dashields Montgomery Montgomery New Cumberland New Cumberland Pike Island Pike Island Hannibal Hannibal Willow Island Willow Island Belleville Belleville

7-230

Table 7L.149

(Continued) Average Tow Size

River/ Lock

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Average Processing Timea

Total Tonnage

Barges/ Tow

Tons/ Tow

Percent Chamber Available

Total Number

Avg Timeb

Chamber

River Mile

Main Aux 1 Main Aux Main Aux 1 Main Aux 1 Main Aux 1 Main Aux 1 Main Aux Main Aux 1 Main Aux 1 Main Aux 1 Main Aux 1 Main Aux

237.5 237.5 279.2 279.2 341.0 341.0 436.2 436.2 531.5 531.5 606.8 606.8 720.7 720.7 776.1 776.1 846.0 846.0 918.5 918.5 938.9 938.9 962.6 962.6

1969 1969 1993 1993 1959 1959 1962 1962 1959 1959 1961 1961 1971 1971 1975 1975 1975 1975 1980 1980 1969 1928 1980 1929

58 34 58 37 51 49 58 27 57 35 58 145 59 45 53 30 52 21 43 43 35 56 19 46

47,763,667 878,229 55,188,585 784,300 63,998,888 6,040,145 62,006,780 772,018 52,796,082 2,053,048 52,983,711 1,846,382 55,135,133 1,516,795 63,546,772 963,038 70,689,316 704,872 36,106,180 46,005,193 87,088,317 8,034,188 84,347,119 3,421,135

12 3 12 2 12 6 12 3 11 4 10 10 11 6 12 2 12 2 10 11 11 4 11 3

12,599 1,807 12,302 1,491 11,420 5,541 12,033 2,347 11,972 3,733 11,451 12,734 12,588 5,767 12,303 1,351 12,790 1,500 10,387 11,912 11,533 3,881 11,705 3,719

99.98 100.00 99.25 99.98 89.24 93.62 98.92 98.31 96.53 99.90 94.58 99.96 96.20 66.04 99.89 100.00 99.48 99.87 99.00 99.56 98.62 98.19 99.29 99.84

1 0 33 1 153 80 25 6 23 4 56 3 74 12 6 0 60 16 130 16 48 22 34 10

2.00 0.00 1.98 1.58 6.17 6.98 3.80 24.60 13.22 2.20 8.48 1.18 4.50 247.88 1.58 0.00 0.77 0.70 0.67 2.40 2.52 7.20 1.83 1.37

Main Main Main

15.3 38.5 93.6

1941 1977 1937

22 11 21

54,561 20,922 19,920

1 1 1

134 176 150

64.39 77.36 64.31

368 240 384

8.48 8.27 8.15

Main

304.0

1963

35

8,348,430

3

2,882

99.92

2

3.62

Main Main Main

117.2 226.8 281.7

1972 1984 1984

20 11 11

1,064,862 225,329 214,300

2 1 1

2,223 1,587 1,520

100.00 100.00 100.00

0 0 0

0.00 0.00 0.00

Main Main Main Main Main

44.0 74.0 116.4 169.0 200.0

1984 1987 1992 1994 1994

23 31 22 27 17

2,119,661 2,005,959 1,168,038 753,684 643,066

4 4 3 3 3

2,423 2,452 2,364 2,054 1,991

100.00 99.98 100.00 100.00 100.00

0 2 0 0 0

0.00 0.95 0.00 0.00 0.00

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Racine Racine Robert C. Byrd Robert C. Byrd Greenup Greenup Captain Anthony Meldahl Captain Anthony Meldahl Markland Markland Mcalpine Mcalpine Cannelton Cannelton Newburgh Newburgh John T. Myers John T. Myers Smithland Smithland 52 52 53c 53c Okeechobee St. Lucie Port Mayaca Ortona Old River Old River Ouachita Columbia Felsenthal H. K. Thatcher Red Lindy Claiborne Boggs John H. Overton 3 4 Joe D. Waggonner

Year Open

Lock Closures

a b c

Cntrl

3.4

1950

4

51,265

4

276

86.24

6

200.85

Main Main Main Main

9.7 41.6 70.3 107.5

1962 1969 1970 1975

33 37 25 28

4,067,370 3,495,982 3,127,538 1,987,253

2 3 3 2

3,345 3,800 3,612 2,843

95.75 96.13 95.39 93.94

20 10 3 2

18.62 33.88 134.60 265.48

Main Main Main

47.0 47.0 47.0

1914 1943 1963

41 40 54

0 16,043,560 66,372,865

1 5 11

0 42,783 214,106

54.16 68.64 81.13

7 15 18

573.68 183.17 91.82

Main

602.3

1943

63

636,791

3

2,367

95.58

34

11.38

Main Main

266.1 411.9

1978 1985

39 41

8,274,930 5,775,215

5 6

3,927 4,170

99.86 99.87

4 8

2.98 1.42

Main

213.2

1954

46

15,472,123

5

4,670

100.00

0

0.00

Main Main

401.4 421.6

1970 1970

42 44

3,508,854 3,350,217

5 4

5,316 4,956

100.00 100.00

0 0

0.00 0.00

Main Main Main

29.7 40.8 43.9

1949 1950 1950

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

100.00 100.00 100.00

0 0 0

0.00 0.00 0.00

WATER USE

Schooner Bayou Schooner Bayou Snake Ice Harbor Lower Monumental Little Goose Lower Granite St. Marys Davis Macarthur New Poe Tennessee Ft. Loudon Tenn–Tombigbee Howell Heflin Jamie Whitten Tombigbee Demopolis Verdigris Chouteau Newt Graham Lock West Pearl 1 2 3

Average time from start of lockage to end of lockage; expressed in minutes. Average time lock is closed (unavailable) expressed in hours. LPMS data not collected at this site.

Source: From www.iwr.usace.army.mil.

7-231

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-232

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7L.150 Important Ship Canals of the World Length Canal Albert Amsterdam-Rhine Cape Cod Chesapeake and Delaware Chicago Sanitary and Ship Corinth Erie Canal Grand Canal Kiel (Nord-Ostsee) Manchester Ship McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River System Moscow North Sea Panama Sabine-Neches Waterway Saint Lawrence Seawaya Soo (Sault Sainte Marie) Soo (St. Marys Falls Canal and Locks) Suezb Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway Volga-Baltic Welland Ship White Sea-Baltic

Location

Minimum Width

ft

m

Number of Locks

Year Opened

102 75 152 137

15 7.2 32 35

4.5 2.2 10 10.7

6 4 0 0

1939 1952 1914 1829

175 81 120 100 336.3 120 150

53.3 24.6 36.6 30.5 102.5 36.6 45.7

9 26 12 2 36 22 9

2.7 8 3.7 0.6 11 6.7 2.7

1 0 57 24 8 5 17

1900 1893 1825 610 1895 1894 1970

128 24.7 81.6 150.8 293 2.2 2.9

98 525 550 200 200 61 300

30 160 168 61 61 18.6 91.4

18 49.5 45 30 27 19 25.5

5.5 15.1 13.7 9.1 8.2 5.8 7.8

7 4 12 0 7 1 4

1937 1876 1914 1916 1959 1895 1855

117.9 234

189.7 377

741 300

226 91.4

64 9

19.5 2.7

0 10

1869 1985

528 26 138

850 42 222

70 200 46

21.4 61 14

11 27 10

3.5 8.2 3.2

7 8 19

1964 1932 1933

mi

km

80.8 45 17.5 46

130 72.4 28.2 74

30.6 3.9 363 1000 61.3 36 445

49.2 6.3 584 1609 98.6 58 716

Russia Netherlands Panama Texas Canada, New York Canada Michigan

80 15.3 50.7 93.7 182 1.4 1.8

Egypt Alabama, Mississippi Russia Canada Russia

Belgium The Netherlands Massachusetts Delaware, Maryland Illinois Greece New York China Germany England Arkansas, Oklahoma

a

Minimum Depth

ft

m

335 246 500 450

Excludes passage through Lake Ontario and Welland Ship Canal. Includes entrance channels at both ends. Source: From The World Book Encyclopedia q 2006 World Book, Inc. By permission of the publisher, www.worldbook.com.

b

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

7-233

SECTION 7M

WATERBORNE COMMERCE

Table 7M.151 Waterborne Commerce of the United States, 1984–2003 Foreign

Domestic

Year

Grand Total

Total

Great Lakes

Coastal

Total

Coastwise

Lakewise

Internal

Intraport

Tons. (millions) 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

1,832.6 1,785.0 1,870.5 1,962.8 2,082.9 2,135.2 2,159.3 2,087.6 2,127.9 2,123.3 2,208.8 2,233.5 2,276.7 2,326.9 2,332.3 2,316.7 2,419.1 2,387.4 2,335.2 2,387.9

803.3 774.3 837.2 891.0 976.2 1,037.9 1,041.6 1,013.6 1,037.5 1,060.0 1,115.7 1,147.4 1,183.4 1,220.6 1,245.4 1,260.8 1,354.8 1,350.8 1,319.3 1,378.1

58.8 51.3 45.8 45.9 52.5 54.8 50.5 41.8 45.5 43.6 50.1 51.9 56.4 57.7 62.4 62.4 64.0 62.5 59.6 56.3

744.6 723.0 791.4 845.1 923.7 983.1 991.1 971.8 992.0 1,016.4 1,065.6 1,095.5 1,127.0 1,162.9 1,183.0 1,198.3 1,290.7 1,288.3 1,259.7 1,321.8

1,029.3 1,010.7 1,033.2 1,071.8 1,106.6 1,097.3 1,117.8 1,074.0 1,090.4 1,063.2 1,093.1 1,086.2 1,093.4 1,106.3 1,086.9 1,055.9 1,064.3 1,036.6 1,015.9 1,009.7

307.7 309.8 308.0 323.5 325.2 302.0 298.6 294.5 285.1 271.7 277.0 266.6 267.4 263.1 249.6 228.8 226.9 223.6 216.4 223.5

98.0 92.0 87.4 96.5 109.7 109.1 110.2 103.4 107.4 109.8 114.8 116.1 114.9 122.7 122.2 113.9 114.4 100.0 101.5 89.8

542.5 534.7 560.5 569.8 588.1 606.0 622.5 600.4 621.0 607.3 618.4 620.3 622.1a 630.6 625.0 624.6 628.4 619.8 608.0 609.6

81.1 74.3 77.4 82.0 83.7 80.2 86.4 75.6 76.8 74.4 82.9 83.1 89.0a 89.8 90.1 88.60 94.6 93.2 90.0 86.9

a

Beginning in 1996, fish was excluded.

Source: From U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2003 Waterborne Commerce of the United States (WCUS) Waterways and Harbors on the: Part V National Summaries of Domestic and Foreign Waterborne Commerce, www.iwr.usace.army.mil.

Table 7M.152 Freight Carried on Inland Waterways of the United States, 2001–2003

Waterway Atlantic Coast Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway, VA-FL Intracoastal Wtwy, Jacksonville to Miami, FL Gulf Coast Bayou Teche, LA Black Warrior and Tombigbee Rivers, AL Chocolate Bayou, TX Gulf Intracoastal Waterway, TX-FL GIWW: Morgan City-Port Allen Route, LA Petit Anse, Tigre, Carlin Bayous, LA Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, AL and MS Mississippi River System Allegheny River, PA Atchafalaya River, LA Big Sandy River, KY and WV Cumberland River, KY and TN Green and Barren Rivers, KY Illinois Waterway, IL Kanawha River, WV McClellan-Kerr Arkansas R. Nav. Sys., AR/OK Mississippi River Mpls, MN to Mouth of Passes Minneapolis, MN to Mouth of Missouri River

Tons

Tons

Tons

Length (miles)

2001

793 349

2.5 1.0

K20.1 18.5

1.9 0.5

K26.1 K43.2

1.9 0.9

3.5 69.5

107 449 13 1,109 64 16 234

1.7 18.9 3.4 112.2 23.3 3.1 6.8

10.4 K19.4 K11.4 K1.4 1.0 19.7 K3.6

1.6 19 2.9 107.7 20.8 2.2 6.2

K9.3 K0.5 K14.0 K4.0 K10.6 K27.8 K8.1

1.4 21.0 3.3 117.8 24.3 2.5 6.2

K10.0 10.3 13.8 9.5 16.6 13.1 K0.2

72 121 27 381 109 357 91 462 1,814 663

3.0 11.6 24.2 23.2 7.8 43.5 22.2 11.2 316.5 78.8

K21.9 K14.0 3.0 2.2 88.7 K1.7 K1.4 4.4 K3.3 K5.4

2.8 10.7 25.1 22.6 10.4 43.0 19.2 11.9 316.2 84.1

K4.6 K7.3 3.7 K2.5 33.9 K1.0 K13.2 6.2 K0.1 6.7

3.3 9.8 22.6 20.6 7.9 45.0 19.4 13.0 308.2 77.8

17.7 K8.8 K9.9 K8.7 K24.2 4.6 0.8 9.1 K2.5 K7.4

%

a

2002

b

%

2003

%c

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-234

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7M.152

(Continued)

Waterway Mouth of Missouri R. to Mouth of Ohio R. Mouth of Ohio River up to Baton Rouge, LA Baton Rouge up to New Orleans, LAd New Orleans, LA to Mouth of Passesd Missouri R. (MO, KS, NE & IA) to Sioux City, IA Monongahela River, PA and WV Ohio River, PA, WV, OH, KY, IN, and IL Ouachita and Black Rivers, AR and LA Red River, LA Tennessee River, TN, KY, MS and AL Pacific Coast Columbia River System, OR, WA, and ID Columbia River and Willamette River below Vancouver, WA and Portland, ORd Vancouver, WA to The Dalles, OR The Dalles Dam to McNary Lock and Dam Above McNary L & D to Kennewick, WA Snake River (WA and ID) to Lewiston, ID Willamette River above Portland, OR a b c d

Tons

Tons

Length (miles)

2001

%

2002

%

195 720 130 106 732 129 981 332 212 652

119.1 200.7 220.0 116.7 9.7 38.1 242.5 1.6 3.7 47.9

K2.1 K1.8 K2.7 K3.8 11.4 2.1 2.6 6.7 K2.1 K3.3

121.5 198.3 222.4 114.8 8.3 38.2 248.2 1.4 3.7 43.9

596 113

20.2 19.8

K12.2 K11.6

85 100 39 141 118

9.8 8.9 6.7 5.6 1.6

K8.2 K9.2 K14.6 K15.9 83.7

a

Tons b

2003

%c

2.0 K1.2 1.1 K1.6 K15.1 0.4 0.3 K11.5 0.6 K8.3

111.5 185.5 212.9 115.8 8.1 27.6 228.3 2.2 4.2 49.8

K8.2 K6.5 K4.3 K0.8 K2.6 K27.8 K5.9 57.7 12.6 13.4

16.5 15.9

18.5 K19.4

16.5 16.2

0.5 1.5

8.0 7.3 5.1 4.3 1.6

K18.4 K18.2 K24.5 K24.0 1.4

9.4 8.5 6.5 5.3 1.3

18.0 17.5 27.0 24.6 K22.3

Percent change from 2000 Percent change from 2001 Percent change from 2002 Includes deep draft waterways (2001, 2002). Includes coastwise entrance channel miles.

Source:

From U.S., Army Corps of Engineers, 2003 Waterborne Commerce of United States (WCUS) Waterways and Harbors on the: Part V - Natinal summaries of Domestic and Foreign Waterbome Commerce: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2002 Waterborne Commerce of the United States (WCUS) Waterways and Harbors on the: Part V - National Summaries of Domestic and Foreign Waterborne Commerce: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2001 Waterborne Commerce of the United States (WCUS) Waterways and Harbors on the: Part V - national Summaries of Domestic and Foreign Waterborne commer commerce, www.iwr.usace.army.mil.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

7-235

Total commerce All others 102.9 4.3%

Food & farm prod 265.7 11.1%

Primary manuf goods 134.7 5.6%

Crude materials 358.0 15.0%

Coal 281.2 11.7%

Petro & petro prod 1,080.5 45.1%

Chem & rel prod 171.3 7.2%

Foreign commerce

Domestic commerce

All others 80.8 5.9%

Food & farm prod 174.8 12.7%

All others 21.9 2.2% Coal 67.6 4.9%

Primary manuf goods 41.7 4.1%

Primary manuf goods 93.0 6.7% Crude materials 146.4 10.6%

Chem & rel prod 95.6 6.9%

Petro & petro prod 719.7 52.2%

Food & farm prod 90.9 8.9%

Coal 213.5 21.0%

Crude materials 211.6 20.8%

Chem & rel prod 75.7 7.5%

Petro & petro prod 360.8 35.5%

Note: Million short tons and percentage of short tons. Figure 7M.24 Principal commodities carried on waterways of the United States in 2003. (From U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2003 Waterborne Commerce of the United States (WCUS) Waterways and Harbors on the: Part V National Summaries of Domestic and Foreign Waterborne Commerce, www.iwr.usace.army.mil.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-236

Table 7M.153 Domestic and Foreign Waterborne Commerce by Type of Commodity in the United States, 2000–2003 2000

2001 Foreign

2002 Foreign

2003 Foreign

Foreign

Domestic

Imports

Exports

Domestic

Imports

Exports

Domestic

Imports

Exports

Domestic

Imports

Exports

Total, all commodoties Coal and lignite Petroleum and petroleum productsa Crude Petroleum Gasoline Distillate fuel oil Residual fuel oil Chemicals and Related Products Crude Materials, inedible except fuelsa,b Forest products, wood and chips Soil, sand, gravel, rock and stoneb Limestone Phosphate rock Sand and gravel Iron ore and scrap Nonferrous ores and scrap Primary manufactured goods Food and farm productsa,c Wheat Corn Soybeans Other agricultural productsd All manufactured equipment, machinery and products Waste and scrap nec Unknown or not elsewhere classified

1,069,798 220,679 370,603

976,784 15,462 651,650

415,042 60,879 58,696

1,042,472 227,718 369,745

945,075 19,857 620,556

399,011 55,764 58,292

1,021,001 227,011 348,671

934,941 16,671 609,289

384,350 43,252 59,929

1,016,136 213,517 360,809

1,004,791 25,015 661,540

373,324 42,624 58,199

83,806 94,658 65,695 78,534 75,996

521,619 24,157 21,111 40,361 38,479

3,064 6,434 4,953 12,693 57,888

85,971 93,098 65,591 78,742 71,080

486,249 27,732 20,589 40,891 43,830

1,344 6,906 4,982 14,032 54,741

85,506 86,602 62,651 69,420 73,063

479,318 29,282 19,936 35,411 39,572

1,208 6,726 5,861 12,129 54,962

87,491 87,524 65,569 75,958 75,718

515,747 32,294 29,115 31,330 42,007

1,248 6,630 7,046 9,420 53,575

234,210

97,350

48,753

213,673

95,041

45,283

214,745

92,225

44,983

211,563

102,215

44,235

13,475

5,505

14,131

10,222

6,119

10,725

9,243

7,024

8,853

8,090

7,415

8,090

132,275

29,061

3,635

129,267

29,793

3,534

128,777

33,691

3,657

130,829

37,453

2,539

54,185 3,418 71,447 69,215 6,730

10,703 — 6,611 19,412 19,370

2,476 7 850 9,281 3,135

56,034 1,736 68,510 54,006 6,159

10,439 — 8,144 13,431 17,117

2,422 — 864 9,319 2,430

54,418 3,497 67,474 58,471 6,594

11,706 2,670 7,929 15,513 15,505

2,709 1 639 11,818 2,243

50,340 3,141 73,651 52,918 6,869

12,483 2,547 11,103 16,886 16,870

1,838 6 519 11,107 2,443

45,788

91,959

15,256

40,336

82,854

13,892

42,426

83,922

14,502

41,695

76,428

16,537

96,940

30,026

156,333

96,514

30,766

154,577

97,556

32,150

150,323

90,923

32,793

142,003

12,885 37,960 20,242 7,489

147 163 30 15,920

30,378 50,048 27,013 22,724

12,074 38,999 20,034 7,302

155 99 31 22,905

28,039 48,772 29,352 15,887

9,677 41,720 21,538 7,322

248 95 39 24,213

26,066 47,936 28,175 15,697

10,758 36,673 20,378 7,073

230 83 33 24,985

26,358 41,447 29,270 15,454

21,245

48,598

13,762

19,870

47,726

12,753

14,576

54,865

12,419

18,714

58,502

12,809

4,267 71

— 3,259

— 3,474

3,469 67

— 4,445

— 3,708

2,745 208

— 6,247

— 3,981

3,108 89

— 6,293

— 3,342

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Commodity

a b c d

Thousand of short tons.

Includes commodities not shown seperately. Dose not include waterways improvement material, 2000-5.3 million short tons, 2001-6.5 million short tons, 2002-6.4 million short tons, 2003-4.4 million short tons. Does not include fish landings. Food, alcoholic beverages, tobacco products, cotton, etc.

WATER USE

Note:

Source: From U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2003 Waterborns Commerce of the United Sates (WCUS) Waterways and Harbors on the: Part V-National Summaries of Domestic and Foreign Waterborne Commerce; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2002 Waterborne Commerce of the United States Domestic and Foreign Waterborne Commerce; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2001 Waterborne Commerce of the United States (WCUS) Waterways and Harborne Commerce; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2000 Waterborne Commerce of the United States (WCUS) Waterways and Harbors on the: Part V-National Summaries of Domestic and Foreign Waterborne Commerce, www.iwr.usace.army.mil.

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1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

543.5

527.8

556.4

583.4

601.6

626.4

659.1

646.6

673.1

660.4

693.3

707.2

701.8

707.1

707.4

716.9

715.5

714.8

712.8

676.8

Inbound

34.1

27.0

35.1

38.1

45.3

59.9

63.1

60.1

63.0

76.9

89.8

81.5

77.3

83.5

85.2

83.5

87.7

87.8

86.3

78.4

Outbound

85.9

81.0

81.1

93.7

97.5

104.0

106.0

109.9

112.3

100.0

92.4

115.8

108.7

98.5

94.7

99.2

100.5

99.8

99.2

91.3

Total

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Table 7M.154 Freight Carried on the Mississippi River System by Type of Traffic, 1984–2003

Foreign

Domestic Coastwise Internal

36.7

40.9

37.4

37.4

35.8

31.1

32.6

31.3

32.3

31.8

32.4

30.6

33.0

36.3

36.7

34.6

34.1

30.9

33.0

31.8

386.6

378.9

402.8

414.2

423.0

431.5

457.5

445.1

465.4

451.7

478.7

479.4

482.8

488.9

490.7

499.6

493.1

496.3

494.3

475.2

Note: Million short tons. Foreign Inbound includes Upbound Thru Traffic. Foreign Outbound includes Downbound Thru Traffic. Source:

From U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2003 Waterborne Commerce of the United States (WCUS) Waterways and Harbors on the: Part V National Summaries of Domestic and Foreign Waterborne Commerce, www.iwr.usace.army.mil.

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Total Foreign Inbound Outbound Domestic Coastwise Lakewise Internal Intraport Note:

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

162.8

148.1

137.9

148.1

168.8

168.9

167.1

151.1

159.9

159.6

175.3

177.8

181.8

188.6

192.2

182.9

187.5

171.4

167.2

156.5

17.8 40.9

17.1 34.2

13.8 32.0

13.9 32.1

15.9 36.6

17.8 37.1

17.6 32.9

14.2 27.5

15.4 30.4

18.1 25.8

23.1 27.8

18.9 33.5

24.5 32.8

24.5 33.7

25.6 37.9

22.2 40.8

23.9 42.9

22.0 43.6

21.5 38.4

23.3 33.1

0.0 98.0 1.8 4.2

0.0 92.0 2.2 2.7

— 87.4 1.7 3.0

0.0 96.5 1.4 4.3

— 109.7 1.6 5.0

0.0 109.1 1.7 3.3

0.0 110.2 3.1 3.4

— 103.4 3.2 2.7

0.0 107.4 3.4 3.3

0.0 109.9 3.1 2.8

0.0 114.8 4.6 5.0

— 116.2 3.6 5.5

— 115.0 3.3 6.2

— 122.8 2.3 5.2

— 122.2 2.3 4.3

— 113.4 1.5 4.4

0.0 114.4 2.1 4.2

— 100.1 1.7 4.0

— 101.6 2.5 3.2

0.0 89.8 2.8 7.4

WATER USE

Table 7M.155 U.S. Freight Carried on the Great Lakes by Type of Traffic, 1984–2003

Million Short Tons. Foreign Outbound includes Great Lakes Thru Foreign Traffic.

Source:

From U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2003 Waterborne Commerce of the United States (WCUS) Waterways and Harbors on the: Part V. National Summaries of Domestic and Foreign Waterborne Commerce, www.iwr.usace.army.mil.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 7N

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER–BASED RECREATION

Estimates of Retail Expenditures on Recreational Boating 1997–2003 New Boats Total New Boat Retail dollars Average New Boat Retail Price Used Boats Total Used Boat Retail Dollars Average Used Boat Retail Price New Outboard Motors Total New Outboard Motor Retail Dollars Average New Outboard Motor Retail Price Used Outboard Motors Total Used Outboard Motor Retail Dollars Average Used Outboard Motor Retail Price New Boat Trailers Total New Boat Retail Dollars Average New Boat Trailer Retail Price Estimated Boat/Motor/Trailer Dollars Estimated Accessory Aftermarket Sales Sub Total Estimated Other (fuel, finance, insurance, docking, maintenance etc) Total Expenditures Percent Change New Boat/Motor Expenditures Percent Change Recreational Boats in Use by Boat Type 1997–2003 Outboard boats (millions) Inboard boats (millions) Sterndrive boats (millions) Personal Watercraft (millions) Sailboats (millions) Others (millions) Total (millions) a b

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

610,100 $6,636,856,000 $10,878 1,038,819 $4,067,750,452 $3,916 302,000 $2,006,186,000 $6,643 514,216 $1,229,597.871 $2,391 181,000 $190,050,000 $1,050 $14,130,440,323 1,214,057,000 $15,344,497,323 $3,573,140,718

575,300 $6,308,685,000 $10,966 979,565 $3,866,613,387 $3,947 314,000 $2,155,610,000 $6,865 534,649 $1,321,180,323 $2,471 174,000 $189,660,000 $1,090 $13,841,748,710 1,650,000,000 $15,491,748,710 $3,500,139,754

584,900 $7,711,369,000 $12,176 995,911 $4,365,102,290 $4,383 331,900 $2,602,096,000 $7,840 565,127 $1,594,833,032 $2,822 168,000 $190,008,000 $1,131 $16,463,408,323 1,848,000,000 $17,722,048,323 $4,014,043.945

576,900 $9,515,192,800 $16,494 982,289 $5,831,892,361 $5,937 348,700 $2,901,861,400 $8,322 393,732 $1,778,572,471 $2,996 158,500 $184,494,000 $1,164 $20,212.033,032 2,032,800,000 $22,244,833,032 $5,625,013,577

882,300 $10,223,862,700 $11,588 1,502,295 $6,266,238,429 $4,171 299,100 $2,411,045,100 $8,061 509,278 $1,477,737,319 $2,902 135,900 $181,698,300 $1,337 $20,560,581,848 1,937,268,400 $22,497,840,248 $6,058,281,452

846,000 $10,898,635,200 $12,883 1,440,486 $6,679,808,671 $4,637 302,100 $2,479,938,900 $8,209 514,386 $1,519,962,552 $2,955 141,200 $200,645,200 $1,421 $21,778,990,523 2,028,309,545 $23,807,300,067 $6,554,969,366

840,800b $10,603,725,600 $12,611 1,431,632 $6,499,057,626 $4,540 305,400 $2,554,533,570 $8,365 520,005 $1,565,681,865 $3,011 130,600 $202,012,080 $1,547 $21,425,010,741 2,123,640,093 $23,548,650,835 $6,448,429,689

$18,917,638,040

$18,991,888,464 0.39% $8,464,295,000 –2.07%

$21,736,092,268 14.45% $10,313,465,000 21.85%

$27,869,846,610 28.22% $12,417,074,200 20.40%

$28,556,121,701 2.46% $12,634,907,800 1.75%

$30,362,269,433 6.32% $13,378,574,100 5.89%

$29,997,080,523 –1.20% $13,158,259,170 –1.65%

8.21 1.63 1.67 1.18 1.65 2.49 16.82

8.29 1.66 1.71 1.24 1.64 2.50 17.03

8.34 1.69 1.74 1.29 1.63 2.51 17.20

8.38 1.71 1.77 1.35 1.61 2.53 17.36

$8,643,042,000

8.13 1.59 1.58 1.00 1.65 2.29 16.23

8.19 1.61 1.62 1.10 1.67 2.45 16.65

a

WATER USE

Table 7N.156 Recreational Boats in Use by Boat Type 1997–2003 and Estimates of Retail Expenditures on Recreational Boats

8.42 1.74 1.79 1.42 1.60 2.53 17.49

Includes 357,100 kayaks not previously reported. Includes 30,580 inflatables not previously reported.

Source: From National Marine Manufactures Association, 2003 Recreational Statistical Abstract, www.nmma.org. Reprinted with permission. Original Source: From Recreational Boats in Use by Type 1997 to 2003 data USCG/NMMA.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7N.157 The Retail Boating Market 1997–2003 Total Units Sold, Total Retail Value, and Average Retail Unit Cost 1997 Outboard Boats Total units sold 20,000 Retail value $1,421,400,000 Average unit cost $7,107 Outboard Motors Total units sold 302,000 Retail value $2,006,186,000 Average unit cost $6,643 Boat Traillers Total units sold 181,000 Retail value $190,050,000 Average unit cost $1,050 Inboard Boats-Ski/Wakeboard Boats Total units sold 6,100 Retail value $136,408,200 Average unit cost $22,362 Inboard Boats-Cruisers Total units sold 6,300 Retail value $1,669,103,100 Average unit cost $264,937 Stemdrive Boats Total units sold 92,000 Retail value $2,068,528,000 Average unit cost $22,484 Canoes Total units sold 103,600 Retail value $61,124,000 Average unit cost $590 Kayaks Total units sold N/A Retail value N/A Average unit cost N/A Inflatables Total units sold N/A Retail value N/A Average unit cost N/A Personal Water Craft Total units sold 176,000 Retail value $1,135,904,000 Average unit cost $6,454 Jet Boats Total units sold 11,700 Retail value $144,389,700 Average unit cost $12,341 Sailboatsa Total units sold 14,400 Retail value N/A Average unit cost N/A

Note: Source:

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

213,700 $1,547,188,000 $7,240

230,200 $1,988,928,000 $8,640

241,200 $2,306,577,000 $9,563

217,800 $2,195,859,600 $10,082

212,000 $2,280,908,000 $10,759

207,100 $2,742,825,960 $13,244

314,000 $2,155,610,000 $6,865

331,900 $2,602,096,000 $7,840

348,700 $2,901,881,400 $8,322

299,100 $2,411,045,100 $8,061

302,100 $2,478,838,900 $8,205

305,400 $2,554,533,570 $8,365

174,000 $189,660,000 $1,090

168,000 $190,008,000 $1,131

158,500 $184,494,000 $1,164

135,900 $181,698,300 $1,337

141,200 $200,645,200 $1,421

130,600 $202,012,080 $1,547

10,900 253,348,700 23,243

12,100 $308,429,000 $25,490

13,600 $366,438,400 $26,944

11,100 $352,569,300 $31,763

10,500 $398,811,000 $37,982

11,100 $403,289,640 $36,332

6,700 $1,704,245,500 $254,365

7,000 $1,799,420,000 $257,060

10,300 $2,925,756,200 $284,054

10,800 $3,758,475,600 $348,007

11,800 $4,336,559,000 $367,505

9,300 $3,467,322,720 $372,830

77,700 $1,746,696,000 $22,480

79,600 $2,054,476,000 $25,810

78,400 $2,253,843,200 $28,748

72,000 $2,216,448,000 $30,784

69,300 $2,192,929,200 $31,644

69,200 $2,221,116,840 $32,097

107,800 $64,033,200 $594

121,000 $67,034,000 $554

111,800 $64,508,600 $577

105,800 $57,449,400 $543

100,000 $56,900,000 $569

86,700 $49,644,420 $573

N/A N/A N/A

N/A N/A N/A

N/A N/A N/A

357,100 $176,764,500 $495

340,300 $157,558,900 $463

324,000 $151,048,800 $465

N/A N/A N/A

N/A N/A N/A

N/A N/A N/A

N/A N/A N/A

N/A N/A N/A

30,500 $67,417,200 $2,210

130,000 $868,530,000 $6,681

106,000 $771,044,000 $7,274

92,000 $720,176,000 $7,828

80,900 $641,456,100 $7,929

79,300 $697,681,400 $8,798

80,600 $716,501,760 $8,890

10,100 $167,033,800 $16,538

7,800 $132,678,000 $17,010

7,000 $123,641,000 $17,663

6,200 $118,692,800 $19,144

5,100 $107,997,600 $21,176

5,600 $115,268,160 $20,584

18,400 N/A N/A

21,600 N/A N/A

22,600 $754,252,400 $33,374

20,600 $706,139,303 $34,279

17,700 $669,290,100 $37,813

16,700 $669,290,100 $40,077

a

The Sailing Company’s Annual Sailing Business Review. From National Marine Manufactures Association, 2003 Recreational Statistical Abstract, www.nmma.org. Reprinted with permission.

Original Source: From The Sailing Company’s Annual Sailing Business Review.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Boat Registration Data by Statea Nonpowered

Other

Total

Sail Only

Other Boats

Total

Inboard

Outboard

Sterndrive

Auxiliary Sail

PWC

Rowboat

Canoe or Kayak

1,457,376 17,582 4,195 45,865 29,704 115,697 21,496 7,746 6,193 543

8,003,686 205,393 31,284 65,061 148,573 356,955 49,595 68,915 32,037 614

1,601,156 20,256 4,337 0 0 209,788 7,715 16,998 11,190 337

139,885 994 607 1,572 0 20,414 0 4,997 0 150

744,473 14,141 1,673 28,081 0 184,105 17,136 8,433 0 39

118,295 534 8,767 0 0 8,691 0 302 0 262

282,612 375 0 0 0 6,863 0 56 0 13

146,084 2,631 193 0 472 35,853 3,937 207 0 150

301,049 343 360 6,634 17,466 25,013 696 253 515 44

12,794,616 262,249 51,416 147,213 196,215 963,379 100,575 107,907 49,935 2,152

66,694 17,839 7,860 17,579 30,268 25,293 19,569 7,177 15,750 21,225 7,021 15,493 8,361 268,629 23,735 17,109 9,326 19,125 5,939 3,574 15,887 18,623 3,284 99,062 16,929 2,909 31,626 40,787

624,342 218,634 3,267 40,559 225,527 129,966 131,236 65,842 119,450 262,311 73,542 110,726 98,952 577,579 510,654 168,113 227,118 33,596 47,034 21,223 53,193 112,269 21,246 280,721 245,772 36,549 189,359 164,219

92,408 36,247 2,217 16,160 50,920 35,494 23,592 9,816 17,224 10,583 9,570 36,046 27,392 41,288 56,709 12,305 43,244 0 9,968 18,681 16,282 38,683 7,035 132,021 44,575 4,295 66,634 22,950

9,932 0 1,246 838 3,032 713 471 406 342 0 0 10,318 6,565 13,569 2,864 3,930 155 152 24 483 2,324 7,174 182 6,687 3,583 130 1,923 1,822

106,783 37,673 0 4,634 13,995 0 0 12,731 8,298 12,932 0 16,753 8,503 0 40,394 0 0 0 8,819 13,524 0 22,589 6,821 0 39,759 4,457 42,849 0

4,224 0 0 0 16,012 0 956 1,305 0 0 0 0 0 26,408 12,791 0 500 147 75 233 0 6,011 0 0 0 0 11,721 0

3,511 0 0 0 0 0 23,379 272 0 0 0 0 0 0 169,933 0 502 18 191 0 0 0 0 0 0 513 52,339 0

7,657 4,414 690 800 8,078 1,308 4,324 2,618 0 0 0 483 0 26,081 15,622 0 1,948 346 155 165 4,183 1,793 1,291 0 1,788 67 9,418 0

24,417 11,911 320 2,106 12,420 23,371 7,309 296 12,354 0 471 8,576 6,348 0 12,677 0 43,360 0 3,558 697 8,966 446 435 9,603 7,451 329 7,179 0

939,968 326,718 15,600 82,676 360,252 216,145 210,836 100,463 173,418 307,051 90,604 198,395 156,121 953,554 845,379 201,457 326,153 53,384 75,763 58,580 100,835 207,588 40,294 528,094 359,857 49,249 413,048 229,778 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-243

Totals Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma

Powered

WATER USE

Table 7N.158 Boat Registration Data by State, 2003

7-244

Table 7N.158

(Continued) Boat Registration Data by Statea

a

b

Nonpowered

Inboard

Outboard

Sterndrive

Auxiliary Sail

PWC

Rowboat

Canoe or Kayak

64,352 30,445 4,824 13,464 1,877 41,701 117,514 11,527 8,517 6,261 0 4,419 42,696 14,977 0 8,195 809 19 85

125,047 237,196 22,502 278,142 36,069 188,816 404,827 29,363 24,743 156,813 156,447 39,239 514,895 1,962 0 33,993 1,834 75 297

0 47,972 9,983 36,498 10,739 28,864 87,257 19,329 0 43,019 98,586 5,566 52,881 5,599 0 1,804 96 0 3

4,971 344 3,372 5,345 244 525 0 0 0 4,602 10,740 0 0 0 0 967 1,168 8 0

0 0 2,326 25,421 0 0 0 14,645 0 25,968 0 2,405 0 2,555 0 15,949 14 0 68

0 2,082 0 17,226 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 46 0 2

0 24,337 0 180 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 89 0 0 41 0 0

Other

Total

Sail Only

Other Boats

Total

0 1,801 0 1,782 0 1,730 2,398 1,314 0 234 0 0 0 100 0 0 53 0 0

3,221 11,058 0 2,256 4,540 0 7,092 0 0 5,096 0 7,088 328 443 4,000 3 0 0 0

197,591 355,235 43,007 380,314 53,469 261,636 619,088 76,178 33,260 241,993 265,773 58,717 610,800 25,725 4,000 60,911 4,061 102 455

The figures in this table are derived from reports from the State and jurisdictions. There are a total of 12,794,616 registered recreational vessels. This table classifies registered motorboats and registered nonpowered boats for each State and jurisdiction. Please note that the scope of the boat registration system for each State and jurisdiction is not the same. This explains why some States report the number of non-powered vessels such as rowboats, canoes, and non-powered sailboats and others do not. Also notice that some State and jurisdictions report Personal Watercraft (PWC) as a separate vessel category and others report PWC as an inboard motorboat. An accurate figure on the number of PWC will be provided when all States and jurisdictions classify and report PWC as a separate as a separate vessel category. Estimate.

Source: From U.S. Department of Homeland Security, United States Coast Guard, 2004, Boating Statistics 2003, COMDTPUB P16754017, www.uscgboating.org.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Guamb Puerto Rico Virgin Islands Amer Samoa No. Marianas

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WATER USE

7-245

Table 7N.159 Fatality Rate in Recreational Boating in the United States, 1991–2003

Year

Fatalities

Number of Registered Boats

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

924 816 800 784 829 709 821 815 734 701 681 750 703

11,068,440 11,132,386 11,282,736 11,429,585 11,734,710 11,877,938 12,312,982 12,565,930 12,738,271 12,782,143 12,876,346 12,854,054 12,794,616

Fatalities Per 100,000 Registered Boats 8.3 7.3 7.1 6.9 7.1 5.9 6.7 6.5 5.8 5.5 5.3 5.8 5.5

Source : From U.S. Department of Homeland Security, United States Coast Guard, 2004, Boating Statistics 2003, COMDTPUB P16754.17, www.uscgboating.org.

Table 7N.160 Types of Boating Accidents in the United States, 2003 Types of Boating Accidents

Total Capsizing Collision with fixed object Collision with floating object Collision with another vessel Falls within boat Falls overboard Fire/explosion (fuel) Fire/explosion (other than fuel) Flooding/swamping Grounding Sinking Skier mishap Struck by boat Struck by motor or propeller Struck submerged object Other (not specified) Carbon monoxide poisoning Departed vessel (swimming) Departed vessel (other) Ejected from vessel Falls on PWC Not reported

Accidents

Vessels Involved

Drowning Deaths

Other Deaths

Total Fatalities

5,438 514 558 152 1,469 233 509 142 68

7,363 576 629 215 2,972 249 530 163 79

481 170 19 1 9 3 169 4 0

22 36 31 2 61 3 32 3 2

703 206 50 3 70 6 201 7 2

274 291 128 451 89 107 128 80 20 34 11 7 15 158

293 297 135 477 128 120 129 88 20 34 11 7 18 193

36 2 6 1 1 1 2 1 0 28 10 3 0 15

5 6 2 5 8 5 2 3 7 1 0 2 1 5

41 8 8 6 9 6 4 4 7 29 10 5 1 20

Source: From U.S. Department of Homeland Security, United States Coast Guard, 2004, Boating Statistics 2003, COMDTPUB P16754.17, www.uscgboating.org. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7N.161 Boating Accidents in the United States, 2003

Time of Day

Month of Year

Day of Week

Time Period

Accidents

Fatalities

Midnight to 2:30 am 2:31 am to 4:30 am 4:31 am to 6:30 am 6:31 am to 8:30 am 8:31 am to 10:30 am 10:31 am to 12:30 pm 12:31 pm to 2:30 pm 2:31 pm to 4:30 pm 4:31 pm to 6:30 pm 6:31 pm to 8:30 pm 8:31 pm to 10:30 pm 10:31 pm to midnight Unknown January February March April May June July August September October November December Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

174 54 65 131 305 579 878 1,163 973 575 297 132 112 70 98 180 225 638 849 1,480 1,075 383 235 127 78 485 393 395 397 768 1,560 1,440 5,438

44 9 11 22 33 65 90 124 104 85 61 21 34 24 18 34 47 87 95 112 109 67 50 35 25 76 62 66 62 113 159 165 703

Totals

Source: U.S. Department of Homeland Security, United States Coast Guard, 2004, Boating Statistics 2003, COMDTPUB P16754.17, www.uscgboating.org.

Table 7N.162 Life Expectancy in Water Water Temperature Duration, Hours

308F

408F

508F

608F

708F

1 2 3 4

M L L L

M L L L

M M M L

S M M M

S S S S

Note: Exposure by immersion in low temperature water can have serious consequences. Life expectancies for various durations of exposure are indicated by: L — Lethal, 100 percent expectancy of death; M — Marginal, 50 percent expectancy of unconsciousness which will probably result in drowning; S — Safe. It should also be noted that sudden immersion in ice cold water can cause temporary paralysis with resulting helplessness and loss of buoyancy, causing the victim to sink to the bottom. Source: Pan American Airways and Calif. Dept. of Harbors and Watercraft. With permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

7-247

The effects of cold weather on fatal accident risk - 2003

Percent of accidents that are fatal

.30 .25 .20 .15 .10 .05 0 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Boaters are more likely to perish if they are involved in a reported accident during the fall & winter months

Month

Fatal accidents

Non-fatal accidents 55

Fatal accident risk

Total fatalities

70

21%

24

Total accidents

January

15

February

17

81

98

17%

18

March

29

151

180

16%

34

April

41

184

225

18%

47

May

81

557

638

13%

87

June

90

759

849

11%

95

July

106

1,374

1,480

7%

112

August

96

979

1,075

9%

109

September

56

327

383

15%

67

October

42

193

235

18%

50

November

29

98

127

23%

35

December

19

59

78

24%

25

621

4,817

5,438

Total

703

Figure 7N.25 The effects of cold water on fatal accidents, 2002. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, United States Coast Guard, 2004, Boating Statistics 2003, COMDTPUB P16754.17, uscgboating.org/statistics/Boating_Statistics_2003.pdf. http://library.fws. gov/nat_survey2001_trends.pdf.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-248

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7N.163 Number of Fishing Participants, Days, and Expenditures of Sport Fishermen in the United States, 1991, 1996, and 2001 1991 Number Participants Anglers, Total 35,578 All freshwater 31,041 Freshwater, except 30,186 Great Lakes Great Lakes 2,552 Saltwater 8,885 Days Total 511,329 All freshwater 439,536 Freshwater, except 430,922 Great Lakes Great Lakes 25,335 Saltwater 74,696 Expenditures (in 2001 dollars) Fishing, Total $31,175,168 Trips 15,396,151 Equipment 12,170,062 Fishing equipment 4,860,266 Auxiliary 804,953 equipment Special equipment 6,504,844 Other 3,608,953

1996 Percent

Number

2001 Percent

Number

1991–2001 Percent

1996–2001

%change

%change

100 87 85

35,246 29,734 28,921

100 84 82

34,067 28,439 27,913

100 83 82

K4 K8 K8

K3 K4 K3a

7 25

2,039 9,438

6 27

1,847 9,051

5 26

K28 2a

K9a K4a

100 86 84

625,893 515,115 485,474

100 82 78

557,394 466,984 443,247

100 84 80

9 6 3a

K11 K9 K9

5 15

20,095 103,034

3 17

23,138 90.838

4 16

K9a 22

15a K12a

100 49 39 16 3

$42,710,679 17,380,775 21,666,341 5,998,802 1,171,540

100 41 51 14 3

$35,632,132 14,656,001 16,963,398 4,617,488 721,048

100 41 48 13 2

14 K5a 39 K5a K10a

K17 K16 K22 K23 K38

21 12

14,495,999 3,663,563

34 9

11,624,862 4,012,733

33 11

79 11

K20a 10a

Note: U.S. Population 16 Years Old and Older, Numbers in Thousands. a

Not different from zero at the 5 percent level.

Source: From U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, 2002,2001 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting and Wildlife-Associated Recreation, cenovs.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 7N.164 Number and Cost of Sport Fishing Licenses in the United States, 1991, 1996, and 2001 1991

1996

2001

Number (Thousands)

Percent

Number (Thousands)

Percent

Number (Thousands)

Percent

Total anglers Total license purchasersa Anglers purchasing licenses: In state of residence In other states Total exempt from purchasing licenses Anglers exempt from license purchase: In state of residence In other states Otherb Not reported

35,578 23,302 21,445

100 65 60

35,246 23,203 21,437

100 66 61

34,071 21,396 20,004

100 63 59

3,653 3,037

10 9

4,356 3,281

12 9

3,781 4,284

11 13

2,596

7

2,365

7

3,959

12

375 6,586 3,329

1 19 9

427 9,143 558

1 26 2

608 10,268 448

2 30 1

Expenditures Total, all licenses, stamps, tags and permits Licenses Stamps, tags, permits

1991 Thousands of Dollars 486,700

1996 Thousands of Dollars 579,753

2001 Thousands of Dollars 639876

443,287 43,414

519,061 60,692

597,210 42,666

Anglers

Note: a b

Detail does not add to total because of multiple responses and nonresponse. Respondents could have been licensed in one state and exempt in another.

Includes persons who had license bought for them. Does not include persons who purchase license and did not fish in 1991, 1996, and 2001. Includes persons engaged in activities requiring to license or exemptions and those who failed to buy a license for activities requiring a license.

Source:

From U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, 2002, 2001 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting and Wildlife-Associated Recreation; U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, 1998, 1996 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and WildlifeAssociated Recreation; U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, 1993, 1991 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation, www.census.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-250

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7N.165 Fish Trips and Fish Harvested: Estimated Number of Fishing Trips Taken by Marine Recreational Fisherman by Subregion and Year, Atlantic and Pacific Coasts, 1998–2001 1998 Subregion North Atlantic Mid-Atlantic South Atlanticb Gulfb Total Pacific:c Southern California Northern California Oregon Washington Total

Fish Trips

Fish Harvested

1999 Fish Trips

Fish Harvested

2000 Fish Trips

Fish Harvested

2001 Fish Trips

Fish Harvested

6,796 14,453 16,837 16,703 54,789

6783 29447 24704 60561 121495

6,478 14,105 14,435 15,894 50,912

8841 24756 33914 55525 123036

8,765 19,451 20,075 21,018 69,309

17185 50,652 40,414 67385 175,616

9,035 21,206 21,596 22,890 74,727

12153 34704 43824 76571 167252

2,973 1,932 649 1,463 7,017

5827 6123 1712 5220 18882

2,437 1,713 554 1,256 5,960

5098 3909 1153 2486 12646

3,787 2,158 930 1,643 8,518

7494 3787 1848 3288 16,367

4,052 2,208 1,170 2,191 9,621

7726 4799 21283 4796 19,446

Note: “Harvested” includes dead discards and fish used for bait but does not include fish released alive. Numbers in thousands. a b c

1998–2000 were revised. Data do not include recreational catch in Texas. Does not include catch from headboats (party boats) in the South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. Data do not include recreational catch in Hawaii or Alaska. Pacific state estimates do not include salmon data collected by recreational surveys.

Source: From USDA–NASS, Agricultural Statistics 2003, Miscellaneous, Agricultural Statistics, www.usda.gov. Original Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, NMFS, Fisheries Statistics and Economics Division, www.nass.usda.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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7-251

SECTION 7O

FISHERIES

Table 7O.166 United States Fisheries—Quantity and Value of Catch, by Region and by State, 1999–2003 1999 Regions and States New England Maine New Hampshire Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut Middle Atlantic New York New Jersey Delaware Chesapeake Maryland Virginia South Atlantic North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida, East Coast Gulf Florida, West Coast Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Pacific Coast Alaska Washington Oregon California Great Lakes Illinois Indiana Michigan Minnesota New York Ohio Pennsylvania Wisconsin Hawaii Utah Total, United States

2000

2001

2002

2003

Thousand Pounds

Thousand Dollars

Thousand Pounds

Thousand Dollars

Thousand Pounds

Thousand Dollars

Thousand Pounds

Thousand Dollars

Thousand Pounds

Thousand Dollars

583,863 229,633 11,258 198,336 126,206 18,430 225,278 48,175 168,676 8,427 527,407 67,118 460,289 230,971 154,869 17,773 11,234 47,095

655,377 265,236 12,542 260,239 79,270 38,090 180,673 76,049 97,731 6,893 172,012 63,759 108,253 198,347 97,304 29,265 21,100 50,678

570,728 226,849 17,160 187,861 119,295 19,563 219,661 41,181 171,804 6,676 492,110 48,913 443,197 221,350 155,214 15,835 9,694 40,607

681,092 275,107 13,951 288,263 72,544 31,227 173,296 59,426 107,163 6,707 172,210 53,874 118,336 204,480 95,305 30,344 21,331 57,500

635,162 239,868 18,584 242,066 115,957 18,687 217,975 42,422 168,430 7,123 617,244 55,536 561,708 199,554 139,277 14,111 9,036 37,130

646,447 251,441 17,865 281,059 65,457 30,625 172,503 55,038 109,820 7,645 174,968 55,586 119,382 176,488 90,202 23,398 14,752 48,136

583,915 197,057 23,201 243,824 103,656 16,177 206,697 38,665 162,175 5,857 495,675 53,185 442,490 214,799 159,557 13,458 9,563 32,221

685,428 279,396 16,691 297,312 64,250 27,779 170,134 51,334 112,733 6,067 172,320 49,013 123,307 173,429 98,723 20,760 15,068 38,878

666,179 232,284 27,410 294,477 95,727 16,281 214,454 39,409 170,017 5,018 10 496,178 49,350 446,828 203,566 139,215 22,043 7,453

683,395 283,802 15,125 291,596 63,054 29,818 177,404 51,628 120,556 5,204 16 179,701 49,038 130,663 161,445 82,960 29,075 13,510

1,945,063 83,792

757,857 146,976

1,759,993 79,415

910,685 155,200

1,605,564 78,105

798,319 143,810

1,716,140 78,975

692,717 138,968

34,855 1,600,481

35,900 683,276

27,399 267,546 1,480,045 86,281 5,765,700 4,492,649 392,555 233,177 647,319 23,843 86 — 13,546 443 1 3,932 32 5,803 36,907 — 9,339,032

50,415 48,526 302,735 209,205 1,422,258 1,105,946 98,471 67,590 150,251 16,009 50 — 9,339 197 2 2,186 43 4,192 64,557 — 3,467,090

29,931 217,744 1,344,913 87,990 5,750,364 4,465,987 380,223 262,917 641,237 22,245 49 — 12,704 377 49 3,497 20 5,549 32,531 — 9,068,982

63,275 58,715 401,095 232,400 1,320,763 956,990 145,311 79,351 139,111 18,508 35 — 8,963 172 75 2,442 29 6,792 68,447 — 3,549,481

24,740 213,889 1,191,460 97,370 6,173,671 5,036,338 337,231 234,097 526,005 18,818 16 — 10,322 501 71 3,535 25 4,348 23,870 — 9,491,858

43,170 50,561 342,748 218,030 1,187,106 869,885 134,454 72,516 110,251 17,844 14 — 9,235 202 113 3,287 44 4,949 54,561 — 3,228,236

23,380 217,053 1,308,531 88,201 6,138,249 5,066,263 362,049 211,183 498,754 17,848 – — 9,459 449 47 3,427 15 4,451 23,841 — 9,397,164

35,102 46,093 305,534 167,020 1,130,633 811,545 142,521 68,431 108,136 15,544 – — 7,362 180 81 3,093 37 4,791 52,113 — 3,092,318

76,448 25,344 213,116 1,189,448 96,125 6,277,566 5,305,960 379,732 225,528 366,346 17,471 — 8,690 435 43 3,994 11 4,298 23,556 5,997 9,505,448

135,912 39,521 45,508 294,011 168,324 1,375,763 989,781 170,158 85,549 130,275 13,174 — 5,702 228 50 3,037 23 4,134 52,433 15,593 3,342,184

Note: Landings are reported in round (live) weight for all items except univalve and bivalve mollusks such as clams, oysters, scallops, which are reported in weight of meats (excluding the shell). Landings for Mississippi River drainage area States are not available. Data are preliminary. Landings of Alaska pollock, Pacific whiting, and other Pacific groundfish that are caught in waters off Washington, Oregon, and Alaska and are processed at-sea aboard U.S. vessels are credited to the State nearest to the area of capture. Totals may not add due to roundings. Data do not include landings by U.S.-flag vessels at Puerto Rico and other ports outside the 50 States. Data do not include aquaculture products, except oysters and clams. Source: From U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, and National Marine Fisheries Services, 2004, Fisheries of the United States 2003; U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, and National Marine Fisheries Services, 2003, Fisheries of the United States 2002; U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, and National Marine Fisheries Services, 2002, Fisheries of the United States 2001; U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, and National Marine Fisheries Services, 2001, Fisheries of the United States 2000, www.st.nmfs.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-252

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7O.167 Major U.S. Domestic Species Landed in 2003 Ranked by Quantity and Value Rank

Species

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Pollock Menhaden Salmon Cod Flatfish Hakes Crabs Shrimp Herring (sea) Sardines

Pounds

Rank

3,372,338 1,599,444 674,096 591,130 444,075 339,944 338,854 313,624 286,050 159,493

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Species

Dollars

Crabs Shrimp Lobsters Flatfish Scallops Pollock Salmon Cod Clams Oysters

483,586 424,027 308,005 266,618 229,240 208,581 200,838 187,113 162,838 103,045

Note: Numbers in thousands. Source: From U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, and National Marine Fisheries Services, 2004, Fisheries of the United States 2003, www.st.nmfs.gov.

Table 7O.168 United States Domestic Fish and Shellfish Catch and Value by Major Species Caught, 1990–2002 Quantity (1,000 lb)

Value ($1,000)

Species

1990

2000

2001

2002

1990

2000

2001

2002

Cod: Atlantic Pacific Flounder Halibut Herring, sea; Atlantic Herring, sea; Pacific Menhaden Pollock, Alaska Salmon Tuna Whiting (Atlantic, silver) Whiting (Pacific, hake) Shellfish, totala Clams Crabs Lobsters: American Oysters Scallops, sea Shrimp Squid, Pacific Total Fish, totala

95,881 526,396 254,519 70,454 113,095

25,060 530,505 412,723 75,190 160,269

33,211 471,711 352,363 77,978 209,191

29,841 512,827 372,697 82,044 135,871

61,329 91,384 112,921 96,700 5,746

26,384 142,330 109,910 143,826 9,972

32,086 118,071 105,240 115,169 12,717

30,715 96,206 102,370 135,603 9,106

108,120

74,835

91,297

78,408

32,178

12,043

13,213

11,534

1,962,160 3,108,031 733,146 62,393 44,500

1,760,498 2,606,802 628,638 50,779 26,855

1,741,430 3,179,407 722,832 51,854 28,479

1,750,609 3,341,105 567,179 49,358 17,622

93,896 268,344 612,367 105,040 11,281

112,403 160,525 270,213 95,176 11,370

102,690 230,723 208,926 93,497 13,232

105,102 203,696 155,010 84,116 7,454

21,232

452,718

379,304

285,714

1,229

18,809

16,147

13,584

1,312,503 139,198 499,416 61,017 29,193 39,917 346,494 36,082 9,403,571 8,091,068

1,379,324 118,482 299,006 83,180 41,146 32,747 332,486 259,508 9,068,985 7,689,661

1,138,512 122,764 272,246 73,637 32,673 46,958 324,481 191,532 9,491,836 8,242,490

1,178,590 130,076 307,601 82,252 34,397 53,056 316,727 160,677 9,397,164 8,089,987

1,621,898 130,194 483,837 154,677 93,718 153,696 491,433 2,636 3,521,995 1,900,097

1,954,666 153,973 405,006 301,300 90,667 164,609 690,453 27,077 3,549,481 1,594,815

1,711,391 161,992 381,667 254,334 80,946 175,349 568,547 17,834 3,228,285 1,479,988

1,706,426 167,215 397,695 293,329 89,071 203,707 460,878 18,262 3,092,318 1,359,392

a

Includes other types of fish and shellfish, not shown separately.

Source: From U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States. 2004–2005, www.census.gov. Original Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Fisheries of the United States, annual. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

7-253

Volume of domestic commercial landings and aquaculture production Note: The 2003 aquaculture production is estimated 12

Billions of pounds

10

8

6

4

2

0 1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

Aquaculture

1997

1999

2001

2003

Landings

Value of domestic commercial landings and aquaculture production

4

Billions of dollars

3

2

1

0 1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

Aquaculture

1997

1999

2001

2003

Landings

Figure 7O.26 Quantity and volume of domestic commercial landings and aquaculture production in the United States, 2003. (From U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, and National Marine Fisheries Service, 2004, Fisheries of the United States 2003, www.st.nmfs.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-254

Table 7O.169 United States Fisheries Estimated Number of Commercial Fishing Vessels and Fishing Boats by Region and State, 1998–2002 1998 Area and State

Vessels

Total

Vessels

Boats

2000 Total

Vessels

Boats

2001 Total

Vessels

Boats

2002 Total

Vessels

Boats

Total

318 NA 5,799 NA 4,500 461 1,147 2,931 2,401 NA

563 175 7,441 33 5,215 576 1,534 3,620 2,713 122

232 178 1,653 34 700 121 421 678 330 241

281 NA 5,821 NA 4,520 468 NA 2,825 2,239 NA

513 NA 7,474 NA 5,220 589 NA 3,503 2,569 NA

182 184 1,656 32 695 109 397 NA 344 261

243 NA 5,836 NA 4,540 471 NA NA 2,920 NA

425 NA 7,492 NA 5,235 580 NA NA 3,264 NA

182 184 1,656 32 695 109 397 NA 344 261

243 NA 5,836 NA 4,540 471 NA NA 2,920 NA

425 NA 7,492 NA 5,235 580 NA NA 3,264 NA

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

NA NA NA 6,157 1,338 688 11,637 NA

891 569 350 8,541 1,736 1,142 14,172 NA

667 577 350 2,214 454 502 2,450 NA

NA NA NA 5,602 1,231 707 11,414 NA

NA NA NA 7,816 1,685 1,209 13,864 NA

773 520 265 2,136 443 504 2,393 NA

NA NA NA 5,502 1,328 743 11,830 NA

NA NA NA 7,638 1,771 1,247 14,223 NA

773 520 265 2,136 443 504 2,393 NA

NA NA NA 5,502 1,328 743 11,830 NA

NA NA NA 7,638 1,771 1,247 14,223 NA

763 556 226 1,934 425 522 2,084 NA

NA NA NA 4,438 1,350 843 8,874 NA

NA NA NA 6,372 1,775 1,365 10,958 NA

9,445 428 296 1,191 NA

15,829 1,332 964 2,583 2,855

6,232 783 643 1,438 NA

9,374 343 308 1,142 NA

15,606 1,126 951 2,580 NA

6,169 726 721 1,307 347

9,461 355 376 1,132 2,467

15,630 1,081 1,097 2,439 2,901

6,126 726 721 1,307 347

9,062 355 376 1,132 2,467

15,188 1,081 1,097 2,439 2,814

5,494 695 639 1,201 NA

8,541 329 359 997 NA

14,035 1,024 998 2,198 NA

NA NA 74 22 NA 19 1 16

5 NA 135 23 2 59 3 105

5 NA NA 1 2 34 2 68

NA NA NA 24 NA 21 1 18

NA NA NA 25 NA 55 3 86

5 NA NA 1 1 31 2 78

NA NA NA 24 NA 19 1 18

NA NA NA 25 NA 50 3 96

5 NA NA 1 1 31 2 78

NA NA NA 24 NA 19 1 18

NA NA NA 25 NA 50 3 96

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

Note: NA, Data not available or provided seperately. Vessels are documented craft greater than 5 net registered tons. Boats are craft less than 5 net registered ton. a b c

Only federally collected data are available. Inshore data are not available. Excludes vessels and boats in the Great Lakes. Commercial fishing fleet size of the Great Lakes states represent only the number of licenses issued by the State; therefore, may not be an accurate total. Tribal data are not included in this table.

Source: From U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, and National Marine Fisheries Services, 2004, Fisheries of the United States 2003; U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, and National Marine Fisheries Services, 2003, Fisheries of the United States 2002; U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, and National Marine Fisheries Services, 2002, Fisheries of the United States 2001; U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, and National Marine Fisheries Services, 2001, Fisheries of the United States 2000, www.st.nmfs.gov. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Northeast Connecticut 245 Delaware 175 Maine 1,642 Marylanda 33 Massachusetts 715 New Hampshire 115 New Jersey 387 689 New Yorkb Rhode Island 312 Virginiaa 122 South Atlantic and Gulf North Carolina 891 South Carolina 569 Georgia 350 Florida 2,384 Alabama 398 Mississippi 454 Louisiana 2,535 Texas NA West Coast Alaska 6,384 Washington 904 Oregon 668 California 1,392 Hawaii 2,855 Great Lakesc Illinois 5 Indiana NA Michigan 61 Minnesota 1 New York 2 Ohio 40 Pennsylvania 2 Wisconsin 89

Boats

1999

WATER USE

7-255

Table 7O.170 Aquaculture Water Withdrawals in the United States, 2000 Withdrawals (mil gal/day)

Withdrawals (thousand acre-feet yr)

By Source State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Total

By Source

Groundwater

Surface Water

Total

Groundwater

Surface Water

Total

8.93 — — 187 158 — — 0.07 — 7.81 7.7 — 51.5 — — — 3.33 — 128 — 4.81 — — — 321 2.01 — — — 3.12 6.46 — — 7.88 — 1.36 0.29 — — — — — — — 116 — — — — 39.8 — — — 1,060

1.44 — — 10.4 380 — — 0 — 0.21 7.72 — 1,920 — — — 2.27 — 115 — 14.8 — — — 49.8 81.3 — — — 13.1 0 — — 0 — 0 16.1 — — — — — — — 0 — — — — 30.4 — — — 2,640

10.4 — — 198 537 — — 0.07 — 8.02 15.4 — 1,970 — — — 5.6 — 243 — 19.6 — — — 371 83.3 — — — 16.3 6.46 — — 7.88 — 1.36 16.4 — — — — — — — 116 — — — — 70.2 — — — 3,700

10 — — 210 177 — — 0.08 — 8.76 8.63 — 57.7 — — — 3.73 — 144 — 5.39 — — — 360 2.25 — — — 3.5 7.24 — — 8.83 — 1.52 0.33 — — — — — — — 130 — — — — 44.6 — — — 1,180

1.61 — — 11.6 426 — — 0 — 0.24 8.65 — 2,150 — — — 2.54 — 129 — 16.6 — — — 55.9 91.2 — — — 14.7 0 — — 0 — 0 18.1 — — — — — — — 0 — — — — 34.1 — — — 2,960

11.6 — — 222 603 — — 0.08 — 8.99 17.3 — 2,210 — — — 6.28 — 273 — 22 — — — 416 93.4 — — — 18.2 7.24 — — 8.83 — 1.52 18.4 — — — — — — — 130 — — — — 78.7 — — — 4,150

Note: Figures may not sum to totals because of independent rounding; —, data not collected. Source: From Hutson, S.S. and others, 2004, Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2003. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, www.usgs.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-256

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7O.171 U.S. Private Aquaculture — Trout and Catfish Production and Value: 1990–2002 Item Trout Foodsize Number sold Total weight Total value of sales Average price received Percent sold to processors Catfish Foodsize Number sold Total weight Total value of sales Average price received Fish sold to processors Avg. price paid by processors Processor sales Avg. price received by processors Inventory (Jan 1)

Unit

1990

1995

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

Millions Mil lb Mil dol Dol lb

67.8 56.8 64.6 1.14

60.2 55.6 60.8 1.09

59.3 56.9 60.7 1.07

57.6 57.9 60.3 1.04

61.0 60.2 64.7 1.07

58.5 59.2 63.7 1.08

54.5 56.9 64.4 1.13

50.2 54.5 58.3 1.07

Percent

58

68

63

62

68

70

68

69

Millions Mil lb Mil dol Dol /lb

272.9 392.4 305.1 0.78

321.8 481.5 378.1 0.79

391.8 569.6 406.8 0.71

409.8 601.4 445.4 0.74

424.5 635.2 464.7 0.73

420.1 633.8 468.8 0.74

406.9 647.5 410.7 0.63

405.8 673.7 378.5 0.56

Mil lb

360.4

446.9

524.9

564.4

596.6

593.6

597.1

630.6

Cents/lb

75.8

78.6

71.2

74.3

73.7

75.1

64.7

56.8

Mil lb Cents/lb

183.1 224.1

227.0 240.3

261.8 226.0

281.4 229.0

292.7 234.0

297.2 236.0

296.4 226.0

317.6 207.0

9.4

10.9

11.9

10.8

12.6

13.6

15.0

12.3

Mil lb

Note: 67.8 represents 67,800,000. Periods are from Sept 1 of the previous year to Aug 31 of stated year. Data are for foodsize fish, those over 12 in. long. Source:

From U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States. 2004–2005, www.census.gov.

Original Source:

From U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service, Trout Production released February; Catfish Production released February; and Catfish Processing released February. Also in annual.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

7-257

Top Ten Recreational Species - Harvest (A1 + B1) Versus Commercial Harvest - 2003 Striped Bass Dolphinfish Red Drum(1) Bluefish Spotted Seatrout Summer Flounder Atlantic Croaker Scup Sheephead King Mackerel 0%

20%

40% Commercial

60%

80%

100%

Recreational

Top Ten Commercial Species Versus Recreational Harvest - 2003 Atlantic Mackerel Goosefish(1) Albacore Tuna(1) Skates(1) Atlantic Croaker Atlantic Cod Silver Hake King Salmon Haddock Summer Flounder 0%

20%

40% Commercial

60% 80% Recreational

100%

Figure 7O.27 Top ten recreational species versus commercial harvest/top ten commercial species versus recreational harvest, 2003. (From U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, and (1) less than 1 percent National Marine Fisheries Service, 2004, Fisheries of the United States 2003, www.st.nmfs.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-258

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7O.172 World Aquaculture and Commercial Catches by Area of Fish, Crustaceans, and Mollusks, 2001–2002 2001 Country Marine Areas Atlantic Ocean Northeast Northwest Eastern central Western central Southeast Southwest Mediterranean and Black Sea Indian Ocean Eastern Western Pacific Ocean Northeast Northwest Eastern central Western central Southeast Southwest Antarctic Inland Areas Africa Asia Europe North America South America Oceania Total

Aquaculture

2002

Catch

Total

Aquaculture

Metric tons Live-Weight

Catch

Total

Metric tons Live-Weight

1,315,707 108,149 251 85,094 2,680 52,877 367,777

11,143,204 2,240,365 3,929,630 1,686,404 1,648,084 2,287,502 1,570,335

12,458,911 2,348,514 3,929,881 1,771,498 1,650,764 2,340,379 1,938,112

1,307,923 104,761 342 99,919 2,675 71,793 339,264

11,048,962 2,245,008 3,373,623 1,764,352 1,701,440 2,089,660 1,550,099

12,356,885 2,349,769 3,373,965 1,864,271 1,704,115 2,161,453 1,889,363

432,253 30,563

4,877,380 3,981,292

5,309,633 4,011,855

432,048 44,074

5,100,261 4,243,330

5,532,309 4,287,404

134,724 11,286,336 60,875 640,227 633,595 93,343 —

2,759,090 22,550,874 1,860,373 10,103,215 12,653,427 752,661 120,159

2,893,814 33,837,210 1,921,248 10,743,442 13,287,022 846,004 120,159

141,812 12,063,628 63,540 538,639 611,092 106,053 —

2,702,885 21,436,229 2,037,267 10,510,202 13,765,143 739,868 144,158

2,844,697 33,499,857 2,100,807 11,048,841 14,376,235 845,921 144,158

366,787 21,053,159 479,242 414,512 227,141 3,803 37,789,095

2,051,183 5,734,686 347,242 174,959 368,803 21,219 92,862,087

2,417,970 26,787,845 826,484 589,471 595,944 25,022 130,651,182

405,320 22,295,148 467,769 448,661 250,864 3,246 39,798,571

2,092,924 5,722,141 354,270 170,614 377,313 20,905 93,190,654

2,498,244 28,017,289 822,039 619,275 628,177 24,151 132,989,225

Note: Data for marine mammals and aquatic plants are excluded. Source: From U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States. 2004–2005, www.census.gov. Original Source: From Food and Agrculture Organizaiton of the United Nations (FAO).

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Total Capture and Aquaculture Production for All Species (thousand metric tons) 1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

Marine Aquaculture Production (thousand metric tons) 1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

Inland Aquaculture Production (thousand metric tons) 1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

Marine Capture Production (thousand metric tons) 1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

Inland Capture Production (thousand metric tons) 1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

72,900

99,449

129,429

2,136

5,020

14,240

2,632

8,025

21,372

63,018

80,101

85,153

5,114

6,303

8,665

Asia (Excl. Middle East) Armenia Azerbaijan Bangladesh Bhutan

29,517

44,556

74,156

1,404

3,700

11,481

1,973

6,774

19,663

23,602

30,786

37,521

2,539

3,296

5,491

— — 648 0.3

7 45 862 0.3

2 17 1,643 0.3

— — 6 —

— — 19 —

— — 66 —

— — 86 —

4 2 177 0.03

1 0.1 588 0.03

— — 116 —

— — 255 —

— — 325 —

— — 441 0.3

2 44 412 0.3

1 17 663 0.3

Cambodia China Georgia India Indonesia Japan

34 4,437 — 2,412 1,812 10,377

104 13,200 105 3,830 3,072 10,279

332 41,392 2 5,752 4,889 5,738

— 422 — 4 25 461

0 2,051 — 34 115 700

1 9,361 — 94 147 714

0.1 910 — 363 164 94

6 4,418 1 1,048 373 97

14 15,113 0.1 1,999 654 60

3 2,743 — 1,493 1,366 9,691

34 5,833 103 2,258 2,291 9,374

38 14,696 2 2,784 3,775 4,896

30 362 — 552 256 131

63 898 0.1 490 292 107

279 2,223 0.02 875 313 68

Kazakhstan Korea, Dem People’s Rep Korea, Rep Kyrgyzstan Lao People’s Dem Rep

— 1,410

86 1,394

35 270

— 6

— 48

— 63

— 3

11 6

1 4

— 1,332

— 1,290

— 184

— 69

76 50

34 20

2,207 — 24

2,733 1 28

2,274 0.1 71

299 — —

361 — —

285 — —

1 — 1

14 1 10

12 0.1 41

1,868 — —

2,334 — —

1,970 — —

39 — 23

24 0.3 19

6 0.1 30

Malaysia Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Pakistan

750 0.4 580 4 299

977 0.2 738 14 480

1,418 0.4 1,156 30 643

85 — — — 0

47 — 0 — 0.04

109 — 5 — 0.1

4 — 3 1 5

10 — 8 9 11

46 — 99 15 17

655 — 429 — 251

919 — 593 — 369

1,259 — 857 — 446

6 0.4 148 2 43

1 0.2 137 5 101

3 0.4 195 15 179

Philippines Singapore Sri Lanka Tajikistan Thailand

1,586 16 186 — 1,194

2,209 13 191 4 2,822

2,300 10 294 0.2 3,631

13 0.2 0.01 — 74

81 2 1 — 198

82 4 5 — 445

195 0 1 — 44

302 0 5 4 104

312 1 4 0.1 271

1,153 16 164 — 1,691

1,595 11 158 — 2,389

1,761 5 252 — 2,709

224 1 21 — 105

231 0.1 27 0.3 131

145 0 33 0.1 206

Turkmenistan Uzbekistan

— —

47 27

11 8

— —

— —

— —

— —

2 22

0.1 5

— —

— —

— —

— —

45 4

11 3 (Continued)

7-259

World

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER USE

Table 7O.173 Capture and Aquaculture Production Totals for Marine and Inland Fisheries

7-260

Table 7O.173

(Continued) Total Capture and Aquaculture Production for All Species (thousand metric tons) 1979– 1981

1989– 1991

Inland Aquaculture Production (thousand metric tons)

Marine Aquaculture Production (thousand metric tons)

1999– 2001

1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

Marine Capture Production (thousand metric tons) 1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

Inland Capture Production (thousand metric tons) 1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

585

963

1,941

7

39

97

91

124

402

403

665

1,273

84

135

170

Europe Albania Austria Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina

12,622 9 4 — 47 —

21,829 10 4 19 41 —

18,138 3 3 6 32 3

546 0.1 — — — —

871 2 — — — —

1,608 0.2 — — — —

198 0.2 3 — 0.1 —

601 0.5 4 16 1 —

459 0.1 3 6 2 —

11,713 6 — — 47 —

19,798 6 — — 40 —

15,661 2 — — 29 0

165 3 1 — 0.00 —

559 2 1 2 1 —

410 1 0.4 1 1 3

Bulgaria Croatia Czech Rep Denmark Estonia

108 — — 1,878 —

73 — — 1,747 377

12 29 24 1,526 110

0 — — 0.4 —

0 — — 6 0.1

0.04 4 — 7 0

11 — — 19 —

9 — — 33 1

4 4 19 36 0.3

95 — — 1,858 —

62 — — 1,707 372

6 21 — 1,483 107

1 — — 0.2 —

2 — — 0.4 4

2 0.02 4 0.2 3

Finland France Germany Greece Hungary

157 787 579 105 35

159 854 371 143 31

171 867 285 197 20

2 174 9 0.02 —

14 197 23 7 —

13 207 25 89 —

3 24 25 2 24

5 45 45 2 18

3 54 42 3 13

99 586 526 94 —

91 608 293 131 —

120 603 196 101 —

53 2 21 9 12

49 4 9 3 13

35 2 23 3 7

Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania

1,534 145 498 — —

1,354 237 548 479 416

1,904 358 512 129 103

0.03 5 52 — —

2 24 109 — —

3 51 164 — —

0.02 0.5 24 — —

0.2 1 42 4 5

1 1 49 0 2

1,533 140 413 — —

1,350 208 385 474 407

1,900 305 293 128 99

0.5 0.1 8 — —

1 4 13 0.3 4

0.2 1 5 1 2

Macedonia, FYR Moldova, Rep Netherlands Norway Poland

— — 381 2,540 625

— 8 499 1,945 498

2 1 588 3,166 261

— — 95 9 —

— — 86 142 —

— — 73 493 —

— — 0.1 — 11

— 6 1 — 27

1 1 6 — 35

— — 285 2,530 603

— — 408 1,803 456

— — 507 2,672 210

— — 2 0.4 10

— 1 3 1 15

0.2 0.3 2 1 16

Portugal Romania

260 182

327 159

203 17

0.1 —

5 —

6 —

0.5 36

2 37

1 10

259 129

321 107

196 2

0 16

0 15

0 5

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Vietnam

7,733

3,992

—

0.3

1

—

179

77

—

7,196

3,646

—

358

269

—

—

4

—

—

0.01

—

—

3

—

—

0.4

—

—

1

—

—

2

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

1

Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom

— 1,371 230 4 0 867

— 1,378 254 5 1,016 856

3 1,415 340 3 146 936

— 198 0.2 — 0 1

— 196 5 — 0.5 38

0.1 282 3 — 0.04 146

— 11 1 0.2 0 2

— 21 4 1 77 15

1 33 3 1 32 13

— 1,144 226 — — 862

— 1,151 244 — 901 800

2 1,091 332 — 379 773

— 18 2 4 — 1

— 10 2 3 38 3

0.2 9 1 2 5 4

Middle East & N. Africa Afghanistan Algeria Egypt Iran, Islamic Rep Iraq

1,407

2,148

3,432

0.1

4

76

45

111

385

1,220

1,765

2,535

141

268

437

1 48 140 60 45

1 90 302 268 21

1 101 701 414 23

— 0 — —

— 0.03 0.5 — —

— 0.04 30 4 —

— — 19 9 4

— 0.3 61 24 2

— 0.2 273 40 2

— 48 34 47 27

— 90 79 201 2

— 101 140 256 13

1 0 86 4 14

1 0 162 42 17

1 0 258 114 9

Israel Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

29 0.04 3 2 10

24 0.4 5 2 24

25 1 6 4 33

— — — — —

0.1 — 0 — —

3 — 0.2 — —

12 — — 0.05 —

15 0.05 0 0.1 0.1

17 1 0.04 0.3 0.1

13 0.04 3 2 10

7 0.01 5 2 24

4 0.2 6 4 33

4 0 0 0 0

2 0.4 0 0.01 0

2 0.4 0 0.02 0

Morocco Oman Saudi Arabia Syrian Arab Rep Tunisia

335 80 26 4 60

562 118 44 6 90

910 121 55 14 97

0.1 — 0 — 0.1

0.4 0 0.1 — 1

1 2 3 — 1

0.01 — — 1 0

0.05 — 2 3 0.1

1 — 4 6 1

335 80 26 1 60

560 118 43 2 89

907 119 48 3 95

1 0 0 2 0

2 0 0 2 0

2 0 0 5 1

Turkey United Arab Emirates Yemen

417 66

401 93

605 113

0 0

2 0

30 0

1 —

4 0

40 0

387 66

356 93

490 113

29 0

40 0

45 0

73

77

127

—

—

—

—

—

—

73

77

127

0

0

0

Sub-Saharan Africa Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso

3,173

3,929

5,122

0.4

3

8

7

23

44

1,999

2,309

3,296

1,166

1,594

1,775

110 37 1 7

129 38 1 7

222 37 0.1 8

— — — —

— — — —

— — — —

— — — 0

— — — 0.01

— — — 0.01

102 4 — —

122 8 — —

216 8 — —

7 33 1 7

8 30 1 7

6 29 0.1 8 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-261

—

WATER USE

Russian Federation Serbia and Montenegro Slovakia

7-262

Table 7O.173

(Continued) Total Capture and Aquaculture Production for All Species (thousand metric tons) 1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

Inland Aquaculture Production (thousand metric tons)

Marine Aquaculture Production (thousand metric tons) 1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

Marine Capture Production (thousand metric tons) 1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

Inland Capture Production (thousand metric tons) 1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

13

16

12

—

—

—

—

0.04

0.1

—

—

—

13

16

12

Cameroon Central African Rep Chad Congo Congo, Dem Rep

81 13

70 13

111 15

— —

— —

— —

0.04 0.1

0.1 0.1

0.1 0.1

61 —

48 —

59 —

20 13

22 13

53 15

62 30 107

65 47 165

84 43 209

— — —

— — —

— — —

— 0 —

— 0.2 1

— 0.2 0.4

— 19 1

— 21 3

— 18 4

62 11 106

65 26 162

84 25 205

Coˆte d’Ivoire Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon

88 3 — 3 20

92 4 — 5 21

76 5 10 16 47

— — — — —

— — — — —

— — — — —

— — — — 0

0.2 — — 0.04 0

1 — — 0 0.4

71 3 — 0.2 19

68 3 — 1 19

64 4 10 0 36

18 0 — 3 2

24 0.4 — 4 2

11 1 0 16 10

Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Kenya

13 237 20 4 53

22 374 45 5 183

31 468 90 5 196

— — — — 0.0

0.1 — — — 0.1

— — — — 0

— 0.3 — — 0.2

0 0.4 0 — 1

0 5 0 — 1

10 197 19 4 5

19 316 42 5 9

29 389 86 5 7

3 40 1 0.01 47

3 58 3 0.2 173

3 75 4 0.2 189

Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Mali

0.02 13 56 59 82

0.03 10 100 70 70

0.04 13 139 44 103

— — — — —

— — 0.02 — —

— — 5 — —

0.02 0 0.1 0.1 —

0.02 0 0.2 0.2 0.02

0.01 0.02 2 1 0.05

— 9 17 — —

— 6 71 — —

— 9 102 — —

0 4 39 59 82

0.01 4 29 69 70

0.03 4 30 43 103

Mauritania Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria

35 34 10 9 263

70 32 163 4 295

80 35 573 16 474

— — — — 0.2

— — 0.02 — 1

— — 0.04 — —

— — — — 6

— 0.02 — 0.03 15

— 0 0.01 0.02 24

29 31 10 — 149

64 29 162 — 192

75 25 571 — 308

6 4 0.1 9 108

6 4 1 4 86

5 10 2 16 142

Rwanda Senegal Sierra Leone Somalia

1 228 52 12

3 307 58 23

7 407 70 20

— 0.1 — —

— — — —

— — — —

0.02 0 0 —

0.1 0.01 0.02 —

0.3 0.2 0.03 —

— 213 38 12

— 290 43 22

— 381 56 20

1 15 14 0.1

2 18 15 0.4

7 25 14 0.2

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Burundi

905

639

666

0.01

2

3

—

2

2

904

635

661

1

1

1

Sudan Tanzania, United Rep Togo Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe

28 213

32 373

55 327

— —

— —

— —

— —

0.2 0.4

1 0.2

1 37

1 54

5 52

27 176

30 319

48 274

9 171 47 13

15 224 68 24

23 223 71 13

— — — —

— — — —

— — — —

— — 0.03 0.1

0.02 0.1 2 0.2

0.1 1 4 0.2

6 — — —

10 — — —

18 — — —

4 171 47 13

5 224 66 24

5 222 66 13

North America Canada United States

5,225 1,395 3,718

7,485 1,608 5,713

6,596 1,160 5,270

100 3 97

142 35 107

242 118 123

83 1 82

248 5 242

345 13 333

4,926 1,340 3,474

7,005 1,519 5,321

5,939 990 4,784

116 51 65

91 48 42

69 39 30

C. America & Caribbean Belize Costa Rica Cuba Dominican Rep El Salvador

1,742

1,912

1,972

1

16

63

10

28

92

1,676

1,721

1,703

54

147

115

2 18 168 10 16

2 18 184 20 10

44 43 114 13 15

— — 1 — —

0.3 0.3 2 0.1 0.5

4 2 1 0.3 0.2

— 0.03 1 0 —

0 1 6 0.3 0.01

— 8 53 2 0.1

2 17 160 8 14

2 17 161 18 6

40 32 55 10 12

0.03 0.3 6 2 2

0 0.4 14 1 4

0 1 5 1 2

Guatemala Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico

4 5 7 9 1,280

6 5 19 45 1,416

27 5 19 44 1,367

— — 0.1 — 0

1 — 3 0 6

2 — 8 0 39

0.01 — 0.01 0.03 9

0.2 — 0.2 3 16

3 — 1 4 21

4 5 6 9 1,228

4 5 16 8 1,269

16 5 11 6 1,210

0.5 0.3 0.1 0.2 43

2 0.4 0.04 0.4 125

7 0.5 0.1 0.5 97

Nicaragua Panama Trinidad and Tobago

7 175 4

5 162 9

30 196 10

0 0.2 —

0.1 3 —

5 2 —

0 0 —

0 0.3 0

0.01 1 0.01

7 175 4

4 158 9

24 193 10

0.1 0 0

0.2 0.02 0

1 0.02 0

South America Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Guyana Paraguay Peru

8,237 438 5 801 2,948 78 595 33 3 3,027

15,274 561 6 814 5,885 113 496 38 12 6,878

17,226 973 6 923 4,793 184 645 53 25 9,033

10 — — 0.2 1 0.03 9 — — 1

123 0 — 2 28 5 84 0.02 — 4

549 0.02 — 37 409 11 79 0.2 — 4

5 0.1 — 4 0.1 0.2 0.4 0 — 0.5

32 0.3 0.4 19 4 4 1 0.03 0.1 2

208 1 0.4 139 2 49 7 0.4 0.1 4

7,960 427 — 630 2,947 30 585 32 — 3,011

14,810 550 — 601 5,853 74 410 37 — 6,837

16,124 944 — 552 4,383 98 559 51 — 8,990

262 11 5 167 0 48 0.2 1 3 15

309 10 6 193 0.02 30 1 1 12 35

345 27 6 195 0.00 26 0.4 1 25 35

WATER USE

South Africa

(Continued) 7-263

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-264

Table 7O.173

(Continued) Total Capture and Aquaculture Production for All Species (thousand metric tons) 1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

Inland Aquaculture Production (thousand metric tons)

Marine Aquaculture Production (thousand metric tons) 1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

1979– 1981

1989– 1991

Marine Capture Production (thousand metric tons)

1999– 2001

1979– 1981

1989– 1991

Inland Capture Production (thousand metric tons)

1999– 2001

1979– 1981

1989– 1991

1999– 2001

3

7

18

—

—

0.2

—

0

0.1

3

6

17

0.1

0.4

0.2

Uruguay Venezuela

125 179

119 335

108 405

— 0

— 0.3

0 8

— 0.3

0 0.5

0.04 5

125 167

118 313

106 364

0.4 12

0.3 21

2 28

Oceania Australia Fiji New Zealand Papua New Guinea Solomon Islands

419 136 21 149 42

788 215 30 379 26

1,246 240 43 654 95

11 8 — 3 —

47 12 0.01 35 0

124 37 1 84 0

1 1 0 — —

2 1 0.02 0.2 0.01

4 3 0.3 0.5 0.01

396 126 21 146 34

718 199 26 344 12

1,095 199 35 568 81

11 1 1 1 8

22 2 4 1 14

22 2 6 1 14

35

51

38

—

0

0.01

—

0

0

35

51

38

0

0

0

Developed Developing

29,330 33,012

41,007 56,915

31,968 95,919

1,118 954

1,762 3,145

2,689 11,459

387 1,935

1,011 6,808

894 20,306

27,407 26,087

37,300 41,612

27,765 56,110

418 4,035

935 5,350

620 8,044

Note: All figures are three year averages for the range of years specified. Numbers in this table are reported with varying precision: values greater than 0.5 thousand metric tons are rounded to the nearest whole number, values between 0.05 and 0.5 thousand metric tons are rounded to the nearest tenth (one decimal place), value between 0.005 and 0.05 are rounded to the nearest hundredth (two decimal places), and “0” represents a value of less than 0.005 thousand metric tons. Variable Definitions and Methodology. Total Capture and Aquaculture Production for All Species includes both capture and aquaculture production of fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic mammals, and other aquatic animals, taken for commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes from inland, brackish and marine waters. For each country, the four sub-categories of production (Marine Aquaculture, Inland Aquaculture, Marine Capture, and Inland Capture) listed in this table should sum to Total Capture and Aquaculture Production for All Species. Marine Aquaculture Production data include fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic mammals, and other aquatic animals, taken for commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes from marine and brackish environments. The harvest from inland waters is not included. Aquaculture production is defined by FAO as “the farming of aquatic organisms, including fish, molluscs, crustaceans, and aquatic plants. Farming implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc. [It] also implies ownership of the stock being cultivated.” Aquatic organisms that are exploitable by the public as a common property resource are not included in the aquaculture production. Inland Aquaculture production data include fish, molluscs, crustaceans, aquatic mammals, and other aquatic animals, taken for commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes from inland waters, such as lakes and rivers. The harvest from marine areas is not included. Some inland lakes are saltwater, thus the data include not only freshwater species but also saltwater species. Aquaculture production is defined by FAO as “the farming of aquatic organisms, including fish, molluscs, crustaceans, and aquatic plants. Farming implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc. [It] also implies ownership of the stock being cultivated.” Aquatic organisms that are exploitable by the public as a common property resource are not included in the aquaculture production. Marine Capture Production data include fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic mammals, and other aquatic animals, taken for commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes from marine and brackish environments. The harvest from inland waters is not included. Capture production data refer to the nominal catch of fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic mammals, and other aquatic animals, taken for commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes from marine, brackish, and inland waters. The harvest from aquaculture and other kind of farming are excluded. Inland Capture Production data include fish, molluscs, crustaceans, aquatic mammals, and other aquatic animals, taken for commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes from inland waters, such as lakes and rivers. The harvest from marine areas is not included. Some inland lakes are saltwater, thus the data include not only freshwater species but also saltwater species. Capture production data refer to the nominal catch of fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic mammals, and other aquatic animals, taken for commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes from marine, brackish, and inland waters. The harvest from aquaculture and other kind of farming are excluded. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Suriname

WATER USE

Statistics for aquatic plants are excluded from country totals. For a more detailed listing of species groups represented in the table, please refer to the original source at fao.org/waicent/faostat/agricult/fishitems-e-e.html. Data include all quantities caught for both food and feed purposes but exclude discards. The harvest of fish, crustaceans and molluscs are expressed in live weight, that is the nominal weight of the aquatic organisms at the time of capture. Aquatic organisms included in the FAO FISHSTAT capture production database have been classified according to approximately 1290 commercial species items, further arranged within the 50 groups of species constituting the nine divisions of the FAO International Standard Statistical Classification of Aquatic Animals and Plants (ISSCAAP). Most fisheries statistics are collected by FAO from official national reports. When these data are missing or considered unreliable, FAO estimates fishery production based on regional fishery organizations, project documents, industry magazines, or statistical interpolations. Fishery production statistics were revised completely by FAO in the 1990s. At this time, FAO estimated missing data points, updated taxonomical classifications, and discriminated more clearly between aquaculture and capture fisheries production. Fisheries production statistics typically refer to the calendar years (January 1–December 31) with exception of data from Antarctic waters, which use a split year (July 1–June 30). Frequency of Update by Data Providers. FAO publishes updated data sets annually for FishStat. This table represents data through the year 2001; data were acquired by WRI in May, 2003. Data Reliability and Cautionary Notes. While the FAO data set provides the most extensive, global time series of fishery statistics since 1970, there are some problems associated with the data. Funding for the development and maintenance of fisheries statistics at the national level has been decreasing in real terms since 1992, while the demand is growing for a variety of global statistics on discards, fish inventories, aquaculture, and illegal activites. Country-level data are often submitted with a 1–2 year delay, and countries are declaring an increasing percentage of their catch as “unidentified fish.” As a result, species-item totals frequently underestimate the real catch of individual species. Stock assessment working groups can more accurately estimate the composition of a catch; however, due to financial constraints, these groups are rare, especially in developing countries. Statistics from smaller artisanal and subsistence fisheries are particularly sparse. FAO states that “general trends are probably reliably reflected by the available statistics.but the annual figures and the assessments involve a certain degree of uncertainty and small changes from year to year are probably not statistically significant.” These statistics provide a good overview of regional fisheries trends. However, when reviewing the state of fisheries stocks, evaluating food security, etc., these data should be used with caution and supplemented with estimates from regional organizations, academic literature, expert consultations, and trade data. For more information, please consult Fishery Statistics: Reliability and Policy Implications, published by the FAO Fisheries Department and available on-line at fao.org/fi/statist/ naturechina/30jan02.asp. Source: From World Resources Institute, Earth Trends Environmental Information, Coastal and Marine Ecosystems, www.earthtrends.wri.org. Original Source: Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Unit, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2003. FISHSTAT Plus: Universal software for fishery statistical time series, Version 2.3 (available on-line at fao.org/fi/statist/FISOFT/FISHPLUS.asp); Total production dataset. Rome: FAO.

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q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-266

Table 7O.174 World-Fisheries and Aquaculture

Marine Catcha (annual average)

State

Metric Tons (000) 1998–2000

Percent Change since 1988–1990

Metric Tons (000) 1998–2000

Percent Change since 1988–1990

Trade in Fish and Fish Productsc (annual average mil US$)

Total Aquaculture Production (annual average)

Freshwater Catchb (annual average)

Metric Tons (000) 1998–00

Percent Change since 1988–1990

Exports 1998–2000

Imports 1998–2000

Food Supply from Fish and Fish Products (kg/person/yr)d 1997–1999

Fish Protein as a Percent of All Animal Protein 1997–1999

Number of Fishers 2000

Number of Decked Fishery Vessels 1995e

Population within 100 km of the Coast (Percent) 1995

81,601.9 36,527.8

2 20

9,550.7 5,751.2

31 61

33,179.7 26,625.3

63 62

52,548.9 15,235.0

57,624.7 20,418.1

16.0 18.0

16 28

34,501,411 28,890,352

1,256,841 1,057,966

39 38

— 0.0 179.6 — 36.4

— (67) 27 — 25

1.0 14.8 754.6 0.3 184.1

(63) (70) 47 — 212

0.7 0.2 597.4 0.0 14.5

— — 69 67 62

0.3 1.7 313.6 — 35.3

1.0 1.3 2.5 — 3.1

0.5 0.9 10.2 — 12.0

1 1 47 — 35

244f 1,500f 1,320,480 450f 73,425g

6 — 61 — —

0 56 55 0 24

China Georgia India Indonesia Japan

14,395.9 2.2 2,726.5 3,624.7 4,836.3

170 (99) 33 69 (52)

2,367.1 0.2 753.5 375.3 285.1

188 (60) 48 18 (3)

22,722.0 0.1 2,039.2 722.5 763.0

73 — 52 37 (5)

3,081.3 0.3 1,221.4 1,582.2 756.2

1,315.0 1.6 24.0 69.7 14,406.3

24.5 1.3 4.7 19.0 65.4

21 2 14 56 45

12,233,128h 1,900f 5,958,744f 5,118,571 260,200

432,674 82 56,600 67,325 360,747

24 39 26 96 96

Kazakhstan Korea, Dem People’s Rep Korea, Rep Kyrgyzstan Lao People’s Dem Rep

0.0 190.2 1,968.3 — —

(83) (87) (16) — —

23.3 20.0 16.4 0.1 26.3

(70) (66) (59) (79) 34

1.2 67.9 317.9 0.1 31.2

— 23 (30) — 73

13.2 69.6 1,346.6 — 0.0

13.3 5.6 1,037.6 2.0 1.4

1.9 9.4 47.3 0.7 10.0

2 36 39 1 31

16,000f 129,000f 176,928j 154f 15,000f

1,970 2,900 76,801 — —

4 93 100 0 6

Malaysia Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Pakistan

1,201.8 — 772.7 — 448.3

42 — 33 — 28

20.4 0.4 166.2 13.8 173.9

74 91 21 131 78

146.8 — 90.7 13.6 17.6

65 — 93 48 50

189.6 0.2 162.0 0.2 141.9

262.6 0.0 1.0 0.3 0.4

57.0 0.1 16.0 1.1 2.5

35 0 45 3 3

100,666f 0 610,000f 50,000f 272,273

17,965 — 140 — 5,064

98 0 49 0 9

Philippines Singapore Sri Lanka Tajikistan Thailand

1,719.0 6.5 255.3 — 2,654.6

14 (44) 67 — 14

146.4 0.04 32.7 0.1 206.5

(37) (68) 4 (81) 77

342.7 4.3 10.2 0.1 664.5

(5) 55 45 — 61

408.7 413.6 103.5 — 4,180.5

109.2 483.9 66.5 0.2 841.3

29.6 — 21.2 0.1 28.2

42 — 54 0 37

990,872f 364 146,188 200f 354,495

3,220 110 2,990 — 17,600

100 100 100 0 39

Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Vietnam

0.0 — 1,217.6

(93) — 92

9.4 3.0 156.3

(79) (40) 19

0.6 5.9 463.6

(338) (257) 66

0.4 0.0 1,080.4

0.1 2.0 12.1

1.7 0.5 18.1

2 1 37

611i 4,800 1,000,000

45 — 140

8 3 83

Europe Albania Austria Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina

15,710.1 2.1 — — 29.7 0.0

(24) (73) — — (27) —

674.7 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.5 2.5

(18) (64) 4 (84) 4 —

1,726.0 0.2 2.9 5.6 1.4 —

13 — (37) (203) 49 —

19,063.8 6.5 9.0 16.4 471.9 —

22,875.8 4.5 189.7 72.8 1,059.0 8.3

20.6 2.4 14.3 8.5 — 1.9

10 1 4 4 — 2

855,333 1,590j 2,300 5,000f 544j 3,500f

105,324 2 — — 156 —

40 97 2 0 83 47

Bulgaria Croatia Czech Rep Denmark

10.2 20.6 — 1,497.3

(87) — — (15)

1.9 0.4 4.3 1.5

37 — — (71)

5.2 6.3 18.5 42.9

(102) — — 19

7.2 40.9 27.7 2,856.3

15.5 38.1 79.4 1,804.9

4.2 5.2 12.7 26.0

3 5 5 10

1,483f 65,151l 2,243 6,711j

30 305 — 4,285

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

29 38 0 100

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

World Asia (Excl. Middle East) Armenia Azerbaijan Bangladesh Bhutan Cambodia

110.2

(72)

4.4

(36)

0.2

(286)

86.6

37.6

19.7

12

13,346

186

86

Finland France Germany Greece Hungary

108.7 573.2 212.6 104.4 —

28 (10) (33) (16) —

56.4 3.3 24.5 4.4 7.3

(16) (40) 96 15 (58)

15.6 266.8 66.8 73.1 11.7

(14) 11 (1) 92 (60)

19.1 1,104.7 1,044.5 248.5 8.1

127.5 3,275.8 2,403.1 301.0 45.7

33.6 31.3 14.9 26.0 4.3

14 9 7 11 2

5,879 26,113g 4,358 19,847 4,900

3,838 6,586 2,406 18,375 —

73 40 15 99 0

Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania

1,799.9 290.2 298.7 120.2 57.8

13 38 (24) (77) (85)

0.3 2.6 5.2 1.2 1.9

(57) (52) (61) (43) (63)

3.8 45.8 208.8 0.4 1.7

50 52 34 (853) (152)

1,352.0 356.4 370.5 54.4 40.0

80.3 113.5 2,705.7 35.9 56.1

93.1 16.0 24.2 15.4 22.0

30 6 11 11 15

6,100 8,478i 48,770 6,571 4,700

826 1,353 16,000 351 131

100 100 79 75 23

Macedonia, FYR Moldova, Rep Netherlands Norway Poland

— — 513.6 2,726.8 211.1

— — 27 59 (60)

0.2 0.3 2.1 1.4 19.5

— (86) (47) (56) 23

1.5 1.1 101.4 458.2 33.1

— (537) 5 74 21

0.6 2.0 1,490.2 3,668.3 266.8

8.8 4.6 1,237.0 635.4 293.7

5.1 3.3 19.7 52.2 12.8

5 4 9 26 11

8,472 40f 3,743 23,552 8,640i

— — 1,008 8,664 445

14 9 93 95 14

Portugal Romania Russian Federation Serbia and Montenegro Slovakia

206.6 3.0 3,700.0 0.4 —

(37) (98) (50) — —

0.04 5.1 488.3 1.2 1.7

(23) (75) (10) — —

7.1 9.4 68.6 4.3 0.8

(12) (369) (179) — —

276.6 5.4 1,269.1 0.8 2.2

936.1 38.8 230.6 44.0 36.3

65.7 2.5 21.7 2.9 8.3

23 2 15 1 5

25,021 8,519 316,300 1,429f 215

9,265 33 3,584 5 —

93 6 15 8 0

Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom

1.8 1,133.8 363.2 — 409.3 830.6

— (8) 51 — (57) (1)

0.2 8.9 3.6 1.8 11.6 4.2

— (6) (46) (49) (81) 81

1.1 316.3 5.5 1.1 31.0 148.2

— 26 (55) 26 (193) 69

6.4 1,582.1 472.0 3.1 56.4 1,421.8

28.5 3,399.6 688.9 374.1 109.6 2,294.9

6.9 44.4 30.4 18.3 11.4 21.8

3 18 14 7 10 10

231 75,434f 2,783 522 120,000f 17,847

11 15,243 1,240 — 444 9,562

61 68 88 0 21 99

Middle East & N. Africa Afghanistan Algeria Egypt Iran, Islamic Rep Iraq

2,348.0 — 98.2 156.0 248.3 12.5

24 — (1) 81 23 204

411.0 1.1 0.0 219.8 140.3 10.1

74 10 — 44 424 (43)

355.9 — 0.3 235.3 35.2 3.8

62 — (35) 75 25 16

— — 2.7 1.6 48.2 —

756.3 — 11.2 157.3 56.1 0.6

7.2 — 3.5 11.2 4.4 1.5

9 — 6 19 7 8

746,955 1,500f 26,151i 250,000 138,965 12,000f

21,990 — 2,184 — 900 8

47 0 69 53 24 6

Israel Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

4.2 0.1 5.8 3.6 33.0

(57) — (19) 122 45

1.8 0.4 1.0 0.0 0.0

8 10 127 — —

19.1 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.1

23 87 — 75 50

8.2 — 5.3 — 35.0

133.2 23.4 16.4 24.2 11.3

23.4 5.1 12.1 8.0 6.1

9 5 5 7 7

1,535f 721 670j 9,825 9,500f

384 — 917 5 93

97 29 100 100 79

Morocco Oman Saudi Arabia Syrian Arab Rep Tunisia

782.3 110.1 49.1 2.6 90.9

43 (18) 10 81 (4)

1.8 0.0 0.1 4.6 1.0

16 — — 282 291

2.2 5.1 5.4 6.7 1.5

89 22 78 58 37

815.3 46.6 8.6 — 94.7

11.3 5.3 108.5 48.9 13.1

8.4 — 7.6 1.8 9.4

17 — 6 2 12

106,096f 28,003j 25,360 11,292 50,815

3052 390 23 5 17

65 88 30 34 84

Turkey United Arab Emirates Yemen Sub-Saharan Africa Angola

491.3 112.5 122.3 2806.5 186.4

5 22 64 15 50

28.9 0.1 0.0 1808.0 6.0

(12) 82 — 13 (25)

66.2 0.0 — 37.2 —

93 — — 25 —

96.4 36.8 26.1 1,691.4 10.8

62.7 27.5 4.8 845.5 14.3

8.0 25.9 6.8 7.6 10.4

10 12 22 25 28

33,614f 15,543 12,200 1,995,694i 30,364f

9,710 4,050 71 71 580

58 85 63 21 29

n

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7-267

(Continued)

WATER USE

Estonia

(Continued)

Marine Catcha (annual average)

State

7-268

Table 7O.174

Metric Tons (000) 1998–2000

Percent Change since 1988–1990

Metric Tons (000) 1998–2000

Trade in Fish and Fish Productsc (annual average mil US$)

Total Aquaculture Production (annual average)

Freshwater Catchb (annual average)

Percent Change since 1988–1990

Metric Tons (000) 1998–00

Percent Change since 1988–1990

Exports 1998–2000

Imports 1998–2000

Food Supply from Fish and Fish Products (kg/person/yr)d 1997–1999

Fish Protein as a Percent of All Animal Protein 1997–1999

Number of Fishers 2000

Number of Decked Fishery Vessels 1995e

Population within 100 km of the Coast (Percent) 1995

13.8 — — —

6 — — —

24.5 0.2 8.1 10.9

(6) (89) 7 (18)

0.0 — 0.0 0.1

— — — 60

2.2 0.1 0.0 0.2

4.7 5.3 1.4 0.1

8.7 6.1 1.9 2.3

26 5 6 23

61,793 2,620f 8,300 7,030j

5 — — —

62 0 0 0

Cameroon Central African Rep Chad Congo Congo, Dem Rep

59.6 — — 20.6 3.9

21 — — (6) 97

50.0 14.8 84.0 25.5 194.4

138 14 31 10 21

0.1 0.1 — 0.2 0.4

(117) 20 — (29) (66)

2.7 — — 2.4 0.5

30.2 0.4 — 19.7 42.5

12.3 4.2 6.9 21.4 6.7

31 9 14 46 34

24,500 5,410 300,000g 10,500 108,400

25 — — 26 23

22 0 0 25 3

Coˆte d’Ivoire Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopiak Gabon

65.5 4.5 7.0 — 40.4

(2) 34 — — 114

11.5 1.0 0.0 15.2 10.1

(59) 162 — 365 421

1.0 — — 0.0 0.4

86 — — — —

171.0 2.8 1.0 — 14.0

171.7 2.1 0.1 — 7.1

14.2 — 0.9 0.2 49.6

42 — 3 1 37

19,707f 9,218 14,500f 6,272 8,259g

63 5 — — 39

40 72 73 1 63

Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Kenya

26.5 384.6 78.9 5.1 6.0

69 24 108 3 (29)

2.5 77.9 4.0 — 191.7

(7) 24 33 — 25

0.0 0.5 0.0 — 0.3

— 18 — — (188)

4.9 81.1 23.1 3.1 36.8

1.3 97.3 14.3 0.4 6.3

24.1 28.1 11.2 4.4 5.4

64 66 51 14 10

2,000f 230,000f 10,707f 2,500f 59,565

— 500 15 8 32

91 42 41 95 8

Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Mali

— 8.5 98.9 — —

— 3 47 — —

0.0 4.1 30.0 43.8 102.1

494 (1) (10) (41) 55

0.00 0.0 5.9 0.4 0.1

— — 96 55 80

— 0.0 77.0 0.2 0.4

— 1.9 6.4 0.3 2.2

0.0 5.9 7.5 4.5 8.8

0 26 16 34 15

60f 5,143 83,310j 42,922j 70,000i

— 14 65 57 —

0 58 55 0 0

Mauritania Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria

32.9 25.8 305.0 — 316.4

(51) (16) 191 — 66

5.0 10.8 1.5 11.4 136.9

(17) 215 49 226 46

— 0.0 0.0 0.0 22.6

— — 50 (100) 35

70.1 84.0 266.1 0.7 4.8

0.5 8.8 — 0.6 231.6

10.6 2.7 11.6 0.9 8.8

11 21 20 3 32

7,944g 20,000f 2,700f 7,983f 481,264g

126 291 218 — 318

40 59 5 0 26

Rwanda Senegal Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa

— 378.8 49.5 20.7 596.4

— 42 32 (2) (34)

6.6 27.3 16.3 0.2 0.9

287 47 (0) (50) 10

0.2 0.1 0.03 — 4.4

65 82 33 — 47

— 287.6 14.6 3.7 259.0

0.1 7.0 3.3 — 64.1

1.0 32.1 13.6 2.9 6.9

7 45 61 2 8

5,690 55,547j 17,990f 18,900f 10,500f

— 180 27 12 600

0 83 55 55 39

Sudan Tanzania, United Rep Togo Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe

5.7 49.6 15.4 — — —

336 (4) 34 — — —

44.0 280.0 5.2 267.5 68.0 14.0

52 (18) 20 19 6 (41)

1.0 0.2 0.1 0.2 4.2 0.2

88 (30) 89 80 70 11

0.4 66.8 1.8 33.8 0.4 2.2

0.4 0.4 14.2 0.1 0.9 9.3

1.7 8.9 13.4 8.9 7.4 2.7

2 32 51 28 25 10

27,700j 92,529 14,120 57,862j 23,833f 1,804i

— 30 3 — 235 —

3 21 45 0 0 0

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi

5457.1 933.5 4365.8

(19) (37) (15)

419.4 68.9 350.5

(19) (56) (3)

559.8 109.1 450.7

32 70 23

5,682.6 2,575.9 2,847.5

10,840.9 1,318.9 9,511.3

21.5 23.8 21.3

12 10 7

303,784 8,696 290,000f

45,480 18,280 27,200

41 24 43

C. America & Caribbean Belize Costa Rica Cuba Dominican Rep El Salvador

1582.5 37.8 23.2 58.4 9.2 7.5

(7) — 40 (68) (44) 2

117.0 0.0 1.0 5.0 0.6 2.6

(25) (50) 233 (61) (57) (5)

132.8 2.5 9.0 51.5 1.2 0.3

(697) 92 95 86 80 (119)

1,529.2 27.7 177.4 90.1 0.9 31.9

423.0 2.4 27.4 26.9 52.4 6.9

8.8 13.0 5.9 13.1 12.6 2.9

14 13 5 16 10 4

446,390 1,872 6,510j 11,865f 9,286 24,534

7,161 12 1,003 1,250 — 80

55 100 100 100 100 99

Guatemala Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico

13.7 4.6 10.8 6.5 1130.8

324 (9) (25) (18) (9)

6.9 0.5 0.1 0.5 98.5

477 58 115 1 (27)

4.0 — 8.3 4.0 47.7

79 — 62 23 60

29.9 3.4 40.2 13.0 694.0

7.6 7.4 14.8 56.0 125.2

1.6 3.1 2.9 25.5 9.6

3 11 3 20 8

17,275 4,700f 21,000i 23,465 262,401

85 1 280 5 3,100

61 100 65 100 29

Nicaragua Panama Trinidad and Tobago

21.7 182.2 9.1

444 27 12

1.2 0.0 0.0

813 21 —

4.8 5.3 0.02

99 28 —

87.1 232.8 11.8

6.5 15.4 7.7

3.3 11.0 14.2

7 8 14

14,502 13,062 7,297

280 695 19

72 100 100

South America Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia

14649.6 1006.7 0.9 520.5 4150.8 101.7

1 101 (64) (16) (26) 71

345.7 24.7 5.2 180.9 0.0 25.1

6 133 59 (6) (97) (37)

318.2 1.3 0.4 132.7 319.6 53.6

61 77 21 86 94 88

4,980.1 824.7 0.1 168.7 1,694.4 195.1

687.7 86.5 5.6 357.0 54.1 86.5

8.9 8.5 1.7 6.5 17.6 4.5

12 4 2 4 10 5

784,051 12,320 7,754f 290,000f 50,873 129,410i

13,106 800 — 1,450 563 167

49 45 0 49 82 30

Ecuador Guyana Paraguay Peru Suriname

466.4 51.2 — 7773.0 16.0

(18) 44 — 15 209

0.4 0.7 25.0 34.6 0.2

(32) (16) 124 2 (27)

112.0 0.5 0.1 7.6 0.2

33 92 44 34 —

915.7 38.6 0.1 852.2 6.9

16.1 0.7 2.3 15.4 4.1

7.0 59.9 5.5 20.3 24.6

9 47 4 21 24

162,870g 6,571 4,469g 66,361 3,628f

515 55 — 7,710 22

61 77 0 57 87

Uruguay Venezuela

117.9 389.9

11 37

2.2 46.7

878 41

0.0 11.1

— 94

115.0 126.9

13.4 45.5

8.6 18.3

4 19

4,023 44,302i

958 866

78 73

Oceania Australia Fiji New Zealand Papua New Guinea Solomon Islands

1110.1 214.6 27.9 594.9 47.1 46.8

75 13 17 97 271 (0)

23.0 4.1 5.5 1.6 11.7 0.0

(1) 9 18 (20) (7) —

127.6 33.9 1.3 90.4 0.0 0.0

62 62 99 69 — —

1,681.7 885.7 28.5 682.2 31.7 10.2

629.9 518.8 16.8 55.9 11.5 0.2

22.7 21.3 32.1 30.3 15.1 52.5

25 7 21 13 31 82

85,324 13,800i 8,985j 1,928 16,000f 11,000m

1,917 246 — 1,375 35 130

Developed Developing

27258.0 53010.2

(30) 32

1439.3 8110.6

(21) 49

3180.4 26702.3

12 60

27,094.4 24,010.7

48,905.7 8,571.6

23.7 13.8

10 20

1,467,401 32,640,482

516,259 740,322

WATER USE

North America Canada United States

87 90 100 100 61 100

45

Note: Negative values are shown in parentheses.

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(Continued) Variable Definitions and Methodology Marine and Freshwater Catch data refer to marine and freshwater fish caught or trapped for commercial, industrial, and subsistence use (catches from recreational activities are included where available); they include fish caught by a country’s fleet anywhere in the world. Statistics for mariculture, aquaculture, and other kinds of fish or shellfish farming are not included in the country totals. Marine fish includes demersal fish (flounders, halibuts, soles, etc; cods, hakes, haddocks, etc; redfishes, basses, congers, etc; and sharks, rays, chimeras, etc.), pelagic fish (jacks, mullets, sauries, etc; herrings, sardines, anchovies, etc; tunas, bonitos, billfishes, etc; and mackerels, snooks, cutlassfishes, etc.), and diadromous fish caught in marine areas (i.e. sturgeons, paddlefishes, river eels, salmons, trouts, smelt, shads, and miscellaneous diadromous fishes), marine molluscs (squids, cuttlefishes, octopuses, etc; abalones, winkles, conchs, etc; oysters; mussels; scallops, pectens, etc; clams, cockles, arkshells, etc; and miscellaneous marine molluscs) and marine crustaceans (sea-spiders, crabs, etc; lobsters, spiny-rock lobsters, etc; squat lobsters; shrimps, prawns, etc; krill, planktonic crustaceans, etc; and miscellaneous marine crustaceans).

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Freshwater fish includes fish caught in inland waters (i.e. carps, barbels, and other cyprinids; tilapias and other cichlids; and miscellaneous and freshwater fishes), and diadromous fish caught in inland waters, as well as freshwater molluscs and crustaceans. Catch figures are the national totals averaged over a 3-year period. Data are represented as nominal catches, which are the landings converted to a live-weight basis, that is, the weight when caught. Fish catch does not include discards. Landings for some countries are identical to catches. Catch data are provided annually to the FAO Fisheries Department by national fishery offices and regional fishery commissions. Some recent data are provisional. If no data are submitted, FAO uses the previous year’s figures or makes estimates based on other information. Aquaculture is defined by FAO as "the farming of aquatic organisms, including fish, molluscs, and crustaceans. Farming implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, and protection from predators, etc. [It] also implies ownership of the stock being cultivated¥" Aquatic organisms that are exploitable by the public as a common property resource are included in the harvest of fisheries. FAO’s global collection of aquaculture statistics from questionnaires to national fishery offices was begun in 1984. FAO’s aquaculture database has 337 "species items" that are grouped into six categories. Total Aquaculture Production includes marine, freshwater, and diadromous fishes, molluscs and crustaceans cultivated in marine, inland, or brackish environments. For a detailed listing of species, please refer to the original source. Aquaculture production is expressed as an annual average over a 3-year period.

Food Supply from Fish and Fish Products is defined as the quantity of both freshwater and marine fish, seafood and derived products available for human consumption. Data were calculated by taking a country’s fish production plus imports of fish and fishery products, minus exports, minus the amount of fishery production destined to non-food uses (i.e. reduction to meal, etc.), and plus or minus variations in stocks. The quantity of fish and fish products consumed include the bones and all parts of the fish. Fish Protein as a Percent of Animal Protein Supply is defined as the quantity of protein from both freshwater and marine fish, seafood and derived products available for human consumption as a percentage of all available animal protein. FAO calculates food supply for all products, including fish, in its food balance sheets. FAOSTAT maintains statistics on apparent consumption of fish and fishery products, in live weight, for 220 countries in a collection of Supply/Utilization Accounts (SUAs). For each product, the SUA traces supplies from production, imports, and stocks to its utilization in different forms–addition to stocks; exports; animal feed; seed; processing for food and non-food purposes; waste (or losses); and lastly; as food available for human consumption, where appropriate. For more detailed information, please refer to the following article: "Supply Utilization Accounts and Food Balance Sheets in the Context of a National Statistical System", maintained on-line by FAO at fao.org/es/ESS/Suafbs.htm. Number of Fishers includes the number of people employed in commercial and subsistence fishing (both personnel on fishing vessels and on shore), operating in freshwater, brackish and marine areas, and in aquaculture production activities. Data on people employed in fishing and aquaculture are collected by the FAO through annual questionnaires submitted to the national reporting offices of the member countries. When possible, other national and/or regional published sources are also used to estimate figures. Please refer to the original source for further information on collection methodologies (available online at fao.org/fi/statist/fisoft/fishers.asp) or to the following publication: Numbers of Fishers 1970–1997, FAO Fisheries Circular N.929 Revision 2, Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Unit (FAO, Rome, 1999). Decked Fishery Vessels include trawlers, purse seiners, gill netters, long liners, trap setters, other seiners and liners, multipurpose vessels, dredgers, and other fishing vessels. Data on undecked vessels are being collected by FAO, but are not yet available. Fleet data are collected by the FAO through questionnaires submitted to the national reporting offices of the member countries. Other national or regional published sources, such as the registry of fishing vessels, are also used to estimate fleet size. The flag of the vessel is used to assign its nationality. However, in many cases vessels are flagged in one country, while the ownership, landings, and trade resides with another nation. This approach is referred to as a "flag of convenience," and fishers or corporations use this method to facilitate registration of a vessel (i.e. some countries have fewer registration restrictions), to gain access to fish in different Exclusive Economic Zones, or to avoid having to follow set fishing quotas in their own nation, among other reasons. Population within 100 km of the Coast refers to estimates of the percentage of the population living within the coastal area based on 1995 population figures. These estimates were calculated using a data set that provides information on the spatial distribution of the world’s human population on a 2.5-minute grid. Populations are distributed according to administrative districts, which vary in scale, level, and size from country to country. A 100-km coastal buffer was used to calculate the number of people in the coastal zone for each country. The percentage of the population in the coastal zone was calculated from 1995 United Nations Population Division totals for each country.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Trade in Fish and Fish Products expresses the value associated with imports and exports of fish that are live, fresh, chilled, frozen, dried, salted, smoked, or canned, and other derived products and preparations. Trade includes freshwater and marine fish, aquaculture, molluscs and crustaceans, meals, and solubles. Aquatic plants are not included. Figures are the national totals averaged over a 3-year period in millions of U.S. dollars. Exports are generally on a free-on-board basis (i.e. not including insurance or freight costs). Imports are usually on a cost, insurance, and freight basis (i.e. insurance and freight costs added in). Regional totals are calculated by adding up imports or exports of each country included in that region. Therefore, the regional totals should not be taken as a net trade for that region, since there may also be trade occurring within a region. To collate national data, FAO uses its International Standard Statistical Classification of Fishery Commodities. Commodities produced by aquaculture and other kinds of fish farming are also included.

Data Reliability and Cautionary Notes Marine Catch, Freshwater Catch, Total Aquaculture Production, and Trade in Fish and Fishery Products. While the FAO data set provides the most extensive, global time series of fishery statistics since 1 970, there are some problems associated with the data. Funding for the development and maintenance of fisheries statistics at the national level has been decreasing in real terms since 1992, while the demand is growing for a variety of global statistics on discards, fish inventories, aquaculture, and illegal activities. Country-level data are often submitted with a 1–2 year delay, and countries are declaring an increasing percentage of their catch as "unidentified fish." Stock assessment working groups can more accurately estimate the composition of a catch; however, due to financial constraints, these groups are rare, especially in developing countries. Statistics from smaller artisanal and subsistence fisheries are particularly sparse. In addition, fishers sometimes underreport their catches because they have not kept within harvest limits established to manage the fishery. In some cases, catch statistics are inflated to increase the importance of the fishing industry to the national economy. FAO states that "general trends are probably reliably reflected by the available statistics¥ but the annual figures and the assessments involve a certain degree of uncertainty and small changes from year to year are probably not statistically significant." The quality of the aquaculture production estimates varies because many countries lack the resources to adequately monitor landings within their borders. These statistics provide a good overview of regional fisheries trends. However, when reviewing the state of fisheries stocks, evaluating food security, etc., these data should be used with caution and supplemented with estimates from regional organizations, academic literature, expert consultations, and trade data. For more information, please consult Fishery Statistics: Reliability and Policy Implications, published by the FAO Fisheries Department and available on-line at fao.org/fi/statist/nature-china/30janO2.asp.

WATER USE

Frequency of Update by Data Providers The Food and Agriculture Organization updates the FishStat database annually. Updates can be found on the FishStat website at fao.org/fi/statist/FISOFT/FISHPLUS.asp. The FAO updates the data on Food Supply variables annually; the most recent updates incorporated in these tables are from July 2002. Data on the number of fishers and decked fishery vessels are updated by the Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Unit (FIDI) of FAO.

Food Supply from Fish and Fishery Products and Fish Protein as a Percent of Total Protein: Food supply is different from actual consumption. Figures do not account for discards (including bones) and losses during storage and preparation. Supply data should only be used to assess food security if it is combined with an analysis of food availability and accessibility. Per capita supply averages can also mask disparate food availability within a particular country. Nonetheless, the data are subject to "vigorous consistency checks." According to FAO, the food supply statistics, "while often far from satisfactory in the proper statistical sense, do provide an approximate picture of the overall food situation in a country and can be useful for economic and nutritional studies, for preparing development plans and for formulating related projects." For more information see Food Balance Sheets: A Handbook, maintained on-line by FAO at fao.org/DOCREP/003/X9892E/X9892E00.htm. Number of Fishers: Numbers presented in this table are gross estimates. Many countries do not submit data on fishers, or submit incomplete information; therefore the quality of these data is poor. Apart from the gaps and the heavy presence of estimates due to non-reporting, the information provided by national statistical offices may not be strictly comparable since different definitions and methods are used in assessing the number of people engaged in fishing and aquaculture. FAO recognizes that these statistics are incomplete and may not accurately reflect the current level of employment in the fishing sector. Specifically, it is aware that some countries failed to report for several years, that those which reported regularly have occasionally omitted fish farmers from the total or included subsistence and sport fishers as well as family members living on fishing. Decked Fishery Vessels: As with the number of fishers, FAO recognizes that these fleet statistics are incomplete and may not accurately reflect current world fishing capacity. These data may include vessels that are no longer in operation. The quality of the estimates varies because many countries lack the resources to adequately monitor and report on fleet size. For further information, please refer to the original source or to "Fishery Fleet Statistics, 1970 1975, 1980 1985, 1989–95" Bulletin of Fishery Statistics No. 35 (FAO, Rome, 1998). a b c d e f g h i j k m n

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(Continued)

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l

Includes marine fish and diadromous fish caught in marine areas, as well as molluscs and crustaceans. Includes freshwater fish and diadromous fish caught in inland waters or low-salinity marine areas, as well as molluscs and crustaceans. Includes trade of all marine and freshwater catch, and total aquaculture production, excluding aquatic plants. Per capita values are expressed on a live-weight equivalent basis, which means that all parts of the fish, including bones, are taken into account when estimating consumption of fish and fishery products. Includes fishing vessels such as trawlers, long liners, etc., and nonfishing vessels such as motherships, fish carriers, etc. Data were collected between 1991 and 1996. Data are for 1997. Does not include Taiwan or Hong Kong. Data are for 1998. Data are for 1999. Data for Ethiopia before 1993 include Eritrea. Since independence, data include a substantial but unquantifiable number of sport fishers. Data are for 1980. Per capita fish consumption in Iceland includes quantities of fish and fish products destined for the export market.

Original Source:

Catch, Aquaculture Production, and Trade in Fish and Fishery Products data produced by the Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Unit, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2002. FISHSTAT Plus: Universal software for fishery statistical time series, Version 2.3 Rome: FAO. Available on-line at: fao.org/fi/statist/FISOFT/FISH PLUS. asp Food Supply Variables are from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), FAOSTAT on-line statistical service. 2002. Rome: FAO. Available on-line at: http://apps.fao.org. Data on the Number of Fishers are from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Unit (FIDI) December, 1999. Number of People within 100 km of the Coast is derived from the Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), World Resources Institute, and International Food Policy Research Institute. 2000. Gridded Population of the World, Version 2 alpha Columbia University, Palisades, NY. Available online at: sedac.ciesin.org/plue/gwp. Population (used to calculate per capita values): Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat. 2002. World Population Prospects: The 2000 Revision. Data set on CD-ROM New York: United Nations.

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Source: From World Resources Institute, Earth Trends Environmental Information, Coastal and Marine Ecosystems, www.earthtrends.wri.org.

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

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WATER USE

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Table 7O.175 World Aquaculture Production (thousand MT)

Average Annual Rate of Growth (%)

World/Region

1980

1990

2001

1980–1990

1990–2001

World Developed countries Industrialized countries Transition economies Developing countries Latin America and the Caribbean Near East and North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa East and Southeast Asia South Asia Oceania developing North America developing Continental groupings Africa Asia Latin America Caribbean North America Oceania Europe

4,707 1,685 1,419 266 3,022 27

13,080 2,867 2,327 540 10,212 193

37,851 3,652 3,419 233 34,199 1,112

10.8 5.5 5.1 7.3 12.9 21.7

10.1 2.2 3.6 K7.3 11.6 17.3

34 7 2,490 464 0 0

104 13 8,668 1,235 1 0

498 50 29,603 2,931 4 0

11.8 6.6 13.3 10.3 0.0 0.0

15.4 12.8 11.8 8.2 13.8 0.0

26 3,553 25 2 172 12 916

81 10,806 179 13 357 42 1,602

402 33,514 1,051 62 613 124 2,086

12.0 11.8 22.0 18.9 7.6 13.1 5.7

15.7 10.8 17.4 15.1 5.1 10.3 2.4

Note: Aquaculture excludes aquatic plants. Source: From Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2003, Summary of Food and Agricultural Statistics, www.fao.org. Reprinted with permission.

Table 7O.176 World Capture Fisheries Production (thousand MT) World/Region World Developed countries Industralized countries Transition economies Developing countries Latin America and the Caribbean Near East and North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa East and Southeast Asia South Asia Oceania developing North America developing Continental groupings Africa Asia Latin America Caribbean North America Oceania Europe

Average Annual Rate of Growth (%)

1980

1990

2001

1980–1990

1990–2001

67,706 37,476 26,873 10,603 30,229 9,530

85,507 38,138 27,414 10,725 47,368 16,082

92,356 28,428 23,546 4,881 63,928 16,800

2.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 4.6 5.4

0.7 K2.6 K1.4 K6.9 2.8 0.4

1,360 2,233 13,720 3,136 133 116

2,027 3,517 21,235 4,157 184 167

3,174 4,391 33,254 5,792 355 163

4.1 4.6 4.5 2.9 3 4

4.2 2.0 4.2 3.1 6.1 K0.2

3,663 27,519 9,279 251 5,001 411 21,284

5,075 36,226 15,818 264 7,359 741 19,947

6,890 45,262 16,620 180 6,157 1,108 15,963

3.3 2.8 5.5 0.5 3.9 6.1 K0.6

2.8 2.0 0.5 K3.4 K1.6 3.7 K2.0

Source: From Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2003, Summary of Food and Agricultural Statistics, www.fao.org. Reprinted with permission. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 7O.177 Capture Fisheries and Aquaculture — Leading Species in 2001 Species Capture Fisheries Anchoveta (Peruvian anchovy) Alaska pollock (Walleye poll.) Chilean jack mackerel Atlantic herring Japanese anchovy Skipjack tuna Blue whiting (Poutassou) Chub mackerel Capelin Largehead hairtail Other species Aquaculture Pacific cupped oyster Grass carp (White amur) Silver carp Common carp Japanese carpet shell Bighead carp Crucian carp Yesso scallop Nile tilapia Atlantic salmon Other species

Production (thousand MT)

% of World Production

7,213 3,136 2,509 1,953 1,837 1,836 1,823 1,799 1,671 1,472 67,107

7.8 3.4 2.7 2.1 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.6 72.7

4,110 3,636 3,546 2,849 2,091 1,663 1,527 1,196 1,109 1,025 15,097

10.9 9.6 9.4 7.5 5.5 4.4 4.0 3.2 2.9 2.7 39.9

Source: From Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2003, Summary of Food and Agricultural Statistics, www.fao.org. With permission.

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WATER USE

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SECTION 7P

WATER IN FOODS

Table 7P.178 Water Content in Various Foods Tortilla chips Potato chips Peanut butter Popcorn Margarine Butter Croissant Jam Bagel Parmesan cheese Angel food cake Maple syrup Swiss cheese Whole wheat bread English muffin Cheese cake Pizza Brie Apple pie Frankfurter Cream cheese Hamburger Whipping cream Flounder, baked Veal, chuck Chicken, roasted Ice cream Turkey, roasted Tuna, in water Salmon, broiled Ham, smoked, cooked Halibut, broiled Liver, beef, raw Sour cream Lima beans, cooked Avocado Corn, cooked Ricotta cheese Banana Egg, boiled Cottage cheese Potato, raw Clams Grapes Pear Oysters Orange Beets, raw Apple juice Milk, whole Yoghurt, whole milk Carrots, raw Broccoli, raw Mushroom, raw Cantaloupe Milk, skim Beer Asparagus, cooked Tomato, raw Squash, boiled Lettuce, raw

1 2 2 4 14 16 23 29 29 30 32 33 38 38 42 46 48 49 51 54 54 55 58 58 59 60 61 62 62 63 66 67 70 71 71 73 74 74 74 75 79 80 81 81 84 85 87 87 88 88 88 88 89 90 90 91 92 94 94 96 96

Note: Percentage by Weight. Source: From Calculated from weight and water content values given in Bowes and Church’s Food Values of Portions Commonly Used, 14th ed., Harper & Row. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CHAPTER

8

Water Quality Katherine L. Thalman and James M. Bedessem

CONTENTS Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section

8A 8B 8C 8D 8E 8F 8G 8H 8I 8J 8K

Water Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drinking Water Quality Standards United States . Drinking Water Standards — World . . . . . . . . . . Municipal Water Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Industrial Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Irrigation Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Quality for Aquatic Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recreational Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Quality for Livestock and Aquaculture . . . Water Treatment Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Treatment Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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8-1 8-33 8-54 8-71 8-105 8-115 8-129 8-176 8-183 8-189 8-218

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 8A

WATER QUALITY

Table 8A.1 Summary of Quality Inputs to Surface and Groundwaters Contributing Factor

Principal Quality Input to Surface Waters

Meteorological water

Dissolved gases native to atmosphere Soluble gases from man’s industrial activities Particulate matter from industrial stacks, dust, and radioactive particles Material washed from surface of earth, e.g., Organic matter such as leaves, grass, and other vegetation in all stages of biodegradation Bacteria associated with surface debris (including intestinal organisms) Clay, silt, and other mineral particles Organic extractives from decaying vegetation Insecticide and herbicide residues

Domestic use (exclusive of industrial)

Undecomposed organic matter, such as garbage ground to sewer, grease, etc. Partially degraded organic matter such as raw wastes from human bodies Combination of above two after biodegradation to various degrees of sewage treatment Bacteria (including pathogens), viruses, worm eggs Grit from soil washings, eggshells, ground bone, etc. Miscellaneous organic solids, e.g., paper, rags, plastics, and synthetic materials Detergents

Industrial use

Biodegradable organic matter having a wide range of oxygen demand Inorganic solids, mineral residues Chemical residues ranging from simple acids and alkalis to those of highly complex molecular structure Metal ions

Agricultural use

Increased concentration of salts and ions Fertilizer residues Insecticide and herbicide residues Silt and soil particles Organic debris, e.g., crop residue

Consumptive use (all sources)

Increased concentration of suspended and dissolved solids by loss of water to atmosphere Principal Quality Input to Groundwater

Contributing Factor Meteorological water

Gases, including O2 and CO2, N2, H2S, and H Dissolved minerals, e.g.: Bicarbonates and sulfates of Ca and Mg dissolved from earth minerals Nitrates and chlorides of Ca, Mg, Na and K dissolved from soil and organic decay residues Soluble iron, Mn, and F salts

Domestic use (principally via septic tank systems and seepage from polluted surface waters)

Detergents Nitrates, sulfates, and other residues of organic decay Salts and ions dissolved in the public water supply Soluble organic compounds

Industrial use (not much direct disposal to soil)

Soluble salts from seepage of surface waters containing industrial wastes

Agriculture use

Concentrated salts normal to water applied to land Other materials as per meteorological waters

Land disposal of solid wastes (not properly installed)

Hardness-producing leaching from ashes Soluble chemical and gaseous products or organic decay

Note: This list includes the types of things that may come from any contributing factor. Not all are present in each specific instance. Source: From McGauhey, Engineering Management of Water Quality, McGraw-Hill, Copyright 1968.

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WATER QUALITY

8-3

Table 8A.2 Conditions That May Cause Variations in Water Quality Climatic conditions

Runoff from snowmelt—muddy, soft, high bacterial count Runoff during drought—high mineral content, hard, groundwater characteristics Runoff during floods—less bacteria than snowmelt, may be muddy (depending upon other factors listed below)

Geographic conditions

Steep headwater runoff differs from lower valley areas in ground cover, gradients, transporting power, etc.

Geologic conditions

Clay soils produce mud Organic soils or swamps produce color Cultivated land yields silt, fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides Fractured or fissured rocks may permit silt, bacteria, etc., to move with groundwater Mineral content dependent upon geologic formations

Season of year

Fall runoff carries dead vegetation—color, taste, organic extractives, bacteria Dry season yields dissolved salts Irrigation return water, in growing season only Cannery wastes seasonal Aquatic organisms seasonal Overturn of lakes and reservoirs seasonal Floods generally seasonal Dry period, low flows, seasonal

Resource management practices

Agricultural soils and other denuded soils are productive of sediments, etc. (See third item under Geologic conditions.) Forested land and swampland yield organic debris Overgrazed or denuded land subject to erosion Continuous or batch discharge of industrial wastes alters shock loads Inplant management of waste streams governs nature of waste

Diurnal variation

Production of oxygen by planktonic algae varies from day to night Dissolved oxygen in water varies in some fashion Raw sewage flow variable within 24-hr period; treated sewage variation less pronounced Industrial wastes variable—process wastes during productive shift; different material during washdown and cleanup

Source: From McGauhey, Engineering Management of Water Quality, McGraw-Hill, Copyright 1968.

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Table 8A.3 Principal Chemical Constituents in Water — Their Sources, Concentrations, and Effects upon Usability Major Sources

Concentration in Natural Water

Effect upon Usability of Water

Silica (SiO2)

Feldspars, ferromagnesium and clay minerals, amorphous silicachert, opal

Ranges generally from 1.0 to 30 mg/L, although as much as 100 mg/L is fairly common; as much as 4,000 mg/L is found in brines

In the presence of calcium and magnesium, silica forms a scale in boilers and on steam turbines that retards heat; the scale is difficult to remove. Silica may be added to soft water to inhibit corrosion of iron pipes

Iron (Fe)

1. Natural sources Igneous rocks: Amphiboles, ferromagnesian micas, ferrous sulfide (FeS), ferric sulfide or iron pyrite (FeS2), magnetite (Fe3O4) Sandstone rocks: Oxides, carbonates, and sulfides or iron clay minerals 2. Man-made sources: Well casing, piping, pump parts, storage tanks, and other objects of cast iron and steel which may be in contact with the water Industrial wastes

Generally less than 0.50 mg/L in fully aerated water. Groundwater having a pH less than 8.0 may contain 10 mg/L; rarely as much as 50 mg/L may occur. Acid water from thermal springs, mine wastes and industrial may contain more than 6,000 mg/L

More than 0.1 mg/L precipitates after exposure to air; causes turbidity, stains plumbing fixtures, laundry and cooking utensils, and imparts objectionable tastes and colors to foods and drinks. More than 0.2 mg/L is objectionable for most industrial uses

Manganese (Mn)

Manganese in natural water probably comes most often from soils and sediments. Metamorphic and sedimentary rocks and mica biotite and amphibole hornblende minerals contain large amounts of manganese

Generally 0.20 mg/L or less. Groundwater and acid mine water may contain more than 10 mg/L. Reservoir water that has “turned over” may contain more than 150 mg/L

More than 0.2 mg/L precipitates upon oxidation; causes undesirable tastes, deposits on foods during cooking, stains plumbing fixtures and laundry and fosters growths in reservoirs, filters, and distribution systems. Most industrial users object to water containing more than 0.2 mg/L

Calcium (Ca)

Amphiboles, feldspars, gypsum, pyroxenes, aragonite, calcite, dolomite, clay minerals

As much as 600 mg/L in some western streams; brines may contain as much as 75,000 mg/L

Magnesium (Mg)

Amphiboles, olivine, pyroxenes, dolomite, magnesite, clay minerals

As much as several hundred mg/L in some western streams; ocean water contains more than 1,000 mg/L and brines may contain as much as 57,000 mg/L

Calcium and magnesium combine with bicarbonate, carbonate, sulfate, and silica to form heat-retarding, pipe-clogging scale in boilers and in other heat-exchange equipment. Calcium and magnesium combine with ions of fatty acid in soaps to form soap suds; the more calcium and magnesium, the more soap required to form suds. A high concentration of magnesium has a laxative effect, especially on new users of the supply

Sodium (Na)

Feldspars (albite), clay minerals, evaporates, such as halite (NaCl) and mirabilite (Na2SO410H2O), industrial wastes

As much as 1,000 mg/L in some western streams; about 10,000 mg/L in sea water; about 25,000 mg/L in brines

More than 50 mg/L sodium and potassium in the presence of suspended matter causes foaming, which accelerates scale formation

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Constituent

Feldspars (orthoclase and microcline), feldspathoids, some micas, clay minerals

Carbonate (CO3)

Generally less than about 10 mg/L; as much as 100 mg/L in hot springs; as much as 25,000 mg/L in brines

and corrosion in boilers. Sodium and potassium carbonate in recirculating cooling water can cause deterioration of wood in cooling towers. More than 65 mg/L of sodium can cause problems in ice manufacture

Commonly 0 mg/L in surface water; commonly less than 10 mg/L in groundwater. Water high in sodium may contain as much as 50 mg/L of carbonate Commonly less than 500 mg/L; may exceed 1,000 mg/L in water highly charged with carbon dioxide

Upon heating, bicarbonate is changed into steam, carbon dioxide, and carbonate. The carbonate combines with alkaline earths— principally calcium and magnesium—to form a crustlike scale of calcium carbonate that retards flow of heat through pipe walls and restricts flow of fluids in pipes. Water containing large amounts of biocarbonate and alkalinity are undesirable in many industries

Bicarbonate (HCO3)

Limestone, dolomite

Sulfate (SO4)

Oxidation of sulfide ores; gypsum; anhydrite; industrial wastes

Commonly less than 1,000 mg/L except in streams and wells influenced by acid mine drainage. As much as 200,000 mg/L in some brines

Sulfate combines with calcium to form an adherent, heat-retarding scale. More than 250 mg/L is objectionable in water in some industries. Water containing about 500 mg/L of sulfate tastes bitter; water containing about 1,000 mg/L may be cathartic

Chloride (Cl)

Chief source is sedimentary rock (evaporates); minor sources are igneous rocks. Ocean tides force salty water upstream in tidal estuaries

Commonly less than 10 mg/L in humid regions; tidal streams contain increasing amounts of chloride (as much as 19,000 mg/L) as the bay or ocean is approached. About 19,300 mg/L in seawater, and as much as 200,000 mg/L in brines

Chloride in excess of 100 mg/L imparts a salty taste. Concentrations greatly in excess of 100 mg/L may cause physiological damage. Food processing industries usually require less than 250 mg/L. Some industries—textile processing, paper manufacturing, and synthetic rubber manufacturing—desire less than 100 mg/L

Fluoride (F)

Amphiboles (hornblende), apatite, fluorite, mica

Concentrations generally do not exceed 10 mg/L in groundwater or 1.0 mg/L in surface water. Concentrations may be as much as 1,600 mg/L in brines

Fluoride concentration between 0.6 and 1.7 mg/L in drinking water has a beneficial effect on the structure and resistance to decay of children’s teeth. Fluoride in excess of 1.5 mg/L in some areas causes “mottled enamel” in children’s teeth. Fluoride in excess of 6.0 mg/L causes pronounced mottling and disfiguration of teeth

WATER QUALITY

Potassium (K)

(Continued)

8-5

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8-6

Table 8A.3

(Continued)

Constituent

Major Sources

Concentration in Natural Water

Effect upon Usability of Water

Atmosphere; legumes, plant debris, animal excrement, nitrogenous fertilizer in soil and sewage

In surface water not subjected to pollution, concentration of nitrate may be as much as 5.0 mg/L but is commonly less than 1.0 mg/L. In groundwater the concentration of nitrate may be as much as 1,000 mg/L

Water containing large amount of nitrate (more than 100 mg/L) is bitter tasting and may cause physiological distress. Water from shallow wells containing more than 45 mg/L has been reported to cause methemoglobinemia in infants. Small amounts of nitrate help reduce cracking of high-pressure boiler steel

Dissolved solids

The mineral constituents dissolved in water constitute the dissolved solids

Surface water commonly contains less than 3,000 mg/L; streams draining salt beds in arid regions may contain in excess of 15,000 mg/L. Groundwater commonly contains less than 5,000 mg/L; some brines contain as much as 300,000 mg/L

More than 500 mg/L is undesirable for drinking and many industrial uses. Less than 300 mg/L is desirable for dyeing of textiles and the manufacture of plastics, pulp paper, rayon. Dissolved solids cause foaming in steam boilers; the maximum permissible content decreases with increases in operating pressure

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey, 1962; amended.

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Nitrate (NO3)

WATER QUALITY

8-7

Table 8A.4 Relative Abundance of Dissolved Solids in Potable Water Major Constituents (1.0 to 1000 mg/L) Sodium Calcium Magnesium Bicarbonate Sulfate Chloride Silica

a

Secondary Constituents (0.01 to 10.0 mg/L)

Minor Constituents (0.0001 to 0.1 mg/L) Antimonya Aluminum Arsenic Barium Bromide Cadmiuma Chromiuma Cobalt Copper Germaniuma Iodide Lead Lithium Manganese Molybdenum Nickel Phosphate Rubidiuma Selenium Titaniuma Uranium Vanadium Zinc

Iron Strontium Potassium Carbonate Nitrate Fluoride Boron

Trace Constituents (generally less than 0.001 mg/L) Beryllium Bismuth Ceriuma Cesium Gallium Gold Indium Lanthanum Niobiuma Platinum Radium Rutheniuma Scandiuma Silver Thalliuma Thoriuma Tin Tungstena Ytterbium Yttriuma Zirconium

These elements occupy an uncertain position in the list.

Source: From Davis and DeWiest, Hydrogeology, John Wiley & Sons, Copyright 1966.

Table 8A.5 Characteristics of Water That Affect Water Quality Characteristic

Principal Cause

Hardness

Calcium and magnesium dissolved in the water

pH (or hydrogen-ion activity)

Dissociation of water molecules and of acids and bases dissolved in water

Significance

Remarks

Calcium and magnesium combine with soap to form an insoluble precipitate (curd) and thus hamper the formation of a lather. Hardness also affects the suitability of water for use in the textile and paper industries and certain others and in steam boilers and water heating The pH of water is a measure of its reactive characteristics. Low values of pH, particularly below pH 4, indicate a corrosive water that will tend to dissolve metals and other substances that it contacts. High values of pH, particularly above pH 8.5, indicate an alkaline water that, on heating, will tend to form scale. The pH significantly affects the treatment and use of water

USGS classification of hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) 0–60: Soft 61–120: Moderately hard 121–180: Hard More than 180: Very hard

pH values: less than 7, water is acidic; value of 7, water is neutral; more than 7, water is basic

(Continued)

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Table 8A.5

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Characteristic

Principal Cause

Significance

Remarks

Specific electrical conductance

Substances that form ions when dissolved in water

Conductance values indicate the electrical conductivity, in micromhos, of 1 cm3 of water at a temperature of 258C

Total dissolved solids

Mineral substances dissolved in water

Most substances dissolved in water dissociate into ions that can conduct an electrical current. Consequently, specific electrical conductance is a valuable indicator of the amount of material dissolved in water. The larger the conductance, the more mineralized the water Total dissolved solids is a measure of the total amount of minerals dissolved in water and is, therefore, a very useful parameter in the evaluation of water quality. Water containing less than 500 mg/L is preferred for domestic use and for many industrial processes

USGS classification of water based on dissolved solids (mg/L) Less than 1,000: Fresh 1,000–3,000: Slightly saline 3,000–10,000: Moderately saline 10,000–35,000: Very saline More than 35,000: Briny

Source: From Heath, R.C., 1984, Basic groundwater hydrology, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2220.

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WATER QUALITY

8-9

Less than 120 PPM 120 to 350 PPM More than 350 PPM

ALASKA

PUERTO RICO HAWAII Regional data not available

Regional data not available

Figure 8A.1 Dissolved solids in surface water. (From U.S. Water Resources Council, 1968.)

150 140 130 120 110 100 700 630 560 490 420 350 140 130 120 110 100 90

Stn 028015 Tennessee R. United States

J F MAM J J A S ON D Stn 075006 Ebro En Mendavia Spain

J F MAM J J A S ON D Stn 080007 Sagami R. Japan

J F MAM J J A S ON D

3050 2520 1990 1460 930 400

215 190 165 140 115 90

225 190 155 120 85 50

165 150 135 120 105 90

100 80 60 40 20 0

TDS (mg L–1)

Stn 001005 R. de la Plata Argentina J F MAM J J A S ON D Stn 054002 Chao Phrya R. Thailand

J F MAM J J A S ON D 450 380 310 Stn 033004 240 Murray Darling Australia 170 100 J F MAM J J A S ON D

33100 29240 25380 21520 17660 13800 1400 1150 900 650 400 150 1225 980 735 490 245 0

Discharge (m3 s–1)

Figure 8A.2 Seasonal variation of total dissolved solids (TDS) and water discharge at selected world river stations for selected years. (From United Nations Environment Programme, Global Environment Monitoring System Water Programme (GEMS/WATER), The annotated digital atlas of global water quality, www.gemswater.org. Reprinted with permission.)

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Dissolved Oxygen

Explanation Trend in concentration in percent

0

Upward, >15

0

Upward, 0–150

500 Miles 500 km

None Downward, 0–15

Percentage of stations where 20 percent Percentage of stations where 20 percent or more of the concentrations were or more of the concentrations were less less than 6.5 mg/L than or greater than the values shown

8-10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Nationwide

Concentration < 6.5 mg/L Concentration deficit > 4.0 mg/L

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Water year 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Land use Agriculture, 119 stations Urban, 26 stations Forest, 98 stations Range, 100 stations

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Water year

Downward, >15

Fecal Coliform

Explanation Trend in concentration in percent Upward, >50

0

Upward, 0−50

0

None Downward, 0−50

500 Miles 500 km

Percentage of stations where the annual average concentration was greater than 200 colonies per 100 millieliters

Percentage of stations where the annual average concentration was greater than the concentration shown

Concentration and trends in dissolved oxygen in stream water at 424 selected water-quality monitoring stations in the conterminous United States, water years 1980−89. Nationwide 100 200 colonies per 90 100 milliliters 80 1,000 colonies per 70 100 milliliters 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 Water year

Land use 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Agriculture, 83 stations Urban, 20 stations Forest, 77 stations Range, 80 stations

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Water year

Downward, >50

Concentration and trends in fecal coliform bacteria in stream water at 313 selected water-quality monitoring stations in the conterminous United States, water years 1980−89.

Figure 8A.3 Concentration trends in dissolved oxygen and fecal coliform bacteria in United States rivers, 1980–1989. (From USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Services, 1997, Water Quality and Agriculture, Status, Conditions, and Trends, www.nrcs.usda.gov. Original Source: Smith, R.A., Alexander, R.B., and Lanfear, K.J., 1993, Stream water quality in the conterminous United States – status and trends of selected indicators during the 1980’s in National Water Summary 1990–91 – Stream water quality, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2400, www.usgs.gov.)

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WATER QUALITY

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Percentage of stations where the annual average concentration was greater than the concentration shown

Total Phosphorous

Nationwide 100 90 80 70 60 No data

50

0.1 mg/L

40 30 20 10 0

No data

0.5 mg/L

1980 19811982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Percentage of stations where the annual average concentration was greater than 0.1 mg/L

Water year

Explanation Trend in concentration in percent Upward, >50 Upward, 0−50 None Downward, 0−50 Downward, >50

0 0

500 Miles 500 km

Land use

100 90 80 No data

70 60

Agriculture,110 stations Urban, 28 stations Forest, 98 stations Range, 100 stations

No data

50 40 30 20

No data

10 0 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 19871988 1989

Water year

Nitrate

HDSN

Percentage of stations where the annual average concentration was greater than the concentration shown

Concentration and trends total phosphorus in stream water at 410 selected water-quality monitoring stations in the conterminous United States, water years 1982−1989. 100

Nationwide

90 80 70 60 50 40 30

1 mg/L

20

3 mg/L

10 0

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Explanation Trend in concentration in percent Upward, >50 Upward, 0–50 None Downward, 0–50 Downward, >50

0 0

500 Miles 500 km

Percentage of stations where the annual average concentration was greater than 1 milligram per liter

Water year 100 90 80 70

Land use Agriculture, 88 stations Urban, 24 stations Forest, 82 stations Range, 89 stations

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Water year

Concentration and trends in nitrate in stream water at 344 selected water-quality monitoring stations in the conterminous United States, water years 1980−1989.

Figure 8A.4

Concentration trends in phosphorous, nitrate, and suspended solids in United States rivers, 1980 to 1989. (From USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Services, 1997, Water quality and agriculture, status, conditions, and trends, www.nrcs.usda.gov. Original Source: Smith, R.A., Alexander, R.B., and Lanfear, K.J., 1993, Stream water quality in the conterminous United States – status and trends of selected indicators during the 1980’s in National Water Summary 1990–91–Stream water quality, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2400, www.usgs.gov.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Percentage of stations where the annual average concentration was greater than the concentration shown

Suspended Sediment 100

Nationwide

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

100 mg/L 500 mg/L 1,000 mg/L

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Water year

Explanation Trend in concentration in percent Upward, >50 Upward, 0−50

0 0

500 Miles 500 km

None

Percentage of stations where the annual average concentration was greater than 500 mg/L

Land use 100 90 80

Agriculture, 86 stations Urban, 21 stations Forest, 77 stations Range, 81 stations

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Water year

Downward, 0−50 Downward, >50

Concentration and trends in suspended sediment in stream water at 324 selected water-quality monitoring stations in the conterminous United States, water years 1980−1989.

Figure 8A.4

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(Continued)

WATER QUALITY

8-13

Table 8A.6 Trends of Surface-Water Quality in the United States, 1974–1981 Number of Stations with— Constituents and Properties Temperature pH Alkalinity Sulfate Nitrate-nitrite Ammonia Total organic carbon Phosphorus Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Chloride Silica Dissolved solids Suspended sediment Conductivity Turbidity Fecal coliform bacteria Fecal streptococcus bacteria Phytoplankton Dissolved trace metals Arsenic Barium Boron Cadmium Chromium Copper Iron Lead Manganese Mercury Selenium Silver Zinc Note:

Increasing Trends

No Change

Decreasing Trends

Total Stations

39 74 18 82 76 31 36 39 23 50 103 69 104 48 68 44 69 42 19 2 22

218 174 207 182 203 221 230 232 198 208 173 193 164 213 183 204 193 199 216 190 234

46 56 79 40 25 30 13 30 83 46 28 42 36 41 51 41 43 18 34 78 44

303 304 304 304 304 282 279 301 304 304 304 304 304 302 302 289 305 259 269 270 300

68 4 2 32 12 6 28 5 30 8 2 1 19

228 81 15 264 152 83 258 232 250 194 201 32 251

11 1 3 7 2 6 21 76 19 2 21 0 32

307 86 20 303 166 95 307 313 299 204 224 33 302

Selected water-quality constituents and properties at NASQAN stations.

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2250.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Suspended sediment

Suspended sediment concentration_ milligrams per liter 5685.231 to 217000.0 522.836 to 5685.231 0.0 to 522.836 0.0 to 0.0 0.0 to 0.0

Lead

Lead_water_filtered_micrograms per liter 3.249 to 29.777 0.633 to 3.249 0.0 to 0.633 0.0 to 0.0 0.0 to 0.0

Chloride

Chloride_water_filtered_milligrams per liter 272.212 to 4742.1 55.944 to 272.212 0.0 to 55.944 0.0 to 0.0 0.0 to 0.0

Nitrite plus nitrate

Nitrite plus nitrate_water_filtered_milligrams per liter as nitrogen 6.408 to 44.686 2.404 to 6.408 0.0 to 2.404 0.0 to 0.0 0.0 to 0.0

Arsenic

Arsenic_water_filtered_micrograms per liter 19.974 to 284.0 4.079 to 19.974 0.0 to 4.079 0.0 to 0.0 0.0 to 0.0

Phosphorous

Phosphorus_water_filtered_milligrams per liter 0.768 to 11.0 0.186 to 0.768 0.0 to 0.186 0.0 to 0.0 0.0 to 0.0

Figure 8A.5 United States Geological Survey NAWQA water quality thematic maps showing maximum concentrations of suspended sediment, nitrite plus nitrate, lead, arsenic, chloride, and phosphorous detected in rivers of the United States. (From United States Geological Survey, NAWQA Date Warehouse Mapper, www.maptrek.er.usgs.gov/NAWQAMapTheme/index.jsp, Maps generated in May 2005.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

8-15

Table 8A.7 Estimates of National Background Nutrient Concentrations in the United States

Nutrient Total nitrogen in streams (Data from 28 watersheds in first 20 study units) Nitrate in streams(26) Ammonia in streams(26) Nitrate in shallow groundwater(27) Total phosphorus in streams(26) Orthophosphate in shallow groundwater (Data from 47 wells in first 20 study units)

Background Concentration (mg/L) 1.0 0.6 0.1 2.0 0.1 0.02

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey, 1999, The quality of our nation’s waters, nutrients and pesticides, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1225, http://usgs.gov.

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8-16

Table 8A.8 Water Quality of Great Salt Lake, Utah, 1850–1998 Silica (SiO2)

Calcium (Ca)

Magnesium (Mg)

Sodium (Na)

Potassium (K)

38.29 33.15 33.22 33.17 32.90

— 1.60 1.71 1.66 1.61

Lithium (Li)

— — — — —

0.17 1.05 0.16 0.17

0.27 2.52 1.23 2.76 2.75

April 1960 December 1963 May 1966 June 1976 July 1998

0.00 0.00 0.00 — —

0.12 0.09 0.09 0.17 0.23

2.91 3.29 3.80 3.47 3.52

32.71 31.02 30.56 31.29 31.67

1.71 1.86 2.22 2.66 2.16

— — 0.02 0.02 —

December 1963 May 1966 June 1976 July 1998

0.00 — — —

0.09 0.05 0.13 0.11

4.66 4.38 3.17 3.09

29.08 29.67 32.04 32.59

2.75 2.61 2.58 1.53

— 0.02 0.02 —

Note:

— — — — —

Precauseway — — — 0.09 0.05 South of causeway 0.06 0.07 0.10 — — North of causeway 0.09 0.09 — —

Sulfate (SO4)

Chloride (Cl)

Fluoride (F)

Boron (B)

Bromlum (Br)

Total Percent

5.57 6.57 6.57 6.68 5.47

55.87 55.99 56.22 55.48 57.05

— — — — —

— — — — —

— — — — —

100 100 100 100 100

6.60 9.02 7.99 7.22 6.36

55.88 54.64 65.21 55.11 56.07

— 0.00 — —

0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 —

— — — 0.04 —

100 100 100 100 100

7.28 8.58 6.62 6.40

56.04 54.59 55.39 56.29

— 0.00 — —

0.01 0.01 0.01 —

— — 0.04 —

100 100 100 100

Composition, in percentage by weight, of dissolved ions in brine.

Source: From Modified from Arnow, Ted, 1984, Water-level and water-quality changes in Great Salt Lake, Utah, 1847–1983, U.S. Geological Survey Circ. 913; 1998 Data Utah Geological Survey met.utah.edu/jhorel/homepages/jhorel/saltlake/chemistry.html.

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1850 1869 August 1892 October 1913 March 1930

Bicarbonate (AsCO3)

WATER QUALITY

8-17

30 27 Gunnison Bay at Saline gage

Salinity (percent)

24 21 18 15 12 9 6 3

Measurements made in nonconsecutive years Railroad causeway constrcted Pre-causeway

Gilbert Bay at Saltair Boat Harbor gage Post-causeway

1850 1873 1879 1889 1894 1900 1903 1907 1930 1958 1961 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998

0

Figure 8A.6 Salinity in the Great Salt Lake, Utah 1950–1998. The Salinity of Great Salt Lake is determined by the amount of inflow (and its salt content) and the amount of evaporation. When there is a lot of inflow, the lake elevation increases and the salinity of the water decreases. When there is less inflow or the evaporation rate is high, the lake elevation declines and the water becomes saltier. In 1959, a solid-fill railroad causeway was constructed across the middle of the lake. The causeway divides the lake into two parts: the north part (Gunnison Bay), which receives little freshwater inflow, and the south part (Gilbert Bay), which receives almost all the inflow. For any given lake elevation, the salinity of Gunnison Bay is always greater than the salinity of Gilbert Bay. The USGS measures salinity periodically at Saltair Boat Harbor and at Promontory (Gilbert Bay) and at Saline (Gunnison Bay). (From U.S. Geological Survey, http://ut.water.usgs.gov/salinity/index.html.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Atmosphere Condensation Nitrogen, oxygen carbon dioxide dissolved

Precipitation

Chlorides and sulfates of sodium, magnesium, calcium, and potassium carried with water vapor

Runoff Evporation Mineral matter retained in soil

Soil water 1. CO2 added, forming carbonic acid 2. Reaction of soil minerals with carbonic acid to form soluble bicarbonates 3. Precipitation of colloidal iron, aluminum, and silica, of carbonates as solubility limit is reached 4. Cation exchange

Outflow to ocean Carries mineral matter back Ocean Subsurface outflow to ocean

Effluent seepage

Groundwater 1. Cation exchange 2. Sulfate reduction by anaerobic bacteria substituting bicarbonate for the sulfate

Figure 8A.7 Geochemical cycle of surface and groundwater. (From U.S Geological Survey.)

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Transpiration Mineral matter largely retained in soil, partly carried off in crop plants

Phreatophytes

Evaporation

Temporary retention in mountain areas as soil water 1. CO2 dissolved in soil, Ca, Mg, Na bicarbonates added to water 2. SO4 dissolved in areas, where oxidation of sulfides is occuring 3. Connate water or soluble compounds of marine sediments added

WATER QUALITY

8-19

Table 8A.9 Natural Inorganic Constituents Commonly Dissolved in Groundwater That Are Most Likely to Affect Use of the Water Substance

Concentrations of Significance (mg/L)a

Major Natural Sources

Effect on Water Use

Bicarbonate (HCO3) and carbonate (CO3)

Products of the solution of carbonate rocks, mainly limestone (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaMgCO3), by water containing carbon dioxide

Control the capacity of water to neutralize strong acids. Bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium decompose in steam boilers and water heaters to form scale and release corrosive carbon dioxide gas. In combination with calcium and magnesium, cause carbonate hardness

150–200

Calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg)

Soils and rocks containing limestone, dolomite, and gypsum (CaSO4). Small amounts from igneous and metamorphic rocks

Principal cause of hardness and of boiler scale and deposits in hotwater heaters

25–50

Chloride (Cl)

In inland areas, primarily from seawater trapped in sediments at time of deposition; in coastal areas, from seawater in contact with freshwater in productive aquifers

In large amounts, increase corrosiveness of water and, in combination with sodium, gives water a salty taste

250

Fluoride (F)

Both sedimentary and igneous rocks. Not widespread in occurrence

In certain concentrations, reduces tooth decay; at higher concentrations, causes mottling of tooth enamel

0.7–1.2b

Iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn)

Iron present in most soils and rocks; manganese less widely distributed

Stain laundry and are objectionable in food processing, dyeing, bleaching, ice manufacturing, brewing, and certain other industrial processes

FeO0.3, MnO0.05

Sodium (Na)

Same as for chloride. In some sedimentary rocks, a few hundred milligrams per liter may occur in freshwater as a result of exchange of dissolved calcium and magnesium for sodium in the aquifer materials

See chloride. In large concentrations, may affect persons with cardiac difficulties, hypertension, and certain other medical conditions. Depending on the concentrations of calcium and magnesium also present in the water, sodium may be detrimental to certain irrigated crops

69 (irrigation), 20–170 (health)c

Sulfate (SO4)

Gypsum, pyrite (FeS), and other rocks containing sulfur (S) compounds

In certain concentrations, gives water a bitter taste and, at higher concentrations, has a laxative effect. In combination with calcium, forms a hard calcium carbonate scale in steam boilers

300–400 (taste), 600–1,000 (laxative)

a b c

A range in concentration is intended to indicate the general level at which the effect on water use might become significant. Optimum range determined by the U.S. Public Health Service, depending on water intake. Lower concentration applies to drinking water for persons on a strict diet; higher concentration is for those on a moderate diet.

Source: From Heath, R.C., 1982, Basic groundwater hydrology, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2220.

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Table 8A.10 Inorganic Substances Found in Groundwater Concentration (mg/L) Aluminum Ammonia Antimony Arsenic Barium Beryllium Boron Cadmium Calcium Chlorides Chromium Cobalt Copper Cyanides Fluorides Iron Lead Lithium Magnesium Manganese Mercury Molybdenum Nickel Nitrates Nitrites Palladium Potassium Phosphates Selenium Silver Sodium Sulfates Sulfites Thallium Titanium Vanadium Zinc Source:

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0.1–1,200 1.0–900 — 0.01–2,100 2.8–3.8 less than 0.01 — 0.01–180 0.5–225 1.0–49,500 0.06–2,740 0.01–0.18 0.01–2.8 1.05–14 0.1–250 0.04–6,200 0.01–5.6 — 0.2–70 0.1–110 0.003–0.01 0.4–40 0.05–0.5 1.4–433 — — 0.5–2.4 0.4–33 0.6–20 9.0–330 3.1–211 0.2–32,318 — — — 243.0 0.1–240

From Office of Technology Assessment 1984, Protecting the nation’s groundwater from contamination, U.S. Congress, Washington DC.

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Table 8A.11 Summary of Inorganic Elements Found in Rural Water Supplies In % of Rural Households Element Mercury Iron Cadmium Lead Manganese Sodium Selenium Silver Sulfates Nitrate-N Fluoride Arsenic Barium Magnesium Chromium Boron Note: a b c

Level Exceeded (mg/L) 0.002 0.3 0.01 0.05 0.05 100 0.01 0.05 250.0 10.0 1.4 0.05 1.0 125.0 0.05

Nationwide

West

North-Central

Northeast

South

24.1 18.7 16.8 16.6 14.2 14.2 13.7 4.7 4.0 2.7 2.5 0.8 0.3 0.1

10.4 7.0 27.1 16.9a 4.7 15.0 41.3 2.1 11.7 4.0 6.2 2.1 0.0 0.5 0.0

31.8 28.2 20.7 10.8a 19.9 19.2 25.7 3.7 7.4 5.8 1.8 1.8 0.0 0.1 0.0

22.0 16.0 1.6 9.6a 16.9 6.0 0.0 4.8 0.5 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

25.0 17.0 17.3 23.1a 12.3 14.1 2.1 4.8 0.7 1.3 2.7 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.0

b

c

According to survey conducted by United States Environmental Protection Agency.

May be distorted upwards. Not detected. Not tested.

Source: From U.S Environmental Protection Agency, 1984, National Statistical Assessment of Rural Conditions, Executive Summary. Office of Drinking Water.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-22

Table 8A.12 Water Quality in Selected Rivers in the World, 1996–1999 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (mg/L)

1997

X 8.8 X X

X 9.2 X X

7.5 5.8 6.6 5.1

8.0 3.5 7.6 6.4

7.7 0.7 6.5 6.2

10.6 8.4

11.8 8.5

11.9 8.2

11.0 9.6 9.5

11.0 9.4 9.4

9.9

Average Last 3 yrs (b)

1996

1997

1998

Nitrates (c) (mg/L)

1999

Average Last 3 yrs (b)

1996

1997

1998

1999

Average Last 3 yrs (b)

1998

1999

X — X X

X — X X

X 9.1 X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X 0.14 0.11 —

X 0.15 0.10 —

X — 0.08 —

X — — —

X 0.14 0.10 —

— — — —

7.7 3.3 6.9 5.9

3.1 17.0 1.7 4.4

2.0 12.0 1.6 4.3

2.4 92.3 1.1 5.4

— — — —

2.5 40.4 1.4 4.7

0.15 0.78 0.13 —

0.18 0.30 1.06 0.10

0.16 0.82 0.19 0.14

— — — —

0.16 0.63 0.46 0.10

11.1 8.8

11.6 8.5

1.6 0.9

1.9 1.1

1.3 1.2

2.6 1.4

1.9 1.2

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

11.0 9.4 9.4

11.0 9.3 9.5

11.0 9.4 9.4

1.2 2.0 2.3

1.2 1.6 1.5

1.2 1.7 1.5

0.9 1.6 2.0

1.1 1.6 1.7

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

9.8

9.8

10.0

9.9

1.4

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.3

X

X

X

X

X

8.7 9.3 9.4 8.7

8.9 9.7 9.7 9.1

9.8 9.8 9.8 10.0

10.0 10.5 9.5 8.3

9.6 10.0 9.7 9.1

3.9 3.6 2.1 3.9

2.7 3.4 2.1 4.1

2.6 2.2 2.2 3.6

3.0 2.9 2.0 3.3

2.8 2.8 2.1 3.7

2.15 3.01 1.89 1.39

2.09 2.88 2.87 2.05

2.05 2.78 3.23 2.36

2.36 2.91 2.89 2.44

2.17 2.86 3.00 2.29

11.0 11.5 11.7

11.5 11.3 11.2

10.8 11.0 —

— — —

11.1 11.3 11.3

3.7 2.4 1.2

2.5 2.2 1.1

2.8 2.4 —

— — —

3.0 2.3 1.4

2.29 1.48 0.73

2.21 1.29 0.68

0.85 1.26 —

— — —

11.0 7.4

— —

— —

— —

— —

2.5 5.7

— —

— —

— —

— —

10.3 9.7 11.2 10.3

10.3 9.5 11.0 10.4

9.9 9.9 11.0 10.5

10.3 10.2 10.9 11.2

10.1 9.9 11.0 10.7

3.5 4.9 5.0 4.5

3.9 4.2 5.4 5.1

3.7 3.9 4.4 6.4

X 10.5 X X

X 9.7 X X

X 8.7 X X

X 9.6 X X

2.4 1.3 1.9 2.0

3.0 1.6 2.7 1.9

2.3 1.3 — —

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

X — X X

— —

3.7 4.8 5.5 4.5 — — — —

— —

2.00 4.67

— —

3.8 4.3 5.1 5.4

4.57 3.77 3.98 5.43

4.31 2.35 3.27 4.44

3.89 3.24 3.29 3.63

2.6 1.4 2.1 1.9

0.98 2.29 1.01 4.22

1.36 2.33 1.18 3.69

1.50 2.90 — 5.98

4.02 3.03 3.46 3.55 — — — —

1.78 1.35 0.72 — — 4.07 2.87 3.34 3.87 1.28 2.50 1.83 4.63

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Canada Mackenzie Saskatchewan Columbia Saint John Mexico Bravo Lerma Pa´nuco Grijalva U.S.A Delaware Mississippi Japan Ishikari Yodo Tone {Sakaehashi} Chikugo Korea Keum NakDong YoungSan Han Austria Donau Inn Grossache Belgium Meuse Escaut Czech R. Labe Odra Morava Dyje Denmark Gudena´ Skjerna´ Susa´ Odense

1996

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) (mg/L)

11.8 8.6 10.8

11.7 12.1 10.6

— — —

— — —

11.6 10.6 10.7

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

0.07 0.32 0.53

0.06 0.19 0.71

— — —

— — —

0.06 0.25 0.58

10.1 4.2 9.5 9.1

10.3 4.6 9.6 9.9

10.7 5.9 9.3 9.7

9.9 7.1 8.5 10.5

10.3 5.8 9.1 10.0

5.8 4.7 1.1 2.1

5.9 5.3 1.4 1.3

5.9 4.4 1.4 1.3

4.6 3.4 1.7 1.5

5.4 4.4 1.5 1.4

2.32 6.62 1.92 1.44

2.53 6.27 2.14 1.50

2.65 5.90 1.85 1.59

3.03 5.77 2.22 1.41

2.74 5.98 2.07 1.50

10.0 11.6 9.7 11.1 11.1

9.9 11.2 10.8 11.1 11.1

9.7 11.3 10.1 10.9 10.9

10.3 11.6 9.9 11.1 11.1

10.0 11.4 10.3 11.0 11.9

X X 3.8 2.2 X

X X 2.9 2.4 X

X X 2.1 2.2 X

X X 2.4 2.1 X

X X 2.5 2.2 X

3.49 4.29 4.52 2.34 X

3.15 3.92 4.52 2.22 X

3.15 3.57 4.20 2.07 X

2.59 3.41 4.43 2.10 X

2.96 3.63 4.38 2.13 X

— — — —

— — — —

9.8 8.3 — —

11.1 8.5 — —

10.8 9.6 — —

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

0.87 1.13 X X

2.29 2.31 X X

1.04 0.66 X X

1.52 1.24 X X

1.62 1.40 X X

9.9 9.7 10.6 11.1

9.7 10.8 10.1 12.6

9.9 9.5 9.8 12.1

10.1 10.1 9.8 12.7

9.9 10.1 9.9 12.5

4.3 2.6 3.1 1.5

2.9 2.7 3.3 2.0

3.3 2.6 3.0 2.6

3.7 2.1 2.9 3.6

3.3 2.5 3.1 2.7

1.95 2.59 1.64 0.77

2.06 2.59 1.37 0.66

2.16 1.90 1.63 0.77

2.34 2.12 1.47 0.64

2.19 2.20 1.49 0.69

10.9 11.6 11.4 10.7

10.9 10.9 10.8 10.2

11.0 10.3 10.9 10.8

10.7 10.7 11.0 10.5

10.9 10.6 10.9 10.5

2.0 1.6 2.4 1.9

1.5 1.1 1.6 2.0

1.9 1.5 1.8 2.1

1.6 2.5 1.5 2.7

1.7 1.7 1.6 2.2

3.69 1.82 5.22 2.89

3.25 1.97 4.58 2.76

3.14 1.80 4.95 2.74

2.48 1.40 4.14 2.20

2.96 1.72 4.55 2.57

X 10.4 9.2 9.9

X — 13.0 10.2

X 10.7 7.2 9.9

X 8.3 8.1 10.0

X 9.8 9.4 10.0

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

2.89 1.26 X —

2.21 1.37 X —

2.05 1.22 X —

2.10 1.15 X 1.53

2.12 1.25 X —

9.4 10.0

9.1 10.2

9.1 10.4

9.2 10.6

9.1 10.4

2.6 3.1

2.6 2.9

2.2 2.7

2.6 3.1

2.5 2.9

3.07 5.0

2.88 5.45

2.92 5.74

2.62 4.90

2.81 5.36

9.8 X 11.9 10.2 10.0

9.2 X 11.4 10.0 9.6

9.2 X 10.5 10.3 9.5

— X — — —

9.4 X 11.3 10.2 9.7

X 3.0 X 3.0 X

X 2.0 X 5.0 X

X 3.6 X — X

X — X — X

X 2.9 X 3.3 X

X X 3.64 3.64 4.02

X X 3.03 3.55 3.55

X X 3.55 3.55 3.95

X X 2.55 2.53 2.64

X X 3.04 3.14 3.38

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

0.21 0.40 0.28

0.20 0.39 0.29

0.21 0.38 0.27

0.20 0.36 0.26

0.20 0.38 0.27

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-23

(Continued)

WATER QUALITY

Finland Torniojoki Kymijoki Kokema¨enjoki France Loire Seine Garonne Rho¨ne German Rhein Elbe Weser Donau Donar Greece Strimonas Axios Akeloos Nestos Hungary Maros Duna Dra´va Tisza Ireland Boyne Clare Barrow Blackwater Italy Po Adige Arno Metauro Luxembourg Moselle Su¨re The Netherlands Maas-Keizersveer Maas-Eysden Rijn/Maas Delta Rijn-Lobith Ijssel-Kampen Norway Skienselva Glomma Drammenselva

8-24

Table 8A.12

(Continued) Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (mg/L)

Nitrates (c) (mg/L)

1996

1997

1998

1999

Average Last 3 yrs (b)

X

X

X

X

X

10.2 9.8

10.6 9.6

10.8 11.6

10.5 10.9

10.6 10.7

3.9 3.7

4.6 5.1

3.4 5.5

3.4 4.0

3.8 4.9

1.62 2.20

1.37 1.89

1.84 2.63

1.42 2.51

1.54 2.34

9.1 10.1 10.4 9.6

10.5 9.7 10.9 9.9

9.5 9.9 10.5 9.5

9.6 9.3 — 9.6

9.8 9.6 10.6 9.7

2.6 4.5 3.9 6.8

3.7 3.9 3.3 5.4

2.9 2.6 3.2 3.1

3.1 2.1 — 2.7

3.2 2.9 3.5 3.7

2.55 2.41 1.86 2.85

2.27 2.12 1.96 3.06

2.31 1.71 1.89 2.64

2.48 2.06 — 2.62

2.35 1.97 1.90 2.77

7.0 7.0 9.6 9.9

5.0 7.0 9.5 9.3

6.0 9.0 10.0 8.0

4.0 10.0 10.0 —

5.0 8.7 9.8 9.1

14.5 3.8 5.2 2.9

2.6 2.5 5.5 1.8

3.4 2.1 4.3 2.9

6.6 3.7 — —

4.2 2.8 5.0 2.6

3.67 1.79 2.26 2.10

6.55 1.81 2.75 1.97

6.08 2.37 2.42 1.82

5.65 1.31 — —

6.09 1.83 2.48 1.96

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

0.12 0.04 0.16 1.35

0.10 0.04 0.12 1.74

0.12 0.03 0.16 1.59

0.12 0.03 0.19 1.30

0.11 0.03 0.16 1.54

10.6 10.1 11.2

10.4 10.5 11.5

10.4 10.6 11.5

11.1 10.4 11.6

10.6 10.5 11.5

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

1.56 1.99 X

1.40 1.77 X

1.37 1.78 X

1.34 1.49 X

1.37 1.68 X

9.2 8.8 10.2 3.9

9.5 9.1 9.6 4.9

8.7 9.3 9.6 6.3

8.2 8.6 8.8 5.5

8.8 9.0 9.3 5.6

1.3 3.7 2.0 2.2

1.1 3.2 2.7 2.0

1.3 3.5 2.4 5.5

1.3 3.4 2.2 3.3

1.2 3.4 2.4 3.6

1.45 1.37 2.90 1.15

1.20 1.42 1.70 0.57

1.15 1.43 7.53 0.29

1.21 1.50 5.05 0.06

1.19 1.45 4.76 0.31

10.2 10.7 8.5 8.1 9.8

11.0 10.8 8.0 7.7 9.1

10.8 10.3 9.6 8.2 —

10.5 — 8.7 8.2 —

10.8 10.6 8.8 8.0 9.2

3.0 2.8 3.9 3.9 3.8

2.7 2.0 2.1 3.6 2.8

1.7 1.9 2.5 3.1 —

1.7 7.9 2.3 2.8 —

2.0 3.9 2.3 3.2 3.4

8.13 6.95 1.95 4.83 0.80

7.85 6.64 1.88 4.43 1.09

7.68 6.70 2.06 4.73 —

6.79 6.20 1.70 5.64 —

7.44 6.51 1.88 4.94 1.01

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1999

Average Last 3 yrs (b)

1996

1997

1998

1999

Average Last 3 yrs (b)

X

X

X

0.16

0.14

0.14

0.14

0.14

1996

1997

1998

X

X

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Otra Poland Wisia Odra Slovak R. Maly Dunaj Vah Hron Hornad Spain Guadalquivir Duero Ebro Guadiana Sweden Dela`lven Ra`ne alv Mo`numsa´n Ro`nnea`n Switzerland Rhin Aare Rho¨ne Turkey Porsuk Sakarya Yesilirmak Gediz UK Thames Severn Clyde Mersey Lower Bann (N. Ireland)

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) (mg/L)

Lead (c) (mg/L) Average Last 3 yrs (b)

1996

1997

1998

1999

Average Last2 3 yrs (b)

1.63 0.87 0.96 —

— 2.57 0.76 —

— — 0.42 —

— — 0.34 —

— 1.39 0.51 —

1996

1997

1998

1999

Average Last 3 yrs (b)

0.07 0.04 0.01 —

— 0.05 0.01 —

— — 0.01 —

— — 0.01 —

— 0.044 0.009 —

X 0.041 X X

X 0.041 X X

X — X X

X — X X

X 0.039 X X

0.11 — — 0.19

0.13 2.60 — 0.03

0.10 5.63 0.03 0.04

— — — —

0.113 — — 0.085

0.030 — 0.020 —

0.030 1.350 0.060 0.080

0.030 18.450 0.030 0.120

— — — —

0.030 — 0.037 0.067

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

0.05 0.19

0.06 0.15

0.05 0.18

0.09 0.24

0.067 0.190

0.030 0.020

0.040 0.020

0.030 0.060

0.040 0.020

0.037 0.033

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

0.13 0.07 0.15 0.28

0.10 0.14 0.07 0.37

0.05 0.08 0.14 0.21

0.04 0.04 0.10 0.21

0.064 0.086 0.105 0.264

0.838 0.901 0.510 2.368

0.922 0.516 0.230 2.416

0.530 0.283 0.236 1.624

0.411 0.124 0.317 1.540

0.621 0.308 0.261 1.860

— — — —

— — — —

— — — —

— — — —

0 0 0 0

0.04 0.04 0.08

0.11 0.18 0.07

0.16 0.14 —

— — —

0.104 0.117 0.070

0.160 0.098 0.015

0.124 0.101 0.030

0.150 0.080 —

— — —

5.00 1.60 —

— — —

2.06 1.17 2.40

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

0.15 0.80

— —

— 0.44 0.31 0.32

0.23 0.45 0.25 0.38

0.23 0.39 0.20 0.51

0.10 0.05 0.32 0.14

0.11 0.05 0.36 0.14

0.10 0.06 — 0.16

0.01

0.02

—

0.21 0.33 0.28 0.37

— —

1996

1997

0.050 4.450

— —

1998

1999

— —

0.223 0.389 0.243 0.420

0.505 1.912 0.688 0.462

0.429 1.336 0.660 0.475

0.300 0.590 0.390 0.340

— — — —

0.101 0.053 0.278 0.145

0.089 0.119 0.096 0.154

0.095 0.106 0.103 0.076

0.047 0.094 — 0.076

— — — —

0.077 0.106 0.097 0.102

—

0.017

0.017

—

—

0.017

—

0.250 0.500 0.440 0.390

0.145 0.093 0.025

0.326 0.809 0.497 0.402

0.64 0.58 3.20 3.90 8.50 2.00 17.50 2.67 X

0.54 1.34 4.00 — —

— —

1.20 6.38 2.42 X

0.85 1.90 1.18 X

1.10 1.30 2.20 X

1.05 3.19 1.93 X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

0.12

0.23

—

—

0.15

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-25

Canada Mackenzie Saskatchewan Columbia Saint John Mexico Bravo Lerma Panuco Grijalya USA Delaware Mississippi Japan Ishikari Yodo Tone {Sakaehashi} Chikugo Korea Keum NakDong YoungSan Han Austria Donau Inn Grossache Belgium Meuse Escaut Czech R. Labe Odra Morava Dyje Denmark Gudena´ Skjerna´ Susa´ Odense Finland Torniojoki

Ammonium (c) (mg/L)

WATER QUALITY

Total Phosphorus (c) (mg/L)

8-26

Table 8A.12

(Continued) Total Phosphorus (c) (mg/L)

— —

1997

0.019 0.048

0.035 0.079

0.004 0.075

1996

1997

0.022 0.074

0.19 1.00

1997

0.03 0.04

0.01 0.05

0.25 1.23 0.11 0.13

0.27 1.22 0.15 0.11

0.17 1.06 0.13 0.08

0.22 0.82 0.34 0.06

0.220 1.031 0.208 0.084

0.060 0.278 0.130 0.102

0.160 0.484 0.152 0.126

0.043 0.275 0.071 0.122

0.062 0.164 0.080 0.095

0.088 0.308 0.101 0.114

0.16 0.23 0.24 0.09

0.16 0.22 0.21 0.08

0.16 0.21 0.24 0.08

0.14 0.19 0.16 0.08

0.153 0.207 0.203 0.079

0.160 0.300 0.400 0.080

0.130 0.210 0.240 0.067

0.110 0.140 0.100 0.069

0.079 0.130 0.100 0.078

0.106 0.160 0.147 0.071

0.06 0.90 X X

0.06 0.52 X X

0.078 0.700 X X

0.141 0.404 X 0.233

0.093 0.179 X 0.095

0.091 0.229 X 0.118

X X X X

— — X X

— —

1996

Average Last 3 yrs (b)

1996

— — X X

1999

Average Last 3 yrs (b)

Lead (c) (mg/L)

— — X —

— — X —

1998 — —

1999 — —

Average Last2 3 yrs (b)

1998

1999

0.15 0.95

— —

— —

0.20 1.00

X X 1.08 X

X X 0.11 X

X X — X

X X — X

X X 1.03 X

3.00 — 4.10 1.00

3.70 — 4.60 1.00

3.90 3.50 6.10 1.00

4.70 2.63 3.86 1.00

4.10 2.38 4.85 1.00

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

0.26 0.09 0.16 X

0.30 0.11 0.14 X

0.23 0.10 0.12 X

0.26 0.12 0.14 X

0.263 0.108 0.133 X

0.240 0.086 0.053 0.032

0.130 0.078 0.067 0.080

0.080 0.074 0.055 0.060

0.140 0.072 0.047 0.068

0.117 0.075 0.056 0.069

0.50 3.20 1.30 X

0.90 2.50 1.30 X

0.70 2.80 1.70 X

0.50 1.30 1.10 X

0.70 2.20 1.37 X

0.09 0.07 0.11 0.17

— 0.06 0.08 0.10

0.08 0.05 0.10 0.09

0.06 0.14 0.08 0.09

0.046 0.084 0.087 0.092

0.053 0.042 0.057 0.039

0.043 0.022 0.039 0.048

0.068 0.039 0.031 0.086

0.047 0.078 0.031 0.109

0.053 0.046 0.034 0.081

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

0.18 — — 0.13

0.14 0.05 0.16 0.22

0.15 0.05 0.16 0.11

0.18 — 0.23 0.18

0.157 0.048 0.183 0.170

0.140 0.062 X —

0.086 0.062 X —

0.163 0.054 X —

0.130 0.110 X —

0.126 0.076 X —

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

0.61 0.52

0.55 0.45

0.57 0.56

0.17 0.18

0.429 0.394

0.184 0.224

0.165 0.220

0.284 0.211

0.174 0.162

0.208 0.198

3.90 4.10

2.00 2.00

2.10 2.00

2.20 2.30

2.10 2.10

0.28 X 0.14 0.22

0.39 X 0.16 0.21

0.24 X 0.14 0.22

0.22 X 0.19 0.18

0.283 X 0.163 0.203

X X X 0.220

X X X 0.100

X X X 0.110

X X X 0.143

4.90 X 1.10 4.50

2.30 X 1.50 3.90

4.11 X 1.90 4.60

3.83 X 2.20 3.60

3.41 X 1.87 4.03

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

X X X —

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Kymijoki Kokema¨enjoki France Loire Seine Garonne Rho¨ne German Rhein Elbe Weser Donau Greece Strimonas Axios Akeloos Nestos Hungary Maros Duna Drava Tisza Ireland Boyne Clare Barrow Blackwater Italy Po Adige Amo Metauro Luxembourg Moselle Su¨re The Netherlands Maas-Kezersveer Maas-Eysden Rijn/Maas Delta Rijn-Lobith

1998

Ammonium (c) (mg/L)

0.20

0.20

0.19

0.17

0.187

X

X

X

X

X

3.10

3.80

2.60

3.30

3.23

0.00 0.02 0.01 0.00

0.01 0.02 0.01 0.00

0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00

0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01

0.005 0.021 0.007 0.003

0.017 0.045 0.015 0.016

0.015 0.033 0.017 0.015

0.014 0.032 0.016 0.013

0.015 0.035 0.019 0.018

0.015 0.033 0.017 0.015

0.11 0.50 0.17 0.34

0.07 0.55 0.12 0.27

0.19 3.70 0.13 0.30

0.07 0.40 0.15 0.30

0.11 1.55 0.13 0.29

0.14 0.34

0.21 0.31

0.20 0.30

0.23 0.26

0.212 0.291

0.449 0.605

0.225 0.330

0.210 0.120

0.368 0.091

0.268 0.180

0.45 1.37

0.60 0.50

1.00 0.20

0.40 0.10

0.67 0.27

0.28 0.24 0.23 0.26

0.29 0.15 0.21 0.18

0.27 0.12 0.18 0.18

0.24 0.15 — 0.14

0.265 0.140 0.205 0.170

0.423 0.626 0.456 0.840

0.274 0.539 0.303 0.528

0.246 0.371 0.313 0.637

0.109 0.378 — 0.534

0.210 0.429 0.357 0.566

1.40 0.58 X 8.42

— 1.15 X 13.62

2.29 1.10 X 4.45

0.81 0.85 X 3.40

1.50 1.03 X 7.16

0.67 0.19 0.28 0.25

— 0.20 0.19 0.19

— 0.15 0.12 —

— 0.15 — —

— 0.165 0.199 0.316

0.414 0.288 0.167 0.151

0.143 0.266 0.023 0.100

— 0.266 0.041 0.106

— — — —

0.285 0.273 0.077 0.119

3.00 — — —

— 1.00 1.67 —

— 1.00 — —

0.02 0.01 0.02 0.04

0.02 0.02 0.02 0.04

0.01 0.01 0.02 0.45

0.01 0.01 0.02 0.71

0.015 0.015 0.022 0.402

0.020 0.013 0.026 0.060

0.017 0.016 0.019 0.076

0.018 0.012 0.017 0.061

0.020 0.012 0.027 0.050

0.018 0.013 0.021 0.062

0.39 0.12 0.35 0.23

0.42 0.26 0.28 0.37

0.49 0.15 0.38 0.44

0.44 0.09 0.47 0.57

0.45 0.17 0.38 0.46

0.05 0.07 0.12

0.05 0.07 0.14

0.05 0.06 0.14

0.04 0.04 0.14

0.047 0.055 0.138

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

0.60 X 3.00

0.60 X 4.50

0.80 X 4.60

0.70 X 4.10

0.70 X 4.40

— 0.50 0.27 0.32

— 0.49 0.42 0.42

0.04 0.16 0.10 0.05

0.09 0.27 0.07 0.02

0.061 0.307 0.197 0.163

0.045 0.340 0.190 0.013

0.068 0.340 0.750 —

0.100 0.260 0.290 —

0.170 0.300 0.210 —

0.113 0.300 0.417 0.004

5.00 13.00 X —

8.00 12.00 X —

5.00 6.00 X —

4.33 6.00 X —

1.69 0.86 0.59 1.54 0.16

1.88 1.08 0.56 1.16 0.16

1.03 0.72 0.40 1.02 —

1.16 0.47 0.41 1.09 —

1.357 0.753 0.458 1.089 0.161

0.313 0.198 1.404 4.342 0.105

0.198 0.174 0.867 3.705 0.077

0.176 0.127 0.657 2.073 —

0.187 0.114 0.727 1.445 —

0.187 0.138 0.750 2.408 0.108

3.50 6.80 7.20 4.80 0.40

3.10 4.10 2.40 6.60 —

4.10 4.50 3.50 5.60 —

3.30 4.30 2.97 5.73 0.41

— — X — 2.70 4.30 3.00 5.00 0.41

— — — —

WATER QUALITY

Ijssel-Kampen Norway Skienselva Glomma Drammenselva Otra Poland Wisia Odra Slovak R. Maly Dunaj Vah Hron Hornad Spain Guadalquivir Duero Ebro Guadiana Sweden Dala`lven Ra`ne alv Mo`numsa´n Ro`nnea`n Switzerland Rhin Aare Rho¨ne Turkey Porsuk Sakarya Yesilinmak Gediz UK Thames Severn Clyde Mersey Lower Bann (N. Ireland)

0.00 0.67 0.56 0.00

(Continued)

8-27

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Cadmium (c) (mg/L)

1996

1997

1998

1999

Average Last 3 yrs (b)

0.250 0.325 0.075 —

— 0.730 0.079 —

— — 0.102 —

— — 0.100 —

— 0.412 0.094 —

X X X X — 1.000

X X X X — 1.000

X X X X — 1.000

X X X X — 1.000

X X X X — 1.000

1996

1997

1998

1.58 1.38 0.36 X

— 1.86 0.22 X

— — 0.21 X

Copper (c) (mg/L)

1999

Average Last 3 yrs (b)

1996

1997

1998

1999

Average Last 3 yrs (b)

— — 0.21 X

— 1.49 0.21 X

3.52 3.05 1.21 —

— 2.61 1.03 —

— — 0.86 —

— — 0.86 —

— 2.69 0.92 —

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

— — — —

— — — —

— — — —

— — — —

0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

— — — —

— — — —

— — — —

— — — —

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

— — 0.200

— — 0.200

— — —

0.000 0.033 0.133

0.27 0.25 2.00

— 0.91 4.00

1.00 0.80 —

— — —

0.42 0.65 2.00

2.00 2.33 3.80

2.35 3.10 5.00

1.00 2.80

— —

— —

— —

0.100 0.300

— —

!0.20 0.100 — — —

— —

— —

0.312 2.583 0.150 X

0.154 0.090 0.108 X

0.230 0.080 0.130 X

0.160 0.060 0.120 X

0.181 0.077 0.119 X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1.80 — 1.92 — X X X

— —

1.80 16.20

— —

2.42 1.92 2.82 0.94

2.27 2.25 1.10 0.80

2.19 1.79 0.50 0.30

2.29 1.99 1.47 0.68

9.79 8.83 3.79 X

9.23 3.58 2.80 X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

2.40 2.80 —

— — —

— —

— —

— —

12.77 5.42 2.32 X

12.15 6.75 3.30 X

11.38 5.25 2.81 X

X X X

X X X

2.25 2.74 2.93

X X X

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Canada Mackenzie Saskatchewan Columbia Saint John Mexico Bravo Lerma Pa´nuco Grijalva USA Delaware Mississippi Japan Ishikari Yodo Tone {Sakaehashi} Chikugo Korea Keum NakDong YoungSan Han Austria Donau Inn Grossache Belgium Meuse Escaut Czech R Labe Odra Morava Dyje Denmark Gudena´ Skjerna´ Susa´

Chromium (c) (mg/L)

8-28

Table 8A.12 (Continued)

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

0.030 0.034 0.074

0.030 0.030 0.138

— — —

— X 0.389 X

— X 0.000 X

— X — X

0.200 — 0.200 0.100

0.200 — 0.200 0.100

0.200 0.320 0.200 0.100

0.140 0.110 0.200 0.200

0.140 0.270 — 0.200

0.140 0.630 0.090 X

— — —

0.033 0.032 0.096

0.34 0.61 1.78

— X — X

— X 0.184 X

0.200 0.243 0.200 0.100

0.200 0.248 0.200 0.100

0.040 1.200 — 1.800

1.600 0.400 — 0.470

0.593 0.623 — 0.823

0.170 0.700 0.060 X

0.150 0.980 0.070 X

0.100 0.580 0.070 X

0.140 0.753 0.067 X

0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200

0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200

0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200

0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200

0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X !0.0002

X X X !0.0002

X X X !0.0002

X X X 0.000

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

0.100 0.100

0.100 0.100

0.100 0.100

0.100 0.100

0.100 0.100

1.50 1.50

1.10 1.00

1.10 1.00

1.10 1.00

1.10 1.00

4.30 2.70

3.40 2.40

4.00 2.60

3.70 2.50

3.70 2.50

0.290 X 0.500 0.070 0.080

0.140 X 0.040 0.060 0.100

0.300 X 0.060 0.080 0.050

0.200 X 0.140 0.080 0.090

0.213 X 0.080 0.073 0.080

2.98 X — 2.90 —

2.06 X 1.30 3.57 3.26

2.16 X 1.81 3.76 2.42

1.95 X 1.40 2.40 2.00

2.06 X 1.50 3.24 2.56

4.15 X 3.30 5.20 5.30

3.35 X 3.10 5.00 5.50

4.72 X 3.60 5.30 4.20

4.67 X 2.80 4.70 11.10

4.25 X 3.17 5.00 6.93

0.060 0.080

0.020 0.030

0.020 0.160

0.010 0.020

0.017 0.070

0.50 0.50

0.50 0.50

0.50 0.50

0.13 0.62

0.38 0.54

1.79 2.20

0.90 2.10

0.70 3.20

0.54 2.01

0.71 2.44

X X X —

X

X

0.55 0.53 1.61

— — —

— — —

0.45 0.53 1.82

0.84 1.34 15.53

X X 3.21 X

X X 1.17 X

X X — X

X X — X

X X 2.33 X

2.70 — 2.00 1.00

3.10 — 2.00 1.00

X X X X 15.00 1.60 0.50 1.40

X X X X 15.60 4.00 0.50 1.20

X

3.30 2.10 2.10 1.00

3.87 1.93 2.00 1.00

3.42 1.68 2.03 1.00

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

16.90 2.10 0.60 0.70

26.80 1.20 0.70 1.00

19.77 2.43 0.60 0.97

X

X

X

0.71 1.13 20.60

— — —

— — —

0.79 1.18 28.38

X X 5.62 X

X X 3.56 X

X X — X

X X — X

X X 4.71 X

6.30 — 4.60 3.30

10.40 — 4.80 2.70

X X X X 5.30 13.40 1.50 X

X

X X X X 7.30 8.40 1.80 X

12.00 6.40 5.10 3.00 X X X X 10.10 9.40 2.40 X

8.55 6.44 4.33 3.07 X X X X 4.80 10.10 2.80 X

X

WATER QUALITY

Odense Finland Torniojoki Kymijoki Kokema¨enjoki France Loire Seine Garonne Rho¨ne German Rhein Elbe Weser Donau Greece Strimonas Axios Akeloos Nestos Hungary Maros Duna Drava Tisza Ireland Boyne Clare Barrow Blackwater Italy Po Adige Arno Metauro Luxembourg Moselle Su¨re The Netherlands Maas-Keizersveer Maas-Eysden Rijn/Maas Delta Rijn-Lobith Ijssel-Kampen Norway Skienselva Glomma

10.32 4.98 4.74 2.92 X X X X 7.40 9.30 2.33 X

(Continued) 8-29

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-30

Table 8A.12

(Continued) Cadmium (c) (mg/L)

Note:

Copper (c) (mg/L)

1996

1997

1998

1999

Average Last 3 yrs (b)

0.020 0.030

0.020 0.030

0.020 0.030

0.020 0.030

0.020 0.030

0.50 0.50

0.50 0.50

0.50 0.50

0.46 0.19

0.49 0.40

0.91 0.50

1.00 0.50

0.80 0.50

1.03 0.62

0.94 0.54

0.070 0.096

0.100 0.040

0.100 0.020

0.100 0.000

0.100 0.020

0.22 0.30

0.00 0.00

1.00 0.10

0.10 0.00

0.37 0.03

1.47 2.77

1.30 2.30

2.00 2.00

2.00 3.00

1.77 2.43

0.032 0.055 X 1.267

0.024 0.092 X 1.333

0.080 0.040 X 0.820

0.070 0.060 X 0.670

0.058 0.064 X 0.941

0.52 0.65 X 0.14

— 1.02 X 4.79

0.26 1.65 X 2.34

0.17 1.53 X 2.19

0.32 1.40 X 3.11

17.45 2.02 X X

3.32 1.73 X X

3.37 2.33 X X

3.51 2.68 X X

3.40 2.25 X X

1.500 0.680 0.030 —

— 0.240 0.040 —

— 0.010 — —

— 0.030 — —

0.000 0.093 0.023 0.000

— 0.10 1.67 —

— 0.50 0.25 —

— 2.00 — —

0.00 0.87 0.64 0.00

5.61 — 0.83 —

— 0.70 0.83 —

— 6.00 1.00 —

— — 3.00 —

0.00 2.23 1.61 0.00

0.016 0.008 0.011 0.022

0.018 0.012 0.013 0.027

0.017 0.024 0.009 0.040

0.016 0.006 0.012 0.032

0.017 0.014 0.011 0.033

0.30 0.11 0.35 0.55

0.29 0.13 0.41 0.62

0.35 0.19 0.36 0.59

0.38 0.17 0.45 0.61

0.34 0.16 0.41 0.61

1.30 0.80 1.10 1.20

1.20 1.70 1.40 1.40

1.40 0.80 1.30 1.70

1.40 0.40 1.60 1.70

1.33 0.97 1.43 1.60

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X 1.60 X X

X 1.50 X X

X 1.70 X X

X 1.70 X X

X 1.63 X X

1996

1997

1998

— — — —

1999

Average Last 3 yrs (b)

1996

1997

1998

1999

Average Last 3 yrs (b)

0.000 — — —

5.000 — — —

5.000 5.000 — —

5.000 — — —

5.000 1.667 — —

0.00 — X —

9.00 — X —

5.00 6.00 X —

5.00 — X —

6.33 2.00 X —

3.00 14.00 — X

5.00 — — X

5.00 8.00 — X

5.00 15.00 — X

5.00 7.67 — X

0.100 0.100 0.000 0.100 0.100

0.100 0.100 0.000 0.100 0.100

0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 —

0.100 0.100 0.000 0.100 —

0.100 0.100 0.033 0.100 0.100

1.30 2.80 17.00 5.70 1.00

1.20 1.90 13.00 4.90 1.00

1.30 1.80 14.70 5.30 —

1.30 2.30 12.30 4.40 —

1.27 2.00 13.33 4.87 1.00

6.30 5.50 4.90 7.60 3.53

7.10 5.10 4.30 6.90 3.37

6.30 4.90 3.60 7.50 —

6.50 5.50 3.70 7.40 —

6.63 5.17 3.87 7.27 3.28

a) Measured at the mouth or downstream frontier of river; b) Average over the last 3 years available: data prior to 1993 have not been taken into account; c) Data refer to total concentrations unless otherwise specified. DO: Concentrations are annual mean conventration; x=Data not available; JPN) Data refer to fiscal year (April to March); KOR) Han: samples were taken at 26 km upstream from the mouth of the river due to the tidal influence; AUT) 1985: 1984 data; FRA) Data refer to hydrological year (September-August). Seine: station under marine influence. Rho¨ne since 1987 data refer to another station; DEU) Elbe: Measuring station—Elbel/Geestacht; 1988 Elbe/Brunsbuttel; since 1989 Elbel/Zollenspieker; GRC) 1980: 1982 data; ESP) Guadalquivir: from 1990 onwards data refer to another station closer to the mouth and farther away from Sevilla influence; TUR) 1980: 1982 data.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Drammenselva Otra Poland Wisla Odra Slovak Maly Dunaj Vah Hron Hornad Spain Guadalquivir Duero Ebro Guadiana Sweden Dala`lven Ra`ne alv Mo`rrumsa´n Ro`nnea`n Switzerland Guadiana Rhin Aare Rho¨ne Turkey Porsuk Sakarya Yesilirmak Gediz UK Thames Severn Clyde Mersey Lower Bann (N. Ireland)

Chromium (c) (mg/L)

WATER QUALITY

BOD: MEX) 1985: 1984 data. 1998: the data’s variations can be explained by fluctuations of meteorological conditions and the CNA’s actions on control of residual water discharges; JPN) Data refer to fiscal year (April to March); KOR) Han: samples were taken at 26 km upstream from the mouth of the river due to the tidal influence; FRA) Data refer to hydrological year (September–August). Seine: station under marine influence. Rho¨ne since 1987 data refer to another station; DEU) Weser: 1990–1997—BOD7 (208); NLD) Mass-Eijsden 1990 and 1993–1994; Rijn-Lobith 1993–1996: average include limit of detection values; ESP) Guadalquivir: from 1990 onwards data refer to another station closer to the mouth and further away from Sevilla influence; TUR) 1980: 1982 data; UKD) When the parameter is unmeasurable (quantity is too small), the limit of detection values are used when calculating annual averages. Actual averages may therefore to lower. Clyde 1980: 1982 data. Nitrates: CAN) Saskatchewan: N02CN03; U.S.A.) Delaware 1985: 1984 data; KOR) Han: samples were taken at 26 km upstream from the mouth of the rivers due to the tidal influence; AUT) 1985: 1984 data; DNK) Data refer to N02CN03; FRA) Data refer to hydrological year (September–August). Loire and Seine: dissolved concentrations. Seine: station under marine influence. Rho¨ne: since 1987 data refer to another station; DEU) Dissolved concentrations; ITA) Po: until 1986 data refer to Ponte Polesella (76 km far from the mouth); since 1989 data refer to Pontelagoscuro (91 km far from the mouth). Metaure 1985: 1984 data; NLD) Rijn-Lobith: dissolved concentrations; NOR) Skienselva and Drammenselva: until 1990 data refer to stations which may have marine influence; from 1990 onwards, data refer to new stations further away from the outlet Skienselva and Glomma 1985: 1983 data. Drammenselva 1985: 1984 data; SPAIN) Dissolved concentrations. Guadalquivir: from 1990 onwards data refer to another station closer to the mouth and farther away from Sevilla influence. Ebro 1980: 1981 data; UKD) When the parameter is unreasonable (quantity too small) the limit of detection values are used when calculating annual averages. Actual averages may therefore be lower. Phosphorus: CAN) Columbia 1980: 1981 data; MEX) Orthophosphate concentrations; U.S.A.) Mississippi 1985 and 1990 and Delaware 1998 and 1999: annual averages include estimated values; KOR) Han samples were taken at 26 km upstream from the mouth of the river due to the tidal influence; AUT) 1985: 1984 data; FRA) Data refer to hydrological year (September–August). Loire—1980: 1982 data: since 1982 data refer to another station. Seine: station under marine influence. Rho¨ne: sicne 1987 data refer to another station; GRC) Strimonas: 1998 and 1999 data refer to ortho-phosphate; IRL) Boyne: Data refers to ortho-phosphate; ITA) Po: Data until 1988 refer to Ponte Polesella (76 km from the mouth); since 1989 data refer to Pontelagoscuro (91 km from the mouth); Metauro 1985: 1984 data; NOR) Skienselva and Drammenselva: until 1990 data refer to stations which may have marine influence; from 1990 onwards, data refer to new stations further away from the outlet; Skienselva and Glomma 1985: 1983 data; SLO) Maly Dunaj: orthophosphate concentrations; 1980: 1981 data; SPAIN) Guadalquivir: from 1990 onwards data refer to another station closer to the mouth and farther away from Sevilla influence; TUR) Orthophosphate concentrations; Yesilirmak 1980 and Gediz 1980: 1982 and 1981 data; UKD) Orthophosphate concentrations. When a parameter is unmeasurable (quantity too small), limit of detection values are used when calculating annual averages. Actual averages may therefore be lower. Ammorium: CAN) Dissolved concentrations. 1980: 1981 data; U.S.A.) Delaware and Mississippi: dissolved concentrations; Mississippi: 1980, 1985 and 1999 data include limit of detection values; Delaware: 1982, 1983, 1985, 1988, 1992–1999 include limit of detection values; KOR) Han: samples were taken at 26 km upstream from the mouth of the river due to the tidal influence; AUT) 1985: 1984 data; FRA) Data refer to hydrological year (September–August). Loire and Seine: data refer to dissolved concentrations. Seine: station under marine influence. Rho¨ne: since 1987 data refer to another station; DEU) Dissolved concentrations; GRC) 1980: 1982 data; ITA) Po: until 1988 data refer to Ponte Polesella (76 km from the mouth): since 1989 data refer to Pontelagoscuro (91 km from the mouth). Adige 1988 and Metauro 1995: averages represent upper limits. Adige 1985: 1984 data; LUX) Moselle 91, 96 to 99: upper limits; Su¨re-Wasserbillig: 1985, 1990–1992, 1994–1999: upper detection limits; NLD) Rhine-Lobith: dissolved concentrations; NOR) Skienselva: until 1990 data refer to a station which may have marine influence; from 1990 onwards, data refer to a different station further away from the outlet; ESP) Dissolved concentrations. Guadalquivir: from 1990 onwards data refer to another station closer to the mouth and farther away from Sevilla influence; TUR) Excepted for 1990–1991 data refer to NH3. Yesihrmak 1980: 1982 data; UKD) When the parameter is unmeasurable (quantity too small) the limit of detection values are used when calculating annual averages. Actual averages may therefore be lower. Lead: U.S.A.) Delaware: 1988 data represent upper limits: dissolved concentrations. Mississippi: dissolved concentrations; KOR) Han: samples were taken at 26 km upstream from the mouth of the river due to the tidal influence; AUT) 1985: 1984 data. Donau 1980, 82, 86, Inn 1982, 84 and Grossache 1980, 86: limit of detection values; CZE) Labe: from 1988 to 1993 data are upper limit values. Morava: 1995 data is an upper limit value; FIN) Tornionjoki and Kymijoki: include limit of detection values; Kokema¨enjoki 1980: 1981 data; FRA) Data refer to hydrological year (September–August); DEU) Elbe: dissolved concentrations: 1988–1989, 1991–1993 and 1995: include limit of detection values. Rhein 1994, 95, Weser 1988–1991 and Donau 1996, 97: include limit of detection values; HUN) Until 1994: total concentrations: 1994–1999: dissolved concentrations; LUX) Moselle and Su¨re all years: include limit of detection values; Both analysis methods and limit of detection have changed over the years; NLD) Rijn-Maas Delta 1992 and 1996, and Rijn-Lobith 1995: include limit of detection values; NOR) Glomma 1985: 1983 data. Drammenselva: until 1990 data refer to a station which may have marine influence; from 1990 onwards, data refer to a new station further away from the outlet. All rivers: from 1991 heavy metal concentrations have been determined by a different analysing method; SPAIN) Dissolved concentration. Guadalquivir: from 1990 onwards data refer to another station closer to the mouth and farther away from Sevilla influence; SWE) Dissolved concentrations based on analysis of unfiltered samples; TUR) Porsuk 1999: upper limit; UKD) When the parameter is unmeasurable (quantity too small), the limit of detection values are used when calculating annual averages; actual averages may therefore be lower. (Continued)

8-31

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Source: From Tables 3.4A through 3.4I (data from 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, and average last 3 years), OECD Environmental Data Compendium 2002, q OECD 2002, www.oecd.org.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Cadmium: U.S.A.) Delaware and Mississippi dissolved concentrations. Delaware 1982–1989, 1992–1993, and Mississippi 1980, 1989–1999; include limit of detection values; KOR) Han: samples were taken at 26 km upstream from the mouth of the river due to the tidal influence; AUT) Donau 1980: figure is approximate: Donau 1982, 86–87, 91 and 93, Inn 1984, 86, 88–90, 94 and Grossache 1980, 82 and 84: upper limits. 1985: 1984 data; BEL) Meuse (Agimont): 1994–1996 are upper limits; CZE Labe:from 1990 to 1993 data are upper limit values. Morava: 1993 figure is an upper limit value; FIN) Tornionjoki and Kymijoki: upper limits; 1985: 1984 data; FRA) Data refer to hydrological year (September–August). Loire: since 1988 data refer to another station; 1980 and 1985; 1982 and 1984 data; DEU) Rhein 1984–1989 and 95–97: upper limits: Elbe: data refer to dissolved concentrations; 1990– 1991: upper limits. Weser 1988–1997, and Donau: upper limits; GRC) Strimonas 1986–1987, 92–94, Axios 1986–1987, Axeloos 1990, 92–96 and Nestos 1986, 92–97: include limit of detection values. Akeloos and Nestlos 1980: 1982 data; HUN) Until 1994. total concentrations; 1994–1999: dissolved concentrations; Duna: until 1996 total concentrations, 1996– 1999 dissolved concentrations; IRL) Data represent upper limits; ITA) Metauro 1996: upper limits; LUX) Moselle and Su¨re 90 to 99 and Su¨re 1980, 1985, 1989: upper limits; NLD) Rijn/Maas, Delta 1993–1996, Rijn-Lobith 1993–1996 and Ijssel-Kampen 1993, 95–96: upper limits; NOR) Skienselva and Drammenselva: until 1990 data refer to stations which may have marine influence; from 1990 onwards, data refer to new stations further away from the outlet. Drammenselva 1980 (1981 data): refers to median values, and represents an upper limit; 1986 figure is a time-weighted average. All rivers: from 1991 heavy metal concentrations have been determined by a different analysing method; SPAIN) Dissolved concentrations. Guadalquivir: from 1990 onwards data refer to another station closer to the mouth and farther away from Sevilla influence; Guadiana 1980: 1981 data; SWE) Dala`ven and Morrumsa`n: dissolved concentrations based on analysis of unifiltered samples; TUR) Porsak 1991–1993, 1995, 1997–1999. Sakarya 1989, 1991–1992, 1995, 1998 and Gediz 1995: upper limits; UKD) When the parameter is unmeasurable (quantity is too small), limit of detection values are used when calculating annual averages. Actual averages may therefore be lower. Chromium: U.S.A.) Dissolved concentrations. Delaware 1980–1982, 1986–1988 and Mississippi 1985, 1988–1989: included limit of detection values; KOR) Han: samples were taken at 26 km upstream from the mouth of the river due to the tidal influence; AUT) Donau 1982, Inn 1994 and Grossache 1980, 82: include limit of detection values. 1985: 1984 data; BEL) Meuse (Agimont): 1994–1995 are upper limits; CZE) Labe 1988–1993: upper limits. Odra 1991–1992, 94–95: upper limits. Morava 1991–1992 and 1995: upper limits; FIN) Tornionjoki: include limit of detection values. Kymijoki 1985: 1984 data; FRA) Data refer to hydrological year (September–August); DEU) Elbe: dissolved concentrations. Elbe 1988, 90, 92, Weser 1987–1997, and Donau 1989–1997: include limit of detection values; HUN) Until 1994: total concentrations; 1994–1999; dissolved concentrations; Duna: until 1996 total concentrations, 1996–1999 dissolved concentrations; LUX) Moselle 91, 92, 95 to 99 and Su¨re 1991, 93, 95 to 99: include limit of detection values; NOR) Glomma 1985: 1983 data Drammenselva—1980: 1982 data; until 1990 data refer to a station which may have marine influence; from 1990 onwards, data refer to new station further away from the outlet. All rivers: since 1991 heavy metal concentrations have been determined by a different analysing method. Average of last 3 years represent or include the detection limit value (including 1998: the detection limit for Cr was 0.5); SPAIN) Dissolved concentrations. Guadalquivir: from 1990 onwards data refer to another station closer to the mouth and farther away from Sevilla influence; Guadiana 1985: 1983 data; TUR) Porsuk 1998–1999: upper limits; UKD) When the parameter is unmeasarable (quantity is too small), limit of detection values are used when calculating annual averages. Actual averages may therefore be lower. Lower Bann: dissolved concentrations. Copper: U.S.A.) Delaware and Mississippi dissolved concentrations; AUT) 1985: 1984 data. Grossache 1980: includes limit of detection values; CZE) Morava 1995: upper limit; FRA) Data refer to hydrological year (September–August); DEU) Elbe: dissolved concentrations; HUN) Until 1994: total concentrations; 1994–1999: dissolved concentrations; Duna: until 1996 total concentrations, 1995–1999 dissolved concentrations; LUX) Moselle 91 to 94, 96 to 98 and Su¨re 1990–1991, 93, 95, 99: upper limits; NOR) Skienselva and Drammenselva: until 1990 data refer to stations which may have marine influence: from 1990 onwards, data refer to new stations further away from the outlets. Glomma 1985: 1983 data. Drammenselva 1980 (1981data): include limits of detection values and represent a median value. All rivers: from 1991 heavy metal concentrations have been determined by a different analysing method; SPAIN) Dissolved concentrations. Guadalquivir: from 1990 onwards data refer to another station closer to the mouth and farther away from Sevilla influence; SWE) Data refer to dissolved concentrations based on analysis of unfiltered samples; TUR) Porsuk 1988–1998: upper limits; UKD) When the parameter is unreasonable (quantity is too small), limit of detection values are used when calculating annual averages. Actual averages may therefore be lower.

8-32

Table 8A.12 (Continued)

WATER QUALITY

SECTION 8B

8-33

DRINKING WATER QUALITY STANDARDS UNITED STATES

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s National Primary Drinking-Water Regulations and National Secondary Drinking-Water Regulations are summarized in the following tables. The primary regulations specify maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), and health advisories. The MCLs, which are the maximum permissible level of a contaminant in water at the tap, are health related and are legally enforceable. If these concentrations are exceeded or if required monitoring is not performed the public must be notified. The secondary drinking-water regulations specify the secondary maximum contaminant levels (SMCL). The SMCLs are for contaminants in drinking water that primarily affect the esthetic qualities related to public acceptance of drinking water; they are intended to be guidelines for the States and are not federally enforceable. Health advisories are guidance contaminant levels that would not result in adverse health effects over specified short-time periods for most people. As provided by the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has the primary responsibility for establishing and enforcing regulations. However, States may assume primacy if they adopt regulations that are at least as stringent as the Federal regulations in levels specified for protection of public health and in provision of surveillance and enforcement. The States may adopt more stringent regulations and may establish regulations for other constituents.

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Contaminants Regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act 1979 1986 1987 1989 1991 TTHMs Fluoride Phase 1 (VOCs) TCR SWTR Phase II 11/79 4/86 7/87 6/89 6/89 1/91; 7/91 New reg Revision New regs 38 SOCs & IOCs; Revision 1Revision 4 New regs 11Revisions 27 New regs 1 1 8 1 5 39

1976 NPD WRs 12/75; 7/76 New regs

Final Regulations Summary of Final Actions

22 # in Regulation Cumulative # of 22 regulated contaminants 2,4-D Contaminants 2,4,5-TP (Silvex) regulated

23

23

31

31

35

61 4

carbofuran chlordane

1995

1998 Stage 1 DBPR 12/98

Final Regulations Summary of Final Actions # in Regulation Cumulative # of regulated contaminants Contaminants regulated

Remand 1

1 Revision 6 New regs 1

83

89

nickel

2000 Radionuclides Interim 12/00 ERSWTR 12/98 2 Revisions 4 Revisions 1 New reg 1 new reg 3 5 90

bromate Cryptosporidium chloramine Glardia chlorine turbidity chlorine dioxide chlorine haloacetic acids (HAAS)2 TTHMs

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heptachlor epoxide lindane mercury (inorganic)

LCR 6/91 1Revision 1 New reg

2 62

1992 Phase V 7/92 23 SOCs & IOCs; 1Revision 22 New regs 23 84

4

hexachlorobenzene methoxychlor copper Adupate di(2ethylhexyl) hexachlorocyclopentadiene nitrate nitrite total lead 4 antimony nickel nitrate/nitrite oxamyl (vydate) beryilium PCBs eyanide PAHs (benzo(a) pyrene) pentachlorophenol dalapon phthalate, di(2-ethylhexyl) selenium styrene 4 picloram dichloromethane tetrachlorethylene dinoseb simazine toluene toxophene dioxin 2,3,7,8thalium xylenes TCDD) 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene diqual 1,1,2-trichloroethane endothall endrin glyphosate

2001 Arsenic 1/01

1 Revision 1

91

91

grass alpha gross-beta radium-2261 radium-2281 uranium

arsenic

Notes: 1. Radium-226 and radium-228 arecontrol as two contaminants althoughtheir standard is combined. 2. Total THMs, haloacetic acids, and total coliforms are counted as one contaminant although both are combined standards: THMs (chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, bromoform), TC (total coliform bacteria including fecal coliform and E coli); HAAS (monochloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid, bromoacetic acid, and dibromoacetic acid). 3. Vinyl chloride is also known aschloroethylene & monochloroethylene. 4. These nine contaminants have a treatment technique instead of aMCL. 5. Aldicarb, aldicarb sulfone, and aldicarb sulfoxide are considered regulated contaminants although their MCLs are strayed. 6. Dichloromethane is also known as methylene chloride.

Updated 13 February 2001 www.epa.gov/safowater/mcl.html.

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

total benzone Giardia 2-4-D total fluoride (mono) chlorobenzene lead 2 carbon tetrachloride coliforms turbidity 4 2,4,5-TP chromium lindane THMs2 4 1,2-dichloroethane HPC acrylamide arsenic dibromochloropropane mercury 4 bacteria p-dichlorobenzene alachlor barium o-dichlorobenzene methoxychlor Legionella4 aldicarb5 1,1-dichloroethylene cadmium cis-1,2-dichloroethylene nitrate 5 4 1 aldicarb sulfone trans-1,2-dichloroethylene viruses 1,1,1-trichloroethlane chromium radium-226 aldicarb sulfoxide5 trichloroethylene coliform bacterial radium-2281 1,2-dichloropropane 3 asbestos selenium vinyl chloride cadrin epichlorohydrin4 atrazinc silver fluoride ethylbenzene barium toxaphene gross alpha ethylene dibromide cadmium turbidity gross beta heptachlor

8-34

Table 8B.13 Contaminants Regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act

WATER QUALITY

8-35

Table 8B.14 National Primary Drinking Water Standards MCLG1 (mg/L)2 Microorganisms Cryptosporidium Giardia lamblia Heterotrophic plate count Legionella Total Coliforms (including fecal coliform and E. Coli) Turbidity Viruses (enteric)

MCL or TT1 3(mg/L)2

zero zero n/a zero zero

TT3 TT3 TT3 TT3 5.0%4

n/a zero

TT3 TT3

Disinfection Byproducts Constituent Bromate Chlorite Haloacetic acids (HAA5) Total Trihalomethanes (TTHMs)

MCLG1 (mg/L)2 zero 0.8 n/a6 none7 — n/a6

MCL or TT1 (mg/L)2 0.01 1 0.06 0.1 — 0.08

Disinfectants Constituent Chloramines (as Cl2) Chlorine (as Cl2) Chlorine dioxide (as ClO2)

MCLG1 (mg/L)2 MRDLGZ41 MRDLGZ41 MRDLGZ0.81

MCL or TT1 (mg/L)2 MRDLZ4.01 MRDLZ4.01 MRDLZ0.81

Inorganic Chemicals Constituent

MCLG1 (mg/L)2

Antimony Arsenic

0.006 7

Asbestos (fiber O10 mm) Barium Beryllium Cadmium Chromium (total) Copper

7 million fibers/L 2 0.004 0.005 0.1 1.3

Cyanide (as free cyanide) Fluoride Lead

0.2 4 zero

Mercury (inorganic) Nitrate (measured as Nitrogen) Nitrite (measured as Nitrogen) Selenium Thallium

0.002 10 1 0.05 0.0005

MCL or TT1 (mg/L)2 0.006 0.01 as of 01/23/06 7 MFL 2 0.004 0.005 0.1 TT8; Action LevelZ1.3 0.2 4 TT8; Action LevelZ0.015 0.002 10 1 0.05 0.002 (Continued)

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8-36

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8B.14

(Continued)

Constituent Organic Chemicals Acrylamide Alachlor Atrazine Benzene Benzo(a)pyrene (PAHs) Carbofuran Carbon tetrachloride Chlordane Chlorobenzene 2,4-D Dalapon 1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP) o-Dichlorobenzene p-Dichlorobenzene 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,1-Dichloroethylene cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene Dichloromethane 1,2-Dichloropropane Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate Dinoseb Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) Diquat Endothall Endrin Epichlorohydrin Ethylbenzene Ethylene dibromide Glyphosate Heptachlor Heptachlor epoxide Hexachlorobenzene Hexachlorocyclopentadiene Lindane Methoxychlor Oxamyl (Vydate) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Pentachlorophenol Picloram Simazine Styrene Tetrachloroethylene Toluene Toxaphene 2,4,5-TP (Silvex) 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 1,1,2-Trichloroethane Trichloroethylene Vinyl chloride Xylenes (total)

MCLG1 (mg/L)2

zero zero 0.003 zero zero 0.04 zero zero 0.1 0.07 0.2 zero 0.6 0.075 zero 0.007 0.07 0.1 zero zero 0.4 zero 0.007 zero 0.02 0.1 0.002 zero 0.7 zero 0.7 zero zero zero 0.05 0.0002 0.04 0.2 zero zero 0.5 0.004 0.1 zero 1 zero 0.05 0.07 0.2 0.003 zero zero 10

MCL or TT1 (mg/L)2

TT9 0.002 0.003 0.005 0.0002 0.04 0.005 0.002 0.1 0.07 0.2 0.0002 0.6 0.075 0.005 0.007 0.07 0.1 0.005 0.005 0.4 0.006 0.007 0.00000003 0.02 0.1 0.002 TT9 0.7 0.00005 0.7 0.0004 0.0002 0.001 0.05 0.0002 0.04 0.2 0.0005 0.001 0.5 0.004 0.1 0.005 1 0.003 0.05 0.07 0.2 0.005 0.005 0.002 10 (Continued)

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WATER QUALITY

Table 8B.14

8-37

(Continued)

Constituent

MCLG1 (mg/L)2

MCL or TT1 (mg/L)2

Radionuclides Alpha particles

none7

15 picocuries per Liter (pCi/L)

Beta particles and photon emitters

Radium 226 and Radium 228 (combined)

Uranium

— zero none7 — zero none7 — zero zero

4 millirems/yr

5 pCi/L

30 ug/L as of 12/08/03

Note: 1

Definitions: Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL)—The highest level of a contaminant that is allowed in drinking water. MCLs are set as close to MCLGs as feasible using the best available treatment technology and taking cost into consideration. MCLs are enforceable standards. Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG)—The level of a contaminant in drinking water below which there is no known or expected risk to health. MCLGs allow for a margin of safety and are non-enforceable public health goals. Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level (MRDL)—The highest level of a disinfectant allowed in drinking water. There is convincing evidence that addition of a disinfectant is necessary for control of microbial contaminants. Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level Goal (MRDLG)—The level of a drinking water disinfectant below which there is no known or expected risk to health. MRDLGs do not reflect the benefits of the use of disinfectants to control microbial contaminants. Treatment Technique—A required process intended to reduce the level of a contaminant in drinking water.

2

Units are in milligrams per liter (mg/L) unless otherwise noted. Milligrams per liter are equivalent to parts per million.

3

EPA’s surface water treatment rules require systems using surface water or groundwater under the direct influence of surface water to (1) disinfect their water, and (2) filter their water or meet criteria for avoiding filtration so that the following contaminants are controlled at the following levels: Cryptosporidium: (as of 1/1/02 for systems serving O10,000 and 1/14/05 for systems serving !10,000) 99% removal; Giardia lamblia: 99.9% removal/inactivation; Viruses: 99.99% removal/inactivation; Legionella: No limit, but EPA believes that if Giardia and viruses are Turbidity: At no time can turbidity (cloudiness of water) go above 5 nephelolometric HPC: No more than 500 bacterial colonies per milliliter. Long Term 1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment (Effective Date: January 14, 2005); Surface water systems or (GWUDI) systems serving fewer than 10,000 people must comply with the applicable Long Term 1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule provisions (e.g. turbidity standards, individual filter monitoring, Cryptosporidium removal requirements, updated watershed control requirements for unfiltered systems). Filter Backwash Recycling; The Filter Backwash Recycling Rule requires systems that recycle to return specific recycle flows through all processes of the system’s existing conventional or direct filtration system or at an alternate location approved by the state.

4

More than 5.0% samples total coliform-positive in a month. (For water systems that collect fewer than 40 routine samples per month, no more than one sample can be total coliform-positive per month.) Every sample that has total coliform must be analyzed for either fecal coliforms or E. coli if two consecutive TC-positive samples, and one is also positive for E.coli fecal coliforms, system has an acute MCL violation.

(Continued)

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8-38

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8A.14 (Continued) 5

Fecal coliform and E. coli are bacteria whose presence indicates that the water may be contaminated with human or animal wastes. Disease-causing microbes (pathogens) in these wastes can cause diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches, or other symptoms. These pathogens may pose a special health risk for infants, young children, and people with severely compromised immune systems. 6 Although there is no collective MCLG for this contaminant group, there are individual MCLGs for some of the individual contaminants: Trihalomethanes: bromodichloromethane (zero); bromoform (zero); dibromochloromethane (0.06 mg/L). Chloroform is regulated with this group but has no MCLG. Haloacetic acids: dichloroacetic acid (zero); trichloroacetic acid (0.3 mg/L). Monochloroacetic acid, bromoacetic acid, and dibromoacetic acid are regulated with this group but have no MCLGs. 7

MCLGs were not established before the 1986 Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act. Therefore, there is no MCLG for this contaminant.

8

Lead and copper are regulated by a Treatment Technique that requires systems to control the corrosiveness of their water. If more than 10% of tap water samples exceed the action level, water systems must take additional steps. For copper, the action level is 1.3 mg/L, and for lead is 0.015 mg/L.

9

Each water system must certify, in writing, to the state (using third-party or manufacturer’s certification) that when acrylamide and epichlorohydrin are used in drinking water systems, the combination (or product) of dose and monomer level does not exceed the levels specified, as follows: Acrylamide Z0.05% dosed at 1 mg/L (or equivalent); Epichlorohydrin Z0.01% dosed at 20 mg/L (or equivalent)

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov.

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WATER QUALITY

8-39

Table 8B.15 National Secondary Drinking Water Standards Constituent

SMCL Level

Aluminum Chloride Color Copper Corrosivity Fluoride Foaming Agents Iron Manganese Odor pH Silver Sulfate Total Dissolved Solids Zinc

0.05 to 0.2 mg/L 250 mg/L 15 (color units) 1.0 mg/L Noncorrosive 2.0 mg/L 0.5 mg/L 0.3 mg/L 0.05 mg/L 3 threshold odor number 6.5–8.5 0.10 mg/L 250 mg/L 500 mg/L 5 mg/L

Note: National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (NSDWRs or secondary standards) are nonenforceable guidelines regulating contaminants that may cause cosmetic effects (such as skin or tooth discoloration) or aesthetic effects (such as taste, odor, or color) in drinking water. EPA recommends secondary standards to water systems but does not require systems to comply. However, states may choose to adopt them as enforceable standards. Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov.

Table 8B.16 National Proposed MRDLGs, MRDLs, MCLGs, MCLs, AND AMCLs for Radon, Disinfectanct Residuals, and Disinfection Byproducts Radon

MCLG

MCL

AMCL

Radon

zero

300 pCi/L

4000 pCi/L

Stage 1 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule Disinfectant Residual Chlorine Chloramine Chlorine Dioxide Disinfection Byproducts

MRDLG (mg/L)

MRDL (mg/L)

Compliance Based on

4 (as Cl2) 4 (as Cl2) 0.8 (as ClO2)

4.0 (as Cl2) 4.0 (as Cl2) 0.8 (as ClO2)

Annual Average Annual Average Daily Samples

MCLG (mg/L) a

Total trihalomethanes (TTHM) Chloroform Bromodichloromethane Dibromochloromethane Bromoform Haloacetic acids (five) (HAA5)b Dichloroacetic acid Trichloroacetic acid Chlorite Bromate

N/A *** 0 0.06 0 N/A 0 0.3 0.8 0

MCL (mg/L)

Compliance Based on

0.080

Annual Average

0.060

Annual Average

1.0 0.010

Monthly Average Annual Average

Notes: N/A-Not applicable because there are individual MCLGs for TTHMs or HAAs; MRDLGs, Maximum residual disinfectant level goals; MRDLs, Maximum residual disinfectant level; MCLGs, Maximum contaminant level goal; MCLs, Maximum contaminant level; AMCL, Alternate Maximum Contaminant Level; pCi/L, picoCuries per liter; mg/L, milligrams per liter. a b

Total trihalomethanes is the sum of the concentrations of chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform. Haloacetic acids (five) is the sum of the concentrations of mono-, di-, and trichloroacetic acids and mono—and dibromoacetic acids.

Source:

From United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov.

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8-40

Table 8B.17 Summary of State Drinking Water Quality Standards That Differ from USEPA Standards New Compound (mg/L)

Alabama

California

Connecticut

Delaware

Florida

Hawaii

Iillinois

Massachusetts

Hampshire

North New Jersey

New York

Carolina

Pennsylvania

Utah

Wisconsin

aldicarb

0.003

—

—

—

—

—

0.002

—

—

—

0.003

0.002

—

—

—

aldicarb sulfone

0.002

—

—

—

—

—

0.002

—

—

—

0.002

0.003

—

—

—

aldicarb sulfoxide

0.004

—

—

—

—

—

0.004

—

—

—

0.004

0.004

—

—

—

aldrin

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.001

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

aluminum

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

atrazine

—

0.003

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

barium

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

bentazon

—

0.018

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

benzene

—

0.001

—

—

0.001

—

—

—

—

0.001

—

—

—

—

—

bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate

—

0.004

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.018

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

carbon tetrachloride

—

0.0005

—

—

0.003

—

—

—

—

0.002

—

—

—

—

—

chlordane

—

0.0001

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.0005

—

—

—

—

—

chlorobenzene

—

0.07

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.05

—

—

—

—

—

chromium

—

0.05

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

cis-1,

—

0.006

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

2,4-D

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.01

—

—

—

0.05

—

—

—

—

DDT

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.05

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1, 2-dibromo-

—

0.0002

—

—

—

0.00004

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1,2-dichlorobenzene

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.6

—

—

—

—

—

1,3-dichlorobenzene

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.6

—

—

—

—

—

1,4-dichlorobenzene

—

0.005

—

—

—

—

—

0.005

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1,1-dichloroethane

—

0.005

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.05

—

—

—

—

—

1,2-dichloroethane

—

0.0005

—

—

0.003

—

—

—

—

0.002

—

—

—

—

—

1,1-dichloroethylene

—

0.006

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.002

—

—

—

—

—

dichloromethane

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.002

—

—

—

—

—

1,2-dichloropropane

—

0.005

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1,3-dichloropropene

—

0.0005

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

dieldrin

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.001

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

endrin

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.0002

—

—

—

—

2-dichloroethylene

3-chloropropane

ethion

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

ethylene dibromide

—

—

—

—

0.00002

0.00004

—

0.00002

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

fluoride

—

2

—

1.8

—

1.4–2.4

—

—

—

—

—

4

2

—

—

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

carbofuran

—

0.03

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

heptachlor

—

0.00001

—

—

—

—

0.0001

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

heptachlor epoxide

—

0.00001

—

—

—

—

0.0001

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

iron

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

0.3

—

—

—

isopropanol

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

manganese

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.15

—

—

—

0.3

0.05

—

—

—

methyl t-butyl ether

—

0.005

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.07

—

—

—

—

—

molinate

—

0.02

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

naphthalene

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.3

—

—

—

—

—

polychlorinated biphenyls

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.0005

—

—

—

—

—

silver

—

—

0.05

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

sodium

—

—

—

—

0.16

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.008

0.008

0.008

—

—

—

0.008

—

0.008

—

—

—

—

—

0.008

500

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1,000

—

tetrachloroethylene

—

—

—

—

0.003

—

—

—

—

0.001

—

—

—

—

—

1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane

—

0.001

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.001

—

—

—

—

—

thiobencarb

—

0.07

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.01

strontium 90 sulfate

2,4,5-TP

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

toluene

—

0.15

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

1,2,4-trichloro-

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.009

—

—

—

—

—

1,1,1-trichloroethane

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.03

—

—

—

—

—

1,1,2-trichloroethane

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.003

—

—

—

—

—

trans-1,2-dichloroethylene

—

0.01

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

trichloroethylene

—

—

—

—

0.003

—

—

—

—

0.001

—

—

—

—

—

trichlorofluoro-

—

0.15

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

WATER QUALITY

formaldehyde

benzene

methane 1,2,3-trichloropropane

—

—

—

—

—

0.0008

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1,1,2-trichloro-1,

—

1.2

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

20

2,2wtrifluoroethane

tritium

20

20

20

—

—

—

20

—

20

—

—

—

—

—

uranium

—

0.02

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

vinyl chloride

—

0.0005

—

—

0.001

—

—

—

—

0.002

—

—

—

—

0.0002

(Continued)

8-41

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-42

Table 8B.17

(Continued) New

Compound (mg/L)

North

Alabama

California

Connecticut

Delaware

Florida

Hawaii

Iillinois

Massachusetts

Hampshire

New Jersey

New York

Carolina

Pennsylvania

Utah

Wisconsin

2-xylene

—

1.75

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

3-xylene

—

1.75

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

4-xylene

—

1.75

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

xylene

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

10

zinc, elemental

—

—

—

—

—

—

5

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Note: Concentrations are in milligram per liter (mg/L). Source: From Data Bank Update Committee, Federal-State Toxicology and Risk Analysis Committee (FSTRAC), Summary of State and Federal Drinking Water Standards and Guidelines 1998–1999, www.sis.nlm.nih.gov.

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 8B.18 Public Water Supply Standard WATER QUALITY 8-43

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(Continued) Third Cycle 2nd Period

2019

*

*

*

* ****

* ****

* ****

* ****

* ****

* ****

* ****

* ****

* ****

* ****

* ****

* ****

* ****

* ****

**** **** ****

Waiver

****

* ****

*

*

****

****

****

****

* ****

****

****

* ****

****

****

* ****

****

*** *

* ****

****

06

07

08

09

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

*

05

*

×

×

×

×

* ****

* ****

****

×

No Waiver, Reliably and Consistently ≤ MCL, or Vulnerable to Asbestos Contamination10 > MCL

* ****

04

03

!

* ****

#

19

02 < Detection Limit ≥ Detection Limit but ≤ 1/2 MCL > 1/2 MCL but ≤ MCL > MCL

19

2018

*

18

*

18

2017

*

17

*

17

2016

*

16

*

16

2015

*

15

*

15

2014

*

14

*

14

2013

*

13

*

13

2012

*

12

*

12

2011

*

11

* * ****

11

2010

* * ****

10

* * ****

10

2009

* * ****

09

* * ****

09

2008

* * ****

08

* * ****

08

2007

* * ****

07

* * ****

07

2006

* * ****

06

* * ****

06

2005

* * ****

05

* * ****

05

2004

* * ****

04

* * ****

04

* * ****

03

* * ****

03

* * ****

#

< 1/2 MCL Reliably and Consistently < MCL9 ≥ 1/2 MCL or Not Reliably and Consistently < MCL

3rd Period

2003

1st Period

2002

3rd Period

02

CWSs & NTNCWSs Surface Water with 4 Quarters of Results < 1/2 MCL9 Groundwater Reliably and Consistently < MCL9 ≥ 1/2 MCL TNCWSs Standard Monitoring

02

Asbestos

Second Cycle 2nd Period

1st Period

****

****

****

×

* ****

****

****

****

****

****

****

****

****

****

****

****

****

Legend

1

Until January 22, 2006 the maximum contaminant level (MCL) for arsenic is 50 µg/L; on January 23, 2006 the MCL for arsenic becomes 10 µg/L.

* = 1 sample at each entry point to distribution system (EPTDS).

2

Based on 3 rounds of monitoring at each EPTDS with all analytical results below the MCL. Waivers are not permitted under the current arsenic requirements, however systems are eligible for arsenic waivers after January 23, 2006.

** = 2 quarterly samples at each EPTDS. Samples must be taken during 1 calendar year during each 3year compliance period.

3

A system with a sampling point result above the MCL must collect quarterly samples, at that sampling point, until the system is determined by the primacy agency to be reliably and consistently below the MCL. Samples must be taken during the quarter which previously resulted in the highest analytical result. Systems can apply for a waiver after 3 consecutive annual sampling results are below the detection limit. .

4

**** = 4 quarterly samples at each EPTDS within time frame designated by the primacy agency.

5

× = No sampling required unless required by the primacy agency.

6

# = Systems must monitor at a frequency specified by the primacy agency.

7

! = When allowed by the primacy agency, data collected between June 2000 and December 8, 2003 may be grandfathered to satisfy the initial monitoring requirements due in 2004 for gross alpha, radium 226/228, and uranium.

8

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Groundwater systems must update their vulnerability assessments during the time the waiver is effective. Primacy agencies must re-confirm that the system is nonvulnerable within 3 years of the initial determination or the system must return to annual sampling.

If all monitoring results during initial quarterly monitoring are less than the detection limit, the system can take annual samples. If after a minimum of 3 years of annual sampling with all analytical results less than the detection limit, the primacy agency can allow a system to take 1 sample during each compliance period. Systems are also eligible for a waiver. Primacy agencies must determine that a surface water system is nonvulnerable based on a vulnerability assessment during each compliance period or the system must return to annual sampling.

If all monitoring results during initial quarterly monitoring are less than the detection limit, the system can take annual samples. Systems are also eligible for a waiver.

9

Samples must be taken during the quarter which previously resulted in the highest analytical result.

10

Systems are required to monitor for asbestos during the first 3-year compliance period of each 9-year compliance cycle. A system vulnerable to asbestos contamination due solely to corrosion of asbestos-cement pipe must take 1 sample at a tap served by that pipe. A system vulnerable to asbestos contamination at the source must sample at each EPTDS.

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Radio nuclides

Nitrite

Nitrate

EXCEPTIONS

8-44

Table 8B.18

WATER QUALITY

Note: The Standardized Monitoring Framework (SMF), was promulgated in the Phase II Rule on January 30, 1991 (56 FR 3526). The purpose of the SMF is to standardize, simplify, and consolidate monitoring requirements across contaminant groups. The SMF increases public health protection by simplifying monitoring plans and synchronizing monitoring schedules leading to increased compliance with monitoring requirements. The SMF reduces the variability within monitoring requirements for chemical and radiological contaminants across system sizes and types. The SMF summarizes existing systems’ ongoing federal monitoring requirements only. Primacy agencies have the flexibility to issue waivers, with EPA approval, which take into account regional and state specific characteristics and concerns. To determine exact monitoring requirements, the SMF must be used in conjunction with any EPA approved waiver and additional requirements as determined by the primacy agency. New water systems may have different and additional requirements as determined by the primacy agency. Regulated Contaminants: Inorganic Contaminants (IOCs) — Fifteen (15) (Nitrate, Nitrite, total Nitrate/Nitrite, and Asbestos are exceptions to SMF) Synthetic Organic Contaminants (SOCs) & Volatile Organic Contaminants (VOCs) — Fifty-One (51) Radionuclides — Four (4) Utilities Covered: All PWS must monitor for Nitrate and Nitrite CWSs must monitor for IOCs, SOCs, VOCs, and Radionuclides NTNCWSs must monitor for IOCs SOCs, and VOCs. Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov.

8-45

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-46

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8B.19 Drinking Water Priority Rulemaking: Microbial and Disinfection Byproduct Rules Summary Existing M–DBP Regulations † Microbial Contaminants: The Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR), promulgated in 1989, applies to all public water systems using surface water sources or groundwater sources under the direct influence of surface water. It establishes maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs) for viruses, bacteria and Giardia lamblia. It also includes treatment technique requirements for filtered and unfiltered systems that are specifically designed to protect against the adverse health effects of exposure to these microbial pathogens. The Total Coliform Rule, revised in 1989, applies to all PWSs and establishes a maximum contaminant level (MCL) for total coliforms † Disinfection Byproducts: In 1979, EPA set an interim MCL for total trihalomethanes of 0.10 mg/L as an annual average. This applies to any community water system serving at least 10,000 people that adds a disinfectant to the drinking water during any part of the treatment process Information Collection Rule (ICR): To support the M–DBP rulemaking process, the ICR required large public water systems serving at least 100,000 people to monitor and collect data on microbial contaminants, disinfectants and disinfection byproducts for 18 months. The data provide EPA with information about disinfection byproducts, disease-causing microorganisms, including Cryptosporidium, and engineering data to control these contaminants Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR): The IESWTR applies to systems using surface water, or groundwater under the direct influence of surface water, that serve 10,000 or more persons. The rule also includes provisions for states to conduct sanitary surveys for surface water systems regardless of system size. The rule builds upon the treatment technique requirements of the SWTR with the following key additions and modifications † † † † † † † † †

Maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG) of zero for Cryptosporidium 2-log Cryptosporidium removal requirements for systems that filter Strengthened combined filter effluent turbidity performance standards Individual filter turbidity monitoring provisions Disinfection profiling and benchmarking provisions Systems using groundwater under the direct influence of surface water now subject to the new rules dealing with Crypdosporidium Inclusion of Cryptosporidium in the watershed control requirements for unfiltered public water systems Requirements for covers on new finished water reservoirs Sanitary surveys, conducted by states, for all surface water systems regardless of size

The IESWTR, with tightened turbidity performance criteria and required individual filter monitoring, is designed to optimize treatment reliability and to enhance physical removal efficiencies to minimize the Cryptosporidium levels in finished water. In addition, the rule includes disinfection benchmark provisions to assure continued levels of microbial protection while facilities take the necessary steps to comply with new DBP standards Stage 1 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule (DBPR): The final Stage 1 DBPR applies to community water systems and nontransient noncommunity systems, including those serving fewer than 10,000 people, that add a disinfectant to the drinking water during any part of the treatment process The final Stage 1 DBPR includes the following key provisions † Maximum residual disinfectant level goals (MRDLGs) for chlorine (4 mg/L), chloramines (4 mg/L), and chlorine dioxide (0.8 mg/L) † Maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs) for four trihalomethanes (chloroform (zero), bromodichloromethane (zero), dibromochloromethane (0.06 mg/L), and bromoform (zero)), two haloacetic acids (dichloroacetic acid (zero) and trichloroacetic acid (0.3 mg/L)), bromate (zero), and chlorite (0.8 mg/L); EPA subsequently removed the zero MCLG for chloroform from its National Primary Drinking Water Regulations, effective May 30, 2000, in accordance with an order of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit † MRDLs for three disinfectants (chlorine (4.0 mg/L), chloramines (4.0 mg/L), and chlorine dioxide (0.8 mg/L)) † MCLs for total trihalomethanes—a sum of the four listed above (0.080 mg/L), haloacetic acids (HAA5) (0.060 mg/L)—a sum of the two listed above plus monochloroacetic acid and mono—and dibromoacetic acids), and two inorganic disinfection byproducts (chlorite (1.0 mg/L)) and bromate (0.010 mg/L)); and † A treatment technique for removal of DBP precursor material The terms MRDLG and MRDL, which are not included in the SDWA, were created during the negotiations to distinguish disinfectants (because of their beneficial use) from contaminants. The final rule includes monitoring, reporting, and public notification requirements for these compounds. This final rule also describes the best available technology (BAT) upon which the MRDLs and MCLs are based (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

Table 8B.19

8-47

(Continued)

Filter Backwash Recycling Rule (FBRR) The FBRR requires public water systems (PWSs) to review their backwash water recycling practices to ensure that they do not compromise microbial control. Under the FBRR, recycled filter backwash water, sludge thickener supernatant, and liquids from dewatering processes must be returned to a location such that all processes of a system’s conventional or direct filtration including coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation (conventional filtration only) and filtration, are employed. Systems may apply to the State for approval to recycle at an alternate location. The Filter Backwash Rule applies to all public water systems, regardless of size

Long-Term 1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (Long-Term 1 ESWTR) While the Stage 1 DBPR applies to systems of all sizes, the IESWTR only applies to systems serving 10,000 or more people. The Long Term 1 ESWTR, promulgated in January 2002, will strengthen microbial controls for small systems i.e. those systems serving fewer than 10,000 people. The rule will also prevent significant increase in microbial risk where small systems take steps to implement the Stage 1 DBPR EPA believes that the rule will generally track the approaches in the IESWTR for improved turbidity control, including individual filter monitoring and reporting. The rule will also address disinfection profiling and benchmarking. The Agency is considering what modifications of some large system requirements may be appropriate for small systems Future M–DBP Rules Groundwater Rule EPA has proposed a Groundwater Rule that specifies the appropriate use of disinfection while addressing other components of groundwater systems to ensure public health protection. There are more than 158,000 public groundwater systems. Almost 89 million people are served by community groundwater systems, and 20 million people are served by noncommunity groundwater systems. Ninetynine percent (157,000) of groundwater systems serve fewer than 10,000 people. However, systems serving more than 10,000 people serve 55% (more than 60 million) of all people who get their drinking water from public groundwater systems. The Groundwater Rule will be promulgated summer 2001

Long-Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (Long-Term 2 ESWTR) EPA is proposing the Long-Term 2 ESWTR to reduce disease incidence associated with Cryptosporidium and other pathogenic microorganisms in drinking water. The Long-Term 2 ESWTR will supplement existing regulations by targeting additional Cryptosporidium treatment requirements to higher risk systems. This proposed regulation also contains provisions to mitigate risks from uncovered finished water storage facilities and to ensure that systems maintain microbial protection as they take steps to reduce the formation of disinfection byproducts. The Long-Term 2 ESWTR will apply to all systems that use surface water or groundwater under the direct influence of surface water

Stage 2 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule (Stage 2 DBPR) The Stage 2 DBPR is one part of the Stage 2 Microbial and Disinfection Byproducts Rules (M–DBP), which are a set of interrelated regulations that address risks from microbial pathogens and disinfectants/disinfection byproducts (D/DBPs). The Stage 2 M–DBP Rules are the final phase in the M–DBP rulemaking strategy, affirmed by Congress as part of the 1996 Amendments to the SDWA. The Stage 2 DBPR focuses on public health protection by limiting exposure to DBPs, specifically total trihalomethanes (TTHM) and five haloacetic acids (HAA5), which can form in water through disinfectants used to control microbial pathogens. This rule will apply to all community water systems (CWSs) and nontransient noncommunity water systems (NTNCWSs) that add a primary or residual disinfectant other than ultraviolet (UV) light or deliver water that has been disinfected by a primary or residual disinfectant other than UV Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-48

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Figure 8B.8 Public water supply rule implementation and milestone timeline. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-49

8-50

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8B.20 Unregulated Chemical Contanminents (1999 List) to Be Monitored in Public Supply Systems in the United States List 1 Contaminants—Assessment Monitoring 2,4-dinitrotoluene 2,6-dinitrotoluene Acetochlor DCPA di-acid degradate List 2 Contaminants—Screening Surveys 1,2-diphenylhydrazine 2-methyl-phenol 2,4-dichlorophenol 2,4-dinitrophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol Alachlor ESA List 3 Contaminants—Pre-Screen Testing Lead-210

Polonium-210 Adenoviruses a

DCPA mono-acid degradate DDE EPTC Molinate

MTBE Nitrobenzene Perchlorate Terbacil

Diazinon Disulfoton Diuron Fonofos Linuron Nitrobenzene (low-level)a

Prometon RDX Terbufos Aeromonas

Cyanobacteria (blue–green algae), other fresh water algae, and their toxins Caliciviruses Coxsackieviruses

Echoviruses

Helicobacter pylori Microsporidia

Nitrobenzene has been added to List 2 from the original UCMR (1999) List to track its occurrence at a concentration lower than the List 1 nitrobenzene minimum reporting level.

Source: From USEPA, 2001, Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Regulation Reporting Guidance, (EPA 815-R-01-029, November 2001), www.epa.gov.

Table 8B.21 Monitoring Requirements for Unregulated Contaminant Program Contaminant Type Chemical

Microbiological

a

b c

d

Water Source Type

Timeframe

Surface water

Twelve (12) months

Groundwater

Twelve (12) months

Surface and groundwater

Twelve (12) months

Frequency Four (4) quarterly samples taken as follows: Select either the first, second, or third month of a quarter and sample in that same month of each of four (4) consecutive quartersa to ensure that one of those sampling events occurs during the vulnerable timeb Two (2) times in a year taken as follows: Sample during one (1) month of the vulnerable timeb and during one (1) month five (5) to seven (7) months earlier or laterc Six (6) times in a year taken as follows: Select either the first, second, or third month of a quarter and sample in that same month of each of four (4) quarters, and sample an additional two (2) months during the warmest (vulnerable) quarter of the yeard

“Select either the first, second, or third month of a quarter and sample in that same month of each of four consecutive quarters” means that the system must monitor during each of the 4 months of either: January, April, July, October; or February, May, August, November; or March, June, September, December. “Vulnerable time” means May 1 through July 31, unless the State or EPA informs the system that it has selected a different time period for sampling as its vulnerable time. “Sample during one month of the vulnerable time and during one month five to seven months earlier or later” means, for example, that if the system selects May as its “vulnerable time” month to sample, then one month five to seven months earlier would be either October, November, or December of the preceding year, and one month five to seven months later would be either, October, November, or December of the same year. This means that the system must monitor during each of the six months of either: January, April, July, August, September, October, or February, May, July, August, September, November, or March, June, July, August, September, December; unless the State or EPA informs the system that a different vulnerable quarter has been selected for it.

Source: From USEPA, 2001, Reference Guide for the Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Program, (EPA 815-R-01-023, October 2001), www.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

8-51

UCMR(1999): IMPLEMENTATION TIMELINE 1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Programmatic Activities UCMR Issued, Guidance Available

Perchloate, Acetochlor Methods Approved

Assess Data Quality

Analyze Results

National Drinking Water Contaminant Occurrence Database Operational

Representative Sample Selected State PAs And State Plans Developed: Inform PWSs

Next Candidate Contaminant List Issued

EPA Contract Laboratories Operational (for small systems) Next UCMR List Issued

UCMR(1999) List 2 Rule Promulgated Monitoring Activities

Assessment Monitoring List 1 (1999) Contaminants All large and 800 small PWSs

Index System Monitoring 30 small PWSs

Screening surveys List 2 (1999) contaminants Screening Survey Chemical (180 small PWSs only)

Screening Survey Chemical (120 large PWSs only)

Screening Survey Micro (300 large and small PWSs )

Figure 8B.9 Unregulated chemical contaminant monitoring regulation (1999) timeline and related activities. (From USEPA, 2001, Reference Guide for the Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Program, (EPA 815-R-01-023, October 2001), www.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-52

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8B.22 Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List 2 Microbial Contaminant Candidates Adenoviruses Aeromonas hydrophila Caliciviruses Coxsackieviruses Cyanobacteria (blue–green algae), other freshwater algae, and their toxins Echoviruses Helicobacter pylori Microsporidia (Enterocytozoon & Septata) Mycobacterium avium intracellulare (MAC) Chemical Contaminant Candidates 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene 1,1-dichloroethane 1,1-dichloropropene 1,2-diphenylhydrazine 1,3-dichloropropane 1,3-dichloropropene 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,2-dichloropropane 2,4-dichlorophenol 2,4-dinitrophenol 2,4-dinitrotoluene 2,6-dinitrotoluene 2-methyl-Phenol (o-cresol) Acetochlor Alachlor ESA & other acetanilide pesticide degradation products Aluminum Boron Bromobenzene DCPA mono-acid degradate DCPA di-acid degradate DDE Diazinon Disulfoton Diuron EPTC (s-ethyl-dipropylthiocarbamate) Fonofos p-Isopropyltoluene (p-cymene) Linuron Methyl bromide Methyl-t-butyl ether (MTBE) Metolachlor Molinate Nitrobenzene Organotins Perchlorate Prometon RDX Terbacil Terbufos Triazines & degradation products of triazines including, but not limited to Cyanazine and atrazine-desethyl Vanadium Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water (4607m), EPA 815-F-05-001, February 2005, www.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

8-53

Complete Unfinished Priority Rulemakings Unregulated Contaminant Contaminant Monitoring Candidate Rule 1 List 1

Regulatory Determinations

Proposed Rule

Final Rule

Start New Work 97

98

99

00

01

02

03

04

05

06

Research & Occurrence Data Collection for CCL1 Contaminants

Safe Drinking Water Act 96

Regulatory Determinations

Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule 2 Contaminant Candidate List 2

Review & Update Existing Maximum Contaminant Levels

Figure 8B.10 Contaminant candidate identification and selection cycle. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency), www.epa.gov.) D1 D27

Arom Solvent

D26 Aliph solvent

D2 Musky

Earthy

Metallic

D3 C8 Metallic

Mushroom D4

D25

Peaty B1

Plasticizer

D5

Solvent/Paint

D24

Grassy

Earthy C7

Exhaust Gas D23

D6 C1 Chemical

Petroleum Products

Petroleum

A1

D22

C6

B2

No

GeraniumLike

Floral

D7

B5

Violet Like

B4

Soapy D21

A2 Yes

Chlorinous B3

D20

C2

Natural

Medicinal / Disinfectant

Pleasant

Natural Unpleasant

D8 Green Apple

Fruity/ Vegetable Like

D9 Cucumber

Phenolic (Medicinal) Citrus

D19 DMS D18

D10

Spicy

Putrid D17

C3

Fishy

Rotten/Offensive C5 Potato

Onion Spec. spice

Fishy Rancid

D16 D15

Sulphide

D11

C4 D12

D13

D14

Figure 8B.11 Flavor wheel for drinking water. (From International Association of Water Pollution Research and Control; Water Quality Bulletin, Vol. 13, no. 2–3, April–July 1998.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-54

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 8C

DRINKING WATER STANDARDS — WORLD

Table 8C.23 World Health Organization Drinking Water Guideline Values for Chemicals That Are of Health Significance Chemical

Guideline Valuea (mg/L)

Remarks

b

Acrylamide Alachlor Aldicarb

0.0005 0.02b 0.01

Aldrin and dieldrin Antimony Arsenic Atrazine Barium Benzene Benzo[a]pyrene Boron Bromate Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Cadmium Carbofuran Carbon tetrachloride Chloral hydrate (trichloroacetaldehyde) Chlorate Chlordane Chlorine

0.00003 0.02 0.01 (P) 0.002 0.7 0.01b 0.0007b 0.5 (T) 0.01b (A, T) 0.06b 0.1 0.003 0.007 0.004 0.01 (P) 0.7 (D) 0.0002 5 (C)

Chlorite Chloroform Chlorotoluron Chlorpyrifos Chromium Copper

0.7 (D) 0.2 0.03 0.03 0.05 (P) 2

Cyanazine Cyanide Cyanogen chloride

0.0006 0.07 0.07

2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) 2,4-DB DDT and metabolites Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Dibromoacetonitrile Dibromochloromethane 1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane 1,2-Dibromoethane Dichloroacetate Dichloroacetonitrile Dichlorobenzene, 1,2K Dichlorobenzene, 1,4K Dichloroethane, 1,2K Dichloroethene, 1,1K Dichloroethene, 1,2K Dichloromethane 1,2-Dichloropropane (1,2-DCP) 1,3-Dichloropropene Dichlorprop Dimethoate Edetic acid (EDTA) Endrin

0.03 0.09 0.001 0.008 0.07 0.1 0.001b 0.0004b (P) 0.05 (T, D) 0.02 (P) 1 (C) 0.3 (C) 0.03b 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.04 (P) 0.02b 0.1 0.006 0.6 0.0006

Applies to aldicarb sulfoxide and aldicarb sulfone For combined aldrin plus dieldrin

For effective disinfection, there should be a residual concentration of free chlorine ofR0.5 mg /L after at least 30 min contact time at pH !8.0

For total chromium Staining of laundry and sanitary ware may occur below guideline value

For cyanide as total cyanogenic compounds Applies to free acid

Applies to the free acid (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

Table 8C.23

8-55

(Continued)

Chemical

Guideline Valuea (mg/L)

Epichlorohydrin Ethylbenzene Fenoprop Fluoride

0.0004 (P) 0.3 (C) 0.009 1.5

Formaldehyde Hexachlorobutadiene Isoproturon Lead Lindane Manganese MCPA Mecoprop Mercury

0.9 0.0006 0.009 0.01 0.002 0.4 (C) 0.002 0.01 0.001

Methoxychlor Metolachlor Microcystin-LR

0.02 0.01 0.001 (P)

Molinate Molybdenum Monochloramine Monochloroacetate Nickel Nitrate (as NOK 3 ) Nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) Nitrite (as NOK 2 )

0.006 0.07 3 0.02 0.02 (P) 50 0.2 3 0.2 (P) 0.02 0.009b (P) 0.3 0.01 0.002 0.02 (C) 0.009 0.007 0.04 0.7 (C) 0.2 0.07 (P) 0.2b (C) 0.02

Pendimethalin Pentachlorophenol Pyriproxyfen Selenium Simazine Styrene 2,4,5-T Terbuthylazine Tetrachloroethene Toluene Trichloroacetate Trichloroethene Trichlorophenol, 2,4,6K Trifluralin Trihalomethanes

Uranium

0.015 (P, T)

Vinyl chloride Xylenes

0.0003b 0.5 (C)

a

Remarks

Volume of water consumed and intake from other sources should be considered when setting national standards

For total mercury (inorganic plus organic)

For total microcystin-LR (free plus cell-bound)

Short-term exposure Short-term exposure Long-term exposure

The sum of the ratio of the concentration of each to its respective guideline value should not exceed 1 Only chemical aspects of uranium addressed

P, provisional guideline value, as there is evidence of a hazard, but the available information on health effects is limited; T, provisional guideline value because calculated guideline value is below the level that can be achieved through practical treatment methods, source protection, etc.; A, provisional guideline value because calculated guideline value is below the achievable quantification level; D, provisional guideline value because disinfection is likely to result in the guideline value being exceeded; C, concentrations of the substance at or below the health-based guideline value may affect the appearance, taste or odour of the water, leading to consumer complaints. b For substances that are considered to be carcinogenic, the guideline value is the concentration in drinking water associated with an upper-bound excess lifetime cancer risk of 10K5 (one additional cancer per 100000 of the population ingesting drinking-water containing the substance at the guideline value for 70 years). Concentrations associated with upper-bound estimated excess lifetime cancer risks of 10K4 and 10K6 can be calculated by multiplying and dividing, respectively, the guideline value by 10. Source: From World Health Organization, 2004, Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, Third Edition, Volume 1, Recommendations. Copyright q World Health Organization 2004, www.who.int. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-56

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8C.24 World Health Organization Drinking Water Guideline Levels for Radionuclides Radionuclides 3

H Be 14 C 22 Na 32 P 33 P 35 S 36 Cl 45 Ca 47 Ca 46 Sc 47 Sc 48 Sc 48 V 51 Cr 52 Mn 53 Mn 54 Mn 55 Fe 59 Fe 56 Co 57 Co 58 Co 60 Co 59 Ni 63 Ni 65 Zn 71 Ge 73 As 74 As 76 As 77 As 75 Se 82 Br 86 Rb 85 Sr 89 Sr 90 Sr 90 Y 91 Y 93 Zr 95 Zr 93m Nb 94 Nb 95 Nb 224 Rab 225 Ra 226 Rab 228 Rab 227 Thb 228 Thb 229 Th 230 Thb 231 Thb 232 Thb 234 Thb 230 Pa 231 Pab 233 Pa 230 U 7

Guidance Level (Bq/L)a 10000 10000 100 100 100 1000 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 10000 100 10000 100 1000 100 100 1000 100 100 1000 1000 100 10000 1000 100 100 1000 100 100 100 100 100 10 100 100 100 100 1000 100 100 1 1 1 0.1 10 1 0.1 1 1000 1 100 100 0.1 100 1

Radionuclides 93

Mo Mo 96 Tc 97 Tc 97m Tc 99 Tc 97 Ru 103 Ru 106 Ru 105 Rh 103 Pd 105 Ag 110m Ag 111 Ag 109 Cd 115 Cd 115m Cd 111 In 114m In 113 Sn 125 Sn 122 Sb 124 Sb 125 Sb 123m Te 127 Te 127m Te 129 Te 129m Te 131 Te 131m Te 132 Te 125 I 126 I 129 I 131 I 129 Cs 131 Cs 132 Cs 134 Cs 135 Cs 136 Cs 137 Cs 131 Ba 140 Ba 235 b U 236 b U 237 U 238 b,c U 237 Np 239 Np 236 Pu 237 Pu 238 Pu 239 Pu 240 Pu 241 Pu 242 Pu 244 Pu 241 Am 99

Guidance Level (Bq/L)a 100 100 100 1000 100 100 1000 100 10 1000 1000 100 100 100 100 100 100 1000 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 1000 100 1000 100 1000 100 100 10 10 1000 10 1000 1000 100 10 100 100 10 1000 100 1 1 100 10 1 100 1 1000 1 1 1 10 1 1 1

Radionuclides 140

La Ce 141 Ce 143 Ce 144 Ce 143 Pr 147 Nd 147 Pm 149 Pm 151 Sm 153 Sm 152 Eu 154 Eu 155 Eu 153 Gd 160 Tb 169 Er 171 Tm 175 Yb 182 Ta 181 W 185 W 186 Re 185 Os 191 Os 193 Os 190 Ir 192 Ir 191 Pt 193 M 198 Au 199 Au 197 Hg 203 Hg 200 Tl 201 Tl 202 Tl 204 Tl 203 Pb 206 Bi 207 Bi 210 b Bi 210 Pbb 210 Pob 223 Rab 242 Cm 243 Cm 244 Cm 245 Cm 246 Cm 247 Cm 248 Cm 249 Bk 246 Cf 248 Cf 249 Cf 250 Cf 251 Cf 252 Cf 253 Cf 139

Guidance Level (Bq/L)a 100 1000 100 100 10 100 100 1000 100 1000 100 100 100 1000 1000 100 1000 1000 1000 100 1000 1000 100 100 100 100 100 100 1000 1000 100 1000 1000 100 1000 1000 1000 100 1000 100 100 100 0.1 0.1 1 10 1 1 1 1 1 0.1 100 100 10 1 1 1 1 100 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

Table 8C.24

(Continued)

Radionuclides 231

U U 233 U 234 b U 232

8-57

Guidance Level (Bq/L)a 1000 1 1 10

Radionuclides 242

Am Am 243 Am 242m

Guidance Level (Bq/L)a

Radionuclides 254

1000 1 1

Cf Es 254 Es 254m Es 253

Guidance Level (Bq/L)a 1 10 10 100

a

Guidance levels are rounded according to averaging the log scale values (to 10n if the calculated value was below 3!10n and above 3!10nK1). b Natural radionuclides. c The provisional guideline value for uranium in drinking-water is 15 mg/litre based on its chemical toxicity for the kidney (www.ec.gc.ca). Source: From World Health Organization, 2004, Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, Third Edition, Volume 1, Recommendations. Copyright q World Health Organization 2004, www.who.int. Table 8C.25 Canadian Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality — Chemical and Physical Parameters Parameter Aldicarb AldrinCdieldrin Aluminuma Antimony Arsenic AtrazineCmetabolites Azinphos-methyl Barium Bendiocarb Benzene Benzo[a]pyrene Boron Bromate Bromoxynil Cadmium Carbaryl Carbofuran Carbon tetrachloride Chloramines (total) Chloride Chlorpyrifos Chromium Colour Copperb Cyanazine Cyanide Cyanobacterial toxins (as microcystin-LR)c Diazinon Dicamba Dichlorobenzene, 1,2Ke Dichlorobenzene, 1,4Ke Dichloroethane, 1,2K Dichloroethylene, 1,1K Dichloromethane Dichlorophenol, 2,4K Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 2,4K (2,4KD) Diclofop-methyl Dimethoate Dinoseb Diquat Diuron Ethylbenzene Fluoridef Glyphosate Iron Leadb Malathion

Maximum Acceptable Concentration (mg/L)

Aesthetic Objectives (mg/L)

0.009 0.0007 0.006b 0.025 0.005 0.02 1.0 0.04 0.005 0.00001 5 0.01 0.005 0.005 0.09 0.09 0.005 3.0 %250 0.09 0.05 %15 TCUd %1.0 0.01 0.2 0.0015 0.02 0.12 0.20 0.005 0.005 0.014 0.05 0.9 0.1 0.009 0.02 0.01 0.07 0.15

%0.003 %0.001

%0.0003

%0.0024 1.5 0.28 %0.3 0.010 0.19

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-58

Table 8C.25

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Parameter Manganese Mercury Methoxychlor Metolachlor Metribuzin Monochlorobenzene Nitrateg Nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) Odour Paraquat (as dichloride) Parathion Pentachlorophenol pH Phorate Picloram Selenium Simazine Sodiumj Sulphatek Sulphide (as H2S) Taste Temperature Terbufos Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachlorophenol, 2,3,4,6K Toluene Total dissolved solids (TDS) Trichloroethylene Trichlorophenol, 2,4,6K Trifluralin Trihalomethanes (total)l Turbidity Uranium Vinyl chloride Xylenes (total) Zincb a

Maximum Acceptable Concentration (mg/L)

Aesthetic Objectives (mg/L) %0.05

0.001 0.9 0.05 0.08 0.08 45 0.4

%0.03

Inoffensive 0.01h 0.05 0.06

%0.030 6.5–8.5i

0.002 0.19 0.01 0.01 %200 %500 %0.05 Inoffensive %158C 0.001 0.03 0.1

0.05 0.005 0.045 0.1 1 NTUm 0.02 0.002

%0.001 %0.024 %500 %0.002

%5 NTUm,n

%0.3 %5.0

A health-based guideline for aluminum in drinking water has not been established. However, water treatment plants using aluminumbased coagulants should optimize their operations to reduce residual aluminum levels in treated water to the lowest extent possible as a precautionary measure. Operational guidance values of less than 100 mg/L total aluminum for conventional treatment plants and less than 200 mg/L total aluminum for other types of treatment systems are recommended. Any attempt to minimize aluminum residuals must not compromise the effectiveness of disinfection processes or interfere with the removal of disinfection by-product precursors. b Because first-drawn water may contain higher concentrations of metals than are found in running water after flushing, faucets should be thoroughly flushed before water is taken for consumption or analysis. c The guideline is considered protective of human health against exposure to other microcystins (total microcystins) that may also be present. d TCUZtrue colour unit. e In cases where total dichlorobenzenes are measured and concentrations exceed the most stringent value (0.005 mg/L), the concentrations of the individual isomers should be established. f It is recommended, however, that the concentration of fluoride be adjusted to 0.8–1.0 mg/L, which is the optimum range for the control of dental caries. g Equivalent to 10 mg/L as nitrate-nitrogen. Where nitrate and nitrite are determined separately, levels of nitrite should not exceed 3.2 mg/L. h Equivalent to 0.007 mg/L for paraquation. i No units. j It is recommended that sodium be included in routine monitoring programmes, as levels may be of interest to authorities who wish to prescribe sodium-restricted diets for their patients. k There may be a laxative effect in some individuals when sulphate levels exceed 500 mg/L. l The IMAC for trihalomethanes is expressed as a running annual average. It is based on the risk associated with chloroform, the trihalomethane most often present and in greatest concentration in drinking water. The guideline is designated as interim until such time as the risks from other disinfection by-products are ascertained. The preferred method of controlling disinfection byproducts is precursor removal; however, any method of control employed must not compromise the effectiveness of water disinfection. m NTUZNephelometric turbidity unit. n At the point of consumption. Source: From Health Canada, 2004, Summary of Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality, Prepared by the Federal-ProvincialTerritorial Committee on Drinking Water of the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Health and the Environment, April 2004, ec.gc.ga.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

8-59

Table 8C.26 Canadian Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality—Radionuclides Radionuclide

Half-life t1/2

Primary List of Radionuclides—Maximum Acceptable Concentrations (MACs) Natural Radionuclides 210 Pb 22.3 yrs Lead-210 224 Ra 3.66 d Radium-224 226 Radium-226 Ra 1600 yrs 228 Ra 5.76 yrs Radium-228 228 Thorium-228 Th 1.91 yrs 230 Th 7.54!104 yrs Thorium-230 232 Thorium-232 Th 1.40!1010 yrs 234 Th 24.1 d Thorium-234 234 Uranium-234 U 2.45!105 yrs 235 Uranium-235 U 7.04!108 yrs 238 Uranium-238 U 4.47!109 yrs Artificial Radionuclides 134 Cesium-134 Cs 2.07 yrs 137 Cs 30.2 yrs Cesium-137 125 I 59.9 d Iodine-125 131 I 8.04 d Iodine-131 99 Molybdenum-99 Mo 65.9 hr 90 Strontium-90 Sr 29 yrs b 3 H 12.3 yrs Tritium Secondary List of Radionuclides—Maximum Acceptable Concentrations (MACs) Natural Radionuclidesc 7 Beryllium-7 Be 53.3 d 210 Bismurh-210 Bi 5.01 d 210 Po 138.4 d Polonium-210 Artificial Radionuclides 241 Americium-241 Am 432 yrs 122 Antimony-122 Sb 2.71 d 124 Sb 60.2 d Antimony-124 125 Antimony-125 Sb 2.76 yrs 140 Ba 12.8 d Barium-140 82 Br 35.3 hr Bromine-82 45 Calcium-45 Ca 165 d 47 Ca 4.54 d Calcium-47 14 C 5730 yrs Carbon-14b 141 Cerium-141 Ce 32.5 d 144 Cerium-144 Ce 284.4 d 131 Cs 9.69 d Cesium-131 136 Cesium-136 Cs 13.1 d 51 Cr 27.7 d Chromium-51 57 Cobalt-57 Co 271.8 d 58 Co 70.9 d Cobalt-58 60 Cobalt-60 Co 5.27 yrs 67 Ga 78.3 hr Gallium-67 198 Gold-198 Au 2.69 d 111 In 2.81 d Indium-111 129 Iodine-129 I 1.60!107 yrs 55 Fe 2.68 yrs Iron-55 59 Fe 44.5 d Iron-59 54 Mn 312.2 d Manganese-54 197 Mercury-197 Hg 64.1 hr 203 Hg 46.6 d Mercury-203 239 Np 2.35 d Neptunium-239 95 Nb 35.0 d Niobium-95 32 Phosphorus-32 P 14.3 d 238 Pu 87.7 yrs Plutonium-238 239 Plutonium-239 Pu 2.41!104 yrs 240 Plutonium-240 Pu 6560 yrs 241 Pu 14.4 yrs Plutonium-241

DCF (Sv/Bq)

1.3!10K6 8.0!10K8 2.2!10K7 2.7!10K7 6.7!10K8 3.5!10K7 1.8!10K6 5.7!10K9 3.9!10K8 3.8!10K8 3.6!10K8

MAC (Bq/L)

0.1 2 0.6 0.5 2 0.4 0.1 20 4a 4a 4a

1.9!10K8 1.3!10K8 1.5!10K8 2.2!10K8 1.9!10K9 2.8!10K8 1.8!10K11

7 10 10 6 70 5 7000

3.3!10K11 2.1!10K9 6.2!10K7

4000 70 0.2

5.7!10K7 2.8!10K9 3.6!10K9 9.8!10K10 3.7!10K9 4.8!10K10 8.9!10K10 2.2!10K9 5.6!10K10 1.2!10K9 8.8!10K9 6.6!10K11 3.0!10K9 5.3!10K11 3.5!10K9 6.8!10K9 9.2!10K8 2.6!10K10 1.6!10K9 3.9!10K10 1.1!10K7 4.0!10K10 3.1!10K9 7.3!10K10 3.3!10K10 1.8!10K9 1.2!10K9 7.7!10K10 2.6!10K9 5.1!10K7 5.6!10K7 5.6!10K7 1.1!10K8

0.2 50 40 100 40 300 200 60 200b 100 20 2000 50 3000 40 20 2 500 90 400 1 300 40 200 400 80 100 200 50 0.3 0.2 0.2 10 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-60

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8C.26

(Continued)

Radionuclide Rhodium-105 Rubidium-81 Rubidium-86 Ruthenium-103 Ruthenium-106 Selenium-75 Silver-108m Silver-110m Silver-111 Sodium-22 Strontium-85 Strontium-89 Sulphur-35 Technetium-99 Technetium-99m Tellurium-129m Tellurium-131m Tellurium-132 Thallium-201 Ytterbium-169 Yttrium-90 Yttrium-91 Zinc-65 Zirconium-95 a b c d

Half-life t1/2 105

Rh Rb 86 Rb 103 Ru 106 Ru 75 Se 108m Ag 110m Ag 111 Ag 22 Na 85 Sr 89 Sr 35 S 99 Tc 99m Tc 129m Te 131m Te 132 Te 201 Tl 169 Yb 90 Y 91 Y 65 Zn 95 Zr 81

DCF (Sv/Bq)

MAC (Bq/L)

K10

35.4 hr 4.58 hr 18.6 d 39.2 d 372.6 d 119.8 d 127 yrs 249.8 d 7.47 d 2.61 yrs 64.8 d 50.5 d 87.2 d 2.13!105 yrs 6.01 hr 33.4 d 32.4 hr 78.2 hr 3.04 d 32.0 d 64 hr 58.5 d 243.8 d 64.0 d

5.4!10 5.3!10K11 2.5!10K9 1.1!10K9 1.1!10K8 2.1!10K9 2.1!10K9 3.0!10K9 2.0!10K9 3.0!10K9 5.3!10K10 3.8!10K9 3.0!10K10 6.7!10K10 2.1!10K11 3.9!10K9 3.4!10K9 3.5!10K9 7.4!10K11 1.1!10K9 4.2!10K9 4.0!10K9 3.8!10K9 1.3!10K9

300 3000 50 100 10 70 70 50 70 50 300 40 500 200 7000 40 40 40 2000 100 30 30 40 100

The activity concentrations of natural corresponding to the guideline of 0.02 mg/L is about 0.5 Bg/L. Tritium is also produced naturally in the atmosphere in significant quanties. The activity concentration of natural uranium corresponding to the chemical guideline of 0.1 mg/L (see separate criteria summary on uranium in the Supporting Documentation) is about 2.6 Bq/L. Tritium and 14C are also produced naturally in the atmosphere in significant quantities.

Source: From Health Canada, 2004, Summary of Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality, Prepared by the Federal-ProvincialTerritorial Committee on Drinking Water of the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Health and the Environment, April 2004, ec.gc.ga.

Table 8C.27 Australian Drinking Water Guideline Values for Physical and Chemical Characteristics Guideline Valuesa Characteristic Acrylamide Aluminum (acid-soluble) Ammonia (as NH3) Antimony Arsenic Asbestos Barium Benzene Beryllium Boron Bromate Cadmium Carbon tetrachloride Chloramine—see monochloramine Chlorate Chloride Chlorinated furanones (MX) Chlorine Chlorine dioxide Chlorite Chloroacetic acids Chloroacetic acid Dichloroacetic acid

Health

Aestheticb

0.0002 c c

0.2 0.5

0.003 0.007 c

0.7 0.001 c

4 0.02 0.002 0.003 c e

250

c

5 1 0.3

0.6 0.4

0.15 0.1

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

Table 8C.27

8-61

(Continued) Guideline Valuesa

Characteristic Trichloroacetic acid Chlorobenzene Chloroketones 1,1-Dichloropropanone 1,3-Dichloropropanone 1,1,1-Trichloropropanone 1,1,3-Trichloropropanone Chlorophenols 2-Chlorophenol 2,4-Dichlorophenol 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol Chloropicrin Chromium (as Cr(VI)) Copper Cyanide Cyanogen chloride (as cyanide) Dichlorobenzenes 1,2-Dichlorobenzene 1,3-Dichlorobenzene 1,4-Dichlorobenzene Dichloroethanes 1,1-Dichloroethane 1,2-Dichloroethane Dichloroethenes 1,1-Dichloroethene 1,2-Dichloroethene Dichloromethane (methylene chloride) Dissolved oxygen Epichlorohydrin Ethylbenzene Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) Fluoride Formaldehyde Haloacetonitriles Dichloroacetonitrile Trichloroacetonitrile Dibromoacetonitrile Bromochloroacetonitrile Hardness (as CaCO3) Hexachlorobutadiene Hydrogen sulfide Iodine Iodide Iron Lead Manganese Mercury Molybdenum Monochloramine Nickel Nitrate (as nitrate) Nitrite (as nitrite) Nitrilotriacetic acid Organotins Dialkyltins Tributyltin oxide Ozone pH Plasticisers Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) Benzo-(a)-pyrene Selenium Silver

Health 0.1 0.3

Aestheticb 0.01

c c c c

0.3 0.2 0.02

0.0001 0.0003 0.002

c

0.05 2 0.08 0.08 1.5 c

0.04

1

0.001 0.02 0.003

c

0.003 0.03 0.06 0.004 Not necessary 0.0005d 0.3 0.25 1.5 0.5

O 85% 0.003

c c c c

Not necessary 0.0007

200

c

0.05

c

0.1 c

0.01 0.5 0.001 0.05 3 0.02 50 3 0.2

0.3 0.1

0.5

c

0.001 c

pH 6.5–8.5

0.01 c

0.00001 (10 ng/L) 0.01 0.1

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-62

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8C.27

(Continued) Guideline Valuesa

Characteristic

Health

Sodium Styene (vinylbenzene) Sulfate Taste and odor

e

Temperature Tetrachloroethene Tin Toluene Total dissolved solids Trichloroacetaldehyde (chloral hydrate) Trichlorobenzenes (total) 1,1,1-Trichloroethane Trichloroethylene Trihalomethanes (THMs) (Total) True Color Turbidity Uranium Vinyl chloride Xylene Zinc

Not necessary 0.05

Note:

a b c d e

0.03 500 Not necessary

Aestheticb 180 0.004 250 Acceptable to most people No value set

e

0.8 Not necessary 0.02 0.03

0.025 500 0.005

c c

0.25 Not necessary c

0.02 0.0003 0.6 c

15 HU 5 NTU

0.02 3

All values are as “total” unless otherwise stated; Routine monitoring for these compounds is not required unless there is potential for contamination of water supplies (e.g. accidental spillage); The concentration of all chlorination byproducts can be minimized by removing naturally occurring organic matter from the source water, reducing the amount of chlorine added, or using an alternative disinfectant (which may produce other byproducts). Action to reduce trihalomethanes and other byproducts is encouraged, but must not compromise disinfection. HU, Hazen units; NTU, Nephelometric turbidity units; THMs, trihalomethanes.

All values mg/L unless otherwise stated. Aesthetic values are not listed if the compound does not cause aesthetic problems, or if the value determined from health considerations is the same or lower. Insufficient data to set a guideline value based on health considerations. The guideline value is below the limit of determination. Improved analytical procedures are required for this compound. No health-based guideline value is considered necessary.

Source: From Australian Government, National Health and Medical Research Council and Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, 2004, www.waterquality.crc.org.au. With permission.

Table 8C.28 Australian Drinking Water Guideline Values for Pesticides Pesticide Acephate Aldicarb Aldrinc (and dieldrin) Ametryn Amitrolec Asulam Atrazinec Azinphos-methyl Benomyl Bentazone Bioresmethrin Bromacil Bromophos-ethyl Bromoxynil Carbaryl Carbendazim Carbofuran Carbophenothion Carboxin Chlordanec Chlorfenvinphos

Guideline Valuea (mg/L) 0.001 0.00001 0.005 0.001 0.0001 0.002

0.01

0.005 0.005 0.002 0.00001

Health Valueb (mg/L) 0.01 0.001 0.0003 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.04 0.003 0.1 0.03 0.1 0.3 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.1 0.01 0.0005 0.3 0.001 0.005

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

Table 8C.28

8-63

(Continued)

Pesticide Chlorothalonil Chloroxuron Chlorpyrifosc Chlorsulfuron Clopyralidc 2,4-Dc DDTc Diazinon Dicamba Dichlobenil Dichlorvos Diclofop-methyl Dicofol Dieldrinc(see aldrin) Difenzoquat Dimethoate Diphenamid Diquatc Disulfoton Diuronc DPA (2,2-DPA) EDB Endosulfanc Endothal EPTC Ethion Ethoprophos Etridiazole Fenamiphos Fenarimol Fenchlorphos Fenitrothion Fenoprop Fensulfothion Fenvalerate Flamprop-methyl Fluometuron Formothion Fosaminec Glyphosate Heptachlorc(including its epoxide) Hexaflurate Hexazinonec Lindanec Maldison Methidathion Methiocarb Methomyl Methoxychlor Metolachlor Metribuzin Metsulfuron-methyl Mevinphos Molinatec Monocrotophos Napropamide Nitralin Norflurazon Oryzalin Oxamyl Paraquatc Parathion Parathion methyl Pebulate Pendimethalin Pentachlorophenol Permethrin Picloramc

Guideline Valuea (mg/L)

Health Valueb (mg/L)

0.0001

0.03 0.01 0.01 0.1 1 0.03 0.02 0.003 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.005 0.003 0.0003 0.1 0.05 0.3 0.005 0.003 0.03 0.5 0.001 0.03 0.1 0.03 0.003 0.001 0.1 0.0003 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.003 0.05 0.05 0.03 1 0.0003 0.03 0.3 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.005 0.03 0.3 0.3 0.05 0.03 0.005 0.005 0.001 1 0.5 0.05 0.3 0.1 0.03 0.01 0.1 0.03 0.3 0.01 0.1 0.3

1 0.0001 0.00006 0.001

0.001

0.00001

0.002 0.0005 0.001

0.001 0.00005 0.01 0.001 0.001 0.0001 0.001

0.01

0.01 0.00005 0.002 0.00005

0.005 0.005 0.0002 0.002 0.001 0.005 0.0005 0.001 0.002 0.005 0.001 0.0003 0.0005 0.00001 0.001

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-64

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8C.28

(Continued)

Pesticide Piperonyl butoxide Pirimicarb Pirimiphos-ethyl Pirimiphos-methyl Profenofos Promecarb Propachlor Propanil Propargite Propazine Propiconazolec Propyzamide Pyrazophos Quintozene Simazine Sulprofos Silvex (see Fenoprop) 2,4,5-T Temephosc Terbacil Terbufos Terbutryn Tetrachlovinphos Thiobencarb Thiometon Thiophanate Thiram Triadimefon Trichlorfon Triclopyrc Trifluralin Vernolate

Note: a

b c

Guideline Valuea (mg/L)

0.001 0.0001 0.0005 0.0001 0.002

0.0005

0.00005 0.3 0.01 0.0005 0.001 0.002

0.1

0.0001 0.0005

Health Valueb (mg/L) 0.1 0.005 0.0005 0.05 0.0003 0.03 0.05 0.5 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.3 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.1 0.3 0.03 0.0005 0.3 0.1 0.03 0.003 0.005 0.003 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.05 0.03

Routine monitoring for pesticides is not required unless potential exists for contamination of water supplies.

These are generally based on the analytical limit of determination (the level at which the pesticide can be reliably detected using practicable, readily available and validated analytical methods). If a pesticide is detected at or above this value the source should be identified and action taken to prevent further contamination. Based on 10% of acceptable daily intake (ADI). These pesticides have either been detected on occasions in Australian drinking water or their likely use would indicate that they may occasionally be detected.

Source: From Australian Government, National Health and Medical Research Council and Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, 2004, www.waterquality.crc.org.au. With permission. Table 8C.29 Australian Drinking Water Guideline Values for Radiological Quality Guideline value The total estimated dose per year from all radionuclides in drinking water, excluding the dose from potassium-40, should not exceed 1.0 mSv If this guideline value of exceeded, the water provider, in conjunction with the relevant health authority, should evaluate possible remedial actions on a cost-benefit basis of assess what action can be justified to reduce the annual exposure Screening of water supplies Compliance with the guideline for radiological quality of drinking water should be assessed, initially, by screening for gross alpha and gross beta activity concentration. The recommended screening level for gross alpha activity is 0.5 Bq/L. The recommended screening level for gross beta activity is 0.5 Bq/L after subtraction of the contribution form potassium-40 If either of these activity concentrations is exceeded, specific radionuclides should be identified and their activity concentrations determined. The concentration of both radium-226 and radium-228 should always be determined, as these are the most significant naturally occurring radionuclides in Australian water supplies. Other radionuclides should be identified in necessary of ensure all gross alpha and beta activity is accounted for, after taking into account the counting and other analytical uncertainties involved in the determination Source: From Australian Government, National Health and Medical Research Council and Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, 2004, www.waterquality.crc.org.au. With permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Inorganics (mg/L)

WHO (2004)

Antimony Arsenic

0.02 0.01(P)

Barium Boron Cadmium Chromium Copper

0.7 0.5 (T) 0.003 0.05 (P) 2

Cyanide Fluoride Lead

0.07 1.5 0.01

Manganese Mercury (total) Molybdenum Nickel Nitrate

0.4 (C) 0.001 0.07 0.02 (P) 50 (acute) as NO3 3 (acute), 0.2 (P) (chronic) as NO2 0.01 0.015 (P,T)

Nitrite

Selenium Uranium

U.S.A. (2005)

Canada (2004)

Australia (2000)

0.006 0.025

0.003 0.007

1 5 0.005 0.05

0.7 4 0.002 0.05 (VI) 2

1

0.05 1.5 0.025, 0.01a

0.2 1.5 0.01

0.08 1.5 0.01

0.002

0.001

0.001

10 as N

0.02 50 as NO3

10 as N

0.5 0.001 0.05 0.02 50 as NO3

0.006 7; 0.01 as of 01/23/06 2 0.005 0.1 TT, Action LevelZ1.3 0.2 4 TT, Action Level Z0.015

EEC (1998) 0.005 0.01

1 0.005 0.05 2.0

1 as N

0.5 as NO2 (tap)

3.2 as N

3 as NO2

0.05

0.01

0.01 0.02

0.01 0.02

Thailand (1978)

0.05

Vietnam (2002) 0.005 0.01

Korea (2000)

0.05

0.7 0.3 0.003 0.05 2

0.3 0.01 0.05 (VI)

0.2 0.7 0.05

0.07 0.7–1.5 0.01

0.002

0.001 0.07 0.02 50 as NO3

0.01 0.05 (VI)

45 as NO3

0.01

0.05

Japan (2004)

China (1985)

0.002 0.01

0.05

South Africa (1996)

0.01

Chile (1984)

0.05

1

Brazil (2004) 0.005 0.01 0.7

0.005 0.05 (VI) 1.0

1 0.01 0.05 (VI) 1.0

0.01 0.05 (VI) 1.0

5 0.05 (VI) 1.0

0.01 0.05 (VI) 1.0

0.005 0.05 2

0.01 1.5 0.05

0.1 0.5 0.05

0.01 0.8 0.01

0.05 1.0 0.05

1.0 0.01

0.2 1.5 0.05

0.07 1.5 0.01

0.001

0.001

0.05 0.0005

0.001

0.001

0.1 0.001

0.001

10 as N

10 as N

0.01 10 as N

20 as N

6 as N

10 as N

10 as N

1 as N

10 as N

6 as N

1 as N

1 as N

0.01

0.01 0.002

0.02

0.01

0.01

3 as NO2

0.01

Indonesia (1995)

0.01

0.01

WATER QUALITY

Table 8C.30 Comparison of Inorganic Drinking Water Guidelines Recommended by WHO and Standards for Several Developed and Developing Countries

Note: P, provisional guideline value, as there is evidence of a hazard, but the available information on health effects is limited; T, provisional guideline value because calculated guideline value is below the level that can be achieved through practical treatment methods, source protection, etc; A, provisional guideline value because calculated guideline value is below the achievable quantification level; D, provisional guideline value because disinfection is likely to result in the guideline value being exceeded; C, concentrations of the substance at or below the health-based guideline value may affect the appearance, taste or odour of the water, leading to consumer complaints; TT, Treatment Technique—A required process intended to reduce the level of a contaminant in drinking water. a 0.025 (12/25/03–12/25/13), 0.01 (2/25/13C). Source:

Modified from Vigneswaran, Saravanamuthu, 1995, Water Treatment Processes: Simple Options, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton. WHO, World Health Organization, 2004, Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, Third Edition, Volume 1, Recommendations. www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq3/en/index.html. U.S.A., United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/OGWDW/mcl.html. Australia, Australian Government, National Health and Medical Research Council and Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Austrlian Drinking Water Guidelines, 2004. www.waterquality.crc.org.au. EEC, Lenntech Drinking Water Standards, www.lenntech.com. Canada, Health Canada, 2004, Summary of Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality, Prepared by the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Drinking Water of the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Health and the Environment, April 2004. ec.gc.ga. Thailand, Notification of the Ministry of Industry, No. 322, B.E. 2521 (1978), issued under the Industrial Products Standards Act B.E. 2511 (1968), published in the Royal Gazette, Vol. 95, Part 68, dated July 4, B.E. 2521 (1978). pcdv1.pcd.go.th/Information/Regulations/WaterQuality/WaterQualityStandards.cfm. Vietnam, Hue, N.D. and Viet, P.H., 2003, Environmental Quality Standards in Vietnam, in United Nations University, Capacity Development Training for Monitoring of POPs in the East Asia Hydrosphere, 1–2 September 2003, Tokyo. Korea, Oh, J.R, 2003, Environmental Standards of Korea in United Nations University, Capacity Development Training for Monitoring of POPs in the East Asia Hydrosphere, 1–2 September 2003, Tokyo. Indonesia, Vigneswaran, Saravanamuthu, 1995, Water Treatment Processes: Simple Options, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton (Criteria of Water Quality, Category A). Japan, Japan Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare jwwa.or.jp/water-e07.html. China, Chinese Drinking Water Standards (GB 5749–85). South Africa, Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, 1996, South African Water Quality Guidelines, Volume 8, Field Guide, First Edition 1996, dwaf.pwv.gov.za/IWQS/wq_guide/field.pdf#searchZ ‘Recreation%20Water%20Quality%20Guidelines’. Chile, Normas oficiales para la calidad del agua Chile, NORMA CHILENA OFICIAL 409/1.Of.84, Agua Potable Parte 1: Requisitos cepis.ops-oms.org/bvsacg/e/normas2/Norma-Chi.pdf#searchZ“NORMA%20CHILENA%20OFICIAL%20409/1.Of.84”. Brazil, Ministerio da Saude, Portaria N.o 518, DE 25 De Marco De 2004 www.saneago.com.br/novasan/leis/port518.pdf#searchZ“Ministerio%20da%20Saude%2C%20Portaria%20N.%20518”. 8-65

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8-66

Table 8C.31 Comparison of Organic Compound Drinking Water Guidelines Recommended by WHO and Standards for Several Developed and Developing Countries U.S.A. (2005)

EEC (1998)

Organic Compounds (mg/L) Acrylamide Benzene Benzo[a]pyrene Carbon tetrachloride 1,2-Dichlorobenzene 1,4-Dichlorobenzene 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,1-Dichloroethene 1,2-Dichloroethene

0.0005 0.01 0.0007 0.004 1(C) 0.3(C) 0.03 0.03 0.05

0.0001 0.001 0.00001

Dichloromethane Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Edetic acid (EDTA) Epichlorohydrin Ethylbenzene Hexachlorobutadiene Microcystin-LR Monochlorobenzene Nitrilotriacetic acid Styrene Tetrachloroethene Toluene Trichloroethene Vinyl chloride Xylenes

TT9 0.005 0.0002 0.005 0.6 0.075 0.005 0.007 0.07 (cis), 0.1 (trans) 0.005 0.006

0.02 0.008 0.6 0.0004 (P) TT9 0.3 0.7 0.0006 0.001 (P) 0.1 0.2 0.02 0.1 0.04 0.005 0.7 1 0.07 (P) 0.005 0.0003 0.002 0.5 10

Pesticides (mg/L) Alachlor Aldicarb Aldrin/dieldrin Atrazine Carbofuran Chlordane Chlorpyrifos Chlorotoluron Cyanazine DDT and metabolites 1,2-Dibromo-3chloropropane 1,2-Dibromoethane 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) 1,2-Dichloropropane (1,2DCP) 1,3-Dichloropropane 1,3-Dichloropropene

0.02 0.01 0.00003 0.002 0.007 0.0002 0.03 0.03 0.0006 0.001 0.001

0.04 0.02

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Australia (2000)

0.005 0.00001 0.005 0.2 0.005 0.005 0.014

0.0002 0.001 0.00001 0.003 1.5 0.04 0.003 0.03 0.06

0.0005 0.01 0.0007 0.002 1 0.3 0.03 0.03 0.05

0.004 0.01 0.25 0.0005 0.3 0.0007

0.02 0.008 0.2 0.0004 0.3 0.0006

0.3 0.2 0.03 0.05 0.8

0.3 0.2 0.02 0.04 0.7 0.07 0.005 0.5

0.05

0.0001

0.0015 0.08 0.4 0.01a

0.03

0.01a 0.0005

0.05 0.002

0.0003 0.003 0.04 0.002

0.009 0.0007 0.005 0.09 0.09

Thailand (1978)

Vietnam (2002)

Korea (2000)

Indonesia Japan (1995) (2004)

0.01

0.01 0.00001

0.002

China (1985)

South Africa (1996)

Chile (1984)

0.0005 0.005 0.0007 0.002

0.01 0.002

0.00001 0.003

0.01 0.03

0.02 0.04 (cis)

0.02 0.08

0.02

Brazil (2004)

0.01 0.03

0.02

0.3 0.001

0.0003 0.6

0.002 0.001 0.0003 0.04 0.01 0.001 0.01

0.02 0.01 0.0003 0.002 0.005 0.0002

0.01 0.7 0.03

0.02 0.04

0.01 0.03

0.07 0.005

0.5

0.02 0.0007

0.00003

0.00003 0.002

0.0003

0.0002

0.001

0.002

0.1

0.03

0.002 0.0003

0.03 0.01 0.02

0.002 0.001

0.03

0.03

0.03

0.1

0.0002

0.0004 (P) 0.03 0.07 0.04 (P)

0.003

Canada (2004)

0.005

0.1

0.02

0.001

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

WHO (2004)

0.009 0.002 0.002 0.02 0.01 0.006 0.02 0.009 (P)

0.0002 0.04

0.9 0.05

0.001

0.06

0.3 0.3 0.0005 0.3 0.01 0.001

0.3 0.002 0.007 0.02

0.004

Chlorophenoxy herbicides other than 2,4-D and CPA (mg/L) 2,4-DB 0.09 Dichlorprop 0.1 Dimethoate 0.006 Endrin 0.0006 0.002 Fenoprop 0.009 Mecoprop 0.01 2,4,5-T 0.009 Disinfectants and disinfectant by-products (mg/L) Monochloramine 3 4.01 Chlorine 5 (C) 4.01

Disinfectant by-products Bromate Chlorate Chlorite 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol Formaldehyde Trihalomethanes Bromoform Dibromochloromethane Bromodichloromethane Chloroform Chlorinated acetic acids Monochloroacetic acid Dichloroacetic acid Trichloroacetic acid Chloral hydrate (trichloroacetaldehyde)

0.009 0.002 0.002 0.02 0.01 0.006 0.02 0.009

0.02

0.01 (A,T) 0.7 (D) 0.7 (D) 0.2 (C) 0.9 0.001 0.1 0.1 0.06 0.2 0.02 0.05 (T,D) 0.2 0.01 (P)

0.01

0.06 0.06

0.1

0.002

0.03

0.03

0.02 0.01 0.006 0.02 0.009

0.01 0.005

0.005

0.002

1

0.002

0.02

0.02

0.002

0.045

0.05

0.02

0.02

0.09 0.1 0.02

0.05 0.01 0.1

0.0002 0.01

0.009 0.01 0.009

3 5

3 0.003– 0.005 (active)

0.01

0.02

0.025

0.005

0.3 0.02 0.5

0.2 0.2 0.9

0.25

0.1 0.1 0.06 0.2

1

0.1

0.003

0.01

3 (total)

0.01

0.004

WATER QUALITY

Isoproturon Lindane MCPA Methoxychlor Metolachlor Molinate Pendimethalin Pentachlorophenol Phenol Pyriproxyfen Simazine Terbuthylazine (TBA) Trifluralin

0.1

0.2 (free)

0.01

0.15 0.1 0.1 0.02

0.05 0.1 0.01

0.08

0.03

3 5

0.025 0.2

0.01 0.1

0.0006

0.2 0.08 0.01 0.09 0.1 0.03 0.06

0.1

0.06

0.02 0.04 0.02

(Continued)

8-67

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(Continued) WHO (2004)

Halogenated acetonitriles Dichloroacetonitrile Dibromoacetonitrile Cyanogen chloride (as CN)

U.S.A. (2005)

20 0.07 0.07

EEC (1998)

Canada (2004)

Australia (2000)

0.08

Thailand (1978)

Vietnam (2002)

Korea (2000)

0.09 0.1 0.01

0.01

Indonesia Japan (1995) (2004)

China (1985)

South Africa (1996)

8-68

Table 8C.31

Chile (1984)

Brazil (2004)

Note: PZprovisional guideline value, as there is evidence of a hazard, but the available information on health effects is limited; TZprovisional guideline value because calculated guideline value is below the level that can be achieved through practical treatment methods, source protection, etc; AZprovisional guideline value because calculated guideline value is below the achievable quantification level; DZprovisional guideline value because disinfection is likely to result in the guideline value being exceeded; CZconcentrations of the substance at or below the health-based guideline value may affect the appearance, taste or odour of the water, leading to consumer complaints; TTZTreatment Technique—A required process intended to reduce the level of a contaminant in drinking water. a

Sum of trichloroethene and tretrachloroethene.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Source: From WHO, World Health Organization, 2004, Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, Third Edition, Volume 1, Recommendations. who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/ gdwq3/en/index.html. U.S.A., United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/OGWDW/mcl.html. Australia, Australian Government, National Health and Medical Research Council and Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, 2004, www.waterquality.crc.org.au. EEC, Lenntech Drinking Water Standards, www.lenntech.com. Canada, Health Canada, 2004, Summary of Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality, Prepared by the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Drinking Water of the Federal-Provincial-Territorial committee on Health and the Environment, April 2004, ec.gc.ga. Thailand, Notification of the Ministry of Industry, No. 322, B.E. 2521 (1978), issued under the Industrial Products Standards Act B.E. 2511 (1968), published in the Royal Gazette, Vol. 95, Part 68, dated July 4, B.E. 2521 (1978). pcdv1.pcd.go.th/Information/Regulations/WaterQuality/WaterQualityStandards.cfm. Vietnam, Hue, N.D. and Viet, P.H., 2003, Environmental Quality Standards in Vietnam, in United Nations University, Capacity Development Training for Monitoring of POPs in the East Asia Hydrosphere, 1–2 September 2003, Tokyo. Korea, Oh, J.R, 2003, Environmental Standards of Korea in United Nations University, Capacity Development Training for Monitoring of POPs in the East Asia Hydrosphere, 1–2 September 2003, Tokyo. Indonesia, Vigneswaran, Saravanamuthu, 1995, Water Treatment Processes: Simple Options, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton (Criteria of Water Quality, Category A). Japan, Japan Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare jwwa.or.jp/water-e07.html. China, Chinese Drinking Water Standards (GB 5749–85). South Africa, Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs and Foresty, 1996, South African Water Quality Guidelines, Volume 8, Field Guide, First Edition 1996, dwaf.pwv.gov.za/IWQS/wq_guide/field.pdf#searchZ‘Recreation%20Water%20Quality%20Guidelines’. Chile, Normas oficiales para la calidad del agua Chile, NORMA CHILENA OFICIAL 409/1.Of.84;, Agua Potable Parte 1: Requisitos cepis.ops-oms.org/bvsacg/e/normas2/NormaChi.pdf#searchZ“NORMA%20CHILENA%20OFICIAL%20409/1.Of.84”. Brazil, Ministerio da Saude, Portaria N.o 518, DE 25 De Marco De 2004 saneago.com.br/novasan/ leis/port518.pdf#searchZ“Ministerio%20da%20Saude%2C%20Portaria%20N.%20518”.

Physical parameters Color

Taste and odor

Turbidity

pH (standard units) Inorganic constituents (mg/L) Aluminum Ammonia Chloride Copper Hydrogen sulphide Iron Manganese Dissolved oxygen Sodium Sulfate Total dissolved solids Zinc Organic constituents (mg/L)a Toluene Xylene Ethylbenzene Styrene Monochlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene Trichlorobenzenes (total) Synthetic detergents

WHO (2004)

U.S.A. (2005)

15 TCU

15 (color units)

Should be acceptable

3 threshold odor number

5 NTU

!8.0 0.1–0.2 1.5 (odor), 35 (taste) 250 1 0.05 0.3 0.1 Narrative 200 250 1000 3

0.024–0.17 0.020–1.80 0.002–0.20 0.004–2.6 0.010–0.120 0.001–0.01 0.0003–0.03 0.005–0.05 no foam or taste problems Disinfectants and disinfectant by-products (mg/L) Chlorine 0.6–1.0 Chlorophenols 2-chlorophenol 0.0001–0.010 2,4-dichlorophenol 0.0003–0.040 Monochloramine 0.3 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 0.002–0.3

5 NTU

6.5–8.5 0.05 to 0.2

250 1 0.3 0.05

250 500 5

EEC (1998)

Acceptable to consumers and no abnormal change Acceptable to consumers and no abnormal change Acceptable to consumers and no abnormal change 6.5–9.5

Canada (2004)

Australia (2000)

Thailand (1978)

Vietnam (2002)

15 TCU

15 HU

5 Pt–Co

15 TCU

Inoffensive

Acceptable to most people

Nil

Not abnormal

15 TCU

Japan (2004)

China (1985)

5 Degrees

!15 8

Odorless, Not tasteless Abnormal

South Africa (1996)

Chile (1984)

Brazil (2004)

20 Pt–Co

15

1 (odour)

Tasteless, odorless

Not objectionable

1 NTU

5

5

0.15 1

0.25

0.2 1.5

100

250

250

5 NTU

5 SSU

2 NTU

1 NTU, 0.5 NTU for Tap Water

5 NTU

2 Degrees

Less than 3 8 not to exceed 5

6.5–8.5

6.5–8.5

5.8–8.5

6.5–8.5

5.8–8.6

6.5–8.5

0.2 1.5

0.2 0.5

0.2

0.2

250

250 1

0.3 0.05

0.3 0.1

0.1 0.05

0.3 0.1

0.05 0.3 0.1

200 200 500 1

250 1000 1

100 200 450 3

250 1000 5

200 250 1000 5

6.5–8.5

6.5–8.5

0.1

0.2 0.5

250 2

250 1 0.3 0.005 0.05

200 250

5

Indonesia (1995)

1 NTU (MAC) 5 NTU (AO)

0.2 0.5

0.2 0.05

Non objectionable

Korea (2000)

200 500 500 5 0.024 0.3 0.0024 0.3 0.003 0.001

250 1 0.05 0.3 0.1 O85% 180 250 500 3 0.025 0.02 0.003 0.004 0.01 0.001 0.003 0.005

0.6

0.0003 0.002

0.0001 0.0003 0.0002 0.002

250 1 0.5 0.3

0.05 0.5 0.5

0.3 0.3

250 1 0.05 0.3 0.1

200 500 5

200 250 1000 3

200 500 1

200 400 1000 5

200 1

250 1

WATER QUALITY

Table 8C.32 Comparison of Aesthetic Drinking Water Guidelines Recommended by WHO and Standards for Several Developed and Developing Countries

6–9

0.17 0.3 0.2 0.12

0.020

0.02

0.2 5

3 0.2

(Continued)

8-69

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 8C.32

(Continued)

a

U.S.A. (2005)

EEC (1998)

Canada (2004)

Australia (2000)

Thailand (1978)

Vietnam (2002)

Korea (2000)

Indonesia (1995)

Japan (2004)

China (1985)

South Africa (1996)

Chile (1984)

Brazil (2004)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

The levels indicated are not precise numbers. Problems may occur at lower or higher values according to local circumstances. A range of taste and odour threshold concentrations is given for organic constituents. Source: From WHO, World Health Organization, 2004, Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, Third Edition, Volume 1, Recommendations. www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/ gdwq3/en/index.html. U.S.A., United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/OGWDW/mcl.html. Australia, Australian Government, National Health and Medical Research Council and Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Austrailian Drinking Water Guidelines, 2004. www.waterquality.crc.org.au. EEC, Lenntech Drinking Water Standards, www.lenntech.com. Canada, Health Canada, 2004, Summary of Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality, Prepared by the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Drinking Water of the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Health and the Environment, April 2004, ec.gc.ga. Thailand, Notification of the Ministry of Industry, No. 322, B.E. 2521 (1978), issued under the Industrial Products Standards Act B.E. 2511 (1968), published in the Royal Gazette, Vol. 95, Part 68, dated July 4, B.E. 2521 (1978). pcdv1.pcd.go.th/Information/Regulations/WaterQuality/WaterQualityStandards.cfm. Vietnam, Hue, N.D. and Viet, P.H., 2003, Environmental Quality Standards in Vietnam, in United Nations University, Capacity Development Training for Monitoring of POPs in the East Asia Hydrosphere, 1–2 September 2003, Tokyo. Korea, Oh, J.R, 2003, Environmental Standards of Korea in United Nations University, Capacity Development Training for Monitoring of POPs in the East Asia Hydrosphere, 1–2 September 2003, Tokyo. Indonesia, Vigneswaran, Saravanamuthu, 1995, Water Treatment Processes: Simple Options, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton (Criteria of Water Quality, Category A). Japan, Japan Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare jwwa.or.jp/water-e07.html. China, Chinese Drinking Water Standards (GB 5749–85). South Africa, Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs and Foresty, 1996, South African Water Quality Guidelines, Volume 8, Field Guide, First Edition 1996, dwaf.pwv.gov.za/IWQS/wq_guide/field.pdf#searchZ“Recreation%20Water%20Quality%20Guidelines”. Chile, Normas oficiales para la calidad del agua Chile, NORMA CHILENA OFICIAL 409/1.Of.84, Agua Potable Parte 1: Requisitos cepis.ops-oms.org/bvsacg/e/normas2/Norma-Chi.pdf#searchZ“NORMA%20CHILENA%20OFICIAL%20409/1.Of.84”. Brazil, Ministerio da Saude, Portaria N.o 518, DE 25 De Marco De 2004 saneago.com.br/novasan/leis/port518.pdf#searchZ“Ministerio%20da%20Saude%2C% 20Portaria%20N.%20518”.

8-70

Table 8C.32 (Continued)

WHO (2004)

WATER QUALITY

8-71

SECTION 8D

MUNICIPAL WATER QUALITY

Table 8D.33 Range in Quality of Finished Water in Public Water Supplies of the 100 Largest Cities in the United States Constituent or Property Chemical Analyses (parts per million) Silica (SiO2) Iron (Fe) Manganese (Mn) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) Bicarbonate (HCO3) Carbonate (CO3) Sulfate (SO4) Chloride (Cl) Fluoride (F) Nitrate (NO3) Dissolved solids Hardness as CaCO3 Noncarbonate hardness as CaCO3 Specific conductance micromhos at 258C pH, pH units Color, color units Turbidity Spectrographic Analyses (mg/L) Silver (Ag) Aluminum (Al) Boron (B) Barium (Ba) Chromium (Cr) Copper (Cu) Iron (Fe) Lithium (Li) Manganese (Mn) Molybdenum (Mo) Nickel (Ni) Lead (Pb) Rubidium (Rb) Strontium (Sr) Titanium (Tl) Vanadium (V) Radiochemical Analyses Beta activity picocuries per liter Radium (Ra) picocuries per liter Uranium (U) micrograms per liter Note:

Maximum

Median

Minimum

72 1.30 2.50 145 120 198 30 380 26 572 540 7.0 23 1,580 738 446 1,660

7.1 0.02 0.00 26 6.25 12 1.6 46 0 26 13 0.4 0.7 186 90 34 308

0.0 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 22 0 0 18

7.5 2 0

5.0 0 0

10.5 24 13 7.0 1,500 590 380 35 250 1,700 170 1,100 68 34 62 67 1,200 49 70

0.23 54 31 43 0.43 8.3 43 2.0 5.0 1.4 !2.7 3.7 1.05 110 !1.5 !4.3

ND 3.3 2.5 1.7 ND !0.61 1.9 ND ND ND ND ND ND 2.2 ND ND

130 2.5 250

7.2 !0.1 0.15

!1.1 !0.1 !0.1

Maximum, median, and minimum values of as of 1962; ND means not detected.

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-72

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8D.34 Quality Limits of Finished Water in Public Water Supplies of the 100 Largest Cities in the United States Water Supplies Having Less Than Stated Concentration Constituent or Property Chemical Analyses (parts per million) Silica (SiO2) Iron (Fe) Manganese (Mn) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) Bicarbonate (HCO3) Carbonate (CO3) Sulfate (SO4) Chloride (Cl) Fluoride (F) Nitrate (NO3) Dissolved solids Hardness as CaCO3 Noncarbonate hardness as CaCO3 Specific conductance (micro mhos at 258C) pH, pH units Color, color units Turbidity Spectrographic Analyses (mg/L) Silver (Ag) Aluminum (Al) Boron (B) Barium (Ba) Chromium (Cr) Copper (Cu) Iron (Fe) Lithium (Li) Manganese (Mn) Molybdenum (Mo) Nickel (Ni) Phosphorus (P) Lead (Pb) Rubidium (Rb) Strontium (Sr) Titanium (Ti) Vanadium Radiochemical Analyses Beta activity picocuries per liter Radium (Ra) picocuries per liter Uranium (U) micrograms per liter Note:

Data as of 1962; ND means not detected.

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Concentration

Percent of Water Supplies

30 0.25 0.10 50 20 50 5.0 150 1.0 100 50 1.0 5.0 500 250 200

94 98 95 93 96 93 93 91 86 93 93 92 93 97 86 94

75 500

94 93

9.0 10 3

90 96 94

0.50 500 100 100 5.0 100 150 50 100 10 10 ND 10 5.0 500 5.0 10

95 87 94 94 95 94 94 96 97 96 95 92 95 91 96 96 91

20 0.2 2.0

92 91 93

WATER QUALITY

8-73

Table 8D.35 Quality of Raw and Treated Water in Public Water Supplies of the 100 Largest Cities in the United States Raw-Water Suppliesa Population Served (millions) Hardness (ppm) Less than 61 61–120 21–180 More than 180 Dissolved solids (ppm) Less than 100 101–250 251–500 More than 500 pH Less than 7.0 7.0–9.0 More than 9.0 Note:

Treated-Water Supplies

Number of Cities

Population Served (millions)

Number of Cities

21 15 16 8

29 16 22 27

23 22 11 3.7

30 41 16 13

21 23 11 1.5

27 38 29 6

21 28 8 1

27 48 22 3

16 42

18 80

14 38 7

9 74 17

Data as of 1962.

a

A few cities are not included because data are lacking. Source: From U.S. Geological Survey.

Table 8D.36 Standards for Raw Water Used as Sources of Domestic Water Supply Excellent Source of Water Supply, Requiring Disinfection Only, as Treatment

Constituents B.O.D. (5-day) ppm

Coliform MPN per 100 mL

Dissolved oxygen pH Chlorides, max Iron and manganese together Fluorides Phenolic compounds Color Turbidity

Monthly Average Maximum Day, or sample Monthly Average Maximum Day, or sample

Good Source of Water Supply Requiring Usual Treatment Such as Filtration and Disinfection

Poor Source of Water Supply, Requiring Special or Auxiliary Treatment and Disinfection

0.75 1.0

1.5–2.5 3.0–3.5

2.0–5.5 4.0–7.5

50–100 —

240–5,000 !20%O5,000 !5%O20,000

10,000–20,000

ppm. average % saturation Average ppm. Max. ppm.

4.0–7.5 50–75 6.0–8.5 50 0.3

2.5–7.0 25–75 5.0–9.0 250 1.0

2.5–6.5 — 3.8–10.5 500 15

ppm. Max. ppm ppm. ppm.

1.0 none 0–20 0–10

1.0 0.005 20–70 40–250

1.0 0.025 150 —

Source: From Calif. State Water Pollution Control Board, 1952.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-74

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8D.37 Summer Temperatures of Selected Municipal Water Supplies in the United States Temperature at Main Outlet, 8F

Location Surface Water Sources Atlanta, GA Baltimore, MD Birmingham, AL Boston, MA Buffalo, NY Chicago, IL Cincinnati, OH Cleveland, OH Detroit, MI Kansas City, MO Louisville, KY Nashville, TN New Orleans, LA Oakland, CA Philadelphia, PA Pittsburgh, PA Sacramento, CA St. Louis, MO Washington, DC Groundwater Sources Albuquerque, NM Aurora, CO Camden, NJ El Paso, TX Fresno, CA Houston, TX Jacksonville, FL Kalamazoo, MI Lafayette, LA Lansing, MI Lincoln, NE Lowell, MA Madison, WI Marion, FL Montgomery, AL Pensacola, FL Peoria, IL Pontiac, MI San Antonio, TX Sioux Falls, SD

June

July

August

September

78.1 61.0 78.0 68.3 62.0 55.4 76.0 58.0 64.0 84.0 77.0 84.0 86.0 59.0 71.0 75.2 70.7 77.0 43.0

83.5 66.0 82.0 74.3 71.0 68.0 82.0 68.0 75.0 93.0 82.0 88.0 89.0 62.0 79.0 80.6 70.7 85.0 67.0

79.5 70.0 81.0 73.4 73.0 69.4 81.0 73.5 74.0 91.0 82.0 88.0 90.0 64.0 77.0 80.6 80.6 83.0 73.0

77.8 64.0 79.0 69.4 66.0 62.5 77.0 71.0 68.0 85.0 77.0 84.0 90.0 64.0 72.0 75.2 77.0 75.0 75.0

72.0 60.0 58.0 84.0 72.0 84.0 84.8 52.0 53.0 57.5 58.0 50.0 53.0 54.0 70.0 70.0 56.0 55.0 76.0 55.0

72.0 60.0 58.0 85.0 72.0 84.0 86.3 52.0 53.0 58.0 59.0 50.0 52.0 54.0 70.0 70.0 56.0 55.0 76.0 55.0

72.0 60.0 58.0 85.0 72.0 84.0 86.7 52.0 53.0 59.0 59.0 50.0 52.0 55.0 71.0 70.0 56.0 55.0 76.0 55.0

72.0 60.0 58.0 84.0 72.0 84.0 82.4 52.0 53.0 59.0 59.0 50.0 53.0 55.0 71.0 70.0 54.0 55.0 76.0 55.0

Source: From U.S. Dept. of Commerce.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

8-75

Table 8D.38 Quality of Water Supplied by Municipal Water Systems in the United States–1984

State and Water Utility Alabama Birmingham Montgomery Alaska Anchorage Arizona Phoenix/Phoenix Wtr & Swr Dept Tucson Arkansas Fort Smith Little Rock California Anaheim Burbank Concord/Contra Costa Water Dept Corte Madera/Marin Munic Wtr Dist Fremont/Alameda Cnty Wtr Dist Fresno Glendale La Mesa/Helix Wtr District La Puente/Southwest Suburban Wtr Los Angeles/Los Angeles Wtr & Power Oakland/East Bay Munic Util Dist Palm Springs/Desert Wtr Agency San Diego San Jose/California Wtr Serv Co Santa Barbara/Santa Barbara Pub Santa Monica Sunnyvale Colorado Boulder Colorado Spgs Denver Greeley Connecticut Bridgeport Hartford New Britain New Haven/Regional Wtr Authority Delaware Newark/Artesian Wtr Co District of Columbia Washington/Washington Aqueduct Florida Clearwater/Pinellas Cnty Wtr Sys Fort Lauderdale Jacksonville Miami Orlando Pompano Beach Tallahassee Tampa W. Palm Beach/City of West Palm Winter Haven Georgia Acworth/Wyckoff Treatment Div Marietta/Quarles Treatment Div Stone Mountain/Dekalb Cnty Wtr Hawaii Honolulu Pearl Harbor Idaho Boise

Hardness (CaCO3)

Alkalinity (CaCO3)

pH

Avg Temp Raw (8F)

Raw (mg/L)

Finished (mg/L)

Raw (mg/L)

Finished (mg/L)

Raw

Finished

60.8 54.0

75 18

104 30

73 15

77 32

7.9 6.7

8.2 8.6

37.4

63

61

52

42

7.6

7.2

60.1 75.2

190 141

190 141

125 150

105 150

8.2 7.5

7.6 7.5

56.5 64.2

39 9

18 19

14 7

28 11

6.6 6.7

9.0 7.7

64.0 60.0 63.0 58.1 62.1 70.0 69.8 71.6 68.0 58.1 60.4 64.9 66.2 68.0 66.2 68.0 60.1

331 165 80 57 97 119 190 300 220 69 26 150 224

345

186

8.3 7.6 8.0 7.4 7.6 7.8 7.9 7.7 7.4 7.9 8.9 7.0 8.0

7.7

550 400 300

68 67 97 119 296 300 220 69 27 150 235 181 550 180 140

123 159 64 58 65 123 156 115 180 89 22 120 131

54.5 42.3 50.0 50.5

13 34 102 34

23 36 99 36

55.8 55.4 50.0 53.6

28

210 220 200

59 71 65 123 108 115 180 89 22 120 135 134 200 220

8.1 7.8 8.0

8.5 8.7 8.7 7.8 8.0 8.0 7.4 7.9 8.9 7.0 8.2 7.9 7.9 8.1 7.3

22 72 42

29 63 41

7.0 7.5 8.0 7.4

7.2 7.7 7.5 7.1

14

50 50

45 20 35 69

12 46

19 8 14 53

6.7 6.5 6.5 7.1

7.1 7.1 8.3 6.9

55.4

77

77

40

45

5.8

7.4

62.6

127

137

77

70

8.0

7.7

75.2 78.8 79.0 77.0 75.2 68.0 68.0 72.5 68.2 74.5

215 259 248 250 125 240

200 231 139 224 120 198

210 59 138 37 120 30

7.2 7.6 7.5 7.3 7.8 7.1

107 71 140

215 90 248 66 125 63 143 151 102 140

90 58 125

85 58 125

7.5 8.1 8.1

7.8 9.6 7.5 9.0 7.4 8.8 7.8 7.7 8.4 7.8

61.3 53.6 64.4

17 15 14

30 25 28

15 10 11

22 18 17

6.7 6.8 6.8

7.5 8.7 8.9

72.0

121

60

60 69

117

8.0 6.9

223

7.6

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-76

Table 8D.38

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

State and Water Utility Illinois Champaign/Northern Illinois Wtr East St. Louis/Interurban Dist Peoria/Peoria Dist/IL-Amer Wtr Springfield Indiana Bloomington Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend Iowa Cedar Rapids Davenport/Davenport Water Co Des Moines Sioux City Kansas Kansas City Mission/Johnson Cnty Wtr Dist 1 Topeka Kentucky Lexington/Kentucky–American Wtr Louisville Louisiana Baton Rouge/Baton Rouge Wtr Wks Jefferson Lake Charles New Orleans Maine Portland Maryland Annapolis/City of Annapolis Wtr Baltimore Glen Burnie/Anne Arundel Cnty Massachusetts Fall River Springfield Weymouth Michigan Ann Arbor Grand Rapids Lansing Saginaw Minnesota Bloomington Duluth St. Paul Mississippi Jackson Missouri Independence/Missouri Wtr Co Kansas City/Kansas City, Mo Wtr Springfield St. Louis/St. Louis Cnty Wtr Co Lincoln Omaha Nevada Las Vegas Reno/Sierra Pacific Power Co New Hampshire Manchester Nashua/Pennichuck Wtr Wks New Jersey Clifton/Passaic Valley Wtr Comm East Orange

Hardness (CaCO3)

Alkalinity (CaCO3)

pH

Avg Temp Raw (8F)

Raw (mg/L)

Finished (mg/L)

Raw (mg/L)

Finished (mg/L)

Raw

Finished

53.6 60.8 53.6 60.8

258 228 250 195

80 228 250 105

336 159 170 140

110 144 161 25

7.7 7.7 8.0 8.2

9.0 7.2 7.6 9.8

59.0 55.4 57.2 51.8

64 272 340

80 97 252 340

28 200 170 260

34 25 159 260

7.3 7.9 8.1 8.5

8.0 9.7 7.6 7.8

53.6 55.9 51.1 54.0

276 200 304 445

129 200 145 445

217 155 239 267

67 129 63 267

7.7 8.2 8.3 7.2

9.5 7.1 9.3 7.5

62.6 59.0 57.2

294 245 250

272 121 114

205 191 195

215 54 79

8.1 7.8 8.2

8.0 9.1 9.4

59.9 57.2

165 138

148 148

66 66

72 65

7.7 7.5

8.1 8.5

64.4 69.8 64.0

5 154 110 161

5 152 110 117

104 160 106

175 99 175 61

8.7 7.5 7.1 8.0

8.5 7.4 8.0 10.1

50.0

9

9

4

6.9

6.7

64.4

70 70 56

20 40

50 46

53.6

25 47 41

6.0 7.3 5.1

8.7 8.0 8.5

46.0 45.7 55.0

2 11 21

3 11 47

1 8 7

5 11 11

5.7 6.4 6.5

8.5 6.9 8.4

55.8 45.9 51.8

269 140 412 96

142 141 88 106

210 115 318 82

60 106 39 84

8.0 8.4 7.0 8.0

9.3 7.6 9.4 8.2

50.0 39.6 51.8

310 45 175

90 45 92

315 43 166

92 36 62

7.6 7.9 8.1

8.3 7.1 8.4

65.7

19

52

15

17

6.5

8.8

59.5 55.0 61.5 57.2 54.0 53.2

297 261 150 221 240 286

119 173 152 124 240 185

227 182 132 155 180 177

48 85 123 48 180 68

7.3 8.2 7.6 8.3 7.8 8.2

9.6 9.5 7.3 9.5 7.8 9.0

59.4 53.6

288 40

287 40

128 40

130 27

8.0 7.7

7.9 6.9

59.0 59.0

11 30

11 50

3 9

4 16

6.3 6.4

7.2 7.3

54.0 50.0

86 280

85 280

58 158

55 158

7.2 7.7

7.1 7.7

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

Table 8D.38

8-77

(Continued)

State and Water Utility Elizabeth/Elizabethtown Wtr Co Harrington Park/Hackensack Wtr Parsippany Short Hills/Commonwealth Wtr Co Toms River Wanaque/North NJ Dist Wtr Supply New Mexico Albuquerque Santa Fe/Sangre De Cristo Wtr Co New York Albany Buffalo/Tonawanda Wtr Dept East Meadow/Hempstead Wtr Dept Lake Success/Jamaica Water Co. Massapequa New York/New Bur Wtr Supply Rochester/Monroe Cnty Wtr Auth Syracuse Yonkers North Carolina Charlotte Greensboro Raleigh Winston-Salem/Cnty Util Com North Dakota Fargo Ohio Akron Cincinnati Cleveland Dayton Toledo Oklahoma Oklahoma City Tulsa Oregon Eugene Medford Portland Pennsylvania Allentown Bryn Mawr/Philadelphia Suburban Hershey/Riverton Consol Wtr Co Lancaster Philadelphia Pittsburgh/Western Pennsylvania Rhode Island Newport West Warwick/Kent Cnty Wtr Auth South Carolina Anderson Charleston Spartanburg South Dakota Rapid City Tennessee Chattanooga/Tennessee-American Knoxville/Knoxville Utils Brd Memphis Nashville/Metro Dept Wtr & Swr Texas Arlington Dallas El Paso

Hardness (CaCO3)

Alkalinity (CaCO3)

pH

Avg Temp Raw (8F)

Raw (mg/L)

Finished (mg/L)

Raw (mg/L)

Finished (mg/L)

Raw

Finished

51.8 55.4 52.0 55.0 65.3 50.0

73 120 177 72 12 28

86 120 177 135 60 36

47 85 139 42 38 16

40 80 139 77 70 20

7.5 7.4 7.1 7.8 6.2 6.7

7.2 7.9 7.1 7.4 7.4 7.4

69.8 59.0

120 150

120 150

138 200

138 200

7.3 7.8

7.3 7.8

48.4 55.4

62.1

43 140 30 50 8

90 100 65

7.3 8.2 5.6 6.3 5.8 7.3 7.8 8.2 7.1

8.9 7.8 8.6 7.2 7.2

130 120 110

38 95 5 30 6 37 95 100 80

48 90 30 50 30

55.9 52.0 59.0

54 135 30 50 13 65 130 120 100

7.4 8.1 6.5

64.9 64.4 68.0 60.8

13 27 20 16

28 44 40 30

12 24 29 16

19 26 30 20

7.2 7.0 6.8 7.0

9.2 7.7 7.4 7.4

44.6

289

123

203

84

8.1

9.1

54.3 60.1 50.9

112 112 125 362 127

112 130 125 149 74

78 44 92 278 93

74 54 84 62 38

7.6 7.6 8.0 7.5 8.1

7.3 8.5 7.5 8.6 9.2

63.9 66.2

154 140

101 136

97 97

40 102

8.2 8.0

10.3 8.2

55.4 44.6 50.0

24 33 12

22 33 12

23 35 12

22 35 10

7.5 6.8 7.1

7.3 6.8 6.8

55.9 58.3 58.6 57.2 55.4 56.8

176 109 145 195 148 111

199 208 145 208 132 122

128 35 121 135 64 21

144 38 110 126 53 31

7.7 7.0 8.0 7.8 7.6 7.3

7.6 7.4 7.4 7.6 7.0 7.3

60.8

60 32

70 32

22 13

26 13

6.5 5.8

7.5 6.8

66.0 68.0 62.6

6 29 11

6 29 20

9 24 11

10 30 11

7.0 6.8 6.9

7.1 8.2 7.1

55.0

283

283

180

180

7.7

7.5

64.9 60.8 63.3 60.8

68 81 47 90

77 83 47 90

53 78 55 65

50 70 55 65

7.1 7.6 6.4 7.6

7.2 7.5 7.2 8.0

69.8 64.4 68.0

109 130 250

110 86 150

90 110 192

90 50 80

8.0 8.0 8.2

8.2 8.9 8.7

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-78

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8D.38

(Continued)

State and Water Utility Fort Worth Lubbock San Antonio Wichita Falls Utah Ogden Salt Lake City/Salt Lake Cnty Co Vermont Burlington Virginia Merrifield/Fairfax Cnty Wtr Auth Newport News Norfolk Richmond/City of Richmond Washington Everett Seattle/Seattle Wtr Dept Tacoma Vancouver West Virginia Charleston/W VA Wtr Co - Kanawha Huntington Wheeling Wisconsin Green Bay Madison Milwaukee Racine Wyoming Casper Cheyenne

Note:

Hardness (CaCO3)

Alkalinity (CaCO3)

Avg Temp Raw (8F)

Raw (mg/L)

Finished (mg/L)

Raw (mg/L)

Finished (mg/L)

66.2 60.1 75.7 69.8

105 223 250 125

107 222

93 166

70

87 177 215 125

53.6 46.0

170 159

125 156

50.0

69

59.0 60.8 64.9 57.2

pH

Raw

Finished 8.5 7.8

50

8.0 8.3 7.2 8.1

9.4

131 137

118 132

7.4 7.4

7.1 7.3

59

47

47

7.6

8.0

60 80 45 70

90 80 69 70

33 55 40 45

44 50 37 35

7.3 7.4 6.8 7.6

7.5 7.1 7.0 7.5

51.1 47.3 50.0 53.0

12 15 15 98

12 17 15 98

11 11 20

20 16 20

6.5 7.2 6.9 6.7

7.2 7.7 6.9 6.7

57.9 69.0 56.5

47 109 109

62 121 129

19 39 32

26 38 40

6.8 7.4 7.4

8.7 7.3 8.9

44.3

350 93 140

130 350 93 140

132 300 112 112

118 300 104 107

8.2 7.4 8.2 8.3

7.6 7.4 7.5 7.7

48.9 61.9

175 110

208 110

63

124 65

8.1 7.2

7.4 7.1

46.4 50.0

Average temperature, hardness, alkalinity, and pH; selected systems only. The quality of water supplied by municipal water systems in 1996 is available from the American Water Works Association, American Water Works Association WaterStats2ev2, Water:\STATS 1996 Survey, Water Quality, www.awwa.org.

Source: From American water works association 1984 Water Utility Operating Data. Copyright AWWA.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

8-79

Table 8D.39 Radium-226, Radium-228, Radon-222, and Uranium in Public Drinking Water Supplies in the United States (Population-Weighted Average Activates) State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming United States Note:

Radium-226 (pCi/L)

Radium-228 (pCi/L)

Radon-222 (pCi/L)

Uranium (mg/L)

0.202 0.180 0.180 0.285 0.332 0.199 0.206 0.180 0.341 1.274 — 0.181 5.290 0.347 0.390 0.195 0.184 0.218 0.180 0.486 0.180 0.357 1.899 0.390 1.283 0.244 0.281 0.180 0.255 0.181 0.396 0.185 0.389 0.194 0.373 0.383 0.180 0.227 0.180 0.250 0.185 0.228 0.327 0.252 0.189 0.215 0.180 0.189 2.688 0.770 0.905

1.00 1.00 1.03 1.01 1.02 1.00 1.00 1.62 1.01 1.01 — 1.00 4.24 1.22 1.02 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.10 1.82 1.10 1.13 1.00 1.04 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.15 1.01 1.14 1.02 1.02 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.06 1.00 1.01 1.03 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.32 1.41 1.41

420.1 128.5 1435.1 100.0 228.4 329.9 1208.9 123.3 127.3 563.4 — 437.4 193.2 187.4 136.4 396.1 205.5 108.2 1228.4 266.1 587.8 185.2 388.7 104.3 143.7 344.6 351.6 743.2 2673.5 137.1 309.1 223.7 2277.7 114.0 175.2 158.0 118.2 507.8 1170.0 557.7 281.6 113.7 150.5 226.8 997.1 485.4 432.5 263.6 367.2 558.0 249.0

0.30 0.16 3.65 0.15 1.54 6.81 1.24 0.10 0.22 1.31 — 2.60 0.36 1.05 0.96 3.39 0.38 0.12 0.42 0.08 0.48 0.23 0.87 0.10 1.27 1.95 3.56 2.85 1.70 0.09 7.99 0.24 1.13 0.90 0.91 4.02 0.14 0.83 0.10 0.52 3.84 0.16 0.86 2.94 0.42 0.61 1.52 0.22 0.95 1.32 0.82

Minimum Reporting Limit (MRL) was used in the average for those cases in which the activity or concentration was les than the MRL. The international unit of activity is the Becquerel (Bq), which is approximately equal to 27 pCi.

Source: From Longtin, J., 1990, Chapter 8, Occurrence of radionuclides in drinking water, a national study In Cothern, R. and Rebers, P (Editors), 1990, Radon, Radium, and Uranium in Drinking Water, Lewis Publishers, Inc, Chelsea, Michigan. Original Source: From Longtin, J., 1988.

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8-80

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8D.40 Occurrence of Selected Radionuclides in Groundwater Used for Drinking Water in the United States Concentration (Picocuries/L) Radionuclide Ra-224 Ra-226 Ra-228 Pb-210 Po-210 Source:

Mean

Median

Standard Deviation

Maximum

Number of Samples

3.2 1.6 2.1 0.6 0.1

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.01

10.1 2.8 7.9 0.5 0.5

73.6 16.9 72.3 4.1 4.9

99 99 99 96 96

From Focazio, M.J., et al., 2001, Occurrence of Selected Radionuclides in Groundwater Used for Drinking Water in the United States: A Reconnaissance Survey, 1998, USGS Water-Resources Investigations Report 00-4273, www.usgs.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Concentration (mBq kgL1) Region/country

238

North America United States Asia China India Europe Finland France Germany Italy Poland Romania Switzerland Spain UK Reference value

0.3–77

U

230

Th

0.1

226

Ra

0.4–1.8

0.1–700 0.09–1.5

0.2–120

0.5–150,000 4.4–930 0.4–600 0.5–130 7.3 0.4–37 0–1,000 3.7–4.4

10–49,000 7–700 1–1,800 0.2–1,200 1.7–4.5 0.7–21 0–1,500 !20–4,000 0–180 0.5

1

1.4

0.1

210

Pb

210

Po

0.1–1.5

232

228

0.05

0–0.5

Th

Ra

228

Th

235

U

0.04

WATER QUALITY

Table 8D.41 Concentrations of Uranium and Thorium Series Radionuclides in Drinking Water in the United States, Asia, and Europe

0.04–12

0.2–21,000

0.2–7,600

18–570 0–4.2

0.2–200

0.1–200

1.6 7–44

0.5 7–44

0.06 0.04–9.3 0–200

40–200 10

5

0.05

0.5

0–50

0.05

0.04

Source: From The United Nations is the author of the original material. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, 2000, UNSCEAR 2000 Report Vol. I, Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation.

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Table 8D.42 Radon in Public Drinking Water Supplies in the United States (Population-Weighted Average Activities (pCi/L)) Sites with%1000 People State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico United States Note:

Sites withO1000 People

Cothern

NIRS

Cothern

NIRS

160 (40) 100 (47) 120 (44) 75 (51) 500 (18) 380 (23) 1,500 (3) 100 (48) 1,000 (9) 1,100 (6) 50 (52) 256 (30) 100 (49) 105 (45) 250 (31) 250 (32) 250 (33) 180 (39) 10,000 (1) 700 (15) 1,500 (4) 105 (46) 210 (36) 150 (41) 300 (24) 500 (19) 300 (25) 550 (17) 1,400 (5) 150 (42) 200 (37) 500 (20) 1,100 (7) 300 (26) 200 (38) 250 (34) 300 (27) 1,000 (10) 3,400 (2) 1,100 (8) 300 (28) 100 (50) 150 (43) 500 (21) 250 (35) 700 (16) 300 (29) 1,000 (11) 750 (14) 880 (12) 500 (22) 780 (13)

2,025 (5) 129 (44) 1,302 (7) — 538 (18) 336 (29) 3,328 (1) 116 (48) 393 (25) 419 (24) — 431 (22) 136 (40) 136 (41) 166 (35) 365 (27) 148 (39) 116 (49) 1,228 (9) 2,161 (4) 253 (33) 370 (26) 342 (28) 133 (42) 125 (46) 535 (19) 291 (31) 743 (12) 2,674 (3) 737 (13) 423 (23) 647 (14) 2,876 (2) 125 (47) 164 (36) 164 (37) 130 (43) 467 (20) 1,170 (10) 1,260 (8) 334 (30) 128 (45) 264 (32) 157 (38) 1,533 (6) 952 (11) 238 (34) 459 (21) 540 (17) 558 (16) — 602 (15)

160 (35) 100 (47) 320 (17) 75 (50) 500 (10) 380 (14) 770 (4) 126 (42) 148 (40) 150 (37) 50 (51) 256 (25) 167 (34) 105 (45) 200 (29) 106 (44) 110 (43) 180 (31) 2,000 (1) 450 (11) 770 (5) 105 (46) 210 (28) 82 (49) 100 (48) 328 (16) 290 (19) 550 (9) 1,183 (2) 300 (18) 180 (32) 132 (41) 278 (21) 150 (38) 169 (33) 160 (36) 264 (23) 720 (6) 1,151 (3) 276 (22) 290 (20) 24 (52) 150 (39) 360 (15) 656 (8) 450 (12) 264 (24) 720 (7) 234 (27) 415 (13) 200 (30) 240 (26)

171 (26) — 1,610 (1) 100 (42) 161 (28) 317 (12) 646 (2) 126 (33) 118 (35) 583 (4) — 438 (9) 198 (20) 195 (22) 130 (32) 370 (11) 220 (19) 107 (41) — 112 (36) 596 (3) 164 (27) 397 (10) 100 (43) 148 (33) 112 (37) 444 (8) — — 125 (34) 250 (16) 173 (25) 100 (44) 109 (40) 177 (24) 158 (29) 112 (38) 535 (5) — 196 (21) 273 (15) 112 (39) 138 (31) 238 (18) 497 (7) 313 (13) 520 (6) 240 (17) 300 (14) — — 194 (23)

Numbers in parentheses are relative rankings; The international unit of activity is the Becquerel (Bq), which is approximately equal to 27 pCi. Source: From Longtin, J., 1990, Chapter 8, Occurrence of radionuclides in drinking water, a national study In Cothern, R. and Rebers, P (Editors), 1990, Radon, Radium, and Uranium in Drinking Water, Lewis Publishers, Inc, Chelsea, Michigan. Original Source: Longtin, J., 1988.

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WATER QUALITY

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Table 8D.43 Number of Public Drinking Water Supplies in the United States Exceeding Various Levels of Radon Estimated Numbers That Exceed the Concentration in Column 2 Lifetime Risk Level

Radon Concentration (pCi/L)

Public Drinking Water Supplies

Population thousands

10,000 1,000 100 10

500–4000 1000–10,000 5000–30,000 10,000–40,000

20–300 200–4000 10,000–100,000 50,000–100,000

10K3 10K4 10K5 10K6 Note:

Rounded off to one significant figure.

Source: From Cothern, C.R., 1987, Estimating the health risk of radon in drinking water, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., vol. 79, no. 4. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission.

Table 8D.44 Occurrence of Radon in Well Water in the United States State Arizona California Connecticut Iowa Illinois Indiana Massachusetts New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico Ohio Pennsylvania Rhode Island Virginia West Virginia Cumulative Note:

Number of Wells Sampled

Range of Detected Radon Levels (pCi/L)

Mean Radon Concentration (pCi/L)

Associated ErrorGpCi/L

5 44 3 6 16 28 28 12 113 36 10 64 3 2 7 377

434–681 !100–2,003 757–984 All!100 182–714 !100–624 !100–3,288 880–4,609 !100–3,805 !100–678 !100–343 !100–4,622 640–787 465–468 !100–281 !100–4,622

582 589 841 12 449 324 1,145 1,716 394 253 148 1,570 702 467 93 686

105 91 98 75 115 106 101 134 79 266 116 89 61 53 42 104

Range of detected radon concentrations and corresponding mean radon levels.

Source: From Dixon, K.L., and Lee, R.G., 1988, Occurrence of radon in well supplies, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., vol. 80, no. 7. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission.

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50 Longtin (1988) Horton (1983)

Percent abundance

40

Hess et al. (1985)

30

20

10

0 < 3700

3700 to < 18500

64750 to < 185000

18500 to < 64750 222Rn

185000 to > 370000 370000

(Bq m3)

Figure 8D.12 Distributions of radon in drinking water in several studies in the United States. (Reprinted with permission from (Risk Assessment of Radon in Drinking Water) q (1999) by the National Academy of Sciences, Courtesy of the National Academies Press, Washington, DC)

Table 8D.45 Aluminum in Public Drinking Water Supplies in the United States

Category Region I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X Population served 25–9999 10,000–99,999 100,000–999,999 R1,000,000

Samples with Concentrations O0.014 mg/L

Samples

Samples With Concentrations O0.05 mg/L percent

Percent

46 71 123 80 100 35 53 105 89 14

13 25 37 54 51 29 2 30 29 0

286 92 222 116

15 39 48 38

Overall Median (mg/L)

Median (mg/L)

Maximum (mg/L)

33 44 54 68 64 60 13 47 52 7

0.043 0.066 0.070 0.161 0.082 0.040 0.026 0.083 0.053

0.179 0.249 2.670 0.449 2.160 0.889 0.051 2.580 1.167

!0.014 !0.014 0.022 0.060 0.051 0.029 !0.014 !0.014 0.020 !0.014

28 61 66 62

0.051 0.087 0.094 0.058

1.167 2.580 2.670 0.402

!0.014 0.023 0.045 0.033

Note: Finished water; by USEPA region and population category. Source: From Miller, R.G. and others, 1984. The occurrence of aluminum in drinking water, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., vol. 76, no. 1. Copyright Am. Water Works Assoc. Reprinted with permission.

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WATER QUALITY

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Small systems

Percent exceedance

Percent exceedance

Large systems 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

USGS NAOS

1

2

5 10 Arsenic (ug/L)

20

50

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

USGS NAOS

1

2

5 10 Arsenic (ug/L)

20

50

Figure 8D.13 Exceedance frequency of arsenic concentrations in small and large regulated water supply systems in the United States. (From Welch, A.H., et al. 1999, Arsenic in groundwater supplies of the United States, In: Arsenic Exposure and Health Effects, W.R. Chappell, C.O. Abernathy and R.L. Calderon, Eds., Elsevier Science, New York, pp. 9–17, http://water.usgs. gov.)

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Table 8D.46 Statistical Results of Differences in Arsenic Concentrations in Water Collected from Public Water-Supply Wells and Other Types of Wells, by Physiographic Provinces in the United States

Physiographic Province

Number of Samples Public WaterSupply Wells All Other Wells

Mean (mg/L) Public WaterSupply wells All Other Wells

Median (mg/L) Public WaterSupply Wells All Other Wells

95th Percentile (mg/L) Public WaterSupply Wells All Other Wells

99th Percentile (mg/L) Public WaterWupply Wells All Other Wells

1. Appalachian Highlands

376 2,212

1 3

%1 %1

5 8

10 25

0.6552

2. Atlantic Coast Plain

646 2,047

1 2

%1 %1

2 6

7 21

0.0067

3. Interior Highlands, Interior Plains, and Laurentian Upland

342 3,947

5 5

%1 %1

19 16

75 48

0.3289

4. Intermontane Plateaus

458 4,640

9 15

3 3

39 44

100 200

0.1389

5. Pacific Mountain System

303 2,401

6 9

2 2

21 27

92 82

0.7159

6. Rocky Mountain System

74 1,028

2 7

%1 %1

6 20

30 100

0.6444

Note: a

Wilcoxon Test Statistica (pO/z/)

mg/L, micrograms per liter; R, greater than or equal to; !, less than.

A value!0.05 indicates the two data sets are different.

Source: From Focazio, M.J., et al., 2000, A Retrospective Analysis on the Occurrence of Arsenic in Groundwater Resources of the United States and Limitations in Drinking-Water-Supply Characterizations, USGS, Water Resources Investigations Report 99-4279, www.usgs.gov. With permission. Locations of major physiographic provinces of the United States

(RMS) Rocky mountain (IP) system Interior plains

Appalachian highlands (AH)

Pacific mountain system (PMS) Intermontane plateaus (IMP)

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Atlantic plain (AP)

WATER QUALITY

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0

300 Miles

0

300 km

Explanation Arsenic in water from 18,850 wells and springs 0 0

400 Miles

0

400 km 0

200 Miles 200 km

Greater than 10 µg/L 5 to 9.9 µg/L 3 to 4.9 µg/L Less than 2.9 µg/L

Figure 8D.14 Locations and concentration ranges of samples in the USGS arsenic point data base. (From Focazio, M.J., et al. A Retrospective Analysis on the Occurrence of Arsenic in Groundwater Resources of the United States and Limitations in Drinking-Water-Supply Characterizations, USGS, Water Resources Investigations Report 99–4279, 2000, http://water. usgs.gov.)

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Table 8D.47 Estimated Arsenic Occurrence in United States Groundwater Community Water Systems Number of Systems with Arsenic Concentrations (mg/L) System Size (Population Served)

Note: a b

178 14,025 14,991 4,671 5,710 2,459 1,215 131 61 2 434,43

O2

O3

O5

O10

O15

O20

O25

O30

O40

O50

49 3,833 4,097 1,277 1,561 672 332 36 17 1 11,873 11,543 13,007

35 2,788 2,980 929 1,135 489 242 26 12 0 8,636 8,363 9,501

22 1,696 1,812 565 690 297 147 16 7 0 5,252 5,100 5,665

9 743 795 248 303 130 64 7 3 0 2,302 2,250 2,567

5 429 459 143 175 75 37 4 2 0 1,329 1,269 1,499

4 281 300 93 114 49 24 3 1 0 869 821 995

3 199 213 66 81 35 17 2 1 0 617 573 712

2 147 157 49 60 26 13 1 1 0 456 421 534

1 90 96 30 37 16 8 1 0 0 278 252 335

1 60 64 20 25 11 5 1 0 0 187 165 226

CI, confidence interval.

Based on 1998 Baseline SDWIS data for purchased and non-purchased systems. Systems characterized as GW under the influence of SW are considered to be surface water systems. Totals may not add up due to rounding of the number of systems to the nearest whole number.

Source:

From USEPA, 2000, Arsenic Occurrence in Public Drinking Water Supplies, EPA-815-R-00-023, December 2000, www.epa.gov.

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!25 25–100 101–500 501–1,000 1,001–3,300 3,301–10,000 10,001–50,000 50,001–100,000 100,001–1,000,000 O 1,000,000 Total Systemsb Lower 95% CI Upper 95% CI

Total Number of Systemsa

Number of Systems with Arsenic Concentrations (mg/L) System Size (Population Served) !25 25–100 101–500 501–1,000 1,001–3,300 3,301–10,000 10,001–50,000 50,001–100,000 100,001–1,000,000 O 1,000,000 Total Systems Lower 95% CI Upper 95% CIb Note: a b

Total Number of Systemsa 74 1,001 1,983 1,219 2,420 1,844 1,606 300 261 13 10,721

O2

O3

O5

O10

O15

O20

O25

O30

O40

O50

7 98 195 120 238 181 158 29 26 1 1,052 973 2,730

4 56 110 68 135 103 89 17 15 1 597 514 2,212

2 30 60 37 73 56 49 9 8 0 325 193 1,036

1 8 16 10 19 15 13 2 2 0 86 56 167

0 5 9 6 11 9 7 1 1 0 50 25 107

0 3 6 4 8 6 5 1 1 0 34 14 88

0 2 5 3 6 4 4 1 1 0 26 9 77

0 2 4 2 5 3 3 1 0 0 20 6 71

0 1 3 2 3 2 2 0 0 0 14 3 65

0 1 2 1 2 2 2 0 0 0 10 2 63

WATER QUALITY

Table 8D.48 Estimated Arsenic Occurrence in United States Surface Water Community Water Systems

CI, confidence interval.

Based on 1998 Baseline SDWIS data for purchased and non-purchased systems. Systems characterized as GW under the influence of SW are considered to be surface water systems. Totals may not add up due to rounding of the number of systems to the nearest whole number.

Source:

From USEPA, 2000, Arsenic Occurence in Public Drinking Water Supplies, EPA-815-R-00-023, December 2000, www.epa.gov.

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Table 8D.49 Summary of Documented Cases of Naturally-Occurring Arsenic Problems in World Groundwaters Area (km2)

Country/Region

Population Exposeda

Concentration Ranges (mg L)

Aquifer Type

Bangladesh

150,000

ca. 3!107

!0.5–2,500

West Bengal

23,000

6!106

!10–3,200

China Taiwan

4000

5.6!106 105 (formerly)

10–1820

Sediments, including black shale

Groundwater Conditions

Holocene alluvial/deltaic Strongly reducing, neutral sediments. Abundance of pH, high alkalinity, slow solid organic matter groundwater flow rates As Bangladesh As Bangladesh

4300 (HB) 30,000 total

ca. 105 in HB

!1–2400

Holocene alluvial and lacustrine sediments

Xinjiang (Tianshan Plain) Shanxi

38,000

(500 diagnosed)

40–750

Holocene alluvial plain Alluvial plain

DPHE/BGS/MML (1999) CGWB (1999); POA (1999) Sun et al. (2000) Kuo (1968), Tseng et al. (1968)

Luo et al. (1997), Zhai et al. (1998), Ma et al. (1999), Sun et al. (1999), Smedley et al. (2000b, 2001b)

Wang and Huang (1994) Sun et al. (1999)

29,000

!2–176

Quaternary alluvial plain

Reducing groundwater, some artesian. Some high in humic acid

Varsa´nyi et al. (1991); Gurzau (2000)

2!106

!1–5300 (7800 in some porewaters)

Nicolli et al., 1989; Nicolli and Merino (2001); Smedley et al. (2001a); Sancha and Castro (2000)

Northern Chile (Antofagasta) 125,000

500,000

100–1000

Holocene and earlier loess Oxidizing, neutral to high pH, with rhyolitic volcanic ash high alkalinity. Groundwaters often saline. As(V), accompanied by high B, V, Mo, U. Also high As concentrations in some river waters Quaternary volcanogenic Generally oxidizing. Arid sediment conditions, high salinity, high B. Also high-As river waters

Southwest U.S.A. Basin & Range, Arizona

3.5 ! 105 (tot)

Hungary, Romania (Danube 110,000 Basin)

Argentina (Chaco-Pampean Plain

106

200,000

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up to 1300

Alluvial basins, some evaporites

Oxidizing, high pH. As (mainly As (V)) correlates positively with Mo, Se, V, F

Ca´ceres et al. (1992), Karcher et al. (1999); Sancha and Castro (2000)

Smith et al. (1992) Robertson (1989)

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Inner Mongolia (Huhhot Basin (HB), Bayingao, Hexi, Ba Meng, Tumet Plain)

Strongly reducing, artesian conditions, some groundwaters contain humic acid Strongly reducing conditions, neutral pH, high alkalinity. Deep groundwaters often artesian, some have high concentrations of humic acid Reducing, deep wells (up to 660 m) are artesian Reducing

Reference

5000

!1–2600

Southern Carson Desert, Nevada

1300

up to 2600

Salton Sea Basin

Mexico (Lagunera)

32,000

4!105

8–620

Some problem areas related to mining activity and mineralized areas Thailand (Ron Phibun) 100 15,000 1–5000

Greece (Lavrion) Fairbanks, Alaska, U.S.A. Moira Lake, Ontario, Canda

up to 10,000 100

50–3000

Coeur d’Alene, Idaho, U.S.A.

up to 1400

Lake Oahe, South Datoka, U.S.A.

up to 2000

Bowen Island, British Colombia a

50

0.5–580

Holocene and older basin-fill Internally-drained basin. sediments Mixed redox conditions. Proportion of As(III) increases with well depth. High salinity in some shallow groundwaters. High Se, U, B, Mo Largely reducing, some high Holocene mixed aeolian, pH. Some with high alluvial, lacustrine salinity due to sediments, some thin evaporation. Associated volcanic ash bands high, U, P, Mn, DOC (Fe to a lesser extent) Some saline groundwaters, with high U Volcanic sediments

Oxidising, neutral to high pH, As mainly as As(V)

Dredged quatemary alluvium Oxidation of disseminated (some problems in arsenopyrite due to former limestone), tailings tin mining, subsequent groundwater rebound Mine tailings Mining Gold mining, arsenopyite, Schist, alluvium, mine tailings possibly scorodite Mine tailings Ore mining (gold, hematite, magnetite, lead, cobalt) Valley-fill deposits River water and groundwater affected by lead-zincsilver mining Lake sediments As in sediment porewaters from gold mining in the Black Hills Sulphide mineral veins in Neutral to high-pH volcanic country rocks groundwaters (up to 8.9), As correlated with B, F

Fujii and Swain (1995)

WATER QUALITY

Tulare Basin, San Joaquin Valley, California

Welch and Lico (1998)

Welch and Lico (1998)

Del Razo et al. (1990)

Williams et al. (1996), Williams (1997)

Wilson and Hawkins (1978); Welch et al. (1988) Azcue and Nriagu (1995) Welch et al. (1988). Mok and Wai (1990) Ficklin and Callender (1989)

Boyle et al. (1998)

Exposed refers to population drinking water with AsO50 mg LK1 (drinking-water standard of most countries).

Source:

From Smedley, P.L. and Kinniburgh, D.G., Chapter 1, Source and Behavior of Arsenic in Natural Waters in WHO, 2001, United Nations Synthesis Report on Arsenic in Drinking Water Developed on Behalf of the United Nations Administrative Committee on Cooperation Sub-Committee on Water Resources, with active participation of UNICEF, UNIDO, IAEA and the World Bank, April 20, 2001, www.who.int.

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27° Arsenic (µg L−1) 300

25°

24° India

India 23°

22° Bay of Bengal

21°

20°

200 km 'Groundwater studies of arsenic contamination in Bangladesh' DPHE/BGS/DFID(2000)

88°

89°

90°

91°

92°

93°

Figure 8D.15 Smoothed map showing the regional trends in groundwater arsenic concentrations in shallow wells in Bangladesh. (From British Geological Survey (BGS) and Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development Co-operatives, Department of Public Health Engineering, 2001, Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater in Bengladesh, Kinniburgh, D.G. and Smedley, P.L. (eds), vol. 1: Summary, British Geological Survey (BGS) technical Report WC/00/19, British Geological Survey, Keyworth, www.bgs.ac.uk.)

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WATER QUALITY

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[Total number of arsenic affected districts 9 and blocks 85]

AFFECTED BLOCKS

Sikkim N

Arsenic affected districts

DARJILING

MURSHIDABAD MALDAH NADIA NORTH 24-PARGANAS SOUTH 24- PARGANAS BARDDHAMAN HOWRAH HOOGHLY KOLKATA

3 JALPAIGURI

PU R

KOCHBIHAR 3

DI NA J

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Bhutan

SOUTH 24 PARGANAS AFFECTED BLOCKS MURSHIDABAD

UT TA R So far patients have been registered in red colored blocks Arsenic >50 µg/L

2-

Arsenic 10–50 µg/L

3-

Arsenic 3–40 µg/L

4-

Arsenic 75%

Data unavailable

Figure 8D.18 Percent of United States population on fluoridated water, 2002. (From Center of Disease Control, cdc.gov/nohss/ FluoridationMapV.asp?YearZ2002.)

Geographical belts of high fluoride concentrations in groundwater extend from Syria through Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Morocco and the Rift Valley of Western Africa through the Sudan and Kenya. Another belt stretches from Turkey through Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan to India, Northern Thailand and China. The highest natural fluoride concentration ever found in water (2,800 mg/L) was recorded in Lake Nakuru in the Rift Valley in Kenya. High groundwater fluoride concentrations are associated with igneous and metamorphic rocks such as granites and gneisses, volcanic rocks, and salt deposits of marine origin.

Iraq Turkey Syria Jordan Palestine Morocco Japan

Algeria

China

Libya

Bangladesh

Egypt Mexico

Senegal

United Arab Emirates

Iran India Pakistan Ethiopia Sri Lanka Uganda Kenya Tanzania

Thailand

Australia Argentina New Zealand Figure 8D.19 Countries with endemic fluorosis due to excess fluoride in drinking water. (From UNICEF, Fluoride and Fluoridation, UNICEF Questions Benefits and Safety, rvi.net/wFlouride/000133.htm.)

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Table 8D.54 Summary of Concentrations of Naturally-Occurring Fluoride Detected in Selected Countries with Endemic Fluorosis Country Africa Ghana Ethiopia Ethiopia (Lake Ziway) Kenya Tanzania South Africa (Port Elizabeth) Australia

Fluoride Concentrations in Groundwater

BGS, 2000 Alem, 1998 Haile, 1999

up to 11 mg/L

Nyanchaga and Bailey, 2003 WHO 2004a, EHC 227

30% of drinking water O1.5 mg/L, up to 8.0 mg/L 0.05–14.00 mg/L

Maclear et al., 2003

WHO, 2004a

50% groundwater boreholes O1.5 mg/L with several in range of 3 to 9 mg/L Over 26 million-dental fluorosis 1 million-skeletal fluorosis

WHO, 2004b WHO, 2004b Xu et al., 1997

66 million consume drinking water with elevated Fluoride-15 of India’s 32 States

UNICEF

0.4–6.9 mg/L

India

Rajasthan Punjab Karnataka State

Reference

up to 3.8 mg/L 0.8–24.5 mg/L 0.1–23.3 mg/L

China Inner Mongolia

Population Affected

0.2–5.1 mg/L 0.5–16.2 mg/L 0.97–7.40 mg/L

Mexico

Choubisa, 2001 Jolly, 1968 Latha et al., 1998 5 million (about 6% of population) affected by fluoride in groundwater

UNICEF, WHO, 2004b

Los Altos de Jalisco Durango

0.14–12.97 mg/L 1–5.67 mg/L

Hurtado et al., 2000 Oritz et al., 1998

Argentina La Pampa

0.3–29 mg/L

Smedley et al., 2000

Source: From Alem, Getachew, 1998, Groundwater for rural water supply in the Rift Valley, 24th WEDC Conference, Sanitation and Water for All. British Geological Survey, 2000, Water Aid Country Information Sheet: Ghana. Choubisa, SL., 2001, Endemic Fluorosis in Southern Rajasthan, India, Fluoride 34: 61–70. Haile, G., 1999, Hydrogeochemistry of the Waters in the Lake Ziway Area, 25th WEDC Conference, Integrated Development for Water Supply and Sanitation. Hurtado, R., Gardea-Torresdey, J, and Tiemann, K.J., 2000, Fluoride Occurrence in Tap Water at “Los Altos de Jalisco” in the Central Mexico Region, Proceedings of the 2000 Conference on Hazardous Waste Research. Jolly SS, 1968, Fluoride 1: 65–75. Latha, S.S, Ambika, S.R., and Prasad, S.J, 1998, Fluoride Contamination Status of Groundwater in Karnataka iisc. ernet.in/currsci/mar25/articles13.htm. Nyanchaga, E.N. and Bailey, T., 2003, Flouride contamination in drinking water in the Rift Valley, Kenya and evaluation of the efficiency of locally manufactured defluoridation filter, Journal of Civil Engineering, JKUAT Vol 8, pp. 79–88. Maclear, LGA, Adlem, M, and Libala, M.B., 2003, COEGA Water Quality Monitoring, Trend Analysis of Fluoride Concentrations in Surface Water and Groundwater: 2000–2003, SRK Consulting. Ortiz, D., Castro, L., Turrubiartes, F., Milan, J., Diaz-Barriga, F., 1998, Assessment of the exposure to fluoride from drinking water in durango, Mexico, using a geographic information system, Fluoride 31 (4), pp 183–187. Smedley, P, Nicolli, H, and MacDonald, D., 2000, Hydrogeochemisty of arsenic and other problem constituents in groundwaters from La Pampa, Argentina, Journal of Conference Abstracts, Volume 5(2), 936, Cambridge Publications. UNICEF, Fluorides and Fluoridation, UNICEF Questions Benefits and Safety, Fluoride in Water: An Overview, rvi.net/wFlouride/ 000133.htm Printed 7/17/05. WHO, 2004a, Fluoride in Drinking Water Background Document for the Development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/96. WHO, 2004b, WHO Issues Revised Drinking Water Guidelines to Help Prevent Water-Related Outbreaks and Disease, Press Release WHO/67, September 21, 2004. WHO, 2002, Fluorides, Environmental Health Criteria, 227. Xu RQ, Wu DQ, Xu RY, 1997, Water Fluoride and Skeletal Fluorosis-Inner Mongolia, Fluoride 30: 26–28.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8D.55 Detections of Giardia Cysts in Source Waters of Public Drinking Water Supplies in the United States Percent Classification Creeks Rivers Lakes Springsa Wellsa a

Samples

No. of Sites

No. of Positive Samples

No. of Positive Sites

Positive of Samples

Positive of Sites

444 449 829 84 63

75 74 49 6 40

181 163 138 16 2

38 38 19 2 2

41 36 17 19 3

51 51 39 33 5

Samples represent finished water. Most water from springs and wells is unfiltered and may or may not be disinfected before consumption.

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987; Hibler, 1987.

Table 8D.56 Detections of Giardia Cysts in Finished Drinking Waters Supplies of the United States Percent Classification Unfiltered, chlorinated Direct filtrationa Conventional treatment Slow sand and diatomaceous earth filtration Commercial filters and/or pressure filters Cartridge filters Infiltration galleries Filter type unknown a

Samples

No. of Sites

No. of Positive Samples

No. of Positive Sites

Positive of Samples

1,214

94

80

16

6.6

615 357

92 86

148 12

17 5

24.0 3.4

18.5 5.8

18

3

0

0

0

0

33

12

4

2

12.1

16.7

51 37 83

13 16 24

11 7 15

7 5 6

21.6 18.9 18.0

53.8 31.3 25.0

Positive of Sites 17

May or may not include coagulation or disinfection. Number of systems applying coagulant and/or polymer, or whether disinfection was interrupted, could not be determined.

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987; Based on data collected from 1979–1986, Hibler, 1987.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

8-101

Table 8D.57 United States National Source Water (Untreated) Levels of Giardia, January to December 1998 Level of Total Giardia (#cysts/100 mL)

Jan

0 0.1–0.9 1–9 10–99 100–999 1,000–9,999

220

Note:

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

290

265 1 7 33 21 1

264

233 1 11 26 28

Number of Water Treatment Plants

18 45 37

232 1 18 35 38 2

248 1 10 39 28 3

268 1 13 25 23

262

281 1 9 25 15 1

14 20 24 2

276 1 14 24 10

280 2 6 20 21 1

6 19 13

8 32 16 3

Data Purpose, The Information Collection Rule (ICR) data were collected as part of a national research project to support development of national drinking water standards. They should NOT be used to determine local water systems compliance with drinking water standards, nor should they be used to make personal judgements about health risks. Results of Zero: A measurement of zero means that no Giardia was found in the sample volume that was analyzed. Zero results do not indicate the absence of Giardia in the source water because the method recovery is low and the amount of sample analyzed is small. In other words, Giardia may be present in source water even if no oocysts are counted for the sample volume analyzed. The presence of Giardia may also be mistakenly identified as other organic material such as algae. The current ICR method for detecting Giardia and Cryptosporidium has significant technical limitations: Better detection methods are currently being developed to detect and count protozoa. It is difficult to accurately estimate the numbers of protozoan cysts without testing large quantities of water, and this is not always feasible. The actual levels of these pathogens in source water may be much higher than those found by the tests. However, the current ICR detection method does not distinguish between species of Giardia and Cryptosporidium that may cause illness and those that do not. The method may also misidentify algae as a Cryptosporidium. With the ICR detection method, both false positive (microbe is counted when it is not actually present) and false negative (microbe is not counted when it is present) results are possible. The ICR detection method cannot determine whether the microbes are alive or whether they are able to cause illness.

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov.

Table 8D.58 Occurrence of Cryptosporidium in Surface and Groundwaters Samples (n)

Water Type a

% Positive

Range of Oocyst Concentration (oocysts/L)

Mean Concentration (oocysts/L)

Reference

Stream/river N Amer Rivera (2 sites) UK

6 375

100 4.5

0.8–5,800 0.07–4

1920 0.95(g)

Rivera (4 sites) UK

691

55.2

0.04–3.0

0.38(g)

Rivera (4 sites) UK

430

4.4

0.007–2.75

0.5(g)

6 Riversa N Amer Stream N Amer Stream/river N Amer Stream/river N Amer River/lake N Amer River/lake N Amer

11 19 58 38 85 262

100 73.7 77.6 73.7 87.1 51.5

2–112 0–240 0.04–18 !0.001–44 0.07–484 0.065–65.1

25(adj) 1.09(g) 0.94(g) 0.66(g) 2.7(g) 2.4(g)

22 41 1173 NR 18 84

31.8 78.8 4.5 18(?) NR 40.5

0.01–75.7 !0.02–2.25 NR 0–25/L 7.1–28.5 0.006–2.3

0.58(g) 0.26 NR 0.6 17.8 NR

Madore et al., 1987c The National Cryptosporidium Survey Group, 1992c The National Cryptosporidium Survey Group, 1992c The National Cryptosporidium Survey Group, 1992c Ongerth and Stibbs, 1987c Rose et al., 1988c Rose, 1988c Rose et al., 1991c LeChevallier et al., 1991ac LeChevallier and Norton, 1995 Stetzenbach et al., 1988c Chauret et al., 1995b Wallis et al., 1996 Kfir et al., 1995 Rose et al., 1988c Smith et al., 1991c

20 32 24 44

70.7 75 58.3 27.3

0–22 1.1–8.9 !0.001–3.8 0.11–251.7

0.58(g) 0.91(g) 1.03(g) 4.74

Rose et al., 1988c Rose, 1988c Rose et al., 1991c Stetzenbach et al., 1988c

River N Amer 3 Riversa Ottawa, Canada Surface waters Canada Surface waters South Africa River/lake N Amer Stream/lake (impact if any, NR) UK Lake N Amer Lake/reservoir N Amer Lake N Amer Lake N Amer

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-102

Table 8D.58

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Water Type Pristine river N Amer Pristine river N Amer Pristine lake N Amer Pristine spring N Amer Pristine lake Yukon, Canada Groundwater well N Amer

Samples (n)

% Positive

Range of Oocyst Concentration (oocysts/L) NR NR NR !0.003–0.13 0–0.003 NR

Mean Concentration (oocysts/L)

3 59 34 7 11 18

NR 32.2 52.9 28.6 9.1 5.6

Deep pristine groundwater well UK

120

0

—

0.08(g) 0.29 0.093(g) 0.04(g) 0.003 0.003 (single value) —

Groundwater wellb UK

138

5.8

0.004–0.922

0.23(g)

Reference Rose et al., 1988c Rose et al., 1991c Rose et al., 1991c Rose et al., 1991c Roach et al., 1993c Rose et al., 1991c The National Cryptosporidium Survey Group, 1992c The National Cryptosporidium Survey Group, 1992c

Note: PristineZlittle or no human activity in the watershed or water, restricted access, no agricultural activity within the watershed and no sewage treatment facility discharges impacting the water upstream from the sampling site (Lisle and Rose, 1995); NRZnot recorded; (g)Zgeometric mean; (adj)Zdata adjusted for recovery efficiencies; (?) legend is missing from the relevant figure in Kfir et al. a b c

Affected by domestic or agricultural waste. History of coliform contamination. As cited by Lisle and Rose (1995).

Source: From Butler, B.J. and Mayfield, C.I., 1996, Cryptospordium spp. A review of the organism. Disease and Implications of Managing Water Resources, Prepared for Waterloo Centre of Groundwater Research, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, www.inweh.unu.edu. Reprinted with permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

8-103

Table 8D.59 United States National Source Water (Untreated) Levels of Cryptosporidium, January to December 1998 Level of Total Cryptosporidium (oocysts/100 L)

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

283 1 4 9 2

Number of Water Treatment Plants 0 0.01–0.9 1–9 10–99 100–999 1,000–9,999 Note:

293 1 4 17 5

292

304

312

305

307

310

309

301

306

302

6 21 7

4 16 5

6 6 6

3 10 4

2 17 6

1 12 2

1 12 8

2 15 10

7 11 4

2 17 2

Data Purpose, The Information Collectin Rule (ICR) data were collected as part of a national research project to support development of national drinking water standards. They should NOT be be used to determine local water systems compliance with drinking water standards, nor should they be used to make personal judgements about health risks. Results of Zero: A measurement of zero means that no Cryptosporidium was found in the sample volume that was analyzed. Zero results do not indicate the absence of Cryptosporidium in the source water because the method recovery is low and the amount of sample analyzed is small. In other words, Cryptosporidium may be present in source water even if no oocysts are counted for the sample volume analyzed. The presence of Cryptosporidium may also be mistakenly identified as other organic material such as algae. The current ICR method for detecting Giardia and Cryptosporidium has significant technical limitations: It is difficult to accurately estimate the numbers of protozoan cysts without testing large quantities of water, and this is not always feasible. The actual levels of these pathogens in source water may be much higher than those found by the tests However, the current ICR detection method does not distinguish between species of Giardia and Cryptosporidium that may cause illness and those that do not. The method may also misidentify algae as a Cryptosporidium. With the ICR detection method, both false positive (microbe is counted when it is not actually present) and false negative (microbe is not counted when it is present) results are possible. The ICR detection method cannot determine whether the microbes are alive or whether they are able to cause illness. Better detection methods are currently being developed to detect and count protozoa.

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-104

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8D.60 Occurrence of Cryptosporidium in Treated Drinking Water

Filtration

Samples (n)

% Positive

Range of Oocyst Concentration (oocysts/L)

U.S.A. U.S.A.

yes yes

28 82

14.3 26.8

0.005–0.007 0.001–0.48

0.001(g) 0.015(g)

U.S.A. Yukon, Canada

no no

6 42

33.3 3.8

0.001–0.017 0.002–0.005

0.002(g) NR

Scotland

NR

142

40.1

0.007–0.72

NR

South Africa

NR

NR

1.1

Study Site

Note: a

0–1

Mean Concentration (oocysts/L)

0

Reference Rose et al., 1991a LeChevallier et al., 1991ba Rose et al., 1991a Roach et al., 1993a Smith et al., 1991a Kfir et al., 1995

NRZnot recorded; (g)Zgeometric mean.

As cited by Lisle and Rose, 1995.

Source: From Butler, B.J. and Mayfield, C.I., 1996, Cryptospordium spp. A review of the organism. Disease and Implications of Managing Water Resources, Waterloo Centre of Groundwater Research, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, www.inweh.unu.edu. Reprinted with permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

8-105

SECTION 8E

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

INDUSTRIAL WATER QUALITY

8-106

Table 8E.61 Water Quality Tolerance for Certain Industrial Applications Na2SO4 to

Color DO2 Industry

Turbidity

Color

Consumed

D.O.

a

(mL/L)

Total Odor

Hardness

Alkalinity

pH

Solids

Na2SO3

FeD Fe

Mn

Mn

Al2O3

SiO2

Cl

F

CO3

HCO3

OH

(ratio)

Generalb

Air Conditioningc

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.5

0.5

0.5

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

A,B

10

—

—

Low

—d

—

—

—

0.2

0.2

0.2

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

C

0–150

20

80

100

2

—

80

—

8.0C

3000–1000

—

—

—

5

40

—

—

200

50

50

1–1

—

150–250

10

40

50

0.2

—

40

—

8.5C

2500–500

—

—

—

0.5

20

—

—

100

30

40

2–1

—

250–400

5

5

10

0.0

—

10

—

9.0C

1500–100

—

—

—

0.05

5

—

—

40

5

30

3–1

—

400–over

1

2

0.0

—

2

—

9.6C

50

—

—

—

0.01

1

—

—

20

0

15

3–1

—

Light

10

10

—

—

Low

—

75

6.5–7.0

500

0.1

0.1

0.1

—

50

100

1.0

50

—

—

—

C,D,G

Dark

10

10

—

—

Low

—

150

7.0C

1000

0.1

0.1

0.1

—

50

100

1.0

50

—

—

—

C.D,H

Legumes

10

—

—

—

Low

25–75

—

7.5C

850

0.2

0.2

0.3

—

—

—

1.0

—

—

—

—

C

General

10

—

—

—

Low

50–400

—

7.5C

850

0.2

0.2

0.3

—

—

—

1.0

—

—

—

—

C C

Boiler Feed (pounds per sq. in.)

Brewinge

Canning

Carbonated Beveragesf

2

10

10

—

Low

250

125

—

850

0.2

0.2

0.3

—

—

250

0.2–1.0

—

—

—

—

Confectionery

—

—

—

—

Low

—

—

—g

100

0.2

0.2

0.2

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Coolingh

50

—

—

—

—

50

—

—

—

0.5

0.5

0.5

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

A,B C

Food 10

5–10

—

—

Low

10–250

30–250

—

850

0.2

0.2

0.2

—

—

—

1.0

—

—

—

—

Ice (raw water)i

general

1–5

5

—

—

—

—

30–50

—

300

0.2

0.2

0.2

—

10

—

—

—

—

—

—

C

Laundering

—

—

—

—

—

50

60

6.0–6.8

—

0.2

0.2

0.2

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

2

2

—

—

—

—

—

—

200

0.02

0.02

0.02

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Groundwood

50

30

—

—

—

200

150

—

500

0.3

0.1

0.3

—

50

75

—

—

—

—

—

E

Kraft, paper,

40

25

—

—

—

100

75

—

300

0.2

0.1

0.2

—

50

200

—

—

—

—

—

E

25

5

—

—

—

100

75

—

250

.01

0.05

0.1

—

20

75

—

—

—

—

—

E

10

5

—

—

—

100

75

—

200

.01

0.05

0.1

—

20

—

—

—

—

—

—

E

5

5

—

—

—

8

50

—

100

0.05

0.03

0.05

8.0

25

5

—

—

—

—

—

F

Plastics, clear uncolored Paper and Pulpj

bleached Soda and sulfite pulps Fine paper Rayon (viscose) Pulp: Production Manufacture

0.3

—

—

—

—

55

—

7.8–8.3

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

20

10–100

—

—

—

50–135

135

6.0–8.0

—

0.2

0.2

0.2

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

General

5

20

—

—

—

20

—

—

—

0.25

0.25

—

—

—

100

—

—

—

—

—

—

Dyeingl

5

5–20

—

—

—

20

—

—

—

0.25

0.25

0.25

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Tanningk Textiles

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

— 10

Baking

70

—

—

—

20

—

—

5

—

—

Low

20

—

—

1.0

1.0

1.0

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

0.2

0.2

0.2

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

scouringm Cotton

5

—

bandagem

Note: a b c d e f g h i j k l m

Milligrams per liter, except as indicated.

Abbreviations as follows: D.O., dissolved oxygen; ppm, parts per million; pH, hydrogen-ion concentration. A—no corrosiveness; B—no slime formation; C—conformity with federal drinking water standards necessary; D—NaCl, 275 ppm; E—free CO2 less than 10 mg/L; F—copper less than 5 mg/L; G—calcium 100–200 mg/L; H—calcium 200–500 mg/L Water with algae, or hydrogen sulphide odors, is most unsuitable for air conditioning. Some hardness desirable. Water for distilling must meet the same general requirements as for brewing (gin and spirits mashing water of light-beer quality, whiskey mashing water of dark-beer quality). Clear, odorless, sterile water for syrup and carbonization. Water consistent in character. Most high quality filtered municipal water not satisfactory for beverages. Hard candy requires pH of 7.0 or greater, as low value favors inversion of sucrose, causing sticky products. Control of corrosiveness is necessary, as is also control of organisms, such as sulphur and iron bacteria, which tend to form slimes. Ca (HCO3)2 particularly troublesome. Mg(HCO3)2 tends to greenish color. CO2 assists in preventing cracking. Sulphates and chlorides of Ca, Mg, Na should each be less than 300 ppm (white butts). Uniformity of composition and temperature desirable. Iron objectionable since cellulose absorbs iron from dilute solutions. Manganese very objectionable, clogs pipelines and is oxidized to permanganates by chlorine, causing reddish color. Excessive iron, manganese, or turbidity creates spots and discoloration in tanning of hides and leather goods. Constant composition; residual alumina !0.5 ppm. Calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, suspended matter, and soluble organic matter may be objectionable.

WATER QUALITY

Wool

Source: From American Water Works Association, Water Quality and Treatment, second edition (New York, 1950). Water Quality Criteria, California State Water Quality Control Board, second edition (Sacramento, 1963.)

8-107

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-108

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8E.62 Water Quality Guidelines for the Pulp and Paper Industry Concentration (mg/L)

Parameter pH Color (HU) Turbidity (NTU) Calcium Magnesium Iron Manganese Chloride Silica Hardness Alkalinity Dissolved solids Suspended solids Temperature (8C) CO2 Corrosion tendency Residual chloride

Kraft

Chem. Pulp & Paper

Fine Paper

Ground Wood

Bleached

Unbleached

— !40 !10 !20 !12 !0.1 !0.3 — !20 !100 40–75 !200 !10 — !10 NIL !2.0

6–8 !100 !20 !20 !12 !0.1 !0.1 25–75 !100 !100 !150 !250 — — !10 NIL —

— !25 !40 — — !0.2 !0.1 !200 !50 !100 !75 !300 — — !10 NIL —

— !100 !100 — — !1.0 !0.5 !200 !100 !100 !150 !500 — — !10 NIL —

Bleached

Unbleached

6–8 !50 !10 !20 !12 !0.1 !0.5 !200 !50 !100 — !200 !10 !36 — NIL —

6–8 !100 !20 !20 !12 !1.0 !0.5 !200 !50 !100 — !250 !10 — — NIL —

Source: From Canadian Council of Resource and Environment Ministers, Canadian Water Quality Guidelines, March 1987.

Table 8E.63 Water Quality Guidelines for the Iron and Steel Industry Concentration (mg/L)

Parameter

Hot-Rolling, Quenching, Gas Cleaning

pH Suspended solids Dissolved solids Settleable solids Dissolved oxygen Temperature (8C) Hardness Alkalinity Sulfate Chloride Oil Floating material a b c

Rinse Water Cold-Rolling

5.0–9.0 !25 !1000 !100

5.0–9.0 !10 !1000 !5.0

!38 NSb,c NSc !200 !150 NS NS

!38 NSb NSc !200 !150 ND ND

Softened

Demineralized

6.0–9.0 NDa ND ND minimum for aerobic conditions !38 !100 NSc !200 !150 ND ND

Steel Manufacturing

— ND ND ND

6.8–7.0 — — —

!38 !0.1 !0.5 — ND ND ND

!38 !50 — !175 !150 ND ND

NDZnot detected. Controlled by other treatments. NSZnot specified; the parameter has never been a problem at concentrations encountered.

Source:

From Canadian Council of Resource and Environment Ministers, Canadian Water Quality Guidelines, March 1987; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

8-109

Table 8E.64 Water Quality Guidelines for the Petroleum Industry Parameter

Concentration (mg/L)a

pH units Color Calcium Magnesium Iron Bicarbonate Sulphate Chloride Nitrate Fluoride Silica Hardness (as CaCO3) Dissolved solids Suspended solids

6.0–9.0 NSb !75 !25 !1 NS NS !200 NS NS NS !350 !750 !10

a b

Unless otherwise indicated. NSZnot specified. The parameter has never been a problem at concentrations encountered.

Source:

From Canadian Water Quality Guidelines 1987; Federal Water Pollution Control Administration 1968; Ontario Ministry of the Environment 1974.

Table 8E.65 Water Quality Guidelines for Power Generation Stations Concentration (mg/L) Cooling Once-Through

Boiler Feedwater (10.35–34.48 MPa)

Miscellaneous Uses

Parameter

Fresh

Brackisha

Silica Aluminum Iron Manganese Calcium Magnesium Ammonia Bicarbonate Sulphate Chloride Dissolved solids Copper Hardness Zinc Alkalinity (as CaCO3) pH units Organic material Methylene blue active substances Carbon tetrachloride extract Chemical oxygen demand (COD) Dissolved oxygen Suspended solids

!50 NSb NS NS !200 NS NS !600 !680 !600 !1000 NS !850 NS !500 5.0–8.3

!25 NS NS NS !420 NS NS !140 !2,700 !19,000 !35,000 NS !6250 NS !115 6.0–8.3

!0.01 !0.01 !0.01 !0.01 !0.01 !0.01 !0.07 !0.5 NSc NSc !0.5 !0.01 !0.07 !0.01 !1 8.8–9.4

— — !1.0 — — — — — — — !1000 — — — — 5.0–9.0

NS NSd !75 — !5000

NS NSd !75 — !2500

!0.1 NS !1.0 !0.007 !0.05

!10 !10 — — !5

a b c d

Brackish water—dissolved solids more than 1000 mg/L. NSZnot specified; the parameter has never been a problem at concentrations encountered. Controlled by treatment for other constituents. No floating oil.

Source:

From Canadian Council of Resource and Environment Ministers, Canadian Water Quality Guidelines, March 1987; Krisher, A.S., 1978, Raw water treatment in the CPI. Chem. Eng. (N.Y.), vol. 85, pp. 78–98. Chemical Engineering, Aug. 28, 1978. q McGraw-Hill, Inc.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-110

Table 8E.66 Water Quality Guidelines for the Food and Beverage Industry Concentration (mg/L)

Baking

Brewing

Carbonate Beverages

Confectionary

Dairy

pH Color (HU) Turbidity (NTU) Taste, odor (units) Suspended solids Dissolved solids Calcium Magnesium Iron Manganese Copper Ammonium Bicarbonate Carbonate Sulphate Chloride Nitrate Fluoride Silica Hardness Alkalinity Hydrogen sulphide Oxygen consumed Carbon tetrachloride extract Chloroform extract Acidity Phenol Nitrite Organic matter

— !10 !10 low — — NSb,c — !0.2 !0.2d — — — — — — — — — NSb — !0.2 — — — — — — —

6.5–7.0 !5 !10 low — !800 !100 !30 0.1–1.0 !0.1d — — ND !50 !100 20–60 !10 !1 !50 !70 !85 !0.2 — — — — ND — trace

!6.9 !10 1–2 NDa — !850 — — !0.1 !0.05 — — — !5 !200 !250 — 0.2–1.0 ND 200–250 50–128 !0.2 !15 Slight !0.2 — ND — trace

O7.0 — — low 50–100 50–100 — — !0.2 !0.2d — — — — — !250 — — — — — !0.2 — — — — — — —

— ND — ND !500 !500 — — 0.1–0.3 0.03–0.1 ND Trace — — !60 !30 !20 — — !180 — — — !10 — — — — —

6.5–8.5 !5 !5 ND !10 !500 !100 — !0.2 !0.2d — !0.5 — — !250 !250 !10 !1 !50 !250 30–250 — !1 !0.2 — ND ND ND —

a

NDZnot detected. Some required for yeast action; excess retards fermentation. NSZnot specified. d Total Fe and Mn. Source: From Canadian Council of Resource and Environment Ministers, Canadian Water Quality Guidelines, March, 1987. b c

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Food Process (General) — 5–10 1–10 low — !850 — — !0.2 !0.2 — — — — — — — !1 — 10–250 30–250 — — — — — — — —

Sugar Manufacturing — — — — ND — !20 !10 !1 !0.1 — — !100 — !20 !20 — — — !100 — — — — — — ND — trace

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Parameter

Food Canning, Freezing, Dried, Frozen Fruits, Vegetables

WATER QUALITY

8-111

Table 8E.67 International Council of Bottled Water Associations Standard of Quality Monitoring Parameter Group

Standard

Inorganic Chemicals (IOCs) Antimony Arsenic Barium Boron Bromate Cadmium Chlorine Chloramine Chlorite Chromium Cyanide Fluoride Lead Mercury Molybdenum Nickel Nitrate-N Nitrite-N Selenium Secondary Inorganic Parameters Copper Manganese Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs) 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 1,1-Dichloroethylene 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,2-Dichloropropane 1,3-Dichloropropene Benzene Carbon tetrachloride 1,2-Dichloroethylene Ethylbenzene Methylene chloride (Dichloromethane) Monochlorobenzene o-Dichlorobenzene p-Dichlorobenzene Styrene Tetrachloroethylene Toluene Trichloroethylene Vinyl chloride Xylenes (total) Bromodichloromethane Chlorodibromomethane Chloroform Bromoform Semivolatile Organic Chemicals (SVOCs) Benzo(a)pyrene Di(2-ethyhexyl)adipate Di(2-ethyhexyl)phthalate Hexachlorobenzene Synthetic Organic Chemical (SOCs) Alachlor Aldicarb Aldrin/Dieldrin Atrazine Bentazone Carbofuran

Standard 0.005 0.01 0.7 0.3 0.010 0.003 5.0 3.0 0.2 0.05 0.07 1.5 0.01 0.001 0.07 0.02 50 3 0.01 2 0.05 2 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.002 0.05 0.3 0.02 0.3 1 0.3 0.02 0.04 0.7 0.07 0.005 0.5 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.0007 0.08 0.008 0.001 0.02 0.01 0.00003 0.002 0.03 0.005 (Continued)

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Table 8E.67

(Continued)

Monitoring Parameter Group

Standard

Chlordane Chlorotoluron DDT Dibromochloropropane (DBCP) 2,4-D 2,4-DB Dichlorprop Fenoprop Heptachlor Heptachlor epoxide Isoproturon Lindane Methoxychlor MCPA Mecoprop Metolachlor Molinate Pendimethalin Pentachlorophenol Permethrin Propanil Pyridate Simazine 2,4,5-T Trifluralin Additional Regulated Conlaminants Acrylamide Cyanogen chloride Epichlorohydrin Hexachlorobutadiene Edetic acid (EDTA) Nitrilotriacetic acid 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol (DBP) Dichloroacetic acid Trichloroacetic acid Formaldehyde (DBP) Chloral hydrate (Trichloroacetaldehyde) Dichloroacetonitrile Dibromoacetonitrile Trichloroacetonitrile Tributyltin oxide Microbiological Contaminants Total coliform / E. coli Radiological Contaminants Gross alpha Gross beta Water Properties Color Turbidity PH Odor

0.0002 0.03 0.002 0.001 0.03 0.09 0.1 0.009 0.03 0.03 0.009 0.002 0.02 0.002 0.01 0.01 0.006 0.02 0.009 0.02 0.02 0.1 0.002 0.009 0.02

Note:

0.0005 0.07 0.0004 0.0006 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.05 0.1 0.9 0.01 0.09 0.1 0.07 0.002 0 Standard 0.1 Bq/l 1.0 Bq/l Standard 15 TCU 5 NTU 6.5–8.0 Not Offensive

All Standards are in mg/L (ppm) except as noted.

Source: From International Council of Bottled Water Associations, ICBWA Model Code, September 27, 2004, www.icbwa.org. With permission.

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Table 8E.68 United States Bottled Water Standards Physical Color (units) Odor Turbidity (units) Total Dissolved Solids Inorganic Substances Aluminum Antimony Arsenic Barium Beryllium Cadmium Chloride Chromium Copper Cyanide Fluoride Iron Lead Manganese Mercury Nickel Nitrate (as nitrogen) Nitrite (as nitrogen) Total Nitrate & Nitrite (sum as nitrogen) Phenols Selenium Silver Sulfate Thallium Zinc Volatile Organic Chemicals or VOCs Benzene Carbon Tetrachloride o-Dichlorobenzene p-Dichlorobenzene 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,1-Dichloroethylene cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene Dichloromethane 1,2-Dichloropropane Ethylbenzene Monochlorobenzene Styrene Tetrachloroethylene Toluene 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 1,1,2-Trichloroethane Trichloroethylene Vinyl chloride Xylenes Pesticides and Other Synthetice Organic Chemicals Alachlor Atrazine Benzo(a)pyrene Carbofuran Chlordane Dalapon 1,2-Dibromochloropropane (DBCP) 2, 4-D Di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate Dinoseb Diquat

Maximum 15 Threshold Odor No.3 5 500a Maximum (mg/L) 0.2 0.006 0.05 2 0.004 0.005 250a 0.1 1 0.2 b

0.3a 0.005 0.05a 0.002 0.1 10 1 10 0.001 0.05 0.1 250a 0.002 5a Maximum (mg/L) 0.005 0.005 0.6 0.075 0.005 0.007 0.07 0.1 0.005 0.005 0.7 0.1 0.1 0.005 1 0.07 0.2 0.005 0.005 0.002 10 Maximum (mg/L) 0.002 0.003 0.0002 0.04 0.002 0.2 0.0002 0.07 0.4 0.007 0.02

(Continued)

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Table 8E.68

(Continued)

Pesticides and Other Synthetice Organic Chemicals

Maximum (mg/L)

Endothall Endrin Ethyiene Dibromide (EDB) Glyphosate Heptachlor Heptachlor Epoxide Hexachlorobenzene Hexachlorocyclopentadiene Lindane Methoxychlor Oxamyl Pentachlorophenol PCB’s (as decachiorobiphenyls) Picloram Simazine 2,3,7,8-TCDD (Dioxin) Toxaphene 2,4,5-TP(Si!vex)

0.1 0.002 0.00005 0.7 0.0004 0.0002 0.001 0.05 0.0002 0.04 0.2 0.001 0.0005 0.5 0.004 3!10K8 0.003 0.05

Radioactivity

Maximum

Combined Radium-226 and Radium-228 Gross alpha particle activity (including Radium-226 but excluding Radon and Uranium) Gross beta particle activity Uranium

5 pCi/L 15 pCi/L 50 pCi/L 30 ug/L

Bacteriological

Maximum

Coliforms: Multiple Tube Fermentation Method Membrane Filter Method

2.2MPN/100mL 1c/100mL

Disinfection Byproducts (DBp’s)

Maximum (mg/L)

Bromate Chlorite Haloacetic acids (five)(HAA5) Total Trihalomethanes (THMs)b

0.01 1 0.06 0.08

Residual Disinfectants

Maximum (mg/L)

Chloramine (as Cl2) Chlorine (as Cl2) Chlorine dioxide (as CIO2)

4 4 0.8 Fluoride Maximum (mg/L)

Annual Average of Maximum Daily Air Temperatures (8F) at the Location Where the Bottled Water Is Sold at Retail 53.7 and below 53.8–58.3 58.4–63.8 63.9–70.6 70.7–79.2 79.3–90.5 Imported bottled water with no fluoride added: a b c

No Fluoride Added 2.4 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4

Fluoride Added 1.7 1.5 1.3 1 1 0.8

1.4 mg/L Fluoride

Mineral water is exempt from allowable level. The exemptions are aesthetically based allowable levels and do not relate to a health concern. Fluoride standards: Bottled water packaged in the United States. Total Trihalomethanes (TTHM): Sum of chloroform, bromodichloromethane, chiorodibromomethane, and bromoform. 10 ppb Pursuant to H&SC 111080(b).

Source:

From United States Food and Drug Administration 21 CFR 165 Beverages: Title 21—Food and Drugs, Chapter 1, Food and Drug Adminstration Department of Health and Human Services, Subchapter B, Food for Human Consuption, Subpart B, Requirements for Specifics Standardized Beverages, Section 165.110 Bottled Water, www.accessdata.fda.gov.

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SECTION 8F

IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY

Table 8F.69 Relative Tolerance of Crop Plants to Salt Field Crops 3

EC!10 Z16 Barley (grain) Sugar beet Rape Cotton

EC!103Z10 EC!103Z12 Garden beets Kale Asparagus Spinach

EC!103Z10 High Salt Tolerance Date palm

EC!103Z10 Rye (grain) Wheat (grain) Oats (grain) Rice Sorghum (grain) Corn (field) Flax Sunflower Castorbeans EC!103Z6 Vegetable Crops EC!103Z10 Tomato Broccoli Cabbage Bell pepper Cauliflower Lettuce Sweet corn Potatoes (white rose) Carrot Onion Peas Squash Cucumber EC!103Z4 Fruit and Nut Crops Medium Salt Tolerance Cantaloupe Fig Grape Jujube Olive Papaya Pineapple Pomegranate

EC!103Z4 Field beans

EC!103Z4 Radish Celery Green beans

EC!103Z3 Low Salt Tolerance Almond Apple Apricot Avocado Blackberry Boysenberry Cherimoya Cherry, sweet Cherry, sand Currant Gooseberry Grapefruit Lemon Lime Loquat Mango Orange Passion fruit Peach Pear Persimmon Plum: prune (Continued)

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Table 8F.69

(Continued)

High Salt Tolerance

Medium Salt Tolerance

Low Salt Tolerance Pummelo Raspberry Rose, apple Sapote, white Strawberry Tangerine

Forage Crops EC!103Z18 Alkali sacaton Saltgrass Nuttall alkaligrass Bermuda grass Rhodes grass Fescue grass Canada wild rye Western wheatgrass Barley (hay) Bridsfoot trefoil

EC!103Z12

EC!103Z12 White sweetclover Yellow sweetclover Perennial ryegrass Mountain brome Strawberry clover Dallis grass Sudan grass Hubam clover Alfalfa (California common) Tall fescue Rye (hay) Wheat (hay) Oats (hay) Orchardgrass Blue grama Meadow fescue Reed canary Big trefoil Smooth brome Tall meadow oat-grass Cicer milkvetch Sourclover Sickle milkvetch EC!103Z4

EC!103Z4 White Dutch clover Meadow foxtail Alsike clover Red clover Ladino clover Burnet

EC!103Z2

Note: The numbers following EC!103 are the electrical conductivity values of the saturation extract in millimhos per centimeter at 258C associated with a 50-percent decrease in yields. The saturation extract is the solution extracted from a soil at its saturation percentage. Source: From U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1954; Kandiah, A., FAO, 1987.

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S4

Very high

WATER QUALITY

30

28

C1-S4

C2-S4

S3

High

26

24

22

C3-S4

20

C1-S3

Sodium Adsorption Ratio (Sar)

S2

18

Medium

Sodium (Alkali) Hazard

C4-S4

C2-S3

16

14 C1-S2

12

C3-S4

10

C1-S2 C4-S3

8

S1

Low

C3-S2 6 C4-S2 C1-S1

4

C2-S1 2

C3-S1 C4-S1

0 100

250

750

as Cl

Micromhos/cm (EC X 106) at 250

s

Conductivity C1 Low

2250

C2

C3

Medium

High

C4 Very high

Salinity Hazard

Figure 8F.20 Quality criteria for irrigation water. Note: Sodium Adsorption Ratio SAR Z Na/(Ca C Mg)/2 where concentrations are expressed in millequivalents per liter. Conductivity Low-salinity water (C1) can be used for irrigation with most crops on most soils with little likelihood that soil salinity will develop. Some leaching is required, but this occurs under normal irrigation practices except in soils of extremely low permeability. Medium-salinity water (C2) can be used if a moderate amount of leaching occurs. Plants with moderate salt tolerance can be grown in most cases without special practices for salinity control. High-salinity water (C3) cannot be used on soils with restricted drainage. Even with adequate drainage, special management for salinity control may be required and plants with good salt tolerance should be selected. Very high-salinity water (C4) is not suitable for irrigation under ordinary conditions, but may be used occasionally under very special

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

circumstances. The soils must be permeable, drainage must be adequate, irrigation water must be applied in excess to provide considerable leaching, and very salt-tolerant crops should be selected. Sodium Low-sodium water (S1) can be used for irrigation on almost all soils with little danger of the development of harmful levels of exchangeable sodium. However, sodium-sensitive crops such as stone-fruit trees and avocados may accumulate injurious concentrations of sodium. Medium-sodium water (S2) will present an appreciable sodium hazard in fine-textured soils having high cation-exchange-capacity, especially under low-leaching conditions, unless gypsum is present in the soil. This water may be used on coarse-textured or organic soils with good permeability. High-sodium water (S3) may produce harmful levels of exchangeable sodium in most soils and will require special soil management-good drainage, high leaching, and organic matter additions. Gypsiferous soils may not develop harmful levels of exchangeable sodium from such waters. Chemical amendments may be required for replacement of exchangeable sodium, except that amendments may not be feasible with waters of very high salinity. Very high sodium water (S4) is generally unsatisfactory for irrigation purposes except at low and perhaps medium salinity, where the solution of calcium from the soil or use of gypsum or other amendments may make the use of these waters feasible. Another criterion for the evaluation of irrigation water is: Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) Z (CO3 C HCO3) K (Ca C Mg) where concentrations are expressed in meq/liter. When RSCO2.5 Probably not suitable for irrigation 1.25-2.5 Marginal !1.25 Probably safe for irrigation. (From U.S. Department of Agriculture.)

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Table 8F.70 Guides for Evaluating the Quality of Water Used for Irrigation Threshold Concentrationa

Quality Factor Coliform organisms, MPN per 100 mL Total dissolved solids (TDS), mg/L Electrical conductivity, mmhos/cm Range of pH Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) Residual sodium carbonate (RSC), meq Arsenic, mg/L Boron, mg/L Chloride, mg/L Sulfate, mg/L Copper, mg/L Note:

a b c d

Limiting Concentrationb —d 1500c 2250c 6.0–9.0 15 2.5 5.0 2.0 350 1000 1.0

1000cc 500 750c 7.0–8.5 6.0c 1.25c 1.0 0.5c 100c 200c 0.1c

MPN is most probable number. Sodium absorption ratio is defined by the formula SARZNa/ (CaCMg)/2 where the concentrations are expressed in milliequivalents per liter. Residual sodium carbonate is the sum of the equivalents of normal carbonate and bicarbonate minus the sum of the equivalents of calcium and magnesium.

Threshold values at which irrigator might become concerned about water quality and might consider using additional water for leaching. Below these values, water should be satisfactory for almost all crops and almost any arable soil. Limiting values at which the yield of high-value crops might be reduced drastically, or at which an irrigator might be forced to less valuable crops. Values not to be exceeded more than 20 percent of any 20 consecutive samples, nor in any 3 consecutive samples. The frequency of sampling should be specified. Aside from fruits and vegetables which are likely to be eaten raw, no limits can be specified. For such crops, the threshold concentration would be limiting.

Source: From Calif. State Water Quality Control Board, 1963.

Table 8F.71 FAO Guidelines for Evaluating the Quality of Water for Irrigation Degree of Restriction on Use Potential Irrigation Problem

Units

None

Slight to Moderate

Severe

a

Salinity (affects crop water availability) ECW or TDS Infiltration (affects infiltration rate of water into the soil. Evaluate using ECW and SAR together)b SAR Z0–3 and ECW Z Z3–6 Z Z6–12Z Z12–20Z Z20–40Z Specific Ion Toxicity (affects sensitive crops) Sodium (Na) Surface irrigation Sprinkler irrigation Chloride (CI) Surface irrigation Sprinkler irrigation Boron (B) Trace elements (see Table 8F–77) Miscellaneous Effects (affects susceptible crops) Nitrogen (NO3-N) Bicarbonate (HCO3)(overhead sprinkling only) pH a b

dS/m mg/L

!0.7 !450

0.7–3.0 450–2000

O3.0 O2000

O0.7 O1.2 O1.9 O2.9 O5.0

0.7–0.2 1.2–0.3 1.9–0.5 2.9–1.3 5.0–2.9

!0.2 !0.3 !0.5 !1.3 !2.9

SAR me/L

!3 !3

3–9 O3

O9

me/L me/L mg/L

!4 !3 !0.7

4–10 !3 0.7–3.0

O10

mg/L me/L

!5 !1.5

5–30 1.5–8.5 Normal range 6.5– 8.4

O30 O8.5

O3.0

ECW means electrical conductivity, a measure of the water salinity, reported in deciSiemens per meter at 258C (dS/m) or in units millimhos per centimeter (mmho/cm). Both are equivalent. TDS means total dissolved solids, reported in milligrams per liter (mg/L). SAR means sodium absorption ratio.

Source: From Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1985, Water quality for agriculture, irrigation, and drainage paper no. 29. Kandiah, A., Water Quality in Food Production, Water Quality Bulletin, vol. 12, no. 1, Jan. 1987.

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Table 8F.72 Chloride Concentrations (mg/L) Causing Foliar Injury in Crops of Varying Sensitivity Sensitivity !175 Almond Apricot Citrus Plum Grape Source:

Moderately Sensitive 175–350

Moderately Tolerant 350–700

Pepper Potato Tomato

Barley Maize Cucumber Luceme Safflower Sorghum

Tolerant O700 Cauliflower Cotton Sugar beet Sunflower

From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

Original Source: From Mass (1990).

Table 8F.73 Risks of Increasing Cadmium Concentrations in Crops Due to Chloride in Irrigation Waters Irrigation Water Chloride Concentration (mg/L) 0–350 350–750 O750

Risk of Increasing Crop Cadmium Concentrations Low Medium High

Note: If high chloride concentrations are present in irrigation water, it is recommended that produce is tested for cadmium concentration in the edible portions (e.g., tubers for potatoes, leaves for leafy vegeatables, grain for cereals, etc). Source:

From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

Orginal Source: From McLaughlin et al. (1999).

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Table 8F.74 Sodium Concentration (mg/L) Causing Foliar Injury in Crops of Varying Sensitivity Sensitivity !115

Moderately Sensitive 115–230

Moderately Tolerant 230–460

Pepper Potato Tomato

Barley Maize Cucumber Lucerne Safflower Sesame Sorghum

Almond Apricot Citrus Plum Grape

Tolerant O460 Cauliflower Cotton Sugar beet Sunflower

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au. Original Source: From Mass (1990).

Table 8F.75 Effect of Sodium Expressed as Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) on Crop Yield and Quality under Nonsaline Conditions Tolerance to SAR and Range at Which Affected Extremely sensitive SAR Z 2–8

Sensitive SAR Z 8–18 Medium SAR Z 18–46

High SAR Z 46–102

Note:

Crop Avocado Deciduous fruits Nuts Citrus Beans Clover Oats Tall fescue Rice Dallis grass Wheat Cotton Lucerne Barley Beets Rhodes grass

Growth Response under Field Conditions Leaf tip burn, leaf scorch

Stunted growth Stunted growth, possible sodium toxicity, possible calcium or magnesium deficiency Stunted growth

SAR Z Sodium Adsorption Ratio.

Source:

From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

Original Source: From Pearson (1960).

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8F.76 Limits of Boron in Irrigation Water A. Permissible Limits (Boron in parts per million) Crop Group Class of Water

Sensitive

!0.33 0.33–0.67 0.67–1.00 1.00–1.25 O1.25 B. Crop Groups of Boron Tolerance (In each group, the plants first named are considered as being more tolerant; the last named, more sensitive.) Sensitive

!0.67 0.67–1.33 1.33–2.00 2.00–2.50 O2.50

Semitolerant !1.00 1.00–2.00 2.00–3.00 3.00–3.75 O3.75

Semitolerant

Pecan Walnut (Black; and Persian, or English) Jerusalem-artichoke Navy bean American elm Plum Pear Apple Grape (Sultanina and Malaga) Kadota fig Persimmon Cherry Peach Apricot Thornless blackberry Orange Avocado Grapefruit Lemon

Tolerant Excellent Good Permissible Doubtful Unsuitable

Tolerant

Sunflower (native) Potato Cotton (Acala and Pima) Tomato Sweetpea Radish Field pea Ragged robin rose Olive Barley Wheat Corn Milo Oat Zinnia Pumpkin Bell pepper Sweet potato Lima bean

Athel (Tamarix aphylla) Asparagus Palm (Phoenix canariensis) Date palm (P. dactylifera) Sugar beet Mangel Garden beet Alfalfa Gladiolus Broadbean Onion Turnip Cabbage Lettuce Carrot

Source: From U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Table 8F.77 FAO Recommended Maximum Concentrations of Trace Elements in Irrigation Water Element

Recommended Maximum Concentrationa (mg/L)

Al

5.0

As

0.10

Be Cd

0.10 0.01

Co

0.05

Cr

0.10

Cu F

0.20 1.0

Remarks Can cause nonproductivity in acid soils (pH !5.5), but more alkaline soils at OpH 7.0 will precipitate the lon and eliminate any toxicity Toxicity to plants varies widely, ranging from 12 mg/L for Sudan grass to less than 0.05 mg/L for rice Toxicity to plants varies widely, ranging from 5 mg/L for kale to 0.5 mg/L for bush beans Toxic to beans, beets and turnips at concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/L in nutrient solutions. Conservative limits recommended due to its potential for accumulation in plants and soils to concentrations that may be harmful to humans Toxic to tomato plants at 0.1 mg/L in nutrient solution. Tends to be inactivated by neutral and alkaline soils Not generally recognized as an essential growth element. Conservative limits recommended due to lack of knowledge on its toxicity to plants Toxic to a number of plants at 0.1 to 1.0 mg/L in nutrient solutions Inactivated by neutral and alkaline soils (Continued)

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WATER QUALITY

Table 8F.77 Element

8-123

(Continued) Recommended Maximum Concentrationa (mg/L)

Fe

5.0

Li

2.5

Mn Mo

0.20 0.01

Ni

0.20

Pd Se

5.0 0.02

Sn Ti W V Zn

Remarks Not toxic to plants in aerated soils, but can contribute to soil acidification and loss of availability of essential phosphorus and molybdenum. Overhead sprinkling may result in unsightly deposits on plants, equipment and buildings Tolerated by most crops up to mg/L; mobile in soil. Toxic to citrus at low concentrations (0.075 mg/L). Acts similarly to boron Toxic to a number of crops at a few-tenths to a few mg/L, but usually only in acid soils Not toxic to plants at normal concentrations in soil and water. Can be toxic to livestock if forage is grown in soils with high concentrations of available molybdenum Toxic to a number of plants at 0.5 mg/L to 1.0 mg/L; reduced toxicity at neutral or alkaline pH Can inhibit plant cell growth at very high concentrations Toxic to plants at concentrations as low as 0.025 mg/L and toxic to livestock if forage is grown in soils with relatively high levels of added selenium. An essential element to animals but in very low concentrations Effectively excluded by plants; specific tolerance unknown

0.10 2.0

Toxic to many plants at relatively low concentrations Toxic to many plants at widely varying concentrations; reduced toxicity at pH O6.0 and in fine textured or organic soils

a

The maximum concentration is based on a water application rate which is consistent with good irrigation practices (10000 m3/ha/yr). If the water application rate greatly exceeds this, the maximum concentrations should be adjusted downward accordingly. No adjustment should be made for application rates less than 10000 m3/ha/yr. The values given are for water used on a continuous basis at one site. Source: From Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1985, Water quality for agriculture, irrigation, and drainage paper no. 29. Kandiah, A., Water Quality in Food Production, Water Quality Bulletin, vol. 12, no. 1, Jan. 1987.

Table 8F.78 Australian Agricultural Irrigation Water Long-Term Trigger Value (LTV), Short-Term Trigger Value (STV), and Soil Cumulative Contaminant Loading Limit (CCL) Triggers for Heavy Metals and Metalloids

Element

Suggested Soil CCLa (kg/ha)

Aluminum Arsenic Beryllium Boron Cadmium Chromium Cobalt Copper Fluoride Iron Lead Lithium

ND 20 ND ND 2 ND ND 140 ND ND 260 ND

Manganese Mercury Molybdenum Nickel

ND 2 ND 85

LTV in Irrigation Water (Long-Term Use—Up to 100 yrs) (mg/L) 5 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.01 0.1 0.05 0.2 1 0.2 2 2.5 (0.075 Citrus crops) 0.2 0.002 0.01 0.2

STV in Irrigation Water (Short-Term Use—Up to 20 yrs) (mg/L) 20 2.0 0.5 Refer to table 9.2.18 (Volume 3) 0.05 1 0.1 5 2 10 5 2.5 (0.075 Citrus crops) 10 0.002 0.05 2 (Continued)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8F.78

(Continued) Suggested Soil CCLa (kg/ha)

Element Selenium Uranium Vanadium Zinc

10 ND ND 300

LTV in Irrigation Water (Long-Term Use—Up to 100 yrs) (mg/L) 0.02 0.01 0.1 2

STV in Irrigation Water (Short-Term Use—Up to 20 yrs) (mg/L) 0.05 0.1 0.5 5

Note: Trigger values should only be used in conjunction with information on each individual element and the potential for off-site transport of contaminants. a

ND Z Not determined; in sufficient background data to calculate CCL.

Source:

From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

Table 8F.79 Canadian Water Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Agricultural Uses—Irrigation Parametera Aldicarb Aluminumd Arsenice Atrazine Berylliumd Borond Bromacil Bromoxynil Cadmium Chlorided Chlorothalonil Chromium Trivalent chromium (Cr(III)) Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) Cobaltd Coliforms, fecal d Coliforms, totald Copperd Cyanazine Dicamba Diclofop-methyl Diisopropanolinine Dinoseb Fluorided Irond Leadd Linuron Lithiumd Manganesed MCPA (4-chloro-2-methyI phenoxy acetic acid; 2-MethyI-4-chloro phenoxy acetic acid) Metolachlor Metribuzin Molybdenumd Seleniumd Simazine Nickeld

Irrigation Water Quality Guideline (mg/L) 54.9c 5000 100f 10f 100 500–6000h 0.2f 0.33i 5.1i,f 100,000–700,000k 5.8f (other crops)

Date b

4.9f,n 8n 50 100 per 100 mL 1000 per 100 mL 200–1000o 0.5f 0.006 0.18 2000f 16j 1000 5000 200 0.071f 2500 200 0.0025

1993 1987 1997 1989 1987 1987 1997 1993 1996 1987 1984 1997 1997 1987 1987 1987 1987 1987 1990 1993 1993 2005 1982 1987 1987 1987 1995 1987 1987 1995

28f 0.5f 10–50r 20–50s 0.5f 200

1991 1990 1987 1987 1891 1987 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

Table 8F.79 Parameter

(Continued)

a

Sulfolane Tebuthiuron Total dissolved solids (salinity)d Uraniumd Vanadiumd Zincd Note: a b

c d e f h

i j k

n o

r s t

u

8-125

Irrigation Water Quality Guideline (mg/L) 500f 0.27 f (cereals) 500,000– 3,500,000t 10f 100 1,000–5,000u

Date b 2005 1995 1887 1987 1987 1987

ug/L—Micrograms per liter.

Unless otherwise indicated, supporting documents are available from the guidelines and Standards Division, Environment Canada. The guidelines dated 1987 have been carried over from Canadian Water Quality Guidelines (CCREM 1987) and no fact sheet was prepared. The guidelines dated 1989 to 1997 were developed and initially published in CCREM 1987 as appendixes on the date indicated. They are published as fact sheets in this document. Other guidelines dated 1997 and those dated 1999 are published for the first time in this document. Concentration of total aldicarb residues. No fact sheet created. The technical document for the guideline is available from the Ontario Ministry of the Environment. Interim guideline. Boron guideline =500 mg LK1 for blackberries =500–1000 mg LK1 for peaches, cherries, plums, grapes, cowpeas, onions, garlic, sweet potatoes, wheat, barley, sunflowers, mungbeans, sesame, lupins, strawberries, Jerusalem artichokes, kidney beans, and lima beans =1000–2000 mg LK1 for red peppers, peas, carrots, radishes, potatoes, and cucumbers =2000–4000 mg LK1 for lettuce, cabbage, celery, turnips, Kentucky bluegrass, oats, corn, artichokes, tobacco, mustard, clover, squash, and muskmelons =4000–6000 mg LK1 for sorghum, tomatoes, alfalfa, purple vetch, parsley, red beets, and sugar beets =6000 mg LK1 for asparagus. Guideline value slightly modified from CCREM 1987 + Appendixes due to re-evaluation of the significant figures. Guideline is crop-specific (see fact sheet). Chloride guideline Foliar damage =100–178 mg LK1 for almond, apricots, and plums =178–355 mg LK1 for grapes, peppers, potatoes, and tomatoes =355–710 mg LK1 for alfalfa, barley, corn, and cucumbers O710 mg LK1 for cauliflower, cotton, safflower, sesame, sorghum, sugar beets, and sunflowers Rootstocks =180–600 mg LK1 for stone fruit (peaches, plums, etc) =710–900 mg LK1 for grapes Cultivars =110–180 mg LK1 for strawberries =230–460 mg LK1 for grapes =250 mg LK1 for boysenberries, blackberries, and raspberries. Substance has been re-evaluated since CCREM 1987 + Appendixes. Either a new guideline has been derived or insufficient data existed to derive a new guideline. Copper guideline = 200 mg LK1 for cereals = 1000 mg LK1 for tolerant crops Molybdenum guideline = 50 mg LK1 for short-terms use on acidic soils Selenium guideline = 20 mg LK1 for continuous use =50 mg LK1 for intermittent use Total dissolved solids guideline =500 mg LK1 for strawberries, raspberries, beans, and carrots =500–800 mg LK1 for boysenberries, currants, blackberries, gooseberries, plums, grapes, apricots, peaches, pears, cherries, apples, onions, parsnips, radishes, peas, pumpkins, lettuce, peppers, muskmelons, sweet potatoes, sweet corn, potatoes, celery, cabbage, kohlrabi, cauliflower, cowpeas, broadbeans, flax, sunflowers, and corn =800–1500 mg LK1 for spinach, cantaloupe, cucumbers, tomatoes, squash, brussels sprouts, broccoli, turnips, smooth brome, alfalfa, big trefoil, beardless wild rye, vetch, timothy, and crested wheat grass =1500–2500 mg LK1 for beets, zucchini, rape, sorghum, oat hay, wheat hay, mountain brome, tall fescue, sweet clover, reed canary grass, birdsfoot trefoil, perennial ryegrass =3500 mg LK1 for asparagus, soybeans, safflower, oats, rye, wheat, sugar beets, barley, barley hay, and tall wheat grass Zinc guideline =1000 mg LK1 when soil pH ! 6.5 K1 =5000 mg L when soil pH O 6.5

Source: From Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 2005, Canadian water quality guidelines for the protection of agricultural water uses: summary table, Updated October 2005. In: Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines, 1999, Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Winnipeg.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-126

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8F.80 Australian Trigger Values for Thermotolerant Coliforms in Irrigation Water Used for Food and Nonfood Crops Level of thermotolerant coliformsa (mL)

Intended use Raw human food crops in direct contact with irrigation water (e.g. via sprays, irrigation of salad vegetables) Raw human food crops not in direct contact with irrigation water (edible product separated from contact with water, e.g. by peel, use of trickle irrigation); or crops sold to consumer cooked or processed Pasture and fodder for dairy animals (without withholding period) Pasture and fodder for dairy animals (with withholding period of 5 days) Pasture and fodder (for grazing animals except pigs and dairy animals, i.e. cattle, sheep, and goats) Silviculture, turf, cotton, etc (restricted public access) a b

!10 cfub / 100 !1000 cfu / 100

!100 cfu / 100 !1000 cfu / 100 !1000 cfu / 100 !10 000 cfu / 100

Median values. cfu Z colony forming units.

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au. Original Source: Adapted from ARMCANZ, ANZECC & NHMRC (1999).

Table 8F.81 Australian Agricultural Irrigation Water Long-Term Trigger Value (LTV) and ShortTerm Trigger Value (STV) Guidelines for Nitrogen and Phosphorus Element Nitrogen Phosphorus a

LTV in Irrigation Water (LongTerm—up to 100 yrs) (mg/L)

STV in Irrigation Water (ShortTerm—up to 20 yrs) (mg/L)

5 0.05 (To minimise bioclogging of irrigation equipment only)

25–125a 0.8–12a

Requires site-specific assessment.

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

Table 8F.82 Interim Trigger Value Concentrations for a Range of Herbicides Registered in Australia for Use in or Near Waters Herbicide

Residue Limits in Irrigation Water (mg/L)a

Hazard to Crops from Residue in Waterb

Crop Injury Threshold in Irrigation Water (mg/L) Flood or furrow: beans 60, corn 60, cotton 80, soybeans 20, sugarbeets 60 Sprinkler: corn 60, soybeans 15, sugar-beets 15, beets (rutabaga) 3.5, corn 3.5, lucerne 1600, beans 1200, carrots 1600, corn 3000, cotton 1600, grains sorghum 800, oats 2400, potatoes 1300, wheat 1200

Acrolein

0.1

C

AF 100 Amitrol

0.002

C CC

Aromatic solvents (Xylene)

C

Asulam Atrazine Bromazil Chlorthiamid Copper sulfate

CC CC CCC CC C

2,4-D

CC

Dicamba

CC

Apparently above concentrations used for weed control Field beans 3.5–10, grapes 0.7– 1.5, sugar-beets 1.0–10 Cotton 0.18 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

Table 8F.82

8-127

(Continued) Residue Limits in Irrigation Water (mg/L)a

Herbicide Dichlobenil

Hazard to Crops from Residue in Waterb

Crop Injury Threshold in Irrigation Water (mg/L) Lucerne 10, corn 10, soybeans 1.0, sugar-beets 1.0–10, corn 125, beans 5

CC

Diquat Diuron 2,2-DPA (Dalapon) Fosamine Fluometuron

0.002 0.004

C CCC CC CCC CC

Glyphosate Hexazinone Karbutilate Molinate Paraquat

C CCC CCC CC C

Picloram Propanil

CCC CC

Simazine 2,4,5-T

CC CC

TCA (Trichloroacetic acid) Terbutryne Triclopyr

CCC CC CC

Beets 7.0, corn 0.35 Sugar-beets, alfalfa, tomatoes, squash 2.2

Corn 10, field beans 0.1, sugarbeets 1.0 Alfalfa 0.15, brome grass (eradicated) 0.15 Potatoes, alfalfa, garden peas, corn sugar-beets, wheat, peaches, grapes, apples, tomatoes 0.5

Note: These should be regarded as interim trigger values only. a b

Guidelines have not been set for all herbicides where specific residue limits are not provided, except for a general limit of 0.01 mg/L for herbicides in NSW. Hazard from residue at maximum concentration likely to be found in irrigation water: C, low; CC, moderate; CCC, high.

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au. Original Source: From ANZECC (1992).

Table 8F.83 Australian Trigger Values for Radioactive Contaminants for Irrigation Water Radionuclide Radium 226 Radium 228 Uranium 238 Gross alpha Gross beta (excluding K-40)

Trigger Concentration (Bq/L) 5 2 0.2 0.5 0.5

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-128

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8F.84 Corrosion Potential of Waters on Metal Surface and Fouling Potential as Indicated by pH, Hardness, Langelier Index, Ryznar Index, and the Log of Chloride Carbonate Ratio Parametera

Value

Corrision Potential pH

Hardness Langelier index Ryznar index Log of chloride to carbonate ratio Fouling potential pH

Comments

!5 5–6 O6 !60 mg/L CaCO3 !K0.5 K0.5–0.5 !6 O7 O2

High corrosion potential Likelihood of corrosion Limited corrosion potential Increased corrosion potential Increased corrosion potential Limited corrosion potential Limited corrosion potential Increased corrosion potential Increased corrosion potential

!7 7–8.5

Limited fouling potential Moderate fouling potential (groundwater)b Increased fouling potential (groundwater)c Increased fouling potential Increased fouling potential Limited fouling potential Increased fouling potential Limited fouling potential Increased fouling potential

O8.5 Hardness Langelier index

!350 mg/L CaCO3 O0.5 K0.5–0.5 !6 O7 !2

Ryznar index Log of chloride to carbonate ratio a b c

For further information on these parameters refer to Volume 3, Section 9.2.9.1. For surface waters, pH range 7 to 9. For surface waters, pH O9.

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

Table 8F.85 Influence of Water Quality on the Potential for Clogging Problems in Localized (Drip) Irrigation Systems Degree of Restriction on Use Potential Problem Physical Suspended solids Chemical pH Dissolved solids Manganesea Ironb Hydrogen sulphide Biological Bacterial populations a b

Units

None

Slight to Moderate

Severe

mg/L

!50

50–100

O100

mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L

!7.0 !500 !0.1 !0.1 !0.5

7.0–8.0 500–2000 0.1–1.5 0.1–1.5 0.5–2.0

O8.0 O2000 O1.5 O1.5 O2.0

!10000

10000–50000

O50000

Maximum number/ML

While restrictions in use of localized (drip) irrigation systems may not occur at these manganese concentrations, plant toxicities may occur at lower concentrations. Iron concentrations O5.0 mg/L may cause nutritional imbalances in certain crops. www.fao.org/icatalog/inter-e.htm

Source: From Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1994, Water Quality for Agriculture, Irrigation, and Drainage Paper No 29, Rev. 1, www.fao.org. Reprinted with permission. Original Source: Adapted from Nakayama (1982).

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

8-129

SECTION 8G

WATER QUALITY FOR AQUATIC LIFE

United States National Recommended Water Quality Criteria for Priority Toxic Pollutants Section 304(a)(1) of the Clean Water Act requires the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to develop criteria for water quality that accurately reflects the latest scientific knowledge. These criteria are based solely on data and scientific judgments on pollutant concentrations and environmental or human health effects. Section 304(a) also provides guidance to states and tribes in adopting water-quality standards. Criteria are developed for the protection of aquatic life as well as for human health. The Criteria Maximum Concentration (CMC) is an estimate of the highest concentration of a material in surface water to which an aquatic community can be exposed briefly without resulting in an unacceptable effect. The Criterion Continuous Concentration (CCC) is an estimate of the highest concentration of a material in surface water to which an aquatic community can be exposed indefinitely without resulting in an unacceptable effect. The CMC and CCC are just two of the six parts of an aquatic life criterion; the other four parts are the acute averaging period, chronic averaging period, acute frequency of allowed exceedence, and chronic frequency of allowed exceedence. Because 304(a) aquatic life criteria are national guidance, they are intended to be protective of the vast majority of the aquatic communities in the United States. The tables below lists all priority toxic pollutants and some non priority toxic pollutants, and both human health effect and organoleptic effect criteria issued pursuant to CWA §304(a). Blank spaces indicate that EPA has no CWA §304(a) criteria recommendations. For a number of nonpriority toxic pollutants not listed, CWA §304(a) “water C organism” human health criteria are not available, but EPA has published MCLs under the SDWA that may be used in establishing water-quality standards to protect water supply designated uses. The human health criteria for the priority and nonpriority pollutants are based on carcinogenicity of 10K6 risk. Alternate risk levels may be obtained by moving the decimal point (e.g., for a risk level of 10K5, move the decimal point in the recommended criterion one place to the right). The compilation contains 304(a) criteria for pollutants with toxicity-based criteria as well as nontoxicity based criteria. The basis for the nontoxicity based criteria are organoleptic effects (e.g., taste and odor) which would make water and edible aquatic life unpalatable but not toxic to humans. The table includes criteria for organoleptic effects for 23 pollutants. Pollutants with organoleptic effect criteria more stringent than the criteria based on toxicity (e.g., included in both the priority and nonpriority pollutant tables) are footnoted as such.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Freshwater

Priority Pollutant

CAS Number

CMC (acute) (mg/L)

CCC (chronic) (mg/L)

Human Health for the Consumption of

Saltwater CMC (acute) (mg/L)

8-130

Table 8G.86 United States National Recommended Water Quality Criteria for Priority Toxic Pollutants

CCC (chronic) (mg/L)

Water D Organism (mg/L) A

Organism Only (mg/L)

FR Cite/Source

Antimony Arsenic

7440360 7440382

3 4

Beryllium Cadmium

7440417 7440439

2.0C,D,E,J

0.25C,D,E,J

5a

Chromium (III)

16065831

570C,J,D

74C,J,D

5b 6 7 8a 8b 9 10

Chromium (VI) Copper Lead Mercury Methylmercury Nickel Selenium

18540299 7440508 7439921 7439976 22967926 7440020 7782492

16C,D 13C,D,J,K 65C,E,J,N 1.4C,D,O

11C,D 9.0C,D,J,K 2.5C,E,J,N 0.77C,D,O

1,100C,E 4.8C,K,L 210C,E 1.8C,O,P

50C,E 3.1C,K,L 8.1C,E 0.94C,O,P

Totali 1,300M

470C,J,D —R,S,T

52C,J,D

74C,E

8.2C,E

610A

0.3 mg/kgQ 4,600A

5.0T

290C,E,U

71C,E,U 170i

4200

0.24

0.47

7,400M

26,000M

140X 7 million fibers/LYX 5.0EK9F 190 0.051A,F 2.2A,F 4.3A,F 0.23A,F

140X 5.1EK9F 290 0.25A,F 51A,F 140A,F 1.6A,F

65FR66443 65FR31682 57FR60848 65FR31682 EPA-822-R-01–001 65FR31682 EPA820/B-96–001 65FR31682 65FR31682 65FR31682 65FR31682 62FR42160 EPA823-R-01–001 65FR31682 62FR42160 65FR31682 65FR66443 65FR31682 68FR75510 65FR31682 65FR66443 EPA820/B-96–001 57FR60848 68FR75510 57FR60848 65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443 IRIS 01/19/00 &65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443

108907 124481

130I,M 0.40A,F

1,600M 13A,F

68FR75510 65FR66443

75003 110758 67663 75274

5.7F,Z 0.55A,F

470F,Z 17A,F

62FR42160 65FR66443

75343 107062 75354 78875 542756 100414

0.38A,F 330 0.50A,F 0.34F 530

37A,F 7,100 15A,F 21F 2,100

65FR66443 68FR75510 65FR66443 68FR75510 68FR75510

5.6 150B,C,D

69B,C,D,E

36B,C,D,E 0.018F,G,H

11 12 13

Silver Thallium Zinc

7440224 7440280 7440666

14

Cyanide

57125

3.2C,J,V

40C,E

22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

Asbestos 2,3,7,8-TCDD (Dioxin) Acrolein Acrylonitrile Benzene Bromoform Carbon Tetrachloride Chlorobenzene Chlorodibromomethane Chloroethane 2-Chloroethylvinyl Ether Chloroform Dichlorobromomethane 1,1-Dichloroethane 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,1-Dichloroethylene 1,2-Dichloropropane 1,3-Dichloropropene Ethylbenzene

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1332214 1746016 107028 107131 71432 75252 56235

8.8C,E

i

Totali

1.9C,V

120C,J,D

120C,J,D

22D,W

5.2D,W

90C,E

1E,W 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

0.14F,G,H

i

81C,E

1E,W

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

1 2

340B,C,D

640

A

38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75

Methyl Bromide Methyl Chloride Methylene Chloride 1,1,2,2Tetrachloroethane Tetrachloroethylene Toluene 1,2-TransDichloroethylene 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 1,1,2-Trichloroethane Trichloroethylene Vinyl Chloride 2-Chlorophenol 2,4-Dichlorophenol 2,4-Dimethylphenol 2-Methyl-4,6Dinitrophenol 2,4-Dinitrophenol 2-Nitrophenol 4-Nitrophenol 3-Methyl-4-Chlorophenol Pentachlorophenol Phenol 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol Acenaphthene Acenaphthylene Anthracene Benzidine Benzo(a) Anthracene Benzo(a) Pyrene Benzo(b) Fluoranthene Benzo(ghi) Perylene Benzo(k) Fluoranthene Bis(2-Chloroethoxy) Methane Bis(2-Chloroethyl) Ether Bis(2-Chloroisopropyl) Ether Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalatedd 4-Bromophenyl Phenyl Ether Butylbenzyl Phthalateee 2-Chloronaphthalene 4-Chlorophenyl Phenyl Ether Chrysene Dibenzo(a,h) Anthracene 1,2-Dichlorobenzene

47A

74839 74873 75092 79345

1,500A

4.6 0.17A,F

590 4.0A,F

65FR66443 65FR31682 65FR66443 65FR66443

127184 108883 156605

0.69F 1,300I 140I

3.3F 15,000 10,000

65FR66443 68FR75510 68FR75510

71556 79005 79016 75014 95578 120832 105679 534521

—I 0.59A,F 2.5F 0.025F,aa 81A,M 77A,M 380A 13

16A,F 30F 2.4F,aa 150A,M 290A,M 850A,M 280

65FR31682 65FR66443 65FR66443 68FR75510 65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443

51285 88755 100027 59507 87865

69A

5,300A

65FR66443

—M

—M

0.27A,F 21,000A,M 1.4A,F 670A,M

3.0A,F,cc 1,700,000A,M 2.4A,F,M 990A,M

65FR31682 65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443

8,300A 0.000086A,F 0.0038A,F 0.0038A,F 0.0038A,F

40,000A 0.00020A,F 0.018A,F 0.018A,F 0.018A,F

65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443

0.0038A,F

0.018A,F

65FR66443

111444 108601

0.030A,F 1,400A

0.53A,F 65,000A

65FR66443 65FR66443

117817

1.2A,F

2.2A,F

65FR66443

1,500A 1,000A

1,900A 1,600A

65FR66443 65FR66443

0.0038A,F 0.0038A,F 420

0.018A,F 0.018A,F 1,300

65FR66443 65FR66443 68FR75510

108952 88062 83329 208968 120127 92875 56553 50328 205992 191242 207089 111911

A,F

19D,bb

15D,bb

13E

A,F

7.9E

WATER QUALITY

34 35 36 37

101553 85687 91587 7005723 218019 53703 95501

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-131

(Continued)

(Continued) Freshwater

Priority Pollutant 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85

8-132

Table 8G.86

CAS Number

CMC (acute) (mg/L)

Human Health for the Consumption of

Saltwater

CCC (chronic) (mg/L)

CMC (acute) (mg/L)

CCC (chronic) (mg/L)

Water D Organism (mg/L)

Organism Only (mg/L)

FR Cite/Source

320 63 0.021A,F 17,000A 270,000 2,000A 0.11F

960 190 0.028A,F 44,000A 1,100,000 4,500A 3.4F

65FR66443 68FR75510 65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443

0.036A,F

0.20A,F

65FR66443

206440 86737 118741 87683

130A 1,100A 0.00028A,F 0.44A,F

140A 5,300A 0.00029A,F 18A,F

65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443

40M

1,100M

68FR75510

103 104 105

alpha-BHC beta-BHC gamma-BHC (Lindane)

319846 319857 58899

106 107

delta-BHC Chlordane

319868 57749

86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98

77474

A,F

67721 193395 78591 91203 98953 62759

1.4 0.0038A,F 35A,F

3.3 0.018A,F 960A,F

65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443

17A 0.00069A,F

690A,cc,M 3.0A,F

65FR66443 65FR66443

621647

0.0050A,F

0.51A,F

65FR66443

86306 85018 129000 120821 309002

108

4,4 0 -DDT

50293

109 110

4,4 0 -DDE 4,4 0 -DDD

72559 72548

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

A,F

3.3

3.0V

2.4

1.1V,gg

A,F

6.0

65FR66443

830A 35

4,000A 70

0.000049A,F 0.0026A,F 0.0091A,F

0.000050A,F 0.0049A,F 0.017A,F

0.98

1.8

65FR66443 68FR75510 65FR31682 65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR31682 68FR75510

0.00080A,F

0.00081A,F

0.00022A,F 0.00022A,F 0.00031A,F

0.00022A,F 0.00022A,F 0.00031A,F

1.3V

0.95D

V

A,F

0.16V

0.0043

V,ff

0.001V,ff,gg

V

0.09

0.13V,gg

0.004

V,ff

0.001V,ff,gg

65FR31682 65FR66443 65FR31682 65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR66443

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

541731 106467 91941 84662 131113 84742 121142 606202 117840 122667

99 100 101 102

1,3-Dichlorobenzene 1,4-Dichlorobenzene 3,3 0 -Dichlorobenzidine Diethyl Phthalateee Dimethyl Phthalateee Di-n-Butyl Phthalateee 2,4-Dinitrotoluene 2,6-Dinitrotoluene Di-n-Octyl Phthalate 1,2-Diphenylhydrazine Fluoranthene Fluorene Hexachlorobenzene Hexachlorobutadiene Hexachlorocyclopentadiene Hexachloroethane Ideno(1,2,3-cd)Pyrene Isophorone Naphthalene Nitrobenzene N-Nitrosodimethylamine N-Nitrosodi-n-Propylamine N-Nitrosodiphenylamine Phenanthrene Pyrene 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene Aldrin

Dieldrin

60571

112

Alpha-Endosulfan

113

Beta-Endosulfan

114 115

Endosulfan Sulfate Endrin

1031078 72208

116 117

Endrin Aldehyde Heptachlor

7421934 76448

118

Heptachlor Epoxide

119

Polychlorinated Biphenyls PCBs

120

Toxaphene

A B

C

D

E

F G H I

959988 33213659

1024573

0.24D 0.22

V,ii

0.22V,gg

0.086D

0.52

V

0.52

V,jj

0.056D,hh 0.056

0.056V,ii

0.73

0.0019V,ff V,ii

0.034

0.0087

0.034V,ii

0.0087V,ii

0.037V

0.0023V,ff

0.0038

V,ff

V

0.0036

V,ff

0.0038

V,ff,jj

0.0036

V,ff,jj

0.053

V,jj

0.053

ff

0.0002

0.000052A,F

0.000054A,F

62A

89A

62A 62A

89A 89A

0.059 0.29A

0.060 0.30A,cc

0.000079A,F

0.000079A,F

0.000039A,F

0.000039A,F

0.000064A,F,ii

0.000064A,F,ii

0.00028A,F

0.00028A,F

V,ii

0.036D,hh

0.014

8001352

V,ii

0.71V

0.03ff,kk

0.21ff

0.0002ff

WATER QUALITY

111

65FR31682 65FR66443 65FR31682 65FR66443 65FR31682 65FR66443 65FR66443 65FR31682 68FR75510 65FR66443 65FR31682 65FR66443 65FR31682 65FR66443 65FR31682 65FR66443 65FR31682 65FR66443

This criterion has been revised to reflect The Environmental Protection Agency’s q1* or RfD, as contained in the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) as of May 17, 2002. The fish tissue bioconcentration factor (BCF) from the 1980 Ambient Water Quality Criteria document was retained in each case. This recommended water quality criterion was derived from data for arsenic (III), but is applied here to total arsenic, which might imply that arsenic (III) and arsenic (V) are equally toxic to aquatic life and that their toxicities are additive. In the arsenic criteria document (EPA 440/5–84–033, January 1985), Species Mean Acute Values are given for both arsenic (III) and arsenic (V) for five species and the ratios of the SMAVs for each species range from 0.6 to 1.7. Chronic values are available for both arsenic (III) and arsenic (V) for one species; for the fathead minnow, the chronic value for arsenic (V) is 0.29 times the chronic value for arsenic (III). No data are known to be available concerning whether the toxicities of the forms of arsenic to aquatic organisms are additive. Freshwater and saltwater criteria for metals are expressed in terms of the dissolved metal in the water column. The recommended water quality criteria value was calculated by using the previous 304(a) aquatic life criteria expressed in terms of total recoverable metal, and multiplying it by a conversion factor (CF). The term “Conversion Factor” (CF) represents the recommended conversion factor for converting a metal criterion expressed as the total recoverable fraction in the water column to a criterion expressed as the dissolved fraction in the water column. (Conversion Factors for saltwater CCCs are not currently available. Conversion factors derived for saltwater CMCs have been used for both saltwater CMCs and CCCs). See “Office of Water Policy and Technical Guidance on Interpretation and Implementation of Aquatic Life Metals Criteria,” October 1, 1993, by Martha G. Prothro, Acting Assistant Administrator for Water, available from the Water Resource Center and 40CFR§131.36(b)(1). Conversion Factors applied in the table can be found in Appendix A to the PreambleConversion Factors for Dissolved Metals. This recommended criterion is based on a 304(a) aquatic life criterion that was issued in the 1995 Updates: Water Quality Criteria Documents for the Protection of Aquatic Life in Ambient Water, (EPA-820-B-96-001, September 1996). This value was derived using the GLI Guidelines (60FR15393–15399, March 23, 1995; 40CFR132 Appendix A); the difference between the 1985 Guidelines and the GLI Guidelines are explained on page iv of the 1995 Updates. None of the decisions concerning the derivation of this criterion were affected by any considerations that are specific to the Great Lakes. This water quality criterion is based on a 304(a) aquatic life criterion that was derived using the 1985 Guidelines (Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses, PB85–227049, January 1985) and was issued in one of the following criteria documents: Arsenic (EPA 440/5-84-033), Cadmium (EPA822-R-01-001), Chromium (EPA 440/5-84-029), Copper (EPA 440/5-84-031), Cyanide (EPA 440/5- 84-028), Lead (EPA 440/5-84-027), Nickel (EPA 440/5-86-004), Pentachlorophenol (EPA 440/5-86-009), Toxaphene, (EPA 440/5-86-006), Zinc (EPA 440/5-87- 003). This criterion is based on carcinogenicity of 10K6 risk. Alternate risk levels may be obtained by moving the decimal point (e.g., for a risk level of 10K5, move the decimal point in the recommended criterion one place to the right). EPA is currently reassessing the criteria for arsenic. This recommended water quality criterion for arsenic refers to the inorganic form only. A more stringent MCL has been issued by EPA. Refer to drinking water regulations (40 CFR 141) or Safe Drinking Water Hotline (1-800-426-4791) for values.

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(Continued)

K L M N O

P

Q R S

U

V

W X

Y Z aa bb cc

dd ee

ff

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

T

The freshwater criterion for this metal is expressed as a function of hardness (mg/L) in the water column. The value given here corresponds to a hardness of 100 mg/L. Criteria values for other hardness may be calculated from the following: CMC (dissolved) Z exp{mA [ln(hardness)]C bA} (CF), or CCC (dissolved) Z exp{mC [ln (hardness)]C bC} (CF) and the parameters specified in Appendix B- Parameters for Calculating Freshwater Dissolved Metals Criteria That Are Hardness-Dependent. When the concentration of dissolved organic carbon is elevated, copper is substantially less toxic and use of Water-Effect Ratios might be appropriate. This recommended water quality criterion was derived in Ambient Water Quality Criteria Saltwater Copper Addendum (Draft, April 14, 1995) and was promulgated in the Interim final National Toxics Rule (60FR22228–222237, May 4, 1995). The organoleptic effect criterion is more stringent than the value for priority toxic pollutants. EPA is actively working on this criterion and so this recommended water quality criterion may change substantially in the near future. This recommended water quality criterion was derived from data for inorganic mercury (II), but is applied here to total mercury. If a substantial portion of the mercury in the water column is methylmercury, this criterion will probably be under protective. In addition, even though inorganic mercury is converted to methylmercury and methylmercury bioaccumulates to a great extent, this criterion does not account for uptake via the food chain because sufficient data were not available when the criterion was derived. This recommended water quality criterion was derived on page 43 of the mercury criteria document (EPA 440/5-84-026, January 1985). The saltwater CCC of 0.025 ug/L given on page 23 of the criteria document is based on the Final Residue Value procedure in the 1985 Guidelines. Since the publication of the Great Lakes Aquatic Life Criteria Guidelines in 1995 (60FR15393–15399, March 23, 1995), the Agency no longer uses the Final Residue Value procedure for deriving CCCs for new or revised 304(a) aquatic life criteria. This fish tissue residue criterion for methylmercury is based on a total fish consumption rate of 0.0175 kg/day. The CMC Z1/[(f1/CMC1)C (f2/CMC2)] where f1 and f2 are the fractions of total selenium that are treated as selenite and selenate, respectively, and CMC1 and CMC2 are 185.9 g/L and 12.82 g/L, respectively. This value for selenium was announced (61FR58444–58449, November 14, 1996) as a proposed GLI 303(c) aquatic life criterion. EPA is currently working on this criterion and so this value might change substantially in the near future. This recommended water quality criterion for selenium is expressed in terms of total recoverable metal in the water column. It is scientifically acceptable to use the conversion factor (0.996- CMC or 0.922- CCC) that was used in the GLI to convert this to a value that is expressed in terms of dissolved metal. The selenium criteria document (EPA 440/5-87-006, September 1987) provides that if selenium is as toxic to saltwater fishes in the field as it is to freshwater fishes in the field, the status of the fish community should be monitored whenever the concentration of selenium exceeds 5.0 g/L in salt water because the saltwater CCC does not take into account uptake via the food chain. This Criterion is based on 304(a) aquatic life criterion issued in 1980, and was issued in one of the following documents: Aldrin/Dieldrin (EPA 440/5-80-019), Chlordane (EPA 440/5-80-027), DDT (EPA 440/5-80-038), Endosulfan (EPA 440/5-80-046), Endrin (EPA 440/5-80-047), Heptachlor (EPA 440/5-80-052), Hexachlorocyclohexane (EPA 440/5-80-054), Silver (EPA 440/580-071). The Minimum Data Requirements and derivation procedures were different in the 1980 Guidelines than in the 1985 Guidelines. For example, a “CMC” derived using the 1980 Guidelines was derived to be used as an instantaneous maximum. If assessment is to be done using an averaging period, the values given should be divided by 2 to obtain a value that is more comparable to a CMC derived using the 1985 Guidelines. This recommended water quality criterion is expressed as g free cyanide (as CN)/L. This recommended water quality criterion is expressed as total cyanide, even though the IRIS RFD we used to derive the criterion is based on free cyanide. The multiple forms of cyanide that are present in ambient water have significant differences in toxicity due to their differing abilities to liberate the CN-moiety. Some complex cyanides require even more extreme conditions than refluxing with sulfuric acid to liberate the CN-moiety. Thus, these complex cyanides are expected to have little or no ’bioavailability’ to humans. If a substantial fraction of the cyanide present in a water body is present in a complexed form (e.g. Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3), this criterion may be over conservative. This criterion for asbestos is the Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) developed under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). Although a new RfD is available in IRIS, the surface water criteria will not be revised until the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Stage 2 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule (Stage 2 DBPR) is completed, since public comment on the relative source contribution (RSC) for chloroform is anticipated. This recommended water quality criterion was derived using the cancer slope factor of 1.4 (LMS exposure from birth). Freshwater aquatic life values for pentachlorophenol are expressed as a function of pH, and are calculated as follows: CMC Z exp(1.005(pH)K4.869); CCC Z exp(1.005(pH)K5.134). Values displayed in table correspond to a pH of 7.8. No criterion for protection of human health from consumption of aquatic organisms excluding water was presented in the 1980 criteria document or in the 1986 Quality Criteria for Water. Nevertheless, sufficient information was presented in the 1980 document to allow the calculation of a criterion, even though the results of such a calculation were not shown in the document. There is a full set of aquatic life toxicity data that show that DEHP is not toxic to aquatic organisms at or below its solubility limit. Although EPA has not published a completed criteria document for butylbenzyl phthalate it is EPA’s understanding that sufficient data exist to allow calculation of aquatic criteria. It is anticipated that industry intends to publish in the peer reviewed literature draft aquatic life criteria generated in accordance with EPA Guidelines. EPA will review such criteria for possible issuance as national WQC. This criterion is based on a 304(a) aquatic life criterion issued in 1980 or 1986, and was issued in one of the following documents: Aldrin/Dieldrin (EPA 440/5-80-019), Chlordane (EPA 440/5-80-027), DDT (EPA 440/5-80-038), Endrin (EPA 440/5-80-047), Heptachlor (EPA 440/5-80-052), Polychlorinated biphenyls (EPA 440/5-80-068), Toxaphene (EPA 440/5-86-006). This CCC is currently based on the Final Residue Value (FRV) procedure. Since the publication of the Great Lakes Aquatic Life Criteria Guidelines in 1995 (60FR15393–15399, March 23, 1995), the Agency no longer uses the Final Residue Value procedure for deriving CCCs for new or revised 304(a) aquatic life criteria. Therefore, the Agency anticipates that future revisions of this CCC will not be based on the FRV procedure.

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Table 8G.86 (Continued) J

hh ii jj kk

This criterion applies to DDT and its metabolites (i.e. the total concentration of DDT and its metabolites should not exceed this value). The derivation of the CCC for this pollutant (Endrin) did not consider exposure through the diet, which is probably important for aquatic life occupying upper trophic levels. This value was derived from data for endosulfan and is most appropriately applied to the sum of alpha-endosulfan and beta-endosulfan. This value was derived from data for heptachlor and the criteria document provides insufficient data to estimate relative toxicities of heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide. This criterion applies to total pcbs, (e.g. the sum of all congener or all isomer or homolog or Aroclor analyses.)

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2005, National Recommended Water Quality Criteria, www.epa.gov.

WATER QUALITY

gg

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Table 8G.87 United States National Recommented Water Quality Criteria for Nonpriority Pollutants Freshwater

Nonpriority Pollutant

CAS Number

CMC (acute) (mg/L)

Human Health for the Consumption of

Saltwater

CCC (chronic) (mg/L)

CMC (acute) (mg/L)

CCC (chronic) (mg/L)

— 7429905 7664417

20000 87b,c,d 750b,c Freshwater criteria are pH, temperature and life-stage dependent—see documente Saltwater criteria are pH and temperature dependent

4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Aesthetic Qualities Bacteria Barium Boron Chloride Chlorine Chlorophenoxy Herbicide (2,4,5,-TP) Chlorophenoxy Herbicide (2,4-D) Chloropyrifos Color Demeton Ether, Bis (Chloromethyl) Gases, Total Dissolved Guthion Hardness Hexachlorocyclo-hexaneTechnical Iron Malathion Manganese Methoxychlor Mirex Nitrates Nitrosamines Dinitrophenols Nitrosodibutylamine,k Nitrosodiethylamine,k Nitrosopyrrolidine,k Oil and Grease Oxygen, Dissolved Freshwater Oxygen, Dissolved Saltwater Parathion Pentachlorobenzene

— — 7440393 — 16887006 7782505 93721

Narrative statement—see document (See table notes) For primary recreation and shellfish uses—see document

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

33 34

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

13

q

94757 2921882 — 8065483 542881 — 86500 — 319868

b

b

b

0.083 0.041 0.011 Narrative statement—see document (See table notes)a 0.1a Narrative statement—see documenta (See table notes) 0.01a Narrative statement—see document

7439896 121755 7439965 72435 2385855 14797558 — 25550587 924163

100f,g

Gold Book

0.0056 0.1a

0.00010h,i

0.00029h,i

0.0123

0.0414

0.01a

0.1a

0.03a 0.001a

0.03a 0.001a

930552

56382 608935

—g 10f

EPA440/5-88-004 Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book 53FR19028 Gold Book Gold Book

b

1000a 0.1a

55185

— 7782447

Gold Book 53FR33178 EPA822-R-99–014

1,000f Narrative statement—see document 230000b 860000b 19 11

FR Cite/Source

300f

Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book 65FR66443 Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book

10,000f 0.0008 69 0.0063f,i

1.24 5300 0.22f,i

Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book 65FR66443 65FR66443

0.0008f,I

1.24f,i

Gold Book

50f,j 100f,g

0.016

100f

i

34

i

65FR66443

Narrative statement—see documenta (See table notes) Warmwater and coldwater matrix—see documentk

Gold Book Gold Book

Saltwater—see document

EPA-822R-00–012

0.065l

0.013l 1.4h

1.5h

Gold Book 65FR66443

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Alkalinity Aluminum pH 6.5–9.0 Ammonia

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Organism Only (mg/L)

a

1 2 3

11

Water D Organism (mg/L)

pH Phosphorus Elemental Nutrients

— 7723140 —

38

Solids Dissolved and Salinity Solids Suspended and Turbidity Sulfide-Hydrogen Sulfide Tainting Substances Temperature Tetrachlorobenzene,1,2,4,5Tributyltin (TBT) Trichlorophenol,2,4,5-

—

39 40 41 42 43

44 45

6.5–9a

6.5–8.5a,m 5–9 0.1a,m See EPA’s Ecoregional criteria for Total Phosphorus, Total Nitrogen, Chlorophyll a and Water Clarity (Secchi depth for lakes; turbidity for streams and rivers) (& Level III Ecoregional criteria) 250,000f a

—

Narrative statement—see document (See table notes)

7783064 — — 95943

2.0a Narrative statement—see document (See table notes) Species dependent criteria—see documento

— 95954

0.46p

0.072p

0.42p

Gold Book Gold Book n

Gold Book Gold Book

2.0a

0.97h

1.1h

Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book 65FR66443

1,800h,q

3,600h,q

69FR342 65FR66443

0.0074p

WATER QUALITY

35 36 37

Appendix C — Calculation of Freshwater Ammonia Criterion 1. The one-hour average concentration of total ammonia nitrogen (in mg N/L) does not exceed, more than once every 3 years on the average, the CMC (acute criterion) calculated using the following equations Where salmonid fish are present: CMC Z

0:275 39:0 C 1 C 107:204pH 1 C 10pH7:204

CMC Z

0:411 58:4 C 1 C 107:204pH 1 C 10pH7:204

Or where salmonid fish are not present:

2A. The 30 average concentration of total ammonia nitrogen (in mg N/L) does not exceed, more than once every 3 years on the average, the CCC (chronic criterion) calculated using the following equations When fish early life stages are present: CCC Z

0:0577 2:487 C !MIN ð2:85; 1:45 !100:028ð25T Þ Þ 1 C 107:688pH 1 C 10pH7:688

When fish early life stages are absent: CCC Z

0:0577 2:487 C !1:45 !100:028ð25MAXðT ;7ÞÞ 1 C 107:688pH 1 C 10pH7:688

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2B. In addition, the highest 4-day average within the 30-day period should not exceed 2.5 times the CCC. Notes: Narrative Statements: National Recommented Water Quality Criteria for Nonpriority Pollutants Aesthetic Qualities All waters free from substances attributable to wastewater or other discharges that (1) settle to form objectionable deposits (2) float as debris, scum, oil, or other matter to form nuisances (3) produce objectionable color, odor, taste, or turbidity (4) injure or are toxic or produce adverse physiological responses in humans, animals, or plants, and (Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(5) produce undesirable or nuisance aquatic life Color Waters shall be virtually free from substances producing objectionable color for aesthetic purposes the source of supply should not exceed 75 color units on the platinum-cobalt scale for domestic water supplies; and Increased color (in combination with turbidity) should not reduce the depth of the compensation point for photosynthetic activity by more than 10 percent from the seasonally established norm for aquatic life Gases, Total Dissolved To protect freshwater and marine aquatic life, the total dissolved gas concentrations in water should not exceed 110 percent of the saturation value for gases at the existing atmospheric and hydrostatic pressures Oil and Grease For aquatic life (1) 0.01 of the lowest continuous flow 96-hour LC50 to several important freshwater and marine species, each having a demonstrated high susceptibility to oils and petrochemicals (2) Levels of oils or petrochemicals in the sediment which cause deleterious effects to the biota should not be allowed (3) Surface waters shall be virtually free from floating nonpetroleum oils of vegetable or animal origin, as well as petroleum-derived oils Solids (Suspended, Settleable) and Turbidity Freshwater fish and other aquatic life Settleable and suspended solids should not reduce the depth of the compensation point for photosynthetic activity by more than 10 percent from the seasonally established norm for aquatic life Tainting Substances Materials should not be present in concentrations that individually or in combination produce undesirable flavors which are detectable by organoleptic tests performed on the edible portions of aquatic organisms a The derivation of this value is presented in the Red Book (EPA 440/9-76-023, July, 1976). b This value is based on a 304(a) aquatic life criterion that was derived using the 1985 Guidelines (Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses, PB85-227049, January 1985) and was issued in one of the following criteria documents: Aluminum (EPA 440/5-86-008); Chloride (EPA 440/5-88-001); Chloropyrifos (EPA 440/5-86-005). c This value for aluminum is expressed in terms of total recoverable metal in the water column. d There are three major reasons why the use of Water-Effect Ratios might be appropriate. (1) The value of 87 ug/L is based on a toxicity test with the striped bass in water with pHZ6.5–6.6 and hardness !10 mg/L. Data in “Aluminum Water-Effect Ratio for the 3M Plant Effluent Discharge, Middleway, West Virginia” (May 1994) indicate that aluminum is substantially less toxic at higher pH and hardness, but the effects of pH and hardness are not well quantified at this time. (2) In tests with the brook trout at low pH and hardness, effects increased with increasing concentrations of total aluminum even though the concentration of dissolved aluminum was constant, indicating that total recoverable is a more appropriate measurement than dissolved, at least when particulate aluminum is primarily aluminum hydroxide particles. In surface waters, however, the total recoverable procedure might measure aluminum associated with clay particles, which might be less toxic than aluminum associated with aluminum hydroxide. (3) EPA is aware of field data indicating that many high quality waters in the U.S. contain more than 87 mg aluminum/L, when either total recoverable or dissolved is measured. e According to the procedures described in the Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses, except possibly where a very sensitive species is important at a site, freshwater aquatic life should be protected if both conditions specified in Appendix C to the Preamble- Calculation of Freshwater Ammonia Criterion are satisfied. f This human health criterion is the same as originally published in the Red Book(EPA 440/9-76-023, July, 1976) which predates the 1980 methodology and did not utilize the fish ingestion BCF approach. This same criterion value is now published in the Gold Book(Quality Criteria for Water: 1986. EPA 440/5-86-001). g A more stringent Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) has been issued by EPA under the Safe Drinking Water Act. Refer to drinking water regulations 40CFR141 or Safe Drinking Water Hotline (1-800-426-4791) for values. h This criterion has been revised to reflect EPA’s q1* or RfD, as contained in the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) as of May 17, 2002. The fish tissue bioconcentration factor (BCF) used to derive the original criterion was retained in each case. i This criterion is based on carcinogenicity of 10K6 risk. Alternate risk levels may be obtained by moving the decimal point (e.g., for a risk level of 10K5, move the decimal point in the recommended criterion one place to the right). j This criterion for manganese is not based on toxic effects, but rather is intended to minimize objectionable qualities such as laundry stains and objectionable tastes in beverages. U.S. EPA. 1973. Water Quality Criteria 1972. EPA-R3-73-033. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.; U.S. EPA. 1977. Temperature Criteria for Freshwater Fish: Protocol and Procedures. EPA-600/3-77-061. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA. K U.S. EPA. 1986. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Dissolved Oxygen. EPA 440/5-86-003. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA. l This value is based on a 304(a) aquatic life criterion that was issued in the 1995 Updates: Water Quality Criteria Documents for the Protection of Aquatic Life in Ambient Water (EPA-820-B96-001). This value was derived using the GLI Guidelines (60FR15393–15399, March 23, 1995; 40CFR132 Appendix A); the differences between the 1985 Guidelines and the GLI Guidelines are explained on page iv of the 1995 Updates. No decision concerning this criterion was affected by any considerations that are specific to the Great Lakes.

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Table 8G.87 (Continued)

n

p q

According to page 181 of the Red Book: For open ocean waters where the depth is substantially greater than the euphotic zone, the pH should not be changed more than 0.2 units from the naturally occurring variation or any case outside the range of 6.5 to 8.5. For shallow, highly productive coastal and estuarine areas where naturally occurring pH variations approach the lethal limits of some species, changes in pH should be avoided but in any case should not exceed the limits established for fresh water, i.e. 6.5–9.0. Lakes and Reservoirs in Nutrient Ecoregion: II EPA 822-B-00-007, III EPA 822-B-01-008, IV EPA 822-B-01-009, V EPA 822-B-01-010, VI EPA 822-B-00-008, VII EPA 822-B-00-009, VIII EPA 822-B-01-015, IX EPA 822-B-00-011, XI EPA 822-B-00-012, XII EPA 822-B-00-013, XIII EPA 822-B-00-014, XIV EPA 822-B-01-011; Rivers and Streams in Nutrient Ecoregion: I EPA 822-B-01-012, II EPA 822-B-00-015, III EPA 822-B-00-016, IV EPA 822-B-01-013, V EPA 822-B-01-014, VI EPA 822-B-00-017, VII EPA 822-B-00-018, VIII EPA 822-B-01-015, IX EPA 822-B-00-019, X EPA 822-B-01-016, XI EPA 822-B-00-020, XII EPA 822-B-00-021, XIV EPA 822-B-00-022; and Wetlands in Nutrient Ecoregion XIII EPA 822-B-00-023. EPA announced the availability of a draft updated tributyltin (TBT) document on August 7, 1997 (62FR42554). The Agency has reevaluated this document and anticipates releasing an updated document for public comment in the near future. The organoleptic effect criterion is more stringent than the value presented in the nonpriority pollutants table.

WATER QUALITY

m

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2005, National Recommended Water Quality Criteria, www.epa.gov. Original Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency Gold Book, Quality Criteria for Water: 1986, EPA 44015-86-001.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8G.88 United States National Recommended Water Quality Criteria for Organoleptic Effects

Pollutant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

CAS Number

Organoleptic Effect Criteria (mg/L)

83329 108907 — 106489 — — — — 95954 88062 — — 59507 — 95578 7440508 120832 105679 77474 98953 87865 108952 7440666

20 20 0.1 0.1 0.04 0.5 0.2 0.3 1 2 1 1800 3000 20 0.1 1000 0.3 400 1 30 30 300 5000

Acenaphthene Monochlorobenzene 3-Chlorophenol 4-Chlorophenol 2,3-Dichlorophenol 2,5-Dichlorophenol 2,6-Dichlorophenol 3,4-Dichlorophenol 2,4,5-Trichlorophenol 2,4,6-Trichloropehnol 2,3,4,6-Tetrachlorophenol 2-Methyl-4-Chlorophenol 3-Methyl-4-Chlorophenol 3-Methyl-6-Chlorophenol 2-Chlorophenol Copper 2,4-Dichlorophenol 2,4-Dimethylpehnol Hexachlorocyclopentadiene Nitrobenzene Pentachlorophenol Phenol Zinc

FR Cite/Source Gold Booka Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book Gold Book 45 FR 79341

Note: These criteria are based on organoleptic (taste and odor) effects. Because of variations in chemical nomenclature systems, this listing of pollutants does not duplicate the listing in Appendix A of 40 CFR Part 423. Also listed are the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) registry numbers, which provide a unique identification for each chemical. a

The Gold book is Quality Crieteria for Water: 1986. EPA 440/5-86-001.

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2005, Nutrient Recommended Water Quality Criteria, www.epa.gov.

These tables present the recommended EPA criteria for each of the aggregate nutrient ecoregions for the following parameters: Total Phosphorus (TP), Total Nitrogen (TN), Chlorophyll a, and Turbidity or Secchi. Criteria are presented for both Lakes & Reservoirs and Rivers & Streams.

Table 8G.89 United States Recommended Criteria for Each of the Aggregate Nutrients Ecoregions Lakes and Reservoirs

Parameter TP mg/L TN mg/L Chl a mg/L Secchi (m) Note:

Agg Ecor II

Agg Ecor III

Agg Ecor IV

Agg Ecor V

Agg Ecor VI

Agg Ecor VII

Agg Ecor VIII

Agg Ecor IX

Agg Ecor XI

Agg Ecor XII

Agg Ecor XIII

Agg Ecor XIV

8.75 0.10 1.90 4.50

17.00 0.40 3.40 2.70

20.00 0.44 2.00 S 2.00

33.00 0.56 2.30 S 1.30

37.5 0.78 8.59 S 1.36

14.75 0.66 2.63 3.33

8.00 0.24 2.43 4.93

20.00 0.36 4.93 1.53

8.00 0.46 2.79 S 2.86

10.00 0.52 2.60 2.10

17.50 1.27 12.35 T 0.79

8.00 0.32 2.90 4.50

Chl a, Chlorophyll a measured by Fluorometric method, unless specified; S is for Spectrophotometric and T is for Trichromatic method.

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, Nutrient Water Quality Criteria, Ecoregional Criteria, www.epa.gov/ waterscience/criteria/nutrient/ecoregions.

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WATER QUALITY

8-141

Table 8G.90 United States Recommended Criteria for Each of the Aggregate Nutrient Ecoregions Rivers and Streams

Parameter

Agg Ecor I

Agg Ecor II

Agg Ecor III

Agg Ecor IV

Agg Ecor V

Agg Ecor VI

Agg Ecor VII

Agg Ecor VIII

TP mg/L TN mg/L Chl a mg/L Turb FTU/NTU

47.00 0.31 1.80 4.25

10.00 0.12 1.08 1.30 N

21.88 0.38 1.78 2.34

23.00 0.56 2.40 4.21

67.00 0.88 3.00 7.83

76.25 2.18 2.70 6.36

33.00 0.54 1.50 1.70 N

10.00 0.38 0.63 1.30

Agg Ecor IX

Agg Ecor X

Agg Ecor XI

Agg Ecor XII

10.00 40.00 36.56 128a 0.69 0.76 0.31 0.90 0.93 S 2.10 S 1.61 S 0.40 S 5.70 17.50 2.30 N 1.90 N

Agg Ecor XIV 31.25 0.71 3.75 S 3.04

Note: Turb, Turbidity; Chl a, Chlorophyll a measured by Fluorometric method, unless specified; S is for Spectrophotometric and T is for Trichromatic method; N for NTU. Unit of measurement for Turbidity. a

This value appears inordinately high and may either be a statistical anomaly or reflects a unique condition. In any case, further regional investigation is indicated to determine the sources, i.e. measurement error, notational error, statistical anomaly, natural enriched conditions, or cultural impacts. From United States Environmental Protection Agency, Nutrient Water Quality Criteria, Ecoregional Criteria, www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/nutrient/ecoregions/.

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, Nutrient Water Quality Criteria, Ecoregional Criteria, www.epa.gov/ waterscience/criteria/nutrient/ecoregions/.

I. Willamette and Central Valleys II. Western Forested Mountains III. Xeric West IV. Great Plains Grass and Shrublands V. South Central Cultivated Great Plains VI. Corn Belt and Northern Great Plains VII. Mostly Glacinated Dairy Region VIII. Nutrient Poor Largely Glacinated Upper Midwest and Northeast IX. Southeastern Temperate Forested Plains and Hills X. Texas-Lousiana Coastal and Mississippi Alluvial Plains XI. Central and Eastern Forested Uplands XII. Southern Coastal Plain XIII. Southern Florida Coastal Plain XIV. Eastern Coastal Plain

Figure 8G.21 United States draft aggregations of level III ecoregions for the national nutrient strategy. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, Nutrient Water Quality Criteria, Where-You-Live, epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/nutrient/where-you-live.htm).

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Table 8G.91 Aquatic Life Criteria for Dissolved Oxygen (Saltwater): Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras Persistent Exposure (24 hr or Greater Continuous Low DO Conditions)

Endpoint Juvenile and adult survival (minimum allowable conditions)

Growth effects (maximum conditions required)

Episodic and Cyclic Exposure (Less Than 24 hr Duration of Low DO Conditions)

(1) a limit for continuous exposure

(4) a limit based on the hourly duration of exposure

DOZ2.3 mg/L (criterion minimum concentration, CMC)

DOZ3.70 n(t)C1.095 where: DO, allowable concentration (mg/L); t, exposure duration (hrs)

(2) a limit for continuous exposure

(5) a limit based on the intensity and hourly duration of exposure Cumulative cyclic adjusted percent daily reduction in growth must not exceed 25% n P ti !1:56!Gredi ! 25% and GrediZK23:1 !DOi C 138:1 24

DOZ4.8 mg/L (criterion continuous concentration, CCC)

1

where: Gredi, growth reduction (%); DOi, allowable concentration (mg/L); ti, exposure interval duration (hrs); i, exposure interval Larval recruitment effectsa (specific allowable conditions)

(3) a limit based on the number of days a continuous exposure can occur

(6) a limit based on the number of days an intensity and hourly duration pattern of exposure can occur

Cumulative fraction of allowable days above a given daily mean DO must not exceed 1.0 P ti ðactualÞ 13:0 ti ðallowedÞ ! 1:0 and DOi Z ð2:80C1:84eK0:10ti Þ

Maximum daily cohort mortality for any hourly duration interval of a DO minimum must not exceed a corresponding allowable days of occurrence

where: DOi, allowable concentration (mg/L); ti, exposure interval duration (d); i, exposure interval

where: Allowable number of days is a function of maximum daily cohort mortality (%)

Maximum daily cohort mortality (%) is a function of DO minimum for any exposure interval (mg/L) and the duration of the interval (hrs) a

Model integrating survival effects to maintain minimally impaired larval populations.

Source:

From USEPA, 2000, Aquatic Life Criteria Document for Dissolved Oxygen (Saltwater): Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras, EPA-822-R-00-012, November 2000, www.epa.gov.

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Table 8G.92 United States Sediment Quality Guidelines for Metals in Freshwater Ecosystems That Reflect Threshold Effect Concentrations (TECs) (i.e., Below Which Harmful Effects are Unlikely to Be Observed) Threshold Effect Concentrations Substance

TEL

LEL

Metals (mg/kg DW) Arsenic 5.9 6 Cadmium 0.596 0.6 Chromium 37.3 26 Copper 35.7 16 Lead 35 31 Mercury 0.174 0.2 Nickel 18 16 Zinc 123 120 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (mg/kg DW) Anthracene NG 220 Fluorene NG 190 Naphthalene NG NG Phenanthrene 41.9 560 Benz[a]anthracene 31.7 320 Benzo(a)pyrene 31.9 370 Chrysene 57.1 340 Dibenz[a,h]anthracene NG 60 Fluoranthene 111 750 Pyrene 53 490 Total PAHs NG 4,000 Polychlorinated biphenyls (mg/kg DW) Total PCBs 34.1 70 Organochlorine pesticides (mg/kg DW) Chlordane 4.5 7 Dieldrin 2.85 2 Sum DDD 3.54 8 Sum DDE 1.42 5 Sum DDT NG 8 Total DDTs 7 7 Endrin 2.67 3 Heptachlor epoxide 0.6 5 Lindane (gamma-BHC) 0.94 3

MET

ERL

7 0.9 55 28 42 0.2 35 150

33 5 80 70 35 0.15 30 120

NG NG 400 400 400 500 600 NG 600 700 NG

TEL-HA28

SQAL

11 0.58 36 28 37 NG 20 98

NG NG NG NG NG NG NG NG

ConsensusBased TEC 9.79 0.99 43.4 31.6 35.8 0.18 22.7 121

85 35 340 225 230 400 400 60 600 350 4,000

10 10 15 19 16 32 27 10 31 44 260

NG 540 470 1,800 NG NG NG NG 6,200 NG NG

57.2 77.4 176 204 108 150 166 33.0 423 195 1,610

200

50

32

NG

59.8

7 2 10 7 9 NG 8 5 3

0.5 0.02 2 2 1 3 0.02 NG NG

NG NG NG NG NG NG NG NG NG

NG 110 NG NG NG NG 42 NG 3.7

3.24 1.90 4.88 3.16 4.16 5.28 2.22 2.47 2.37

Note: TEL, threshold effect level; dry weight (Smith et al., 1996); LEL, lowest effect level, dry weight (Persaud et al., 1993); MET, minimal effect threshold; dry weight (EC and MENVIQ, 1992); ERL, effect range low; dry weight (Long and Morgan, 1991); TEL-HA28, threshold effect level for Hyalella azteca; 28 day test; dry weight (US EPA 1996a); SQAL, sediment quality advisory levels; dry weight at 1% OC (US EPA 1997a); NG, no guideline. Source : From MacDonald, D.D, Ingersoll, C.G., and Berger, T.A., 2000, Development and evaluation of consensus-based sediment quality guidelines for freshwater ecostystems, Archives of Environmental Contamination Toxicology 39, 20–31, Table 2, q 2000 Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. With kind permission of Springer Science and Business Media.

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Table 8G.93 United States Sediment Quality Guidelines for Metals in Freshwater Ecosystems That Reflect Probable Effect Concentrations (PECs) (i.e., Above Which Harmful Effects are Unlikely to Be Observed) Probable Effect Concentrations Substance

PEL

Metals (mg/kg DW) Arsenic 17 Cadmium 3.53 Chromium 90 Copper 197 Lead 91.3 Mercury 0.486 Nickel 36 Zinc 315 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (mg/kg DW) Anthracene NG Fluorene NG Naphthalene NG Phenanthrene 515 Benz[a]anthracene 385 Benzo(a)pyrene 782 Chrysene 862 Fluoranthene 2,355 Pyrene 875 Total PAHs NG Polychlorinated biphenyls (mg/kg DW) Total PCBs 277 Organochlorine pesticides (mg/kg DW) Chlordane 8.9 Dieldrin 6.67 Sum DDD 8.51 Sum DDE 6.75 Sum DDT NG Total DDTs 4,450 Endrin 62.4 Heptachlor epoxide 2.74 Lindane (gamma-BHC) 1.38

SEL

TET

ERM 85 9 145 390 110 1.3 50 270

PEL-HA28 48 3.2 120 100 82 NG 33 540

ConsensusBased TEC

33 10 110 110 250 2 75 820

17 3 100 86 170 1 61 540

33.0 4.98 111 149 128 1.06 48.6 459

3,700 1,600 NG 9,500 14,800 14,400 4,600 10,200 8,500 100,000

NG NG 600 800 500 700 800 2,000 1,000 NG

960 640 2,100 1,380 1,600 2,500 2,800 3,600 2,200 35,000

170 150 140 410 280 320 410 320 490 3,400

845 536 561 1,170 1,050 1,450 1,290 2,230 1,520 22,800

5,300

1,000

400

240

676

60 910 60 190 710 120 1,300 50 10

30 300 60 50 50 NG 500 30 9

6 8 20 15 7 350 45 NG NG

NG NG NG NG NG NG NG NG NG

17.6 61.8 28.0 31.3 62.9 572 207 16.0 4.99

Source: From MacDonald, D.D, Ingersoll, C.G., and Berger, T.A., 2000, Development and evaluation of consensus-based sediment quality guidelines for freshwater ecosystems, Archives of Environmental Contamination Toxicology 39, 20–31, Table 3, q 2000 Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. With kind permission of Springer Science and Business Media.

Table 8G.94 United States Sediment Quality Guidelines for Marine Sediment

Chemical Aluminum (Al) (%) Antimony (Sb) Arsenic (As) Barium (Ba) Cadmium (Cd) Chromium (Cr) Cobalt (Co) Copper (Cu) Iron (Fe) (%) Lead (Pb)

CAS No.

Threshold Effects Level (TEL)

Effects Range-Low (ERL)

Probable Effects Range- Effects Level (PEL) Median (ERM)

7,240

8,200

70,000

41,600

676 52,300

1,200 81,000

9,600 370,000

4,210 160,400

18,700

34,000

270,000

108,200

30,240

46,700

218,000

112,180

Apparenta Effects Threshold (AET) 1.8% N 9,300 E 35,000 B 48,000 A 3,000 N 62,000 N 10,000 N 390,000 MO 22% N 400,000 B (Continued)

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(Continued)

Chemical

CAS No.

Manganese (Mn) Mercury (Hg) Nickel (Ni) Selenium (Se) Silver (Ag) Tin (Sn) Vanadium (V) Zinc (Zn) Sulfides Chlorinated dioxins and PCBs TCDD 2,3,7,8Polychlorinated biphenyls Semivolatiles Benzoic acid Benzyl alcohol Dibenzofuran Semivolatile, nitroaromatics Nitrobenzene N-nitrosodiphenylamine Semivolatile, organochlorines Aldrin Chlordane p,p-DDD (TDE) p,p-DDE p,p-DDT DDT, total Dieldrinb Heptachlor Hexachlorobenzene Hexachlorobutadiene Hexachlorocyclohexane (BHC) Hexachloroethane Lindane Semivolatile, PAHs Acenaphthene Acenaphthylene Anthracene Benzo(k)fluoranthene Benzo(a)pyrene Benzo(b)fluoranthene Benzo(ghi)perylene Benz(a)anthracene Chrysene Dibenz(a,h)anthracene Fluoranthene Fluorene Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene Methylnaphthalene, 2Naphthalene Phenanthrene Pyrene LMW PAHs HMW PAHs Total PAHs Volatile, aromatic and halogenated Dichlorobenzene 1,2Dichlorobenzene 1,4-

Threshold Effects Level (TEL)

Probable Effects Range- Effects Level Median (ERM) (PEL)

130 15,900

150 20,000

710 51,600

696 42,800

730

1,000

3,700

1,770

124,000

150,000

410,000

271,000

1746016 1336363 65850 100516 132649

Effects Range-Low (ERL)

21.55

22.7

180

188.79

60571 76448 118741 87683 608731 67721 58899 83329 208968 120127 207089 50328 205992 191242 56553 218019 53703 206440 86737 193395 91576 91203 85018 129000

95501 106467

260,000 N 410 M 110,000 EL 1,000 A 3,100 B O3,400 N as TBT 57,000 N 410,000 I 4,500 MO 0.0036 N 130 M 65 O 52 B 110 E

5100 H

98953 86306 309002 57749 72548 72559 50293

Apparenta Effects Threshold (AET)

21 N 28 I

2.26 1.22 2.07 1.19 3.89 0.715

0.5 2 2.2 1 1.58 0.02

6 20 27 7 46.1 8

4.79 7.81 374.17 4.77 51.7 4.3

0.32

73 BL O4.8 N

0.99 6.71 5.87 46.85 88.81

74.83 107.77 6.22 112.82 21.17 20.21 34.57 86.68 152.66 311.7 655.34 1684.06

16 44 85.3

500 640 1100

88.9 127.87 245

430

1600

763.22

261 384 63.4 600 19

1600 2800 260 5100 540

692.53 845.98 134.61 1493.54 144.35

670 2100 1500 2600 3160 9600 44792

201.28 390.64 543.53 1397.6 1442.00 6676.14 16770.4

70 160 240 665 552 1700 4022

9.5 AE 2.8 A 16 I 9I 12 E 11 B 1.9 E 0.3 B 6B 1.3 E

130 E 71 E 280 E 1800 EI 1100 E 1800 EI 670 M 960 E 950 E 230 OM 1300 E 120 E 600 M 64 E 230 E 660 E 2400 E 1200 E 7900 E

13 N 110 IM (Continued)

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(Continued)

Chemical Semivolatile, phenolics Chlorophenol 2Dichlorophenol 2,4Dimethylphenol 2,4Methyl phenol 2- [O-cresol] Methyl phenol 4- [P-cresol] Pentachlorophenol [at pH 7.8]c Phenol Trichlorophenol 2,4,5Trichlorophenol 2,4,6Semivolatile, phthalates Butyl benzyl phthalate Di[2-ethylhexyl] phthalate Diethyl phthalate Dimethyl phthalate Di-N-octyl phthalate Di-N-butyl phthalate Dichloropropene Tetrachloroethylene Trichlorbenzene 1,2,4Trichloroethylene Xylene

CAS No.

Threshold Effects Level (TEL)

Effects Range-Low (ERL)

Probable Effects Range- Effects Level Median (ERM) (PEL)

95578 120832 105679 95487 106445 87865 108952 95954 88062 85687 117817 84662 131113 117840 84742 542756 127184 120821 79016 1330207

Apparenta Effects Threshold (AET) 8A 5A 18 N 8B 100 B 17 B 130 E 3I 6I

182.16

2646.51

63 M 1300 I 6 BL 6B 61 BL 58 BL 4 EL 57 I O4.8 E 41 N 4 BL

Note: The Effects Range-Low (ERLs) and Effects Range-Median (ERMs) plus the marine Threshold Effects Levels (TELs) and Probable Effects Levels (PELs) are based upon a similar data compilations, but use different calculations. The ERL is calculated as the lower 10th percentile concentration of the available sediment toxicity data which has been screened for only those samples which were identified as toxic by original investigators. It is not an LC10. Since the ERL is at the low end of a range of levels at which effects were observed in the studies compiled, it represents the value at which toxicity may begin to be observed in sensitive species. The ERM is simply the median concentration of the compilation of just toxic samples. It is not an LC50. The TEL is calculated as the geometric mean of the 15th percentile concentration of the toxic effects data set and the median of the no-effect data set; as such, it represents the concentration below which adverse effects are expected to occur only rarely. The PEL, as the geometric mean of the 50% of impacted, toxic samples and the 85% of the non-impacted samples, is the level above which adverse effects are frequently expected. From Apparent Effect Thresholds (AETs) relate chemical concentrations in sediments to synoptic biological indicators of injury (i.e., sediment bioassays or diminished benthic infaunal abundance). Individual AETs are essentially equivalent to the concentration observed in the highest nontoxic sample. As such, they represent the concentration above which adverse biological impacts would always be expected by that biological indicator due to exposure to that contaminant alone. Conversely, adverse impacts are known to occur at levels below the AET. Only the lowest of the potential AETs is listed. AET values were developed for use in Puget Sound (Washington) and are not easily compared directly to other benchmarks based on single-chemical models and broader data sources. SquiRT cards have been updated with interim AET values which are subject to change. (All sediment and soil values in ppb dry weight, except as noted.) a b c

Entry is lowest value among AET tests. I, infaunal community impacts; A, amphipod; B, bivalve; M, microtox; O, Oyster larvae; E, Echinoderm larvae; L, larvalmax; or, N-Neanthes bioassays. EPA proposed criteria, based on equilibrium partitioning, for Dieldrin are 11,000 and 20,000, and for Endrin are 4,200 and 760 mg/kg O.C. in freshwater and marine sediment, respectively. For PCP, freshwater CMCZe1.005pHK4.869 and CCCZe1.005pHK5.134.

Source: From NOAA, 1999, Screening Quick Reference Tables (SQuiRTs), www.response.restoration.noaa.gov/cpr/sediment/squirt/ squirt.html.

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Table 8G.95 United States Equilibrium Partitioning Sediment Benchmarks (ESBWQCs) for Dieldrin and Endrin Using the Water Quality Criteria (WQC) FCVs as the Effect Concentration Type of Water Body Dieldrin Freshwater Saltwater Endrin Freshwater Saltwater a b c d

Log10KOW (L/kg)

Log10KOC (L/kg)

FCV (mg/L)

5.37 5.37

5.28 5.28

0.06589 0.1469

5.06 5.06

4.97 4.97

0.05805 0.01057

ESGOC (mg/gOC) 12a 28b 5.4a 0.99b

ESBWQCOCZ(105.28 L/kgOC)!(10K3 kgOC/gOC)!(0.6589 mg dieldrin/L)Z12 mg dieldrin/gOC. ESBWQCOCZ(105.28 L/kgOC)!(10K3 kgOC/gOC)!(0.1469 mg dieldrin/L)Z28 mg dieldrin/gOC. ESBWQCOCZ(104.97 L/kgOC)!(10K3 kgOC/gOC)!(0.05805 mg endrin/L)Z5.4 mg endrin/gOC. ESBWQCOCZ(104.97 L/kgOC)!(10K3 kgOC/gOC)!(0.01057 mg endrin/L)Z0.99 mg endrin/gOC.

Source: From USEPA, 2003, Procedures for the Derivation of Equilibrium Partitioning Sediment Benchmarks (ESBs) for the Protection of Benthic Organisms: Dieldrin, EPA-600-R-02-010, August 2003; USEPA, 2003, Procedures for the Derivation of Equilibrium Partitioning Sediment Benchmarks (ESBs) for the Protection of Benthic Organisms: Endrin, EPA-600-R-02-009, August 2003, www.epa.gov.

Table 8G.96 Canadian Water Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Life Freshwater Parametera Acenaphthene [see Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)] Acridine [see Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)] Aldicarb AldrinCDieldrind Aluminumd Ammonia (total)h Ammonia (unionized) Aniline Anthracene [see Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)] Arsenicj Atrazine Benz(a)anthracene [see Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)] Benzenej Benzo(a)pyrene [see Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)] 2,2-Bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,-trichloroethane [see DDT (total)] Bromacil Bromoform [see Halogenated methanes, tribromomethane] Bromoxynil Cadmium Captan Carbaryl Carbofuran Carbon tetrachloride [see Halogenated methanes, tetrachloromethanes] Chlordaned Chlorinated benzenes Monochlorobenzene 1,2-Dichlorobenzene 1,3-Dichlorobenzene 1,4-Dichlorobenzene 1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene

Concentration (mg/L)

Marine Dateb

Concentration (mg/L)

Dateb

1c 0.004e,f 5–100g See factsheet 19 2.2i

1993 1987 1987 2001 2001 1993

0.15c

1993

Insufficient data

1993

5.0k 1.8i

1997 1989

12.5c

1997

370c,k

1999

110c

1999

5.0c,i

1997

Insufficient data

1997

5.0i 0.017c,l 1.3c 0.20i 1.8i

1993 1996 1991 1997 1989

Insufficient data 0.12i

1993 1996

0.32c,i

1997

0.006e,f

1987

1.3c,k 0.70c,k 150c,k 26c,k 8.0c,k 24c,k

1997 1997 1997 1997 1997 1997

25c,k 42c,k Insufficient datak Insufficient datak Insufficient datak 5.4c,k

1997 1997 1997 1997 1997 1997

(Continued)

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(Continued) Freshwater Concentration (mg/L)

Parametera 1,3,5-Trichlorobenzened 1,2,3,4-Tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5-Tetrachlorobenzened 1,2,4,5-Tetrachlorobenzene Pentachlorobenzene Hexachlorobenzened Chlorinated ethanes 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane Chlorinated ethenes 1,1,2-Trichloroethene (Tichloroethylene; TCE) 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethene (Tetrachloroethylene; PCE) Chlorinated methanes [see Halogenated methanes] Chlorinated phenolsd Monochlorophenols Dichlorophenols Trichlorophenols Tetrachlorophenols Pentachlorophenol (PCP) Chlorine, reactive [see Reactive chlorine species] Chloroform [see Halogenated methanes, trichloromethane] 4-Chloro-2-methyl phenoxy acetic acid [See MCPA] Chlorothalonil Chlorpyrifos Chromium Trivalent chromium (Cr(III)) Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) Chrysene [see Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)] Color Copperd Cyanazine Cyanided DDAC (Didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride) DDT (total)d (2,2-Bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1trichloroethane; dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane) Debris (litter/settleable matter) Deltamethrin Deposited bedload sediment [see Total particulate matter] Dibromochloromethane [see Halogenated methanes] Dicamba Dichlorobenzene [see Chlorinated benzenes] Dichlorobromomethane [see Halogenated methanes] Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane [see DDT (total)] Dichloroethane [see Chlorinated ethanes] Dichloroethylene [see Chlorinated ethanes, 1,2dichloroethane] Dichloromethane [see Halogenated methanes] Dichlorophenols [see Chlorinated phenols] 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid [see Phenoxy herbicides] Diclofop-methyl Didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride [see DDAC] Diethylene glycol [see Glycols] Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate [see Phthalate esters] Diisopropanolamine Dimethoate Di-n-butyl phthalate [see Phthalate esters]

Marine Dateb

Concentration (mg/L)

Dateb

Insufficient datak 1.8c,k Insufficient datak Insufficient datak 6.0c,k Insufficient datae,f,k

1997 1997 1997 1997 1997

Insufficient datak Insufficient datak Insufficient data Insufficient datak Insufficient data Insufficient data

1997 1997 1997 1987 1997 1997

100c,i Insufficient data Insufficient data

1991 1991 1991

Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data

1991 1991 1991

21c,i 111c,i

1991 1993

Insufficient data Insufficient data

1991 1993

7 0.2 18 1 0.5

1987 1987 1987 1987 1987

0.18c 0.0035

1994 1997

0.36c 0.002c

1994 1997

8.9c,k 1.0k

1997 1997

56c,k 1.5k

1997 1997

Narrative 2–4m 2.0c,i 5 (as free CN) 1.5 0.001e,f

1999 1987 1990 1987 1999 1987

Narrative

1999

Narrativec Insufficient data

1996 1997

Insufficient data Insufficient data

2005 1993

0.0004

1997

10c,i

1993

6.1

1993

1600c 6.2c

2005 1993

(Continued)

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(Continued) Freshwater

Parametera Di-n-octyl phthalate [see Phthalate esters] Dinoseb Dissolved gas supersaturation Dissolved oxygen Endosulfand Endrind Ethylbenzenej Ethylene glycol [see Glycols] Fluoranthene [see Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)] Fluorene [see Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)] Glycols Ethylene glycol Diethylene glycol Propylene glycol Glyphosate Halogenated methanes Monochloromethane (Methyl chloride)d Dichloromethane (Methylene chloride) Trichloromethane (Chloroform) Tetrachloromethane (Carbon tetrachloride) Monobromomethane (Methyl bromide)d Tribromomethane (Bromoform)d Dibromochloromethaned Dichlorobromomethaned HCBD [see Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD)] Heptachlor (Heptochlor epoxide)d Hexachlorobenzene [see Chlorinated benzenes] Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) Hexachlorocyclohexane (Lindane)d Hypochlorous acid [see Reactive chlorine species] Inorganic fluorides 3-lodo-2-propynyl butyl carbamate [see IPBC] IPBC (3-Iodo-2-propynyl butyl carbamate) Irond Leadd Lindane [see Hexachlorocyclohexane] Linuron MCPA (4-Chloro-2-methyl phenoxy acetic acid (2-methyl4-chloro phenoxy acetic acid) Mercuryw Inorganic mercuryw Methyl mercuryw Methyl bromide [see Halogenated methanes, Monobromomethane] Methyl chloride [see Halogenated methanes, Monochloromethane] 2-Methyl-4-chloro phenoxy acetic acid [see MCPA] Methylene chloride [see Halogenated methanes, Dichloromethane] Metolachlor Metribuzin Molybdenumj Monobromomethane [see Halogenated methanes] Monochloramine [see Reactive chlorine species] Monochlorobenzene [see Chlorinated benzenes] Monochloromethane [see Halogenated methanes]

Concentration (mg/L)

Marine Dateb

0.05 Narrative 5500–9500k,n

1992 1999 1999

0.02 0.0023e,f 90c,k

1987 1987 1996

192,000k Insufficient datak 500,000k 65c

Concentration (mg/L)

Dateb

Narrative O8000 and narrativec,k

1999 1996

25c,k

1996

1997 1997 1997 1989

Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data

1997 1997 1997

Insufficient data 98.1c,i 1.8c,i 13.3c,i Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data

1992 1992 1992 1992 1992 1992 1992 1992

Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data

1992 1992 1992 1992 1992 1992 1992 1992

0.01e,f

1987

1.3c,k 0.01

1999 1987

0.12c

2002

NRGo

2002

1.9 300 1–7p

1999 1987 1987

7.0c 2.6c

1995 1995

Insufficient data 4.2c

1995 1995

0.026 0.004c,x

2003 NRG

0.016c,x

2003

7.8c 1.0c 73c

1991 1990 1999

(Continued)

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(Continued) Freshwater Concentration (mg/L)

Parametera Monochlorophenols [see Chlorinated phenols] MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether) Naphthalene [see Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)] Nickeld Nitrated Nitrited Nonylphenol and its ethoxylates Organotins Tributyltin Tricyclohexyltin Triphenyltin Oxygen, dissolved [see Dissolved oxygen] PAHs [see Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)] PCBs [see Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)(total)] PCE [see Chlorinated ethenes, 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethene] PCP [see Chlorinated phenols, Pentachlorophenol] Pentachlorobenzene [see Chlorinated benzenes] Pentachlorophenol [see Chlorinated phenols] pH Phenanthrene [see Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)] Phenols (mono- & dihydric) Phenoxy herbicidesd,s Phophorous Phthalate esters Di-n-butyl phthalate Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate Di-n-octyl phthalate Picloram Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (total)d Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) Acenaphthene Acridine Anthracene Benz(a)anthracene Benzo(a)pyrene Chrysene Fluoranthene Fluorene Naphthalene Phenanthrene Pyrene Quinoline Propylene glycol [see Glycols] Pyrene [see Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)] Quinoline [see Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)] Reactive chlorine species (hypochlorous acid and monochloramine) Salinity Seleniumd Silverd Simazine Streambed substrate [see Total particulate matter] Styrene Sulfolane

Marine Dateb

Concentration (mg/L)

Dateb

5,000c

2003

16,000c,v

2003

0.7c,r

2002

1992 1992 1992

0.001 Insufficient data Insufficient data

1992 1992 1992

6.5–9d

1987

7.0–8.7 and narrative

1996

4.0k 4.0 narrativev

1999 1987

19c 16c Insufficient data 29c 0.001e,f

1993 1993 1993 1990 1987

Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data

1993 1993 1993

0.01e,f

1991

5.8c 4.4c 0.012c 0.018c 0.015c Insufficient data 0.04c 3.0c 1.1c 0.4c 0.025c 3.4c

1999 1999 1999 1999 1999 1999 1999 1999 1999 1999 1999 1999

Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data 1.4c Insufficient data Insufficient data Insufficient data

1999 1999 1999 1999 1999 1999 1999 1999 1999 1999 1999 1999

0.5

1999

0.5

1999

!10% fluctuationc

1996

Insufficient data

2005

10,000

2003

25–150q 13,000c,v 60 1.0r

1987 2003 1987 2002

0.008c Insufficient data 0.022c,l

1.0 0.1 10

1987 1987 1991

72c 50,000c

1999 2005

(Continued)

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Table 8G.96

8-151

(Continued) Freshwater Concentration (mg/L)

Parametera Suspended sediments [see Total particulate matter] TCE [see Chlorinated ethenes, 1,1,2-Trichloroethene] Tebuthiuron Temperature Tetrachlorobenzene [see Chlorinated benzenes] Tetrachloroethane [see Chlorinated ethanes] Tetrachloroethene [see Chlorinated ethenes] Tetrachloroethylene [see Chlorinated ethenes, 1,1,2,2Tetrachloroethene] Tetrachloromethane [see Halogenated methanes] Tetrachlorophenols [see Chlorinated phenols] Thalliumj Toluene Total particulate matteru Deposited bedload sediment Streambed substrate Suspended sediments Turbidity Toxaphened Triallate Tribromomethane [see Halogenated methanes] Tributyltin [see Organotins] Trichlorobenzene [see Chlorinated benzenes] Trichloroethane [see Chlorinated ethanes] Trichloroethene [see Chlorinated ethenes] Trichloroethylene [see Chlorinated ethenes, 1,1,2Trichloroethene] Trichloromethane [see Halogenated methanes] Trichlorophenols [see Chlorinated phenols] Tricyclohexyltin [see Organotins] Trifluralin Triphenyltin [see Organotins] Turbidity [see Total particulate matter] Zincd a b

c d e

f

g h i j k l m n o

Marine Dateb

1.6c Narrativet

1995 1987

0.8 2.0c,j,k

1999 1996

Insufficient data Narrative Narrative Narrative 0.008e,f 0.24c

1999 1999 1999 1999 1987 1992

0.20i

1993

30

1987

Concentration (mg/L)

Dateb

Insufficient data Not to exceed G 18Cc

1995 1996

215c,k

1996

Insufficient data Narrative Narrative Narrative

1999 1999 1999 1999

Unless otherwise indicated, supporting documents are available from the Guidelines and standards division, environment Canada. The guidelines dated 1987 have been carried over from Canadian Water Quality Guidelines (CCREM 1987) and no fact sheet was prepared. The guidelines dated 1989 to 1997 were developed and initially published in CCREM 1987 as appendixes on the date indicated. They are published as fact sheets in this document. Other guidelines dated 1997 and those dated 1999 are published for the first time in this document. Interim guideline. No fact sheet created. For more information on this guideline, please refer to Canadian Water Quality Guidelines (CCREM 1987). This guideline (originally published in Canadian Water Quality Guidelines [CCREM 1987 C Appendixes] in 1987 or 1991 [PCBs in marine water]) is no longer recommended and the value is withdrawn. A water quality guideline is not recommended. Environmental exposure is predominantly via sediment, soil, and/or tissue, therefore, the reader is referred to the respective guidelines for these media. This substance meets the criteria for Track 1 substances under the national CCME Policy for the Management of Toxic Substances (PMTS) (i.e., persistent, bioaccumulative, primarily the result of human activity, and CEPA-toxic or equivalent), and should be subject to virtual elimination strategies. Guidelines can serve as action levels or interim management objectives toward virtual elimination. Aluminium guidelineZ5 mg/L at pH!6.5; [Ca2C]!4 mg/L; DOC!2 mg/L Z100 mg/L at pHR6.5; [Ca2C]R4 mg/L; DOCR2 mg/L. Ammonia guideline: Guideline for total ammonia is temperature and pH dependent, please consult factsheet for more information. Guideline value slightly modified from CCREM 1987 C Appendixes due to re-evaluation of the significant figures. The technical document for the guideline is available from the Ontario Ministry of the Environment. Substance has been re-evaluated since CCREM 1987 C Appendixes. Either a new guideline has been derived or insufficient data existed to derive a new guideline. Cadmium guidelineZ10{0.86[log(hardness)]K3.2}. Copper guidelineZ2 mg/L at [CaCO3]Z0–120 mg/L;Z3 mg/L at [CaCO3]Z120–180 mg/L;Z4 mg/L at [CaCO3]O180 mg/L. Dissolved oxygen for warm-water biota: early life stagesZ6,000 mg/L; other life stagesZ5,500 mg/L; for cold-water biota: early life stagesZ9,500 mg/L; other life stagesZ6,500 mg/L No recommended guideline. (Continued)

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Table 8G.96 p q r s t

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Lead guidelineZ1 g/L at [CaCO3]Z0–60 mg/L;Z2 mg/L at [CaCO3]Z60–120 mg/L;Z4 mg/L at [CaCO3]Z120–180 mg/L;Z7 mg/L at [CaCO3]ZO180 mg/L. Nickel guidelineZ25 mg/L at [CaCO3]Z0–60 mg/L;Z65 mg/L at [CaCO3]Z60–120 mg/L;Z110 mg/L at [CaCO3]Z120–180 mg/L;Z 150 mg/L at [CaCO3]ZO180 mg/L. Expressed on a TEQ basis using NP TEFs, see Table 2 in factsheet. The guideline of 4.0 mg/L for phenoxy herbicides is based on data for ester formulations of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. Temperature: (for more information, see CCREM 1987). Thermal Stratification: Thermal additions to receiving waters should be such that thermal stratification and subsequent turnover dates are not altered from those existing prior to the addition of heat from artificial origins. Maximum Weekly Average Temperature: Thermal additions to receiving waters should be such that the maximum weekly average temperature is not exceeded. Short-term Exposure to Extreme Temperature: Thermal additions to receiving waters should be such that the short-term exposures to maximum temperatures are not exceeded. Exposures should not be so lengthy or frequent as to adversely affect the important species. The technical document for the guideline is available from British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. For protection from direct toxic effects; the guidelines do not consider indirect effects due to eutrophication. May not prevent accumulation of methylmercury in aquatic life, therefore, may not protect wildlife that consume aquatic life; see factsheet for details. Consult also the appropriate Canadian Tissue Residue Guideline for the Protection of Wildlife consumers of Aquatic Biota May not protect fully higher trophic level fish; see factsheet for details. Canadian Trigger Ranges (for further narrative see factsheet). Total Phosphorus (ugLK1): ultra-oligotrophic!4 oligotrophic 4–10 mesotrophic 10–20 eutrophic 35–100 hyper-eutrophicO100

Source: From Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 2005. Canadian Water Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Life: Summary Table, Updated October 2005. In: Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines, 1999, Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Winnipeg, www.ec.gc.ca/CEQG-RCQE.

Table 8G.97 Canadian Tissue Residue Guidelines for the Protection of Wildlife Consumers of Aquatic Biota Parametera DDT (total) Methylmercury Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/polychlorinated dibenzofurans Toxaphene a

Guideline (mg/kg diet ww)b

Date

14.0 33.0 Mammalian: 0.79 ng TEQ/kg diet wwc Avian: 2.4 ng TEQ/kg diet wwd Mammalian: 0.71 ng TEQ/kg diet wwc

1997 2001 1998 1998 2001

Avian: 4.75 ng TEQ/kg diet wwd 6.3

2001 1997

Supporting documents are available from the Guidelines and Standards Division, Environment Canada. Guideline refers to the total concentration of the contaminant found in an aquatic organism on a wet weight (ww) basis that is not expected to result in adverse effects in predaceous wildlife. c TEQ refers to dioxin toxic equivalents using toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for PCBs for mammals developed by the World Health Organization in 1998. See fact sheet or supporting document for more details. d TEQ refers to dioxin toxic equivalents using toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for PCBs for birds developed by the World Health Organization in 1998. See fact sheet or supporting document for more details. Source: From Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 2001, Canadian Tissue Guidelines for the Protection of Wildlife Consumers of Aquatic Biota: Summary Table. Updated. In: Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines, 1999, Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, www.ec.gc.ca. b

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Table 8G.98 Summary of Water Quality Guidelines for Turbidity, Suspended and Benthic Sediments, British Columbia, Canada

Water Use

Drinking Water—raw untreated 1 NTU when background is less than or equal to 5 Drinking Water—raw treated 5 NTU when background is less than or equal to 50 10% when background is greater than 50 Recreation and Aesthetics Maximum 50 NTU secchi disc visible at 1.2 m 8 NTU in 24 hrs when Aquatic Life background is less than or Fresh equal to 8 Marine Estuarine Mean of 2 NTU in 30 days when background is less than or equal to 8 8 NTU when background is Aquatic Life between 8 and 80 Fresh 10% when background is Marine greater than or equal to 80 Estuarine Terrestrial Life Wildlife Livestock water Irrigation Industrial

Maximum Induced Suspended Sediments— mg/L or % of Background

Maximum Induced Turbidity—NTU or % of Background

10 NTU when background is less than or equal to 50 20% when background is greater than or equal to 50

Streambed Substrate Composition

No Guideline

No Guideline

No Guideline

No Guideline

No Guideline

No Guideline

25 mg/L in 24 hrs when background is less than or equal to 25 Mean of 5 mg/L in 30 days when background is less than or equal to 25 25 mg/L when background is between 25 and 250 10% when background is greater than or equal to 250

Fines not to exceed K10% as less than 2 mm K19% as less than 3 mm K25% as less than 6.35 mm at salmonid spawning sites Geometric mean diameter not less than 12 mm Fredle number not less than 5 mm No guideline

20 mg/L when background is less than or equal to 100 20% when background is greater than or equal to 100

Source: From British Columbia Approved Water Quality Guidelines (Criteria) 2006 Edition, Updated: August 2006, www.env.gov.bc.ca. Reprinted with Permission.

Table 8G.99 Canadian Sediment Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Life Freshwater Parameter

a

ISQG (ug/kg)

Arsenic 5,900 Cadmium 600 Chlordane 4.50 Chromium 37,300 Copper 35,700 3.54 DDD (2,2-Bis (p-chlorophenyl)-1,1dichloroethane; Dichloro diphenyl dichloroethane)c 1.42 DDE(1,1-Dichloro-2,2-bis(pchlorophenyl)-ethene, Diphenyl dichloro ethylenec 1.19d DDT(2,2-Bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1trichloroethane; Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane)c Dieldrin 2.85 Endrin 2.67 Heptachlor (Heptachlor epoxide} 0.60 Lead 35,000 Lindane (Hexachlorocyclohexane) 0.94 Mercury 170 Nonylphenol and its ethoxylates 1.4 mg/kg dwf,g Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Aroclor 1254 0.60 Total PCBs 34.1

Marine b

PEL (ug/kg)

ISQG (ug/kg)

PELb (ug/kg)

17,000 3,500 8.87 90,000 197,000 8.51

7,240 700 2.26 52,300 18,700 1.22

41,600 4,200 4.79 160,000 108,000 7.81

6.75

2.07

4.77e

1.19

6.67 62.4 2.74 91,300 1.38 486

340j 277

a

0.71 2.67d 0.60d 30,200 0.32 130 1.0 mg/kg dwf,h 63.3 21.5

374

4.77

4.3 62.4e 2.74e 112,000 0.99 700

709 189 (Continued)

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Table 8G.99

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Freshwater

Parameter Polychlorinated dibenzo-pdioxins/dibenzo furans (PCDD/Fs) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) Acenapthene Acenaphthylene Anthracene Benzo(a)anthracene Benzo(a)pyrene Chrysene Dibenz(a,h)anthracene Fluoranthene Fluorene 2-MethyInaphthalene Naphthalene Phenanthrene Pyrene Toxaphene Zinc a b c d e f g h i j k l m

a

ISQG (ug/kg) 0.85 ng TEQ/kg dwk

6.71d 5.87d 46.9d 31.7 31.9 57.1 6.22d 111 21.2d 20.2d 34.6d 41.9 53.0 0.1l 123,000

Marine b

PEL (ug/kg) 21.5 ng TEQ/kg dwk

88.9e 128e 245e 385 782 862 135e 2,355 144e 201e 391e 515 875 —m 315,000

a

ISQG (ug/kg) 0.85 ng TEQ/kg dwk

6.71 5.87d 46.9 74.8 88.8 108 6.22 113 21.2 20.2 34.6 86.7 153 0.1l 124,000

PELb (ug/kg) 21.5 ng TEQ/kg dwk

88.9 128e 245 693 763 846 135 1,494 144 201 391 544 1,398 —m 271,000

ISQG: Interim sediment quality guideline Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines Summary Table December 2003. PEL: Probable effect level. Sum of p,p 0 and o,p 0 isomers. Provisional: adoption of marine ISQG. Provisional: adoption of marine PEL. Provisional; use of equilibrium partitioning approach. Note that the incidence of adverse biological effects below the TEL, between the TEL and PEL, and above the PEL were 22%, 24%, and 65%, respectively, prior to the application of a safety factor. Expressed in a toxic equivalency (TEQ) basis using NP TEFs; assumes 1% TOC. Provisional: adoption of lowest effect level from Ontario (Persaud et al. 1993). Provisional: 1% TOC: adoption of severe effect level of 34mg.g-1TOC from Ontario (Persaud et al. 1993). Values are expressed as toxic equivalency (TEQ) units, based on WHO 1998 TEF values for fish. Provisional; 1% TOC: adoption of the chronic sediment quality criterion of 0.01 ug/gl TOC of the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC 1994). No PEL derived.

Source: From Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 2002, Canadian Sediment Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Life: Summary Table, Updated 2002. In: Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines, 1999, Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Winnipeg, www.ec.gc.ca/CEQG-RCQE.

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Table 8G.100 ECE Standard Statistical Classification of Surface Freshwater Quality for the Maintenance of Aquatic Life Variables

Class I

Class II

Oxygen regime DO (%) Epilimnion (stratified 90–110 70–90 or 110–120 waters) Hypolimnion 90–70 70–50 (stratified waters) Unstratified waters 90–70 70–50 or 110–120 DO(mg/L) O7 7-6 3-10 COD-Mn (mg O2 /L) !3 COD-Cr (mg O2/L) — — Eutrophication !10 (!15) 10–25 (15–40) Total P (mg/L)a !300 300–750 Total N (mg/L)a Chlorophyll a (mg/L)a !2.5 (!4) 2.5–10 (4–15) Acidification 9.0–6.5 6.5–6.3 pHb Alkalinity (mg O200 200–100 CaCO3/l) Metals Aluminium (mg/l; pH !1.6 1.6–3.2 6.5) Arsenic (mg/L)c !10 10–100 Cadmium (mg/L)d !0.07 0.07–0.53 !1 1-6 Chromium (mg/L)c Copper (mg/L)d !2 2-7 !0.1 0.1–1.6 Leader (mg/L)d Mercury (mg/L)d !0.003 0.003–0.007 !15 15–87 Nickel (mg/L)d Zinc (mg/L)d !45 45–77 Chlorinated micropollutants and other hazardous substances Dieldrin (mg/L) na na DDT and metabolites na na (mg/L) Endrin (mg/L) na na Heptachlor (mg/L) na na Lindane (mg/L) na na Pentachlorophenol na na (mg/L) PCBs (mg/L) na na na Free ammonia (NH3) na Radioactivity Gross-alpha activity !50 50–100 (mBq/L) Gross-beta activity !200 200–500 (mBq/L)

Class III

Class IV

Class V

50–70 or 120–130

30–50 or 130–150

!30 or O150

50–30

30–10

!10

50–30 or 120–130 6-4 10-20 —

30–10 or 130–150 4-3 20-30 —

!10 or O150 !3 O30 —

25–50 (40–75) 750–1,500 10–30 (15–45)

50–125 (75–190) 1,500–2,500 30–110 (45–165)

O125 (O190) O2,500 O110 (O165)

6.3–6.0 100–20

6.0–5.3 20–10

!5.3 !10

3.2–5

May-75

O75

100–190 0.53–1.1 6-11 7-12 1.6–3.2 0.007–0.012 87–160 77–110

190–360 1.1–3.9 11-16 12-18 3.2–82 0.012–2.4 160–1,400 110–120

O360 O3.9 O16 O18 O82 O2.4 O1,400 O120

!0.0019 !0.001

0.0019–2.5 0.001–1.1

O2.5 O1.1

!0.0023 !0.0038 !0.08 !13

0.0023–0.18 0.0038–0.52 0.08–2.0 13–20

O0.18 O0.52 O2.0 O20

!0.014 —

0.014–2.0 —

O2.0 —

100–500

500–2,500

O2,500

500–1,000

1,000–2,500

O2,500

Note: Measures falling on the boundary between two classes are to be classified in the lower class; na, Not applicable; —, No value set at present. a b c d

Data in brackets refer to flowing waters. Values O9.0 are disregarded in the classification of acidification. Applicable for hardness from about 0.5 to 8 meq/L. Arsenic V and chromium III to be converted to arsenic III and chromium VI, respectively. Applicable for hardness from about 0.5 to 8 meq/L.

Source: From Ute S. Enderlein, Rainer E. Enderlein and W. Peter Williams, 1997, Chapter 2—Water Quality Requirements, In: World Health Organization, Water Pollution Control—A Guide to the Use of Water Quality Management Principles, Copyright q 1997 WHO/UNEP. Original Source: From The United Nations is the author of the original material. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, 1994, Standard Statistical Classification of Surface Freshwater Quality for the Maintenance of Aquatic Life. In: Readings in International Environment Statistics, United Nations Economic Commission of Europe, United Nations, New York, and Geneva.

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Table 8G.101 Water-Quality Objectives for the River Rhine Related to Organic Substances Water-Quality Variable

Water-Quality Objective (mg/L)

Basis for Elaborationa

Tetrachloromethane Trichloromethane Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Isodrin Endosulfan Hexachlorobenzene Hexachlorobutadien PCB 28, 52, 101,180, 138, 153 1-Chloro-4-nitro-Benzen 1-Chloro-2-nitro-Benzen Trichlorobenzene Pentachlorophenol Trichloroethen Tetrachloroethen 3,4-Dichloroanilin 2-Chloroanilin 3-Chloroanilin 4-Chloroanilin Parathion(-ethyl) Parathion(-methyl) Benzene 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 1,2-Dichloroethane Azinphos-methyl Bentazon Simazine Atrazine Dichlorvos 2-Chlorotoluol 4-Chlorotoluol Tributyl tin-substances Triphenyl tin-substances Trifluralin Fenthion

1.0 0.6 0.0001 (per substance) 0.003 0.0005 0.001 0.001 (per substance) 1.0 1.0 0.1 0.001 1.0 1.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.01 0.0002 0.01 0.1 1.0 1.0 0.001 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.001 1.0 1.0 0.001 0.001 0.1 0.01

DrwCaqL aqL aqCterrL aqL aqL aqL aqL Drw DrwCaqL aqL aqCterrL Drw Drw aqL DrwCaqL Drw aqL aqL aqL aqL Drw aqL aqL Drw DrwCaqL DrwCaqL aqL Drw Drw aqL aqL aqL aqL

a

Water-quality objectives have been set on the basis of water-quality criteria for drinking-water supply (Drw), drinking-water supply and aquatic life (DrwCaqL) and/or aquatic life (aqL), as well as on the basis of toxicity testing on selected species of aquatic and terrestrial life (aqCterrL).

Source: From Ute S. Enderlein, Rainer E. Enderlein and W. Peter Williams, 1997, Chapter 2 — Water Quality Requirements, In: Water Pollution Control — A Guide to the Use of Water Quality Management Principles. Copyright q 1997 WHO/UNEP. Original Source: From ICPR, Konzept zur Ausfu¨llung des Punktes A.2 des APR u¨ber Zielvorgaben, 1991. Lenzburg, den 2. Juli (Methodology to implement item A.2 of the Rhine Action Programme related to water quality objectives, prepared at Lenzbourg on 2 July 1991). PLEN 3/91, International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine against Pollution, Koblenz, Germany, 1991, www.who.int.

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Surface Water (ug/L) Metal Antimony(Sb) Arsenic (As) Barium (Ba) Beryllium (Be) Cadmium (Cd) Chromium (Cr) Cobalt (Co) Copper (Cu) Lead (Pb) Mercury (Hg) Methyl-mercury Molybdenum (Mo) Nickel (Ni) Selenium (Se) Thallium (Tl) Tia (Sn) Vanadium (V) Zinc (Zn) Note: a b c d

MPA (fresh)

NA (fresh)

Cb (fresh)

MPC (fresh)

NC (fresh)

6.2a 24b 150a 0.16b 0.34b 8.5b 2.6b 1.1b 11b 0.23b 0.01b 290a 1.8b 5.3b 1.6a 18a 3.5a 6.6b

0.062 0.24 1.5 0.0016 0.0034 0.085 0.026 0.011 0.11 0.0023 0.0001 2.9 0.018 0.053 0.016 0.18 0.035 0.066

0.29 0.77 73 0.02 0.08 0.17 0.20 0.44 0.15 0.01 0.01 1.4 3.3 0.04 0.04 0.0002 0.82 2.8

6.5 25 220 0.18 0.42 8.7 2.8 1.5 11 0.24 0.02 290 5.1 5.3 1.6 18 4.3 9.4

0.35 1.0 75 0.022 0.083 0.26 0.23 0.45 0.26 0.012 0.01 4.3 3.3 0.093 0.056 0.18 0.86 2.9

SED (mg/kg) Cb (marine)

MPC (marine)

NC (marine)

0.025

0.37

0.028

0.25 0.02 0.0025 0.0025

1.4 11 0.23 0.013

0.26 0.13 0.0048 0.0026

0.35

7.0

0.42

MPA (sed) (d) 16 160 150 0.096 29 1,620 10 37 4,700 26 1.1 250 9.4 2.2 1.6 22,000 14 480

NA (sed) 0.16 1.6 1.5 0.00096 0.29 16 0.10 0.37 47 0.26 0.011 2.5 0.094 0.022 0.016 220 0.14 4.8

Cb (sed)

MPC (sed)

Nc (sed)

3.0 29 155 1.1 0.8 100 9.0 36 85 0.3 0.3 0.5 35 0.7 1.0 19 42 140

19 190 300 1.2 30 1,720 19 73 4,800 26 1.4 250 44 2.9 2.6 22,000 56 620

3.2 31 157 1.1 1.1 116 9.1 36 132 0.56 0.31 3.0 35 0.72 1.0 239 42 145

WATER QUALITY

Table 8G.102 Maximum Permissible Concentrations and Negligible Concentrations for Metals, The Netherlands

MPA, maximum permissible addition; NA, Negligible Addition, Cb, background concentration; MPC, maximum permissible concentration; NC, negligible concentration for metals; fresh, freshwater; marine, saltwater.

MPA based on modified EPA-method MPA based on statistical extrapolation Values are given as concentrations in mg/kg standard soil/sediment (soil/sediment containing 10% organic matter and 25% clay) MPA based on equilibrium partitioning.

Source: From Crommentuijn, T., M. Polder, and E. van de Plassche. 1997. Maximum permissible concentrations and negligible concentrations for metals, taking background concentrations into account. Nat. Inst. Public Health and the Environ., Bilthoven, The Netherlands. RIVM Report 601501001, tivm.nl.

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Australia and New Zealand Physico-Chemical Stressor Low-Risk Guideline Trigger Values for Ecosystems The default approach to deriving trigger values has used the statistical distribution of reference data collected within five geographical regions across Australia and New Zealand. Here, depending on the stressor, a measureable perturbation in slightly to moderately disturbed ecosystems has been defined using the 80th and/or 20th percentile of the reference data. First, New Zealand and Australian state and territory representatives used percentile distributions of available data and professional judgement to derive trigger values for each ecosystem type in their regions.Trigger values were then collated, discussed and agreed for southeast Australia (VIC, NSW, ACT, south-east QLD, and TAS,) southwest Australia (southern WA), tropical Australia (northern WA, NT, northern QLD), south central Australia —— low rainfall area (SA) and New Zealand. The default trigger values in the present guidelines were derived from ecosystem data for unmodified or slightly-modified ecosystems supplied by state agenicies. However, the choice of these reference systems was not based on any objective biological criteria. This lack of specificity may have resulted in inclusion of reference systems of varying quality, and further emphasises that the default trigger values should only be used until site- or ecosystem-specific values can be generated.

Regions

Ecosystems

South East Australia Tropical Australia South West Australia South Central Australia New Zealand

Upland rivers Lowland rivers Lakes & Reservoirs Wetlands Estuaries Inshore marine Offshore marine Note: Most of the guidelines apply everywhere, but there are separate physico-chemical guideline lists for 5 regions (including New Zealand) and for 7 ecosystem types (shown above).

Tropical

SouthEast

SouthWest

SouthCentral

New Zealand Figure 8G.22 Geographic regions of Australia and New Zealand. (From Australia Water Quality — Introduction, The Guideline Value Lists; www.ozh2o.com/ozh3a.html.)

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Table 8G.103 Default Trigger Values for Physical and Chemical Stressors for Southeast Australia for Slightly Disturbed Ecosystems DO (% saturation)a Ecosystem Type Upland river Lowland riverh Freshwater lakes & Reservoirs Wetlands Estuariesl Marinel Note:

a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p

Chl a (mg/L)

TP (mg P/L)

FRP (mg P/L)

TN (mg N/L)

NOx (mg N/L)

NHD 4 (mg N/L)

Lower Limit

Upper Limit

pH Lower Limit

Upper Limit

nab 5 5j

20c 50 10k

15d 20 5

250e 500 350

15f 40i 10

13k 20 10

90 85 90

110 110 110

6.5 6.5 6.5

7.5g 8.0 8.0g

no data 4m 1o

no data 30 25o

no data 5n 10

no data 300 120

no data 15 5p

no data 15 15p

no data 80 90

no data 110 110

no data 7.0 8.0

no data 8.5 8.4

Trigger values are used to assess risk of adverse effects due to nutrients, biodegradable organic matter and pH in various ecosystem types. Data derived from trigger values supplied by Australian states and territories. Chl a, chlorophyll a; TP, total phosphorus; FRP, filterable reactive phosphate; TN, total nitrogen; NOx, oxides of nitrogen; NHC 4 , ammonium; DO, dissolved oxygen; na, not applicable.

Dissolved oxygen values were derived from daytime measurements. Dissolved oxygen concentrations may very diurnally and with depth. Monitoring programs should assess this potential variability. Monitoring of periphyton and not phytoplankton biomass is recommended in upland rivers — values for periphyton biomass (mg Chl a mK2) to be developed. Values are 30 mg/L for Qld rivers, 10 mg/L for Vic. Alpine streams and 13 mg/L for Tas. Rivers. Values is 5 mg/L for Vic. alpine streams and Tas. rivers; Values are 100 mg/L for Vic. alpine streams and 480 mg/L for Tas. rivers. Value is 190 mg/L for Tas. rivers. Values for NSW upland rivers are 6.5–8.0, for NSW lowland rivers 6.5–8.5, for humic rich Tas. lakes and rivers 4.0–6.5. Values are 3 mg/L for Chl a, 25 mg/L for TP and 350 mg/L for TN for NSW & Vic. east flowing coastal rivers. value is 60 mg/L for Qld rivers. Values are 3 mg/L for Tas. lakes. Values is 10 mg/L for Qld. rivers. No data available for Tasmanian estuarine and marine waters. A precautionary approach should be adopted when applying default trigger values to these systems. Values is 5 mg/L for Qld estuaries. Value is 15 mg/L for Qld. estuaries. values are 20 mg/L for TP for offshore waters and 1.5 mg/L for Chl a for Old inshore waters. Values of 25 mg/L for NOx and 20 mg/L for NHC 4 for NSW are elevated due to frequent upwelling events.

Source:

From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

Table 8G.104 Ranges of Default Trigger Values for Conductivity (EC, salinity), Turbidity and Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) Indicative of Slightly Disturbed Ecosystems in Southeast Australia Ecosystem type Upland rivers Lawland rivers Lakes & reservoirs Estuarine & marine Note:

Salinity (mS/cm)

Turbidity (NTU)

30–350 125–2,200 20–30

2–25 6–50 1–20 0.5–10

Ranges for turbidity and SPM are similar and only turbidity is reported here. Values reflect high site-specific and regional variability. Explanatory notes provide detail on specific variability issues for ecosystem type, can be found in the guidance document.

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, Volume I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

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Table 8G.105 Default Trigger Values for Physical and Chemical Stressors for Tropical Australia for Slightly Disturbed Ecosystems DO (% saturation)a Ecosystem type Upland riverb Lowland riverb Freshwater lakes & Reservoirs Wetlands Estuariesb Marine

Inshore Offshore

NHD 4

pH

Chl a (mg/L)

TP (mg P/L)

FRP (mg P/L)

TN (mg N/L)

NOx (mg N/L)

(mg N/L)

Lower limit

Upper limit

Lower limit

Upper limit

nac 5 3

10 10 10

5 4 5

150 200–300d 350f

30 10e 10e

6 10 10

90 85 90

120 120 120

6.0 6.0 6.0

7.5 8.0 8.0

10 2 0.7–1.4h 0.5–0.9h

10–50g 20 15 10

5–25g 5 5 2–5h

350–1,200g 250 100 100

10 30 2–8h 1–4h

10 15 1–10h 1–6h

90e 80 90 90

120e 120 no data no data

6.0 7.0 8.0 8.2

8.0 8.5 8.4 8.2

Note: Trigger values are used to assess risk of adverse effects due to nutrients, biodegradable organic matter and pH in various ecosystem types. Data derived from trigger values supplied by Australian states and territories for the Northern Territory and regions north of Carnarvon in the west and Rockhampton in the east. Chl a, chlorophyll a; TP, total phosphorus; FRP, filterable reactive phosphate; TN, total nitrogen; NOx, oxides of nitrogen; NHC 4 , ammonium; DO, dissolved oxygen; na, not applicable. b c d e f g h

Dissolved oxygen values were derived from daytime measurements. Dissolved oxygen concentrations may vary diurnally and with depth. Monitoring programs should assess this potential variability. No data available for tropical WA estuaries or rivers. A precautionary approach should be adopted when applying default trigger values to these systems. Monitoring of periphyton and not phytoplankton biomass is recommended in upland rivers — values for periphyton biomass (mg Chl a mK2) to be developed. Lower values from rivers draining rainforest catchments. Northern Territory values for 5 mg/L for Nox, and !80 (lower limit) and O110% saturation (upper limit) for DO. This value represents turbid lakes only. Clear lakes have much lower values. Higher values are indicative of tropical WA river pools. The lower values are typical of clear coral dominated waters (e.g. Great Barrier Reef), while higher values typical of turbid macrotidal systems (e.g. Northwest Shelf of WA).

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

a

WATER QUALITY

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Table 8G.106 Ranges of Default Trigger Values for Conductivity (EC, salinity), Turbidity and Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) Indicative of Slightly Disturbed Ecosystems in Tropical Australia Ecosystem Type Upland & lowland rivers Lakes, reservoirs & wetlands Estuarine & marine Note:

Salinity (mS/cm)

Turbidity (NTU)

20–250 90–900 —

2–15 2–200 1–20

Ranges for turbidity and SPM are similar and only turbidity is reported here. Values reflect high site-specific and regional variability. Explanatory notes provide detail on specific variability issues for groupings of ecosystem type can be found in the guidance document.

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, Volume I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

Table 8G.107 Default Trigger Values for Physical and Chemical Stressors for South-West Australia for Slightly Disturbed Ecosystems DO (% saturation)a Ecosystem type Upland riverb Lowland riverb Freshwater lakes & reservoirs Wetlandsd Estuaries Marinef,g

Note:

Inshoreh Offshore

NHD 4

pH

Chl a (mg/L)

TP (mg P/L)

FRP (mg P/L)

TN (mg N/L)

NOx (mg N/L)

(mg N/L)

Lower Limit

Upper Limit

Lower Limit

Upper Limit

nac 3–5 3–5

20 65 10

10 40 5

450 1,200 350

200 150 10

60 80 10

90 80 90

na 120 no data

6.5 6.5 6.5

8.0 8.0 8.0

30 3 0.7 0.3i

60 30 20i 20i

30 5 5i 5

1,500 750 230 230

100 45 5 5

40 40 5 5

90 90 90 90

120 110 na na

7.0e 7.5 8.0 8.2

8.5e 8.5 8.4 8.2

Trigger values are used to assess risk of adverse effects due to nutrients, biodegradable organic matter and pH in various ecosystem types. Data derived from trigger values supplied by Western Australia. Chl a, chlorophyll a; TP, total phosphorus; FRP, filterable reactive phosphate; TN, total nitrogen; NOx, oxides of nitrogen; NHC 4 , ammonium; DO, dissolved oxygen; na, not applicable.

a

Dissolved oxygen values were derived from daytime measurements. Dissolved oxygen concentrations may vary diumally and with depth. Monitoring programs should assess this potential variability. All values derived during base river flow conditions not storm events. c Monitoring of periphyton and not phytoplankton biomass is recommended in upland rivers—values for periphyton biomass (mg Chl a mK2) to be developed. d Elevated nutrient concentrations in highly coloured wetlands (given O52 g440/m) do not appear to stimulate algal growth. e In highly coloured wetlands (given O52 g440/m) pH typically ranges 4.5–6.5. f Nutrient concentrations alone are poor indicators of marine trophic status. g These trigger values are generic and therefore do not necessarily apply in all circumstances, e.g. for some unprotected coastlines, such as Albany and Geographe Bay, it may be more appropriate to use offshore values for inshore waters. h Inshore waters defined as coastal lagoons (excluding estuaries) and embayments and waters less than 20 m depth. i Summer (low rainfall) values, values higher in winter for Chi a (1.0 mg/L), TP (40 mg P/L), FRP (10 mg P/L). Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au. b

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8G.108 Ranges of Default Trigger Values for Conductivity (EC, salinity), Turbidity and Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) Indicative of Slightly Disturbed Ecosystems in Southwest Australia Ecosystem type Upland & lowland rivers Lakes, reservoirs & wetlands Estuarine & marine

Salinity (mS/cm)

Turbidity (NTU)

120–300 300–1,500 —

10–20 10–100 1–2

Note:

Ranges for turbidity and SPM are similar and only turbidity is reported here. Values reflect high site-specific and regional variability. Explanatory notes that provide detail on specific variability issues for ecosystem types can be found in the guidance document. Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

Table 8G.109 Default Trigger Values for Physical and Chemical Stressors for South-Central Australia for Slightly Disturbed Ecosystems DO (% Saturation) Ecosystem Type Upland river Lowland river Freshwater lakes & reservoirs Wetlands Estuaries Marine

Chl a (mg/L)

TP (mg P/L)

FRP (mg P/L)

TN (mg N/L)

NOx (mg N/L)

NHD 4 (mg N/L)

pH

Lower Limit

Upper Limit

Lower Limit

Upper Limit

No data No data No data

No data 100 25

No data 40 10

No data 1,000 1,000

No data 100 100

No data 100 25

No data 90 90

No data No data No data

No data 6.5 6.5

No data 9.0 9.0

No data 5 1

No data 100 100

No data 10 10

No data 1,000 1,000

No data 100 50

No data 50 50

No data 90 No data

No data No data No data

No data 6.5 8.0

No data 9.0 8.5

Note:

Trigger values are used to assess risk of adverse effects due to nutrients, biodegradable organic matter and pH in various ecosystem types. Data derived from trigger values supplied by South Australia. Chl a, chlorophyll a; TP, total phosphorus; FRP, filterable reactive phosphate; TN, total nitrogen; NOx, oxides of nitrogen; NHC 4 , ammonium; DO, dissolved oxygen. Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

Table 8G.110 Ranges of Default Trigger Values for Conductivity (EC, salinity), Turbidity, and Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) Indicative of Slightly Disturbed Ecosystems in South-Central Australia Ecosystem Types Lowland rivers Upland & lowland rivers Lakes, reservoirs & wetlands Estuarine & marine Note:

Salinity (mS/cm)

Turbidity (NTU)

100–5,000 300–1,000

1–50 1–100 0.5–10

Ranges for turbidity and SPM are similar and only turbidity is reported here. Values reflect high site-specific and regional variability. Explanatory notes provide detail on specific variability issues for groupings of ecosystem types can be found in the guidance document.

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

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Table 8G.111 Default Trigger Values for Physical and Chemical Stressors in New Zealand for Slightly Disturbed Ecosystems DOa (% Saturation)

pHa

Ecosystem Type

Chl a (mg/L)

TP (mg P/L)

FRP (mg P/L)

TN (mg N/L)

NOx (mg N/L)

NHD 4 (mg N/L)

Lower Limit

Upper Limit

Lower Limit

Upper Limit

Upland river Lowland river

nab no data

26c 33d

9c 10d

295c 614d

167c 444d

10c 21d

99 98

103 105

7.3 7.2

8.0 7.8

Note:

a b c d e

Trigger values are used to assess risk of adverse effects due to nutrients, biodegradable organic matter and pH in various ecosystem types. Chl a, chlorophyll a; TP, total phosphorus; FRP, filterable reactive phosphate; TNe, total nitrogen; NOx, oxides of nitrogen; NHC 4 , ammonium nitrogen; DO, dissolved oxygen, na, not applicable.

DO and pH percentiles may not be very useful as trigger values because of diurnal and seasonal variation—values listed are for daytime sampling. Monitoring of periphyton and not phytoplankton biomass is recommended in upland rivers—values for periphyton biomass (mg Chl a mK2) to be developed. New Zealand is currently making routine observations of periphyton cover. Values for glacial and lake-fed sites in upland rivers are lower; Values are lower for Haast River which receives waters from alpine regions; Commonly referred to dissolved reactive phosphorus in New Zealand.

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, Volume I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

Table 8G.112 Default Trigger Values for Water Clarity (Lower Limit) and Turbidity (Upper Limit) Indicative of Unmodified or Slightly Disturbed Ecosystems in New Zealand Upland rivers a,b Ecosystem types

a

b

c d

Lowland rivers

Clarity (1/m)c,d

Turbidity (NTU)c,d

Clarity (1/m)

Turbidity (NTU)

0.6

4.1

0.8

5.6

Light availability is generally less of an issue in NZ rivers and streams than is visual clarity because, in contrast to many of Australia’s rivers, most NZ rivers are comparatively clear and/or shallow. Davies-Colley et al. (1992) recommend that visual clarity, light penetration and water colour are important optical properties of an ecosystem which need to be protected. Neither turbidity nor visual clarity provide a useful estimate of light penetration—light penetration should be considered separately to turbidity or visual clarity. Clarity relates to the transmission of light through water and is measured by the visual range of a black disk (see NZ Ministry for the Environment (1994)) or a Secchi disk. Recent work has shown that at least some NZ indigenous fish are sensitive to low levels of turbidity; however, it may also be desirable to protect the naturally high turbidities of alpine glacial lakes to prevent possible ecological impacts, such as change in predator-prey relationships. Note that turbidity and visual water clarity are closely and inversely related, and the 80th percentile for turbidity is consistent with the 20th percentile for visibility and vice versa. Clarity and turbidity values for glacial sites in upland rivers are lower and higher, respectively.

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

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Table 8G.113 General Framework for Applying Australian Levels of Protection for Toxicants to Different Ecosystem Conditions Ecosystem Condition

Level of Protection

1 High conservation/ecological value

For anthropogenic toxicants, detection at any concentration could be grounds for source investigation and management intervention; for natural toxicants background concentrations should not be exceededa Where local biological or chemical data have not yet been gathered, apply the 99% protection levels (Table 8.114) as default values Any relaxation of these objectives should only occur where comprehensive biological effects and monitoring data clearly show that biodiversity would not be altered In the case of effluent discharges, Direct Toxicity Assessment (DTA) should also be required on the effluent Precautionary approach taken to assessment of post-baseline data through trend analysis or feedback triggers

2 Slightly to moderately disturbed ecosystems

Always preferable to use local biological effects data (including DTA) to derive guidelines If local biological effects data unavailable, apply 95% protection levels (Table 8.114) as default, low-risk trigger values.b 99% values are recommended for certain chemicals as noted in Table 8.114c Precautionary approach may be required for assessment of post-baseline data through trend analysis or feedback triggers In the case of effluent discharges DTA may be required

3 High disturbed ecosystems a b c

Apply the same guidelines as for slightly-moderately disturbed systems. However, the lower protection levels provided in the Guidelines may be accepted by stakeholders DTA could be used as an alternative approach for deriving site-specific guidelines

This means that indicator values at background and test sites should be statistically indistinguishable. It is acknowledged that it may not be strictly possible to meet this criterion in every situation. For slightly disturbed ecosystems where the management goal is no change in biodiversity, users may prefer to apply a higher protection level. 99% values recommended for chemicals that bioaccumulate or for which 95% provides inadequate protection for key test species. Jurisdictions may choose 99% values for some ecosystems that are more towards the slightly disturbed end of the continuum.

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

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Table 8G.114

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Australian Trigger Values for Toxicants at Alternative Levels of Protection Trigger Values for Freshwater (mg/L) Level of Protection (% species)

Chemical Metals & metalloids Aluminum pH O6.5 Aluminum pH!6.5 Antimony Arsenic (As III) Arsenic (AsV) Beryllium Bismuth Boron Cadmiumb Chromium (Cr III)b Chromium (CrVI) Cobalt Copperb Gallium Iron Lanthanum Leadb Manganese Mercury (inorganic)c Mercury (methyl) Molybdenum Nickelb Selenium (Total)c Selenium (SelV)c Silver Thallium Tin (inorganic, SnIV) Tributyltin (as mg/L Sn) Uranium Vanadium Zincb Nonmetallic Inorganics Ammoniae Chlorinef Cyanideg Nitrateh Hydrogen sulfidei Organic Alcohols Ethanol Ethylene glycol Isopropyl alcohol Chlorinated Alkanes Chloromethanes Dichloromethane Chloroform Carbon tetrachloride Chloroethanes 1,2-dichloroethane 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,1,2-trichloroethane 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane Pentachloroethane Hexachloroethanec Chloropropanes 1,1-dichloropropane 1,2-dichloropropane 1,3-dichloropropane

Trigger Values for Marine Water (mg/L) Level of Protection (% Species)

99%

95%

90%

80%

99%

95%

90%

80%

27 ID ID 1 0.8 ID ID 90 0.06 ID 0.01 ID 1.0 ID ID ID 1.0 1,200 0.06 ID ID 8 5 ID 0.2 ID ID ID ID ID 2.4

55 ID ID 24 13 ID ID 370a 0.2 ID 1.0a ID 1.4 ID ID ID 3.4 1,900a 0.6 ID ID 11 11 ID 0.05 ID ID ID ID ID 8.0a

80 ID ID 94a 42 ID ID 680a 0.4 ID 6d ID 1.8a ID ID ID 5.6 2,500a 1.9a ID ID 13 18 ID 0.1 ID ID ID ID ID 15a

150 ID ID 360a 140a ID ID 1,300a 0.8a ID 40d ID 2.5a ID ID ID 9.4a 3,600a 5.4d ID ID 17a 34 ID 0.2a ID ID ID ID ID 31a

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID 0.7c 7.7 0.14 0.005 0.3 ID ID ID 2.2 ID 0.1 ID ID 7 ID ID 0.8 ID ID 0.0004 ID 50 7

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID 5.5a,c 27.4 4.4 1 1.3 ID ID ID 4.4 ID 0.4a ID ID 70a ID ID 1.4 ID ID 0.006a ID 100 15a

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID 14a,c 48.6 20a 14 3a ID ID ID 6.6a ID 0.7a ID ID 200d ID ID 1.8 ID ID 0.02a ID 160 23a

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID 36c,d 90.6 85a 150a 8d ID ID ID 12a ID 1.4a ID ID 560d ID ID 2.6a ID ID 0.05a ID 280 43a

320 0.4 4 17 0.5

900a 3 7 700 1.0

1,430a 6d 11 3,400a 1.5

2,300d 13d 18 17,000d 2.8

500 ID 2 ID ID

910 ID 4 ID ID

1,200 ID 7 ID ID

1,700 ID 14 ID ID

400 ID ID

1,400 ID ID

2,400a ID ID

4,000a ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID 5,400 ID ID 290

ID ID 6,500 ID ID 360

ID ID 7,300 ID ID 420

ID ID 8,400 ID ID 500

ID ID 140 ID ID ID

ID ID 1,900 ID ID ID

ID ID 5,800a ID ID ID

ID ID 18,000a ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID (Continued)

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Table 8G.114

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Trigger Values for Freshwater (mg/L) Level of Protection (% species)

Chemical

99%

Chlorinated Alkenes Chloroethylene ID 1,1-dichloroethylene ID 1,1,2-trichloroethylene ID 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethylene ID 3-chloropropene ID 1,3-dichloropropene ID Anilines Aniline 8 2,4-dichloroaniline 0.6 2,5-dichloroaniline ID 3,4-dichloroaniline 1.3 3,5-dichloroaniline ID Benzidine ID Dichlorobenzidine ID Aromatic Hydrocarbons Benzene 600 Toluene ID Ethylbenzene ID o-xylene 200 m-xylene ID p-xylene 140 mCp-xylene ID Cumene ID Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Naphthalene 2.5 Anthracenec ID ID Phenanthrenec ID Fluoranthenec Benzo(a)pyrenec ID Nitrobenzenes Nitrobenzene 230 1,2-dinitrobenzene ID 1,3-dinitrobenzene ID 1,4-dinitrobenzene ID 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene ID 1-methoxy-2-nitrobenzene ID 1-methoxy-4-nitrobenzene ID 1-chloro-2-nitrobenzene ID 1-chloro-3-nitrobenzene ID 1-chloro-4-nitrobenzene ID 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene ID 1,2-dichloro-3-nitrobenzene ID 1,3-dichloro-5-nitrobenzene ID 1,4-dichloro-2-nitrobenzene ID 2,4-dichloro-2-nitrobenzene ID 1,2,4,5-tetrachloro-3ID nitrobenzene 1,5-dichloro-2,4ID dinitrobenzene 1,3,5-trichloro-2,4ID dinitrobenzene 1-fluoro-4-nitrobenzene ID Nitrotoluenes 2-nitrotoluene ID 3-nitrotoluene ID 4-nitrotoluene ID 2,3-dinitrotoluene ID

Trigger Values for Marine Water (mg/L) Level of Protection (% Species)

95%

90%

80%

99%

95%

90%

80%

ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID

250d 7 ID 3 ID ID ID

1,100d 20 ID 6a ID ID ID

4,800d 60a ID 13a ID ID ID

ID ID ID 85 ID ID ID

ID ID ID 150 ID ID ID

ID ID ID 190 ID ID ID

ID ID ID 260 ID ID ID

950 ID ID 350 ID 200 ID ID

1,300 ID ID 470 ID 250 ID ID

2,000 ID ID 670 ID 340 ID ID

500a ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

700a ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

900a ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

1,300a ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

16 ID ID ID ID

37 ID ID ID ID

85 ID ID ID ID

50a ID ID ID ID

70a ID ID ID ID

90a ID ID ID ID

120a ID ID ID ID

550 ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

820 ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

1,300 ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

Table 8G.114

8-167

(Continued) Trigger Values for Freshwater (mg/L) Level of Protection (% species)

Chemical

99%

95% a

2,4-dinitrotoluene 16 65 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene 100 140 1,2-dimethyl-3-nitrobenzene ID ID 1,2-dimethyl-4-nitrobenzene ID ID 4-chloro-3-nitrotoluene ID ID Chlorobenzenes and Chloronaphthalenes Monochlorobenzene ID ID 1,2-dichlorobenzene 120 160 1,3-dichlorobenzene 160 260 1,4-dichlorobenzene 40 60 1,2,3-trichlorobenzenec 3 10 85 170a 1,2,4-trichlorobenzenec ID ID 1,3,5-trichlorobenzenec 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzenec ID ID ID ID 1,2,3,5-tetrachlorobenzenec 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzenec ID ID ID ID Pentachlorobenzenec Hexachlorobenzenec ID ID 1-chloronaphthalene ID ID Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) & Dioxins Capacitor 21c ID ID ID ID Aroclor 1016c ID ID Aroclor 1221c Aroclor 1232c ID ID 0.3 0.6 Aroclor 1242c ID ID Aroclor 1248c Aroclor 1254c 0.01 0.03 ID ID Aroclor 1260c ID ID Aroclor 1262c Aroclor 1268c ID ID 2,3,4 0 -trichlorobiphenyc ID ID 4,4 0 -dichlorobiphenyl ID ID ID ID 2,2 0 ,4,5,5 0 -pentachloro-1,1 0 biphenylc 2,4,6,2 0 4,6 0 ID ID hexachlorobiphenylc ID ID Total PCBsc ID ID 2,3,7,8-TCDDc Phenols and Xylenols Phenol 85 320 2,4-dimethylphenol ID ID Nonylphenol ID ID 2-chlorphenolj 340a 490a ID ID 3-chlorophenolj 160 220 4-chlorophenolj ID ID 2,3-dichlorophenolj 2,4-dichlorophenolj 120 160a ID ID 2,5-dichlorophenolj ID ID 2,6-dichlorophenolj ID ID 3,4-dichlorophenolj 3,5-dichlorophenolj ID ID ID ID 2,3,4-trichlorophenolj 2,3,5-trichlorophenolj ID ID ID ID 2,3,6-trichlorophenolj 3 20 2,4,6-trichlorophenolc,j 2,3,4,5-tetrachlorophenolc,j ID ID 10 20 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenolc,j ID ID 2,3,5,6-tetrachlorophenolc,j

Trigger Values for Marine Water (mg/L) Level of Protection (% Species)

90%

80%

99%

95%

90%

80%

a

130 160 ID ID ID

a

250 210 ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID

ID 200 350 75 16 220a ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID 270 520a 100 30a 300a ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID 20 ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID 80 ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID 140 ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID 240 ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID 1.0 ID 0.7 ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID 1.7 ID 0.2 ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

600 ID ID 630a ID 280a ID 200a ID ID ID ID ID ID ID 40 ID 25 ID

1,200a ID ID 870a ID 360a ID 270a ID ID ID ID ID ID ID 95 ID 30 ID

270 ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

400 ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

520 ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

720 ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 8G.114

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Trigger Values for Freshwater (mg/L) Level of Protection (% species)

Chemical

99% c,j

Pentachlorophenol 3.6 Nitrophenols 2-nitrophenol ID 3-nitrophenol ID 4-nitrophenol ID 2,4-dinitrophenol 13 2,4,6-trinitrophenol ID Organic Sulfur Compounds Carbon disulfide ID Isopropyl ID n-propyl sulfide ID Propyl disulfide ID Tert-butyl sulfide ID Phenyl disulfide ID Bis(dimethylthiocarbamyl) ID sulfide Bis(diethylthiocarbamyl) ID disulfide 2-methoxy-4H-1,3,2ID benzodioxaphosphorium2sulfide Xanthates Potassium amyl xanthate ID Potassium ethyl xanthate ID Potassium hexyl xanthate ID Potassium isopropyl xanthate ID Sodium ethyl xanthate ID Sodium isobutyl xanthate ID Sodium isopropyl xanthate ID Sodium sec-butyl xanthate ID Phthalates Dimethylphthalate 3,000 Diethylphthaiate 900 9.9 Dibutylphthalatec ID Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalatec Miscellaneous Industrial Chemicals Acetonitrile ID Acrylonitrile ID Poly(acrylonitrile200 co-butadiene-co-styrene) Dimethylformamide ID 1,2-diphenylhydrazine ID Diphenylnitrosamine ID Hexachlorobutadiene ID Hexachlorocyclopentadiene ID Isophorone ID Organochlorine Pesticides ID Aldrinc 0.03 Chlordanec ID DDEc 0.006 DDTc ID Dicofolc ID Dieldrinc 0.03 Endosulfanc Endosulfan alphac ID ID Endosulfan betac 0.01 Endrinc 0.01 Heptachlorc

95%

90%

80%

Trigger Values for Marine Water (mg/L) Level of Protection (% Species) 99%

95%

90%

80%

d

10

17

27

11

22

33

55d

ID ID ID 45 ID

ID ID ID 80 ID

ID ID ID 140 ID

ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

3,700 1,000 26 ID

4,300 1,100 40.2 ID

5,100 1,300 64.6 ID

ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID

ID ID 530

ID ID 800a

ID ID 1,200a

ID ID 200

ID ID 250

ID ID 280

ID ID 340

ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID 0.08 ID 0.01 ID ID 0.2d ID ID 0.02 0.09

ID 0.14 ID 0.02 ID ID 0.6d ID ID 0.04a 0.25

ID 0.27a ID 0.04 ID ID 1.8d ID ID 0.06d 0.7d

ID ID ID ID ID ID 0.005 ID ID 0.004 ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID 0.01 ID ID 0.008 ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID 0.02 ID ID 0.01 ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID 0.05d ID ID 0.02 ID (Continued)

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WATER QUALITY

Table 8G.114

8-169

(Continued) Trigger Values for Freshwater (mg/L) Level of Protection (% species)

Chemical

99%

Lindane 0.07 Methoxychlorc ID ID Mirexc 0.1 Toxaphenec Organophosphorus Pesticides Azinphos methyl 0.01 0.00004 Chlorpyrifosc Demeton ID Demeton-S-methyl ID Diazinon 0.00003 Dimethoate 0.1 Fenitrothion 0.1 Malathion 0.002 Parathion 0.0007 ID Profenofosc Temephosc ID Carbamate & Other Pesticides Carbofuran 0.06 Methomyl 0.5 S-methoprene ID Pyrethroids Deltamethrin ID Esfenvalerate ID Herbicides & Fungicides Bypyridilium herbicides Diquat 0.01 Paraquat ID Phenoxyacetic acid herbicides MCPA ID 2,4-D 140 2,4,5-T 3 Sulfonylurea herbicides Bensulfuron ID Metsulfuron ID Thiocarbamate herbicides Molinate 0.1 Thiobencarb 1 Thiram 0.01 Triazine herbicides Amitrole ID Atrazine 0.7 Hexazinone ID Simazine 0.2 Urea herbicides Diuron ID Tebuthiuron 0.02 Miscellaneous herbicides Acrolein ID Bromacil ID Glyphosate 370 Imazethapyr ID Ioxynil ID Metolachlor ID Sethoxydim ID Trifluralinc 2.6

95%

90%

80% d

Trigger Values for Marine Water (mg/L) Level of Protection (% Species) 99%

95%

90%

80%

0.2 ID ID 0.2

0.4 ID ID 0.3

1.0 ID ID 0.5

ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID

0.02 0.01 ID ID 0.01 0.15 0.2 0.05 0.004a ID ID

0.05 0.11d ID ID 0.2d 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.01a ID ID

0.11d 1.2d ID ID 2d 0.3 0.4 1.1d 0.04d ID ID

ID 0.0005 ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID 0.0004

ID 0.009 ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID 0.05

ID 0.04d ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID 0.4

ID 0.3d ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID 3.6d

1.2d 3.5 ID

4d 9.5 ID

15d 23 ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID 0.001k

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

1.4 ID

10 ID

80d ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID 280 36

ID 450 100

ID 830 290d

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

3.4 2.8 0.2

14 4.6 0.8a

57 8a 3d

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID ID ID

ID 13 ID 3.2

ID 45a ID 11

ID 150a ID 35

ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID

ID 2.2

ID 20

ID 160a

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID

ID ID 1,200 ID ID ID ID 4.4

ID ID 2,000 ID ID ID ID 6

ID ID 3,600d ID ID ID ID 9d

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID ID ID ID (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-170

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8G.114

(Continued) Trigger Values for Freshwater (mg/L) Level of Protection (% species)

Chemical

99%

Generic Groups of Chemicals Surfactants Linear alkylbenzene sulfonates 65 (LAS) Alcohol ethoxyolated sulfate 340 (AES) Alcohol ethoxylated 50 surfactants (AE) Oils & Petroleum ID Hydrocarbons Oil Spill Dispersants BP 1100X ID Corexit 7664 ID Corexit 8667 Corexit 9527 ID Corexit 9550 ID Note:

a

b

c d e f g h i j k

Trigger Values for Marine Water (mg/L) Level of Protection (% Species)

95%

90%

80%

99%

95%

90%

80%

280

520a

1,000a

ID

ID

ID

ID

650

850a

1,100a

ID

ID

ID

ID

140

220

360a

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID

ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID ID ID

ID ID ID 230 ID

ID ID ID 1100 ID

ID ID ID 2,200 ID

ID ID ID 4,400d ID

ID, Insufficient data to derive a reliable trigger value. Users advised to check if a low reliability value or an ECL is available Section 8.3.7. Values in grey shading are the trigger values applying to typical slightly-moderately disturbed systems; see Table 8113. And Section 3.4.2.4 of the guidance document for guidance on applying these levels to different ecosystem conditions. Where the final water quality guideline to be applied to a site is below current analytical practical quantitation limits, see Section 3.4.3.3 of guidance document. Most trigger values listed here for metals and metalloids are High reliability figures, derived from field or chronic NOEC data. The exceptions are Moderate reliability for freshwater aluminium (pH O6.5), manganese and marine chromium (III). Most trigger values listed here for non-metallic inorganices and organic chemicals are Moderate reliability figures, derived for acute LC50 data. The exceptions are High reliability for freshwater ammonia, 3,4-DCA, endosulfan chlorpyrifos, esfenvalerate, tebuthiuron, three surfactants and marine for 1, 1,2-TCE and chlorpyrifos.

Figure may not protect key test species from chronic toxicity (this refers to experimental chronic figures or geometric mean for species)— check Section 8.3.7 of guidance document for spread of data and its significance. Where grey shading and ‘C’ coincide, refer to text in Section 8.3.7. of guidance document. Chemicals for which algorithms have been provided in Table 3.4.3 of guidance document to account for the effects of hardness. The values have been calculated using a hardness of 30 mg/L CaCO3. These should be adjusted to the site-specific hardness (see Section 3.4.3) of guidance document. Chemicals for which possible bioaccumulation and secondary poisoning effects should be considered. Figure may not protect key test species from acute toxicity (and chronic)—check Section 8.3.7 for spread of data and its significance. ‘A’ indicates that trigger valueOacute toxicity figure; note that trigger value should be !1/3 of acute figure. Ammonla as TOTAL ammonia as (NH3-N) at pH 8. For changes in trigger value with ph refer to Section 8.3.7.2 of the guidance document. Chlorine as total chlorine, as [CI]. Cyanide as unionised HCN, measured as [CN] of the guidance document. Figures protect against toxicity and do not relate to eutrophication issues. Refer to Section 3.3 if eutrophication is the issue of concern. Sulfide as un-lonised H2S, measured as [S] of the guidance document. Tainting or flavour impairment of fish flesh may possibly occur at concentrations below the trigger value. High reliability figure for esfenvalerate derived form mesocosm NOEC data (no alternative protection levels available).

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, Volume I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

Table 8G.115 Australian Guidelines for the Protection of Human Consumers of Fish and Other Aquatic Organisms from Bacterial Infection Toxicant Faecal (thermotolerant) coliforms

Note:

Guideline in Shellfishing Water

Standard in Edible Tissue

The median faecal coliform bacterial concentration should not exceed 14 MPN/100 mL, with no more than 10% of the samples exceeding 43 MPN/100 mL

Fish destined for human consumption should not exceed a limit of 2.3 MPN E. coli lg of flesh with a standard place count of 100,000 organisms/g

MPN: Most probable number, The guideline for faecal (thermotolerant) coliforms should not be used in conjunction with the data from a sanitary survey of the shellfish harvesting areas for the purpose of harvesting area classification.

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

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8-171

Table 8G.116 Australian Guidelines of Chemical Compounds in Water Found to Cause Tainting of Fish Flesh and Other Aquatic Organisms Parameter Acenaphthene Acetophenone Acrylonitrile Copper m-cresol o-cresol p-cresol Cresylic acids (meta, para) Chlorobenzene n-butylmercaptan o-sec. butylphenol p-tert. butylphenol o-chlorophenol p-chlorophenol 2,3-dinitrophenol 2,4,6-trinitrophenol 2,4-dichlorophenol 2,5-dichlorophenol 2,6-dichlorophenol 3,4-dichlorophenol 2-methyl-4-chlorophenol 2-methyl-6-chlorophenol 3-methyl-4-chlorophenol o-phenylphenol Pentachlorophenol Phenol Phenols in polluted rivers 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol 2,3,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-dimethylphenol Dimethylamine Diphenyloxide B,B-dichlorodiethyl ether o-dichlorobenzene Ethylbenzene Ethanethiol Ethylacrylate Formaldehyde Gasoline Guaicol Kerosene Kerosene plus kaolin Hexachlorocyclopentadiene Isopropylbenzene Naphtha Naphthalene Naphthol 2-Naphthol Nitrobenzene a-methylstyrene Oil, emulsifiable Pyridine Pyrocatechol Pyrogallol Quinoline p-quinone Styrene

Estimated Threshold Level in Water (mg/L) 0.02 0.5 18.0 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.02 0.06 0.3 0.03 0.0001–0.015 0.0001 0.08 0.002 0.0001–0.014 0.02 0.03 0.0003 2.0 0.003 0.02–3.0 1.0 0.03 1.0–10.0 0.15–0.02 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.4 7.0 0.05 0.09–1 !0.25 0.25 0.2 0.6 95.0 0.005 0.08 0.1 1.0 0.001 !0.25 0.1 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.03 0.25 O15.0 5–28 0.8–5 20–30 0.5–1 0.5 0.25 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8G.116

(Continued) Estimated Threshold Level in Water (mg/L)

Parameter Toluene Outboard motor fuel as exhaust Zinc

0.25 7.2 5.0

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au. Original Source: Reproduced from ANZECC (1992), an adaptation of NAS/NAE (1973).

Table 8G.117

Australian Recommended Sediment Quality Guidelines

Contaminant Metals (mg/kg dry wt) Antimony Cadmium Chromium Copper Lead Mercury Nickel Silver Zinc Metalloids (mg/kg dry wt) Arsenic Organometallics Tributyltin (mg Sn/kg dry wt) Organics (mg/kg dry wt)a Acenaphthene Acenaphthalene Anthracene Fluorene Naphthalene Phenanthrene Low Molecular Weight PAHsb Benzo(a)anthracene Benzo(a)pyrene Dibenzo(a, h)anthracene Chrysene Fluoranthene Pyrene High Molecular Weight PAHsb Total PAHs Total DDT p.p 0 -DDE o,p 0 -Cp,p 0 -DDD Chlordane Dieldrin

ISQG-Low (Trigger Value) 2 1.5 80 65 50 0.15 21 1 200

ISQG-High 25 10 370 270 220 1 52 3.7 410

20

70

5

70

16 44 85 19 160 240 552

500 640 1,100 540 2,100 1,500 3,160

261 430 63 384 600 665 1,700

1,600 1,600 260 2,800 5,100 2,600 9,600

4,000 1.6 2.2 2 0.5 0.02

45,000 46 27 20 6 8 (Continued)

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WATER QUALITY

8-173

Table 8G.117

(Continued)

Contaminant

ISQG-Low (Trigger Value)

Endrin Lindane Total PCBs

ISQG-High

0.02 0.32 23

8 1 —

a

Normalised to 1% organic carbon; Low molecular weight PAHs are the sum of concentrations of acenaphthene, acenaphthalene, anthracene, fluorene, 2-methylnaphthalene, naphthalene and phenanthrene; high molecular weight PAHs are the sum of concentrations of benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene, chrysene, dibenzo(a,h)anthrancene, fluoranthene and pyrene. Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

b

Original Source: Primarily adapted from Long et al. (1995).

Table 8G.118 Maximum Concentrations of Copper Sulfate Safe for Fish Safe Copper Sulfate Concentration Fish

ppm

lb/mill gal

Trout Carp Suckers Catfish Pickerel Goldfish Perch Sunfish Black Bass

0.14 0.30 0.30 0.40 0.40 0.50 0.75 1.20 2.10

1.2 2.5 2.5 3.5 3.5 4.0 6.0 10.0 17.0

Source: From U.S. Public Health Service.

Table 8G.119 Observed Lethal Concentration of Selected Chemicals in Aquatic Environments Chemical ABS (100 percent) ABS (100 percent) Household syndets Alkyl sulfate LAS (C12) LAS (C14) Acetic acid Alum Ammonia Ammonia Sodium arsenite Sodium arsenate Barium chloride Barium chloride Cadmium chloride Cadmium nitrate CO2 CO Chloramine

Organism Tested Fathead minnow Bluegills Fathead minnow Fathead minnow Bluegill fingerlings Bluegill fingerlings Goldfish Goldfish Goldfish Perch, roach, rainbow trout Minnow Minnow Goldfish Salmon Goldfish Goldfish Various species Various species Brown trout fry

Lethal Concentration (mg/L) 3.5–4.5 4.2–4.4 39–61 5.1–5.9 3 0.6 423 100 2–2.5 NH3 3N 17.8 As 234 As 5,000 158 0.017 0.3 Cd 100–200 1.5 0.06

Exposure Time (hr) 96 96 96 96 96 96 20 12–96 24–96 2–20 36 15 12–17 — 9–18 190 — 1–10 — (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 8G.119

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Chemical Chlorine Chromic acid Copper sulfate Copper nitrate Cyanogen chloride H2S HCl HCl Lead nitrate Mercuric chloride Nickel nitrate Nitric acid Oxygen Phenol Phenol Potassium chromate Potassium cyanide Sodium cyanide Silver nitrate Sodium fluoride Sodium sulfide Zinc sulfate Zinc sulfate Pesticides 1. Chlorinated hydrocarbons Aldrin DDT DDT DDT DDT DDT DDT BHC BHC Chlordane Chlordane Dieldrin Dieldrin Dieldrin Endrin Endrin Endrin Endrin Endrin Heptachlor Heptachlor Heptachlor Heptachlor Methoxychlor Methoxychlor Toxaphene Toxaphene Toxaphene Toxaphene Toxaphene Toxaphene 2. Organic phosphates Chlorothion Dipterex EPN

Organism Tested Rainbow trout Goldfish Stickleback Stickleback Goldfish Goldfish Stickleback Goldfish Minnow, stickleback, brown trout Stickleback Stickleback Minnow Rainbow trout Rainbow trout Perch Rainbow trout Rainbow trout Stickleback Stickleback Goldfish Brown trout Stickleback Rainbow trout

Goldfish Goldfish Rainbow trout Salmon Brook trout Minnow, guppy Stoneflies (species) Goldfish Rainbow trout Goldfish Rainbow trout Goldfish Bluegill Rainbow trout Goldfish Carp Fathead minnow Various species Stoneflies (species) Rainbow trout Goldfish Bluegill Redear sunfish Rainbow trout Goldfish Rainbow trout Goldfish Carp Goldfish Goldfish Minnows Fathead minnow Fathead minnow Fathead minnow

Lethal Concentration (mg/L) 0.03–0.08 200 0.03 Cu 0.02 Cu 1 10 pH 4.8 pH 4.0 0.33 Pb 0.01 Hg 1 Ni pH 5.0 3 cc/L 6 9 75 0.13 Cn 1.04 Cn 70 K 1,000 15 0.3 Zn 0.5

0.028 0.027 0.5–0.32 0.08 0.032 0.75 ppb 0.32–1.8 2.3 3 0.082 0.5 0.037 0.008 0.05 0.0019 0.14 0.001 0.03–0.05 ppb 0.32–2.4 ppb 0.25 0.23 0.019 0.017 0.05 0.056 0.05 0.0056 0.1 0.2 0.04 0.2 3.2 180 0.2

Exposure Time (hr) — 60–84 160 192 6–48 96 240 4–6 — 204 156 — — 3 1 60 2 2 154 60–102 — 120 64

96 96 24–36 36 36 29 96 96 96 96 24 96 96 24 96 48 96 — 96 24 96 96 96 24 96 24 96 — 24 170 24 96 96 96 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

Table 8G.119

8-175

(Continued)

Chemical Guthion Guthion Malathion Parathion TEPP 3. Herbicides Weedex Weeda Zol Weeda Zol T.L. Simazine (no plants present) Atrazine (A361) (plants present) Atrazine in Gesaprime 4. Bactericides Algibiol Soricide tetraminol

Organism Tested Fathead minnow Bluegill Fathead minnow Fathead minnow Fathead minnow Young roach and trench

Lethal Concentration (mg/L) 0.093 0.005 12.5 1.4–2.7 1.7

96 96 96 96 96

Minnow

40–80 15–30 20–40 0.5

1m 1m 1m !3 d

Minnow

5.0

24

Minnow

3.75

24

Minnow Minnow

20 8

Source: From McGauhey, Engineering Management of Water Quality, McGraw-Hill, copyright 1968.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Exposure Time (hr)

24 48

8-176

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 8H

RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY

Table 8H.120 Water Quality Characteristics Relevant to Recreational Use Characteristics

Primary Contact (e.g. swimming)

Secondary Contact (e.g. boating)

Visual Use (no contact)

X X

X X

X

X X X X X X X

X X X

X X X

X X

X

Microbiological guidelines Nulsance organisms (e.g., algae) Physical and chemical guidelines: Aesthetics Clarity Color pH Temperature Toxic chemicals Oil, debris Source:

From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. 1, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

Table 8H.121 Guides for Evaluating Recreational Waters Water Contact Determination Coliforms, MPN per 100 mL Visible solids of sewage origin ABS (detergent) (mg/L) Suspended solids (mg/L) Flotable oil and grease, mg/L Emulsified oil and grease (mg/L) Turbidity, silica scale units Color, standard cobalt scale units Threshold odor number Range of pH Temperature, maximum 8C Transparency, Secchi disk (ft)

Noticeable Threshold a

1,000 None 1a 20a 0 10a 10a 15a 32a 6.5–9.0 30 —

Boating and Aesthetic

Limiting Threshold

Noticeable Threshold

Limiting Threshold

b

— None 2 100 5 20 50 100 256 6.0–10.0 50 —

None 1a 20a 0 20a 20a 15a 32a 6.5–9.0 30 20a

None 5 100 10 50 —c 100 256 6.0–10.0 50 —c

Note: Noticeable threshold represents the level at which people begin to notice and perhaps to complain. Limiting threshold in the level at which recreational use of water is prohibited or seriously impaired. a b c

Value not to be exceeded in more than 20 percent of 20 consecutive samples, nor in any 3 consecutive samples. No limiting concentration can be specified in the basis of epidemiological evidence, provided no fecal pollution is evident. No concentration likely to be found in surface waters would impede use.

Source: From California State Water Quality Control Board, 1963.

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8-177

Table 8H.122 United States Criteria for Bathing (Full Body Contact) Recreational Waters Freshwater Based on a statistically sufficient number of samples (generally not less than 5 samples equally spaced over a 30-day period), the geometric mean of the indicated bacterial densities should not exceed one or the other of the followinga: E. coli 126 per 100 mL; or Enterococci 33 per 100 mL; No sample should exceed a one sided confidence limit (C.L.) calculated using the following as guidance: Designated bathing beach 75% C.L. Moderate use for bathing 82% C.L. Light use for bathing 90% C.L. Infrequent use for bathing 95% C.L. based on a site-specific log standard deviation, or if site data are insufficient to establish a log standard deviation, then using 0.4 as the log standard deviation for both indicators Marine Water Based on a statistically sufficient number of samples (generally not less than 5 samples equally spaced over a 30-day period), the geometric mean of the enterococci densities should not exceed 35 per 100 mL; No sample should exceed a one sided confidence limit using the following as guidance: Designated bathing beach 75% C.L. Moderate use for bathing 82% C.L. Light use for bathing 90% C.L. Infrequent use for bathing 95% C.L. based on a site-specific log standard deviation, or if site data are insufficient to establish a log standard deviation, then using 0.7 as the log standard deviation a

Only one indicator should be used. The Regulatory agency should select the appropriate indicator for its conditions.

Source:

From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2003, Bacterial Water Quality Standards for Recreational Waters (Freshwater and Marine Waters) Status Report, EPA-823-R-03-008, www.epa.gov.

Table 8H.123 WHO Guidelines for Safe Practice in Managing Recreational Waters Guidance Level or Situation

How Guidance Level Derived

Relatively low probability of adverse health effects From human bathing 20,000 cyanobacterial cells/mL epidemiological study or 10 mg chlorophyll-a/L with dominance of cyanobacteria

Moderate probability of adverse health effects 100,000 cyanobacterial From provisional drinkingcells/ml or 50 mg chlorophyllwater guideline value for a/L with dominance of microcystin-LRb and data concerning other cyanobacteria cyanotoxins

High probability of adverse health effects Cyanobacterial scum Inference from oral animal formation in areas where lethal poisonings Actual human illness case whole-body contact and/or histories risk of ingestion/aspiration occur

a b

Typical Actionsa

Health Risks Short-term adverse health outcomes, e.g., skin irritations, gastrointestinal illness

Post on site risk advisory signs Inform relevant authorities

Potential for long-term illness with some cyanobactieral species Short-term adverse health outcomes, e.g., skin irritations, gastrointestinal illness

Watch for scums or conditions conducive to scums Discourage swimming and further investigate hazard Post on-site risk advisory signs Inform relevant authorities

Potential for acute poisoning Potential for long-term illness with some cyanobacterial species Short-term adverse health outcomes, e.g., skin irritations, gastrointestinal illness

Immediate action to control contact with scums; possible prohibition of swimming and other water contact activities Public health follow-up investigation Inform public and relevant authorities

Actual action taken should be determined in light of extent of use and public health assessment of hazard. The provisional drinking-water guideline value for microcystin-LR is 1 mg/L (WHO, 1998).

Source: From WHO, 2003, Guidelines for Safe Recreational Water Environments, Volume 1: Coastal and Fresh Waters, Copyright q World Health Organization 2003. www.who.int. Original Source: Derived from Chorus & Bartram, 1999.

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Table 8H.124 WHO Guideline Values for Microbial Quality of Recreational Waters 95th Percentile Value of Intestinal Enterococci/100 mL (rounded values)

Basis of Derivation

Estimated Risk Per Exposure

%40 A

This range is below the NOAEL in most epidemiological studies

!1% GI illness risk !0.3% AFRI risk This upper 95th percentile value of 40/100 mL relates to an average probability of less than one case of gastroenteritis in every 100 exposures. The AFRI burden would be negligible

41–200 B

The 200/100 ml value is above the threshold of illness transmission reported in most epidemiological studies that have attempted to define a NOAEL or LOAEL for GI illness and AFRI

1–5% GI illness risk 0.3–1.9% AFRI risk

The upper 95th percentile value of 200/100 mL relates to an average probability of one case of gastroenteritis in 20 exposures. The AFRI illness rate at this upper value would be less than 19 per 1,000 exposures, or less than approximately 1 in 50 exposures 201–500 C

This range represents a substantial elevation in the probability of all adverse health outcomes for which dose-response data are available

5–10% GI illness risk 1.9–3.9% AFRI risk This range of 95th percentiles represents a probability of 1 in 10 to 1 in 20 of gastroenteritis for a single exposure. Exposures in this category also suggest a risk of AFRI in the range of 19–39 per 1,000 exposures, or a range of approximately 1 in 50 to 1 in 25 exposures

O500 D

Note:

Above this level, there may be a significant risk of high levels of minor illness transmission

O10% GI illness risk O3.9% AFRI risk There is a greater than 10% chance of gastroenteritis per single exposure. The AFRI illness rate of the 95th percentile point of O500/100 mL would be greater than 39 per 1,000 exposures, or greater than approximately 1 in 25 exposures

1. Abbreviations used: A–D are the corresponding microbial water quality assessment categories used as part of the classification procedure; AFRIZacute febrile respiratory illness; GIZgastrointestinal; LOAELZlowest-observed-adverse-effect level; NOAELZno observed-adverse-effect level. 2. The “exposure” in the key studies was a minimum of 10 min of swimming involving three head immersions. It is envisaged that this is equivalent to many immersion activities of similar duration, but it may underestimate risk for longer periods of water contact or for activities involving higher risks of water ingestion. 3. The “estimated risk” refers to the excess risk of illness (relative to a group of non-bathers) among a group of bathers who have been exposed to faecally contaminated recreational water under conditions similar to those in the key studies. 4. The functional form used in the dose-response curve assumes no further illness outside the range of the data (i.e. at concentrations above 158 intestinal enterococci/100 mL). Thus, the estimates of illness rate reported above this value are likely to be underestimates of the actual disease incidence attributable to recreational water exposure. 5. This estimated risks were derived from sewage-impacted marine waters. Different sources of pollution and more or less aggressive environments may modify the risks. 6. This table is derived from risk to healthy adult bathers to marine waters in temperate north European waters.

Source: From WHO, 2003, Guidelines for Safe Recreational Waters, Volume 1: Coastal and Fresh Waters. Copyright q World Health Organization 2003, www.who.int.

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Table 8H.125 Summary of Guidelines for Canadian Recreational Water Quality Parameter Microbiological Escherichia coli (fecal coliforms) Enterococci

Coliphages Waterborne pathogens

Cyanobacteria (blue– green algae) Chemical characteristics

Aquatic plants Aesthetics

Nuisance organisms

pH Temperature Turbidity Clarity—Light penetration Color Oil and grease

Note:

Guideline The geometric mean of at least five samples, taken during a period not to exceed 30 days, should not exceed 2,000 E. coli/L. Resampling should be performed when any sample exceeds 4,000 E. coli/L The geometric mean of at least five samples, taken during a period not to exceed 30 days, should not exceed 350 enterococci/L. Resampling should be performed when any sample exceeds 700 enterococci/L Limits on coliphages can not be specified at this time. See Health and Welfare Canada (1992) for additional information The pathogens most frequently responsible for diseases associated with recreational water use are described in Health and Welfare Canada (1992), i.e. Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella, Shigella, Aeromonas, Campylobacter jejuni, Legionella, human enteric viruses, Giardia lamblia, and Cryptosporidium Limits have not been specified. Health Canada is in the process of developing a numerical guideline for microcystin, a cyanobacterial toxin. Water with blue-green surface scum should be avoided because of reduced clarity and possible presence of toxins Limits for chemicals have not been specified because of lack of data. Decisions for use should be based on an environmental health assessment and the aesthetic quality. Dermal exposures to environmental contaminants has recently been reviewed by Moody and Chu (1995) Bathers should avoid areas with rooted or floating plants; very dense growths could affect other activities such as boating and fishing All water should be free from † materials that will settle to form objectionable deposits; † floating debris, oil, scum, and other matter; † substances producing objectionable color, odor, taste, or turbidity; and † substances and conditions or combinations thereof in concentrations that produce undesirable aquatic life Bathing areas should be as free as possible from nuisance organisms that † endanger the health and physical comfort of users or † render the area unusable Common examples include biting and nonbiting insects and poisonous organisms, for example jellyfish The pH of the waters used for total body contact recreation should be in the pH range of 6.5 to 8.5. If the water has a very low buffering capacity, pH values from 5.0 to 9.0 should be acceptable The thermal characteristics of waters used for bathing and swimming should not cause an appreciable increase or decrease in the deep body temperature of bathers and swimmers 50 Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU) Water should be sufficiently clear that a Secchi disc is visible at a minimum depth of 1.2 m Color should not be so intense as to impede visibility in areas used for swimming. A maximum limit of 100 platinum-cobalt (Pt-Co) units was proposed by Environment Canada (1972) Oil or petrochemicals should not be present in concentrations that † Can be detected as a visible film, sheen, or discoloration on the surface † Can be detected by odor † Can form deposits on shorelines and bottom sediments that are detectable by sight or odor (International Joint Commission 1977)

See guidance document for a complete narrative of recreational water quality guidelines.

Source: From Health and Welfare Canada, 1992, Guidelines for Canadian Recreational Water Quality, www.ccme.ca.

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Table 8H.126 Summary of Australian Water Quality Guidelines of Recreational Waters Parameter Microbiological Primary contacta

Secondary contacta Nuisance organisms

Physical and chemical Visual clarity & color

pH Temperature Toxic chemicals Surface films a b

Guideline The median bacterial content in fresh and marine waters taken over the bathing season should not exceed 150 fecal coliform organisms/100 mL or 35 enterococci organisms/100 mL. Pathogenic free-living protozoans should be absent from bodies of fresh waterb The median value in fresh and marine waters should not exceed 1,000 fecal coliform organisms/100 mL or 230 enterococci organisms/100 mLb Macrophytes, phytoplankton scums, filamentous algal mats, sewage fungus, leeches, etc., should not be present in excessive amountsa. Direct contact activities should be discouraged if algal levels of 15,000– 20,000 cells/mL are present, depending on the algal species. Large numbers of midges and aquatic worms should also be avoided

To protect the aesthetic quality of a waterbody: † the natural visual clarity should not be reduced by more than 20% † the natural hue of the water should not be changed by more than 10 points on the Munsell Scale † the natural reflectance of the water should not be changed by more than 50% To protect the visual clarity of waters used for swimming, the horizontal sighting of a 200 mm diameter black disc should exceed 1.6 m The pH of the water should be within the range 5.0–9.0, assuming that the buffering capacity of the water is low near the extremes of the pH limits For prolonged exposure, temperatures should be in the range 15–358C Water containing chemicals that are either toxic or irritating to the skin or mucous membranes are unsuitable of recreation. Toxic substances should not exceed values in Table 8.127 and 8.128 Oil and petrochemicals should not be noticeable as a visible film on the water nor should they be detectable by odor

Refer to Section 3.3 of this revised Australian Guidelines relating to nutrient concentrations necessary to limit excessive aquatic plant growth. Sampling frequency and maximum values are given in Section 5.2.3.1 of the guidance document.

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

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Table 8H.127 Summary of Australian Water-Quality Guidelines for Recreational Purposes: General Chemicals Parameter

Guideline Values (mg/L, Unless Otherwise Stated)

Inorganic: Arsenic Asbestos Barium Boron Cadmium Chromium Cyanide Lead Mercury Nickel Nitrate-N Nitrite-N Salenium Silver

50 NR 1,000 1,000 5 50 100 50 1 100 10,000 1,000 10 50

Organic: Benzene Benzo(a)pyrene Carbon tetrachloride 1,1-Dichloroethene 1,2-Dichloroethane Pentachlorophenol Polychlorinated biphenyls Tetrachloroethene 2,3,4,6-Tetrachlorophenol Trichloroethene 2,4,5-Trichlorophenol 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol

10 0.01 3 0.3 10 10 0.1 10 1 30 1 10

Radiological: Gross alpha activity Gross beta activity (excluding activity of 40K) Other chemicals: Aluminum Ammonia (as N) Chloride Copper Oxygen Hardness (as CaCO3) Iron Manganese Organics (CCE & CAE) pH Phenolics Sodium Sulfate Sulfide Surfactant (MBAS) Total dissolved solids Zinc

0.1 Bq/L 0.1 Bq/L

200 10 400,000 1,000 O6.5 (O80% saturation) 500,000 300 100 200 6.5–8.5 2 300,000 400,000 50 200 1,000,000 5,000

Note: NRZNo guideline recommended at this time; MBAS Methylene blue active substances. Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

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Table 8H.128 Summary of Water-Quality Guidelines for Recreational Purposes: Pesticides

Compound Acephate Alachlor Aldrin Amitrol Asulam Azinphos-methyl Barban Benomyl Bentazone Bioresmethrin Bromazil Bromophos-ethyl Bromoxynil Carbaryl Carbendazim Carbofuran Carbophenothion Chlordane Chlordimeform Chlorfenvinphos Chloroxuron Chlorpyrifos Clopzralid Cyhexatin 2,4-D DDT Demeton Diazinon Dicamba Dichlobenil 3,6-Dichloropicolinic acid Dichlorvos Diclofop-methyl Dicofol Dieldrin Difenzoquat Dimethoate Diquat Disulfoton Diuron DPA Endosulfan Endothal Endrin EPTC Ethion Ethoprophos Fenchlorphos Fenitrothion Fenoprop Fensulfothion

Maximum Concentration (mg/L) 20 3 1 1 100 10 300 200 400 60 600 20 30 60 200 30 1 6 20 10 30 2 1,000 200 100 3 30 10 300 20 1,000 20 3 100 1 200 100 10 6 40 500 40 600 1 60 6 1 60 20 20 20

Compound Fenvalerate Flamprop-methyl Fluometuron Formothion Fosamine (ammonium salt) Glyphosate Heptachlor Hexaflurate Hexazinone Lindane Maidison Methidathion Methomyl Metolachlor Metribuzin Mevinphos Molinate Monocrotophos Nabam Nitralin Omethoate Oryzalin Paraquat Parathion Parathion-methyl Pendimethalin Perfluidone Permethrin Pioloram Piperonyl butoxide Pirimicarb Pirimiphos-ethyl Pirimiphos-methyl Profenofos Promecarb Propanil Propargite Propoxur Pyrazophos Quintozene Sulprofos 2,4,5-T Temephos Thiobencarb Thiometon Thiophanate Thiram Trichlorofon Triclopyr Trifuralin

Maximum Concentration (mg/L) 40 6 100 100 3,000 200 3 60 600 10 100 60 60 800 5 6 1 2 30 1,000 0.4 60 40 30 6 600 20 300 30 200 100 1 60 0.6 60 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 6 20 2 30 40 20 100 30 10 20 500

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. 1, The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au. Original Source: From NHMRC & AWRC (1987), NHMRC (1989).

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SECTION 8I WATER QUALITY FOR LIVESTOCK AND AQUACULTURE

Table 8I.129 Guides for Evaluating the Quality of Water Used by Livestock Quality Factor (mg/L) Total dissolved solids (TDS) Cadmium Calcium Magnesium Sodium Arsenic Bicarbonate Chloride Fluoride Nitrate Nitrite Sulfate Range of pH a b c

Threshold Concentrationa

Limiting Concentrationb

2500 5 500 250 1000 1 500 1500 1 200 None 500 6.0–8.5

5000 1000 500c 2000c 500 3000 6 400 None 1000c 5.6–9.0

Threshold values represent concentrations at which poultry or sensitive animals might show slight effects from prolonged use of such water. Lower concentrations are of little or no concern. Limiting concentrations based on interim criteria, South Africa. Animals in lactation or production might show definite adverse reactions. Total magnesium compounds plus sodium sulfate should not exceed 50 percent of the total dissolved solids.

Source: From California State Water Quality Control Board, 1963.

Table 8I.130 Guide to the Use of Saline Waters for Livestock and Poultry Total Soluble Salts Content of Waters Less than 1,000 mg/L (EC!1.5 mmhhos/cm) 1,000–3,000 mg/L (ECZ1.5–5 mmhos/cm)

3,000–5,000 mg/L (ECZ5–8 mmhos/cm)

5,000–7,000 mg/L (ECZ8–11 mmhos/cm)

7,000–10,000 mg/L (ECZ11–16 mmhos/cm)

Over 10,000 mg/L (ECO11–16 mmhos/cm)

Uses Relatively low level of salinity. Excellent for all classes of livestock and poultry Very satisfactory for all classes of livestock and poultry. May cause temporary and mild diarrhea in livestock not accustomed to them; may cause watery droppings in poultry Satisfactory for livestock, but may cause temporary diarrhea or be refused at first by animals not accustomed to them. Poor waters for poultry, often causing watery feces, increased mortality, and decreased growth, especially in turkeys Can be used with reasonable safety for dairy and beef cattle, sheep, swine, and horses. Avoid use for pregnant or lactating animals. Not acceptable for poultry Unfit for poultry and probably for swine. Considerable risk in using for pregnant or lactating cows, horses or sheep, or for the young of these species. In general, use should be avoided although older ruminants, horses, poultry, and swine may subsist on them under certain conditions Risks with these highly saline waters are so great that they cannot be recommended for use under any condition

Source: From Soltanpour, P. N. and Raley, W. L., Livestock Drinking Water Quality, Colorado State University Cooperative Extension – Agriculture, no. 4.908, www.ext.colostate.edu. Original Source: From Environmental Studies Board, Nat. Acad. of Sci., Nat. Acad. of Eng., Water Quality Criteria, 1972. Ayers, R.S. and D.W. Westcot. Water Quality for Agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1976. P.N. Soltanpour, Colorado State University professor, soil and crop sciences; and W.L. Raley, former Colorado State University Cooperative Extension western district director. 10/93. Reviewed 3/99.

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Table 8I.131 Canadian Water-Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Agricultural Water Uses–Livestock Parametera Aldicarb Aluminumd Arsenice Atrazine Berylliumd Blue-green algae(Cyanobacteria)d Borond Bromacil Bromoxynil Cadmium Calciumd Captan Carbaryl Carbofuran Chlordane Hexachlorobenzene 1,2-Dichloroethane 1.1,2-Trichloroethene (Trichloroethylene, TCE) Chlorothalonil Chlorpyrifos Chromium Trivalent chromium (Cr(III)) Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) Cobaltd Color Copperd Cyanazine Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae) 2,4-D [See 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid] DDT(2,2-Bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane; Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane)d Deltamethrin Dicamba 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) [See also Phenoxy herbicides] Diclofop-methyl Dimethoate Dinoseb Endrind Ethylbenzened,e Fluorided Glyphosated Dichloromethaned (Methylene chloride) Trichloromethaned (Chloroform) Tetrachloromethaned (Carbon tetrachloride) Tribromomethane (Bromoform) Dichlorobromomethane Dibromochloromethane Heptachlor (Heptachlor epoxide)d Leadd Lindane (Hexachlorocyclohexane)d MCPA (4-chloro-2-methyI phenoxy acetic acid; 2-MethyI-4-chloro phenoxy acetic acid) Mercuryd Metolachlor Metribuzin Molybdenumd Nickeld NitrateCNitrited Nitrited Tributyltin Tricyclohexyltin Triphenyltin

Livestock Water (mg/L) 11c 5,000 25f 5f,g 100f 5,000 1,100f 11f 80 1,000,000 13f,i 1,100 45 7l,m 0.52f,n 5f 50f 170f 24f 50f,n 50f,n 1,000 Narrative 500–5,000p 10f Narrative See also Phenoxy herbicides 30l,m 2.5 122 See also Phenoxy herbicides 9f 3f 150 0.2l,m 2.4 1,000–2,000n 280 50f 100g 5f 100g 100g 100g 3l,m 100 4 25f 3 50f 80 500 1,000 100,000 10,000 250 250f 820f,i (Continued)

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Table 8I.131 Parameter

(Continued)

a

d

Phenols Phenoxv herbicidesd Picloramd Seleniumd Simazine Sulphated Tebuthiuron Toluened,e Total dissolved solids (salinity)d Toxaphened Triallated Trifluralin Uraniumd Vanadiumd Zincd Note: a b

c d e f g

h i j

k

l m n o

8-185

Livestock Water (mg/L) 2 100 190 50 10f 1,000,000 130f 24 3,000,000 5l,m 230f 45f 200 100 50,000

mg/L is microgram per liter.

Unless otherwise indicated, supporting documents are available from the Guidelines and Standards Division, Environment Canada. The guidelines dated 1987 have been carried over from Canadian Water Qualify Guidelines (CCREM 1987) and no fact sheet was prepared. The guidelines dated 1989 to 1997 were developed and initially published in CCREM 1987 as appendixes on the date indicated. They are published as fact sheets in this document. Other guidelines dated 1997 and those dated 1999 are published for the first time in this document. Concentration of total aldicarb residue. No fact sheet created. The technical document for the guideline is available from the Ontario Ministry of the Environment. Interim guideline. During the initial development of this guideline, insufficient data were available to derive a livestock watering guideline value. Therefore, the Canadian drinking water quality guideline (Health and Welfare Canada 1987) was adopted. Since then, this value has been revised by Health Canada (1996). This revised drinking water quality guideline in now adopted as the guideline for livestock water. Guideline value slightly modified from CCREM 1987 + Appendixes due to re-evaluation of the significant figures. Guideline is crop-specific (see fact sheet). This guideline (originally published in Canadian Water Quality Guidelines [CCREM 1987]) is no longer recommended and the value is withdrawn. A water quality guideline is not recommended. Environmental exposure is predominantly via sediment, soil, and/or tissue, therefore, the reader is referred to the respective guidelines for these media. This substance meets the criteria for Track substances under (the national CCME Policy for the Management of Toxic Substances (PMTS) (i.e., persistent, bioaccumulative, primarily result of human activity, and CEPA-toxic or equivalent) and should be subject to virtual elimination strategies. Guidelines can serve as action levels or interim management objectives towards virtual elimination. Substance has been re-evaluated since CCREM 1987CAppendixes. Either a new guideline has been derived or insufficient data existed to derive a new guideline. Copper guideline Z500 mgL-1 for sheep, 1000 mg L-1 for cattle, 5000 mg L-1 for swine and poultry. Fluoride guideline = 1000 mg L-1 if feed contains fluoride. Molybdenum guideline = 50 mg L-1 for short-term use on acidic soils.

Source: From Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 2005, Canadian water quality guidelines for the protection of agricultural water uses: summary table, Updated October 2005. In: Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines, 1999, Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Winnipeg, ec.gc.ca/CEQC-RCQE.

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Table 8I.132 Tolerances of Livestock to Total Dissolved Solids (Salinity) in Drinking Water Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L)

Livestock

No Adverse Effects on Animals Expected

Animals May Have Initial Reluctance to Drink or There May Be Some Scouring, but Stock Should Adapt without Loss of Production

Beef cattle Dairy cattle Sheep Horses Pigs Poultry

0–4,000 0–2,500 0–5,000 0–4,000 0–4,000 0–2,000

4,000–5,000 2,500–4,000 5,000–10,000 4,000–6,000 4,000–6,000 2,000–3,000

a

Loss of Production and a Decline in Animal Condition and Health Would Be Expected. Stock may Tolerate These Levels for Short Periods if Introduced Gradually 5,000–10,000 4,000–7,000 10,000–13,000a 6,000–7,000 6,000–8,000 3,000–4,000

Sheep on lush green feed may tolerate up to 13,000 mg/L TDS without loss of condition or production.

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. 1. The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au. Original Source:

From ANZECC (1992), adapted to incorporate more recent information.

Table 8I.133 Recommended Water Quality Trigger Values (Low Risk) for Heavy Metals and Metalloids in Livestock Drinking Water Metal or Metalloid Aluminum Arsenic Beryllium Boron Cadmium Chromium Cobalt Copper

Fluoride Iron Lead Manganese Mercury Molybdenum Nickel Selenium Uranium Vanadium Zinc a b c

Trigger Value (low risk)a (mg/L) 5 0.5 up to 5c NDb 5 0.01 1 1 0.4 (sheep) 1 (cattle) 5 (pigs) 5 (poultry) 2 Not sufficiently toxic 0.1 Not sufficiently toxic 0.002 0.15 1 0.02 0.2 ND 20

Higher concentrations may be tolerated in some situations (details provided in Volume 3, Section 9.3.5). NDZnot determined, insufficient background data to calculate. May be tolerated if not provided as a food additive and natural levels in the diet are low.

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. I. The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

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Table 8I.134 Australian Trigger Values for Radioactive Contaminants in Livestock Drinking Water Radionuclide

Trigger Value (Bq/L)

Radium 226 Radium 228 Uranium 238 Gross alpha Gross beta (excluding K-40)

5 2 0.2 0.5 0.5

Source: From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. 1. The Guidelines, October 2000, www. deh.gov.au.

Table 8I.135 Australian Physico-Chemical Stressor Guidelines for the Protection of Aquaculture Species Recommended Guideline (mg/L) Measured Parameter

Freshwater Production

Saltwater Production

e

Alkalinity Biochemical oxygen demand (BODs) Chemical oxygen demand (COD) Carbon dioxide Color and appearance of water Dissolved oxygen Gas supersaturation Hardness (CaCO3) pH Salinity (total dissolved solids)

R20 !15a !40a !10 30–40b (Pt-Co units) O5c !100%f 20–100e 5.0–9.0 !3,000f

Suspended solids

!40

Temperature

!2.08C change over 1 hrd

Note: a b c d e f

O20c ND ND !15 30–40b (Pt-Co units) O5c !100%f NCf 6.0–9.0 33,000–37,000f (3,000–35,000 Brackish)f !10 (!75 Brackish) !2.08C change over 1 hrd

Unless noted, guidelines are based on professional judgements.

Schlotfeldt & Aldeman (1995). O’Connor pers. comm. Meade (1989). ANZECC (1992). DWAF (1996). Lawson (1995).

Source:

From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. 1. The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

Table 8I.136 Australian Toxicant Guidelines for the Protection of Acquaculture Species Guideline (mg/L) Measured Parameter Inorganic Toxicants (Heavy metals and others) Aluminum Ammonia (unionized) Arsenic Cadmium (varies with hardness) Chlorine Chromium Copper (varies with hardness) Cyanide

Freshwater Production

Saltwater Production

!30 (pHO6.5)a !10 (pH!6.5) !20 (pHO8.0) coldwaterb !30 warmwaterb !50a,b !0.2–1.8b !3a !20b !5b !5a

!10a !100 !30a,b !0.5–5a !3a !20 !5c !5a

(Continued)

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Table 8I.136

(Continued) Guideline (mg/L)

Measured Parameter Fluorides Hydrogen sulfide Iron Lead (varies with hardness) Magnesium Manganese Mercury Nickel Nitrate ðNOK 3Þ Nitrite ðNOK 2Þ Phosphates Selenium Silver Tributyltin (TBT) Total available nitrogen (TAN) Vanadium Zinc Organic Toxicants (nonpesticides) Detergents and surfactants Methane Oils and greases (including petrochemicals) Phenols and chlorinated phenols Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Pesticides 2,4-dichlorophenol Aldrin Azinphos-methyl Chlordane Chlorpyrifos DDT (including DDD & DDE) Demton Dieldrin Endosulfan Endrin Gunthion (see also Azinphos-methyl) Hexachlorobenzole Heptachlor Lindane Malathion Methoxychlor Mirex Paraquat Parathion Toxaphene Note: a b c d e f g h i j k

Freshwater Production d

Saltwater Production

!20 !1b !10a !1–7d !15,000a !10a,e !1 !100a !50,000f !100a,g !100b !10a !3a !0.026a !1,000a !100a !5a

ND !2 !10a !1–7d ND !10a,e !1 !100a !100,000c,g !100a,g !50 !10a !3a !0.01a !1,000a !100a !5a

!0.1h !65,000i,j !300f !0.6–1.7f !2a

ND !65,000i,j ND ND !2a

!4.0b !0.01b,c,h !0.01b !0.01k !0.001b !0.0015b !0.01k !0.005b !0.003b,k !0.002b !0.01k !0.00001f !0.005b !0.01k !0.1e,k !0.03k !0.001b,k ND 0.04k !0.002b

ND ND ND 0.004k ND ND ND ND 0.001k ND ND ND ND 0.004k ND ND ND !0.01 ND ND

ND, Not determined—insufficient information, NC, Not of concern; Unless noted, guidelines are based on professional judgements.

Meade (1989). DWAF (1996). Piliay (1990). Tebbutt (1972). Zweig et al. (1999). Schlotfeldt & Alderman (1995). Coche (1981). Langdon (1988). McKee & Wolf (1963). Boyd (1990). Lannan et al. (1986).

Source:

From Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000, National Water Quality Management Strategy, Paper No. 4, Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, vol. 1. The Guidelines, October 2000, www.deh.gov.au.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

8-189

SECTION 8J

WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

Table 8J.137 Common Water Quality Problems, Effects, and Treatment Probable Cause Hardness (Calcium and Magnesium)

Iron, Manganese, Copper, Zinc

Iron, Manganese, Sulfur Bacteria

Hydrogen Sulfide Gas

Turbidity

Acid Water (low pH)

Taste, Odor, Color (organic matter)

Tannins, Humic Acid

Coliform Bacteria, Cryptosporidium, Giardia Lamblia, Viruses Organic Halides (e.g., herbicides and pesticides)

General Effect Scales in pipes and water heaters; causes “soap curd” on fixtures, tiles, dishes and laundry; low sudsing characteristics Causes discolored water; red, brown, orange or black stains on fixtures, appliances and laundry; dark scale in pipes and water heaters Same general effects as above plus slimey deposits that form in pumps, pipes, softeners and toilet tanks Foul rotten-egg odor; corrosion to plumbing; tarnishes silver and stains fixtures and laundry; ruins the taste of foods and beverages Suspended matter in water; examples include mud, clay, silt and sand; can ruin seals and moving parts in appliances Corrosive water attacks piping and other metals; red and/or green staining of fixtures and laundry Makes water unpalatable; can cause staining Can impart an “iced-tea” color to water; causes light staining; can affect the taste of foods and beverages Can cause serious disease and intestinal disorders Can cause serious disease and/or poisoning

Nitrates, Chlorides and Sulfates

Can cause health-related problems if quantities are high

Sodium Salts

Imparts an alkaline or soda taste to water

Arsenica

Can cause health-related problems; Known carcinogen

Radionuclidesb

Can cause health-related problems

Synthetic Organic Compoundsa

Can cause health-related problems

a b

Probable Remedy Removal by ion exchange softener

Low level (2 ppm) removal by ion exchange softener when hardness is also present; best removed by oxidizing iron filter, aeration and/or chlorination followed by filtration in some cases Low level removal possible by oxidizing iron filter; best removed by disinfection followed by filtration Best removed by aeration, scrubbing and filtration; also removed by oxidizing filters or chlorination followed by filtration Removal by backwashing sediment filters; extra fine treatment utilizing sediment cartridge elements Best corrected by neutralizing filters or soda ash feeding Depending on the nature of contaminant, aeration followed by filtration; carbon filtration; oxidation followed by filtration Removal by special ion exchange or oxidizing agents and filtration Disinfection and filtration is most widely practiced Most are readily removed by absorption with carbon filters; some can also be removed by hydrolysis and oxidation Removal by special ion exchange, deionization process or reverse osmosis Removal by deionization process or reverse osmosis, distillation can be used Removal using conventional coagulation with iron or aluminum salts followed by filtration; may also be removed by adsorption onto activated alumina or by ion exchange Best Available Technology (BAT) identified for removal include ion exchange, reverse osmosis, lime softening, and conventional coagulation followed by filtration Removal using aeration, air stripping for volatile organic compounds; removal using granular activated carbon adsorption or chemical oxidation for volatile or non-volatile compounds

J.M. Montgomery Consulting Engineers, Inc., 1985, Water Treatment Principles and Design, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. USEPA, 2005, A Regulator’s Guide to the Management of Radioactive Residuals from Drinking Water Treatment Technologies, EPA 816-R-05-004, July 2005

Source: From Chandler, J., A comprehensive look at water treatment, Water Well Journal, May 1988. Copyright Water Well Publ. Co. Reprinted with permission. Amended. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Type or Process

Common Application

Approximate Limit of Quality Input

Principal Change in Quality Factors (Approximate)

8-190

Table 8J.138 Summary of Conventional Processes and Systems for Water Quality Control

Gravity Separation No theoretical limit: 3,000–5,000 mg/L typical maximum in flood waters Unspecified

Secondary sewage treatment Concentrating return activated sludge (secondary treatment) Concentrating or reducing suspended solids in industrial wastes, organic and inorganic Grit removal-raw sewage

Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified

Highly dependent upon nature of waste treated

Unspecified

Plain sedimentation plus skimming

Primary sewage treatment

Unspecified

Trickling filter plus plain sedimentation

Various industrial wastes Secondary sewage treatment

Unspecified 0.25-3.0 Ib BOD/cu yd/filter

Dependent upon waste treated

Activated sludge plus plain sedimentation

Organic industrial wastes (e.g., milk process) Secondary sewage treatment

Removes heavy suspended solids not transported at velocity of 1 ft/sec 25–40% reduction in BOD 40–70% reduction in suspended solids 25–75% reduction in bacteria 2% reduction in detergents Dependent upon nature of waste 80–95% reduction in BOD 70–92% reduction in suspended solids 90–95% reduction in bacteria 30–35% reduction in ABS 80–90% reduction in LAS Dependent upon nature of waste

Plain sedimentation

Sedimentation after mechanical flocculation Raw sewage (experimentally)

Industrial wastes Sedimentation after chemical coagulation

Unspecified

Unspecified

Municipal and industrial water supply water Unspecified softening Raw sewage (not common) Unspecified

Industrial wastes

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Unspecified

Dependent upon waste

Removes larger and heavier suspended solids 50% reduction in suspended solids 35–40% reduction in BOD 50% reduction in turbidity Unreported Thickens sludge to 20–25% original volume

80–95% reduction in BOD 85–95% reduction in suspended solids 95–98% reduction in bacteria 50% reduction in BAS 90–99% reduction in LAS 64% reduction in turbidity 40% reduction in suspended solids 60% reduction in BOD Variable, depending upon nature of wastes treated Seldom evaluated separate from filtration 50–85% reduction in BOD 70–90% reduction in suspended solids 40–80% reduction in bacteria Variable, dependent upon nature of waste

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Reduction in suspended solids in raw water to be pumped Primary sewage treatment

Municipal water supply

Unspecified

Phosphate removal from waste waters

Unspecified

Lime-soda softening of water supplies

Applicable to waters containing Ca and Mg sulfates and bicarbonates; Iron and Mg in natural waters (e.g. maximum from 10 mg/L; minimum, 3 mg/L)

Coalesces and precipitates dispersed clay colloids Reduces turbidity Reduces color Reduces soluble phosphates to trace amounts Reduces hardness to approximately 75 mg/L; by excess lime to 30–50 mg/L; by hot process to !10 mg/L as CaCO3 Reduces Fe to 0.1 mg/L (G) Removes CO2—requiring restabilization 80–100% reduction in bacteria by excess lime

WATER QUALITY

Chemical coagulation plus sedimentation

Filtration Slow sand (gravity)

Tertiary treatment of sewage effluent Water reclamation systems

Relatively low turbidity

Municipal water supply

Turbidity 40 mg/L

Industrial wastes Municipal and industrial water supply (little used without coagulation) Municipal and industrial water supply

Unspecified Low turbidity, e.g., 50 mg/L, maximum coliform MPN 5,000/100 mL No limit specified for maximum turbidity Maximum coliform MPN 5,000– 20,000/100 mL

Rapid sand plus chemical coagulation, chlorination, and activated carbon

Municipal and industrial water supply

No limit specified for maximum turbidity Maximum coliform MPN 5,000– 20,000/100 mL

Rapid sand (pressure) (precoat with chemical floc)

Small municipal supplies Institutional water supply Swimming pools Industrial supply and process Emergency and military use

Generally unspecified Low turbidity desirable

Rapid sand (gravity) Rapid sand plus chemical coagulation (gravity)

90–95% reduction in BOD 85–95% reduction in suspended solids 95–98% reduction in bacteria 90–99% reduction in surfactants 99% reduction in bacteria 95–100% reduction in turbidity 30% reduction in color Odors and tastes removed 60% reduction in iron Varies with nature of waste 95% reduction in bacteria 90% reduction in turbidity 90–99% reduction in bacteria 100% (K) reduction in turbidity Color reduction to less than 5 mg/L Alkali increased 7.7 mg/L/gr. alum CO2 increased 6.8 mg/L/gr. alum Slight reduction in iron Odor and taste partially removed Approximately 100% reduction in bacteria 100% reduction in turbidity Color reduced to near zero Iron and Mn reduced Taste and odor removed Similar to rapid sand filter but more variable in performance

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-191

(Continued)

(Continued)

Type or Process

Common Application

Approximate Limit of Quality Input

Principal Change in Quality Factors (Approximate)

8-192

Table 8J.138

Filtration (Continued) Diatomaceous earth (pressure and vacuum)

Contact filters Bag filters

Microstraining

None specified, but operation depends upon nature of water

Unspecified

Primary clarification of water prior to filtration Clarification of sewage effluents

Size of particles to be removed greater than screen size Material suitable for microstraining

None specified

Treatment of industrial wastes

Fine screening

Carbon filters

Raw sewage

None specified

Industrial wastes (e.g., cannery, pulp mill, etc.) Special municipal and industrial water applications

None specified Very low turbidity, other not specified

Capable of good clarification of water; efficiency, however, not well documented 40–90% reduction in suspended solids 50% reduction in color Reduces to USPHS Standards 88% reduction in iron Strains out hair and coarser suspended solids, reduces bacteria to level controllable by chlorination practice 87–96% reduction in microscopic organisms 60–90% reduction in microscopic particulates 50–60% reduction in suspended solids trickling filter effluent 30–40% reduction on turbidity 5–10% reduction in BOD 2–20% reduction on suspended solids 10–20% reduction in bacteria Varies with nature of waste Adsorbs exotic organic chemicals, including surfactants Removes tastes and odors Adsorbs miscellaneous gases

Aeration Spray or cascade

Municipal and industrial water supply Industrial waste treatment

Pressure aerators

Treatment of sewage and industrial wastes Limits variable or unspecified

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Unspecified

Releases gases producing taste and odor Reduces CO2 in groundwaters to normal surface water levels Partial removal of H2S Partial removal of gases of decomposition Oxidation and removal of soluble iron in groundwaters; 80–97% reduction observed Grit precipitated Grease concentrated at surface Separates various solids by flotation Maintains aerobic conditions in biological systems, e.g., activated sludge, aerated ponds Reduces ABS or LAS 1–2 mg/L Reduces septicity of sewage

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Small municipal supplies Institutional water supply Swimming pools Industrial supply and process Emergency and military use Manganese removal Iron removal Swimming pools

Oxidation ponds

Treatment of domestic sewage and organic No toxic substances industrial wastes

75–96% reduction in BOD 90–99% reduction in suspended solids 98–99.9% reduction in bacteria 56–93% reduction in LAS

Deminerlization Ion exchange (natural or synthetic zeolite)

Softening of groundwater supplies for municipal or industrial use

Ion exchange (greensand or styrene base gels) Ion exchange (organic cation exchangers)

Iron or Mn removal from groundwater

Ion exchange (anion exchangers) Ion exchange (fluoride exchangers) Electrochemical desalting

Reverse osmosis

Distillation

Freezing

Hardness (Ca and Mg sulfates and bicarbonates) of natural waters O850– 1,000 mg/L CaCO3 Iron !1.5–2 mg/L Low in silica CO2!15 mg/L Iron less than approximately 2.0 mg/L

Special water conditioning for industry and Unspecified commerce Special water conditioning for industry and Unspecified commerce Defluoridation of public water supply More than 1.5 mg/L F in water supply Reclaiming water from saline sources, Applicable to highly saline or brackish public and industrial supplies waters Demineralizing municipal waste effluents Reclamation of water from brackish natural Brackish waters, upper limit not specified or waste waters (experimental)

Reclamation of water from saline sources Specialty industrial and commercial supplies Reclamation of water from saline sources Specialty industrial and commercial supplies

No limit

No limit

WATER QUALITY

Aeration (Continued)

Increases sodium content by exchange with removed Ca and Mg

90–100% removal of iron Mn partially removed Removes all cations (Na, K, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn) Removes SO4, Cl, NO3, etc. Approximately 100% removal possible Normally reduced to !1.5 mg/L Removes anions and cations

Reduces ions depending upon concentration difference across membrane 97–98% reduction in TDS, ABS, and COD Produces distilled water (may be contamination with NH3, volatile organics, etc.) (Experimental)

Disinfection (Continued)

8-193

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(Continued)

Type or Process Liquid Cl2 and Cl2 Compounds such as chlorine dioxide and chloraminesa

Common Application

Approximate Limit of Quality Input

Public water supply Industrial water supply

Turbidity low for waters to be sterilized by CI2 Total organic carbon (TOC) concentration !2 mg/L to minimize disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation

Principal Change in Quality Factors (Approximate)

8-194

Table 8J.138

Reduces bacterial load on filters Oxidizes organic matter Reduces odor Assists in color removal 100% (—) reduction in bacteria Controls plankton growth in reservoirs Reduces Mn concentration in breakpoint

Disinfection (Continued) Unspecified

Ozonea

Public water supply

Bromide concentrations less than 0.1 mg/L to minimize potential for bromate formation

Utraviolet Radiationa

Small public water supply

Low turbidity

Assists in grease removal Controls filter fly nuisance Cleans air stones in aeration systems Removes H2S Removes NH3 Controls slime formation in sewers and cooling towers Assists in control of digester foaming Disinfects effluent; 98–99% reduction in bacteria Oxidizes organics Microbial inactivation including coliform, giardia, cryptosporidium, and viruses Reduces odor Removes color Microbial inactivation including coliform and viruses Some organic oxidation

Digestion Anaerobic digestion

a

Stabilization of sewage solids Stabilization of organic industrial wastes

pH above 6.8 Acids limited No toxic substances in significant amounts Minimum of grit

USEPA, 1999, Alternative Disinfectants and Oxidants Guidance Manual, EPA 815-R-99-014, April 1999.

Source: From McGauhey, Engineeering Management of Water Quality, McGraw-Hill, Copyright 1968. Amended.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Reduces organic sludges to humus and relatively stable chemical compounds Produces offensive supernatant

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Municipal and industrial waste-water treatment and management.

Conventional Processes

Parameter Aldrin Antimony Arsenic Asbestos Barium Boron Cadmium Chlordane Chloride Chromium Color Copper Cyanide 2,4-D DDT Diazinon Dieldrin Endrin Fluoride Heptachlor Heptachlor Epoxide Iron Lead Lindane Manganese Mercury Methoxychlor Methyl Parathion Nitrate NTA Odor Parathion Ph Phenol Radionuclides 226 Ra 90 Sr 137 Cs 131 l Selenium Silver Sulphate Sulphide 2,4,5-TP

Aeration

Chemical Oxidation (Chlorination, etc.)

P A

P

Activated Carbon Absorption Coagulation Flocculation P X L–G G–VG P X L–G L G VG F–G

A VG P P

Lime Softening

G–VG G–VG

A A G A

PAC

GAC

G

VG X

VG A A A

P

P

A

VG VG

G

P

G–VG

VG

VG X

VG G–VG

P VG P–VG

A G

G–VG P L–G G G

F

F–VG P

Comments

Valencies important

VG X

VG X

Valencies important VG

G–VG

X X X(L) G–VG VG

VG VG

X(VG) X

G

X G–VG

VG VG X

VG VG X

A

A VG G F–G G–VG

P A P

P A

P P

G–VG G–VG P L P–F G–VG

P P–G F–G F–VG

Ozone

pH important

VG A P A A A

P L G

G–VG

G–VG

VG X VG Form important X

F A

Ion Exchange

VG

P P G–VG P–L VG

A

Air Stripping

Demineralizing (Reverse Osmosis, etc.)

VG P L–VG

A P A

Filtration

VG L

P–L L

A

Special Processes

WATER QUALITY

Table 8J.139 Potential Water Treatment Efficiences

A

F–VG

VG VG

VG L–VG

G–VG VG G–VG

G–VG

X

G–VG

A A P–F

VG

A A

P

VG VG F–G X G–VG

G–VG G–VG VG X X G–VG

Valencies important

F–VG X(F)

X(G)

pH important

X(G–VG)

(Continued) 8-195

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(Continued) Conventional Processes

Parameter

Aeration

Chemical Oxidation (Chlorination, etc.)

T. Dissolved Solids Toxaphene Trihalomethanes Turbidity Uranium Zinc

Note:

8-196

Table 8J.139

Special Processes Activated Carbon Absorption

Coagulation Flocculation

Lime Softening

Filtration

PAC

GAC

Air Stripping

Demineralizing (Reverse Osmosis, etc.) G–VG

P

P

G–VG L–G P

VG

F–G F–G

A A A

X(VG) F–G

P

Ion Exchange

Ozone

Comments

G–VG

X F–G

Process generated VG

VG, 90–100% removal; G, 70–90% removal; F, 50–70% removal; L, 25–50% removal; P, 0.25% removal; A, auxiliary process; X, possible candidate process (data lacking); PAC, Powdered activated carbon; GAC, Granular activated carbon. Treatment based on available full-scale, pilot or bench studies and should only be used as potential indicators. Treatabilty studies and/or site experience should be assessed for specific applications.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Source: From Canadian Council of Resource and Environment Ministers, March 1987. Canadian Water Quality Guidelines. Data provided by McDonald & Associates Consulting Engineers, Regina, Saskatchewan.

WATER QUALITY

8-197

Table 8J.140 Treatment Technology Removal Effectiveness Reported for Organic Contaminants (Percent) Contaminant Acrylamide Aidicarb Alactior Benzene Carbofuren Carbon tetrachloride Chlordane Chlorobenzene 2,4-D 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,2-Dichloropropane Dibroinochloropropane Dichlorobenzene o-Dichlorobenzene p-Dichlorobenzene 1,1-Dichloroethylene cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene Trans-1,2-Dichloroelhylene Epichlorohydrin Ethylbenzene Ethylene dibromide Heptachlor Heptachlor epoxide High molecular weight Hydrocarbons (gasoline, dyes, amines, humics) Lindane Methoxychlor Monochlorobenzene Natural organic material PCBs Phenol and chlorophenol Pentachlorophenol Styrene Tetrachloroethylene Trichloroethane Trichlorethane 1,1,1-Trichloroethane Toluene 2,4,5-TP Toxaphene Vinyl chloride Xylenes Note: a

Coagulation/ Filtration

GAC

PCA

PAC

Dilfused Aeration

Oxidationa

Reverse Osmosis

5 NA 0–49 0–29 54–79 0–29 NA 0–29 0–29 0–29 0–29 0–29 NA 0–29 0–29 0–29 0–29 0–29 NA 0–29 0–29 64 NA NA

NA NA 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 NA 70–100 70–100 70–100 NA W

0–29 0–29 70–100 70–100 0–29 70–100 0–29 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 30–69 NA 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 0–29 70–100 70–100 70–100 NA NA

13 NA 36–100 NA 45–75 0–25 NA NA 69–100 NA NA NA NA 38–95 NA NA NA NA NA 33–99 NA 53–97 NA NA

NA NA NA NA 11–20 NA NA NA NA 42–77 12–79 NA NA 14–72 NA 97 32–85 37–96 NA 24–89 NA NA NA NA

NA NA 70–100 70–100 70–100 0–29 NA 30–69 W 0–29 0–29 0–29 NA 30–88 30–69 70–100 70–100 70–100 0–29 70–100 0–29 70–100 25 NA

0–97 94–99 70–100 0–29 70–100 70–100 NA 70–100 0–65 15–70 10–100 NA NA 30–69 0–10 NA 0–30 0–30 NA 0–30 37–100 NA NA NA

0–29 NA NA P NA NA NA 0–29 NA 0–29 NA 0–29 0–29 63 0–29 0–29 0–29

70–100 70–100 NA P 70–100 W 70–100 NA 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100 70–100

0–29 NA NA NA 70–100 NA 0 NA NA 70–100 NA 70–100 70–100 NA 70–100 70–100 70–100

82–97 NA 14–99 P NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 40–65 0–67 82–99 40–99 NA 60–99

NA NA 14–85 NA NA NA NA NA 73–95 53–95 NA 58–90 22–89 NA NA NA 18–89

0–100 NA 86–98 W NA W 70–100 70–100 W 30–69 NA 0–29 70–100 30–69 NA 70–100 70–100

50–75 O90 50–100 P 95 NA NA NA 70–90 0–100 NA 15–100 NA NA NA NA 10–85

W, well removed; P, poorly removed; NA, not available. Little or no specific performance data were available for: 1. Multiple Tray Aeration; 2. Catenary Aeration; 3. Higee Aeration; 4. Resins; 5. Ultrafiltration; 6. Mechanical Aeration.

The specifics of the oxidation processes effective in removing each contaminant are provided in Chapter 8 of the USEPA report.

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1990, Technologies for Upgrading Existing or Designing New Drinking Water Treatment Facilities, EPA/625/4-89/023, March 1990, http://nepis.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-198

Table 8J.141 Removal Effectiveness for Inorganic Contaminant Contaminant Treatment

V

III

VI

Ag

As

As

AS

Ba

Cd

Cr

Cr

Cr

F

Hg

Hg(0)

HgIII

NO3

Pb

Ra

Rn

Se

Se(V)

Se(II)

U

H

—

M

H

L

H

—

H

H

L

—

M

M

L

H

L

—

—

M

L

M

H

—

—

H

—

M

—

H

—

—

M

—

—

—

H

—

—

—

—

—

—

M — H

— — —

— M M

H H H

— H H

— H H

— — H

H H —

H L —

— M H

— — H

— L —

— M —

— L M

— H H

— H H

— — —

— — H

— M —

— L —

— H H

— — — L

L — — —

— — H —

— — — —

H M L L

H M L M

— — — —

H M — L

L H — —

L — H L

— — — —

— — — M

— — — M

L H — L

H M — —

H M L L

— — — —

L H H —

— — — —

— — — —

H H — —

—

—

—

—

L

M

—

L

—

L

—

H

H

L

—

L

H

—

—

—

—

Note: H, HighR80% removal; M, Medium 20–80% removal; L, Low %20% removal; “—“, indicate no data were provided. Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1990, Technologies for Upgrading Existing or Designing New Drinking Water Treatment Facilities, EPA/625/4-89/023, March 1990, http://nepis.epa.gov.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Conventional treatment Coagulationaluminum Coagulation-Iron Lime softening Reverse osmosis and electrodialysis Cation exchange Anion exchange Activated alumina Powdered activated carbon Granular activated carbon

III

WATER QUALITY

8-199

Table 8J.142 Arsenic Treatment Technologies Summary Comparison Sorption Processes Ion Exchange IX

Factors USEPA BATb USEPA SSCTb System Sizeb,d SSCT for POUb POU System Sizeb,d Removal Efficiency Total Water Loss Pre-Oxidation Requiredf Optimal Water Quality Conditions

Yes Yes 25–10,000 No — 95%e 1–2% Yes pH 6.5–9 e i !5 mg/L NOK 3 2 j !50 mg/L SO4 !500 mg/L TDS k !0.3 NTU Turbidity

Operator Skill Required Waste Generated

High Spent Resin, Spent Brine, Backwash Water Possible pre & post pH adjustment. Pre-filtration required Potentially hazardous brine waste, Nitrate peaking Carbonate peaking affects pH Medium —

Other Considerations

Centralized Cost POU Cost

Membrane Processes

a

Activated Alumina AA

Iron Based Sorbents IBS

Reverse Osmosis RO

Yes Yes 25–10,000 Yes 25–10,000 95%e 1–2% Yes pH 5.5–6 i pH 6–8.3 l !250 mg/L ClK i !2 mg/L FK i k !360 mg/L SO2K 4 !30 mg/L Silicam !0.5 mg/L FeC3 j !0.05 mg/L MnC2 I !1,000 mg/L TDSk !4 mg/L TOCk !0.3 NTU Turbidity Lowa Spent Media, Backwash Water

Noc Noc 25–10,000 Noc 25–10,000 up to 98%e 1–2% Yesg pH 6–8.5 n !1 mg/L POK3 4 !0.3 NTU Turbidity

Yes Yes 501–10,000 Yes 25–10,000 O95%e 15–75% Likelyh No Particulates

Low Spent Media, Backwash Water

Medium Reject Water

Possible pre & post pH adjustment Pre-filtration may be required Modified AA available

Media may be very expensiveo Pre-filtration may be required

High water loss (15–75% of feed water)

Medium Medium

Medium Medium

High Medium

Precipitative Processes

Factors USEPA BATb USEPA SSCTb System Sizeb,d SSCT for POUb POU System Sizeb,d Removal Efficiency Total Water Loss Pre-Oxidation Requiredf Optimal Water Quality Conditions Operator Skill Required

Enhanced Lime Softening LS Yes No 25–10,000 No — 90%

p

0% Yes pH 10.5–11 i O5 mg/L FeC3 High

Enhanced (Conventional) Coagulation Filtration CF

Coagulation Assisted MicroFiltration CMF

Yes No 25–10,000 No —

No Yes 500–10,000 No —

95% (w/FeCl3)p !90%(w/Alum)p 0% Yes

90%

pH 5.5–8.5

q

p

5% Yes pH 5.5–8.5

q

CoagulationAssisted Direct Filtration CADF Yes Yes 500–10,000 No —

Yes Yes 25–10,000 No —

90%p

50–90%p

1–2% Yes

1–2% Yes

pH 5.5–8.5

i

High

High

Oxidation Filtration OxFilt

High

q

pH 5.5–8.5 !0.3 mg/L Fe Fe:As Ratio O20:1 Medium (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-200

Table 8J.142

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Precipitative Processes

Factors Waste Generated

Other Considerations Centralized Cost POU Cost a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r

Enhanced Lime Softening LS Backwash Water, Sludge (high volume) Treated water requires pH adjustment Lowr N/A

Enhanced (Conventional) Coagulation Filtration CF

Coagulation Assisted MicroFiltration CMF

CoagulationAssisted Direct Filtration CADF

Backwash Water, Sludge

Backwash Water, Sludge

Backwash Water, Sludge

Oxidation Filtration OxFilt Backwash Water, Sludge

Possible pre & post Possible pre & post Possible pre & post pH adjustment pH adjustment pH adjustment

None

Lowr N/A

Medium N/A

High N/A

Medium N/A

Activated alumina is assumed to operate in a nonregenerated mode. USEPA 2002a. IBS’s track record in U.S. was not established enough to be considered as Best Available Technology (BAT) or Small System Compliance Technology (SSCT) at the time the rule was promulgated. Affordable for systems with the given number of people served. USEPA, 2000. Pre-oxidation only required for As(III). Some iron based sorbents may catalyze the As(III) to As(V) oxidation and therefore would not require a pre-oxidation step. RO will remove As(III), but its efficiency is not consistent and pre-oxidation will increase removal efficiency. AwwaRF, 2002. Kempic, 2002. Wang, 2000. AA can be used economically at higher pHs, but with a significant decrease in the capacity of the media. Clifford, 2001. Tumalo, 2002. With increased domestic use, IBS cost will significantly decrease. Depends on arsenic and iron concentrations. Fields, et al., 2002a. Cost for enhanced LS and enhanced CF are based on modification of an existing technology. Most small systems will not have this technology in place.

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2003, Arsenic Treatment Technology Evaluation Handbook for Small Systems, EPA-816-R-03-014, July 2003, www.epa.gov.

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Table 8J.143 Treatment Utilized by Major Water Utilites in the United States in 1996

(Continued)

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Table 8J.143 (Continued)

(Continued)

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(Continued)

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Table 8J.143 (Continued)

(Continued)

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(Continued)

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Table 8J.143 (Continued)

(Continued)

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(Continued)

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Table 8J.143 (Continued)

(Continued)

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Table 8J.143 (Continued)

(Continued)

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Table 8J.143 (Continued)

(Continued)

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Table 8J.143 (Continued)

(Continued)

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Table 8J.143 (Continued)

Note:

Selected utilities serving a population of 100,000 or more.

Source: Adapted from water:\Stats: 1996 Survey, by permission. Copyright q 2000, American Water Works Associations. (Updated information available electronically from AWWA at 800-926-7337), www.awwa.org.

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Table 8J.144 Water Treatment Processes Considered for Best Available Technology Conventional Processes Coagulation, sedimentation, filtration Direct filtration Diatomaceous earth filtration Slow sand filtration Lime softening Ion exchange Oxidation-disinfection Chlorination Chorine dioxide Chloramines Ozone Bromine Others

Advanced Processes Activated alumina Adsorption GAC Powdered activated carbon Resins Aeration Packed column Diffused air Spray Slat tray Mechanical Cartridge filtration Electrodialysis Reverse osmosis Ultrafiltration Ultraviolet light (UV) UV with other oxidants

Source: From Dyksen, J.E., Hiltebrand, D.J., and Raczko. R.F., 1988, SDWA amendments: effects on the water industry. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., vol. 80, no. 1. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission.

Table 8J.145 Chemicals Used for Treatment by Public WaterSupply Systems in the United States and Canada Chemical Quick lime Aluminum sulfate Chlorine Hydrated lime Caustic soda Carbon dioxide Soda ash Ferrous sulfate Powdered activated carbon Ferric sulfate Sodium silicofluoride Polyelectrolytes Ammonia Phosphate Copper sulfate Granular activated carbon Potassium permanganate Sodium aluminate Hypochlorites Sodium chloride Clays Note:

Total Use Tons 330,988 188,986 79,034 44,679 39,030 18,111 13,750 10,590 9,016 7,956 7,903 5,915 5,232 3,970 2,825 2,587 1,231 1,129 1,112 828 133

Based on data from 430 of the largest U.S. utilities and 24 of the 75 largest Canadian utilities. Source: From American Water Works Association, 1988. Grigg, N.S., 1984 Water Utility Operating Data, Summary Report. Reprinted with permission.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8J.146 Costs of Some Water Treatment Technologies Population Range

Type of Treatment

501–1,000 50,001–75,000 O1,000,000

Cost per Family per Year

conventional coagulation filtration and disinfection to control microbial contaminants corrosion control (stabilization with lime) to control lead and other corrosion products packed tower aeration to control organic chemicals

501–1,000 50,001–75,000 O1,000,000 501–1,000 50,000–75,000 O1,000,000 501–1,000 50,001–75,000 O1,000,000

$125 $ 50 $ 25 $ 60 $ 15 !$ 10 $ 55 $ 28 $ 20 $190 $130 $ 40

granular activated carbon to control synthetic organic chemicals

Note:

Basic Assumptions: 3.2 persons per household; each person using 180 gallons per day; total cost per household including operation, maintenance and amortization of capital at 10 percent per year for 20 years. Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; League of Women Voters Education Fund, 1987, Safety on Tap. Reprinted with permission.

Table 8J.147 Cost of Treating Contaminated Groundwater (Portable Treatment Systems, 1987) Cost (dollars/unita)

Unit type In situ biological treatment (suspended growth reactor) Rotating biodisks Trickling filter Activated sludge Packed towers Aeration basins Carbon adsorption Ultraviolet/hydrogen peroxide Belt press Mixing tangs (including chemicals) Equalization tanks Clarifiers Solidification of solids in situ Note: a

$15–40/cu yd, treated 0.20–1.10 0.08–0.15 0.10–0.30 0.02–0.10 0.02–0.08 0.20–0.90 0.04–0.18 0.01–0.05 0.03–0.29 0.005–0.01 0.008–0.06 0.20–1.00

Portable treatment systems — 1987.

All costs per 1,000 gal except as noted.

Source: From Estimated by Geraghty & Miller Inc Oak Ridge, TN.

Table 8J.148 Treatment Costs for Removal of Trichloroethylene from Drinking Water [US Dollars; Cost Data as of 1984] Treatment Technique GAC absorptiona

Packed-Tower Aerationb System Size

c

Cost Component d

Capital (Thousand$) Annual O&M (Thousand $) Total (¢ per 1,000 gal) Note: a b c d

0.037 mgd

0.95 mgd

36.8 mgd

0.037 mgd

0.95 mgd

36.8 mgd

24 4.5 57.0

240 86 34.0

9,000 710 14.0

69 1.4 79.0

264 18 15.5

4,789 617 9.4

Raw water concentration 500 ug/L; assuming 99-percent removal.

Based on 10-min empty bad contact time. Does not include air pollution controls. USEPA estimates in August 1983 dollars. Includes site work, engineering, contractor overhead and profit, and contingencies.

Source: From American Water Works Association, 1988, New Dimensions in Safe Drinking Water. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

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Table 8J.149 Cost of Removal of Volatile Organic Chemicals in Drinking Water Capacitya

Contaminant (1) Trichloroethylene

Millions of Gallons per Day (2) 0.5

1

10

Tetrachloroethylene

0.5

1

10

1.1.1-Trichloroethane

0.5

1

10

Carbon tetrachloride

0.5

1

10

Cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene

0.5

1

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Cost (Dollars per Thousand Gallons)b

mg/L (3)

Percent Removal (4)

Tower (5)

Aeration Basin (6)

100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1

90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99

0.273 0.287 0.296 0.303 0.182 0.191 0.196 0.202 0.083 0.088 0.093 0.099 0.279 0.293 0.302 0.308 0.186 0.194 0.201 0.206 0.085 0.091 0.098 0.103 0.270 0.289 0.307 0.332 0.180 0.192 0.205 0.230 0.082 0.089 0.102 0.122 0.264 0.287 0.272 0.280 0.176 0.181 0.184 0.186 0.081 0.683 0.084 0.085 0.284 0.296 0.304 0.310 0.189 0.196 0.202 0.206

0.546 0.793 1.032 1.270 0.383 0.611 0.850 1.088 0.207 0.403 0.587 0.755 0.637 0.935 1.228 1.486 0.460 1.752 1.046 1.296 0.277 0.514 0.726 0.905 0.502 0.825 1.421 2.572 0.348 0.644 1.234 2.313 0.176 0.430 0.860 1.821 0.428 0.531 0.600 0.648 0.292 0.371 0.427 0.470 0.133 0.196 0.247 0.286 0.727 1.010 1.281 1.572 0.547 0.828 1.098 1.379

Carbon Adsorption (7) 0.868 0.918 1.010 1.124 0.637 0.679 0.765 0.867 0.356 0.390 0.458 0.543 0.610 0.660 0.705 0.805 0.453 0.502 0.548 0.651 0.197 0.224 0.251 0.313 1.445 1.651 1.945 2.605 1.396 1.500 1.801 2.402 0.802 0.973 1.229 1.818 0.942 1.021 1.132 1.340 0.703 0.775 0.940 1.063 0.408 0.467 0.550 0.719 2.513 2.791 3.153 3.511 2.156 2.417 2.760 3.099 (Continued)

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Table 8J.149

(Continued) Capacitya

Contaminant (1)

Millions of Gallons per Day (2) 10

1,2-Dichloroethane

0.5

1

10

1,1-Dichlorethylene

0.5

1

10

Note: a b

Cost (Dollars per Thousand Gallons)b

mg/L (3)

Percent Removal (4)

Tower (5)

Aeration Basin (6)

Carbon Adsorption (7)

100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 0.1

90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99 90 99 99.9 99.99

0.087 0.093 0.099 0.104 0.276 0.285 0.292 0.297 0.184 0.190 0.194 0.197 0.084 0.087 0.090 0.094 0.262 0.265 0.270 0.272 0.174 0.177 0.180 0.181 0.080 0.081 0.082 0.083

0.350 0.571 0.763 0.966 0.587 0.749 0.901 1.054 0.415 0.568 0.720 0.871 0.237 0.368 0.489 0.603 0.406 0.448 0.500 0.531 0.274 0.307 0.348 0.371 0.121 0.144 0.176 0.196

1.735 1.989 2.327 2.660 1.286 1.465 1.748 2.322 1.015 1.177 1.437 2.980 0.675 0.820 1.057 1.566 0.880 0.963 1.066 1.243 0.647 0.721 0.814 0.977 0.364 0.423 0.499 0.640

US dollars; cost data as of 1984.

To convert from mgd to m3/day, multiply by 3,785. To convert from dollars/1,000 gal to dollars/m3 multiply by 0.26412.

Source: From Clark, R.M., Eilers, R.G., and Goodrich, J.A., 1984, VOC’s in Drinking Water: Cost of Removal, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH 45268; PB85-166429.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

Table 8J.150 Cost of Removal of MTBE from Drinking Water for Various Treatment Systems Air Stripping Flow (gpm) 60

600

6,000

Note: a

Influent (mg/L)

Effluent (mg/L)

Removal (%)

20 20 200 200 200 2,000 2,000 2,000 20 20 200 200 200 2,000 2,000 2,000 20 20 200 200 200 2,000 2,000 2,000

5 0.5 20 5 0.5 20 5 0.5 5 0.5 20 5 0.5 20 5 0.5 5 0.5 20 5 0.5 20 5 0.5

75.00 97.50 90.00 97.50 99.75 99.00 99.75 99.98 75.00 97.50 90.00 97.50 99.75 99.00 99.75 99.98 75.00 97.50 90.00 97.50 99.75 99.00 99.75 99.98

AOPs

Packed Tower

Low Profile

Packed Tower w/OGT

H2O2/ MP-UV

O3/H2O2

GAC

Resin Sorption

Lowest Unit Cost Amongst the Technologies Evaluated

$1.66 $1.75 $1.66 $1.75 $1.82 $1.79a $1.82a NE $0.30 $0.34 $0.32a $0.34a $0.37a $0.36a $0.37a NE $0.13a $0.16a $0.15a $0.16a $0.17a $0.17a $0.18a NE

NE $1.86 $1.70 $1.80 $1.89 $1.90 $2.02 NE $0.78 $0.92 $0.85 $0.96 $1.09 $0.96 $1.09 NE $0.34 $0.48 $0.41 $0.48 $0.64 NE NE NE

NR NR NR NR NR $3.08 $3.20 NE NR NR $0.57 $0.59 $0.62 $0.90 $0.91 NE $0.36 $0.39 $0.38 $0.39 $0.40 NE NE NE

$2.18 $2.50 $2.32 $2.50 $2.72 $3.07 $3.47 $4.11 $0.57 $0.91 $0.71 $0.96 $1.27 $1.52 $1.75 $2.08 $0.32 $0.52 $0.42 $0.60 $0.74 $0.65 $1.24 $1.59

$2.63 $2.68 $2.65 $2.68 $2.98 $3.29 $3.31 $3.62 $0.82 $0.90 $0.84 $0.90 $0.95 $1.07 $1.13 $1.19 $0.35 $0.43 $0.37 $0.43 $0.48 $0.56 $0.59 $0.68

NE $2.30 NE NE $3.10 NE NE $4.61 NE $0.77 NE NE $1.15 NE NE $2.37 NE $0.50 NE NE $0.97 NE NE $2.22

$2.50 $2.81 $4.16 $4.16 $4.16 $4.56 $4.57 $4.57 $1.01 $1.01 $1.16 $1.17 $1.17 $1.32 $1.36 $1.38 $0.30 $0.36 $0.39 $0.41 $0.41 $0.53 $0.54 $0.58

Packed Tower Packed Tower Packed Tower Packed Tower Packed Tower Packed Tower with OGT Packed Tower with OGT O3/H2O2 Packed Tower Packed Tower Packed Tower with OGT Packed Tower with OGT Packed Tower with OGT Packed Tower with OGT Packed Tower with OGT O3/H2O2 Resin Sorption Resin Sorption O3/H2O2 Packed Tower with OGT Packed Tower with OGT Resin Sorption Resin Sorption Resin Sorption

Costs are in 1999 dollars, total amortized costs 1,000 gallons; NE, not evaluated due to lack of data; NR, off-gas treatment not required; Bold numbers indicate the lowest unit cost amongst the technologies evaluated; OGT, off-gas treatment; AOP, Treatment Costs for byproduct and residual oxidant removal not included.

Off-gas treatment is expected to be required based on 1 lb/day emission standards.

Source: From Stocking, A. et al., 2000, Appendix 24, MTBE Treatability, Executive Summary, Treatment Technologies for Removal of Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE) from Drinking Water: Air Stripping, Advanced Oxidation Processes, Granular Activated Carbon, Synthetic Resin Sorbents, Second Edition, February 2000, Written for the California Agencies MTBE Research Partnership, Center for Groundwater Restoration and Protection, National Water Research Institute, NWRI-99-08, www.nwri-usa.org.

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SECTION 8K

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WATER TREATMENT FACILITIES

WATER QUALITY

Table 8K.151 Data on Selected Large Rapid-Sand Filter Plants in the United States Chemical Feed and Mix

City Detroit, MI Milwaukee, WI St. Louis, MO Louisville, KY Toledo, OH Denver, CO Atlanta, GA Dallas, TX New Orleans, LA Albany, NY Richmond, VA

Capacity (mgd) 320 200 160 120 80 64 54 48 40 32 30

Type Feed Dry Dry Solution Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Solution Dry Dry

Sedimentation

Alum Used (Grains/gal)

Lime Used (Grains/gal)

Mixing Time (min)

0.74 0.5 1.2 0.65 1.12 0.1–1.0 0.59 1.0 0.75

0 0.11 4.7 0.31 0.5 0.05–0.5 0.26 5.2 5.0

3 64 45 — 40 20 23 12 60 20 10

1.5 2.0

0 0

Filtration

Time (hr)

Flow V (ft/min)

Basin Depth (ft)

Filter Rate (mgd/acre)

Unit Size (mgd)

Sand Depth (in.)

Sand Size (mm)

Gravel Depth (in.)

Wash Rate (in./min)

Wash Water (percent)

Baffles Mechanical Baffles None Mechanical Baffles Baffles Baffles Baffles

2.0 4.0 36.0 2.0 2.8 1.0 9.3 8.0 18.0

4.2 2.32 1.5 5.7 1.5 12.0 0.7 1.1 0.55

16 27 16–23 17.5 15 13.5 14–24 18 13.75

160 125 125 125 94 156 125 120 122

4 6.25 4 6 and 3 2 4.5 3 and 5 2 4

30 27 30 26–30 22 48a 24–27 30 30

0.45 0.51 0.4 0.4–0.5 0.42 0.62 0.4–0.5 0.4–0.45 0.33

17 24 12 14–24 18 15 18 18 9

26–30 24 24 22–36 20 25 30 20 24

2.0 2.2 1.67 2.0 2.43 1.4 1.3 1.5 0.3

Baffles Combined

2.25 10.0

1.5 6.0

10–18 10

125 120

18 16

24 24

Type of Mix

4 3

30 26

0.33 0.43

2.5 1.0

a

Coal. Source: From Cosens, J. Am. Water Works Assoc, 1956.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8K.152 Community Water System Treatment Schemes (Percentage of Plants Using Each Treatment Scheme) System Service Population Category Water Source Groundwater Plants Disinfection with no additional treatment Other chemical addition Ion exchange, activated alumina, aeration Other filtration (not direct or conventional) Direct filtration Conventional filtration Membranes Softening Observations Surface Water Plants Disinfection with no additional treatment Other chemical addition Ion exchange, activated alumina, aeration Other filtration (not direct or conventional) Direct filtration Conventional filtration Membranes Softening Observations Mixed Plants Disinfection with no additional treatment Other chemical addition Ion exchange, activated alumina, aeration Other filtration (not direct or conventional) Direct filtration Conventional filtration Membranes Softening Observations All Plants Disinfection with no additional treatment Other chemical addition Ion exchange, activated alumina, aeration Other filtration (not direct or conventional) Direct filtration Conventional filtration Membranes Softening Observations

100 or Less

101– 500

501– 3,300

3,301– 10,000

10,001– 50,000

50,001– 100,000

100,001– 500,000

Over 500,000

68.7

55.5

52.1

37.4

43.5

54.2

60.3

84.1

54.5

7.7 0.0

21.7 9.8

11.4 22.0

30.5 18.7

15.8 23.1

15.0 25.3

2.7 14.1

0.6 14.9

16.1 13.7

12.3

9.5

3.9

4.6

9.0

0.6

7.0

0.2

7.6

0.1 0.0 1.1 10.0 83

0.0 0.0 0.0 3.6 98

0.1 0.0 0.1 6.9 127

0.2 2.6 0.5 5.5 125

0.3 0.0 0.0 6.9 168

0.6 0.0 0.6 1.4 191

0.2 0.0 0.6 3.7 394

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 469

0.1 0.3 0.3 6.1 1,655

50.0

14.3

3.6

1.0

0.3

0.0

2.4

2.6

10.7

0.0 0.0

0.0 2.3

4.3 2.1

1.0 7.1

0.0 6.5

1.0 5.3

4.2 4.6

6.0 10.2

1.5 4.0

12.8

28.4

14.5

6.0

0.0

11.1

2.3

0.0

11.8

7.2 11.9 6.4 11.7 50

18.8 8.9 5.8 20.8 58

9.2 37.4 1.3 27.6 76

16.9 35.7 1.0 30.2 82

15.5 59.2 0.0 16.3 85

8.9 60.7 0.0 12.9 81

13.5 64.5 0.6 6.7 169

15.4 45.4 0.9 12.0 115

13.5 34.7 2.5 20.6 716

0.0

89.8

100.0

46.7

14.2

0.0

3.2

0.0

51.5

0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0

0.0 14.6

2.7 0.0

0.0 28.5

14.2 16.3

0.0 0.0

1.8 5.9

0.0

3.4

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

3.2

0.0

1.6

0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 1

6.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 3

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1

7.3 16.8 0.0 14.6 9

9.6 31.5 0.0 42.0 11

0.0 57.1 0.0 14.4 4

3.2 40.5 0.0 16.3 29

0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 6

6.8 17.9 0.0 14.2 64

67.0

52.9

47.5

31.8

33.5

37.3

43.9

68.5

49.4

7.0 0.0

19.8 9.1

10.7 20.1

25.1 16.7

12.1 19.0

10.6 19.3

3.6 11.9

1.5 13.9

14.3 12.5

12.4

10.8

4.9

4.7

6.9

3.7

5.7

0.2

8.0

0.7 1.1 1.6 10.2 134

1.5 0.7 0.4 4.8 159

1.0 3.5 0.2 8.9 204

3.1 8.2 0.6 9.6 216

3.8 13.5 0.0 9.7 264

3.1 18.9 0.4 5.0 276

3.6 17.3 0.6 4.9 592

2.8 9.1 0.2 2.3 590

1.7 4.4 0.5 7.8 2,435

All Sizes

Note: Excludes plants that treat purchased water. The tabulations presented in the Community Water-System Survey 2000 are based on data collected from a sample of U.S. Water Systems, not from a census of every water system in the United States. Source: From USEPA, 2002, Community Water System Survey 2000, EPA 815-R-02-005A.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

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Table 8K.153 Community Water System Surface Water Treatment Practices (Percentage of Plants Performing Each Treatment) System Service Population Category Surface Water Treatment Practice

100 or Less

Chlorination only 49.5 Raw water storage/ 12.5 presedimentation basin Predisinfection/oxidation prior to sedimentation Chlorine 18.6 Chlorine dioxide 0.0 Chloramines 0.0 Ozone 0.5 Potassium permanganate 0.0 Other predisinfection 0.0 Predisinfection/oxidation prior to filtration Chlorine 7.4 Chlorine dioxide 0.0 Chloramines 0.0 Ozone 0.0 Potassium permanganate 0.0 Other predisinfection 0.0 Rapid mix 7.8 Coagulation/flocculation 11.0 Polymers 15.5 Setting/sedimentation 11.9 Softening Lime/soda ash 0.0 Recarbonation 0.0 Ion exchange 11.7 Filtration Direct filtration 2.6 Micro strainer 0.0 Slow sand 4.9 Bag and cartridge 18.9 Rapid sand 0.0 Green sand 0.7 Diatomaceous earth 2.6 Dual/multi media 13.7 Pressure filtration 9.5 Other filtration 0.6 Post-disinfection after filters Chlorine 27.8 Chlorine dioxide 0.0 Chloramines 0.0 Ozone 0.0 UV 11.7 Other post disinfection 0.0 Clearwell 11.0 Membranes Reverse osmosis 2.0 Micro filtration 6.4 Ultrafiltration 0.0 Nanofiltration 0.0 Corrosion control 1.5 Miscellaneous Ion exchange 0.0 Granular activated carbon 2.2 Activated alumina 0.0 Aeration 0.0 Other Flouride 0.0 PAC 0.0

101– 500

501– 3,300

3,301– 10,000

10,001– 50,000

50,001– 100,000

100,001– 500,000

Over 500,000

All Sizes

32.4 20.5

7.9 11.5

6.0 16.3

0.3 20.5

1.0 29.8

6.8 19.1

10.2 26.5

16.2 17.3

2.9 0.0 0.0 0.9 1.1 0.0

37.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 24.9 4.8

50.9 3.0 1.0 1.0 29.4 1.0

51.7 3.9 8.3 0.0 37.1 0.0

45.8 11.4 0.0 5.3 29.2 0.0

52.2 7.4 10.0 3.9 27.8 1.7

45.4 4.3 11.1 6.0 26.6 0.0

34.5 2.2 2.4 1.0 20.3 1.3

11.9 2.0 0.0 15.3 1.2 0.0 13.1 22.6 21.5 15.9

24.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.9 4.4 43.3 63.1 54.4 60.8

24.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.1 0.0 67.5 87.9 63.7 67.9

35.4 1.1 4.6 1.1 5.5 0.0 90.9 96.4 62.1 79.8

38.3 2.0 1.3 2.3 7.8 2.0 75.6 82.0 53.4 74.7

31.5 2.8 6.9 4.1 3.9 0.0 77.8 85.2 58.4 71.7

37.7 0.0 7.7 6.0 2.6 0.0 62.4 77.0 53.9 63.3

23.0 0.8 1.4 3.5 5.0 1.0 48.9 60.8 46.0 51.5

20.8 0.0 0.0

27.6 0.0 0.0

34.2 6.1 0.0

20.7 7.7 0.0

12.9 5.0 0.0

7.2 4.4 0.0

12.0 3.4 0.0

20.5 2.9 1.6

2.3 0.0 10.8 18.6 9.4 0.0 1.0 14.0 20.7 0.8

0.8 0.0 4.8 0.0 24.5 3.0 2.5 51.8 2.2 4.1

8.1 0.0 3.1 0.0 32.5 1.0 2.0 46.6 2.6 0.0

5.3 0.0 0.0 1.0 17.6 0.0 0.0 73.2 0.0 3.9

4.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.9 0.0 13.1 68.7 2.0 2.3

9.6 1.7 1.7 0.6 16.2 0.6 2.9 59.3 0.0 3.0

6.8 0.9 0.0 0.0 23.2 0.0 0.0 52.1 0.0 2.6

4.1 0.1 4.3 6.3 17.3 0.9 2.2 43.5 6.2 2.1

58.3 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.0 37.4

77.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.9 80.0

85.3 1.0 4.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 81.0

83.7 5.0 22.5 0.0 0.0 2.1 82.7

75.3 1.5 18.9 5.3 0.0 1.0 85.4

74.5 0.6 23.6 0.0 0.6 1.1 82.0

53.9 0.0 21.3 1.7 0.0 0.0 64.1

68.7 1.1 7.1 0.4 1.6 2.1 63.2

0.0 5.8 0.0 0.0 14.1

0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 40.8

0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 48.9

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 70.6

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 62.9

0.0 0.6 0.0 0.0 69.7

0.0 0.9 0.0 0.0 72.6

0.3 2.5 0.0 0.0 40.2

0.0 2.6 2.3 0.0

0.0 0.8 0.0 2.1

1.0 21.1 1.0 6.1

0.0 14.9 0.0 7.6

0.0 15.9 1.3 5.0

0.0 11.0 1.1 5.7

0.0 6.0 0.9 10.2

0.2 8.6 0.7 3.6

2.5 1.1

37.4 5.7

57.3 6.1

69.4 18.7

60.4 12.3

64.4 18.1

71.0 20.5

38.0 7.6 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8K.153

(Continued) System Service Population Category

Surface Water Treatment Practice pH adjust Iron/mag. removal/seq. Taste/odor Filter aid Clarify Blending Note:

100 or Less

101– 500

501– 3,300

3,301– 10,000

10,001– 50,000

50,001– 100,000

100,001– 500,000

Over 500,000

All Sizes

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

6.1 0.0 0.0 7.7 0.0 0.0

1.0 0.0 1.0 5.9 0.0 0.0

1.1 0.0 0.3 2.2 0.0 0.0

1.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0

3.3 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0

2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

1.9 0.4 0.3 3.1 0.0 0.0

Represents treatment practices for plants treating water that comes entirely or partly from surface sources. Chlorination only is indicated when a plant chlorinated but did not filter. It includes plants that only chlorinated and plants that chlorinated and used other nonfiltration practices. The tabulations presented in the Community Water System Survey 2000 are based on data collected from a sample of U.S. Water Systems, not from a census of every water system in the United States. Percentages may not sum to 100 percent because systems may perform more than one treatment.

Source: From USEPA, 2002, Community Water System Survery 2000, EPA 815-R-02-005A.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER QUALITY

8-223

Table 8K.154 Community Water System Groundwater Treatment Practices System Service Population Category Groundwater Treatment Practice

100 or Less

101– 500

501– 3,300

3,301– 10,000

10,001– 50,000

50,001– 100,000

100,001– 500,000

Over 500,000

All Sizes

Chlorination only 81.4 73.2 Raw water storage/ 1.5 0.0 Presedimentation basin Predisinfection/oxidation prior to sedimentation Chlorine 0.0 7.5 Chlorine dioxide 0.0 0.0 Chloramines 0.0 0.0 Ozone 0.5 0.0 Potassium permanganate 0.0 3.7 Other Predisinfection 1.3 0.0 Predisinfection/oxidation prior to filtration Chlorine 1.5 7.1 Chlorine dioxide 0.0 0.0 Chloramines 0.0 0.0 Ozone 0.0 0.0 Potassium permanganate 1.0 1.4 Other predisinfection 0.0 1.2 Rapid mix 0.0 0.0 Coagulation/flocculation 0.0 0.0 Polymers 0.1 0.0 Settling/sedimentation 0.0 0.0 Softening Lime/soda ash 3.4 2.5 Recarbonation 0.0 0.0 Ion exchange 6.6 2.2 Filtration Direct filtration 1.1 0.0 Micro strainer 0.0 0.0 Slow sand 0.0 0.0 Bag and cartridge 8.9 0.1 Rapid sand 0.0 0.9 Green sand 1.6 7.5 Diatomaceous earth 0.0 0.0 Dual/multi media 0.1 0.0 Pressure filtration 0.0 3.7 Other filtration 0.8 2.1 Post-disinfection after filters Chlorine 8.5 7.8 Chlorine dioxide 0.0 0.0 Chloramines 0.0 0.0 Ozone 0.0 0.0 UV 0.0 0.0 Other post disinfection 0.0 0.0 Clearwell 11.4 15.4 Membranes Reverse osmosis 1.1 0.0 Micro filtration 0.0 0.0 Ultrafiltration 0.0 0.0 Nanofiltration 0.0 0.0 Corrosion control 8.0 17.6 Miscellaneous Ion exchange 0.0 0.0 Granular activated carbon 0.0 0.0 Activated alumina 0.0 0.0 Aeration 0.0 9.8 Other Flouride 0.0 4.4

72.7 0.4

72.5 1.6

67.8 1.4

71.1 1.2

68.6 5.8

96.9 0.0

74.3 0.8

9.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.2 0.0

10.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.4 0.0

11.3 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.7

5.9 10.5 0.6 0.0 1.2 0.0

9.5 0.4 4.5 0.9 0.4 4.9

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

7.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 2.6 0.4

10.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 2.4 4.3 8.4 4.3

7.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.4 0.0 5.0 6.0 3.5 8.1

10.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.0 0.0 0.0 2.6 2.2 5.4

1.2 0.4 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 4.7 2.2 3.6

3.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.4 0.0 2.7 1.7 1.0 3.0

2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2

6.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.6 0.4 1.3 2.1 2.9 2.6

10.3 1.0 6.0

8.2 5.1 2.3

9.1 2.2 3.6

4.7 1.8 0.6

12.7 7.1 0.0

0.4 0.2 0.0

6.1 1.2 4.1

0.0 0.0 1.0 0.4 2.7 4.2 0.0 4.6 8.1 0.0

2.5 0.0 3.4 0.0 7.2 4.4 0.0 3.4 2.6 0.3

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.4 2.9 0.3 5.7 7.2 0.3

1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 3.2 1.2 0.8

0.2 0.0 0.2 0.2 2.0 0.4 0.0 10.5 1.0 0.0

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0

0.5 0.0 0.7 1.8 2.2 4.5 0.0 2.4 4.2 0.8

15.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 24.7

21.0 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 23.6

19.9 0.0 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.0

3.3 0.0 1.8 0.0 0.0 5.8 6.9

11.5 6.6 3.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 13.3

2.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4

12.3 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.5 17.7

0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 17.4

0.5 0.3 0.0 0.0 28.9

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 21.2

0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 19.0

0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.3

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8

0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.9

0.0 0.0 0.0 22.0

0.0 0.8 0.0 19.0

1.4 1.9 0.0 21.7

0.0 0.6 18.1 7.9

0.0 8.6 0.0 17.4

0.0 0.2 0.0 14.9

0.1 0.4 0.3 13.4

18.3

27.6

20.5

9.4

12.1

0.6

11.4 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8-224

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 8K.154

(Continued) System Service Population Category

Groundwater Treatment Practice

100 or Less

101– 500

501– 3,300

3,301– 10,000

10,001– 50,000

50,001– 100,000

100,001– 500,000

Over 500,000

All Sizes

PAC pH adjust Iron/mag. removal/seq. Taste/odor Filter aid Clarify Blending

0.0 0.0 2.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0 1.2 3.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0

0.0 4.7 3.0 0.0 3.5 0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0 4.7 1.6 0.0 0.0 6.0

0.0 2.2 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7

0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2

0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.8 0.0 0.2

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0 1.8 3.1 0.2 1.0 0.0 1.4

Note:

Represents treatment practices for plants treating water that comes entirely or partly from ground sources. Percentages may not sum to 100 percent because systems may perform more than one treatment. Chlorination only is indicated when a plant chlorinated but did not filter. It includes plant that only chlorinated and plants that chlorinated and used other nonfiltration practices. The tabulations presented in the Commonly Water System Survery 2000 are based on data collected from a sample of U.S. Water Systems, not from a census of every water system in the United States.

Source:

From USEPA, 2002, Community Water System Survery 2000, EPA 815-R-02-005A.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CHAPTER

9

Wastewater William H. Lynch

CONTENTS Section Section Section Section

9A 9B 9C 9D

Wastewater Characteristics.....................................................................................................................9-2 Centralized Wastewater Treatment ........................................................................................................9-20 Decentralized Wastewater Treatment ....................................................................................................9-40 Industrial Wastewater Treatment ...........................................................................................................9-49

9-1 q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

9-2

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Ratio of Q peak hourly/Q design ave

SECTION 9A

WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS

10.0 8.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.1

0.2

0.3 0.4 0.5

0.7

2

1.0

3

4

5

7

10

20

30 40 50

70

100

Population in thousands Q peak hourly: Maximum rate of wastewater flow (Peak hourly flow) Q design ave: Design average daily wastewater flow Source: Q peak hourly/Q design ave = 18 + P 4+ P

- - - (P = population in thousands)

Figure 9A.1 Ratio of peak hourly flow to design average flow. (From Board of State and Provincial Public Health and Environmental Managers, Health Education Services Division, Recommended Standards for Wastewater Facilities, Figure 1, p. 10.5, 2004 Edition. www.hes.org.)

Preliminary

Primary

Advanced

Secondary

Effluent

Effluent

Effluent

Disinfection

Disinfection

Low-rate processes Disinfection

Stabilization ponds aerated lagoons

Nitrogen removal Screening comminution grit removal

High-rate processes Sedimentation

Activated sludge trickling filters RBCs

Secondary sedimentation

Sludge processing

Nitrification–denitrification selective ion exchange breakpoint chlorination gas stripping overland flow

Phosphorus removal Chemical precipitation biological

Suspended solids removal Chemical coagulation filtration

Disposal Organics & metals removal Carbon adsorption chemical precipitation

Dissolved solids removal Reverse osmosis electrodialysis distillation ion exchange

Figure 9A.2 Generalized flow sheet for wastewater treatment. (From USEPA, Manual Guidelines Water Reuse, Office of Water, Figure 12 (EPA/625/R-92/004), September 1992.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WASTEWATER

9-3

Table 9A.1 Typical Wastewater Flowrates from Urban Residential Sources in the United States Flowrate, gal/capita d

Flowrate, l/capita d

Household Size, No. of Persons

Range

Typical

Range

Typical

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

75–130 63–81 54–70 41–71 40–68 39–67 37–64 36–62

97 76 66 53 51 50 48 46

285–490 225–385 194–335 155–268 150–260 147–253 140–244 135–233

365 288 250 200 193 189 182 174

Source: From Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., McGraw-Hill, Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, Fourth Edition, 2003, Table 3.1, p. 156. With permission. Adapted in part from AWWARF (1999).

Table 9A.2 Typical Wastewater Flowrates from Recreational Facilities in the United States Flowrate, gal/unit d Facility Apartment, resort Cabin, resort Cafeteria Camp With toilets only With central toilet and bath facilities Day Cottages, (seasonal with private bath) Country club

Dining hall Dormitory, bunkhouse Fairground Picnic park with flush toilets Recreational vehicle park With individual connection With comfort station Roadside rest areas Swimming pool Vacation home Visitor center

Flowrate, l/unit d

Unit

Range

Typical

Range

Typical

Person Person Customer Employee

50–70 8–50 2–4 8–12

60 40 3 10

190–260 30–190 8–15 30–45

230 150 10 40

Person Person

15–30 35–50

25 45

55–110 130–190

95 170

Person Person

15–20 40–60

15 50

55–76 150–230

60 190

Member present Employee Meal served Person Visitor Visitor

20–40

25

75–150

100

10–15 4–10

13 7

38–57 15–40

50 25

20–50 1–3 5–10

40 2 5

75–190 4–12 19–38

150 8 19

Vehicle Vehicle Person Customer Employee Person Visitor

75–150 40–50 3–5 5–12 8–12 25–60 3–5

100 45 4 10 10 50 4

280–570 150–190 10–19 19–45 30–45 90–230 10–19

380 170 15 40 40 190 15

Source: From Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., McGraw-Hill, Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, Fourth Edition, 2003, Table 3.4, p. 159. With permission. Adapted from Metcalf & Eddy (1991), Salvato (1992), and Crites and Tchobanoglous (1998). q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

9-4

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 9A.3 Typical Wastewater Flowrates from Commercial Sources in the United States Flowrate, gal/unit d Source Airport Apartment Automobile service station Bar/cocktail lounge Boarding house Conference center Department store Hotel Industrial building (sanitary waste only) Laundry (self-service) Mobile home park Motel (with kitchen) Motel (without kitchen) Office Public lavatory Restaurant: Conventional With bar/ cocktail lounge Shopping center Theater (Indoor)

Unit

Flowrate, l/unit d

Range

Typical

Range

Typical

Passenger Bedroom Vehicle served Employee Seat Employee Person Person Toilet room Employee Guest Employee Employee

3–5 100–150 8–15 9–15 12–25 10–16 25–65 6–10 350–600 8–15 65–75 8–15 15–35

4 120 10 13 20 13 45 8 400 10 70 10 20

11–19 380–570 30–57 34–57 45–95 38–60 95–250 40–60 1,300–2,300 30–57 150–230 30–57 57–130

15 450 40 50 80 50 170 30 1,500 40 190 40 75

Machine Customer Unit Guest Guest Employee User

400–550 45–55 125–150 55–90 50–75 7–16 3–5

450 50 140 60 55 13 4

1,500–2,100 170–210 470–570 210–340 190–290 26–60 11–19

1,700 190 530 230 210 50 15

7–10 9–12 7–13 1–3 2–4

8 10 10 2 3

26–40 34–45 26–50 4–11 8–15

Customer Customer Employee Parking space Seat

35 40 40 8 10

Source: From Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., McGraw-Hill, Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, Fourth Edition, 2003, Table 3.2, p. 157. With permission. Adapted from Metcalf & Eddy (1991), Salvato (1992), and Crites and Tchobanoglous (1998).

Table 9A.4 Typical Wastewater Flowrates from Institutional Sources in the United States Flowrate, gal/unit d Source Assembly hall Hospital Institutions other than hospitals Prison School, day: With cafeteria, gym, and showers With cafeteria only School, boarding

Flowrate, l/unit d

Unit

Range

Typical

Range

Typical

Guest Bed Employee Bed Employee Inmate Employee

3–5 175–400 5–15 75–125 5–15 80–150 5–15

4 250 10 100 10 120 10

11–19 660–1,500 20–60 280–470 20–60 300–570 20–60

15 1,000 40 380 40 450 40

Student Student Student

15–30 10–20 75–100

25 15 85

60–120 40–80 280–380

100 60 320

Source: From Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., McGraw-Hill, Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, Fourth Edition, 2003, Table 3.3, p. 158. With permission. Adapted from Metcalf & Eddy (1991), Salvato (1992), and Crites and Tchobanoglous (1998). q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WASTEWATER

9-5

Table 9A.5 Terminology Used to Quantify Observed Variations in Flowrate and Constituent Concentrations Item Average dry-weather flow (ADWF) Average wet-weather flow (AWWF) Average annual daily flow Instantaneous peak

Peak hour Maximum day Maximum month Minimum hour Minimum day Minimum month Sustained flow (and load)

Description The average of the daily flows sustained during dry-weather periods with limited infiltration The average of the daily flows sustained during wet-weather periods when infiltration is a factor The average flowrate occurring over a 24-h period based on annual flowrate data Highest record flowrate occurring for a period consistent with the recording equipment. In many situations the recorded peak flow may be considerably below the actual peak flow because of metering and recording equipment limitations The average of the peak flows sustained for a period of 1 h in the record examined (usually based on 10-min increments) The average of the peak flows sustained for a period of 1 day in the record examined (the duration of the peak flows may vary) The average of the maximum daily flows sustained for a period of 1 month in the record examined The average of the minimum flows sustained for a period of 1 h in the record examined (usually based on 10-min increments) The average of the minimum flows sustained for a period of 1 day in the record examined (usually for the period from 2 a.m. to 6 a.m.) The average of the minimum daily flows sustained for a period of 1 month in the record examined The value (flowrate or mass loading) sustained or exceeded for a given period of time (e.g., 1 h, 1 day, or 1 month)

Source: From Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., McGraw-Hill, Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, Fourth Edition, 2003, Table 3.11, p. 179. With permission. Adapted in part from Crites and Tchobanoglous (1998).

Table 9A.6 Terminology Commonly Used in the Field of Wastewater Engineering Term Biosolids Class A biosolidsa Class B biosolidsa

Characteristics (wastewater) Composition Constituentsb Contaminants Disinfection Effluent Impurities Nonpoint sources Nutrient

Parameter Point sources

Pollutants Reclamation

Definition Primarily an organic, semisolid wastewater product that remains after solids are stabilized biologically or chemically and are suitable for beneficial use Biosolids in which the pathogens (including enteric viruses, pathogenic bacteria, and viable helminth ova) are reduced below current detectable levels Biosolids in which the pathogens are reduced to levels that are unlikely to pose a threat to public health and the environment under specific use conditions. Class B biosolids cannot be sold or given away in bags on other containers or applied on lawns or home gardens General classes of wastewater constituents such as physical, chemical, biological, and biochemical The makeup of wastewater, including the physical, chemical, and biological constituents Individual components, elements, or biological entities such as suspended solids or ammonia nitrogen Constituents added to the water supply through use Reduction of disease-causing microorganisms by physical or chemical means The liquid discharged from a processing step Constituents added to the water supply through use Sources of pollution that originate from multiple sources over a relatively large area An element that is essential for the growth of plants and animals. Nutrients in wastewater, usually nitrogen and phosphorus, may cause unwanted algal and plant growths in lakes and streams A measurable factor such as temperature Pollutional loads discharged at a specific location from pipes, outfalls, and conveyance methods from either municipal wastewater treatment plants or industrial waste treatment facilities Constituents added to the water supply through use Treatment of wastewater for subsequent reuse application or the act of reusing treated wastewater (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

9-6

Table 9A.6

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Term Recycling Repurification Reuse Sludge Solids

Definition The reuse of treated wastewater and biosolids for beneficial purposes Treatment of wastewater to a level suitable for a variety of applications including indirect or direct potable reuse Beneficial use of reclaimed or repurified wastewater or stabilized biosolids Solids removed from wastewater during treatment. Solids that are treated further are termed biosolids Material removed from wastewater by gravity separation (by clarifiers, thickeners, and logoons) and is the solid residue from dewatering operations

a

U.S. EPA (1997b). To avoid confusion, the term “constituents” is used in this text in place of contaminants, impurities, and pollutants. Source: From Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., McGraw-Hill, Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, Fourth Edition, 2003, Table 1.1, p. 4. With permission. Adapted in part from Crites and Tchobanoglous (1998). b

Table 9A.7 Levels of Wastewater Treatment Treatment Level Preliminary

Primary Advanced primary Secondary Secondary with nutrient removal Tertiary

Advanced

Description Removal of wastewater constituents such as rags, sticks, floatables, grit, and grease that may cause maintenance or operational problems with the treatment operations, processes, and ancillary systems Removal of a portion of the suspended solids and organic matter from the wastewater Enhanced removal of suspended solids and organic matter from the wastewater. Typically accomplished by chemical addition or filtration Removal of biodegradable organic matter (in solution or suspension) and suspended solids. Disinfection is also typically included in the definition of conventional secondary treatment Removal of biodegradable organics, suspended solids, and nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, or both nitrogen and phosphorus) Removal of residual suspended solids (after secondary treatment), usually by granular medium filtration or microscreens. Disinfection is also typically a part of tertiary treatment. Nutrient removal is often included in this definition Removal of dissolved and suspended materials remaining after normal biological treatment when required for various water reuse applications

Source: From Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., McGraw-Hill, Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, Fourth Edition, 2003, Table 1.4, p. 11. Adapted in part from Crites and Tchobanoglous (1998). q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WASTEWATER

9-7

Table 9A.8 Commonly Used Treatment Processes and Optional Treatment Methods Treatment Objective Suspended solids removal

Treatment Process Sedimentation

Filtration

Soluble carbonaceous BOD and ammonium removal

Aerobic, suspended-growth reactors

Fixed-film aerobic bioreactor

Lagoons Nitrogen transformation

Biological Nitrification (N) Denitrification (D)

Ion exchange Phosphorus removal

Pathogen removal (bacteria, viruses, parasites)

Physical/Chemical

Biological Filtration/Predation/Inactivation

Disinfection Grease removal

Flotation Adsorption Aerobic biological treatment (incidential removal will occur; overloading is possible)

Treatment Methods Septic tank Free water surface constructed wetland Vegetated submerged bed Septic tank effluent screens Packed-bed media filters (incl. dosed systems) Granular (sand, gravel, glass, bottom ash) Peat, textile Mechanical disk filters Soil infiltration Extended aeration Fixed-film activated sludge Sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) Soil infiltration Packed-bed media filters (incl. dosed systems) Granular (sand, gravel, glass) Peat, textile, foam Trickling filter Fixed-film activated sludge Rotating biological contactors Facultative and aerobic lagoons Free water surface constructed wetlands Activated sludge (N) Sequencing batch reactors (N) Fixed film bio-reactor (N) Recirculating media filter (N, D) Fixed-film activated sludge (N) Anaerobic upflow filter (N) Anaerobic submerged media reactor (D) Submerged vegetated bed (D) Free water surface constructed wetland (N, D) Cation exchange (ammonium removal) Anion exchange (nitrate removal) Infiltration by soil and other media Chemical flocculation and settling Iron-rich packed-bed media filter Sequencing batch reactors Soil infiltration Packed-bed media filters Granular (sand, gravel, glass bottom, ash) Peat, textile Hypochlorite feed Ultraviolet light Grease trap Septic tank Mechanical skimmer Aerobic biological systems

Source: From USEPA, On-Site Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual, Office of Water, Office of Research and Development, EPA, (EPA/625/R-00/0008). www.epa.gov/ord/NRMRL/Pubs/625R00008/625R00008totaldocument.pdf.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

9-8

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 9A.9 Number of Operational Treatment Facilities and Collection Systems in 2000 State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas Californiaa Coloradoa Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevadab New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New Yorka North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakotaa Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyomingb American Samoab Guamb N. Mariana Islandsb Puerto Ricob Virgin Islandsb Total a b

Treatment Facilities

Collection Systems

272 45 118 335 586 311 91 18 1 277 352 21 168 721 404 726 634 224 355 137 156 126 396 514 303 678 194 464 85 85 156 55 588 491 282 765 489 207 779 21 186 271 246 1,363 97 81 227 235 212 592 96 2 7 2 30 12 16,255

275 46 132 367 797 391 137 42 1 317 403 21 207 1,018 482 756 673 255 382 171 201 230 663 655 352 751 204 469 117 117 575 64 1,048 617 284 1,008 495 254 1,553 34 206 274 281 1,675 164 97 290 331 289 823 121 2 7 2 30 12 21,107

California, Colorado, New York, and South Dakota did not have the resources to complete the updating of these data. Results presented in this table for American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Nevada, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, and Wyoming are from the 1996 survey because these States and Territories did not participate in the CWNS 2000.

Source: From 2000 Clean Watersheds Needs Survey Report to Congress, Published 2003, Appendix C, Table C.1, p. C.2. epa.gov/owm/mtb/cwns/2000rtc/cwns2000-appendix-c.pdf, epa.gov/owm/mtb/ cwns/2000rtc/toc.htm. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WASTEWATER

9-9

Table 9A.10 Number of Operational Treatment Facilities and Collection Systems if All Documented Needs Are Met State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas Californiaa Coloradoa Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevadab New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New Yorka North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakotaa Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyomingb American Samoab Guamb N. Mariana Islandsb Puerto Ricob Virgin Islandsb Total a b

Treatment Facilities

Collection Systems

279 50 232 360 579 331 99 18 1 302 345 27 177 754 424 744 665 301 371 145 180 141 403 518 372 729 208 475 52 85 164 58 657 518 282 837 487 219 1,013 20 187 273 251 1,469 114 84 254 240 404 628 96 2 6 2 30 12 17,674

285 51 258 406 799 430 159 49 1 346 405 27 219 1,056 510 775 712 369 405 184 303 267 673 661 475 848 218 483 56 120 600 68 1,175 702 286 1,213 496 270 1,936 36 222 276 286 1,850 188 100 383 337 626 974 121 2 7 2 30 12 23,748

California, Colorado, New York, and South Dakota did not have the resources to complete the updating of these data. Results presented in this table for American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Nevada, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, and Wyoming are from the 1996 survey because these States and Territories did not participate in the CWNS 2000.

Source: From 2000 Clean Watersheds Needs Survey Report to Congress, Published 2003, Appendix C, Table C.2, p. C.3. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/cwns/2000rtc/cwns2000-appendix-c.pdf, www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/cwns/ 2000rtc/toc.htm. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

9-10

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 9A.11 Number of Treatment Facilities by Flow Range Treatment Facilities in Operation in 2000a,b Existing Flow Range (mgd)

Number of Facilities

0.001–0.100 0.101–1.000 1.001–10.000 10.001–100.000 100.001 and greater Otherc Total

Total Existing Flow (mgd)

6,583 6,462 2,665 487 46 12 16,255

290 2,339 8,328 12,741 11,201 — 34,899

Treatment Facilities in Operation in 2000 if All Documented Needs Are Meta,b Design Flow Range (mgd)

Number of Facilities

0.001–0.100 0.101–1.000 1.001–10.000 10.001–100.000 100.001 and greater Otherc Total a b

c

Total Future Design Flow Capacity (mgd)

6,112 7,223 3,525 748 64 2 17,674

298 2,750 12,081 19,873 15,040 — 50,042

California, Colorado, New York, and South Dakota did not have the resources to complete the updating of these data. Results presented in this table for American Samoa, Guam, Nevada, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, and Wyoming are from the 1996 survey because these States and Territories did not participate in the CWNS 2000. Flow data for these facilities were unavailable.

Source: From 2000 Clean Watersheds Needs Survey Report to Congress, Published 2003, Appendix C, Table C.3, p. C.4. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/cwns/2000rtc/cwns2000-appendix-c.pdf, www.epa.gov/ owm/mtb/cwns/2000rtc/toc.htm.

Table 9A.12 Improvements in Treatment Level of the Nation’s Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities Level of Treatment No dischargea Less than secondaryb Secondary Greater than secondary Total facilities

1992 Number of Facilities

1996 Number of Facilities

Change 1992–1996 (%)

2000 Number of Facilities

Change 1992–2000 (%)

Change 1996–2000 (%)

1,981 868

2,032 176

2.6 K79.7

1,938 47

K2.2 K94.5

K4.6 K73.3

9,086 3,678

9,388 4,428

3.3 20.4

9,156 4,892

0.8 33.0

K2.5 10.5

15,613

16,024

2.6

16,255c

4.1

1.4

Note: A secondary treatment level is defined as meeting an effluent quality of 30 mg/L for biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and suspended solids. a b c

No discharge refers to facilities that do not discharge effluent to surface waters (e.g., spray irrigation, groundwater recharge). Includes facilities granted section 301(h) waivers from secondary treatment for discharges to marine waters. As of January 1, 2000, waivers for 34 facilities in the CWNS 2000 database had been granted or were pending. The number of facilities includes 222 facilities that provide partial treatment and whose flow goes to another facility for further treatment.

Source: From 2000 Clean Watersheds Needs Survey Report to Congress, Published 2003, Table 3.2, p. 3–4. www.epa.gov/ owm/mtb/cwns/2000rtc/toc.htm, www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/cwns/2000rtc/cwns2000-chapter-3.pdf. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 9A.13 Comparison of Total Needs for the 1992 Needs Survey, 1996 Clean Water Needs Survey, and CWNS 2000 (January 2000 Dollars in Billions) 1992a

Needs Category I II III-A III-B IV-A IV-B V VI VII-A VII-B VII-C VII-D VII-E

VII-F VII-G VII-H VII-I VII-J VII-K

1996a

2000

Publicly Owned Wastewater Treatment and Collection Systems and Storm Water Management Programs Secondary wastewater treatment 39.3 29.4 36.8 Advanced wastewater treatment 19.4 19.4 20.4 Infiltration/inflow correction 3.4 3.7 8.2 Sewer replacement/rehabilitation 4.6 7.7 16.8 New collector sewers and 22.5 12.0 14.3 appurtenances New interceptor sewers and 18.4 11.9 14.8 appurtenances Combined sewer overflow correction 51.7b 49.6 50.6 Storm water management programs 0.1b 8.2b 5.5 Nonpoint Source Pollution Control Projects 4.2b 0.5 Agriculture (cropland) 4.7b 2.3b 0.7 Agriculture (animals) 3.4b Silviculture 3.0b 3.9b 0.04 Urban — 1.1 4.4 Groundwater protection: unknown 1.4 1.1 0.9 source 0.01 0.04 — Estuariesc 0.04 0.01 — Wetlandsc Marinas — — 0.002 Resource extraction — — 0.04 Brownfields — — 0.4 Storage tanks — — 1.0 Sanitary landfills — — 1.8 Hydromodification — — 4.1 Total needs Treatment categories I and II only Collection and conveyance categories III and IV only Category I to V subtotal

a

172.0 58.7 48.9

154.6 48.8 35.3

181.2 57.2 54.1

159.3

133.7

161.9

The needs from 1992 and 1996 were inflated to January 2000 dollars for comparison with CWNS 2000 data. Modeled needs. Documented needs for estuaries and wetlands were provided by States during the 1992 and 1996 surveys, but they are no longer reported as individual categories. Source: From 2000 Clean Watersheds Needs Survey Report to Congress, Published 2003, Table 3.4, p. 3–6. www.epa.gov/ owm/mtb/cwns/2000rtc/toc.htm, www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/cwns/2000rtc/cwns2000-chapter-3.pdf.

b c

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 9A.14 Number of Treatment Facilities by Level of Treatment Treatment Facilities in Operation in 2000a,b Level of Treatment Less than secondaryc Secondary Greater than secondary No discharged Partial treatmente Total

Number of Facilities

Present Design Capacity (mgd)

Number of People Served

Percent of U.S. Population

47 9,156 4,892 1,938 222 16,255

1,023 19,268 22,165 2,039 563 45,058

6,426,062 88,221,896 100,882,207 12,283,047 — 207,813,212f

2.3 32.0 36.6 4.5 — 75.4

Treatment Facilities in Operation in 2000 if All Documented Needs Are Meta,b Level of Treatment Less than secondaryc Secondary Greater than secondary No discharged Partial treatmente Total a b c d e f

Number of Facilities 27 9,463 5,739 2,221 224 17,674

Future Design Capacity (mgd) 481 20,008 26,239 2,579 734 50,041

Number of People Served 3,851,000 103,716,058 140,251,554 21,224,596 — 269,043,208f

Percent of U.S. Population 1.2 31.9 43.2 6.5 — 82.8

California, Colorado, New York, and South Dakota did not have the resources to complete the updating of these data. Results presented in this table for American Samoa, Guam, Nevada, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, and Wyoming are from the 1996 survey because these States and Territories did not participate in the CWNS 2000. Less-than-secondary facilities include facilities granted or pending section 301(h) waivers from secondary treatment for discharges to marine waters. No-discharge facilities do not discharge treated wastewater to the Nation’s waterways. These facilities dispose of wastewater via methods such as industrial reuse, irrigation, or evaporation. These facilities provide some treatment to wastewater and discharge their effluents to wastewater facilities for further treatment and discharge. This table does not include the results for approximately 3.3 million people (present) and 3.5 million people (future) that are receiving centralized collection because the data related to flow and effluent levels were not complete for the CWNS 2000.

Source: From 2000 Clean Watersheds Needs Survey Report to Congress, Published 2003, Appendix C, Table C.4, p. C.5. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/cwns/2000rtc/cwns2000-appendix-c.pdf, www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/cwns/2000rtc/toc.htm.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Category of Need State

Total

I

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio

2,720 560 6,199 500 14,402 1,340 2,349 288 1,478 9,966 2,336 1,743 207 11,888 7,222 1,954 1,419 2,797 2,370 1,102 4,779 4,675 4,092 2,319 856 4,998 516 1,194 NR 906 12,827 206 20,422 5,927 52 8,722

14 306 726 37 3,916 183 399 33 305 299 114 575 119 795 626 240 373 654 410 176 1,239 874 837 660 92 725 170 149 NR 127 2,818 94 9,853 423 27 1,219

II 951 7 2,368 117 3,748 812 923 23 37 2,853 205 19 29 103 171 22 100 101 146 7 837 249 73 101 129 22 70 56 NR 47 368 15 776 1,737 0a 391

III-A

III-B

IV-A

IV-B

V

VI

VII

Total (I–V)

135 7 126 22 111 5 85 0 14 129 1,004 471 3 27 65 23 213 193 1,167 3 94 59 107 42 156 720 14 7 NR 7 339 9 75 291 2 1,493

1,168 65 240 24 3,114 179 16 68 64 562 25 441 18 1,204 419 79 2 280 216 31 739 92 307 281 152 297 55 11 NR 33 610 42 2,072 205 17 112

386 163 319 41 82 16 170 58 0 1,191 9 88 18 95 291 36 65 756 240 88 407 662 301 45 184 301 100 11 NR 6 1,007 18 538 1,725 0 725

66 7 1,081 71 1,853 37 161 4 0 1,012 61 149 20 169 176 19 270 592 189 16 369 406 30 104 143 193 60 75 NR 135 411 21 173 1,535 1 533

0 5 0 0 426 9 500 102 1,019 0 918 0 0 9,450 5,468 1,534 396 217 0 653 396 2,324 2,437 6 0 1,180 0 861 NR 485 4,385 0 5,497 3 0 3,623

0 0 1,251 0 352 48 0 0 37 680 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 456 0 0 120 0 0 0 24 NR 0 89 0 16 1 4 0

0 0 88 188 800 51 95 0 2 3,240 0 0 0 45 6 0 0 1 2 128 242 9 0 960 0 1,560 47 0 NR 66 2,800 7 1,422 7 1 626

2,720 560 4,860 312 13,250 1,241 2,254 288 1,439 6,046 2,336 1,743 207 11,843 7,216 1,953 1,419 2,793 2,368 974 4,081 4,666 4,092 1,239 856 3,438 469 1,170 NR 840 9,938 199 18,984 5,919 47 8,096

WASTEWATER

Table 9A.15 Clean Watersheds Needs Survey 2000 Total Needs (January 2000 Dollars in Millions)

(Continued) 9-13

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9-14

Table 9A.15

(Continued) Category of Need

State

I

II

III-A

III-B

IV-A

IV-B

V

VI

VII

Total (I–V)

586 1,477 8,060 1,415 1,309 142 604 9,152 848 144 3,519 2,744 2,529 3,338 NR NR NR NR NR NR 181,198

85 540 845 109 551 16 66 2,009 347 45 727 1,000 298 588 NR NR NR NR NR NR 36,833

25 155 204 113 334 29 45 813 74 32 777 52 12 141 NR NR NR NR NR NR 20,419

1 4 121 12 1 0 48 235 0a 0a 111 226 134 54 NR NR NR NR NR NR 8,165

207 654 119 52 13 44 107 1,323 97 0a 358 136 47 365 NR NR NR NR NR NR 16,762

33 16 963 345 283 13 58 616 98 33 516 198 691 260 NR NR NR NR NR NR 14,265

45 34 197 119 125 6 36 1,890 217 2 570 521 478 462 NR NR NR NR NR NR 14,844

0 74 5,431 633 0 2 244 0 0 31 460 608 869 342 NR NR NR NR NR NR 50,588

190 0 17 0 0 14 0 2,225 5 0 0 0 0 16 NR NR NR NR NR NR 5,549

0 0 163 32 2 18 0 41 10 1 0 3 0 1,110 NR NR NR NR NR NR 13,773

396 1,477 7,880 1,383 1,307 110 604 6,886 833 143 3,519 2,741 2,529 2,212 NR NR NR NR NR NR 161,876

Categories I Secondary wastewater treatment II Advanced wastewater treatment III-A Infiltration/inflow correction

III-B Sewer replacement/rehabilitation V Combined sewer overflow correction IV-A New collector sewers and appurtenances VI Storm water management programs IV-B New interceptor sewers and VII NPS pollution control (see Table A.2 appurtenances for totals by subcategory)

Note: NR, not reported. American Samoa, Guam, Nevada, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, and Wyoming did not participate in the CWNS 2000. a

Estimate is less than $0.5 million.

Source: From 2000 Clean Watersheds Needs Survey Report to Congress, Published 2003, Appendix A, Table A.1, p. A.2 and A.3. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/cwns/2000rtc/toc.htm, www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/cwns/2000rtc/cwns2000-appendix-a.pdf.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming American Samoa Guam N. Mariana Islands Puerto Rico Virgin Islands Total

Total

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Table 9A.16 Number of Treatment Facilities and Population Served Per State by Level of Treatment for Year 2000 Number of Facilities Providing Listed Effluent Level

State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas Californiac Coloradoc Connecticut Delaware District of Columbiad Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevadae New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New Yorkc North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakotac Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyominge American Samoae Guame N. Mariana Islandse Puerto Ricoe

Less than Secondarya

Secondary

Greater than Secondary

Population Served by Listed Effluent Level

Less than No Dischargeb Secondarya

Secondary

Greater than Secondary

No Dischargeb

0 5 0 0 5 0 0 0 0

130 30 17 118 182 246 49 3 0

129 0 18 207 77 38 38 11 1

8 9 81 9 309 22 4 4 0

0 207,994 0 0 4,198,270 0 0 0 0

732,009 108,879 111,767 726,471 12,159,009 1,556,854 1,266,574 10,476 0

1,994,219 0 2,215,703 803,753 7,919,130 2,142,434 813,536 728,997 1,298,601

7,593 21,920 1,378,004 12,155 3,577,181 7,788 1,210 13,070 0

0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 12 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 2 2 0

17 227 5 107 415 125 707 355 123 184 116 75 77 204 411 195 578 107 298 44 70 94 57 360 313 254 169 249 101 360 19 123 234 110 524 49 48 157 201 142 283 78 0 2 2

84 80 2 5 301 274 9 79 94 163 2 75 35 120 100 75 77 5 19 3 2 55 1 178 134 1 593 39 67 397 2 53 8 130 661 4 31 60 7 63 279 3 0 0 0

175 35 12 55 1 0 3 197 0 1 7 6 7 68 0 1 21 80 146 4 10 1 17 27 33 27 2 199 37 2 0 7 29 5 160 44 2 2 27 0 26 14 0 2 0

0 0 532,378 0 0 0 0 0 0 3,000 9,303 0 20,074 0 42 0 0 0 0 0 25,409 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 625 1,476 0 0 0 0 1,070 0 0 0 0 2,205 0 0 5,511 62,639 0

238,764 1,721,572 139,609 562,008 683,543 410,940 1,925,926 694,512 1,242,187 2,268,451 624,604 949,367 4,235,095 1,254,599 967,813 1,139,734 3,757,717 397,988 977,825 139,996 555,435 6,762,536 898,530 11,273,282 1,056,606 468,946 1,401,922 1,716,478 1,333,432 6,237,683 687,805 1,769,072 268,874 1,459,559 2,538,924 1,636,148 90,497 2,166,150 2,847,237 581,527 573,346 244,075 0 9,236 1,118

6,155,714 2,594,389 20,286 265,812 9,811,768 3,416,852 181,763 1,277,425 921,134 878,478 16,038 2,045,325 822,135 6,161,491 2,073,977 507,809 451,630 89,635 155,078 252,229 17,890 1,090,502 7,150 3,748,413 2,576,092 21,531 7,404,543 712,679 1,219,279 4,157,929 10,184 549,626 164,144 1,700,862 14,025,086 190,027 193,684 2,318,144 894,801 374,677 3,250,360 87,923 0 0 0

4,931,819 89,249 89,512 60,303 572 0 1,393 101,964 0 207 5,956 3,920 17,043 108,121 0 524 2,663 63,564 64,166 237,442 7,984 34,307 135,338 116,814 112,989 5,909 956 151,004 33,050 2,314 0 30,628 14,467 4,193 640,857 134,011 722 1,373 31,127 0 20,360 3,030 0 4,275 0

6

22

2

0

1,336,535

581,405

151,290

0 (Continued)

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Table 9A.16

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Number of Facilities Providing Listed Effluent Level

State Virgin Islandse Total a b c d e

Less than Secondarya

Secondary

Greater than Secondary

1 47

10 9,156

1 4,892

Population Served by Listed Effluent Level

Less than No Dischargeb Secondarya 0 1,938

19,531 6,426,062

Secondary

Greater than Secondary

No Dischargeb

58,294 88,221,896

50 100,882,207

0 12,283,047

Less-than-secondary facilities include facilities granted or pending section 301(h) waivers from secondary treatment for discharges to marine waters. No-discharge facilities do not discharge treated wastewater to the Nation’s waterways. These facilities dispose of wastewater via methods such as industrial reuse, irrigation, or evaporation. California, Colorado, New York, and South Dakota did not have the resources to complete updating of these data. The reported population served for the District of Columbia includes populations from Maryland and Virginia that receive wastewater treatment at the Blue Plains facility in the District of Columbia. Results presented in this table for American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Nevada, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, and Wyoming are from the 1996 survey because these States and Territories did not participate in the CWNS 2000.

Source: From 2000 Clean Watersheds Needs Survey Report to Congress, Published 2003, Appendix C, Table C.7, p. C.10 and C.11. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/cwns/2000rtc/cwns2000-appendix-c.pdf, www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/cwns/2000rtc/toc.htm.

Table 9A.17 Typical Wastewater Pollutants of Concern Pollutant Total suspended solids (TSS) and turbidity (NTU)

Biodegradable organics (BOD)

Pathogens

Nitrogen

Phosphorus Toxic organics

Heavy metals

Dissolved inorganics

Reason for Concern In surface waters, suspended solids can result in the development of sludge deposits that smother benthic macroinvertebrates and fish eggs and can contribute to benthic enrichment, toxicity, and sediment oxygen demand. Excessive turbidity (colloidal solids that interfere with light penetration) can block sunlight, harm aquatic life (e.g., by blocking sunlight needed by plants), and lower the ability of aquatic plants to increase dissolved oxygen in the water column. In drinking water, turbidity is aesthetically displeasing and interferes with disinfection Biological stabilization of organics in the water column can deplete dissolved oxygen in surface waters, creating anoxic conditions harmful to aquatic life. Oxygen-reducing conditions can also result in taste and odor problems in drinking water Parasites, bacteria, and viruses can cause communicable diseases through direct/indirect body contact or ingestion of contaminated water or shellfish. A particular threat occurs when partially treated sewage pools on ground surfaces or migrates to recreational waters. Transport distances of some pathogens (e.g., viruses and bacteria) in groundwater or surface waters can be significant Nitrogen is an aquatic plant nutrient that can contribute to eutrophication and dissolved oxygen loss in surface waters, especially in lakes, estuaries, and coastal embayments. Algae and aquatic weeds can contribute trihalomethane (THM) precursors to the water column that may generate carcinogenic THMs in chlorinated drinking water. Excessive nitrate-nitrogen in drinking water can cause methemoglobinemia in infants and pregnancy complications for women. Livestock can also suffer health impacts from drinking water high in nitrogen Phosphorus is an aquatic plant nutrient that can contribute to eutrophication of inland and coastal surface waters and reduction of dissolved oxygen Toxic organic compounds present in household chemicals and cleaning agents can interfere with certain biological processes in alternative OWTSs. They can be persistent in groundwater and contaminate downgradient sources of drinking water. They can also cause damage to surface water ecosystems and human health through ingestion of contaminated aquatic organisms (e.g., fish, shellfish) Heavy metals like lead and mercury in drinking water can cause human health problems. In the aquatic ecosystem, they can also be toxic to aquatic life and accumulate in fish and shellfish that might be consumed by humans Chloride and sulfide can cause taste and odor problems in drinking water. Boron, sodium, chlorides, sulfate, and other solutes may limit treated wastewater reuse options (e.g., irrigation). Sodium and to a lesser extent potassium can be deleterious to soil structure and SWIS performance

Source: From USEPA, On-Site Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual, Office of Water, Office of Research and Development, EPA, (EPA/625/R-00/0008), Table 3.16, p. 3–23. www.epa.gov/ord/NRMRL/Pubs/625R00008/625R00008totaldocument.pdf; Adapted in part from Tchobanoglous and Burton, 1991. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WASTEWATER

Table 9A.18 Wastewater Constituents of Concern and Representative Concentrations in the Effluent of Various Treatment Units Tank-Based Treatment Unit Effluent Concentrations

Constituents of Concern

Example Direct or Indirect Measures (Units)

Oxygen demand Particulate solids Nitrogen Phosphorus Bacteria (e.g., Clostridium perfringens, Salmonella Shigella) Virus (e.g., hepatitis, polio, echo, coxsackie, coliphage)

BOD5 (mg/L) TSS (mg/L) Total N (mg N/L) Total P (mg P/L) Fecal coliform (organisms per 100 mL) Specific virus (pfu/mL)

Organic chemicals (e.g., solvents, petrochemicals, pesticides) Heavy metals (e.g., Pb, Cu, Ag, Hg) a b

Domestic STEa

Domestic STE with N-Removal Recycleb

Aerobic Unit Effluent

Sand Filter Effluent

Foam or Textile Filter Effluent

SWIS Percolate into Groundwater at 3 to 5 ft Depth (% Removal)

140–200 50–100 40–100 5–15 106–108

80–120 50–80 10–30 5–15 106–108

5–50 5–100 25–60 4–10 103–104

2–15 5–20 10–50 !1–104 101–103

5–15 5–10 30–60 5–154 101–103

O90 O90 10–20 0–100 O99.99

0–105 (episodically 0–105 (episodically 0–105 (episodically 0–105 (episodically 0–105 (episodically present at high present at high present at high present at high present at high levels) levels) levels) levels) levels) Specific organics or 0 to trace levels (?) 0 to trace levels (?) 0 to trace levels (?) 0 to trace levels (?) 0 to trace levels (?) totals (mg/L)

Individual metals (mg/L)

0 to trace levels

0 to trace levels

0 to trace levels

0 to trace levels

0 to trace levels

O99.9%

O99%

O99%

Septic tank effluent (STE) concentrations given are for domestic wastewater. However, restaurant STE is markedly higher particularly in BOD, COD, and suspended solids while concentrations in graywater STE are noticeably lower in total nitrogen. N-removal accomplished by recycling STE through a packed bed for nitrification with discharge into the influent end of the septic tank for denitrification.

Source: From Van Cuyk, S.M., R.L. Siegrist, and A.L. Logan. 2001. Evaluation of virus and microbiological purification in wastewater soil absorption systems using multicomponent surrogate and tracer additions. On-Site Wastewater Treatment: Proceedings of the Ninth National Symposium on Individual and Small Community Sewage Systems. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI; USEPA, On-Site Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual, Office of Water, Office of Research and Development, EPA (EPA/625/ R-00/0008), Table 3.19, p. 3–29. www.epa.gov/ord/NRMRL/Pubs/625R00008/625R00008totaldocument.pdf.

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9-18

Table 9A.19 Proposed On-Site System Treatment Performance Standards in Various Control Zones Standard

TSS (mg/L)

PO.-P (mg/L)

NH.-N (mg/L)

N03-N (mg/L)

Total N (% Removed)a

Fecal Coliforms (CFU/1,000 mL)b

300 200 30 10

300 80 30 10

15 15 15 15

80 80 10 10

NA NA NA NA

NA NA NA NA

10,000,000 10,000,000 50,000 10,000

10 10

10 10

15 2

5 10

NA NA

50 25

10,000 10,000

10 10

10 10

2 15

5 10

NA NA

50 25

10,000 200

5 5

5 5

15 1

5 5

NA 10

50 75

14 !1b

Note: NA, not available. a b

Minimum percentage reduction of total nitrogen (as nitrate-nitrogen plus ammonium nitrogen) concentration in the raw, untreated wastewater. Total coliform colony densities !50 per 100 mL of effluent.

Source: From Hoover, M.T., A. Arenovski, D. Daly, and D. Lindbo. 1998. A risk-based approach to on-Site system siting, design and management. In On-Site Wastewater Treatment. Proceedings of the Eighth National Symposium on Individual and Small Community Sewage Systems. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI; USEPA, On-Site Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual, Office of Water, Office of Research and Development, EPA, (EPA/625/R-00/0008), Table 3.27, p. 3–48. www.epa.gov/ord/NRMRL/ Pubs/625R00008/625R00008totaldocument.pdf.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

T81—primary treatment T81u—unfiltered T811—filtered T82—secondary treatment T83—tertiary treatment T84—nutrient reduction T84n—nitrogen reduction T84p—phosphorus reduction T84np—N & P reduction T85—bodily contact disinfection T86—wastewater reuse T87—near drinking water

BOD (mg/L)

WASTEWATER

9-19

Table 9A.20 Typical Wastewater Constituent Data for Various Countries Country/ Constituent Brazil Denmark Egypt Germany Greece India Italy Japan Palestinea Sweden Turkey Uganda United Statesb a b

BOD, g/capita d

TSS, g/capita d

TKN, g/capita d

NH3-N, g/capita d

Total P, g/capita d

55–68 55–68 27–41 55–68 55–60 27–41 49–60 40–45 32–68 68–82 27–50 55–68 50–120

55–68 82–96 41–68 82–96 ND ND 55–82 ND 52–72 82–96 41–68 41–55 60–150

8–14 14–19 8–14 11–16 ND ND 8–14 1–3 4–7 11–16 8–14 8–14 9–22

ND ND ND ND 8–10 ND ND ND 3–5 ND 9–11 ND 5–12

0.6–1 1.5–2 0.4–0.6 1.2–1.6 1.2–1.5 ND 0.6–1 0.15–0.4 0.4–0.7 0.8–1.2 0.4–2 0.4–0.6 2.7–4.5

West Bank and Gaza Strip. From Table 3.11.

Source: From Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., McGraw-Hill, Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, Fourth Edition, 2003, Table 3.14, p. 184. With permission. Adapted from Henze et al. (1997), Ozturk et al. (1992), Andreadakis (1992), and Nashashibi and van Duijl (1995).

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 9B

CENTRALIZED WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Table 9B.21 Gravity Sewer Average Design Flows for Development Types Type of Development

Design Flow (GPD)

Residential General Single family Townhouse unit Apartment unit Commercial General Motel Office

100/person 370/residence 300/unit 300/unit 2,000/acre 130/unit 20/employee 0.20/net sq.ft

Industrial (varies with type of industry) General Warehouse School site (general)

10,000/acre 600/acre 16/student

Source: From Darby, 1995; USEPA, Collection Systems Technology Fact Sheet, Sewers, Conventional Gravity, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 1, (EPA/823/F-02/007), September 2002. epa.gov/owm/mtb/congrasew.pdf.

Table 9B.22 Minimum Slope for Gravity Sewers Minimum Slope (in ft per 100 ft Im/100 m)

Nominal Sewer Size 8 in. (200 mm) 10 in. (250 mm) 12 in. (300 mm) 14 in. (350 mm) 15 in. (375 mm) 16 in. (400 mm) 18 in. (450 mm) 21 in. (525 mm) 24 in. (600 mm) 27 in. (675 mm) 30 in. (750 mm) 33 in. (825 mm) 36 in. (900 mm) 39 in. (975 mm) 42 in. (1,050 mm)

0.40 0.28 0.22 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.067 0.058 0.052 0.046 0.041 0.037

Source: From Board of State and Provincial Public Health and Environmental Managers, Health Education Services Division, Recommended Standards for Wastewater Facilities, 2004 Edition. hes.org. Table 9B.23 Force Main Capacity VelocityZ2 fps

VelocityZ4 fps

VelocityZ6 fps

Diameter (in.)

gpm

lps

gpm

lps

gpm

lps

6 8 10 18 24 36

176 313 490 1,585 2,819 6,342

11 20 31 100 178 400

362 626 980 3,170 5,638 12,684

22 40 62 200 356 800

528 626 1,470 4,755 8,457 19,026

33 60 93 300 534 1,200

Source: From Metcalf and Eddy, 1981; USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet Sewers, Force Main, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 2 (EPA /823/f-00/071), September 2000. epa.gov/own/mtb/ force_main_sewers.pdf. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 9B.24 Common Sewer Cleaning Methods Technology Mechanical Rodding

Bucket machine

Hydraulic Balling

Flushing

Jetting

Technology Scooter

Kites, bags, and poly pigs

Silt traps Grease traps and sand/oil interceptors

Chemicals Before using these chemicals review the material safety data sheets (MSDS) and consult the local authorities on the proper use of chemicals as per local ordinance and the proper disposal of the chemicals used in the operation. If assistance or guidance is needed regarding the application of certain chemicals, contact the U.S. EPA or state water pollution control agency

Uses and Applications Uses an engine and a drive unit with continuous rods or sectional rods. As blades rotate they break up grease deposits, cut roots, and loosen debris Rodders also help thread the cables used for TV inspections and bucket machines Most effective in lines up to 300 mm (12 in.) in diameter Cylindrical device, closed on one end with 2 opposing hinged jaws at the other Jaws open and scrape off the material and deposit it in the bucket Partially removes large deposits of silt, sand, gravel, and some types of solid waste A threaded rubber cleaning ball that spins and scrubs the pipe interior as flow increases in the sewer line Removes deposits of settled inorganic material and grease build-up Most effective in sewers ranging in size from 13 to 60 cm (5–24 in.) Introduces a heavy flow of water into the line at a manhole. Removes floatables and some sand and grit Most effective when used in combination with other mechanical operations, such as rodding or bucket machine cleaning Directs high velocities of water against pipe walls. Removes debris and grease build-up, clears blockages, and cuts roots within small diameter pipes Efficient for routine cleaning of small diameter, low flow sewers Applications Round, rubber-rimmed, hinged metal shield that is mounted on a steel framework on small wheels. The shield works as a plug to build a head of water Scours the inner walls of the pipe lines Effective in removing heavy debris and cleaning grease from line Similar in function to the ball Rigid rims on bag and kite induce a scouring action Effective in moving accumulations of decayed debris and grease downstream Collect sediments at convenient locations Must be emptied on a regular basis as part of the maintenance program The ultimate solution to grease build-up is to trap and remove it These devices are required by some uniform building codes and/or sewer-use ordinances. Typically sand/oil interceptors are required for automotive business discharge Need to be thoroughly cleaned to function properly Cleaning frequency varies from twice a month to once every 6 months, depending on the amount of grease in the discharge Need to educate restaurant and automobile businesses about the need to maintain these traps Used to control roots, grease, odors (H2S gas), concrete corrosion, rodents and insects Root control — Longer lasting effects than power rodder (approximately 2–5 years) H2S gas — Some common chemicals used are chlorine (Cl2), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), pure oxygen (O2), air, lime (Ca(OH2)), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and iron salts Grease and soap problems — Some common chemicals used are bioacids, digester, enzymes, bacteria cultures, catalysts, caustics, hydroxides, and neutralizers

Source: From information provided by Arbour and Kerri, 1997 and Sharon, 1989; USEPA, Collection Systems, O&M Fact Sheet, Sewer Cleaning and Inspection, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 1 (EPA/823/f-99/031), September 1999. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/sewcl.pdf.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 9B.25 Frequency of Maintenance Activities for Sewer Lines Activity

Average (% of system/year)

Cleaning Root removal Manhole inspection CCTV inspection Smoke testing

29.9 2.9 19.8 6.8 7.8

Source: From ASCE, 1998; USEPA, Collection Systems, O&M Fact Sheet, Sewer Cleaning and Inspection, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 2 (EPA/823/f-99/031), September 1999. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/ sewcl.pdf.

Table 9B.26 Limitations of Standard Inspection Techniques for Sewer Lines Inspection Technique Visual inspection

Camera inspection

Closed circuit television (CCTV) Lamping inspection

Limitations In smaller sewers, the scope of problems detected is minimal because the only portion of the sewer that can be seen in detail is near the manhole. Therefore, any definitive information on cracks or other structural problems is unlikely. However, this method does provide information needed to make decisions on rehabilitation When performing a camera inspection in a large diameter sewer, the inspection crew is essentially taking photographs haphazardly, and as a result, the photographs tend to be less comprehensive This method requires late night inspection and as a result the TV operators are vulnerable to lapses in concentration. CCTV inspections are also quite expensive and time-consuming The video camera does not fit into the pipe and during the inspection it remains only in the maintenance hole. As a result, only the first 10 ft of the pipe can be viewed or inspected using this method

Source: From Water Pollution Control Federation, 1989; USEPA, Collection Systems, O&M Fact Sheet, Sewer Cleaning and Inspection, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 3 (EPA/823/F-99/031), September 1999. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/sewcl.pdf.

Table 9B.27 Limitations of Cleaning Methods for Sewer Lines Cleaning Method Balling, jetting, scooter

Bucket, machine

Flushing High velocity cleaner

Kite or bag Rodding

Limitations In general, these methods are only successful when necessary water pressure or head is maintained without flooding basements or houses at low elevations. Jetting—The main limitation of this technique is that caution needs to be used in areas with basement fixtures and in steep-grade hill areas. Balling—Balling cannot be used effectively in pipes with bad offset joints or protruding service connections because the ball can become distorted Scooter—When cleaning larger lines, the manholes need to be designed to a larger size in order to receive and retrieve the equipment. Otherwise, the scooter needs to be assembled in the manhole. Caution also needs to be used in areas with basement fixtures and in steep-grade hill areas This device has been known to damage sewers. The bucket machine cannot be used when the line is completely plugged because this prevents the cable from being threaded from one manhole to the next. Set-up of this equipment is time-consuming This method is not very effective in removing heavy solids. Flushing does not remedy this problem because it only achieves temporary movement of debris from one section to another in the system The efficiency and effectiveness of removing debris by this method decreases as the cross-sectional areas of the pipe increase. Backups into residences have been known to occur when this method has been used by inexperienced operators. Even experienced operators require extra time to clear pipes of roots and grease When using this method, use caution in locations with basement fixtures and steep-grade hill areas Continuous rods are harder to retrieve and repair if broken and they are not useful in lines with a diameter of greater than 300 mm (0.984 ft) because the rods have a tendency to coil and bend. This device also does not effectively remove sand or grit, but may only loosen the material to be flushed out at a later time

Source: From USEPA, 1993; USEPA, Collection Systems, O&M Fact Sheet, Sewer Cleaning and Inspection, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 4 (EPA/823/F-99/031), September 1999. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/sewcl.pdf. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 9B.28 Comparison of Various Sewer Rehabilitation Techniques Method In-line expansion Sliplining

Cured-in-place Product linings

Modified cross-sectional methods

Internal point Repair

Diameter Range (mm)

Maximum Installation (m)

Pipe bursting Segmental

100–600 (4–24 in.) 100–4,000 (4–158 in.)

230 (750 ft) 300 (1,000 ft)

Continuous Spiral wound Inverted-in-place

100–1,600 (4–63 in.) 150–2,500 (6–100 in.) 100–2,700 (4–108 in.)

300 (1,000 ft) 300 (1,000 ft) 900 (3,000 ft)

Winched-in-place

100–1,400 (4–54 in.)

150 (500 ft)

Spray-on-linings

76–4,500 (3–180 in.)

150 (500 ft)

Fold and form

100–400 (4–15 in.)

210 (700 ft)

Deformed/reformed

100–400 (4–15 in.)

800 (2,500 ft)

Drawdown Rolldown Thin-walled lining Robotic repair

62–600 (3–24 in.) 62–600 (3–24 in.) 500–1,100 (20–46 in.) 200–760 (8–30 in.)

300 (1,000 ft) 300 (1,000 ft) 960 (3,000 ft) N/A

Grouting/sealing & spray-on Link seal Point CIPP

N/A 100–600 (4–24 in.) 100–600 (4–24 in.)

N/A N/A 15 (50 ft)

Liner Material PE, PP, PVC, GRP PE, PP, PVC, GRP (KEP & KUP) PE, PP, PE/EPDM, PVC PE, PVC, PP, PVDF Thermoset Resin/fabric composite Thermoset resin/fabric composite Epoxy resins/cement mortar PVC (Thermoplastics) HDPE (thermoplastics) HDPE, MDPE HDPE, MDPE HDPE Exopy resins Cement mortar Chemical grouting Special sleeves Fiberglass/polyester, etc

Note: Spiral wound sliplining, robotic repair, and point CIPP can only be used only with gravity pipeline. All other methods can be used with both gravity and pressure pipeline. EPDM, ethylene polypelene diene monomer; GRP, glassfiber reinforced polyester; HDPE, high density polyethylene; MDPE, medium density polyethylene; PE, polyethylene; PP, polypropylene; PVC, poly vinyl chloride; PVDF, poly vinylidene chloride. Source: From Iseley and Najafi (1995); USEPA, Collection Systems, O&M Fact Sheet, Trenchless Sewer Rehabilitation, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-99/0032), September 1999. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/rehabl.pdf.

Table 9B.29 Limitations of Trenchless Sewer Rehabilitation Techniques Method Pipe bursting

Sliplining

CIPP

Modified cross section

Limitations Bypass or diversion of flow required Insertion pit required Percussive action can cause significant ground movement may not be suitable for all materials Insertion pit required Reduces pipe diameter Not well suited for small diameter pipes Bypass or diversion of flow required Curing can be difficult for long pipe segments Must allow adequate curing time Defective installation may be difficult to rectify Resin may clump together on bottom of pipe Reduces pipe diameter Bypass or diversion of flow required The cross section may shrink or unfold after expansion Reduces pipe diameter Infiltration may occur between liner and host pipe unless sealed Liner may not provide adequate structural support

Source: From USEPA, Collection Systems, O&M Fact Sheet, Trenchless Sewer Rehabilitation, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 2 (EPA/823/F-99/0032), September 1999. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/rehabl.pdf. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 9B.30 Characteristics of Common Force Main Pipe Materials Material

Application

Cast or ductile iron, cement lined Steel, cement lined Asbestos cement Fiberglass reinforced epoxy pipe Plastic

Key Advantages

Key Disadvantages

High pressure available Good resistance to pressure sizes of 4–54 in. surges High pressure all pipe sizes Excellent resistance to pressure surges Moderate pressure for No corrosion slow grease 36-in. C pipe sizes buildup Moderate pressure for up to No corrosion slow grease 36-in. pipe sizes buildup Low pressure for up to 36-in. No corrosion slow grease pipe sizes buildup

More expensive than concrete and fiberglass More expensive than concrete and fiberglass Relatively brittle 350 psi max pressure Suitable for small pipe sizes and low pressure only

Source: From Sanks, 1998; USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet Sewers, Force Main, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-99/040), September 1999. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/force_main_sewers.pdf.

Table 9.31 Design Parameters for Static Screens Hydraulic loading, gal/min/ft of width Incline of screens, degrees from verticala Slot space, mm Automatic controls

100–180 35 250–1,600 None

Note: gal/min/ft ! 0.207Z l/m/s. a Bauer Hydrasievese have 3-stage slopes on each screen: 258, 358, 458. Source: From USEPA, Combined Sewer Overflow, Technology Fact Sheet, Screens Office of Water, Municipal Technology Brach, Table 1 (EPA/823/F/F-99/040), September 1999. www.epa.gov/own/mtb/screens.pdf.

Table 9B.32 Design Parameters for Drum Screens and Rotary Screen Parameter Screen spacing, mm Screen material Drum speed, r/min Speed range Recommended speed Peripheral speed, ft/s Submergence of drum, % Flux density, gal/ft2/min of submergence screen Hydraulic efficiency, % of inflow Headloss, in. Backwash Volume, % of inflow Pressure, lb/in.2

Drum/Band Screen

Rotary Screen

100–420

74–167 105 recommended Stainless steel or plastic

Stainless steel or plastic 2–7 5 60–70 20–50

30–65 55 14–16 70–150 75–90

6–24 0.5–3 30–50

0.02–2.5 50

Note: gal/ft2/min ! 2.44Z m3/h/m2 in. ! 2.54Z cm ft ! 0.305Z cm; lb/in.2 ! 0.0703Z kg/cm2. Source: From USEPA, Combined Sewer Overflow, Technology Fact Sheet, Screens Office of Water, Municipal Technology Brach, Table 2 (EPA/823/F/F-99/040), September 1999. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/screens.pdf. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 9B.33 Typical Design Parameters for Package Plant

BOD5 loading (F:M) (lb BOD5/lb MLVSS) Oxygen required avg. at 20 8C (lb/lb BOD5 applied) Oxygen required peak at 20 8C (value ! avg. flow) MLSS (mg/L) Detention time (hours) Volumetric Loading (lb BOD5/d/103 cu ft)

Extended Aeration

SBR

Oxidation Ditch

0.05–0.15 2–3 1.5–2.0 3,000–6,000 18–36 10–25

0.05–0.30 2–3 1.25–2.0 1,500–5,000 16–36 5–15

0.05–0.30 2–3 1.5–2.0 3,000–6,000 18–36 5–30

Source: Adapted from Metcalf and Eddy, 1991 and WEF, 1998; USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Package Plants, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-00/016) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/ package_plant.pdf.

Table 9B.34 Extended Aeration Performance Aldie WWTP (Monthly Average)

Typical Effluent Quality BOD (mg/L) TSS (mg/L) TP (mg/L) NH3-N (mg/L) a b

!30 or !10 !30 or !10 !2a !2

5 17 b b

May require chemicals to achieve. DEQ does not require monitoring of these parameters.

Source: From Sloan, 1999 and Broderick, 1999; USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Package Plants, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Brach, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-00/016) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/package_plant.pdf.

To solids handling, disposal, or beneficial reuse

Digestion

Thickening

Effluent

Influent Screening/ grinding

SBR

Equalization

Filtration

Disinfection

Figure 9B.3 Sequencing batch reactors key design parameters for a conventional load. (From USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Sequencing Batch Reactors, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Figure 1 (EPA/823/F-99/073) September 1999. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/sbr_new.pdf.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 9B.35 Sequencing Batch Reactors Key Design Parameters for A Conventional Load

Food to mass (F:M) Treatment cycle duration Typically low water level mixed liquor suspended solids Hydraulic retention time

Municipal

Industrial

0.15–0.4/day 4.0 h 2,000–2,500 mg/L

0.15–0.6/day 4.0–24 h 2,000–4,000 mg/L

6–14 h

Varies

Source: From USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Sequencing Batch Reactors, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Brach, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-00/073) September 1999. www.epa.gov/owm/ mtb/sbr_new pdf.

Table 9B.36 Sequencing Batch Reactors Performance Harrah WWTP

BOD (mg/L) TSS (mg/L) NH3 (mg/L)

Typical Effluent

% Removal

Effluent

10 10 !1

98 98 97

3 3 0.6

Source: From Sloan, 1999 and Reynolds, 1999; USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Sequencing Batch Reactors, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Brach, Table 2 (EPA/823/F-99/073) September 1999. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/ sbr_new pdf.

Oxidation ditch

Aerator To disinfection Clarifier Hopper

Return Activated Sludge (RAS)

Sludge pumps

From primary treatment Figure 9B.4 Typical oxidation ditch activated sludge system. (From USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Oxidation Ditches, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Figure 1 (EPA /823/F-00/013) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/oxidation_ditch.pdf.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 9B.37 Oxidation Ditch Performance Typical Effluent Quality With 28 Clarifier CBOD (mg/L) TSS (mg/L) TP (mg/L) N–NO3 (mg/L)

10 10 2 NA

Ocoee WWTP

With Filter 5 5 1 NA

% Removal O97 O97 NA O95

Effluent 4.8 0.32 NA 0.25

Note: 28, secondary; NA, not available. Source: From Kruger, 1999 and Holland, 1999; USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Package Plants, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 4 (EPA/823/F-00/016) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/package_plant.pdf.

Table 9B.38 Trickling Filters Operational Parameters Parameter Hydraulic loading gpd/ft Organic loading lb BOD5/1000 ft3 Depth, ft Filter media

Low-Rate

High-Rate

25–100 5–25 6–8 Rock

200–1000 25–300 15–40 Plastic

Source: From USEPA, Technology Transfer, Summary Report, Small Community Water and Wastewater Treatment, Table 1, p. 20 (EPA/625/R-92/010) September 1992. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Distributor arm rotation

Stay rod turn buckle Stay rod Arm-dump gate

Center well

Outlet orifice trailing edge splash plates

Speed-retarder orifice Distributor arms

Distributor bearings

Distributor base

Filter media

Retaining wall nt

lue

Inf

Outlet valve

pe Slo Support grill underdrainage system

Ventilation port

Sloped floor Underdrain channel Inlet pipe

Outlet box Outlet pipe

Figure 9B.5 Typical trickling filter. (From USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Trickling Filter, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Figure 1 (EPA /823/F-00/014) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/trickling_filter.pdf.)

Table 9B.39 Typical Loading Rates for Single-Stage Nitrification in Trickling Filters TF Media Rock Plastic Tower TF

% Nitrification

Loading Rate lb BOD/1,000 ft3/d (g BOD/m3/d)

75–85 85–95 75–85 85–95

10–6 (160–96) 6–3 (96–48) 181–12 (288–192) 12–6 (192–96)

Source: From Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. with permission from the McGraw-Hill Companies, 1991; USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Trickling Filter Nitrification, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-00/015) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/trickling_filt_nitrification.pdf. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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BOD5 surface loading, Lb/1,000 sq ft/d

Ammonium removal, %

100

0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

60

Legend Rock media (91) 49 m2/m3 Stockton pilot study, plastic media (10) 2 3 89 m /m Stockton plant, plastic media (91)

40

Rock media (84)

80

20 0

0

5 10 15 BOD5 surface loading, g/m2/d

20

Figure 9B.6 Effect of BOD5 Surface loading on nitrification efficiency of rock and plastic media trickling filters. (From USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Trickling Filter Nitrification, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Figure 2 (EPA /823/F-00/015) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/trickling_filt_nitrification.pdf.)

BOD5 surface loading, Lb/1,000 sq ft/d 100

0

1.0

3.0

2.0

4.0

Ammonium removal, %

Legend Cross-flow media

80

Vertical media

60 Curve for rock media (82) and garland cross-flow media

40 20

Curve for garland vertical media

0 0

5 10 15 20 BOD5 surface loading, g/m2/d

Figure 9B.7 Performance comparison of various trickling filter media. (From USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Trickling Filter Nitrification, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Figure 2 (EPA /823/F-00/015) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/trickling_filt_nitrification.pdf.)

Raw wastewater

Primary treatment

Primary effluent

Constructed wetlands secondary treatment

Secondary effluent

Disinfection or tertiary treatment

Final discharge

Figure 9B.8 Constructed wetland in wastewater treatment train. (From USEPA, Manual, Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters, Office of Research and Development, Figure 2.1, p. 22 (EPA/625/R-99/010) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/pdf/Design_Manual2000.pdf.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Floating and Inlet settling zone emergent plants

Submerged growth plants

Floating and emergent plants Outlet zone

influent

Length (L) Zone 1 fully vegetated D.O. (-) H ≤ 0.75 m

Depth (H)

W idt

h

(W

)

Pretreated (lagoon)

Zone 2 open-water surface D.O. (+) H ≥ 1.2 m

Variablelevel outlet Zone 3 fully vegetated D.O. (−) H ≤ 0.75 m

(0 p % slo - f pe la t) Tr ea t (m me ed nt z ia on ) e

e on tz ria ou bletle lev t el

O

ut

le

W i (W dth )

To

In

le

tz

on

e

Figure 9B.9 Elements of a free water surface constructed wetland. (From USEPA, Manual, Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters, Office of Research and Development, Figure 2.2, p. 22 (EPA /625/R-99/010) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/pdf/Design_Manual2000.pdf.)

Va

Pretreated (settled) influent

Depth (H)

Effluent

Liner

Bottom slope (≤ 1%) Length (L)

Figure 9B.10 Elements of a vegetated submerged bed system. (From USEPA, Manual, Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters, Office of Research and Development, Figure 2.3, p. 22 (EPA /625/R-99/010) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/pdf/Design_Manual2000.pdf.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Outlet weir

Distribution pipe

Low permeability soil Free water surface (surface flow)

Distribution pipe Outlet weir

Lined basin Free water surface with open water zone

Distribution pipe

Outlet weir

Lined basin Floating aquatic plant system Figure 9B.11 Floating aquatic plant system. (From USEPA, Free Water Surface Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment, A Technologic Assessment, Office of Water, Figure 1.1, p. 1–4, (EPA /832/S-99/002) June 1999. www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/pdf/FW_Surface_ wetlands.pdf.)

Optional inlet manifold warm climates

Vegetation

Outlet zone 2” to 3” gravel

Inlet zone 2” to 3” gravel Inlet manifold cold climates

Treatment zone to 11/2” gravel

1/ ” 2

Water surface

Outlet manifold

Membrane line or impermeable soils

Figure 9B.12 Subsurface flow constructed wetlands. (From USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Wetlands: Subsurface Flow, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Figure 1 (EPA /823/F-00/023) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/wetlandssubsurface_flow.pdf.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Emergent plants Floating plants

Open water (2)

Inlet

Variablelevel outlet Distribution pipe

Outlet collector pipe

Vegetated zone (3)

Vegetated zone (1) Submerged plants

Figure 9B.13 Profile of a three-zone free water surface constructed wetland cell. (From USEPA, Manual, Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters, Office of Research and Development, Figure 2.3, p. 22 (EPA /625/R-99/010) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/pdf/Design_Manual2000.pdf.)

Table 9B.40 Typical Constructed Wetland Influents Constituent (mg/L) BOD Sol. BOD COD TSS VSS TN NH3 NO3 TP OrthoP Fecal coli (log/100 mL) a b c

Septic Tank Effluenta

Primary Effluentb

Pond Effluentc

129–147 100–118 310–344 44–54 32–39 41–49 28–34 0–0.9 12–14 10–12 5.4–6.0

40–200 35–160 90–400 55–230 45–180 20–85 15–40 0 4–15 3–10 5.0–7.0

11–35 7–17 60–100 20–80 25–65 8–22 0.6–16 0.1–0.8 3–4 2–3 0.8–5.6

EPA (1978), 95% confidence interval. Prior to major detergent reformulations which reduce P species by w50%. Adapted from Metcalf and Eddy, (1991) assuming typical removal by primary sedimentation-soluble BODZ35–45% total. EPA (1980).

Source: From USEPA, Manual, Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters, Office of Research and Development, Table 3.1, p. 41 (EPA/625/R-99/010) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/pdf/Design_ Manual2000.pdf.

Table 9B.41 Loading and Performance Data for Systems Analyzed in This Document (DMDB) Pollutant Loading Rate (kg/ha-day)

Influent (mg/L)

Effluent (mg/L)

Constituent

Min

Mean

Max

Min

Mean

Max

Min

Mean

Max

BOD5 TSS NH4–N TKN TP FC

2.3 5 0.3 1.0 — —

51 41 5.8 9.5 — —

183 180 16 20 — —

6.2 12.7 3.2 8.7 0.56 42000

113 112 13.4 28.3 1.39 73000

438 587 30 51 2.41 250000

5.8 5.3 0.7 3.9 0.68 112

22 20 12 19 2.42 403

70 39 23 32 3.60 713

BOD, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (5 day); TSS, Total Suspended Solids; NH4-N, Ammonia Nitrogen; TKN, Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen; TP, Total Phosphorus; FC, Fecal Coliform, cfu/100 mL. Source: From USEPA, Manual, Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters, Office of Research and Development, Table 4.1, p. 67 (EPA/625/R-99/010) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/pdf/Design_Manual2000.pdf. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 9B.42 Typical Areal Loading Rates for SF Constructed Wetlands Constituent

Typical Influent Concentration mg/L

Target Effluent Concentration mg/L

Mass Loading Rate lb/ac/da

3–12b 30–175 30–150 2–35 2–10 2–40 1–10

10–30 10–30 1–10 1–10 1–10 0.5–3

60–140 40–150 1–10 3–12 3–11 1–4

Hydraulic Load (in./d) BOD TSS NH3/NH4 as N NO3 as N TN TP Note: Wetland water temperature OO 20 8C.

Source: From USEPA, Waster Technology Fact Sheet, Wetlands: Subsurface Flow, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-00/023) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/wetlands-subsurface_flow.pdf.

Table 9B.43 Typical Media Characteristics for Subsurface Wetlands Media Type

Effective Size D10 (mm)a

Porosity, n (%)

2 8 16 32 128

28–32 30–35 35–38 36–40 38–45

Coarse sand Gravelly sand Fine gravel Medium gravel Coarse rock a b

Hydraulic Conductivity ks (ft3/ft2/d)b 300–3,000 1,600–16,000 3,000–32,000 32,000–160,000 16!104–82!104

mm!0.03937Z inches. ft3/ft2/d ! 0.3047 Z m3/m2/d, or ! 7.48 Z gal/ft2/d.

Source: From Reed, S.C., R.W. Crites, E.J. Middlebrooks (1995) Natural Systems for Waste Management and Treatment - Second Edition, McGraw-‘Hill Co, New York; USEPA, Waste Water Technology Fact Sheet, Wetlands: Subsurface Flow, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 3 (EPA/823/F-00/023) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/wetlands-subsurface_ flow.pdf.

Table 9B.44 Summary of Performance for 14 Subsurface Flow Wetland Systems Constituent BOD5 TSS TKN as N NH3/NH4 as N NO3 as N TN TP Fecal coliforms (#/100 ml)

Mean Influent (mg/L) a

b

28 (5–51) 60 (23–118) 15 (5–22) 5 (1–10) 9 (1–18) 20 (9–48) 4 (2–6) 270,000 (1,200–1,380,000)

Mean Effluent (mg/L) 8a (1–15)b 10 (3–23) 9 (2–18) 5 (2–10) 3 (0.1–13) 9 (7–12) 2 (0.2–3) 57,000 (10–330,000)

Mean detention time 3 d (range 1–5 d). a b

Mean value. Range of values.

Source: From USEPA, 1993; USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Wetlands: Subsurface Flow, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 4 (EPA/823/F-00/023) September 2000. www.epa.gov/ owm/mtb/wetlands-subsurface_flow.pdf. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 9B.45 Typical Areal Loading Rates for Free Water Surface Wetlands Constituent

Typical Influent Conc. (mg/L)

Hydraulic Load (in./d) BOD TSS NH3/NH4 as N NO3 as N TN TP

0.4–4 5–100 5–100 2–20 2–10 2–20 1–10

Target Effluent Conc. (mg/L) 5–30 5–30 1–10 1–10 1–10 0.5–3

Mass Loading Rate (lb/ac/d) 9–89 9–100 1–4 2–9 2–9 1–4

Source: From USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Free Water Surface Wetlands, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-00/024) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/free_water_surface_ wetlands.pdf.

Table 9B.46 Summary of Performance for 27 Free Water Surface Wetlands Constituent BOD5 TSS TKN as N NH3/NH4 as N NO3 as N TN TP Dissolved P Fecal coliforms (#/100 mL)

Mean Influent (mg/L)

Mean Effluent (mg/L)

70 69 18 9 3 12 4 3 73,000

15 15 11 7 1 4 2 2 1,320

Source: USEPA, 2000; USEPA, Wastewaster Technology Fact Sheet, Free Water Surface Wetlands, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-00/024) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/ mtb/free_water_surface_wetlands.pdf.

Table 9B.47 Wastewater Characteristics Affecting Chlorination Performance Wastewater Characteristic Ammonia Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) Hardness, iron, nitrate Nitrite pH

Total suspended solids

Effects on Chlorine Disinfection Forms chloramines when combined with chlorine The degree of interference depends on their functional groups and chemical structures Minor effect, if any Reduces effectiveness of chlorine and results in THMs Affects distribution between hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions and among the various chloramine species Shielding of embedded bacteria and chlorine demand

Source: From Darby et al., with permission from the water environment research foundation, 1995; USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Chlorine Disinfection, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 2 (EPA/823/F-99/063) September 1999. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/chlo.pdf. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 9B.48 Wastewater Characteristics Affecting Ultraviolet Disinfection Performance Wastewater Characteristic

Effects on UV Disinfection

Ammonia Nitrite Nitrate Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

Minor effect, if any Minor effect, if any Minor effect, if any Minor effect, if any. Although, if a large portion of the BOD is humic and/or unsaturated (or conjugated) compounds, then UV transmittance may be diminished Affects solubility of metals that can absorb UV light. Can lead to the precipitation of carbonates on quartz tubes High absorbency of UV radiation Affects solubility of metals and carbonates Absorbs UV radiation and shields embedded bacteria

Hardness Humic materials, iron pH TSS

Source: From USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Ultraviolet Disinfection, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 2 (EPA/823/F-99/064) September 1999. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/uv.pdf.

Percentage of U.S. residents served by centralized treatment 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 1990

1980

1970

1960

1950

1940

1930

1920

1910

1900

1890

1880

1870

1860

0

Figure 9B.14 Percentage of US residents severed by centralized treatment. (From USEPA, Draft Handbook for Management of On-Site and Clustered (Decentralized) Wastewater Treatment Systems, Office of Water, Table 1.1, p. 12 (EPA /PA 823/P-03/001), February 2003.)

Table 9B.49 Comparison of Design and Operating Parameters, Land Treatment Systems Parameters

Irrigation

Overland Flow

Rapid Infiltration

Weekly application rate (in.) Annual application rate (ft) Estimated land required for 100,000 gpd (acres) Minimum preapplication treatment requirements Climate restrictions

0.5–4.0 2–18 20–25

2.4–6.0 8–40 5–10

4–96 20–410 1–7

Lagoons

Screening and grit removal

Lagoons

Storage needed for cold and wet climates

Storage needed for cold and wet climates

Slopes Soil permeability

!20% Slow to moderate

Smooth sloes of 2–8% Impermeable (clays, silts, soils with impermeable barriers)

Cold weather may reduce hydraulic loading cycles Not critical Rapid

Source: From USEPA, Wastewater Technology Transfer, Summary Report, Small Community Water and Wastewater Treatment, Table 2, p. 34 (EPA/525/R-92/010) September 1992. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 9B.50 Design Criteria for Rapid Land Infiltration Land Treatment Item

Range

Basin infiltration area Hydraulic loading rate BOD loading Soil depth Soil permeability Wastewater application period Drying period Soil texture Individual basin size (at least 2 basins in parallel) Height of dikes Application method Pretreatment required Source:

0.3–5.5 ha/103m3/d (3–56 acres/MGD) 6–90 m/yr (20–300 ft/yr) [6–92 m3/m2/yr (150–2250 gal/ft2/yr)] 22–112 kg/ha/d (20–100 lb/acre/d) At least 3–4.5 m (10–15 ft) At least 1.5 cm/h (0.6 in./h) 4 h to 2 wks 8 h to 4 wks Coarse sands, sandy gravels 0.4–4 ha (1–10 acres) 0.15 m (0.5 ft) above maximum expected water level flooding or sprinkling primary or secondary

From Crites, et al., 2000; USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Rapid Land Infiltration Land Treatment, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-03/025) September 2003. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/final_ rapidinfiltration.pdf.

Table 9B.51 Effluent Quality for Rapid Land Infiltration Land Treatment Parameter

% Removal

BOD5 TSS TN TP Fecal coliform Source:

95–99 95–99 25–90 0–90 99.9–99.99 C percent

From USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Rapid Land Infiltration Land Treatment, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 2 (EPA/823/ F-03/025) September 2003. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/final_rapidinfiltration.pdf.

Evapotranspiration Spray or surface application

Crop Slope variable

Root zone Subsoil

Deep percolation

Figure 9B.15 Schematic of spray irrigation. (From USEPA, Technology Transfer, Summary Report, Small Community Water and Wastewater Treatment, Figure 2, p. 33 (EPA /625/R-92/010) September 1992.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 9B.52 Design Criteria for Slow Rate Land Treatment Item

Range

Field area Application rate BOD Loading Soil depth Soil permeability Lower temperature limit Application method Pretreatment required Particle size (for sprinkler applications)

56–560 acres/MGD 2–20 ft/yr (0.5–4 in./wk) 0.2–5 lb/acre/d At least 2–5 ft 0.06–2.0 in./h 258F Sprinkler or surface Preliminary & secondary Solids less than 1/3 sprinkler nozzle

Source: From Crites, et al., 2000; USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Slow Rate Land Treatment, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-02/012) September 2002. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/sloratre.pdf.

Table 9B.53 Maximum Metal Concentrations for Land Application

Metal

Ceiling Concentration (mg/kg)

Cumulative Pollutant Loading Rates (kg/hectare)

Pollutant Concentrations (mg/kg)

75 85 4,300 840 57 75 420 100 7,500

41 39 1,500 300 17 NL 420 100 2,800

41 39 1,500 300 17 NL 420 100 2,800

Arsenic Cadmium Copper Lead Mercury Molybdenum Nickel Selenium Zinc NL, No limit.

Source: From USEPA, 1993 and 1994; USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Land Application, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-00/064) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/land_ application.pdf.

Table 9B.54 Range of Expected Centrifuge Performance Type of Wastewater Solids Primary undigested WAS undigested PrimaryCWAS undigested PrimaryCWAS aerobic digested PrimaryCWAS anaerobic digested Primary anaerobic digested WAS aerobic digested Hi-Temp aerobic Hi-Temp anaerobic Lime stabilized

Feed (%TS)

Polymer (lb/DTS)

Cake (%TS)

4–8 1–4 2–4 1.5–3 2–4 2–4 1–4 4–6 3–6 4–6

5–30 15–30 5–16 15–30 15–30 8–12 20 20–40 20–30 15–25

25–40 16–25 25–35 16–25 22–32 25–35 18–21 20–25 22–28 20–28

Source: From various centrifuge manufactures; lreland and Balchunas, 1998; Henderson and Schultz, 1999; Leber and Garvey, 2000; USEPA, Biosolids Technology Fact Sheet, Centrifuge Thickening and Dewatering, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-00/053) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/ centrifuge_thickening.pdf. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Handrailing

Baffle supports

Influent pipe

1'' Grout

Effluent weir

Turntable Max. water surface 1'3'' min.

Bridge

Effluent launder

Top of tank

Influent baffle

Center pier

Drive cage

Trussed ra

2¾'

Side water depth

Influent pipe

ke arm

12'' 2'' Grout

1½'' Blade clearance

1 ft = 0.305 m 1 in. = 2.54 cm

Scraper blades Sludge hopper

Sludge pipe

Adjustable squeegees

Hopper scrapers

Figure 9B.16 Gravity thickener. (From USEPA, Biosolids Technology Fact Sheet, Gravity Thickening and Dewatering, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Figure 2 (EPA /823/F-03/022) September 2002. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/final_gravitythickening.pdf.)

Table 9B.55 Factors Affecting Gravity Thickening Performance Factor Nature of the solids feed Freshness of feed solids High volatile solids concentrations High hydraulic loading rates Solids loading rate Temperature and variation in temperature of thickener contents High solids blanket depth Solids residence time Mechanism and rate of solids withdrawal Chemical treatment Presence of bacteriostatic agents or oxidizing agents Cationic polymer addition Use of metal salt coagulants

Effect Affects the thickening process because some solids thicken more easily than others High solids age can result in septic conditions Hamper gravity settling due to reduced particle specific gravity Increase velocity and cause turbulence that will disrupt settling and carry the lighter solids past the weirs If rates are high, there will be insufficient detention time for settling. If rates are too low, septic conditions may arise High temperatures will result in septic conditions. Extremely low temperatures will result in lower settling velocities. If temperature varies, settling decreases due to stratification Increases the performance of the settling by causing compaction of the lower layers, but it may result in solids being carried over the weir An increase may result in septic conditions. A decrease may result in only partial settling Must be maintained to produce a smooth and continuous flow. Otherwise, turbulence, septic conditions, altered settling, and other anomalies may occur Chemicals—such as potassium permanganate, polymers, or ferric chloride—may improve settling and/or supernatant quality Allows for longer detention times before anaerobic conditions create gas bubbles and floating solids Helps thicken waste-activated solids and clarify the supernatant Improves overflow clarity but may have little impact on underflow concentration

Source: From Parsons, 2003; USEPA, Biosolids Technology Fact Sheet, Gravity Thickening and Dewatering, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 2 (EPA/823/F-03/022) September 2002. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/final_gravitythickening.pdf. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 9B.56 Performance of Conventional Gravity Thickening Type of Solids Primary (PRI) Trickling filter (TF) Rotating biological contactor (RBC) Waste activated solids (WAS) PRICWAS PRICTF PRICRBC PRICLime PRIC(WASCiron) PRIC(WASCaluminum salts) Anaerobically digested PRICWAS

Feed (%TS)

Thickened solids (%TS)

2–7 1–4 1–3.5 0.2–1 0.5–4 2–6 2–6 3–4.5 1.5 0.2–0.4 4

5–10 3–6 2–5 2–3 4–7 5–9 5–8 10–15 3 4.5–6.5 8

Source: From WEF, 1987; USEPA, Biosolids Technology Fact Sheet, Gravity Thickening and Dewatering, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-03/022) September 2002. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/final_ gravitythickening.pdf.

Table 9B.57 Typical Data for Various Types of Sludges Dewatered on Belt Filter Presses Type of Wastewater Sludge

Total Feed Solids (%)

Polymer (g/kg)

Total Cake Solids (%)

3–10 0.5–4 3–6 3–10 3–4 3–9 1–3 1–3 4–8

1–5 1–10 1–10 1–5 2–10 2–8 2–8 4–10 0

28–44 20–35 20–35 25–36 12–22 18–44 12–20 15–23 25–50

Raw primary Raw WAS Raw primaryCWAS Anaerobically digested primary Anaerobically digested WAS Anaerobically digested primaryCWAS Aerobically digested primaryCWAS Oxygen activated WAS Thermally conditioned primaryCWAS

Source: From USEPA, 1987; USEPA, Biosolids Technology Fact Sheet, Belt Filter Press, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-03/057) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/belt_filter.pdf.

Table 9B.58 Typical Biosolids Application Scenarios Type of Site/Vegetation Agricultural land Corn Small grains Soybeans Hay Forest land Range land Reclamation sites

Schedule April, May, after harvest March–June, August, fall April–June, fall After each cutting Year round Year round Year round

Application Frequency Annually Up to 3 times per year Annually Up to 3 times per year Once every 2–5 years Once every 1–2 years Once

Application Rate 5–10 dry tons per acre 2–5 dry tons per acre 5–20 dry tons per acre 2–5 dry tons per acre 5–100 dry tons per acre 2–60 dry tons per acre 60–100 dry tons per acre

Source: From USEPA, 1994; USEPA, Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, Land Application, Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch, Table 2 (EPA/823/F-00/064) September 2000. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/land_application.pdf. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 9B.59 Pipe Paint Color Scheme Recommendations Raw sludge line—brown with black bands Sludge recirculation suction line—brown with yellow bands Sludge draw off line—brown with orange bands Sludge recirculation discharge line—brown Sludge gas line—orange (or red) Natural gas line—orange (or red) with black bands Nonpotable water line—blue with black bands Potable water line—blue Chlorine line—yellow Sulfur dioxide—yellow with red bands Sewage (wastewater) line—gray Compressed air line—green Water lines for heating digesters or buildings—blue with a 6-inch (150 mm) red band spaced 30 in. (760 mm) apart Fuel oil/diesel—red Plumbing drains and vents—black Polymer-purple The contents and direction of flow shall be stenciled on the piping in a contrasting color. The use of paints containing lead or mercury should be avoided. In order to facilitate identification of piping, particularly in the large plants, it is suggested that the different lines be color-coded. Source: From Board of State and Provincial Public Health and Environmental Manager, Health Education Services Division, Recommended Standards for Wastewater Facilities, 2004 edition, p. 50–5. www.hes.org.

SECTION 9C

DECENTRALIZED WASTEWATER TREATMENT

STP

STP

Centralized wastewater treatment

STP

Decentralized approach

Figure 9C.17 Centralized wastewater treatment vs. decentralized approach. (From USEPA, Draft Handbook for Management of Onsite and Clustered (Decentralized) Wastewater Treatment Systems, Office of Water, Figure 1.4 (EPA/PA 823/P-03/001), February 2003. www.epa.gov/ord/NRMRL/Pubs/625R00008/625R00008totaldocument.pdf.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Septic tank Drainfield

Percolation Soil Purification

Groundwater

Manhole

Riser

Riser

To additional treatment and/or dispersal

From house Scum

Screen Inlet tee

Outlet tee Wastewater

Sludge

Figure 9C.18 Conventional system. (From USEPA website. www.epa.gov.)

Table 9C.60 Types of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Systems Type of System Individual on-site systems Cluster systems Commercial, residential, institutional, and recreational facilities

Description Systems that serve an individual residence and can range from conventional septic tank/drainfield systems to systems composed of complex mechanical treatment trains Wastewater collection and treatment systems that serve two or more dwellings or buildings, but less than an entire community, on a suitable site near the served structures Systems designed to treat larger and sometimes more complex wastewater sources from commercial buildings (e.g. restaurants), apartments, or institutional or recreational facilities

Source: From USEPA, Draft Handbook for Management of On-Site and Clustered (Decentralized) Wastewater Treatment Systems, Office of Water, Table 1.1, p. 12 (EPA/PA 823/P-03/001), February 2003. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 9C.61 Characteristics of Septage Conventional Parameters Concentration Parameter

Minimum

Total solids Total volatile solids Total suspended solids Volatile suspended Biochemical oxygen demand Chemical oxygen demand Total kjeldahl nitrogen Ammonia nitrogen Total phosphorus Alkalinity Grease PH Total coliform Fecal coliform

1,132 353 310 95 440 1,500 66 3 20 522 208 1.5 107/100 mL 106/100 mL

Maximum 130,475 71,402 93,378 51,500 78,600 703,000 1,060 116 760 4,190 23,368 12.6 109/100 mL 108/100 mL

Note: The measurements above are in mg/L unless otherwise indicted. Source: From USEPA, 1994; USEPA, Decentralized Systems, Technology Fact Sheet, Septage Treatment/Disposal, Office of Water, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-99/068), September 1999. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/septage.pdf.

Table 9C.62 Sources of Septage Description Rate

Removal Pump-out

Characteristics

Septic tank

2–6 years, but can vary with location local ordinances

Cesspool

2–10 years

Privies/portable toilets

1 week to months

Aerobic tanks

Months to 1 year

Holding tanks (septic tank with no drain-field, typically a local requirement

Days to weeks

Dry pits (associated with septic fields) Miscellaneous may exhibit characteristics of septage Private wastewater treatment plants Boat pump-out station Grit traps

2–6 years

Concentrated BOD, solids, nutrients, variable toxins (such as metals), inorganics (sand), odor, pathogens, oil, and grease Concentrated BOD, solids, nutrients, variable toxins, inorganics, sometimes high grit, odor, pathogens, oil, and grease Variable BOD, solids, inorganics, odor, pathogens, and some chemicals Variable BOD, inorganics, odor, pathogens, and concentrated solids Variable BOD, solids, inorganics, odor, and pathogens, similar to raw wastewater solids Variable BOD, solids, inorganics, and odor

Variable Variable Variable

Grease traps

Weeks to months

Septic tank Portable toilets Oil, grease, solids, inorganics, odor, and variable BOD Oil, grease, BOD, viscous solids, and odor

Source: From Septage Handling Task Force (1997), copyright Water Environment Federation, used with permission. USEPA, Decentralized Systems, Technology Fact Sheet, Septage Treatment/Disposal, Office of Water, Table 2 (EPA/823/F-99/068), September 1999. www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/septage.pdf. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 9C.63 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Septage, as Found in the Literature, with Suggested Design Values United States (5) (9–19) Parameter TS TVS TSS VSS BODs COD TKN NH3–N Total P Alkalinity Grease pH LAS

Europe/Canada (4) (20)

Average

Minimum

Maximum

Variance

Average

Minimum

Maximum

Variance

EPA Mean

Suggested Design Value

34,106 23,100 12,862 9,027 6,480 31,900 588 97 210 970 5,600 — —

1,132 353 310 95 440 1,500 66 3 20 522 208 1.5 110

130,475 71,402 93,378 51,500 78,600 703,000 1,060 116 760 4,190 23,368 12.6 200

115 202 301 542 179 469 16 39 38 8 112 8.0 2

33,800 31,600 45,000 29,900 8,343 28,975 1,067 — 155 — — — —

200 160 5,000 4,000 700 1,300 150 — 20 — — 5.2 —

123,860 67,570 70,920 52,370 25,000 114,870 2,570 — 636 — — 9.0 —

619 422 14 13 36 88 17 — 32 — —

38,800 25,260 13,000 8,720 5,000 42,850 677 157 253 — 9,090 6.9 157

40,000 25,000 15,000 10,000 7,000 15,000 700 150 250 1,000 8,000 6.0 150

Values expressed as mg/L, except for pH. Source: From Board of State and Provincial Public Health and Environmental Managers, Health Education Services Division, Recommended Standards for Wastewater Facilities, 2004 Edition, p. A4. www.hes.org.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 9C.64 Comparison of Septage and Municipal Wastewatera Parameter

Septageb

Wastewaterc

Ratio of Septage to Wastewater

TS TVS TSS VSS BODs COD TKN NH3–N Total P Alkalinity Grease pH LAS

40,000 25,000 15,000 10,000 7,000 15,000 700 150 250 1,000 8,000 6.0 150

720 365 220 165 220 500 40 25 8 100 100

55:1 68:1 68:1 61:1 32:1 30:1 17:1 6:1 31:1 10:1 80:1

Table including footnotes is a taken from the USEPA Handbook entitled “Septage Treatment and Disposal,” 1984, EPA-625/6-84-009 and is designated in that document as “Table 3.8.” a Values expressed as mg/L, except for pH. b Based on suggested design values in Appendix-Table No.1 (USEPA Table 3.4). c From Metcalf and Eddy, 4th Edition, “Medium strength sewage.” Source: From Board of State and Provincial Public Health and Environmental Managers, Health Education Services Division, Recommended Standards for Wastewater Facilities, 2004 Edition, p. A5. www.hes.org.

Percentage of state residents using onsite wastewater systems 10 −25% 26 −40% > 40%

Figure 9C.19 On-site treatment system distribution in the United States. (From USEPA, Draft Handbook for Management of On-site and Clustered (Decentralized) Wastewater Treatment Systems, Office of Water, Figure 1.1 (EPA/PA 823/P-03/001), February 2003. www.epa.gov/ord/NRMRL/Pubs/625R00008/625R00008totaldocument.pdf.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 9C.65 Septic Tank Capacities for One- and Two-Family Dwellings Septic Tank Volume (gallons)

Number of Bedrooms

750a 750a 1,000 1,200 1,425 1,650 1,875 2,100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 a

Many States have established 1,000 gallons or more as the minimum size.

Source: From USEPA, Draft Handbook for Management of On-site and Clustered (Decentralized) Wastewater Treatment Systems, Office of Water, Table 1.1, p. 12 (EPA/PA 823/ 823/P-03/001), February 2003.

Table 9C.66 Treatment Performance of On-Site Septic Tank and Sand Filter Parameter BOD, mg/L SS, mg/L Total nitrogen, mg/L Ammonia-nitrogen, mg/L Nitrate-nitrogen, mg/L Total phosphorus, mg/L Fecal coliforms (#/100 mL) Viruses (#/100 mL)

Raw Waste

Septic Tank Effluent

210–530 237–600 35–80 7–40 !1 10–27 106–1010 Unknown

140–200 50–90 25–60 20–60 !1 10–30 103–106 105–107

Intermittent Sand Filter Effluent !10 !10 — !0.5 25 — 102–104 —

Source: Adapted from Tchobanoglous and Burton, 1991; USEPA, Decentralized Systems, Technology Fact Sheet, Septic Tank Polishing, Office of Water, Table 1 (EPA/823/F-02/021), September 2002. www.epa.gov/ owm/mtb/septn_pol.pdf.

Table 9C.67 Design Parameters for Continuous-Flow, Suspended Growth Systems Extended Aeration Package Plant Parameter Pretreatment (if needed) Mixed liquor suspended solids (mg/L)a F/M Load (Ib BOD/d/MLVSS), Hydraulic retention time (h) Solids retention time (days) Mixing power inpuf Clarifier overflow rate (gpd/ft2) Clarifier solids loading (lb/d/ft2) Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) Residuals generated Sludge removal

Extended Aeration Septic tank or equivalent 2,000–6,000 0.05–0.15 24–120 20–40 0.2–3.0 hp/1,000 ft3 200–400 avg., 800 peak 30 avg., 50 peak O2.0 0.6–0.9 Ib TSS/Lb BOD removed 3–6 months as needed

Source: From USEPA, On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual Technology Fact Sheet 1, Table 1.1, Continuousflow, Suspended growth systems (CFSGAS), Office of Water, Office of Research and Development, EPA, (EPA/625/ R-00/0008). www.epa.gov/ord/NRMRL/Pubs/625R00008/6250R0008totaldocument.pdf. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 9C.68 Common Operational Problems of Extended Aeration Package Plants Observation

Cause

Excessive local turbulence In aeration tank White, thick, billowy foam on aeration tank Thick, scummy, dark tan foam on aeration tank Dark brown/black foam and mixed liquor in aeration tank Billowing sludge washout in clarifier Clumps of rising sludge in clarifier

Diffuser plugging Pipe breakage Excessive aeration Insufficient MLSS High MLSS Anaerobic conditions Aerator failure Hydraulic or solids overload Bulking sludge Denitrification Septic conditions in clarifier Turbulence in aeration tank Siudae age too high Excess flow and strength variations Low temperatures Excessive biocide use

Fine dispersed floc, turbid effluent Poor TSS and/or BOD removal Poor nitrification

Remedy Remove and clean Replace as required Throttle blower Avoid wasting solids Waste solids Check aeration system, aeration tank DO Waste sludge; check flow to unit See EPA, 1977 Increase sludge return rate to decrease sludge retention time in clarifier Increase return rate Reduce power input Waste sludae Install flow smoothing system Insulate, upgrade to high biomass, etc Reduce biocide loading

Source: From USEPA, On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual Technology Fact Sheet 1, Table 1.2, Continuous-flow, suspended growth systems (CFGAS), Office of Water, Office of Research and Development, EPA, (EPA/625/R-00/0008). www.epa.gov/ord/NRMRL/Pubs/625R00008/625R00008totaldocument.pdf.

Table 9C.69 Design Parameters for Fixed Film Systems Parameter

Trickling Filter

Pretreatment Surface hydraulic loading Organic loadinga Clarifier overflow rate Average flow Peak flow Clarifier TSS loading rate Average flow Peak flow Recirculation Sludge generatedb a b

RBC

Septic tank (primary clarifier) 10–25 gal/d-ft2 5–20 lb BOD/d-ft2 (3–10 Lb BOD/d-ft2 to nitrify)

Septic tank (primary clarifier) N/A 2.5 Ib SBOD/d-1,000 ff (6.4 Ib BOD/d-1,000 ft2)

600–800 gal/d-ft2 1,000–1,200 gal/d-ft2

600–800 gal/d-ft2 1,000–1,200 gal/d-ft’

0.8–1.2 LbTSS/d-ft’ 2.0 Lb TSS Id-W Optional 0.6–1.1 Lb TSS lib BOD removed

0.8–1.2 Lb TSS Id-ft2 2.0 Lb TSS Id-ft’ Optional 0.6–1.1 Lb TSS lib BOD removed

Loading rates for RBC are expressed per 1,000 ft2 of total disk surface. Sludge generated is in addition to solids removed in septic tank.

Source: From USEPA, On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual Technology Fact Sheet 2, Table 1, Fixed Film Processes, Office of Water, Office of Research and Development, EPA, (EPA/625/R-00/0008). www.epa.gov/ord/NRMRL/Pubs/ 625R00008/625R00008total document.pdf. Table 9C.70 Design Parameters for IF-Type Sequencing Batch Reactors Systems Treatment Systems Parameter Pretreatment Mixed liquor suspended solids (mg/L) F/M load (Lb BOD/d/MLVSS) Hydraulic retention time (h) Total cycle times (h)a Solids retention time (days) Decanter overflow ratea (gpm/ff) Sludge wasting a

SBR Systems Septic tank or equivalent 2,000–6,500 0.04–0.20 9–30 4–12 20–40 !100 As needed to maintain performance

Cycle times should be tuned to effluent quality requirements, wastewater flow, and other site constraints.

Source: From USEPA, On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual Technology Fact Sheet 3,Sequencing Batch Reactors Systems, Office of Water, Office of Research and Development, EPA, (EPA/625/R00/0008). www.epa.gov/ord/NRMRL/Pubs/625R00008/625R00008total document.pdf.

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Vent

Electric motor

Outlet

Inlet

Aeration compartment Settling compartment

Air discharge Sludge return

Mixing return

Figure 9C.20 Components of a typical aerobic treatment system. (From USEPA, Draft Handbook for Management of On-site and Clustered (Decentralized) Wastewater Treatment Systems, Office of Water, Figure 3 (EPA/PA 823/P-03/001), February 2003. www.epa.gov/ord/NRMRL/Pubs/625R00008/625R00008totaldocument.pdf.)

Table 9C.71 Chlorine Disinfection Dose (in mg/L) Design Guidelines for On-Site Applications Calcium Hypochlorite pH 6 pH 7 pH 8

Septic Tank Effluent

Biological Treatment Effluent

Sand Filter Effluent

35–50 40–55 50–65

15–30 20–35 30–45

2–10 10–20 20–35

Note: Contact timeZ1 h at average flow and temperature 20 8C. lncrease contact time t 02 h at 10 8C and 8 h at 5 8C for comparable efficiency. DoseZmg/L as CI. Doses assume typical chlorine demand and are conservative estimates based on fecal coliform data. Source: From USEPA, On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual Technology Fact Sheet 4, Table 1, Effluent Disinfection Processes, Office of Water, Office of Research and Development, EPA, (EPA/625/R-00/0008). www.epa.gov/ord/NRMRL/Pubs/625R00008/625R00008total document.pdf.

Table 9C.72 Typical Design Guidance for Aquatic System Parameter HRT (days) Power (hp/1 06gal) Depth (ft) Minimum no. of celis BOD loading (Lb/acre-day) TSS loading (Lb/acre-day)

Facultative Lagoon

Aerated Lagoon

FWS Constructed Wetland

30–180 0 3–5 3 20–60 N/A

3 (max) 30 10 2 200–600 N/A

6 (min) 0 2–5 3 40–53 27–45

Source: From USEPA, On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual Technology Fact Sheet 7, Table 1, Stabilization Ponds, FWS Constructed Wetlands, and Other Aquatic Systems, Office of Water, Office of Research and Development, EPA, (EPA/625/R-00/ 0008). www.epa.gov/ord/NRMRL/Pubs/625R00008/625R00008total document.pdf. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 9C.73 Typical N-Removal Ranges for Managed Systems Process

Percent TN Removal

RSF RSF (with recycle to ST or AUF) ST-FFS (with recycle to ST or AUF)a SBRa SS and removal (SS-TT R)a ISF-AUF

40–50 70–80 65–75 50–80 60–80 40–60 55–75

Note: RSF, recirculating sand filters; AUF, anaerobic upflow filter; ST, septic tank; FFS, fixed film system; SBR, sequencing batch reactor; SS, source separation; TT, treatment applied to both systems; R, recombined; ISF, intermittent sand filter. a

Commercially available systems.

Source: From USEPA, On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual Technology Fact Sheet 10, Table 1, Enhanced Nutrient Removal-Nitrogen, Office of Water, Office of Research and Development, EPA, (EPA/625/R-00/0008). www.epa.gov/ord/NRMRL/Pubs/625R00008/625R00008total document.pdf.

Table 9C.74 Types of Mass Loadings to Subsurface Wastewater Infiltrations Systems Mass Loading Type Hydraulic Daily

Instantaneous Contour (Linear)

Constituent Organic Other pollutants

a

Units Volume per day per unit area of boundary surface

Volume per dose per unit area of boundary surface Volume per day per unit length of boundary surface contour (which can be a critical design parameter in areas with high water tables) Mass of BOD per day unit area of boundary surface Mass of specific wastewater pollutant of concern per unit area of boundary surface (e.g., number of fecal coliforms, mass of nitratre nitrogen, etc

Typical Loading Rates Septic tank effluent: 0.15–1.0 gpd/ft2 (0.6–4.0 cm/d) Secondary effluent: 0.15/2.0 gpd/ft2 (0.6/8.0 cm/d) 1/24–1/8 of the average daily wastewater volume Depends on soil Ksaia, maximum allowable thickness of saturated zone, and slope of the boundary surface (see section 5.3) 0.2–5.0 Lb BOD/1,000 ft2 (1.0–29.4.4 kg BOD/1,000 m2) Variable with the constituent, its fate and transport and the considered risk it imposes

Ksai is the saturated conductivity of the soil.

Source: From Otis, 2001; USEPA, On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual, Table 5.1, Office of Water, Office of Research and Development, EPA, (EPA/625/R-00/0008). www.epa.gov/ord/NRMRL/Pubs/625R00008/625R00008total document.pdf. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WASTEWATER

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SECTION 9D

INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Table 9D.75 Toxic Chemical Releases by Industry: 2001 On-Site Release

Industry Metal mining Coal mining Food and kindred products Tobacco products Textile mill products Apparel and other textile products Lumber and wood products Furniture and fixtures Paper and allied products Printing and publishing Chemical and allied products Petroleum and coal products Rubber and misc. plastic products Leather and leather products Stone, clay, glass products Primary metal industries Fabricated metals products Industrial machinery and equipment Electronic, electric equipment Transportation equipment Instruments and related products Miscellaneous Electric utilities Chemical wholesalers Petroleum bulk terminals RCRA/solvent recovery Totalc

Off-Site Releases/ Transfers to Disposal

Total Facilities (Number)

Total On and Off-Site Releases

Total

10 12 20

89 88 1,688

2,782.6 16.1 125.1

2,782.0 16.1 118.9

2.9 0.8 56.1

0.4 0.8 55.2

2,778.7 14.6 7.6

0.5 — 6.2

21 22 23

31 289 16

3.6 7.0 0.4

3.2 6.2 0.3

2.5 5.7 0.3

0.5 0.2 —

0.2 0.3 —

0.3 0.7 0.1

24

1,006

31.4

30.9

30.5

—

0.4

0.5

25 26

282 507

8.0 195.7

7.8 189.9

7.8 157.2

— 16.5

— 16.2

0.2 5.8

27 28

231 3,618

19.7 582.6

19.3 501.3

19.3 227.8

— 57.6

— 215.9

0.4 81.3

29

542

71.4

68.1

48.2

17.1

2.8

3.3

30

1,822

88.5

78.1

77.1

0.1

0.9

10.5

31

60

2.6

1.3

1.2

0.1

—

1.3

32

1,027

40.5

35.4

31.3

0.2

4.0

5.1

33 34

1,941 2,959

558.6 64.0

286.8 42.8

57.6 40.4

44.7 1.7

184.5 0.6

271.8 21.2

35

1,143

15.4

10.7

8.3

—

2.5

4.6

36

1,831

23.9

16.4

12.7

2.9

0.7

7.6

37

1,348

80.6

67.7

66.7

0.2

0.8

13.0

38

375

9.4

8.6

7.2

1.4

—

0.8

39 49 5169 5171 4953/7369 (X)

312 732 475 596 223 24,896

8.4 1,062.2 1.5 21.3 219.9 6,158.0

6.8 989.2 1.3 21.2 168.4 5,580.3

6.8 717.6 1.3 21.2 1.0 1,679.4

— 3.5 — — — 220.8

— 268.1 — — 167.4 3,680.1

1.6 73.1 0.2 0.2 51.4 577.7

1987 SICa Code

Air Emissions Surface Water Discharges

Otherb

[In millions of pounds (6,158.0 represents 6,158,000,000), except as indicated. “Original industries” include owners and operators covers facilities that are classified within standard classification code groups 20 through 39,10,12,49, 5169, 5171, and 4953/7169 that have 10 or more full-time employees, and that manufacture, process, or otherwise uses any listed toxic chemical in quantities greater than the established threshold in the course of a calendar year are covered and required to report. — Represents or rounds to zero, X, Not applicable. a Standard industrial classification, see text, section 12. b Includes underground injection for class I and class II to V wells and land releases. c Includes industries with no specific industry identified, not shown separately. Source: From Table 378 and Table 379 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Toxics Release Inventory, Annual. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the U.S., 2003. www.census.gov/compendia/statab/.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 9D.76 Overview of Facility, Impoundment, and Wastewater Quantity Estimates Characteristic Estimated number of facilities Estimated number of impoundments Total quantity of wastewaters managed (metric tons)a a

Direct Dischargers

Zero Dischargers

Total Population

3,944 10,987 627,218,336

512 876 27,250,309

4,457 11,863 654,468,645

The estimate of the wastewater quantity for the total population differs from the estimates shown in Table 2.2 and Table 2.15. This is due to missing data associated with this variable. Refer to Appendix A on missing data and Appendix B for the standard error associated with this variable.

Source: From USEPA, Industrial Surface Impoundments in the United States, Table 2.1 (530R01005). www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/ Idr/icr/Idr-impd.htm.

5,000

Number of impoundments (weighted)

4,500

(4,226)

4,000 3,500 3,000 (2,382)

2,500

(2,073)

2,000 (1,446) (1,213)

1,500 1,000 (409)

500 (0) 0

(114)

Before 1900 1940–1949 1960–1969 1980–1989 1900–1939 1950–1959 1970–1979 1990–2000 Year impoundments began receiving waste

Figure 9D.21 Distribution of 11,863 impoundments by year unit began receiving waste. (From USEPA, Industrial Surface Impoundments in the United States, Figure 2.1, (530R01005). www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/ldr/icr/ldr-impd.htm.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Region 10 434

Region 1 437 Region 8 395

Region 9 601

Region 5 1,121

Region 7 396

Region 2 312

Region 3 1,995

Region 4 4,103

Region 6 2,068

Region 10 434

Alaska

Hawaii Region 9 601

Legend

Region 2 312

Surface impoundments per 100 square miles 0.1 - 0.2 1.3 - 0.4 0.5 - 0.7 1.1 1.6

Virgin Islands Puerto Rico

EPA Regions are labeled with estimated number of surface impoundments. The national total across all Regions is estimated to be 11,862 impoundments.

Figure 9D.22 Regional distribution of surface impoundments. (From USEPA, Industrial Surface Impoundments in the United States, Figure 2.2, (530R01005). www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/ldr/icr/ldr-impd.htm.)

Table 9D.77 Breakdown by 2-Digit SIC Code of Surface Impoundments That Manage Chemicals/pH of Concern and of Quantities of Wastewater Managed

SIC Code Descriptor Chemical and allied products (SIC 28) Stone, clay, glass, concrete products (SIC 32) Wholesale trade-nondurable goods (SIC 51) Primary metals industry (SIC 33) Food and kindred products (SIC 20) Petroleum and coal products (SIC 29) Paper and allied products (SIC 26) All other SIC codes

Percent of 4,457 Facilities

Percent of 11,863 Impoundments

Percent of 653,314,426a Metric Tons Wastewater

19 15

23 13

9 1

12

10

4

10 8 7 6 23

8 8 11 12 15

7 5 6 66 2

SIC, standard industrial classification. a

The estimate of the wastewater quantity for the total population differs from the estimates shown in Table 2.1 and Table 2.15. This is due to missing data associated with this variable. Refer to Appendix A on missing data and Appendix B for the standard error associated with this variable. Source: From USEPA, Industrial Surface Impoundments in the United States, Table 2.2 (530R01005). www.epa.gov/ epaoswer/hazwaste/Idr/icr/Idr-impd.htm.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 9D.78 Breakdown of Chemical Categories for Wastewater and Sludge (at Different Sampling Points) on Impoundment and Volume Basis Wastewater In Impoundment

Influent

Sludge Effluent

Influent

In Impoundment

Effluent

Chemical Categories

# Imps

% Vol

# Imps

% Vol

# Imps

% Vol

# Imps

% Vol

# Imps

% Vol

# Imps

% Vol

VOCs SVOCs Metals Dioxin-like compounds Mercury Any chemicals

5,866 3,824 9,966 291

76 75 84 24

5,412 3,786 9,982 218

76 75 83 21

4,815 3,508 7,762 346

72 69 85 22

1,690 863 3,925 247

4 7 42 10

2,006 1,261 5,551 861

21 24 98 35

1,311 605 3,078 412

14 3 88 41

2,483 10,745

27 96

2,479 10,766

30 97

2,235 8,187

31 92

1,061 4,101

0.9 45

1,745 5,759

66 100

826 3,230

6 89

# Imps, number of impoundments; % Vol, percent of total volume; SVOCs , Semivolatile organic compounds; VOCs, Volatile organic compounds. Source: From USEPA, Industrial Surface Impoundments in the United States, Table 2.5 (530R01005). www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/ Idr/icr/Idr-impd.htm.

Table 9D.79 Number and Percentage of Impoundments by Liner Status Liner Status Compacted clay Flexible membrane (FML) Composite (FML and clay) Concrete Asphalt Other Unlineda Total a

Number of Impoundments

Percentage of Impoundments

1,680 1,584 536 629 55 363 7,017 11,863

14 13 5 5 !1 3 59 100

This estimate differs from the estimate of outlined impoundments shown in Table 2.12. This is due to missing data associated with this variable. Refer to Appendix A on missing data and Appendix B for the standard error associated with this variable.

Source: From USEPA, Industrial Surface Impoundments in the United States, Table 2.10, (530R01005). www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/Idr/icr/Idr-impd.htm. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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9-53

Source

Release

Exposure medium

Exposure pathway

Exposure route

Surface impoundment

Volatilization

Airborne vapors

Inhalation Dispersion

Airborne vapors

Waste watera

Leaching

Groundwater

Ingestion

Surface waterb Aquatic organismsb

Plants Sludgea

Erosion runoff

Soil

Shaded boxes refer to components of the preliminary screening of direct exposure pathways. Unshaded boxes refer to components of the release assessment and risk modeling stages. Dashed lines indicate other indirect exposure pathways that were not modeled quantitatively.

Animals

aMedium concentration was compared directly to ecological risk screening factors. bThis indirect pathway was modeled and the results used in the indirect pathway analysis.

Figure 9D.23 Exposure pathways for active surface impoundments considered for humans and ecological receptors. (From USEPA, Industrial Surface Impoundments in the United States, Figure 3.1, (530R01005). www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/ldr/icr/ldr-impd.htm.)

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CHAPTER

10

Environmental Problems Katherine L. Thalman

CONTENTS Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section

10A 10B 10C 10D 10E 10F 10G 10H 10I 10J

Pollution Sources and Pathways . . . . . . . Surface Water Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . Groundwater Contamination . . . . . . . . . Solid Waste. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Agricultural Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Urban Runoff/Deicing Materials . . . . . . . Air Emissions/Acid Rain/Sea Level Rise Offshore Waste Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . Energy Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waterborne Diseases/Health Hazards . . .

.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

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.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

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.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

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.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

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. . . . . . . . . .

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. . . . . . . . . .

10-2 10-7 10-121 10-160 10-179 10-277 10-280 10-309 10-312 10-316

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10-2

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 10A

POLLUTION SOURCES AND PATHWAYS

Water

Root crop

Water

Plant crop

Moisture

Groundwater

Man

Dry soil Animal

Water

Foliage

Water

Fish

Hydro soil

Filter/ bottom feeder

Moisture

Atmosphere (vapor)

Moisture

Atmosphere (particles)

Figure 10A.1 Pollutant pathways from soil to man. (From Dacre, I.C., Rosenblatt, D.H., and Cogley, D.R., 1980, Preliminary Pollutant Limit Values for Human Health Effects, Environmental Technology 14: 778–783, Copyright American Chemical Society, Washington, DC.)

Climate change Pathogens Pesticides

Nutrients Agricultural/Forestry land use

Algal toxins Urban runoff Genetically modified organisms

Natural sources

Municipal wastewater

SOURCES Industrial discharges

Endocrine disrupting substances

Landfills and Waste Disposal Acidification CONTAMINANTS

Persisent organic pollutants

Global trends WATER QUANTITY IMPACTS

Figure 10A.2 Threats to water sources. (From Threats to Sources of Drinking Water and Aquatic Ecosystem Health in Canada, page x, Environment Canada, 2001. Reproduced with permission from the National Water Research Institute, Environment Canada, 2006.)

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Types of Waste Disease-carrying agents — human feces, warmblooded animal feces Oxygen-demanding wastes — high concentrations of biodegradable organic matter Suspended organic and inorganic material

Inorganic materials, mineral substances — metal, salts, acids, solid matter, other chemicals, oil

Synthetic organic chemicals — dissolved organic material, e.g., detergents, household aids, pesticides Nutrients — nitrogen, phosphorus

Radioactive materials Heat

Wastewater Sources Municipal discharges, watercraft discharges, urban runoff, agricultural runoff, feedlot wastes, combined sewer overflows, industrial discharges Municipal discharges, industrial discharges, combined sewer overflows, watercraft discharges, urban runoff, agricultural runoff, feedlot wastes, natural sources Mining discharges, municipal discharges, industrial discharges, construction runoff, agricultural runoff, urban runoff, silvicultural runoff, natural sources, combined sewer overflows

Water-Quality Measures Effects on Water Quality

Effects on Aquatic Life

Effects on Recreation

Fecal coliform, fecal streptococcus, other microbes

Health hazard for human consumption and contact

Inedibility of shellfish for humans

Reduced contact recreation

Biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, volatile solids sulfides

Deoxygenation, potential for septic conditions

Fish kills

If severe, eliminated recreation

Reduced light penetration, Reduced photosynthesis, changed bottom organism deposition on bottom, population, reduced fish benthic deoxygenation production, reduced sport fish population, increased nonsport fish population Mining discharges, acid mine drainage, pH, acidity, alkalinity, Acidity, salination, toxicity Reduced biological industrial discharges, municipal dissolved solids, chlorides, of heavy metals, floating productivity, reduced flow, discharges, combined sewer overflows, sulfates, sodium, specific oils fish kills, reduced urban runoff, oil fields, agricultural metals, toxicity bioassay, production, tainted fish runoff, irrigation return flow, natural visual (oil spills) sources, cooling tower blowdown, transportation spills, coal gasification Fish kills, tainted fish, Cyanides, phenols, toxicity Toxicity of natural Industrial discharges, urban runoff, organics, biodegradable or reduced reproduction, municipal discharges, combined sewer bioassay skeletal development persistent synthetic overflow, agricultural runoff, silvicultural organics runoff, transportation spills, mining discharges Increased production, Nitrogen, phosphorus Increased algal growth, Municipal discharges, agricultural reduced sport fish dissolved oxygen runoff, combined sewer overflows, population, increased reduction industrial discharges, urban runoff, nonsport fish population natural sources Industrial discharges, mining Radioactivity Increased radioactivity Altered natural rate of genetic mutation Cooling water discharges, industrial Temperature Increased temperature, Fish kills, altered species discharges, municipal discharges, composition reduced capacity to cooling tower blowdown absorb oxygen Suspended solids, turbidity, biochemical oxygen demand, sulfides

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10A.1 Causes of Damage to the Quality of Water Resources

Reduced game fishing, aesthetic appreciation

Reduced recreational use, fishing, aesthetic appreciation

Reduced fishing, inedible fish for humans

Tainted drinking water, reduced fishing and aesthetic appreciation Reduced opportunities Possible increased sport fishing by extended season for fish, which might otherwise migrate

Source: From Council of Environmental Quality, 1981, Environmental Trends.

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10-4

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10A.2 Point- and Nonpoint Sources of Water Pollution Sources POINT SOURCES Municipal sewage treatment plants Industrial facilities Combined sewer overflows

NONPOINT SOURCES Agricultural runoff Urban runoff Construction runoff Mining runoff Septic systems Landfills/spills Silvicultural runoff

Common Pollutant Categories BOD; bacteria; nutrients; ammonia; toxics Toxics; BOD BOD; bacteria; nutrients; turbidity; total dissolved solids; ammonia; toxics; bacteria Nutrients; turbidity; total dissolved solids; toxics; bacteria Turbidity; bacteria; nutrients; total dissolved solids; toxics Turbidity; nutrients; toxics Turbidity; acids; toxics; total dissolved solids Bacteria; nutrients Toxics; miscellaneous substances Nutrients; turbidity; toxics

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Water Quality Inventory, 1986 Report to Congress.

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a b c d

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10A.3 Classes of Nonpoint Source Pollution

BOD, Biological Oxygen Demand. PAH, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. PCB, Polycyclic Chlorinated Bi-Phenyls. COD, Chemical Oxygen Demand.

Source: From Ongley, E.D., 1996, Control of water pollution from agriculture-FAO irrigation and drainage paper 55, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Reprinted with permission.

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10-6

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10A.4 Contamination Sources Reported by Public Water-Supply Systems in the United States Water-Supply Source Type of Contamination Industrial/commercial discharges Leaking underground tanks Urban runoff Landfills Synthetic or volatile organics Hazardous waste site(s) Land development Underground waste injection Agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers, etc.) Algae/bacteria Overdraft Water rights disputes Natural contamination (radionuclides, salinity, etc.)

Groundwater

River/Stream

Lake/Reservoir

62 81 35 67 83 37 36 27 49

97 33 91 49 56 31 76 5 126

38 23 24 22 18 8 32 3 86

15 40 16 52

117 7 22 56

124 4 12 35

Note: Number of utilities reporting in each category. Source: From American Water Works Association, 1984 Water Utility Operating Data; Copyright AWWA.

Table 10A.5 Anthropogenic Sources of Pollutants in the Aquatic Environment

Source

Pesticides/ Herbicides

Industrial Organic Micro Pollutants

x

xxxG

xxxG

xxxG

xxx x

xxx xxxG

x

xxx xxxG

xx

x xxx xx

xxxG xx

x

xxx x x

xxx x

x xxx

xx

xxx

xxx

xx

xx

xx

x

xxx

x

xxx

x

Bacteria

Atmosphere Point sources Sewage Industrial effluents Diffuse sources Agriculture Dredging Navigation and harbors Mixed sources Urban runoff and waste disposal Industrial waste disposal sites Note:

Trace Elements

xxx

xx

Nutrients

Oils and Greases

x, Low local significance; xx, Moderate local/regional significance; xxx, High local/regional significance; G, Globally significant.

Source: From Chapman, D. (ed.), 1996, Water quality assessments-A guide to use of biota, Sediments and Water in Environmental Monitoring—Second Edition, Copyright q UNESO/WHO/UNEP, 1996, www.who.int. Reprinted with permission.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-7

SECTION 10B

SURFACE WATER POLLUTION

Percent of impaired waters by 8-digit hydrologic unit code No waters listed

< 5%

5−10%

10−25%

> 25%

Figure 10B.3 Percentage of impaired waters in the United States by 8-digit hydrologic unit code. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, Atlas of America’s Polluted Waters, EPA-840-B-00-002, May 2000, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-8

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Total rivers and streams 3,692,830 miles

81% Not Assessed

ASSESSED rivers and streams 699,946 milesa

426,633 miles

19% ASSESSED

39% IMPAIRED

61% Good

269,258 miles

Leading sources b

Miles

0

10

Percent of IMPAIRED river miles 20 30 40

50 128,859

Agriculture Hydrologic modification

53,850

Habitat modification

37,654

Urban runoff/Storm sewers

34,871

Forestry

28,156

Municipal point sources

27,988

Resource extraction

27,695 0

5

10

15

20

Percent of ASSESSED river miles

Leading pollutants/stressors

0

Miles

10

Percent of IMPAIRED river miles 20 30 40 50

60

Pathogens (bacteria)

93,431

Siltation

84,503

Habitat alterations

58,807

Oxygen-Depleting substances

55,398

Nutrients

52,870

Thermal modifications

44,962

Metals

41,400

Flow alterations

25,355 0

5 10 15 Percent of ASSESSED river miles

20

Figure 10B.4 Leading pollutants and sources of river and stream impairment in the United States.a Excluding unknown and natural sources.b Includes miles assessed as not attainable. Percentages do not add up to 100% because more than one pollutant or source may impair a river segment. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-9

3.0

Detection frequency (percent) 89 81 74 69 66 64 60 48 45 44 37 32 29 27 24

Total concentration (micrograms per liter)

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

Non

pre

scr

Ste r iptio oids nd Inse rug cts s Det rep erg e ent llen me t tab olite s Dis infe cts Pla stic i z ers Fire reta rda nts Inse ctic ides Ant ibio tics PAH Oth s er p Hor res crip mones tion dru gs Ant ioxi dan ts Fra gra nce s Sol van t

0

EXPLANATION Maximum value 75thpencentile Median 25thpencentile Minimum value

''Maximum values not shown: Steroids: 18.3 Non prescription drugs: 17.4 Detergent metabolies: 55.6 Plasticizers: 17.4 Antibiotics: 3.6 Fragrances: 4.3

Steroids, nonprescription drugs, and an insects repellent were the three chemical groups most commonly detected in susceptible streams. Detergent and metabolites, steroids, and plasticizers generally were found at the highest concentrations. Figure 10B.5 Pharmaceuticals, hormones, and other organic wastewater contaminants in United States streams. (From Buxton, H.T. and Kolpin, D.W., 2002, Pharmaceuticals, Hormones, and Other Organic Wastewater Contaminants in U.S. Streams, USGS Fact Sheet FS-027-02, June 2002, www.usgs.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-10

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Alaska

Hawaii

Puerto Rice

Total Number of Stations: 8,348

Figure 10B.6 Sampling stations classified as tier 1 (associated adverse effects are probable). (From USEPA, 2004, The incidence and severity of sediment contamination in surface waters of the United States, National Sediment Quality Survey: Second Edition, EPA 823-R-04-007, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-11

CCPT

WILL

REDN

WMIC

USNK HDSN CONN

SPLT NVBR

WHIT CNBR

LSUS OZRK

NVBR

POTO

RIOG

SANJ

ALBE

ACFB TRIN EXPLANATION Total PCB concentration in sediment, micrograms per kilogram dry weight < 100 100 146 > 146 Study unit

GAFL

0 0

400 MILES 400 KILOMETERS

Figure 10B.7 Geographic distribution of total polychlorinated biphenyls in sediment samples in the United States. (From Wong, C.S., Capel, P.D., and Nowell, L.H., 2000, Organochlorine Pesticides and PCBs in Stream Sediment and Aquatic Biota—Initial Results from the National Water-Quality Assessment Program, 1992–1995, Water-Resources Investigations Report 004053, www.usgs.gov.)

Explanation Decreasing trend No trend Increasing trend Figure 10B.8 PAH trends throughout the United States using sediment core data from 1970 to top of core. (From USEPA, 2004, The incidence and severity of sediment contamination in surface waters of the United States, National Sediment Quality Survey: Second Edition, EPA 823-R-04-007, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-12

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Explanation Decreasing trend No trend Figure 10B.9 Lead trends throughout the United States using sediment core data from 1975 to top of core. (From USEPA, 2004, The incidence and severity of sediment contamination in surface waters of the United States, National Sediment Quality Survey: Second Edition, EPA 823-R-04-007, www.epa.gov.)

2 1.8 1.6 1.4 Ag = Agriculture A/F = Mixed agriculture and forest Bkg = Background Urb = Urban

1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4

HgTot sediment/100 MeHg sediment HgTot water/10 MeHg water × 10 Hg fish

0.2 0 A/F

Mine

Ag

Urb

Bkg

Figure 10B.10 Geometric mean of mercury and methylmercury in fish (mg/g wet), water (mg/L), and sediment (hg/g dry) for land use categories: mixed agriculture and forest, mine, agriculture, urban or industrial activity, and background. (Number of observationZ13, 42, 23, 15, and 34 for A/F, Mine, Ag, Bkg and Urb, respectively. Excludes South Florida Basin.) (From Brumbaugh, W.G. et al., 2001, A national pilot study mercury contamination of aquatic ecosystems along multiple gradients: Bioaccumulation in Fish, USGS, Biological Science Report USGS/BRD/BSR-2001-0009, www.usgs.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-13

Total estuaries 87,369 mi2

64% Not Assessed

ASSESSED estuaries 31,072 mi2

36% ASSESSED

14,873 mi2

49% Good

51% 15,676 mi2 IMPAIRED

Leading pollutants/stressors

Square miles 0

Percent of IMPAIRED estuarine square miles 10 20 30 40 50

Metals

8,077

Pesticides

5,985

Oxygen-depleting substances

5,324

Pathogens (bacteria)

4,764

Priority toxic organic chemicals

3,652

PCBs

2,622

Total dissolved solids

2,494 0

5

10

15

20

25

Percent of ASSESSED estuarine square miles

Leading sources a

Square miles Percent of IMPAIRED estuarine square miles 0

10

20

30

40

Municipal point sources

5,779

Urban runoff/storm sewers

5,045

Industrial discharges

4,116

Atmospheric deposition

3,692

Agriculture

2,811

Hydrologic modifications

2,171

Resource extraction

1,913 0

5

10

15

20

Percent of ASSESSED estuarine square miles

Figure 10B.11 Leading pollutants and sources of estuary impairment in the United States.a Excludes unknown, natural, and “other sources.” Percentages do not add up to 100% because more than one pollutant or source may impair an estuary. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02001, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-14

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Total ocean shoreline 58,618 mi

ASSESSED ocean shoreline 3,221 mia

94% Not 6% Assessed ASSESSED

14% IMPAIRED 434 mi

86% Good

2,755 mi

Leading pollutants/stressors

Miles Present of IMPAIRED shoreline miles

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Pathogens (bacteria)

384

Oxygen-depleting substances Turbidity

102

Suspended solids

50

Oil and grease

48

Metals

46

Nutrients

43

53

0

2

4 6 8 10 Present of ASSESSED shoreline miles

12

Leading sourcesb

Miles Present of IMPAIRED shoreline miles 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Urban runoff/storm sewers

241

Nonpoint sources

142

Land disposal

123

Septic tanks

103

Municipal point sources

89

Industrial discharges

76

Construction

29 0

2

4

6

8

Present of ASSESSED shoreline miles

Figure 10B.12 Leading pollutants and sources of ocean shoreline water impairment in the United States.a Includes miles assessed as not attainable.b Excludes natural sources. Percentages do not add up to 100% because more than one pollutant or source may impair a segment of ocean shoreline. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-15

Sources

3 States reporting

Total

100

Nonpoint sources (general) Municipal discharges

49

Marinas

27

Industrial discharges

10 8

Combined sewer overflows 0

20

40

60

80

100

Square miles impacted Figure 10B.13 Sources associated with shellfish harvesting restrictions. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov.)

Overall Great Lakes

Overall National Coastal Condition

Good

Good

Fair

Fair

Overall Northeast Poor

Good

Fair

Poor

Poor

Overall Southeast

Good Ecological Health Water Quality Index

Fair

Poor

Overall West Good

Fair

Poor

Sediment Quality Index Benthic Index

Overall Gulf Good

Fair

Poor

Coastal Habitat Index

Overall Puerto Rico

Fish Tissue Index

Good

Fair

Poor

* * Surveys completed, but no indicator data available until the next report

* Surveys completed, but no indicator data available until the next report

Figure 10B.14 Overall United States national coastal condition. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2004, National Coastal Condition Report II, EPA-620/R-03/002, December 2004, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-16

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

The area and duration of hypoxia are tracked in the Gulf of Mexico and Long Island Sound as indicators of the natural variability in those waterbodies to determine whether actions to control nutrients are having the desired effect and how local species are affected. The largest of oxygen-depleted coastal waters in the U.S. is in the northern Gulf of Mexico on the Louisiana/Texas continental shelf. Hypoxic waters are most prevalent from late spring through late summer and are more widespread and persistent in some years that in others, depending on river flow, winds, and other environmental variables. Hypoxia occurs mostly in the lower water column, but can encompass as much as the lower half to two-thirds of the entire column. The midsummer bottom area extent of hypoxic water in the Gulf of Mexico increased from 3,500 mi 2 (9,000 km 2) in 1985 to 8,500 mi 2 (22,000 km 2) in July 2002 (Exhibit 2-3). The primary cause of the hypoxic conditions is probably the eutrophication of those waters from nutrient enrichment delivered to the Gulf by the Mississippi River and its drainage basin.13,14

Exhibit 2-3: Area extent of midsummer hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico, 1985−2002 25,000 (9,702 mi2) 20,000

Square Kilometers

(7,772 mi2)

15,000 (5,792 mi2)

10,000 (3,861 mi2)

5,000 (1,930 mi2)

0 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Note: Hypoxia in the Gulf is defined as less than 2.0 parts per million (ppm). Annual Midsummer cruises have been conducted systematically over the past 15 years (with the exception of 1989). Hypoxia in bottom waters covered an average of 8,000−9,000 km2 in 1985−92 but increased to 16,000−20,000 km2 in 1993−99.

The maximum area of hypoxia in Long

Exhibit 2-4: Maximum area and duration of hypoxia in Long Island Sound, 1987−2001

(521

km2)

from 1987 through

450

Area of hypoxia

Duration of hypoxia

90

400

80

(1,023 km2) in 1994, and the smallest

350

70

300

60

250

50

200

40

150

30

100

20

50

10

was 30 mi2 (78 km2) in 1997 (Exhibit 2-4). The duration of hypoxia averaged 56 days during the same period, with a low of 34 days in 1996 and a high of 82 days in 1989. Hypoxia is typically more severe in the western portions of the sound, where the nitrogen load is higher and mixing of fresh and salt water is more restricted.15

Square Miles

2001. The largest area was 395 mi2

0

Days

Island Sound averaged 201 mi2

0 1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

Note: Hypoxia in Long Island Sound is defined as less than 3.0 parts per million (ppm).

Figure 10B.15 Hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico and Long Island Sound. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2003, EPA’s Draft Report on the Environment, 2003, EPA 600-R-03-050, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-17

Southern California

40

Gulf of Mexico

82

46 75

28 29 93

South Florida

99 53

Southeast

59

11

34

77

MidAtlantic

46

U.S.

63 75

45 40

0

20

40

Metals Pesticides PCBs

60 80 Percent area

100

120

Figure 10B.16 Regional sediment enrichment (1990–1997) in United States coastal waters due to human sources. (From United States Enviornmental Protection Agency, 2003, EPA’s Draft Report on the Environment, 2003, EPA 600-R-03-050, www.epa.gov.) Original Source: USEPA, National Coastal Condition Report, September 2001.

1% > ERM

1% > ERM

23% between ERL and ERM

29% between ERL and ERM

70% < ERL

Pesticides

10% between ERL and ERM

1% > ERM

76% < ERL

Metals

89% < ERL

PAHs/PCBs

Contaminant Concentrations with Adverse Effects on Organisms Below Levels Associated with Adverse Affects

Effects Possible but Unlikely

Effects Likely

Coverage: United States east coast (excluding waters north of Cape Cod) and Gulf of Mexico Figure 10B.17 Distribution of sediment contaminant concentrations in sampled estuarine sites, 1990–1997. ERL, NOAA Effects Range Low; ERM, NOAA Effects Range median. (From United States Enviornmental Protection Agency, 2003, EPA’s Draft Report on the Environment, 2003, EPA 600-R-03-050, www.epa.gov.) Original Source: USEPA, National Coastal Condition Report, September 2001.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Median concentration relative to 1990

10-18

3.0 2.8 LMWPAH DDT 2.6 HMWPAH PCB 2.4 Chlordane Butyltin 2.2 Dieldrin 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

Year Figure 10B.18 Trends in contaminant concentrations measured in NOAA’s mussel water project since 1986. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2004, National Coastal Condition Report II, EPA-620/R-03/002, December 2004, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-19

Leading POLLUTANTS in impaired lakes* ASSESSED lakes 17.3 million acres

Total lakes 40.6 million acres

57% Not Assessed

43% ASSESSED

9.4 million acres

45% IMPAIRED 7.7 million acres

55% Good

Leading pollutants/stressors

Acres Percent of IMPAIRED lake acres

0

10

20

30

40

50

Nutrients

3,840,383

Metals

3,220,650

Siltation

1,585,383

Total dissolved solids

1,497,828

Oxygen-depleting substances

1,123,432

Excess algal growth

957,088

Pesticides

632,217 0

5

10

15

20

25

Percent of ASSESSED lake acres

Leading sources

Acres Percent of IMPAIRED lake acres 0

10

20

30

40

50

Agriculture

3,158,393

Hydrologic modifications

1,413,624

Urban runoff/storm sewers

1,369,327

Nonpoint sources

1,045,036

Atmospheric deposition

983,936

Municipal point sources

943,715

Land disposal

856,586 0

5

10

15

20

Percent of ASSESSED lake acres

* Eleven states did not include the effects of statewide fish consumption advisories when reporting the pollutants and sources responsible for impairment. Therefore, certain pollutants and sources, such as metals and atmospheric deposition, may be under represented. Excluding unknown, natural, and "other" sources. Includes acres assessed as not attainable.

Note :

Percentages do not add up to 100% because more than one pollutant or source may impair a lake.

Figure 10B.19 Leading pollutants and sources in impaired lakes in the United States. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-20

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

ASSESSED Great Lakes shoreline 5,066 mi

Total Great Lakes shoreline 5,521 mi

8% Not Assessed

92% ASSESSED

22% Good 1,095 mi

78% IMPAIRED 3,955 miles

Leading pollutants/stressors

Miles

Percent of IMPAIRED Great Lakes shoreline miles 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Priority toxic organic chemicals

497

Nutrients

109

Pathogens (bacteria)

102

Sedimentation/siltation

98

Oxygen-depleting substances

73

Taste and odor

53

PCBs

43 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Percent of ASSESSED Great Lakes shoreline miles

Leading sources

Miles Percent of IMPAIRED Great Lakes shoreline miles 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Contaminated sediments

519

Urban runoff/storm sewers

152

Agriculture

75

Atmospheric deposition

71

Habitat modification

62

Land disposal

61

Septic tanks

61 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Percent of ASSESSED Great Lakes shoreline miles

Note: Percentages do not add up to 100% because more than one pollutant or source may impair a segment of great lakes shoreline.

Figure 10B.20 Leading pollutants and sources in impaired Great Lakes shoreline waters in the United States. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-21

30

Proposed TP Guideline

TP (µg/L)

25

(Phosphorus Management Strategies Tast Force, 1980)

20 15 10 5 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97

Superior

30

90

TP (µg/L)

25

80 70 60

20

25

30

20

25

15

20

10 5 0

15

71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97

5

Huron

0

10

71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97

5 0

50

15 10

Ontario 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97

Michigan 40 30

TP (µg/L)

20 10 0

30

30

25

25

TP (µg/L)

TP (µg/L)

TP (µg/L)

100

30

TP (µg/L)

0

20 15 10

7173757779818385878991939597

5

Erie Western Basin

0

20 15 10 5

71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97

0

71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97

Central Basin

Eastern Basin

Erie Figure 10B.21 Total phosphorous trends in the Great Lakes from 1971 to 1997 (spring, open lake surface). (From International Joint Commission, 2004, 12th Biennial Report on Great Lakes Water Quality, September 2004, www.ijc.org.)

Wet

Trace metal depositional flux (mg/m2-yr)

CB

CB

12

Great Lakes (GL) 10

8 1,000 6

Chesapeake Bay (CB) GL

GL CB

500

4

CB GL GL GL

Lead

CB

Cadmium

GL

CB

Arsenic

Total PCBs

Phenanthrene Pyrene

2

Organic contaminant depositional flux (mg/m2-yr)

1,500

Dry

Benzo (a) Pyrene

Figure 10B.22 Comparison of Chesapeake Bay and Great Lakes atmospheric depositional fluxes. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1997, Deposition of Air Pollutants to the Great Waters Second Report to Congress, EPA-453/R-97-011, www.epa.gov.) Original Source: Baker et al., 1996 (Chesapeake Bay) and Eisenreich and Strachen 1992 (Great Lakes).

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-22

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

AIR WATER

Vapor Phase Total PCBs (pg/m3)

SEDIMENT

2000 1000 500

Water Column Diss. TotalPCBs (ng/L) 0.637 Sediment Total PCBs (ng/g)

Tributary Total PCBs (ng/L)

90 80

0.530

210

0.423

168

70 60 50 40

0.317

126

30 20

0.210 84

10 0

0.104 42

0

Figure 10B.23 Concentrations of total PCBs in the atmosphere, tributaries, water column and sediments of Lake Michigan. (From McCarty, H.B. et al., United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2004, Results of the Lake Michigan Mass Balance Study: Polychlorinated Biphenyls and trans-Nonachlor Data Report, EPA 905 R-01-011, April 2004, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-23

Lake Michigan polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) sources, 1970 and 1995 values in kilograms per year Atmosphere

Tributaries

Sediment

1610 350 4500

1150

12000 2500

1995

1970 Note:

This graphic was created for this report by the EPA Great Lakes National Program Office and the EPA, Office of Research and Developments Large Lakes Research Station using MICHTOX a mass balance and bio accumulation model and air, water, and sediment data drawn from the Great Lakes Environmental Monitoring Database (GLENDA). The 1970 model run was based on available data and extrapolations. The 1995 model run was based on data collected during the Lake Michigan Mass Balance Study that collected over 25,000 samples at 200 locations in 1994−1995.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) trends in great lakes fish tissue,* 1972−2000

Atmospheric deposition of (PCBs) and DDT in the great lakes, 1992−1998

25 *Lake Trout (Walleye in Lake Erie)

Total Atmospheric Inputs (Wet + Dry + Gaseous Absorption)

L. Michigan

20

Total PCBs

1600

DDT

1400

PCB Trend Line 2 R = 0.7476

1200 1000

DDT Trend Line R2 = 0.6947

800 600 400

PCBs (parts per million)

Total atmospheric inputs (kg/yr)

1800

L. Ontario L. Huron L. Erie L. Superior

15

10

200 5

0 1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

Year Note:

R2 is the coefficient of determination. It gives a measure of the strength of the correlation.

0 1972

1976

1980

1984

1988

1992

1996

2000

Figure 10B.24 Bioaccumulation of PCBs and DDT in the Great Lakes. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2003, EPA’s Draft Report on the Environment, 2003, EPA 600-R-03-050, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-24

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

250

200

150

100

50

0 Superior

Michigan

1988

Huron

1992

Erie 1994

Ontario 1996

Figure 10B.25 Loading estimates of benzo(a)pyrene to the Great Lakes (kg/yr). (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, Deposition of Air Pollutants to the Great Waters Third Report to Congress, EPA-453/R-00-005, www.epa.gov.)

Mercury concentration (ppb dw)

1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 t

er

en

at

W

Se

n

to

m di

pl

to

y Ph

k an

l

op

Zo

t

o

n

ou

oh

to

k an

Ad

ul

tC

ke

Tr

La

Figure 10B.26 Mercury concentrations in various components of the Lake Michigan ecosystem. (From McCarty, H.B., Brent, R.N., Schofield, J., and Rossmann, R., 2004, Results of the Lake Michigan Mass Balance Study: Mercury Data Report, EPA 905 R-01-012, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-25

Naubinway

N

20

Manistique Escanaba

Mackinaw City 60

Scale

20

a

100 km 150 km

20

sul

0 km 50 km

nin

Menominee

Charlevoix

60

Pe

20

Frankfort

60

20

20

Do

0

or

10

140

60

14 0

Green Bay

Manistee

100

Pentwater

Legend

100

20

20 60

Sheboygan

100

Manitowoc

Lake Michigan Mass Balance Project 1994−1996 Surficial Sediment (0−1 cm) Mercury Concentrations (ng/g)

0 60 10

60 0 14

20

220 ng/g 200 ng/g

Muskegon Grand Haven

Milwaukee 100

20

60

Saugatuck

120 ng/g 100 ng/g

0 14

Waukegan 0 10

South Haven Benton Harbor

60 20

Chicago

160 ng/g 140 ng/g

Racine 20

180 ng/g

80 ng/g 60 ng/g 40 ng/g 20 ng/g 0 ng/g

Michigan City Gary

−20 ng/g

Figure 10B.27 Mercury concentrations (mg/kg) in Lake Michigan surficial sediments (1994–1996). (From McCarty, H.B. et al., 2004, Results of the Lake Michigan Mass Balance Study: Mercury Data Report, EPA 905 R-01-012, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-26

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Mercury 2000

PCBs

1999 Chlordane

1998 1997

Dloxins

1996 1995

DDT

1994

2,400

2,200

1,800

1,600

1,400

1,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

0

2,000

1993

Others

Number of advisories Figure 10B.28 Trends in the number of fish consumption advisories issued for various pollutants. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2001, Fact Sheet Update: National Listing of Fish and Wildlife Advisories, EPA-823-F-01-010, April 2001, www.epa.gov.)

Percent of total acres or miles under advisory

30 River miles Lake acres

25 20 15 10 5 0 1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Coverage: all 50 states Figure 10B.29 Trends in percentage of river miles and lake acres under fish consumption advisory, 1993–2001. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2003, EPA’s Draft Report on the Environment, 2003, EPA 600-R-03-050, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-27

Number of stations

120

100

80

60

40

20

0 Excellent

Good

Fair

Marginal

Poor

Note: Data were taken over the period 1990 to 2002. These Water Quality Index (WQI) results are preliminary and should not be regarded as a benchmark or starting point for future trends. Rather, this pilot study provides a first approximation for a national picture of ambient fresh water quality in Canada. Improvements in consistency of application and representation will be sought in the near future. The WQI values have been calculated by each province and territory (except Quebec) using the methodology developed and endorsed by the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) in September 2001. According to the CCME user’s manual,1 the specific variables, objectives and time periods used in the index are not specified by the methodology and, because of differences in local conditions, monitoring programs and water quality issues, they vary from one jurisdiction to another. In this regard, it is expected that the variables and objectives chosen to calculate the index provide relevant information about a particular site. In Quebec, water quality was evaluated using an index other than the CCME WQI: L’indice de la qualite´ bacte´riologique et physico-chimique. The results between the two indexes have a reasonable degree of comparability. The premise is that the evaluation of water quality in one jurisdiction by water quality experts familiar with the local conditions should be comparable with a similar evaluation by experts in another jurisdiction, even though the index tools may have some variation. The national portrayal of the WQI results includes information from all provinces and territories except Nunavut and the Yukon, for which suitable data were unavailable at this time. The water bodies included in the WQI calculations do not provide uniform coverage across Canada, but rather tend to be concentrated in the more populated areas of the country where the potential threats to water quality are generally greatest. The coverage and the density of sites are also higher in some provinces than in others. 1. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 2001, Canadian Water Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Life; CCME Water Quality Index 1.0, User’s Manual. Figure 10B.30 Canadian freshwater quality indicator by quality class. Data were taken over the period 1990–2002. (From Produced by Environment Canada based on the Index values or water quality data supplied by the provinces and territories under the auspices of the Water Quality Task Group of the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. Environment Canada, National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy, 2003, Environment and Sustainable Development Indicators for Canada, Ottawa.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-28

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

2 0 22

0

33 297

10 712

1,537

0 1*

11*

*Provincewide advisories in effect in 1997 for Nova Scotia (all rivers and lakes) and New Brunswick (all lakes). Figure 10B.31 Total number of fish advisories in effect in Canada. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2001, Fact Sheet Update: National Listing of Fish and Wildlife Advisories, EPA-823-F-01-010, April 2001, www.epa.gov.)

UK—Scotland (2000) Romania (2000) Bosnia and Herzegovina (2000) Finland (1997) Poland (2000) Latvia (2000) UK—England and Wales (2000) Albania (2001) UK—Northern Ireland (2000)

Biological

Slovak Rep. (2000)

Physicochemical

France (1999)

Combined

Sweden (2000) Poland (2000) Czech Rep. (1996) UK—England and Wales (2000) Ireland (1997) Germany (2000) UK—Northern Ireland (2000) Slovak Rep. (2000) Latvia (2000) 0

20

40

60

80

100

%

Figure 10B.32 Percentage of European rivers classified as less than good, by country. (From Trent, Z, European Environment Agency, Indicator Fact Sheet, National River Classification System (WEC04e), Version 13.10.03, eeaeuropa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-29

UK—Northern Ireland Albania Ireland Bosnia and Herzegovina Latvia Czech Rep. UK—Scotland Czech Rep. Slovenia Luxembourg Poland France Latvia UK—England and Wales Poland Czech Rep. UK—England and Wales Romania Austria Germany UK—Northern Ireland Spain

Biological Physcio-chemical Combined −6

−5

−4

−3

−2

−1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

% change per year of reporting period Figure 10B.33 Rate of change in rivers classified as less than good and good as a percentage of the total river classified. (From European Environment Agency, 2003, Europe’s Water: An Indicator-Based Assessment Summary, EEA, Copenhagen, www.eea.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.)

35

Biological quality (% of river length surveyed)

1990 1995

30

2000 25

20

15

10

5

0 Very good

Good

Fairly good

Fair

Poor

Bad

Figure 10B.34 Biological quality of United Kingdom rivers, 1990–2000. (From United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2003, Water for People Water for Life, The United Nations World Water Development, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and Berghahn Books, www.unesco.org. Reprinted with permission.) Original Source: Adapted from Environmental Agency, UK, 2002.

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10-30

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

1.8

0.25

1.6 0.2

1.2 0.15

1 0.8

0.1

Mercury µg/L

Cadmium µg/L

1.4

Cadmium Mercury

0.6 0.4

0.05

0.2

95 19

93 19

91 19

89 19

87 19

85 19

19

83

81 19

79

0

19

19

77

0

Figure 10B.35 Trends in concentrations of cadmium and mercury at river stations included in the European Union exchange of information decision. The EU environmental quality standards for cadmium and mercury in inland waters are 5mg/L and 1mg/L as annual averages, respectively. In less polluted areas in e.g. Nordic countries concentrations of cadmium and mercury are only 10% and 1% of these values. Average of country annual average concentrations. Cadmium data from Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, UK. Mercury data from Belgium, France Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, UK. (From EEA, Indicator fact sheet, Hazardous Substances in River Water (WHS02), www.eea.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.)

µg/L 3,0

Cadmium

µg/L 1,5

Mercury

1977–80 1980s 1991–96

2,5

1,2

2,0 0,9 1,5 0,6 1,0

0,0

0,0

U

U

Lu x

ni Den te d ma Ki r ng k do Th Be m e N lgiu et he m rla n Fr ds an c G er e m a Ire ny la nd Sp a G in re ec e Ita l Po y rtu ga l

0,3

em bo ni Be urg te d lgiu Ki ng m Th D dom e enm N a et he rk r l G an er d m s a Ire ny la nd Ita l Sp y ai Fr n an G ce re e Sw ce ed en

0,5

Figure 10B.36 Annual average concentrations of cadmium and mercury in European Union rivers between late 1970s and 1996. (From EEA, 2003, Europe’s Environment, The Third Assessment, Environmental Assessment Report No. 10, EE1, Copenhagen, eea. Reprinted with permission q EEA.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-31

0.4509

Pentachlorophenol

0.0706 0.0529

1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene (TCB)

0.0117 0.0355 0.0335

Indeno (1,2,3-cd) pyrene

0.0349

Chlorpurifos Chlorfenvinphos

0.0199 0.02 0.003 0.0175

Benzo-b-fluoranthene Benzo-g,h,i-perylene Benzo-a-perylene Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) Benzo-k-fluoranthene 0.001

0.0088 0.0171 0.008 0.0123 0.007 0.0099 0.005

Mean Median

0.0091 0.0044

0.01

0.1

1

µg/L Figure 10B.37 Median and mean concentrations of the 10 most highly ranked substances in the water framework directive priority list in European rivers. (From EEA, Indicator fact sheet, Hazardous Substances in River Water (WHS02), www.eea.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.)

µg P/L early 1990s mid 1990s late 1990s

Po la n H un d ( ga 99 ) ry Fr Th an (49 e ) ce N et he (19 rla 8) n Sl ds (1 ov en 7) G i er a (1 m an 8) D U en y (7 ni te 3) m d Ki ark ng ( do 35) m Li ( th ua 52) * ni a La (25 ) tv ia (3 Es 9 to ni ) a Sw ( ed 45) en Fi ( nl an 80) d (1 20 )

450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0

Note : Average of annual median concentrations. Number of stations in brackets: *UK figures for orthophosphate-p. Figure 10B.38 Total phosphorus concentrations in rivers, selected European Union and accession countries. (From European Environmental Agency (EEA), 2002, Environmental Signals 2002—Benchmarking the Millennium, Environmental Assessment Report No. 9, www.eea.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.)

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10-32

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

µg N/L 7 6 5

early 1990s mid 1990s late 1990s

4 3 2 1 U Ki nite ng d d D om en m (48 G ar ) er k m ( an 32) H y (1 un 0 ga 4) ry Th Fr (4 e 2) N anc et e he (3 rla 2 nd 3) s Po (1 7) la nd ( Be 11 4) lg iu m Sl ( ov 26 en ) Li ia th ua (9) ni a Es (2 3) to ni a ( 21 La ) tv ia (2 Fi nl 8) an d (6 0)

0

Note: Average of annual median concentrations. Number of stations in brackets. Figure 10B.39 Nitrate concentrations in rivers, selected European Union and accession countries. (From European Environmental Agency (EEA), 2002, Environmental Signals 2002—Benchmarking the Millennium, Environmental Assessment Report No. 9, www.eea.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-33

Phosphate mg P/L 160

AC (387) Western (319) Northern (127)

140 120 100

Note : Data collected by Eurowaternet: Western: Denmark, Germany, France and the UK, Northern: Finland and Sweden and AC: Slovenia, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Estonia and Bulgaria. Number of stations in brackets.

80 60 40 20

(a)

19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00

0

mg NO3 /L 14

Northern (138) AC (446) Western (337)

12 10 8

Note : Data collected by Eurowaternet: Western: Denmark, Germany, France and the UK, Northern: Finland and Sweden and AC: Slovenia, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Estonia and Bulgaria. Number of stations in brackets.

6 4 2

19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00

(b)

19 90

0

Figure 10B.40 Phosphate and nitrate in European rivers. (From European Environment Agency, 2003, Europe’s Water: An IndicatorBased Assessment Summary, EEA. Copenhagen. q EEA, www.eea.europa.eu.)

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10-34

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Major Issue—Greater than 33% of the draniage basin has not met phosphorus guidelines for "good" surface water quality Significant Issue—5% to 33% of the drainage basin has not met phosphorus guidelines for "good" surface water quality Not a Significant Issue—Greater than 50% of the drainage basin has monitoring coverage and less than 5% of the drainage basin exceeds phosphorus guidelines for "good" surface water quality Undetermined Issue—Less than 50% of the drainage basin has monitoring coverage. phosphorus guidelines for "good" surface water quality exceeded in less than 5% of the drainage basin No monitoring coverage/Data not available

Figure 10B.41 Australian river systems where phosphorous levels exceed state or territory guidelines for the protection of ecosystems. (From Ball, J. et al., 2001, Inland Waters, Australia State of Environment Report 2001 (Theme Report), CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra, www.deh.gov.au. Reprinted with permission.) Original Source: National Land and Water Resources Audit, 2001a.

100% 80% Worse

60%

No change Better

40% 20% 0%

Africa

Asia

Central and Australia South America

Europe

Total

Note : This figure is based on a sample of 93 lakes. Although there has been improvement of lake water condition in some areas of all regions, the overwhelming trend illustrated here is deterioration in quality, most notably in Central and South America where close to 80 percent of sampled lakes deteriorated in the studied period. Figure 10B.42 Changes in world lake conditions, 1960–1990. (From United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2003, Water for People Water for Life, The United Nations World Water Development, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and Berghahn Books, www.unesco.org.) Original Source: Data collated for Loh et al., 1998.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

300

250

200

10-35

LakeComo (IT) Mälaren (SE) Bodensee (CH, DE, AT)

300

Ijsselmeer (NL) Erne (GB) Neagh (GB)

250

200

300

250

200

100

50

50

50

0

0

0 19 80 19 85 19 90 19 95 20 00

100

20 00

100

19 90 19 95

150

19 85

150

19 80

150

19 50 19 60 19 70 19 80 19 90 19 99

Cheboksarskij reservoir (RU) Lekshm (RU) Ladoga (RU)

Figure 10B.43 Trends in total phosphorous concentrations in some large European lakes. (From EEA, 2003, Europe’s Environment, The Third Assessment, Environmental Assessment Report No. 10, EE1, Copenhagen. Reprinted with permission q EEA, www.eea.europa.eu.)

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10-36

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Mercury % Relative to year 1990 level

% Relative to year 1990 level

Cadmium 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Direct and riverine input Atmospheric input Selected sources –– Romania Lindane

200 150 100 50 0 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 Direct and riverine input Atmospheric input

% Relative to year 1990 level

% Relative to year 1990 level

Lead

Direct and riverine input Atmospheric input

140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 Direct and riverine input

% Relative to year 1990 level

PCB 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 Direct and riverine input

Figure 10B.44 Change (%) in direct riverine and atmospheric inputs of cadmium, mercury, lead, lindane, and PCB in the Northeast Atlantic. (From Green, N. et al., 2003, Hazardous Substances in the European Marine Environment: Trends in Metals and Persistent Organic Pollutants, European Environment Agency, Topic Report 2/2003, www.eea.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-37

Mediterranean — Mytilus galloprovincialis

Cadminum Lead Mercury

Index 1990 = 100 250 200 150 100

19 99

19 97

19 95

19 93

19 91

19 89

19 87

19 85

50

Baltic — Clupea harengus Index 1990 = 100 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 19 99

19 97

19 95

19 93

19 91

19 89

19 87

19 85

0

NE Atlantic — Gadus morhua Index 1990 = 100 300 250 200 150 100 50

19 99

19 97

19 95

19 93

19 91

19 89

19 87

19 85

0

NE Atlantic — Mytilus edulis Index 1990 = 100 150 120 90 60 30

19 99

19 97

19 95

19 93

19 91

19 89

19 87

19 85

0

Figure 10B.45 Concentrations of selected metals and synthetic organic substances in marine organisms in the Mediterranean and Baltic Sea, and in the North East Atlantic Ocean. (From European Environmental Agency (EEA), 2003, Europe’s Environment, The Third Assessment, Environmental Assessment Report No. 10, EE1, Copenhagen, www.eea.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.)

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10-38

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

´000 tons/year 80

Phosphorus discharge in North sea

70

´000 tons/year 50

1985

45

2000

40

60

Phosphorus discharge in Baltic sea

Late 1980s 1995

35

50

30

40

25 20

30

15 20

10

10

5 0

0

e

T

ur

ult

ic gr

W

A

´000 tons/year

try

r he s Ot urce so

us

UW

Ind

Nitrogen discharge in North sea

700

e

ur

ult

ric

Ag

UW

W

T Ind

us

try u Aq

ac

ult

ur

e

Nitrogen discharge in Baltic sea

´000 tons/year 600

Late 1980s 1985

600

1995

500

2000 500 400 400 300 300 200

200

100

100 0

e

ur

lt icu

UW

r

Ag

´000 tons/year 300

W

T

u Ind

str

r he s Ot urce so

y

Nitrogen discharge in Black sea

0

25

200

20

150

15

100

10

50

5

s me

tic

u Ind

Do ´000 tons/year 900

str

y

ve Ri

rin

e

Nitrogen discharge in Caspian sea

UW

´000 tons/year 30

250

0

e

ur

ult

ric

Ag

W

T Ind

c sti me Do ´000 tons/year 100 90

700

80

try u Aq

ac

ult

ur

e

Phosphorus discharge in Black sea

0

800

us

Ind

us

try

e

rin

ve

Ri

Phosphorus discharge in Caspian sea

70

600

60 500 50 400

40

300

30

200

20

100

10

0

Ri

ve

rin

e M

un

pa ici

liti

es

Ind

us

try

0

Ri

ve

rin

e M

ic un

ipa

liti

es

Ind

us

try

Figure 10B.46 Source apportionment of nitrogen and phosphorus discharges in Europe’s seas and percentage reductions. (From European Environmental Agency (EEA), 2003, Europe’s Environment, The Third Assessment, Environmental Assessment Report No. 10, EE1, Copenhagen, www.eea.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission.) Original Source: North Sea progress report 2002; Finnish Environmental Insitute. 2002, Black Sea Commission, 2002; Caspian Environmental Program, no date. q EEA. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Stations % 100

10-39

Phosphate

80

Decreasing

60 No trend

40 20

Increasing

0 Stations %

Nitrate

100 Decreasing 80 60

No trend

40 20 Increasing

Be lg ia n co D G u er tc ast h m co an as w D t es an tc is h oa w st es tc oa Ka st D an tte is g h es at t So ua rie ut he s B N r e n lt or Se th Ba er l n tic P a Ba r lti ope c Pr r G op ul fo er fF in la Bo nd th ni an Se a

0

Note : For each station or sampling point in the subregions of the Baltic and North Seas, a trend analysis of winter nutrient concentrations in water from 1985 to 1997/2000 was carried out.The bars in the graph show, at how many sampling points (as %) a decrease or an increase in nutrient concentrations at the 5 % significance level is observed. Figure 10B.47 Trends in nutrients in the Baltic Sea and coastal North Sea waters, 1985–1997/2000. (From European Environmental Agency (EEA), 2002, Environmental Signals 2002—Benchmarking the Millenium, Environmental Assessment Report No. 9, www.eea.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.)

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10-40

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Global average nitrate levels concentrations at major river mouths

Global dissolved phosphate levels concentrations at major river mouths

1976−1990

1976−1990

1991−2000 Insufficient data for analysis or region not included in study

0.25 0.5 1

1991−2000 2

4 NO3-N mg/L

Insufficient data for analysis or region not included in study

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 PO4-P mg/L

Decreased levels High Medium Low

Decreased levels High Medium Low

No change Increased levels Low Changes between Medium High 1976−1990 and 1991−2000 Insufficient data for analysis or region not included in study

No change Increased levels Low Changes between Medium High 1976−1990 and 1991−2000 Insufficient data for analysis or region not included in study

Figure 10B.48 Global average nitrate and dissolved phosphate levels. (From United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Vital Water Graphics, Global Average Nitrate Levels and Global Dissolved Phosphate Levels, Downloaded 9/22/05, www.unep.org.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-41

Industrial areas and seasonal zones of oxygen depleted waters

Pacific Ocean

Pacific Ocean

Indian Ocean

Arabic Ocean

Industrial areas Seasonal zones of oxygen depleted waters

Figure 10B.49 World industrial areas and seasonal zones of oxygen depleted waters. (From United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Vital Water Graphics, Industrial Areas and Seasonal of Oxygen Depleted Waters, Downloaded 9/22/05, www.unep.org.) Original Source: Malakoff, D., 1998, after Diaz, R.J., and Rosenberg, R., 1995, ESRI, 1990.

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10-42

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Calcium - dissolved (mg/L Ca)

Population < 500,000 500,000−1 million 1 million−2 million 15−30 30−45 > 3 million

45−60

Median value

< 15 2 million−3 million

> 60

Fecal coliform (No/100 ml MF)

Population < 500,000 500,000−1 million

2 million−3 million

< 10 10−1,000 1,001−10,000

> 3 million

10,001−100,000

Median value

1 million −2 million

> 100,000

pH (pH Units)

Population < 500,000 500,000−1 million

2 million−3 million

< 6.5 6.5 −7.0 7.0−7.5

> 3 million

7.5 −8.0

Median value

1 million−2 million

> 8.0

Figure 10B.50 Fecal coliform concentrations and pH values measured in global environment monitoring system stations. (From United Nations Environment Programe, Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) Water Programs, 2004 State of the UNEP GEMS/Water Global Calcium Network and Annual Report, www.unep.org.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-43

Malaysia: River basins water quality trend (1990-2001) 80 70

Number of river basins

60 50 40 30 20 10 0

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 7

6

7

11

14

14

13

25

16

13

12

13

Slightly polluted

35

44

55

73

64

53

61

68

71

72

74

47

Clean

48

37

25

32

38

48

42

24

33

35

34

60

Polluted

Year

Figure 10B.51 Malaysia: river basins water quality trend (1990–2001). (From Leong, K.H. and Mustafa, A.M., 2003, National Water Quality Standards and Status in Malaysia in United Nations University, Capacity Development Training for Monitoring of POPS in the East Asian Hydrosphere, 1–2 September, 2003, UNU Centre, Tokyo, www.unv.org.) Original Source: DOE (1991–2002).

100

800

80

600

60

400

40

Volume (metric ton) Number of spills

200

20

0

0 0L

5L

150L

500L

5000L 400000L

Canadian coast guard, environmental response, Marine Pollution Incident Reporting System (MPIRS) (r2)

Figure 10B.52 Canadian petrol and chemical spills distribution by volume (metric tonne) and number of spills, 2003, (From Marine Programs National Performance Report for 2003–2004, Environmental Response, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Canadian Coast Guard, 2003. Reproduced with the permission of Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, 2006.)

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10-44

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

60%

All spills

50%

More than 500L

40% 30% 20% 10% 0% C&A

MAR

NL

PAC

QUE

Canadian coast guard, Environmental response, Marine Pollution Incident Reporting System (MPRIS) (R2) Figure 10B.53 Regional distribution of Canadian spills in percent. (From Marine Programs National Performance Report for 2003–2004, Environmental Response, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Canadian Coast Guard, 2003. Reproduced with the permission of Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, 2006.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-45

Table 10B.6 Total Assimilative Capacity of Streams of Different Orders

Stream Order

Average Discharge (cfs)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0.6 2.8 14 65 310 1,500 7,000 33,000 160,000 700,000

Average Depth (ft)

Average Velocity (ft/sec)

Coefficient of Reaeration (day–1)

Total Length of Streams (miles)

Total Assimilative Capacity (tons per day per unit deficiency in dissolved oxygen)

— — 0.55 0.95 1.8 2.7 5

— — 1.2 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5

— — 9.3 5.5 2.6 1.8 1.0

1,570,000 810,000 420,000 220,000 116,000 61,000 30,000

— — 16,300 19,000 20,000 30,000 31,000

3.0 4.0 5.0

0.37 0.19 0.10

14,000 6,200 1,800

21,000 18,000 9,400

12 25 45

U.S. Rivers Representative of Each Order — — — — Pecos Shenandoah, Raritan Allegheny, Kansas, Rio Grande Tennessee, Wabash Columbia, Ohio Mississippi

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey, 1967.

Table 10B.7 Surface Waters Impacted in the United States, 2000 (Assessed Waters Only)

Status Full Supporting Threatened Impaired Not Attainable Total Assessed

Rivers (thousands of miles)

Lakes (thousands of acres)

Estuaries (thousands of square miles)

Ocean (thousands of shoreline miles)

367.1 59.5 269.3 0.3 696.2

8,027.0 1,348.9 7,702.4 0.7 17,079.0

13.8 1.0 15.7 0.0 30.5

2.5 0.2 0.4 0.0 3.2

Note: Fully Supporting, Fully supporting of all uses; Threatened, Fully supporting all uses but threatened for one or more uses; Impaired, Partially or not supporting one or more uses; Not Attainable, Not able to support one or more uses. Source:

Abstracted from United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov.

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10-46

Table 10B.8 Status of the United States Surface-Water Quality, 1990–2000 Lakesa

Rivers Item Water systems assessed

1990 36

1992 18

1994 17

1996 19

b

1998 23

c

2000 19

1990 47

1992 46

1994

1996

Estuaries b

1998

Percent of total waterd 42 40 42

c

2000

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998b

2000c

43

75

74

78

72

32

36

Percent of assessed waters

69 21

62 25

64 22

10

13

14

80 19 1

66 34 —

69 31 —

75 15 10

71 20 9

77 23 —

64 36

55 10

53 8

60 19

56 35

63 28

61

46 9

47 8

67 25

68 23

63 27

62

47 10

45 !4

35

39

21

9

9

39

45

45

8

9

9

36

44

51

68 31 —

87 13 0

61 39 —

70 30 0

69 31 —

69 31 —

69 31 —

54 46 —

61 39 —

77 23 —

78 22 0

70 30 0

69 30 0

63 37 0

47 53 —

79 20 —

69 27 5

68 32 —

82 18 —

77 22 —

81 19 —

75 25 —

69 31 —

70 30 —

88 12 —

83 17 0

85 15 —

84 16 —

88 12 0

80 20 —

Note: —, less than 1 percent of assessed waters. a b c d e f

Excluding Great Lakes. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, National Water Quality Inventory: 1998 Report to Congress. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001. Miles of rivers, acres of lakes, square miles of estuaries. Supporting—water quality meets designated use criteria; partially supporting—water quality fails to meet designated use criteria at times; not supporting—water quality frequently fails to meet designated use criteria. In 1996, the categories “Partially supporting” and “Not supporting” were combined.

Source: From Ribaudo, M.O., Horan, R.D., and Smith, M.E., 1999, Economics of Water Quality Protection from Nonpoint Sources: Theory and Practice, Resource Economic Division, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Economic Report No. 782 amended with 1998 and 2000 data, www.ers.usda.gov.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Meeting designated usese Supporting Partially supportingf Not supporting Clean Water Act goals: Fishable Meeting Not meeting Not attainable Clean Water Act goals: Swimmable Meeting Not meeting Not attainable

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-47

Table 10B.9 Ambient Water Quality in United States Rivers and Streams: Violation Rates, 1975–1997

Year

Fecal Coliform Bacteria

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

36 32 34 35 34 31 30 33 34 30 28 24 23 22 30 26 15 28 31 28 35 na na

Dissolved Oxygen

Total Phosphorus

Total Cadmium, Dissolved

Total Lead, Dissolved

Percent of all measurements exceeding national water quality criteria 5 5 * * 6 5 * * 11 5 * * 5 5 * * 4 3 4 13 5 4 1 5 4 4 1 3 5 3 1 2 4 3 1 5 3 4 !1 !1 3 3 !1 !1 3 3 !1 !1 2 3 !1 !1 2 4 !1 !1 3 2 !1 !1 2 3 !1 !1 2 2 !1 !1 2 2 !1 !1 !1 2 na na 2 2 na na 1 4 na na 1 1 !1 !1 1 2 !1 !1

Notes: *Base figure too small to meet statistical standards for reliability of derived figures. na, not available. Violation levels are based on the following U.S. Environmental Protection Agency water quality criteria: fecal coliform bacteria — above 200 cells per 100 ml; dissolved oxygen — below 5 milligrams per liter; total phosphorus — above 1.0 milligrams per liter; cadmium, dissolved — above 10 micrograms per liter; and total lead, dissolved — above 50 micrograms per liter. Source: From The 1997 Annual Report of the Council of Environmental Quality, www.whitehouse.gov/CEQ. Original Source: From U.S. Geological survey, national-level data, unpublished, Reston, VA, 1999.

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10-48

Table 10B.10 Major Pollutants Causing Impairment in 1998 in the United States by State

State Alabama Arkansas Arizona California Colorado Connecticut

Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Iowa Idaho Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts

Sedimentation

Nutrients

Pathogens

miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles

576 4,084 910 3,045 959 3,973 5,768 151,677 233 160 101 772 0

385 70,606 213 4,924 80 241 1,086 470,153 42 0 525 7,577 0

587 3,628 218 35 194 19,336 755 18,027 90 119 1,237 20,554 83

280 529 45 4,413 304 3,026 2,464 709,129 1,355 9,100 625 6,723 59

281 68,083 79 0 0 0 306 332,963 0 0 615 18,532 98

70 559 555 25,853 0 3,053 303 862,749 29 1,561 53 1,019 0

98 10,147 0 0 244 212 2,773 818,002 0 144 380 4,921 0

1,642 140,041 252 1,816 346 5,877 5,717 1,450,270 442 7,928 2,777 29,010 43

acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres

0 5 0 1,219 33,248 149 132 212 7 175 18,535 6,228 84,145 4,001 269,323 0 0 317 38,291 469 1,236 1,022 94,235 6 0 2,610 442,854 208 4,253

0 775 2,334 4,007 332,502 16 0 183 7 71 10,858 2,653 110,854 4,061 270,352 78 23 1,165 64,255 521 6,885 1,566 541,140 147 33,690 5,053 904,112 332 4,874

2,998 760 3,190 2,826 82,704 2,649 45,411 10 0 565 27,113 1,539 5,184 204 7,825 1,251 47,604 9,994 19,739 1,289 20,964 3,390 590,269 682 52,291 1,138 121,256 945 138

1,250 28 0 1,045 179,598 1,918 123,012 10 0 1,447 22,228 503 28,942 1,514 101,836 673 4,695 3,635 15,589 83 536 3,242 581,092 15 0 530 86,927 376 897

2,998 76 1,056 16 135 1 0 0 0 161 97,042 105 0 582 95,491 3,194 89,953 0 0 656 134,087 592 30,201 185 8,487 7 3,333 363 934

0 0 0 1,445 226,025 250 161,96 0 0 61 5 0 0 62 5 2,431 75,516 0 0 6 0 4,911 804,207 0 0 26 13,134 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 76 225 0 0 94 9,072 134 4,850 36 12,881 93 442 435 6,446 17 0 697 74,589 0 0 32 16,916 4 150

2,125 1,234 871 5,616 333,798 5,936 229,830 13 0 3,204 79,113 7,554 229,183 4,017 375,681 1,115 4,511 8,944 39,851 835 3,276 4,862 730,729 987 85,533 467 21,958 1,908 29,454

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Toxics/ Organics

Mercury

Pesticides

Other

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

District of Columbia

Impaired

Toxics/ Metals/ Inorganics

Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Puerto Rico Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas

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17 0 603 6,808 72,256 452,878 1,120 17 15,015 550,491 54 3,266 587 15,617 0 0 8 4,154 638 995 25 1,147 1,161 5,329 2,604 11,904 3,563 44,234 4,791 445,672 1,446 8,207 2,191 4,353 0 0 14 358 0 0 1,828 29,647 12,309 212,709 0

253 2,043 0 0 72,241 447,838 228 2,249 6,703 501,586 93 17,979 702 51,693 19 750 518 7,773 703 172 99 31,369 64 19,890 2,616 58,964 1,347 50,907 4,066 269,714 598 82,975 920 3,118 1 71 150 1,390 10 30,799 336 66,074 3,285 29,289 132

612 19,799 703 4,528 27,189 80,919 90 0 895 76,292 1,987 83,978 0 0 678 8,421 749 4,007 154 1,460 602 19,291 746 7,499 2,691 6,595 321 3,250 524 77,059 2,565 8,190 49 0 0 0 192 1,857 2,674 122,128 1,049 9,561 4,149 9,317 5,463

39 27 135 2,380 1,595 3,934 479 47,396 6,798 338,591 1,190 26,612 924 27,527 795 26,189 952 10,292 628 53 5 24,332 117 8,386 356 6,277 2,020 21,697 1,531 150,373 308 0 3,190 38,139 2 0 153 1,342 230 22,000 521 304 1,608 7,437 952

604 333,258 0 0 777 4,576 0 0 139 3,342 0 0 0 0 445 25,166 106 1,941 13 0 920 405,342 126 25,151 0 0 885 14,358 306 47,244 199 0 572 48,213 0 0 3 46 307 71,102 0 0 2,042 254,155 575

254 362,042 160 10,589 358 9,396 0 0 0 0 0 0 384 14,504 0 0 928 37,219 185 63,658 0 7,337 378 16,685 0 0 0 0 0 0 602 17,453 0 1 0 0 3 46 28,527 209,663 0 0 152 23,505 927

195 314,084 0 0 67,633 436,763 67 32,167 0 0 894 29,692 0 0 0 0 20 74 12 0 0 13,747 14 0 0 0 441 11,154 4,295 293,999 317 0 462 33,403 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 845 179,553 433

1,818 792 513 3,714 1,818 792 1,535 336,693 31,731 1,396,433 263 1,677 589 14,504 503 5,947 7,882 7,550 3,675 5,589 733 111,143 1,813 18,035 4,327 18,714 11,456 105,140 6,614 500,257 19,611 149,335 2,278 5,677 210 873 146 1,145 4,908 88,157 723 43,966 10,072 49,513 3,648 (Continued)

10-49

Minnesota

miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Michigan

State Utah Vermont Virginia Virgin Islands Washington West Virginia

Wyoming

(Continued)

Impaired

Sedimentation

Nutrients

Pathogens

Toxics/ Metals/ Inorganics

acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres miles acres

0 1,194 4,879 102 907 0 0 3 0 18 0 0 2,849 787 41,935 238 16

131 708 109,589 133 13,755 45 18 0 0 1 5,632 0 1,899 231 4,460 47 215

201,824 402 5,215 237 349 1,691 16,125 1 0 393 1,004 174 0 49 0 517 3,862

27,823 823 7,465 42 228 2,069 3,086 0 0 63 1,357 5,276 82,124 35 0 580 5,600

Toxics/ Organics

Mercury

Pesticides

9,961 414 5,215 36 6,120 101 2,434 0 0 28 149 384 50,907 585 149,226 27 0

374,434 17 0 72 10,689 147 21 0 0 14 28 0 0 661 239,092 0 0

67,337 0 0 0 0 104 4,495 0 0 29 6,736 278 44,534 0 0 0 0

Other 399,673 5,417 152,529 314 6,248 4,171 5,547 13 0 812 148 2,633 2,947 2,050 53,827 250 12

Note: Miles include river and shoreline miles, including the Great Lakes and estuarine shorelines. Acres include lake acres, excluding the Great Lakes. Source:

From United States Environmental Protection Agency, Total Maximum Daily Loads, National Overview, Major Pollutants Causing Impairment by State, Last updated on Wednesday, February 16th, 2005, www.epa.gov/owow/tmdl/status.html.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Wisconsin

10-50

Table 10B.10

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-51

Table 10B.11 Top 100 Impairments of Waters in the United States Reported in 1998 for Section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act General Impairment Name

Impairments Reported

Percent of Reported

11,538 7,902 5,586 5,047 4,405 3,178 2,906 2,389 2,200 2,116 1,576 1,468 1,140 994 969 896 884 797 681 621 476 351 286 282 221 195 184 144 98 97 85 75 48 47 47 42 22 13 12 4 2 1 1 1

19.22 13.16 9.31 8.41 7.34 5.29 4.84 3.98 3.67 3.53 2.63 2.45 1.90 1.66 1.61 1.49 1.47 1.33 1.13 1.03 0.79 0.58 0.48 0.47 0.37 0.32 0.31 0.24 0.16 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Metals Pathogens Nutrients Sediment/siltation Organic enrichment/low DO Fish consumption advis. pH Other habitat alterations Thermal modifications Biological criteria Flow alteration Pesticides Turbidity Salinity/TDS/chlorides Suspended solids Cause unknown PCBs Unionized ammonia Priority organics Sulfates Algal growth/chlorophylla Noxious aquatic plants Oil and grease Unknown toxicity Other cause General WQS (benthic) Dioxins Other inorganics Chlorine Nonpriority organics Taste and odor Stream bottom deposits Total toxics Cyanide Biodiversity impacts Exotic species Radiation Natural limits (wetlands) Fish kill(s) Hydrogen sulfide Ambient water quality criteria Low nutrients RDX—Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine 1,2-Diphenylhdrazine Note: Total impairments reported nationwide: 60,027. Source:

From United States Environmental Protection Agency, National Section 303(d) List Fact Sheet, Downloaded 8/28/05, www.epa.gov/owow/tmdl/status.html.

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10-52

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.12 Probable Sources of Water-Quality Problems in the Nation’s Streams in 1982 Probable Source Total nonpoint source contribution Agricultural sources Natural sources Total point source contribution Silviculture/logging Municipal point sources Feed lots Individual sewage disposal Industrial point sources Urban runoff Mining (nonpoint) Combined sewers Construction activity Mining (point) Grazing Other Dam releases Landfill leachate Bedload movement Roads

Stream Miles

Percentage

367,244 281,241 212,389 117,684 71,736 63,816 59,947 47,823 47,097 40,376 31,847 29,246 29,110 28,686 21,970 19,445 19,314 5,504 5,299 3,569

38.4 29.5 22.2 12.3 7.5 6.7 6.3 5.0 4.9 4.2 3.3 3.1 3.1 3.0 2.3 2.0 2.0 0.6 0.6 0.4

Note: Expressed in total stream miles and as percentages of total miles. Source: From Judy, R.D., and others, 1984, 1982 National Fisheries Survey, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS-84/06.

Table 10B.13 Sources of Water-Quantity Problems Adversely Affecting the Nation’s Streams in 1982 Source Natural conditions Diversions (agricultural) Dam(s) (water storage) Dam(s) (flood control) Dam(s) (power) Other Diversions (municipal) Channelization Floods/low flows Irrigation Logging Ditches Diversions (industrial)

Stream Miles

Percentage

477,791 130,223 32,901 28,002 24,821 18,851 10,694 10,629 10,527 8,897 6,271 5,335 3,292

50.1 13.6 3.5 2.9 2.6 2.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.3

Note: Expressed in total stream miles and as percentages of total miles. Source: From Judy, R.D., and others, 1984. 1982 National Fisheries Survey, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS-84/06.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-53

Table 10B.14 Leading Sources Impairing Assessed Rivers and Streams in the United States in 2000 Sources

Stream Miles

Percent of Impaired

Percent of Assessed

128,859 53,850 53,067 43,469 39,056 37,654

47.9 20.0 19.7 16.1 14.5 14.0

18.4 7.7 7.6 6.2 5.6 5.4

34,871 31,033 28,156 27,988 27,695 26,830 24,616 23,795 18,040

13.0 11.5 10.5 10.4 10.3 10.0 9.1 8.8 6.7

5.0 4.4 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.8 3.5 3.4 2.6

17,912 17,821 17,667 16,137 15,988

6.7 6.6 6.6 6.0 5.9

2.6 2.5 2.5 2.3 2.3

Agriculture Hydromodification Crop-related sources Grazing related sources Source unknown Habitat modification (other than hydromodification) Urban runoff/storm sewers Natural sources Silviculture Municipal point sources Resource extraction Nonirrigated crop production Intensive animal feeding operations Channelization Bank or shoreline modification/destabilization Removal of riparian vegetation Land disposal Irrigated crop production Erosion and sedimentation Unspecified nonpoint source Source:

From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001/, www.epa.gov.

Table 10B.15 Heat Generated and Discharged to the Nation’s Fresh and Saline Surface Waters, 1975–2000 1975 Btus!1015 Electric power generation Heat generated Heat discharged to water (Fresh) (Saline) Manufacturing Heat discharged to water (Fresh) (Saline) Total heat discharged (Fresh) (Saline)

Percent of Total Discharged

1985 Btus!1015

Percent of Total Discharged

2000 Btus!1015

Percent of Total Discharged

11.0 5.7

— 66

24.3 7.8

— 98

57.1 7.4

— 98

(3.9) (1.8)

(45) (21)

(3.9) (3.9)

(49) (49)

(2.8) (4.6)

(37) (61)

3.0

34

0.2

2

0.2

2

(2.2) (0.8) 8.7

(73) (27) 100

(0.2) (0) 8.0

(2) (0) 100

(0.2) (0) 7.6

(2) (0) 100

(6.1) (2.6)

(70) (30)

(4.1) (3.9)

(51) (49)

(3.0) (4.6)

(39) (61)

Source: From U.S. Water Resources Council, 1978, The Nation’s Water Resources 1975–2000, Second National Water Assessment.

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10-54

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.16 Point Source Loadings to Receiving Waters in the United States, mid 1980s Industry

TSS

BOD

Phosphorus

Metals

Minerals & metals Chemical & manufacturing Agriculture & fisheries POTWs Total

0.355 0.086 0.277 1.594 2.312

0.006 0.125 0.404 1.830 2.365

0.255 0.267 92.800 49.555 142.877

4.931 2.919 0.000 2.838 10.688

Note: Millions of tons per year for TSS, BOD, and phosphorus and millions of pounds per year for metals; mid1980s. Minerals & metals includes aluminum forming, coal mining, copper forming, foundries, iron and steel, metal finishing, nonferrous metals mining, nonferrous metals forming, ore mining and petroleum refining industries. Chemical & manufacturing includes battery manufacturing, coil coating, electrical and electronic components, organic and inorganic chemicals, plastics, synthetic fibers, pesticide manufacturing, pharmaceuticals manufacturing, plastics molding and forming, porcelain enameling, leather tanning, pulp and paper, and textile industries. Agriculture & fisheries includes animal feedlots, fish hatcheries, food and beverages, fruits and vegetables, meat packing, and seafood industries. POTWs, publicly owned treatment works. TSS, total suspended solids, BOD, biochemical oxygen demand. Metals, cadmium, copper, lead, mercury and zinc. Industrial loadings are direct discharges based on long-term average concentrations and total industry flows at Best Available Technology (BAT) presented in U.S. EPA (1983), except as follows: loadings for electrical and electronic components reflect current level of treatment (U.S. EPA, 1983); conventional loadings for agriculture & fisheries industries represent post-BAT treatment levels; and conventional and toxic pollutant loadings for POTWs include indirect industrial and residential/commercial loadings not removed by the POTWs. Phosphorus loadings for POTWs represent effluent levels of 5 mg/L. Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Effluent Technology Division, unpublished data. 1979. Washington, DC; U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Summary 1986.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-55

Table 10B.17 Point Source Discharges to Water in the United States, 1977 (by Sector) Total Suspended Solids

Sector

Total Dissolved Solids Million Pounds Per Year

Municipal sewage plants Powerplants

3,850.0 1,165.7

Pulp & paper mills

781.8

Feedlots Iron & steel mills Organic chemicals

422.0 254.3 144.0

Misc. food & beverages

91.9

Textiles Mineral mining Seafoods Total, top 10 sectors

61.7 52.7 50.0 6,874.1

Total, all sectors Top 10 sectors as percent of all sectors

13,746.0 50%

Sector Organic chemicals Municipal sewage plants Powerplants Pulp & paper mills Misc. chemicals Misc. food & beverages Oil & gas extraction Petroleum refining Coal mining Iron & steel mills Total, top 10 sectors Total, all sectors Top 10 sectors as percent of all sectors

Nitrogen Sector

Million Pounds Per Year 36,540.4 30,255.2 18,418.1 16,825.8 8,176.4 7,420.2 6,077.0 2,389.8 1,328.7 1,324.0 128,755.6 170,759.0 75%

Phosphorus Million Pounds Per Year

Municipal sewage plants

813.5

Pharmaceuticals

87.6

Organic chemicals

41.1

Feedlots Meat packing

39.9 36.0

Petroleum refining Misc. food & beverages Seafoods Pesticides

15.5 12.3 9.5 8.9

Leather tanning Total, top 10 sectors

7.1 1,071.4

Total, all sectors Top 10 sectors as percent of all sectors

1,237.0 87%

Sector

Municipal sewage plants Feedlots Misc. food & beverages Meat packing Laundries Fertilizers Petroleum refining Seafoods Organic chemicals Poultry Total, top 10 sectors Total, all sectors Top 10 sectors as percent of all sectors

Million Pounds Per Year

Sector Municipal sewage plants Pulp & paper mills Organic chemicals Feedlots Seafoods Misc. food & beverages Cane sugar mills Iron & steel mills Misc. chemicals Textiles Total, top 10 sectors Total, all sectors Top 10 sectors as percent of all sectors

Million Pounds Per Year 3,800.0 530.2 107.6 95.9 86.9 54.8 50.4 37.8 35.2 24.8 4,823.6 6,944.0 69%

Dissolved Heavy Metals Sector

Million Pounds Per Year

73.9

Powerplants

24.4

21.8

Municipal sewage plants Iron & steel mills

9.3

4.7 3.4 3.3 2.6 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.2 115.2 191.0 60%

Source: From Council on Environmental Quality, 1981, Environmental Trends.

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Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Petroleum refining Organic chemicals Ore mining Electroplating Machinery Oil & gas extraction Foundries Total, top 10 sectors Total, all sectors Top 10 sectors as percent of all sectors

7.6 6.0 3.6 2.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.1 54.9 59.0 93%

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.18 Nonpoint Source Contributions to Receiving Waters in the United States Source Cropland Pasture and rangeland Forest land Construction sites Mining sites Urban runoff Rural roadways Small feedlots Landfills Background Total

TSS 1,870.00 1,220.00 256.00 197 59 20 2 2 NA 1,260.00 4,886.00

BOD 9.00 5.00 0.80 NA NA 0.5 0.004 0.05 0.3 5.00 20.35

Nitrogen 4.30 2.50 0.39 NA NA 0.15 0.0005 0.17 0.026 2.50 10.04

Phosphorus 1.56 1.08 0.09 NA NA 0.019 0.001 0.032 NA 1.10 3.88

Note: By source; millions of tons per year; 1980. TSS, total suspended solids. BOD, biochemical oxygen demand. Excluded from the survey area are 207 million acres in public land (14% of the contiguous United States), mostly in the Rocky Mountains, because of inadequacy of information. Urban runoff includes storm water sewers only. Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Regulations and Standards, Nonpoint Source Control Section. 1986. Estimated pollutant contributions to source waters from selected nonpoint sources in the contiguous 48 states (1980). Washington, DC; U.S. Geological survey, National Water Summary 1986.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-57

Table 10B.19 United States Water Quality Conditions by Type of Waterbody: 2000

Item Total size Amount accesseda Percent of total size Amount accessed as— Goodb Good but threatenedc Pollutedd Percent of accessed as— Goodb Good but threatenedc Pollutedd Amount impaired by leading sources of pollutione Agriculture Atmospheric deposition Construction Contaminated sediments Forestry Habitat modification Hydrologic modification Industrial discharges/point sources Land disposal of wastes Municipal point sources Nonpoint sources Resource extraction Septic tanks Urban runoff and storm sewers

Great Lakes Shoreline (mi)

Lakes, Reservoirs, and Ponds (acres)

Estuaries (mi2)

3,692,830 699,946 19

40,603,893 17,339,080 43

87,369 31,072 36

5,521 5,066 92

58,618 3,221 6

463,441 85,544 291,264

8,026,988 1,343,903 7,702,370

13,850 1,023 15,676

— 1,095 3,955

2,176 193 434

53 8 39

47 8 45

45 4 51

— 22 78

79 7 14

128,859 (NA) (NA) (NA) 28,156 37,654 53,850 (NA)

3,158,393 983,936 (NA) (NA) (NA) (NA) 1,413,624 (NA)

2,811 3,692 (NA) (NA) (NA) (NA) 2,171 4,116

75 71 (NA) 519 (NA) 62 (NA) (NA)

(NA) (NA) 29 (NA) (NA) (NA) (NA) 76

(NA) 27,988 (NA) 27,695 (NA) 34,871

856,586 943,715 1,045,036 (NA) (NA) 13,699,327

(NA) 5,779 (NA) 1,913 (NA) 5,045

61 (NA) (NA) (NA) 61 152

123 89 142 (NA) 103 241

Rivers and Streams (mi)

Ocean Shoreline (mi)

Note: Section 305(b) of the Clean Water Act requires states and other jurisdiction to assess the health of their waters and the extent to which their waters support quality standards. Section 305(b) requires that states submit reports describing water quality conditions to the Environment Protection Agency every two years. Water quality standard have three elements (designated uses, criteria developed to protect each use, and an antidegradation policy). For information on survey methodology and assessment criteria, see report. —, Representation zero. NA, Not available. a b c d e

Includes waterbodies accessed as not attainable for one or more uses. Most states do not assess all their waterbodies during the 2-year reporting cycle, but use a “rotating basin approach” whereby all waters are monitored over a set period of time. Based on accessment of available data, water quality supports all designated uses. Water quality meets narrative and/or numberic criteria adopted to protect and support a designated use. Although all assessed uses are currently met, data show a declining trend in water quality. Projections based on this trend indicate water quality will be impaired in the future, unless action is taken to prevent further degradation. Impaired or not attainable. The reporting state or jurisdiction has performed a “use-attainability analysis” and demonstrated that support of one or more designated beneficial uses is not attainable due to specific biological, chemical, physical, or economic/social conditions. Excludes unknown and natural sources.

Source: From U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2004–2005. Original Source:

From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Water Quality Inventory: 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, August 2002, www.epa.gov/305b/2000report.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.20 Summary of Individual Use Support for Rivers, Lakes, Estuaries, Ocean Shoreline Waters and Great Lakes in the United States in 2000 Good

Rivers and Streams Aquatic life support Fish consumption Primary contactswimming Secondary contact Drinking water supply Agriculture Lakes, Reservoirs and Ponds Aquatic life support Fish consumption Primary contactswimming Secondary contact Drinking water supply Agriculture Estuaries Aquatic life support Fish consumption Shellfishing Primary contactswimming Secondary contact Ocean Shoreline Waters Aquatic life support Fish consumption Shellfishing Primary contactswimming Secondary contact Great Lakes Aquatic life support Fish consumption Primary contactswimming Secondary contact Drinking water supply Agriculture

Impaired

Area Assessed

Full Support (%)

Threatened (%)

Partial Support (%)

Not Supporting (%)

Not Attainable

Miles 616,860 205,153 313,832

55.4 60.9 67.8

10.1 1.2 3.4

18.7 15.2 11.9

15.5 22.8 16.3

0.3 0.0 0.5

219,776 153,155 274,736 Acres

73.5 83.5 90.7

2.3 2.8 0.9

11.1 7.6 3.8

13.1 6.1 4.6

0.0 0.1 0.0

11,224,279 8,566,710 12,662,298

60.9 60.6 70.2

10.3 4.4 6.5

19.0 21.4 16.7

9.8 13.6 6.6

0.0 0.0 0.0

5,855,176 7,244,575 4,653,670 Square miles 22,047 12,940 20,967 21,169

73.5 78.5 84.1

6.9 4.9 3.0

13.9 10.4 5.3

5.6 6.2 7.6

0.0 0.0 0.0

43.7 46.6 75.7 80.0

4.7 5.0 0.6 4.7

37.1 45.3 10.5 14.3

14.5 3.1 13.2 1.0

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

9,524 Shoreline Miles 2,079 1,136 1,420 2,521

72.8

4.2

22.2

0.9

0.0

86.1 87.3 86.4 76.8

7.7 3.9 0.0 8.6

2.2 5.5 11.6 6.6

4.1 3.3 2.0 8.0

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

1,925 Shoreline Miles 1,343 4,976 3,663

87.3

4.2

4.4

4.2

0.0

3.2 0.0 89.9

78.6 0.0 7.4

16.4 33.4 2.5

1.8 66.6 0.2

0.0 0.0 0.0

99.8 97.6 100.0

0.0 0.0 0.0

0.2 0.0 0.0

0.0 2.4 0.0

0.0 0.0 0.0

3,256 3,313 3,250

Note: Water-quality conditions: Good, Fully supporting of all of their uses or fully supporting but threatened for one or more uses; Impaired, Partially or not supporting one or more uses; Not Attainable, Not able to support one or more uses. Use Support Levels: Supporting, Fully supporting of all uses; Threatened, Fully supporting all uses but threatened for one or more uses; Partially Supporting, Partially supporting one or more uses; Not Supporting, Not able to support one or more uses. Source: Abstracted from United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841R-02-001, www.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Miles Alloted to Each Source

State by EPA Region

Assessed Miles

Miles Impaired

Agriculture

Hydromodification

Habitat Modification (Other than Hydromodification)

Urban Runoff/Storm Sewers

Natural Sources

Forestry/ Silviculture

1

Connecticut Maine Massachusetts New Hampshire Rhode Island Vermont

1,207 31,752 1,496 2,677 649 5,462

389 729 969 444 217 1,169

120.5 174.8 39.6 59 35.07 688.8

177.45 — 146.1 11.1 27.62 418.3

9 23.6 29.9 11.5 7.99 771.6

188.6 101.5 361.1 13.4 151.1 367.5

7.5 — — 8 29.32 373.6

— 1 — 0

2

New Jersey New York

330 2,914

209 1,081

— 1,485.6

— 589.1

— 1,340.2

— 944

— —

3

Delaware Delaware river basin District of Columbia Maryland Pennsylvania Virginia West Virginia

2,506 206

1,765 206

984.03 206

— —

— —

304.07 206

38

38

—

8.8

17.6

8,617 35,496 9,190 11,550

3,212 7,261 4,466 5,313

351.82 2,426.95 1,105.35 1,760.29

1,136.33 186.17 18.27 346.75

Municipal Point Sources

Resource Extraction

Land Disposal

45.4

194.3 93.5 221.35 11.9 35.99 202.9

27.3 1 1.7 0 6.53 67.1

40.6 35.5 83.1 7.4 60.28 335.4

— 100

— 545.9

— 268

— 1,467.3

423.51 2

— —

118.42 206

— —

213.44 —

38.4

8.3

—

0.9

—

9.8

1,006.02 590.22 44.8 392.74

650.68 1,526.45 766.49 1,157.03

1,104.17 43.28 1,054.72 14.87

— 3.43 — 1,311.83

181.23 258.54 162.85 1,016.42

56.69 2,728.57 140.95 2,706.79

9.29 117.02 46.35 1,208.95

Alabama Florida Georgia Kentucky Mississippi North Carolina South Carolina Tennessee

2,628 10,159 9,996 9,923 14,972 37,662 15,405 24,326

1,930 3,147 5,986 3,688 10,824 2,143 4,011 7,538

111.2 1,833.4 0 1,133.2 10,471.5 1,201.71 1,462.35 3,886.6

— 1,189.6 65 172.2 224.3 166 35.55 2,672.6

— — — 235.3 177.82 8.7 — 425

282.6 1,126.6 1,925 1,053.7 634.07 900.15 2,862.6 1,030.8

12 — 433 21.3 235.4 37 — —

— 411.1 0 100.9 707.32 126.6 — 14.9

151.3 205.8 203 609.9 566.7 398.58 679.09 451.9

— 465.7 0 705.7 151.91 11.88 23.49 602.7

— 916.3 0 1,308.5 415.15 38.4 219.4 332.5

5

Illinois Indiana Michigan Minnesota Ohio Ohio river valley Wisconsin

15,587 17,541 13,117 11,403 8,232 981 23,530

7,844 4,230 2,456 7,900 3,743 — 10,029

4,395.06 124.84 1,059 6,601.2 1,820.49 981 3,539.9

2,613.12 81.91 248 3,889.7 2,887.33 — 2,693.25

795.31 38.35 108 — 47.22 — 1,483.05

1,020.47 113.25 344 2,889 556.96 — 989.7

137.19 0.3 30 35.6 301.41 — 1,082.5

— — — 279.5 11.5 — 89.3

1,640.98 71.34 423 524.3 978.19 981 1,169

1,047.79 — 24 591.4 720.22 — 153.9

37.51 71.05 9 3,630 450.74 — 51.3

6

Arkansas Louisiana New Mexico Oklahoma Texas

8,112 7,359 4,284 14,071 15,101

1,177 6,575 2,675 7,647 4,548

705.5 2,021 2,531.85 4,481.18 545

— 810 376.7 867.38 —

— 121 2,103.35 1,423.18 —

13.5 839 97.1 779.58 796

— 2,364 422.7 86.26 212.1

— 286 196 197.5 —

97.9 1,798 262.8 190.49 1,398.2

24 383 596.2 1,157.31 44

— 1,501 149.4 847.63 33.3

7

Iowa Kansas

6,390 18,236

1,903 14,819

1,018.04 13,128.31

790.99 1,171.84

399.29 5,911.66

45.05 1,295.94

98.63 6,148.69

— —

105.43 4,882.77

17.14 2,107.05

24 575.59

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-59

4

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.21 Leading Sources Impairing Assessed Rivers in the United States in 2000 (Expressed in Stream Miles)

(Continued)

10-60

Table 10B.21

Miles Alloted to Each Source

State by EPA Region

Assessed Miles

Miles Impaired

Agriculture

Hydromodification

Habitat Modification (Other than Hydromodification)

Urban Runoff/Storm Sewers

Natural Sources

Forestry/ Silviculture

Municipal Point Sources

Resource Extraction

Land Disposal

21,615 6,500

10,321 3,759

7,624.4 —

3,758.9 —

21 —

44.5 —

154.5 —

— —

92.8 —

179.7 —

0.3 —

8

Colorado Montana North Dakota South Dakota Utah Wyoming

41,837 11,443 14,965 3,564 10,519 2,955

1,244 8,576 7,224 1,778 2,825 452

123.3 5,833.6 6,982.77 1,623.5 2,298.25 101.1

4.7 3,620.4 2,621.39 — 887.8 —

— 2,093.7 2,458.94 200 960.41 —

244.16 159 501.38 48.3 85.79 20.88

474.05 656.3 509.75 1,172.1 1,377.24 45.18

10.52 810.7 — 26.2 — —

145.1 371.9 556.7 — 125.39 11.7

757.46 2,534.3 489.06 2.1 205.16 17.45

— 172.7 97.25 — — —

9

Arizona California Hawaii Nevada

4,052 25,269 3,904 1,564

986 20,949 2,737 953

538.85 17,064.33 1,553.45 593.7

9,217.46 958.84 247.8

30.29 11,662.3 573.78 —

120.22 2,204.68 1,566.25 61.75

804.87 4,906.15 1,820.74 589.33

— 14,140.2 29.8 —

51.27 3,266.88 18.7 —

301 6,838.16 20 —

54.19 667.86 1 —

Alaska Idaho Oregon Washington

1,421 17,333 53,735 70,439

518 8,230 13,937 37,722

— — — 11,316.51

13 — 1,624 6,789.906

21 — 2,103 —

109.8 — 505 2,263.3

— — — 3,772.17

16.5 — 7,707 1,508.86

— — — 2,263.3

309.3 — — 1,131.65

108.6 — — 377.217

17 0

16 —

— —

— —

6.7 —

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

167 90

63 —

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

1.67 —

—

6.51 —

0 0

— 0

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

23 5,394 35

0 4,653 35

0 699.6 15.5

— 70.1 14

0 0 —

0 556.4 8

0 0.5 23

0 0 24

0 43 —

0 63.5 14.5

0 2,079.9 10

699,946

269,258

128,859 47.9%

53,850 20.0%

37,654 14.0%

34,871 13.0%

31,033 11.5%

28,156 10.5%

27,988 10.4%

27,695 10.3%

17,821 6.6%

18.4%

7.7%

5.4%

5.0%

4.4%

4.0%

4.0%

4.0%

2.5%

10

Jurisdictions American Samoa Big Sandy Rancheria Guam Hoopa Valley Tribe La Posta Band N Mariana Islands Pauma Band Puerto Rico Round Valley Tribe Total Percent of impaired Percent of assessed

Note: Includes leading sources of River and Stream Impairment Shown on Fig. 10B.4 plus natural sources and land disposal; —, no data. Source: Abstracted from United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov/305b/2000report.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Missouri Nebraska

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-61

Table 10B.22 Relative Impact of Pollution Sources in Rivers and Streams with Impaired Uses in the United States in 1986 (Percent) State Alaska Arizona California Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Vermont Virginia West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico Guam Average (weighted)

Industrial

Municipal

Combined Sewers

Nonpoint Sources

Natural

Other/ Unknown

85 26 0 0 8 25 1 2 2 0 7 26 7 0 5 6 0 5 0 2 1 12 25 1 20 12 16 3 7 42 12 4 5 4 11 4 4 1 10 11 5 9

1 10 16 40 6 29 95 3 56 3 36 20 26 100 30 26 42 23 1 3 7 64 35 5 40 17 36 10 13 24 60 9 8 71 22 34 26 1 4 21 10 17

0 0 0 20 8 0 0 0 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 13 0 11 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 15 1

12 20 64 9 59 40 4 78 10 97 25 54 46 0 50 26 51 72 99 95 92 18 35 81 11 71 30 57 71 19 26 34 76 14 50 51 64 98 43 63 50 65

0 0 0 0 19 2 0 17 0 0 28 0 17 0 15 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 30 3 0 0 49 0 11 11 10 6 0 43 0 20 6

2 44 20 31 0 4 0 0 2 0 4 0 4 0 0 12 7 0 0 0 0 0 5 11 16 0 7 0 5 15 2 4 11 0 6 0 0 0 0 5 0 2

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Water Quality Inventory, 1986 Report to Congress.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-62

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.23 River Miles Meeting the Fishable and Swimmable Goals of the Clean Water Act in the United States, by Jurisdiction, in 2000 Fish Consumption Jurisdiction

Total Assessed

Alabama Alaska American Samoa Arizona Arkansas Big Sandy Rancheria California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Delaware River Basin District of Columbia Florida Georgia Guam Hawaii Hoopa Valley Tribe Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky La Posta Band Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana N. Mariana Islands Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Ohio River Valley Oklahoma Oregon Pauma Band Pennsylvania Puerto Rico Rhode Island Round Valley Tribes South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia

0 0 — 3,798 8,112 0 11,842 0 1,285 67 206 24 3,771 0 — 3,887 90 0 3,969 3,030 1,892 271 2,361 0 0 31,752 8,617 644 1,402 0 1,744 21,837 9,080 — 2,056 5 279 124 93 427 0 147 451 981 10 984 23 0 0 6 — 0 170 0 3,158 16 5,201 9,183

Full Support — — — 3,632 7,739 — 1,638 — 1,175 54 0 0 1,002 — — 3,874 — 0 2,920 0 1,452 92 1,574 — — 31,325 8,617 240 — — 1,005 21,671 1,510 — 2,056 5 0 0 0 0 — — 0 0 0 84 23 — — 0 — — 170 — 2,841 0 4,956 8,716

Swimming Threatened — — — — — — 715 — 0 0 0 0 0 — — 0 90 0 0 0 441 0 0 — — — — 0 — — 322 — 8 — — — — 30 — 86 — — — — 0 103 — — — 0 — — — — 0 0 13 124

Total Assessed 0 0 0 3,714 7,629 0 17,896 14,600 1,080 2,506 206 38 9,524 0 32 3,893 90 0 2,944 7,300 836 1,697 2,810 0 7,063 31,752 8,617 933 555 6,584 442 5,405 7,066 0 3,239 1,393 2,769 176 4,134 157 0 9,707 1,536 376 5,096 5,062 23 0 5,394 574 0 14,726 1,043 9,182 9,598 518 5,310 6,510

Full Support — — — 3,457 7,596 — 2,151 14,572 619 99 194 2 5,998 — 1 3,892 90 0 742 4,510 254 — 696 — 4,030 31,576 8,617 457 — 1,727 37 5,355 3,620 — 365 1,388 2,657 30 4,103 0 — 3,484 805 21 1,112 2,777 23 — 193 434 — 7,672 342 6,117 7,084 508 4,115 3,456

Threatened — — — — — — 1,343 0 192 0 12 0 552 — — 0 0 0 0 0 149 — 71 — 74 — — 9 — 1 16 — 0 — — — — 0 — 82 — 1,938 — — 2,016 48 — — 1,008 0 — — — 0 0 0 650 5 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.23

10-63

(Continued) Fish Consumption

Jurisdiction

Total Assessed

Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total Percent of assessed for use

58,990 870 2,300 0 205,153

Note:

Full Support 15,294 201 1,077 — 124,941 60.9%

Swimming Threatened — 0 455 — 2,387 1.2%

Total Assessed 70,439 11,408 0 251 313,832

Full Support 58,892 6,790 — 0 212,659 67.8%

Threatened — 2,615 — 1 10,779 3.4%

Fully Supporting, Fully supporting of all uses; Threatened, Fully supporting all uses but threatened for one or more uses; —, no data.

Source: Abstracted from United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov.

Table 10B.24 Water-Quality Factors Affecting the Nation’s Fisheries Factor Turbidity High water temperature Nutrient surplus Toxic substances Dissolved oxygen problem Nutrient deficiency Low water temperature Other pH too acidic Low flow Salinity Sedimentation Siltation Gas supersaturation Intermittent water Herbicides and pesticides pH too basic Channelization

Stream Miles

Percentage

328,261 250,187 119,519 93,602 91,022 40,603 29,877 26,685 24,793 24,364 17,217 14,378 9,644 5,500 4,839 4,356 3,998 2,937

34.4 26.2 12.5 9.8 9.5 4.3 3.1 2.8 2.6 2.6 1.8 1.5 1.0 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3

Note: Expressed in total stream miles and as percentage of total miles. Source: From Judy, R.D., and others, 1984. 1982 National Fisheries Survey, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS-84/06.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-64

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.25 Limiting Factors Adversely Affecting the Nation’s Fish Communities Factor

Stream Miles

Percentage

115,432 81,927 35,566 28,145 21,873 19,350 18,063 14,213 12,714 10,836 5,879 5,101 3,194 1,657

12.1 8.6 3.7 2.9 2.3 2.0 1.9 1.5 1.3 1.1 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.2

Fish kills Contamination Overharvest Poaching Diseases/parasites Fish stocking Other Habitat Underharvest Competition Water quality Tumors/lesions Low flow Small channel capacity

Note: Expressed in total stream miles and as percentage of total miles. Source: From Judy, R.D., and others, 1984. 1982 National Fisheries Survey, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS-84/06.

Table 10B.26 Designated Use Support in Rivers and Streams of the United States by Jurisdiction, in 2000 Jurisdiction Alabama Alaska American Samoa Arizona Arkansas Big Sandy Rancheria California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Delaware River Basin District of Columbia Florida Georgia Guam Hawaii Hoopa Valley Tribe Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky La Posta Band Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri

Total River Miles 77,242.0 365,000.0 169.0 127,505.0 87,617.4 — 211,513.0 107,403.0 5,830.0 2,506.0 206.0 39.0 51,858.0 70,150.0 228.0 3,904.7 319.6 115,595.0 87,110.0 35,673.0 71,665.0 134,338.0 49,105.0 — 66,294.0 31,752.0 8,789.0 8,229.0 51,438.0 91,944.0 84,003.0 51,977.8

River Miles Assessed

Miles Fully Supporting

2,627.9 1,420.5 16.9 4,052.0 8,113.0 0 25,274.0 41,470.0 1,207.2 2,505.8 206.0 38.4 10,159.0 9,999.0 167.1 3,993.8 0.0 17,332.6 15,587.2 17,541.0 6,389.7 18,236.0 9,922.7 0.0 7,359.0 31,752.0 8,616.8 1,496.2 10,309.0 11,403.4 14,972.2 21,615.1

698.4 902.6 0.7 3,066 6,935.7 — 2,463 40,226 479.4 740.84 0 0 6,460 4,013 23.1 1,254.71 — 8,434 7,674.06 13,310 1,702.57 3,417 5,954.75 — 723 31,023 5,405.3 479.9 7,829 1,149.6 3,263.2 11,129.5

Miles Threatened 0 0 0 0 0 — 1,862.0 0 334.2 0 0 0 552.0 0 81 0 — 669.0 69.2 0 2,784.0 0 280.1 — 61 0 0 47 24 2,181.7 855.5 164.2

Miles Impaired 1,929.5 517.9 16.2 986.0 1,177.3 — 20,949 1,244.0 389.4 1,765.0 206.0 38.4 3,147.0 5,986.0 63.0 2,737.1 — 8,229.6 7,843.9 4,230.0 1,903.1 14,819.0 3,687.8 — 6,575.0 729.0 3,211.5 969.3 2,456.0 7,899.6 10,824.2 10,321.4

Miles Not Attainable 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0 4.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 — 0 0 1 0 0 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 172.48 29.2 0 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.26

(Continued)

Jurisdiction

Total River Miles

Montana N. Mariana Islands Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pauma Band Pennsylvania Puerto Rico Rhode Island Round Valley Tribes South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total Percent of assessed for summary of use support Note:

10-65

176,750.0 59.3 83,258.0 143,578.0 10,881.2 8,050.0 110,741.0 52,337.0 37,662.0 54,427.4 29,113.0 78,778.0 115,472.0 22.9 83,161.0 5,394.2 1,383.0 384.0 29,794.0 9,937.0 61,075.0 191,228.0 85,916.0 7,099.0 49,460.2 70,439.4 32,278.0 55,000.0 108,767.0 3,692,830.0

River Miles Assessed

Miles Fully Supporting

11,442.7 0.0 6,500.0 1,564.3 2,677.4 330.0 4,284.0 2,914.0 32,072.0 14,964.5 8,231.6 14,070.8 59,735.0 22.9 35,496.0 5,394.2 648.8 34.5 15,404.6 3,564.0 24,326.4 15,101.4 10,518.7 5,462.2 9,190.0 70,439.5 11,549.6 23,530.3 2,954.8 696,207.5

2,858.2 0 2,741.0 611.5 2,233.1 121.0 1,608.8 0 29,929.0 1,656.9 3,857.2 1,558.3 22,292.0 22.9 28,235.0 150.4 431.6 0 11,394.0 1,786.0 16,755.2 10,449.6 7,693.9 3,105.3 4,088.0 32,717.8 3,091.8 6,858.0 2,124.1 367,128.7 53%

Miles Threatened 8.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,833.0 0 6,083.5 631.8 4,764.8 23,506.0 0 0 590.5 0 0 0 0 33.6 104.0 0 1,188.4 636.0 0 3,145.0 6,634.8 379.2 59,503.6 9%

Miles Impaired

Miles Not Attainable

8,576.4 0 3,759.0 952.8 444.3 209.0 2,675.2 1,081.0 2,143.0 7,224.2 3,742.6 7,647.4 13,937.0 0 7,261.0 4,653.3 217.2 34.5 4,010.6 1,778.0 7,537.6 4,547.8 2,824.8 1,168.5 4,466.0 37,721.7 5,312.9 10,029.3 451.5 269,257.9 39%

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8.2 0 317.4 0%

Supporting, Fully supporting of all uses; Threatened, Fully supporting all uses but threatened for one or more uses; Impaired, Partially or not supporting one or more uses; Not Attainable, Not able to support one or more uses; —, no data.

Source: Abstracted from United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841R-02-001, www.epa.gov.

Table 10B.27 River and Stream Miles Supporting Uses in the United States, 1972–1982 Status Supporting uses Partially supporting uses Not supporting uses Unknown or not reported

1972 Miles

Percent

1982 Miles

Percent

272 46 30 410

36 6 4 54

488 167 35 68

64 22 5 9

Note: Thousand of miles and percentage of waters assessed. Forty-nine (49) states reported on water-quality conditions between 1972 and 1982 for 758,000 river and stream miles. Some proportion of the 1972 data unknown or not reported fell into each of the levels of use support. Source: From The Association of State and Interstate Water Pollution Control Administrators, in cooperation with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1984, America’s Clean Water: The States’ Evaluation of Progress, 1972–1982. Washington, DC; U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Summary 1986.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-66

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.28 Condition of Perennial Streams Related to Their Ability to Support Fish in the United States, 1977–1982 Condition (Worst to Best) 0 1 2 3 4 5 Note:

1977

1982

29.87 48.79 170.07 222.02 155.57 38.20

29.87 49.31 166.31 228.66 156.24 36.13

Thousands of miles.

Source: From U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. 1982 National Fisheries Survey, vol. 1. FWS/OBS-84/06. Washington, DC; U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Summary 1986.

Table 10B.29 Sources of Drinking Water Use Impairment in the United States Contaminant Group Pesticides

Volatile organic chemicals

Inorganic chemicals

Microbiological contaminants

Specific Contaminant Atrazine Metolachlor Triazine Trichloroethylene Tetrachloroethylene 1,1,1-Trichloroethane cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene Trihalomethanes Carbon tetrachloride Ethylbenzene 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane Arsenic Nitrates Iron Copper Chloride Exceedance of total coliform rule

Molinate Ethylene dibromide Dichloromethane 1,1-Dichloroethane 1,1-Dichloroethylene Toluene Benzene Dichlorobenzene Methyl tertiary butyl ether Xylene Fluoride Manganese Lead Sodium Exceedance of fecal coliform rule

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

River

Compound

Number of Detects

Detection Frequency

171 171 171 165

0 0 0 24

171 171 171 171 170 171 169 171 170 168

0 0 0 0 0 1 5 0 0 1

171 171 171 168

13 2 8 27

171 171 170 171 171 171 171 171 163 171 171 171 171 171 171 171

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0.58 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.58 0

163 170 171 171

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 14

0 0 0 0 0 0.58 3 0 0 0.60 7.6 1.2 4.7 16

Minimum Concentration

Maximum Concentration

Number of Samples

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 0.2

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 1.2

204 204 204 198

0 0 0 26

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 1.2 0.2 !0.2 !0.2 0.35

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 1.2 0.45 !0.2 !0.2 0.35

204 204 204 204 203 204 200 204 202 202

1 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 2

26 3.5 20 34

204 204 204 203

14 3 9 25

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 0.43 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 0.93 !0.2

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 0.43 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 0.93 !0.2

204 204 204 204 204 204 204 204 195 204 204 204 204 204 204 204

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0.49 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 0.25 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 0.25 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2

195 203 204 204

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2

0.39 0.53 0.25 0.20

Number of Detects

Detection Frequency 0 0 0 13

0.49 0 0 0 0.98 0 1.0 0 0.99 0.99 6.9 1.5 4.4 12

Minimum Concentration

Maximum Concentration

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 0.2

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 20

0.22 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 0.26 !0.2 0.52 !0.2 0.45 0.71

0.22 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 1.0 !0.2 1.0 !0.2 1.4 2.5

0.25 0.23 0.22 0.21

24 0,62 8.9 85

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-67

Gasoline Oxygenates tert-Amyl methyl ether Diisopropyl ether Ethyl tert-butyl ether Methyl tert-butyl ether Other Gasoline Compounds Benzene n-Butylbenzene sec-Butylbenzene tert-Butylbenzene Ethylbenzene Naphthalene Toluene 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene o-Xylene m- p-Xylene Trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Chlorodibromomethane Chloroform Organic Syntheses Acrylonitrile Bromobenzene Bromochloromethane Carbon tetrachloride Chlorobenzene Chloroethane 2-Chlorotoluene 4-Chlorotoluene Dibromomethane 1,2-Dichlorobenzene 1,3-Dichlorobenzene 1,1-Dichloroethane 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,1-Dichloroethene cis-1,2-Dichloroethene trans-1,2-Dichloroethene 1,2-Dichloropropane 1,3-Dichloropropane 2,2-Dichloropropane 1,1-Dichloropropene

Number of Samples

Reservoir

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.30 Frequency of Detection and Concentrations of Volatile Organic Compounds in Surface Water Source Samples Collected from United States Drinking Water Supplies between May 3, 1999 and October 23, 2000

10-68

Table 10B.30

(Continued) River

Compound

Number of Samples

Number of Detects

Detection Frequency

Minimum Concentration

Maximum Concentration

Number of Samples

Number of Detects

Detection Frequency

Minimum Concentration

Maximum Concentration

171 171 170 171 171 171 170 169 171

0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0.58 0.98 0 0.59 0

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 2.6 120 !0.2 2.3 !0.2

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 2.6 120 !0.2 2.3 !0.2

204 204 204 204 204 204 204 202 204

0 0 1.0 0 0 2 1.0 2 0

0 0 0.49 0 0 0.58 0.58 0.99 0

!0.2 !0.2 0.37 !0.2 !0.2 2.3 0.21 0.41 !0.2

!0.2 !0.2 0.37 !0.2 !0.2 9.1 0.21 0.97 !0.2

171

0

0

!0.2

!0.2

204

0

0

!0.2

!0.2

171 171 171 171 171 170 171 171 171 171

3 0 0 3 0 2 0 0 0 0

1.8 0 0 1.8 0 1.2 0 0 0 0

0.29 !0.2 !0.2 0.31 !0.2 0.43 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2

5.5 !0.2 !0.2 2 !0.2 0.77 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2

204 204 204 204 204 204 204 204 204 204

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0.49 0 0 0 0

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 0.36 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2

!0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 0.36 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2

171 171 171 171

1 1 0 0

0.58 0.58 0 0

0.22 0.22 !0.2 !0.2

0.22 0.22 !0.2 !0.2

204 203 204 204

0 1 0 0

0 0.49 0 0

!0.2 0.36 !0.2 !0.2

!0.2 0.36 !0.2 !0.2

171 171

0 0

0 0

!0.2 !0.2

!0.2 !0.2

204 204

0 0

0 0

!0.2 !0.2

!0.2 !0.2

171 171

0 0

0 0

!0.2 !0.2

!0.2 !0.2

204 204

0 0

0 0

!0.2 !0.2

!0.2 !0.2

Note: Concentrations are in micrograms per liter. Source: From Grady, S., 2003, A National Survey of Methyl tert-Butyl Ether and Other Volatile Organic Compounds in Drinking Water Sources: Results of a Random Survey, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resource Investigations Report 02-4079, www.usgs.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Hexachlorobutadiene Hexachloroethane Isopropylbenzene p-Isopropyltoluene Methylene chloride Methyl ethyl ketone n-Propylbenzene Styrene 1,1,1,2Tetrachloroethane 1,1,2,2Tetrachloroethane Tetrachloroethene 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 1,1,2-Trichloroethane Trichloroethene 1,2,3-Trichloropropane 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene Vinyl bromide Vinyl chloride 1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene Fumigants Bromomethane 1,4-Dichlorobenzene cis-1,3-Dichloropropene transK1,3Dichloropropene Refrigerants Chloromethane Dichlorodifluoromethane Trichlorofluoromethane l,l,2-Trichloro-l,2,2trifluoroethane

Reservoir

Chemical (Method)

CASRN

N

RL (mg/L)

freq (%)

max (mg/L)

med (mg/L)

Veterinary and Human Antibiotics 0 ND 0 ND 2.4 0.69 2.6 0.03 0 ND 0 ND 21.5 1.7

Carbodox (1) Chlortetracycline (1) Chlortetracycline (2) Ciprofloxacin (1) Doxycycline (1) Enrofloxacin (1) Erythromycin-H2O (1)

6804-07-5 57-62-5 57-62-5 85721-33-1 564-25-0 93106-60-6 114-07-8

104 115 84 115 115 115 104

0.10 0.05 0.10 0.02 0.1 0.02 0.05

Lincomycin (1) Norfloxacin (1) Oxytetracycline (1) Oxytetracycline (2) Roxithromycin (1) Sarafloxacin (1) Sulfachloropyridazine (2) Sulfadimethoxine (1) Sulfadimethoxine (2) Sulfamerazine (1) Sulfamerazine (2) Sulfamethazine (1) Sulfamethazine (2) Sulfamethizole (1) Sulfamethoxazole (1) Sulfamethoxazole (3) Sulfathiazole (1) Sulfathiazole (2) Tetracycline (1) Tetracycline (2) Trimethoprim (1) Trimethoprim (3) Tylosin (1) Virginiamycin (1)

154-21-2 70458-96-7 79-57-2 79-57-2 80214-83-1 98105-99-8 80-32-0 122-11-2 122-11-2 127-79-7 127-79-7 57-68-1 57-68-1 144-82-1 723-46-6 723-46-6 72-14-0 72-14-0 60-54-8 60-54-8 738-70-5 738-70-5 1401-69-0 21411-53-0

104 115 115 84 104 115 84 104 84 104 84 104 84 104 104 84 104 84 115 84 104 84 104 104

0.05 0.02 0.1 0.10 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.023 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.03 0.014 0.05 0.10

19.2 0.9 0 1.2 4.8 0 0 0 1.2 0 0 4.8 1.2 1.0 12.5 19.0 0 0 0 1.2 12.5 27.4 13.5 0

Albuterol (salbutamol) (3) Cimetidine (3) Codeine (3) Codeine (4) Dehydronifedipine (3) Digoxin (3) Digoxigenin (3) Diltiazem (3)

18559-94-9 51481-61-9 76-57-3 76-57-3 67035-22-7 20830-75-5 1672-46-4 42399-41-7

84 84 46 85 84 46 84 84

0.029 0.007 0.24 0.1 0.01 0.26 0.008 0.012

0 9.5 6.5 10.6 14.3 0 0 13.1

0.73 0.12 ND 0.34 0.18 ND ND ND 0.06 ND ND 0.12 0.22 0.13 1.9 0.52 ND ND ND 0.11 0.71 0.30 0.28 ND Prescription Drugs ND 0.58d 0.019 1.0d 0.03 NDd ND 0.049

ND ND 0.42 0.02 ND ND 0.1 0.06 0.12 ND 0.34 0.05 ND ND ND 0.06 ND ND 0.02 0.22 0.13 0.15 0.066 ND ND ND 0.11 0.15 0.013 0.04 ND ND 0.074d 0.012 0.2d 0.012 NDd ND 0.021

Use

MCL or HAL (23) (mg/L)

Lowest LC50 for the Most Sensitive Indicator Species (mg/L)/ No. of Aquatic Studies Identified (24)

Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Erythromycin metabolite Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic

— — — — — — —

-/1 88,000a/3 88,000a/3 -/0 -/0 40b/29 665,000b/35

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

-/0 -/6 102,000a/46 102,000a/46 -/0 -/0 -/0 -/5 -/5 100,000c/17 100,000c/17 100,000c/17 100,000c/17 -/0 -/0 -/0 -/0 -/0 550,000b/3 550,000b/3 3,000c/4 3,000c/4 -/0 -/0

Antiasthmatic Antacid Analgesic Analgesic Antianginal Cardiac stimulant Digoxin metabolite Antihypertensive

— — — — — — — —

-/0 -/0 -/0 -/0 -/0 10,000,000a/24 -/0 -/0

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.31 Summary of Analytical Results of United States Streams Sampled for 95 Pharmaceuticals, Hormones and Other Organic Wastewater Contaminants, 1999–2000

(Continued) 10-69

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(Continued)

Chemical (Method)

CASRN

N

RL (mg/L)

freq (%)

max (mg/L)

med (mg/L)

76420-72-9

84

0.15

1.2

0.046d

0.046d

Fluoxetineh (3) Gemfibrozil (3) Metformin (3) Paroxetine metabolite (3)

54910-89-3 25812-30-0 657-24-9 —

84 84 84 84

0.018 0.015 0.003 0.26

1.2 3.6 4.8 0

0.012d 0.79 0.15d NDd

0.012d 0.048 0.11d NDd

Ranitidine (3) Warfarin (3)

66357-35-5 81-82-2

84 84

0.01 0.001

Acetaminophen (3) Caffeine (3) Caffeine (4) Cotinine (3) Cotinine (4) 1,7-dimethylxanthine (3) Ibuprofen (3)

103-90-2 58-08-2 58-08-2 486-56-6 486-56-6 611-59-6 15687-27-1

84 84 85 84 54 84 84

0.009 0.014 0.08 0.023 0.04 0.018 0.018

1,4-dichlorobenzene (4) 2,6-di-tert-butylphenolh (4) 2,6-ditert-butyl-1,4benzoquinoneh (4) 5-methyl-1H-benzotriazole (4) Acetophenone (4) Anthracene (4) Benzo[a]pyreneh (4) 3-tert-butyl-4-hydroxy anisoleh (4) Butylated hydroxyl toluene (4) Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (4) Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalateh (4)

106-46-7 128-39-2 719-22-2

85 85 85

0.03 0.08 0.10

136-85-6

54

0.10

31.5

2.4

98-86-2 120-12-7 50-32-8 25013-16-5

85 85 85 85

0.15 0.05 0.05 0.12

9.4 4.7 9.4 2.4

128-37-0

85

0.08

2.4

103-23-1 117-81-7

85 85

2.0 2.5

3.5 10.6

80-05-7 63-25-2 5103-71-9 2921-88-2 333-41-5 60-57-1 84-66-2

85 85 85 85 85 85 54

0.09 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.08 0.25

Bisphenol Ah (4) Carbarylh (4) cis-Chlordaneh (4) Chlorpyrifosh (4) Diazinonh (4) Dieldrinh (4) Diethylphthalateh (4)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

MCL or HAL (23) (mg/L)

Enalapril maleate (antihypertensive) metabolite Antidepressant Antihyperlipidemic Antidiabetic Paroxetine (antidepressant) metabolite Antacid Anticoagulant

—

-/0

— — — —

-/0 -/0 -/0 -/0

— —

-/0 16,000c/33

Antipyretic Stimulant Stimulant Nicotine metabolite Nicotine metabolite Caffeine metabolite Antiinflammatory

— — — — — — —

6,000a/14 40,000i/77 40,000i/77 -/0 -/0 -/0 -/0

Deodorizer Antioxidant Antioxidant

75 — —

1,100c/190 -/2 -/0

0.39

Antiocorrosive

—

-/0

0.41 0.11 0.24 0.2d

0.15 0.07 0.04 0.1d

Fragrance Pah Pah Antioxidant

— — 0.2 —

155,000i/21 5.4i/188 1.5a/428 870c/14

0.1d

0.1d

Antioxidant

—

1,440a/15

Plasticizer Plasticizer

400 6

480a/9 7,500a/309

Plasticizer Insecticide Insecticide Insecticide Insecticide Insecticide Plasticizer

— 700 2 20 0.6 0.2 —

3,600i/26 0.4a/1,541 7.4b/28 0.1a/1,794 0.56a/1,040 2.6c/1,540 12,000c/129

0.01d 1.2 0.01d 0 ND ND Nonprescription Drugs 23.8 10 0.11 61.9 6.0 0.081 70.6 5.7 0.1 38.1 0.90 0.024 31.5 0.57 0.05 0.11d 28.6 3.1d 9.5 1.0 0.20 Other Wastewater-Related Compounds 25.9 4.3 0.09 3.5 0.11d 0.06d 9.4 0.46 0.13

10 g 20 g

3g 7g

Other Wastewater-Related Compounds 41.2 12 0.14 16.5 0.1d 0.04d 4.7 0.1 0.02 15.3 0.31 0.06 25.9 0.35 0.07 4.7 0.21 0.18 11.1 0.42 0.2

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Enalaprilat (3)

Use

Lowest LC50 for the Most Sensitive Indicator Species (mg/L)/ No. of Aquatic Studies Identified (24)

10-70

Table 10B.31

78-51-3

85

0.2

45.9

6.7

0.51

Plasticizer

—

10,400i/7

206-44-0 58-89-9 298-00-0 106-44-5 91-20-3 134-62-3 251-545-23

85 85 85 85 85 54 85

0.03 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.50

29.4 5.9 1.2 24.7 16.5 74.1 50.6

1.2 0.11 0.01 0.54 0.08 1.1 40f

0.04 0.02 0.01 0.05 0.02 0.06 0.8f

— 0.2 2 — 20 — —

74i/216 30c/1,979 12a/888 1,400a/74 910c/519 71,250c/9 130i/135

4-Nonylphenol Monoethoxylateh (4) 4-Nonylphenol diethoxylateh (4) 4-Octylphenol Monoethoxylateh (4) 4-Octylphenol diethoxylateh (4) Phenanthrene (4) Phenol (4) Phthalic anhydride (4)

—

85

1.0

45.9

20f

1f

—

85

1.1

36.5

9f

1f

—

85

0.1

43.5

2f

0.2f

—

85

0.2

23.5

1f

0.1f

85-01-8 108-95-2 85-44-9

85 85 85

0.06 0.25 0.25

11.8 8.2 17.6

0.53 1.3e 1e

0.04 0.7e 0.7e

Pyrene (4) Tetrachloroethylene (4) Triclosanh (4)

129-00-0 127-18-4 3380-34-5

85 85 85

0.03 0.03 0.05

28.2 23.5 57.6

0.84 0.70d 2.3

0.05 0.07d 0.14

Tri(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (4) Tri(dichlorisopropyl) Phosphate (4) Triphenyl phosphate (4)

115-96-8

85

0.04

57.6

0.54

0.1

PAH Insecticide Insecticide Disinfectant PAH Insect repellant Nonionic detergent metabolite Nonionic detergent metabolite Nonionic detergent metabolite Nonionic detergent metabolite Nonionic detergent metabolite PAH Disinfectant Plastic manufacturing PAH Solvent, degreaser Antimicrobial disinfectant Fire retardant

13674-87-8

85

0.1

12.9

0.16

0.1

115-86-6

85

0.1

0.04

cis-Androsteroneh (5) Cholesterol (4) Cholesterol (5) Coprostanol (4) Coprostanol (5) Equileninh (5)

53-41-8 57-88-5 57-88-5 360-68-9 360-68-9 517-09-9

70 85 70 85 70 70

0.005 1.5 0.005 0.6 0.005 0.005

14.1 0.22 Steroids and Hormones 14.3 0.214 55.3 10d 84.3 60g 35.3 9.8d 85.7 150g 2.8 0.278

Equilinh (5)

474-86-2

70

0.005

1.4

0.147

0.147

17a-ethynyl estradiolh (5) 17a-estradiolh (5)

57-63-6 57-91-0

70 70

0.005 0.005

15.7 5.7

0.831 0.074

0.073 0.03

17b-estradiolh (4)

50-28-2

85

0.5

10.6

0.2d

0.16d

17b-estradiolh (5)

50-28-2

70

0.005

10.0

0.093

0.009

50-27-1

70

0.005

21.4

0.051

0.019

h

Estriol (5)

0.017 1d 0.83 0.70d 0.088 0.14

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Ethanol,2-butoxy-phosphate (4) Fluoranthene (4) Lindaneh (4) Methyl parathionh (4) 4-Methyl phenol (4) Naphthalene (4) N,N-diethyltoluamide (4) 4-Nonylphenolh (4)

14,450a/4 —

5,500a/6

—

-/0

—

-/0

— 400 —

590a/192 4,000c/2,085 40,400c/5

— 5 —

90.9a/112 4,680c/147 180i/3

—

66,000b/8

Fire retardant

—

3,600b/9

Plasticizer

—

280c/66

Urinary steroid Plant/animal steroid Plant/animal steroid Fecal steroid Fecal steroid Estrogen replacement Estrogen replacement Ovulation inhibitor Reproductive hormone Reproductive hormone Reproductive hormone Reproductive hormone

— — — — — —

-/0 -/0 -/0 -/0 -/0 -/0

—

-/0

— —

-/22 -/0

—

-/0

—

-/0

—

-/0

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-71

(Continued)

(Continued)

Chemical (Method)

CASRN

N

RL (mg/L)

freq (%)

max (mg/L)

med (mg/L)

Estroneh (5)

53-16-7

70

0.005

7.1

0.112

0.027

Mestranolh (5) 19-Norethisteroneh (5) Progesteroneh (5)

72-33-3 68-22-4 57-83-0

70 70 70

0.005 0.005 0.005

10.0 12.8 4.3

0.407 0.872 0.199

0.074 0.048 0.11

Stigmastanol (4) Testosteroneh (5)

19466-47-8 58-22-0

54 70

2.0 0.005

5.6 2.8

4d 0.214

2d 0.116

Use Reproductive hormone Ovulation inhibitor Ovulation inhibitor Reproductive hormone Plant steroid Reproductive hormone

MCL or HAL (23) (mg/L)

Lowest LC50 for the Most Sensitive Indicator Species (mg/L)/ No. of Aquatic Studies Identified (24)

—

-/11

— — —

-/0 -/0 -/0

— —

-/0 -/4

a b c d e f g h i

Daphnia magna (water flea), 48 h exposure LC50. Other species and variable conditions. Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout), 96 h exposure LC50. Concentration estimated, average recovery !60%. Concentration estimated, compound routinely detected in laboratory blanks. Concentration estimated, reference standard prepared from a technical mixture. Concentration estimated, value greater than highest point on calibration curve. Compounds suspected of being hormonally active. Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow), 96 h exposure LC50.

Source: From Kolpin, D.W., Furlong, E.T., Meyer, M.T., Thurman, E. M., Zaugg, S. D., Barber, L.B., and Buxton, H.T., 2002, Pharmaceuticals, hormones, and other organic wastewater contaminants in U.S. streams, 1999–2000. A National Reconnaissance, Environmental Science & Technology, vol 36, no. 6, Web Release Date: March 15, 2002, 10.1021/es011055j S0013-936X(01)01055-0, www.usgs.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Note: CASRN, Chemical Abstracts service Registry Number; N, number of samples; RL, reporting level; freq, frequency of detection; max, maximum concentration; med, median detectable concentration; MCL, maximum contaminant level; HAL, health advisory level; LC50, lethal concentration with 50% mortality; Nd, not detected; —, not available; PAH, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon.

10-72

Table 10B.31

River Reach Evaluationa

Watershed Evaluation

EPA Region (State)

River Reaches with at Least One Tier 1 Station

River Reaches with at Least One Tier 2 Station and Zero Tier 1 Stations

River Reaches with All Tier 3 Stations

River Reaches with No Data

Total Number of Watersheds

2,764

97 (3.5%)

23 (0.8%)

5 (0.2%)

2,639 (95.5%)

62

1,845

217 (11.8%) 385 (11.4%)

102 (5.5%) 313 (9.2%)

45 (2.4%) 301 (8.9%)

1,481 (80.3%) 2,389 (70.5%)

71

10,078

444 (4.4%)

461 (4.6%)

301 (3.0%)

8,872 (88.0%)

6,151

532 (8.6%)

401 (6.5%)

316 (5.1%)

7,577

226 (3.0%) 94 (1.9%) 59 (0.4%)

222 (2.9%) 161 (3.3%) 77 (0.6%)

156 (3.3%) 177 (1.7%) 2,298 (3.6%)

63 (1.3%) 121 (1.2%) 1,891 (2.9%)

Total Number of River Reaches Region 1 (CT, ME, MA, NH, RI, VT) Region 2 (NJ, NY, PR) Region 3 (DE, DC, MD, PA, VA, WV) Region 4 (AL, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN) Region 5 (IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI) Region 6 (AR, LA, NM, OK, TX) Region 7 (IA, KS, MO, NE) Region 8 (CO, MT, ND, SD, UT, WY) Region 9 (AZ, CA, HI, NV) Region 10 (AK, ID, OR, WA) Total for United Statesb

3,388

4.915 13,860

4,686 10,462 64,591

Watersheds with at Least One Tier 1 Station

Watersheds with at Least One Tier 2 Station and Zero Tier 1 Stations

Watersheds with All Tier 3 Stations

Watersheds with No Data

9 (14.5%)

13 (21.0%)

6 (9.7%)

0 (0.0%)

34 (54.8%)

17 (23.9%) 7 (5.6%)

35 (49.3%) 96 (76.2%)

3 (4.2%) 11 (8.7%)

3 (4.2%) 4 (3.2%)

13 (18.3%) 8 (6.3%)

307

13 (4.2%)

142 (46.3%)

57 (18.6%)

25 (8.1%)

70 (22.8%)

4,902 (79.7%)

278

25 (9.0%)

144 (51.8%)

31 (11.2%)

19 (6.8%)

59 (21.2%)

289 (3.8%) 136 (2.8%) 68 (0.5%)

6,840 (90.3%) 4,524 (92.0%) 13,656 (98.5%)

402

4 (1.0%) 1 (0.4%) 1 (0.3%)

117 (29.1%) 60 (25.2%) 34 (8.8%)

69 (17.2%) 72 (30.3%) 41 (10.6%)

44 (10.9%) 29 (12.2%) 31 (8.1%)

168 (41.8%) 76 (31.9%) 278 (72.2%)

40 (0.9%) 49 (0.5%) 1,506 (2.3%)

4,427 (94.5%) 10,115 (96.7%) 58,896 (91.2%)

19 (6.6%) 10 (2.8%) 96 (4.2%)

41 (14.2%) 48 (13.5%) 658 (29.1%)

19 (6.6%) 29 (8.2%) 302 (13.3%)

15 (5.2%) 21 (5.9%) 168 (7.4%)

194 (67.4%) 247 (69.6%) 1,040 (45.9%)

126

238 385

288 355 2,264

Watersheds Containing APCs

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.32 Regions 1–10: River Reach and Watershed Evaluation Summary, United States National Sediment Quality Survey

Tier 1, Associated adverse effects on aquatic life or human health are probable. Tier 2, Associated adverse effects on aquatic life or human health are possible. Tier 3, No indication of adverse effects. a b

River reaches based on EPA River Reach File (RF1). RF1 does not include data outside the contiguous United States. Because some reaches and watersheds occur in more than one region, the total number of reaches and watersheds in each category or the country might not equal the sum of reaches or watersheds in the regions.

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Source: From USEPA, 2004, The incidence and severity of sediment contamination in surface waters of the United States, National sediment contamination in surface waters of the United States, National Sediment Quality Survey: Sectond Edition, EPA 823-R-04-007, www.epa.gov.

Concentration, in mg/kg Dry Weight at the Given Percentile and Maximum Value

Compound Name

Lower Screening Value

Upper Screening Value

Percent Detection

75th

90th

95th

Maximum

mg/kg

N

mg/kg

N

530 535 533 518 533 532 535 526 521 524 498 518 500 496 506 496

10.0 12.9 22 30.7 36.8 33.1 32.9 23.4 35.7 16.8 39.8 10.4 27.8 7.7 30.8 37.9

!50 !50 !50 79 92 84 80 !50 120 !50 170 !50 63 !50 78 140

51 77 150 430 460 400 350 200 570 130 1,000 53 370 !50 500 780

94 170 520 1,100 1,400 1,100 1,000 480 1,400 280 2,700 140 710 78 1,400 2,000

1,500 1,500 4,100 12,000 12,000 10,000 9,900 6,700 16,000 4,400 26,000 6,700 8,400 4,900 15,000 21,000

6.71 5.87 57.2 108 3,600 3,600 150 720 166 33 423 77.4 690 176 204 195 1,610

53 69 106 108 5 5 101 15 111 101 78 40 25 9 82 104 105

500 640 845 1,050 — — 1,450 — 1,290 260 2,230 536 — 561 1,170 1,520 22,800

3 4 14 28 — — 17 — 31 26 27 3 — 1 31 33 14

536

30.0

98

540

1,000

17,000

182

101

2,650

6

d

0

536

5.6

!50

!50

76

2,240

900

1

11,000

505

37.8

99

430

870

4,800

670

31

—

—

516 518 487 517

0.6 1.2 0.6 0.2

!50 !50 !50 !50

!50 !50 !50 !50

!50 !50 !50 !50

86 140 79 68

50 110 28 51

3 2 7 1

340d 350d — 9,200d

0 0 — 0

Note: N, number of sites exceeding screening value; —, does not exist or apply. Data was collected from the United States Geological Survey National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program river basins. a b c d

Marine sediment quality guidelines. Freshwater sediment quality guidelines. Lower screening value is freshwater and upper screening value is marine sediment quality guideline. Screening value assuming 1% organic carbon.

Source: Abstracted from Lopes, T.J. and Furlong, E.T., 2001, Occurrence and potential adverse effects of semivolatile organic compounds in streambed sediment, United States, 1992– 1995; Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, vol. 20, no. 4, p. 727–737, www.usgs.gov. Printed with permission.

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Number of Sites

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Acenaphthenea Acenaphthylenea Anthraceneb Benz[a]anthraceneb Benzo[b]fluoranthenea Benzo[k]fluoranthenea Benzo[a]pyreneb Benzo[ghi]perylenea Chryseneb Dibenz [a, h] anthracenec Fluorantheneb Fluoreneb Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrenea Naphthaleneb Phenanthreneb Pyreneb Total PAHsb Phthalates Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalatea Butylbenzylphthalatea Phenols p-Cresola Halo- and NitrosoCompounds 1,2-Dichlorobenzenea 1,4-Dichlorobenzenea N-Nitrosodiphenylaminea 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzenea

10-74

Table 10B.33 Statistical Summary of Semivolatile Organic Compounds in Streambed Sediment That Exceeded Sediment Quality Screening Values in the United States 1992– 1995

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-75

Table 10B.34 Pollutant Discharges into Coastal Waters of the United States, 1980–1985 Coastal Region

BOD

TSS

TN

TP

Northeast Mid-Atlantic Southeast Gulf of Mexico West Coast

0.57 0.54 0.25 2.03 1.52

5.33 5.42 3.18 149.00 101.12

0.14 0.20 0.14 0.88 0.64

0.05 0.05 0.04 0.22 0.76

Note: (million tons per year) BOD, biochemical oxygen demand; TSS, total suspended solids; TN, total nitrogen; TP, total phosphorus. Source: From U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Survey, Ocean Assessments Division, Strategic Assessment Branch. 1986. Pollutant discharges from East Coast and Gulf of Mexico coastal counties, circa 1980–1985 and unpublished data compiled from the National Coastal Pollutant Discharge Inventory database. Rockville, MD; U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Summary 1986.

Table 10B.35 Point Sources of Pollutants to Coastal Waters of the United States, 1980– 1985 Coastal Region

Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities

Industrial Wastewater Treatment Facilities

540 666 1,053 1,651 521

1,025 1,518 458 830 920

Northeast Mid-Atlantic Southeast Gulf of Mexico West Coast

Note: Number of wastewater discharge facilities by region. Source: From U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean survey, Ocean Assessments Division, Strategic Assessment Branch. 1986. Pollutant discharges from East Coast and Gulf of Mexico coastal counties, circa 1980–1985 and unpublished data compiled from the National Coastal Pollutant Discharge Inventory database. Rockville, MD; U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Summary 1986.

Table 10B.36 United States Shellfish Growing Waters, 1966–1995 Year

1966

1971

1974

Approved for harvest Harvested limited Conditionally approved Restricted Conditionally restricted Prohibited Total

8,100 2,090 88

10,362 3,738 410

10,560 4,232 387

na na

30 na

2,002 10,190

3,298 14,100

Note:

1980

1985

1990

1995

1000 acres 10,685 3,533 587

11,402 5,435 1,463

12,304 6,398 1,571

14,853 6,721 1,695

34 na

55 na

637 na

463 0

2,106 119

3,811 14,792

2,891 14,218

3,335 16,837

4,364 18,702

2,801 21,574

Based on National Shellfish Registers published only in years indicated. Data do not include Alaska, Hawaii, or waters designated as unclassified. The total acreage of classified shellfish growing waters varies with each register. There may be several reasons why shellfish harvest is prohibited, including water-quality problems, lack of funding for complete surveying and monitoring, conservation measures, and other management/administrative actions.

Source: From The 1996 Annual Report of the Council on Environmental Quality, www.whitehouse.gov/CEQ. Orginal Source: From U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Survey, Office of Ocean Resources Conservation and Assessment, Strategic Environmental Assessments Division, The 1995 National Shellfish Register of Classified Growing Waters (DOC, NOAA, ORCA, Silver Spring, MD, 1997), www.nos.noaa.gov.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.37 Assessed Estuaries and Ocean Shoreline Waters Supporting Shellfishing Use Requirements in the United States in 2000 Estuaries (mi2) State Alabama Alaska California Connecticut Delaware Delaware River District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Mississippi New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina Oregon Puerto Rico Rhode Island South Carolina Texas Virgin Islands Virginia Washington Total Percent of assessed for use

Total Assessed 0 0 758 611 15 679 0 1,765 0 39 1,153 2,852 1,839 2,526 579 21 614 163 0 72 0 128 891 1,625 0 1,735 2,904 20,967

Ocean Shoreline Waters (mi)

Full Support

Threatened

— — 43 273 1 579 — 1,398 — 33 1,078 2,542 1,672 2,254 550 0 456 — — 4 0 96 613 1,037 — 1,642 1,274 15,545 75.7%

— — 19 0 0 0 — 111 — 0 0 0 — — 2 — 0 0 — 0 0 0 — 0 — 2 — 134 0.6%

Total Assessed 0 0 760 0 15 — — 0 0 425 0 0 32 0 89 18 0 3 0 0 0 79 0 0 0 0 0 1,420

Full Support

Threatened

— — 694 — 1 — — — — 422 — — 32 — 0 0 — — — — 0 79 — — — — — 1,227 86.4%

— — 0 — 0 — — — — 0 — — — — 0 — — 0 — — 0 — — — — — — 0 0.0%

Note: Supporting, Fully supporting of all uses; Threatened, Fully supporting all uses but threatened for one or more uses; —, no data. Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov.

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(Sq. Miles)

Jurisdiction Alabama Alaska American Samoa California Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Guam Hawaii Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Mississippi N. Mariana Islands New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina Oregon Puerto Rico Rhode Island South Carolina Texas Virgin Islands Virginia Washington Total Note: a b c d e

Number of Waterbodies with Restrictions

Approved (mi2)

Conditionally Approveda

Restrictedb

Prohibitedc

Management Closuresd

Total Area Affectede

— — — — — — — — — — — 26 — 36 — — — 11 — — — 8 — 19 — — — — — 100

— — — — — — — — — — — — — 1,672.19 2,254.07 — — 7.18 808 1,562.5 — 15.84 — 96 613.06 — — — 341.8 7,370.64

— — — — — — — — — — — — — 58.26 — — — 0.61 — — — 16.54 — 22 7.517 — — — 46.5 151.427

— — — — — — — — — — — — — 108 40.85 — — 1.57 115 — — — — — 151.28 — — 3 — 419.7

— — — — — — — — — — — — — 0 224.2 — — 11.26 130 312.5 — — — 10 119.233 — — 148 104 1,059.193

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — 201.1 — — 0.81 — — — — — — — 346.1 — — — 548.01

— — — — — — — — — — — — — 1,838.45 2,720.22 — — 21.43 1,053 1,875 — 32.38 — 128 891.09 346.1 — 151 492.3 9,548.97

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.38 Shellfish Harvesting Restrictions Due to Pathogens as Reported by States, Territories, and Commissions in 2000

—, no data.

Conditionally approved waters do not always meet criteria for harvesting shellfish, but may be harvested when criteria are met. Restricted water may be harvested if the shellfish are purified with clean water following harvest. Shellfish may not be harvested in prohibited waters. Preventative closures due to a lack of data or proximity to point sources or marinas. Includes water that are classified as conditionally approved, restricted, prohibited, and management closures.

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov. 10-77

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Table 10B.39 Summary of Fully Supporting, Threatened, and Impaired Waters Assessed in Estuaries and Ocean Shoreline Waters in the United States in 2000 Estuaries (mi2)

Jurisdiction

610 33,204 184 2,139 612 449 866 6 4,437 854 1 55 7,656 2,852 2,522 223 760 15,989 21 725 1,530 3,121 206 151 401 2,394 3 2,494 2,904 87,369

Assessed

Full Support

Threatened

Impaired

Not Attainable

541 28 0 2,033 611 0 866 6 4,037 858 11 54 4,036 2,783 2,478 128 613 1 21 614 402 3,115 54 0 151 221 1,993 0 1,991 2,904 30,548

0 3 0 35 139 0 0 0 3,055 509 0 23 318 2,473 918 46 0 0 0 456 0 3,006 8 0 103 136 1,236 0 773 611 13,850 45.3%

0 0 0 1 14 0 0 0 121 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 62 0 0 0 11 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 796 0 1,023 3.3%

541 25 0 1,997 458 0 866 6 861 349 11 31 3,711 310 1,560 82 551 1 21 158 391 109 35 0 47 85 758 0 422 2,293 15,676 51.3%

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0%

Total Miles

Assessed

Full Support

Threatened

Impaired

Not Attainable

337 36,000 116 1,609 380 25 — — 8,460 100 117 1,052 397 5,296 32 1,519 245 52 18 127 120 320 362 550 79 190 624 209 120 163 58,618

0 25 53 997 0 0 — — 0 0 17 871 0 0 32 0 94 0 18 127 3 0 0 550 79 0 0 202 120 — 3,189

0 16 7 775 0 0 — — 0 0 1 834 0 0 32 0 53 0 0 127 0 0 0 302 79 0 0 173 120 — 2,518 79.0%

0 0 30 0 0 0 — — 0 0 6 8 0 0 0 0 41 0 0 0 0 0 0 131 0 0 0 21 0 — 237 7.4%

0 9 16 222 0 0 — — 0 0 10 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 0 3 0 0 117 0 0 0 9 0 — 434 13.6%

0 0 0 0 0 0 — — 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 0.0%

Note: Supporting, Fully supporting of all uses; Threatened, Fully supporting all uses but threatened for one or more uses; Impaired, Partially or not supporting one or more uses; Not Attainable, Not able to support one or more uses; —, no data. Source: Abstracted from United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov.

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Alabama Alaska American Samoa California Connecticut Delaware Delaware River District of Columbia Florida Georgia Guam Hawaii Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Mississippi N. Mariana Islands New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina Oregon Puerto Rico Rhode Island South Carolina Texas Virgin Islands Virginia Washington Total Percent of assessed

Total Sq. Miles

Ocean Shoreline Waters (mi)

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-79

Table 10B.40 United States National Coastal Condition Rating Scores by Indicator and Region Northeast Coast

Indicator Water-quality index Sediment quality index Benthic index Coastal habitat index Fish tissue contaminants index Overall condition

Southeast Coast

Gulf Coast

West Coast

Great Lakes

Puerto Rico

United Statesa

2 1

4 4

3b 3

3 2

3 1

3 1

3.0 2.1

1 4 1

3 3 5

2 1 3

3 1 1

2 2 3

1 —c —c

2.0 1.7 2.7

1.8

3.8

2.4

2.0

2.2

1.7

2.3

Note: Rating scores are based on a 5-point system, where 1 is poor and 5 is good. a b c

The U.S. score is based on an aerially weighted mean of regional scores. This rating score does not include the impact of the hypoxic zone in offshore Gulf Coast waters. No coastal habitat index loss or fish tissue contaminants index results were available for Puerto Rico.

Source:

From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2004, National Coastal Condition Report II, EPA-620/R-03/002, December 2004, www.epa.gov.

Table 10B.41 Percent of United States National Coastal Area in Poor Condition by Indicator (except Coastal Habitat Index) and Region Northeast Coast

Indicator a

Water-quality index Sediment quality indexc Benthic index Coastal habitat indexd Fish tissue contaminants indexe Overall conditionf

19 16 22 1.00

Southeast Coast 5 8 11 1.06

Gulf Coast b

West Coast

Great Lakes

Puerto Rico

United States

9 12

3 14

— —

9 61

11 13

17 1.30

13 1.90

— —

35 —

17 1.26

31

5

14

27

—

—

22

40g

23

40

23

—

77

35

Note: The percent area of poor condition is the percentage of total estuarine surface area in the region or the nation (proportional area information is not available for the Great Lakes). a b c d e f g

The water-quality index is based on a combination of water quality measurements (dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll a, nitrogen, phosphorus, and water clarity). The area of poor condition does not include the hypoxic zone in offshore Gulf Coast waters. The sediment quality index is based on a combination of sediment quality measurements (sediment toxicity, sediment contaminants, and sediment TOC). The coastal habitat index is based on the average of the mean long-term, decadal wetland loss (1780–1990) and the present decadal wetland loss rate (1990–2000). The fish tissue contaminants index is based on analyses of whole fish (not fillets). The overall percentage is based on the overlap of the five indicators and includes estuarine area for all of the conterminous 48 states (by region and total) and Puerto Rico. In Northeast Coast estuaries, at least one of the five indicators is rated poor at sites representing 40% of total estuarine area.

Source:

From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2004, National Coastal Condition Report II, EPA-620/R-03/002, December 2004, www.epa.gov.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.42 Average PCB and PAH Concentrations in Sediments from Selected Estuaries in the United States, 1984–1992 (Milligrams per Kilogram Dry Weight) Estuary Machias Bay, ME-Hog Island Machias Bay, ME-Chance Island Frenchman Bay, ME-Long Porcupine Island Penobscot Bay, ME-Colt Head Island Johns Bay, ME–Pemaquid Casco Bay, ME-Great Chebeague Island Casco Bay, ME-Cousins Island Cape Elizabeth, ME-Richmond Island Merrimack River, MA-Plum Island Salem Harbor, MA-Folger Point Boston Harbor, MA-President Roads Boston Harbor, MA-Deer Island Boston Harbor, MA-Quincy Bay Boston Harbor, MA-Hull Bay Boston Harbor, MA-Mystic River Massachusetts Bay, MA Buzzards Bay, MA-West Island New Bedford Harbor, MA-Clarks Point Narragansett Bay, Rl-Prudence Island Narragansett Bay, Rl-Conanicut Island Niantic Bay, CON-Black Point Long Island Sound, NY-New Haven Long Island Sound, NY-Norwalk Long Island Sound, NY-Long Island Shoal Long Island Sound, NY-Rock Point Long Island Sound, NY-Lloyd Point Long Island Sound, NY-Oak Neck Point Hudson River, NY-Englewood Cliffs Raritan Bay, NY-Upper Bay Raritan Bay, NY-Gravesand Bay Raritan Bay, NY-West Reach Raritan Bay, NJ-East Reach Raritan Bay, NJ-Lower Bay Great Bay, NJ-Wells Island Great Bay, NJ-Seven Island Great Bay, NJ-Intercoastal Waterway Delaware Bay, DE-Cherry Island Range Delaware Bay, DE-Brandywine Shoal Delaware Bay, DE-The Shears Baltimore Harbor, MD, Fort McHenry Channel Baltimore Harbor, MD-Brewerton Channel Chesapeake Bay, MD-Gibson Island Chesapeake Bay, MD-Chester River Chesapeake Bay, MD-Kent Island Chesapeake Bay, MD-Patuxent River Chesapeake Bay, MD-Smith Island Chesapeake Bay, VA-James River Chesapeake Bay, VA-York River Chesapeake Bay, VA-Elizabeth River Pamlico Sound, NC-Jones Bay Cape Fear River, NC-Horseshoe Shoal Charleston Harbor, SC-Coastal Charleston Harbor, SC-South Channel Savannah River, GA-Elba Island Sapelo Sound, GA-South Newport River Sapelo Sound, GA-High Point St. Johns River, FL-Trout River St. Johns River, FL-West Mill Cove St. Johns River, FL-Ortega River

Total PCBs

Total PAHs

24.07 25.40 28.90 59.31 7.46 98.28 161.75 13.88 33.19 295.81 5961.75 2671.75 599.39 128.67 1436.33 2.63 171.64 2915.50 265.00 309.11 41.72 237.33 139.70 7.92 9.13 8.78 177.36 947.33 162.37 337.67 386.30 468.64 546.87 146.00 85.00 62.87 485.12 99.05 61.10 616.08 299.23 144.45 75.43 228.75 22.40 17.36 84.10 37.14 165.41 21.89 6.63 246.28 29.05 5.97 1.05 0.00 — 98.35 —

132.20 221.03 234.99 834.41 95.90 3,138.86 3,097.25 257.17 927.98 8,100.99 16,069.24 8,267.36 15,541.18 2,941.00 51,263.33 28.97 653.93 2,438.17 2,899.00 2,152.35 704.85 3,885.00 2,693.75 93.02 42.26 51.81 5,839.20 7,843.33 5,891.03 7,697.50 7,385.70 6,711.00 6,607.25 1,086.67 895.12 444.97 3,117.17 491.28 339.67 12,282.12 13,528.33 3,691.02 2,116.03 5,296.25 489.00 355.51 2,215.33 258.50 13,649.91 443.59 21.00 14,135.00 2,082.26 274.00 26.23 466.92 23,228.20 3,368.49 4,863.00 (Continued)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.42

10-81

(Continued)

Estuary St. Johns River, FL-Piney Point St. Johns River, FL-Orange Point St. Lucie River, FL-Stuart Biscayne Bay, FL-North Bay Biscayne Bay, FL-Chicken Key Charlotte Harbor, FL-Cape Haze Tampa Bay, FL-Northern Tampa Bay Apalachicola Bay, FL-St. George Island St. Andrew Bay, FL-Military Point Choctawhatchee Bay, FL Pensacola Bay, FL Mobile Bay, AL-North Point Pascagoula River, MS-Escatawpa River Pascagoula River, MS Round Island, MS-Round Island Heron Bay, MS-Heron Bay Mississippi River Delta, LA-Southeast Pass Mississippi River Delta, LA-Head of Passes Barataria Bay, LA-Barataria Pass Calcasieu River, LA-Prien Lake Calcasieu River, LA-West Cove Galveston Bay, TX-East Bay Galveston Bay, TX-Trinity Bay Galveston Bay, TX-Greens Bayou Galveston Bay, TX-Goat Islands Galveston Bay, TX-Morgans Point Galveston Bay, TX-Eagle Point Galveston Bay, TX-Texas City Lavaca Bay, TX San Antonio Bay, TX-Mosquito Point San Antonio Bay, TX-San Antonio Bay Corpus Christi Bay, TX-Long Reef Lower Laguna Madre, TX-Laguna Heights Lower Laguna Madre, TX-Long Island San Diego Harbor, CA-Outside San Diego Bay, CA-National City San Diego Bay, CA-28th Street San Diego Bay, CA-North San Diego Bay, CA-Harbor Island San Diego Bay, CA-Shelter Island Mission Bay, CA-Outside Dana Point Harbor, CA-Outside San Pedro Bay, CA-Seal Beach San Pedro Bay, CA-Long Beach San Pedro Bay, CA-Outer Harbor San Pedro Bay, CA-Cerritos Channel Santa Monica Bay, CA-Southeast Santa Monica Bay, CA-South Santa Monica Bay, CA-Manhattan Beach Santa Monica Bay, CA-West Santa Monica Bay, CA-Deep Santa Monica Bay, CA-North San Luis Obispo, CA-San Luis Obispo Estero Bay, CA-Estero Bay Monterrey Bay, CA-Indian Head Beach San Francisco Bay, CA-Redwood City San Francisco Bay, CA-Hunters Point San Francisco Bay, CA-Oakland Estuary San Francisco Bay, CA-Southampton Shoal San Francisco Bay, CA-Oakland Entrance

Total PCBs

Total PAHs

— — 46.67 61.20 28.33 8.86 5.54 10.77 110.33 20.43 58.19 19.33 129.13 71.50 1.10 11.72 23.80 581.80 3.18 901.67 41.67 — — 785.07 233.60 32.07 45.03 — 50.70 3.12 11.16 5.70 5.07 6.33 10.30 167.84 393.08 311.36 103.88 50.70 12.00 8.59 60.47 180.06 279.14 800.20 89.43 166.00 13.58 118.07 20.08 75.27 15.60 1.20 8.56 104.50 92.46 226.50 37.96 61.43

7,933.67 8,094.77 711.00 270.00 9.45 44.89 69.50 218.07 1,266.43 34.03 1,828.31 134.27 1,318.33 525.56 83.64 129.29 922.73 103.80 169.77 133.20 5.27 197.00 624.67 4,594.17 1,698.20 413.93 194.12 281.90 263.17 9.93 132.08 354.34 83.25 1.00 107.88 2,156.23 5,096.15 4,165.71 1,178.17 773.32 3.00 10.64 329.75 899.96 2,391.78 8,724.80 212.33 350.50 28.08 354.69 104.00 34.33 32.80 3.40 13.33 3,021.50 8,388.11 6,543.30 1,357.39 1,701.33 (Continued)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.42

(Continued)

Estuary San Francisco Bay, CA-Castro Creek San Francisco Bay, CA-San Pablo Bay Bodega Bay, CA-North Coos Bay, OR-North Bend Columbia River Mouth, WA-Desdemona Sands Puget Sound, Nisqually Reach, WA Puget Sound, WA-Commencement Bay Puget Sound, WA-Elliott Bay Boca de Quadra, AK-Bacrian Point Lutak Inlet, AK-Chilkoot River Mouth Skagway, AK-Skagway River Nahku Bay, AK-East Side Prince William Sound, AK-Port Valdez Gulf of Alaska, AK-Kamishak Bay Bering Sea, AK,-Dutch Harbor Bering Sea, AK,-Port Moller Chukchi Sea, AK-Red Dog Mine Beaufort Sea, AK-Olitok Point Beaufort Sea, AK-Prudhoe Bay Note:

Total PCBs

Total PAHs

50.18 24.25 10.62 20.95 5.15 4.77 70.07 420.59 18.00 10.33 13.57 7.02 13.57 16.67 58.83 43.50 24.80 44.28 19.18

1,137.05 470.12 59.13 831.94 53.08 11.92 1,334.87 6,393.67 115.00 2.17 630.67 98.33 630.67 16.33 715.00 0.00 4.80 730.33 274.42

PCBs, Polychlorinated biphenyls; PAHs, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; ND, Not detected.

Source:

From Marmon, M.R., Gottholm, W., and Robertson, A., 1998, A Summary of Chemical Contaminant Levels at Benthic Surveillance Project Sites (1984–1992)—NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS ORCA 124, www.nos.noaa.gov.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-83

Table 10B.43 Sewage Indicators In Sediments from Selected Estuaries in the Untied States, 1984 Estuary Casco Bay, ME Merrimack River, MA Salem Harbor, MA Boston Harbor, MA Buzzards’ Bay, MA Narragansett Bay, RI East Long Island Sound, NY West Long Island Sound, NY Raritan Bay, NJ Delaware Bay, DE Lower Chesapeake Bay, VA Pamlico Sound, NC Charleston Harbor, SC Sapelo Sound, GA St. Johns River, FL Charlotte Harbor, FL Tampa Bay, FL Apalachicola Bay, FL Mobile Bay, AL Round Island, MS Mississippi River Delta, LA Barataria bay, LA Galveston Bay, TX San Antonio Bay, TX Corpus Christi Bay, TX Lower Laguna Madre, TX San Diego Harbor, CA San Diego Bay, CA Dana Point, CA Seal Beach, CA San Pedro Canyon, CA Santa Monica Bay, CA San Francisco Bay, CA Bodega Bay, CA Coos Bay, OR Columbia River Mouth, OR/WA Nisqually Reach, WA Commencement Bay, WA Elliott Bay, WA Lutak Inlet, AK Nahku Bay, AK

Clostridium perfringens (cells/g)

Coprostanol (ng/g)

710.00 670.06 57,000.00 79,000.00 413.00 220,00 290.00 2,090.00 24,373.52 91.00 4.00 120.00 1,600.00 270.00 1,400.00 33.00 3.00 74.00 100.43 75.00 1,200.00 45.00 34.00 6.00 1.00 27.00 2,600.00 121.79 103.27 832.72 6,596.78 471.53 5,093.47 29.00 30.96 261.05 35.49 5,300.00 7,725.95 91.78 212.13

221.27 206.47 7,040.23 9,000.00 1,376.60 647.80 17.00 957.11 5,402.00 148.00 781.56 1,100.00 1,253.23 510.00 790.07 692.47 350.92 687.56 304.90 256.87 523.98 395.68 278.57 109.78 248.84 240.00 600.00 33.00 98.00 180.00 780.00 230.00 1,860.00 120.00 230.00 580.00 5.33 1,900.00 370.00 83.33 310.00

Source: From U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Survey, Ocean Assessments Division. 1987. National Status and Trends Program for Marine Environmental Quality. Progress Report on Preliminary Assessment of Findings of the Benthic Surveillance Project, 1984. Rockville, MD; U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Summary 1986.

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Estuary

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Arsenic

Cadmium

Chromium

Copper

Mercury

Nickel

Lead

Selenium

Tin

Zinc

0.13 0.06 0.09 0.24 0.11 0.19 0.25 0.03 1.49 6.12 2.87 5.52 4.02 2.41 0.04 0.64 1.79 3.24 1.18 0.17 0.08 0.05 0.92 1.58 1.69 3.62 3.60 4.68 3.85 0.25 0.69 0.36 0.19 0.05 1.94 1.12 1.12 0.40 0.18 0.08 0.33 0.36

5.90 7.89 10.34 11.29 11.12 11.91 10.20 4.25 13.89 10.23 10.12 12.34 14.25 26.20 0.95 9.55 7.46 9.65 8.29 3.58 3.62 3.34 7.13 8.01 7.96 14.94 21.67 20.25 20.07 8.68 11.69 6.85 7.57 5.66 30.43 30.23 30.23 12.68 13.59 7.80 9.48 8.13

— 0.08 0.18 — 0.12 0.33 0.20 0.11 4.87 1.86 1.30 1.20 0.66 1.81 0.02 0.18 0.97 0.85 0.41 0.15 0.10 0.06 0.47 0.87 0.84 1.73 1.61 1.51 2.63 0.38 0.53 0.28 0.34 0.13 3.11 0.68 0.68 0.46 0.77 0.24 1.03 0.33

122.64 66.71 82.97 329.93 100.33 92.20 183.94 27.70 1,671.81 232.02 121.72 213.50 136.13 120.53 2.88 67.26 79.80 119.72 95.58 50.23 42.31 30.32 67.84 123.04 59.57 120.76 138.33 154.68 230.89 98.42 107.65 45.63 46.00 226.33 515.67 196.78 196.78 81.42 83.87 52.25 — —

9.02 11.13 17.13 17.70 19.52 22.62 14.79 5.02 67.29 143.81 88.66 130.42 78.63 126.08 0.72 20.49 64.68 147.99 76.22 9.63 7.92 4.40 57.31 114.56 44.15 100.44 111.69 142.86 160.92 21.93 29.62 12.05 10.45 12.21 246.33 74.92 74.92 32.06 46.13 12.32 26.59 27.95

— 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.21 0.18 0.09 0.06 0.98 1.00 0.67 1.39 0.65 0.74 0.02 0.11 0.24 0.60 0.34 0.03 0.08 0.04 0.25 0.49 0.55 1.41 1.94 2.43 2.12 0.09 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.07 0.73 0.33 0.33 0.13 0.19 0.06 0.30 0.32

15.23 21.26 40.23 24.80 36.68 30.08 20.70 5.02 27.41 30.28 29.90 30.40 30.35 35.57 1.90 20.95 17.52 29.86 23.84 15.04 10.26 9.17 23.78 32.65 19.23 34.10 36.07 36.86 37.61 27.87 29.53 14.99 13.89 15.83 69.80 60.07 60.07 46.49 61.67 18.34 — —

21.37 19.27 27.90 28.43 31.08 37.18 39.26 21.46 186.32 110.25 95.51 120.56 101.87 158.93 5.47 31.15 58.00 112.69 61.77 20.05 18.50 18.68 52.94 77.12 74.26 124.64 160.04 158.84 157.68 47.03 43.93 26.80 21.35 27.47 172.00 123.78 123.78 53.41 61.63 17.19 38.24 44.74

0.25 0.14 0.42 0.86 0.48 0.39 0.63 0.04 0.73 0.64 0.30 0.39 0.40 0.50 0.08 0.28 0.38 0.51 0.35 0.07 0.04 0.27 0.21 0.44 0.19 0.41 0.54 0.68 0.98 0.78 0.46 0.32 0.12 0.34 1.59 1.02 1.02 0.63 1.60 0.39 — —

3.03 2.08 3.75 4.40 3.79 4.72 4.01 3.94 24.34 24.86 11.35 22.28 10.75 9.66 0.21 2.89 6.01 19.64 7.74 2.72 2.19 1.12 3.57 9.23 6.25 13.08 15.94 21.10 15.86 3.36 5.12 3.57 2.57 2.97 74.17 18.39 18.39 3.24 4.38 1.65 3.20 3.07

50.67 55.52 102.45 109.53 115.83 102.53 83.17 28.53 198.87 238.86 156.18 194.69 143.60 223.97 7.57 84.79 116.74 218.37 143.13 114.13 56.76 40.76 215.42 232.30 122.31 305.15 308.87 270.45 413.19 137.00 156.00 75.96 81.24 90.20 634.33 451.02 451.02 202.27 316.33 81.17 170.75 174.93

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Machias Bay, ME-Hog Island Machias Bay, ME-Chance Island Frenchman Bay, ME-Long Porcupine Island Penobscot Bay, ME-Job Island Penobscot Bay, ME-Colt Head Island Casco Bay, ME-Great Chebeague Island Casco Bay, ME-Cousins Island Merrimac River, MA-Plum Island Salem Harbor, MA-Folger Point Boston Harbor, MA-President Roads Boston Harbor, MA-Deer Island Boston Harbor, MA-Quincy Bay Boston Harbor, MA-Hull Bay Boston Harbor, MA-Mystic River Massachusetts Bay, MA-Plymouth Entrance Buzzards Bay, MA-West Island New Bedford Harbor, MA-Clarks Point Narragansett Bay, Rl-Prudence Island Narragansett Bay, Rl-Conanicut Island Niantic Bay, CON-Black Point Long Island Sound, NY-Long Island Shoal Long Island Sound, NY-Rocky Point Long Island Sound, NY-Lloyd Point Long Island Sound, NY-Oak Neck Point Raritan Bay, NY-Upper Bay Raritan Bay, NY-Gravesend Bay Raritan Bay, NY-West Reach Raritan Bay, NJ-East Reach Raritan Bay, NJ-Lower Bay Great Bay, NJ-Wells Island Great Bay, NJ-Seven Island Great Bay, NJ-Intercoastal Waterway Delaware Bay, DE-Brandywine Shoal Delaware Bay, DE-The Shears Baltimore Harbor, MD, Fort McHenry Channel Baltimore Harbor, MD-Brewerton Channel Chesapeake Bay, MD-Gibson Island Chesapeake Bay, MD-Chester River Chesapeake Bay, MD-Kent Island Chesapeake Bay, MD-Smith Island Chesapeake Bay, MD-Patuxent River Chesapeake Bay, VA-James River

Silver

10-84

Table 10B.44 Average Trace Metal Concentrations Detected in Sediments from Selected Estuaries in the United States, 1984–1992 (Milligrams per Kilogram Dry Weight)

5.61 10.58 8.22 12.79 3.66 4.39 3.34 8.08 4.95 3.41 5.33 3.03 4.03 1.74 1.35 1.20 18.45 13.76 38.31 19.97 20.38 17.09 6.72 7.71 6.84 8.35 5.96 5.70 6.53 3.23 5.89 38.31 7.11 6.51 6.36 4.98 3.90 6.94 6.29 4.41 6.04 2.98 6.90 6.60 5.90

0.24 1.20 0.28 0.16 0.05 0.07 0.06 0.11 0.15 0.33 0.40 0.97 0.33 0.14 0.10 0.27 0.07 0.28 3.22 0.73 0.21 0.11 0.21 0.08 0.19 0.42 0.17 0.20 0.37 0.06 0.15 3.22 0.96 0.26 0.19 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.14 0.12 0.35 0.15 0.08 0.37 —

55.24 71.97 67.70 67.21 34.47 35.89 27.02 45.81 38.38 58.96 50.72 66.23 78.63 49.66 19.34 21.52 78.75 82.28 127.75 39.78 122.26 101.34 43.43 48.97 41.18 58.66 39.89 — — 28.63 53.39 127.75 71.69 52.09 55.31 35.56 30.73 64.79 36.05 31.92 47.73 — 17.37 43.30 122.64

9.82 104.60 11.01 15.12 3.36 3.44 3.45 6.69 3.83 22.13 18.39 45.00 16.77 6.46 1.62 4.37 18.54 21.04 22.02 85.14 21.63 19.11 15.05 8.22 10.79 18.57 9.12 13.08 20.89 5.83 11.15 22.02 41.40 16.93 16.04 23.55 8.70 15.69 11.11 6.92 12.47 7.86 5.35 8.18 9.02

0.09 0.64 0.11 0.09 — — — 0.05 — — 0.16 — — — 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.21 0.27 0.19 0.17 0.12 0.11 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.05 0.11 0.14 — — 0.27 0.41 0.17 0.07 0.07 0.04 — 0.25 0.05 0.07 0.21 0.04 0.05 —

17.17 22.87 18.77 18.10 4.62 6.79 6.01 10.70 7.53 14.14 12.78 15.65 18.62 12.96 2.86 4.10 25.65 21.43 39.90 10.01 28.55 34.91 12.97 15.48 14.89 27.24 16.32 — — 11.68 20.37 39.90 23.58 20.04 20.22 15.47 10.31 22.21 14.04 10.37 15.32 — 5.48 6.03 15.23

15.49 106.23 24.96 23.11 9.48 9.11 8.84 15.18 9.09 40.84 38.30 92.30 35.37 13.89 4.21 7.65 29.48 54.15 41.48 57.37 38.75 32.59 18.22 17.01 17.05 20.02 14.83 17.57 28.11 11.23 18.06 41.48 63.65 33.53 30.82 23.47 14.24 25.43 21.38 12.96 20.41 11.04 12.35 11.35 21.37

0.18 0.29 0.73 0.44 0.15 0.15 0.09 0.29 0.14 0.52 0.57 1.28 1.51 1.46 0.30 0.28 0.55 0.65 0.70 0.55 0.81 0.53 0.28 0.26 0.31 0.33 0.21 — — 0.11 0.25 0.70 0.36 0.41 0.29 0.27 0.19 0.15 0.22 0.15 0.25 — 0.12 0.12 0.25

2.08 7.37 2.82 2.34 1.05 1.07 1.03 1.44 1.06 2.85 2.64 4.81 2.57 2.11 0.76 0.86 3.57 1.80 3.95 2.19 3.21 3.59 1.78 2.01 1.52 1.98 1.44 1.55 2.38 0.89 2.34 3.95 3.92 2.25 2.19 2.05 1.52 3.79 1.60 1.24 2.35 1.06 1.63 1.85 3.03

64.08 406.67 72.04 68.96 26.23 27.91 20.71 42.40 29.38 96.65 107.32 194.38 86.39 33.20 7.82 15.02 95.65 93.23 161.09 182.78 129.54 153.77 82.48 64.14 53.36 86.90 55.21 73.13 125.84 38.83 61.49 161.09 183.80 103.24 81.70 72.90 42.06 79.68 58.25 38.09 104.25 72.12 31.35 54.72 50.67 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-85

0.08 0.51 0.08 0.11 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.22 0.30 0.61 0.25 0.06 0.01 0.11 0.06 0.30 0.11 0.16 0.17 0.10 0.14 0.07 0.10 0.16 0.09 0.12 0.22 0.09 0.12 0.11 0.62 0.18 0.16 0.18 0.09 0.22 0.11 0.07 0.09 0.09 0.07 0.19 0.13

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Chesapeake Bay, VA-York River Chesapeake Bay, VA-Elizabeth River Pamlico Sound, NC-Jones Bay Charleston Harboar, SC-South Channel Sapelo Sound, GA-South Newport River Sapelo Sound, GA-Barbour Island River Sapelo Sound, GA-Sapelo Sound Inlet Sapelo Sound, GA-High Point Sapelo Sound, GA-Dog Hammock St. Johns River, FL-Trout River St. Johns River, FL-West Mill Cove St. Johns River, FL-Ortega River St. Johns River, FL-Piney Point St. Johns River, FL-Orange Point Charlotte Harbor, FL-Cape Haze Tampa Bay, FL-Northern Tampa Bay Apalachicola Bay, FL-St. George Island St. Andrew Bay, FL-Military Point Choctawhatchee Bay, FL Choctawhatchee Bay, FL-Destin Harbor Pensacola Bay, FL Mobile Bay, AL-North Point Pascagoula River, MS Round Island, MS-Round Island Herron Bay, MS-Heron Bay Mississippi River Delta, LA-Southeast Pass Barataria Bay, LA-Barataria Pass Lake Pontchartrain, LA-North Shore Lake Pontchartrain, LA-South Shore Galveston Bay, TX-East Bay Galveston Bay, TX-Trinity Bay Galveston Bay, TX-Cedar Bayou Galveston Bay, TX-Greens Bayou Galveston Bay, TX-Goat Islands Galveston Bay, TX-Morgans Point Galveston Bay, TX-Clear Lake Galveston Bay, TX-Eagle Point Galveston Bay, TX-Texas City Lavaca Bay, TX San Antonio Bay, TX-San Antonio Bay Corpus Christi Bay, TX-Long Reef Arroyo Colorado, TX-Arroyo City Lower Laguna Madre, TX-Laguna Heights San Diego Bay, CA-Outside Machias Bay, ME-Hog Island

(Continued)

Estuary

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Arsenic

Cadmium

Chromium

Copper

Mercury

Nickel

Lead

Selenium

Tin

Zinc

1.43 1.09 0.78 0.28 0.20 0.34 0.04 0.17 0.11 0.35 0.30 — 0.49 0.13 2.24 0.91 0.36 4.17 0.60 0.50 0.12 1.77 — 0.34 0.45 0.59 0.42 0.34 0.32 0.16 0.19 0.08 0.13 0.62 0.12 0.23 0.25 0.23 0.29 0.27 0.42 0.30 0.36

9.44 10.16 7.96 5.47 5.09 2.28 3.03 5.75 8.34 6.70 9.36 15.87 8.31 16.00 7.34 5.75 8.95 4.10 1.48 5.01 5.93 4.39 6.39 9.90 12.16 9.40 12.88 13.00 9.09 8.50 4.55 8.54 6.67 3.08 3.18 1.48 5.20 8.08 1.90 1.54 3.45 1.51 9.74

0.36 0.65 0.53 0.32 0.25 0.12 0.10 0.31 1.20 0.24 0.72 1.31 1.00 0.86 1.24 1.19 0.29 1.65 0.39 0.08 0.19 0.14 3.33 0.16 0.29 0.51 0.73 0.16 0.24 0.18 0.16 0.23 0.35 0.13 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.54 0.44 0.64 0.40 1.09 0.21

60.13 84.98 58.71 55.63 35.49 40.03 73.48 35.87 59.00 82.88 80.13 151.67 85.70 77.42 90.83 121.17 60.23 81.78 130.00 5,770.00 72.80 233.33 210.00 167.17 229.43 145.00 233.84 196.00 202.67 199.33 409.52 453.67 82.82 50.33 35.73 95.33 57.95 90.13 52.67 72.13 43.00 23.27 148.33

117.15 176.49 96.83 37.57 30.83 1.62 4.71 6.39 40.00 24.60 58.22 201.00 106.27 125.67 36.85 36.45 10.05 43.15 7.49 5.72 4.11 12.20 8.00 55.10 54.13 73.00 105.06 71.67 30.93 46.27 7.44 6.95 14.14 35.67 16.45 16.02 49.60 101.63 22.00 28.83 16.90 9.80 59.67

0.43 0.71 0.60 0.24 0.15 0.06 0.02 0.24 0.04 0.31 0.24 0.22 0.32 0.68 0.26 0.29 — 0.13 0.08 0.08 0.06 — 0.09 0.29 0.35 0.32 1.13 0.50 0.16 0.16 0.14 0.06 0.15 0.03 0.10 0.29 0.17 0.61 0.04 0.14 0.08 0.23 0.08

22.87 21.38 17.00 10.33 14.64 16.42 20.85 14.22 29.50 36.70 30.24 53.37 37.54 45.97 26.15 29.92 12.59 16.56 30.40 49.20 20.45 16.10 41.90 92.15 76.75 108.10 112.38 104.00 64.73 83.12 48.49 60.07 27.93 17.87 23.94 35.77 30.65 38.24 7.49 17.12 4.28 11.57 16.60

44.35 79.14 52.93 24.82 24.83 7.80 8.57 14.18 26.20 32.23 75.74 49.83 38.05 129.28 17.62 25.17 25.73 22.48 4.90 — 11.81 14.77 10.30 30.15 29.53 47.20 128.98 43.50 17.15 30.23 4.85 — 13.48 17.80 7.79 13.13 20.07 42.78 17.87 18.27 52.20 43.30 23.13

0.13 0.18 0.26 0.22 0.29 0.13 0.07 0.23 0.53 0.13 0.45 2.21 1.39 0.62 0.17 0.30 0.15 0.33 — — 0.14 0.15 0.29 0.56 0.38 0.26 0.90 0.37 0.21 0.19 0.13 0.08 0.30 0.15 0.25 0.13 0.48 0.34 0.74 0.43 0.15 0.87 0.41

4.81 10.19 10.92 6.74 11.49 2.67 2.54 2.36 3.06 1.97 6.12 — 6.57 18.73 2.30 2.97 1.12 4.33 0.80 — 1.53 1.81 2.27 6.68 3.07 2.99 16.32 1.87 2.23 4.43 2.31 — 2.45 2.71 2.60 2.54 2.29 2.35 3.21 1.62 2.76 0.21 2.79

206.52 279.33 226.33 116.00 87.64 42.29 70.87 48.94 118.00 111.17 184.61 205.67 173.93 307.83 85.33 91.73 35.48 87.70 43.60 38.50 24.18 54.67 48.00 165.50 137.71 174.50 287.50 171.67 102.14 128.53 44.86 45.60 68.16 132.33 90.79 104.09 91.45 168.03 104.33 180.17 169.33 191.33 150.00

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

San Diego Bay, CA-National City San Diego Bay, CA-28th Street San Diego Bay, CA-North San Diego Bay, CA-Harbor Island San Diego Bay, CA-Shelter Island Mission Bay, CA-Outside Ocean Side Harbor, CA-Outside Dana Point Harbor, CA-Outside Dana Point Harbor, CA-Inside Harbor San Pedro Bay, CA-Seal Beach San Pedro Bay, CA-Long Beach San Pedro Bay, CA-Mid Harbor San Pedro Bay, CA-Outer Harbor San Pedro Bay, CA-Cerritos Channel Santa Monica Bay, CA-Southeast Santa Monica Bay, CA-South Santa Monica Bay, CA-Manhattan Beach Santa Monica Bay, CA-West San Luis Obispo, CA-San Luis Obispo Estero Bay, CA-Estero Bay Monterrey Bay, CA-Indian Head Beach Monterrey Bay, CA-Moss Landing Farallon Islands, CA San Francisco Bay, CA-Redwood City San Francisco Bay, CA-Hunters Point San Francisco Bay, CA-Islais Creek Channel San Francisco Bay, CA-Oakland Sanctuary San Francisco Bay, CA-Oakland Entrance San Francisco Bay, CA-Southampton Shoal San Francisco Bay, CA-Castro Creek Bodega Bay, CA-North Humbolt Bay, CA-Indian Island Coos Bay, OR-North Bend Columbia River Mouth, OR-Youngs Bay Columbia River Mouth, WA-Desdemona Sands Puget Sound, Nisqually Reach, WA Puget Sound, Commencement Bay, WA Puget Sound, WA-Elliott Bay Boca de Quadra, AK-Bacrian Point Lutak Inlet, AK-Chilkoot River Mouth Skagway, AK-Skagway River Nahku Bay, AK-East Side Prince William Sound, AK-Port Valdez

Silver

10-86

Table 10B.44

0.13 0.26 0.11 0.06 0.26 0.04 0.13 0.17

5.90 1.75 2.22 1.67 1.75 5.69 2.33 1.34

— 0.19 0.70 0.43 0.19 — 0.32 0.26

122.64 82.33 30.67 63.00 82.33 213.33 70.85 58.53

9.02 26.67 49.67 13.33 26.67 10.00 18.29 11.83

— 0.06 0.24 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.20 0.09

15.23 9.32 5.13 5.82 9.32 32.63 23.11 17.79

21.37 14.67 12.93 9.84 14.67 8.49 14.02 7.88

0.25 0.19 0.70 0.06 0.19 0.17 0.41 0.32

3.03 2.70 2.77 3.37 2.70 2.10 1.34 2.31

50.67 89.67 85.33 100.67 89.67 51.00 80.98 72.23

Source: Abstracted from Marmon, M.R., Gottholm, W., and Robertson, A., 1998, A Summary of Chemical Contaminant Levels at Benthic Surveillance Project Sites (1984–1992)—NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS ORCA 124, www.nos.noaa.gov.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Machias Bay, ME-Hog Island Gulf of Alaska, AK-Kamishak Bay Bering Sea, AK-Dutch Harbor Bering Sea, AK-Port Moller Bering Sea, AK-Kvichak Bay Chukchi Sea, AK-Red Dog Mine Beaufort Sea, AK-Olitok Point Beaufort Sea, AK-Prudhoe Bay

10-87

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-88

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.45 Cadmium and Lead in Sediments of the Chesapeake Bay Mainstem Concentration Contaminant

a b

a

Median (ppm)

Maximum (ppm)

NOEL (ppm)

0.4

2.9

1.0

Cadmium

Lead

Aquatic Life Benchmark

35

86

Location of Maximum Concentrations

b

PEL (ppm) 7.5

21

160

Baltimore region south to the Little Choptank River; mouth of Potomac River Baltimore region

Trends Concentrations are declining

Concentrations are declining in some areas

No Observed Effect Level. Level above which impacts are considered “possible.” Probable Effect Level. Level above which impacts are considered “probable.”

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, Deposition of Air Pollutants to the Great Waters, Third Report to Congress, EPA-453/R-00-005. Original Source: From Eskin et al., 1996.

Table 10B.46 Temporal Trends in Chemical Concentrations Measured Nationally at 206 Mussel Watch Project Sites and at 30 Sites in the NERRS for Which Data Exist for Six Years During 1986–1999 Trend Organics* SCdane SDDTs SDiel SPCBs SPAHs SBTs HCB Lindane Mirex Note:

I 1 1(1) 4(2) 5(1) 18(3) 0 16 3 17

Trend D 85(8) 54(5) 32(4) 30 26(1) 100(10) 7 31 6

NT 120 151 170 171 162 106 183 172 183

Element As Cd Cu Hg Ni Pb Se Zn

I 9 7(4) 9 13(1) 11(2) 11(2) 14(2) 7(1)

D 15(3) 20(2) 10(1) 14(2) 6(1) 12(3) 4 15(4)

182 179 187 179 189 183 188 184

I, Increasing; D, Decreasing; NT, No trend. Increasing and decreasing trends for NERRs are given in parentheses.*Individual organic compound concentrations have been aggregated into these groups:

SBTs, the sum of the concentrations of tributyltin and its breakdown products dibutyltin and monobutyltin; SCdance, the sum of cis-chlordane, trans-nonachlor, heptachlor and heptachlorepoxide; SDDTs, the sum of concentrations of DDTs and its metabolities, DDEs and DDDs; SDield, the sum of concentrations of aldrin and dieldrin; SPAHs, the sum of concentrations of the 18 PAH compounds; SPCBs, the sum of the concentrations of homologs, which is approximately twice the sum of the 18 congeners. Source: From Lauenstein, G.G. and Cantillo, A.Y., 2002, Contaminant Trends in US National Estuaries Research Reserves, Nation Status and Trends Program for Marine Environmental Quality, NOAA NAS Technical Memorandum NCCOS 156, October 2002, www.noaa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Assessed

Jurisdiction Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Cortina Rancheria Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Manzanita Band Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota

Oligotrophic

Mesotrophic

Eutrophic

HyperEutrophic

Dystrophic

Number of Acreage of Number of Acreage of Number of Acreage of Number of Acreage of Number of Acreage of Number of Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Lakes Lakes Lakes Lakes Lakes Lakes Lakes Lakes Lakes Lakes Lakes

Acreage of Significant Public Lakes

33 — 11 — — 38 — — — —

276,436 — — — — 47,530 — — — —

3 — 0 — — 7 — — — —

585 — — — — 5,272 — — — —

8 — 3 — — 14 — — — —

54,077 — — — — 15,722 — — — —

21 — 8 — — 13 — — — —

210,539 — — — — 15,957 — — — —

1 — — — — 4 — — — —

11,235 — — — — 10,579 — — — —

0 — — — — — — — — —

0 — — — — — — — — —

262 — — — 329 164 115 240 105 — — — 58 593 730 1,984 — 145 177 81 17 671 116 — — 161 124

1,571 — — — 157,408 54,153 41,190 123,632 217,480 — — — 21,010 64,688 491,931 2,131,026 — — 797,184 121,610 319,946 155,773 10,462 — — 311,236 617,330

191 — — — 6 42 — 3 15 — — — 0 8 115 309 — 8 49 2 3 199 — — — 44 0

604 — — — 180 4,761 — 140 72,143 — — — 0 25,790 172,591 210,108 — — 289,569 1,601 133,230 115,924 — — — 103,130 0

51 — — — 30 62 — 36 33 — — — 16 150 375 723 — 37 71 3 12 315 3 — — 29 20

802 — — — 3,912 37,389 — 22,052 42,972 — — — 15,172 17,057 175,307 1,099,929 — — 425,599 3,023 133,116 31,672 111 — — 75,898 503,386

13 — — — 159 41 115 129 54 — — — 42 380 207 667 — 89 46 29 2 157 113 — — 70 49

71 — — — 79,398 10,205 41,190 98,521 102,237 — — — 5,838 18,912 124,881 645,241 — — 81,495 94,393 53,600 8,177 10,351 — — 112,820 19,152

7 — — — 134 19 — 64 3 — — — 0 54 33 285 — 11 1 47 — — — — — 4 55

94 — — — 73,918 1,798 — 2,919 128 — — — 0 2,892 19,152 175,748 — — 500 22,593 — — — — — 404 94,792

— — — — — 0

— — — — — 0

0 0 — — — 0 1 — 0 — — 10 — — — — — — 14 —

0 0 — — — 0 37 — 0 — — 22 — — — — — — 18,984 —

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-89

(Continued)

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.47 Trophic Status of Lakes in the United States in 1998

10-90

Table 10B.47

(Continued) Assessed

Jurisdiction

Mesotrophic

Eutrophic

HyperEutrophic

Dystrophic

Number of Acreage of Number of Acreage of Number of Acreage of Number of Acreage of Number of Acreage of Number of Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant Significant Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Lakes Lakes Lakes Lakes Lakes Lakes Lakes Lakes Lakes Lakes Lakes

Acreage of Significant Public Lakes

— 199 201 66 18 62 27 112 122 — —

— 624,343 491,255 76,122 — 7,307 452,654 132,159 538,438 — —

— 14 58 — 3 21 — 2 21 — —

— 10,568 35,280 — — 1,900 — 1,199 100,346 — —

— 69 72 13 3 28 14 10 38 — —

— 105,325 75,212 6,268 — 4,089 247,414 23,205 320,408 — —

— 77 60 39 12 10 13 37 39 — —

— 342,706 191,310 44,630 — 1,199 205,240 30,526 73,338 — —

— 39 11 14 — 2 — 63 24 — —

— 165,744 189,453 25,224 — 99 — 77,229 44,346 — —

— 0 0 — — 1 — 0 — — —

— 0 0 — — 20 — 0 — — —

129 202 — — 81 — — 7,373

460,561 42,299 — — 21,423 — — 8,808,157

47 33 — — 17 — — 1,220

285,154 9,817 — — 7,724 — — 1,587,615

57 121 — — 31 — — 2,447

59,191 25,404 — — 5,335 — — 3,529,046

24 30 — — 33 — — 2,778

116,166 6,205 — — 8,365 — — 2,752,663

1 2 — — — — — 878

50 473 — — — — — 919,371

— 16 — — — — — 42

— 400 — — — — — 19,463

Note: Oligotrophic, Clear waters with little organic matter or sediment and minimum biological activity; Mesotrophic, Waters with more nutrients, and therefore, more biological productivity; Eutrophic, Waters extremely rich in nutrients, with high biological productivity. Some species may be choked out; Hypereutrophic, Murky, highly productive waters, closest to the wetland status. Many clearwater species cannot survive; Dystrophic, Low in nutrients, highly colored with dissolved humic organic material. (Not necessarily a part of the natural trophic progression.); —, no data. Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, National Water Quality Inventory: 1998 Report to Congress, www.epa.gov.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Puerto Rico Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Torres—Martinez Desert Band Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total

Oligotrophic

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

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Table 10B.48 Lake Acres Meeting Fishable and Swimmable Goals of the Clean Water Act in the United States, by Jurisdiction, in 2000 Fishing Jurisdiction

Total Assessed

Alabama Alaska American Samoa Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Guam Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa (flood control reservoirs) Iowa (lakes) Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana N. Mariana Islands Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Puerto Rico Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total Percent of assessed

464,815 0 0 135,451 355,954 484,834 5,975 27,601 0 238 883,840 0 0 0 0 123,702 45,540 29,850 21,067 13,684 205,712 0 987,283 21,010 10,674 889,600 0 275,720 293,305 283,747 0 114,734 0 168,002 14,245 109,909 151,557 310,727 518,175 103,867 0 31,489 0 0 175 0 31,438 0 620,092 460,642 51,739 116,565 0 48 203,704 0 8,566,710

Full Support

Swimming Threatened

Total Assessed

391,952 — — 134,896 339,004 104,952 0 26,809.30 — 0 654,720 — — — — 100,646 0 29,850

12,650 — — — — 64,678 0 0 — 0 0 — — — — 0 0 0

418,703 0 0 135,379 339,004 634,251 56,658 26,049 2,954 238 1,260,800 0 0 0 0 152,628 0 40,850

20,844 — 197,502 — 987,283 20,910 193 0 — 134,638 292,365 215,435 — 114,734 — 168,002 0 410 — 275,547.00 — 28,682 — 0 — — 0 — 31,438 — 265,599 460,642 30,781 45,487 — 48 116,474 — 5,189,844 60.6%

59 13,683 0 — 0 — 0 — — 112,579

22,924 188,506 215,646 492,913 987,283 5,069 21,015 3,770 2,591,796 19,821 262,372 508,922 0 4,083 168,354 160,406 16,820 0 125,387 209,819 687,315 78,175 530,124 507,536 0 12,146 14,493 313,306.0 48,468 494,479 480,467 162,760 52,943 109,574 0 4,430 93,663 0 12,662,298

7,550 — — — 0 114 — 0 — — 62,385 — 13,008 — — 0 — — — 0 0 0 71,078 — 0 22,504 — 380,288 4.4%

Full Support 318,593 — — 134,320 339,004 202,876 56,650 16,767 911 0 760,960 — — — — 22,129 0 40,850 16,091 — 215,427 453,343 879,314 5,069 2,022 — 1,769,686 19,821 261,757 205,107 — 4,083 168,354 158,034 11,343 — — 204,626 511,376 641 61,635 479,174 — 7,741 13,792 310,027.9 48,468 395,923 480,067 161,760 34,256 109,469 — — 3,623 — 8,885,090 70.2%

Threatened 82,955 — — — — 77,465 0 9,011 0 0 110,080 — — — — 0 0 0 1,041 47,903 0 0 71,105 — 4,190 — 557 0 — 0 — — — 1,085 0 — 32,371 — 28,881 51,921 271,024 9,428 — 1,878 0 — — 0 0 — 10,712 0 — 4,430 1,367 — 817,405 6.5%

Note: Supporting, Fully supporting of all uses; Threatened, Fully supporting all uses but threatened for one or more uses; —, no data Source: From Abstracted from United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.49 Summary of Acres of Fully Supporting, Threatened, Imparied Waters in Assessed Lakes in the United States by Jurisdiction, in 2000 Jurisdiction Alabama Alaska American Samoa Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Guam Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa (flood control reservoirs) Iowa (lakes) Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana N. Mariana Islands Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Puerto Rico Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total Percent of assessed

Total Lake Acres

Assessed

490,472 12,787,200 — 400,720 514,245 1,672,684 164,029 64,973 2,954 238 2,085,120 425,382 169 2,168 700,000 309,340 142,871 —

464,811 16,376 0 135,451 355,954 754,737 62,920 27,669 0 238 1,683,000 402,849 0 0 0 154,795 71,120 40,850

161,366 188,506 228,385 1,078,031 987,283 77,965 151,173 889,600 3,290,101 500,000 293,305 844,802 — 280,000 533,239 168,017 72,235 997,467 790,782 311,071 714,910 118,461 1,041,884 618,934 161,445 12,146 21,796 407,505 750,000 538,060 1,994,600 481,638 228,920 149,982 466,296 22,373 944,000 325,048 40,603,893

43,268 188,506 217,422 518,176 987,283 21,010 67,749 891,225 2,591,796 291,721 293,305 547,929 0 127,926 168,446 160,583 18,359 154,550 402,486 310,513 0 78,175 592,147 507,536 42,421 12,146 16,554 313,865 138,857 530,619 1,547,955 460,642 53,350 116,399 243,749 21,523 230,006 0 17,078,967

Full Support 217,431 11,438 0 118,361 339,004 175,282 56,669 19,145 0 0 771,840 65,166 0 0 0 7,855 25,580 19,000 10,336 0 100,447 40,259 758,081 8,922 26,965 0 1,769,686 190,239 110,189 64,146 0 116,958 168,446 153,191 5,550 30,410 0 305,247 0 641 76,188 296,173 16,157 6,404 13,742 74,044 22,831 412,538 858,967 321,453 10,452 25,265 151,763 2,426 52,100 0 8,026,988 47.0%

Threatened 131,587 0 0 0 0 64,636 0 6,984 0 0 110,080 0 0 0 0 0 0 16,950 18,695 26,884 94,839 1,926 80,134 0 652 1,625 557 92,655 122,241 7,550 0 0 0 1,123 12,409 0 90,944 0 0 51,921 75,677 88,786 0 1,878 5 0 0 0 97,522 0 12,488 87,254 0 6,295 44,606 0 1,348,903 7.9%

Impaired 115,793 4,938 0 17,090 16,950 514,819 6,251 1,540 0 238 801,080 337,683 0 0 0 146,940 45,540 4,900 14,237 161,622 22,136 475,991 149,068 12,087 39,425 889,600 821,553 8,827 60,875 476,233 0 10,968 0 6,269 400 124,140 311,542 5,266 0 25,613 440,282 122,577 26,264 3,864 2,808 239,821 116,026 118,081 591,466 139,189 30,410 3,880 91,986 12,801 133,300 0 7,702,370 45.1%

Not Attainable 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 706 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 706 0.0%

Note: Supporting, Fully supporting of all uses; Threatened, Fully supporting all uses but threatened for one or more uses; Impaired, Partially or not supporting one or more uses; Not Attainable, Not able to support one or more uses; —, no data. Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

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Table 10B.50 Estimated Phosphorus Loadings to the Great Lakes, 1976–1991 Year

Lake Superior

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

3,550 3,661 5,990 6,619 6,412 3,412 3,160 3,407 3,642 2,864 3,059 1,949 2,067 2,323 1,750 2,709

Note:

Lake Michigan Metric Tons 6,656 4,666 6,245 7,659 6,574 4,091 4,084 4,515 3,611 3,956 4,981 3,298 2,907 4,360 3,006 3,478

Lake Huron

Lake Erie

Lake Ontario

4,802 3,763 5,255 4,881 5,307 3,481 4,689 3,978 3,452 5,758 4,210 2,909 3,165 3,277 2,639 4,460

18,480 14,576 19,431 11,941 14,855 10,452 12,349 9,880 12,874 11,216 11,118 8,381 7,841 8,568 12,899 11,113

12,695 8,935 9,547 8,988 8,579 7,437 8,891 6,779 7,948 7,083 9,561 7,640 6,521 6,728 8,542 10,475

The 1978 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement set target loadings for each lake (in metric tons per year): Lake Superior, 3,400; Lake Michigan, 5,600; Lake Huron, 4,360; Lake Erie, 11,000; and Lake Ontario, 7,000. Data do not include loadings to the St. Lawrence River. Data analysis was discontinued after 1991.

Source: From The 1997 Annual Report of the Council of Environmental Quality. Great Lakes Water Quality Board, Great Lakes Water Quality Surveillance Subcommittee Report to the International Joint Commission, United States and Canada, (International Joint Commission, Windsor, ON, Canada, Biennial). Orignal Source: From www.whitehouse.gov/CEQ.

Table 10B.51 Summary of Fully Supporting, Threatened, and Impaired Waters in Assessed Great Lakes Shoreline in the United States in 2000 Jurisdiction Illinois Indiana Michigan Minnesota New York Ohio Pennsylvania Wisconsin Total Percent of assessed

Total Miles

Assessed

Full Support

Threatened

Impaired

63 43 3,250 272 577 236 63 1,017 5,521

63 43 3,250 0 457 220 0 1,017 5,050

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0%

63 0 0 0 40 185 0 807 1,095 21.7%

0 43 3,250 0 417 35 0 210 3,955 78.3%

Not Attainable 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0%

Note: Supporting, fully supporting of all uses; Threatened, fully supporting all uses but threatened for one or more uses; Impaired, partially or not supporting one or more uses; Not Attainable, not able to support one or more uses. Source:

From Abstracted from United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov.

Table 10B.52 Atmospheric Input of Some Organic Contaminants to the Great Lakes Compound Total PCB Dieldrin Total PAH Total DOT p.p 0 -Methoxychlor

Lakes Superior

Lake Michigan

Lake Huron

Lake Erie

Lake Ontario

9.8 0.5 163 0.6 8.3

6.9 0.4 114 0.4 5.9

7.2 0.6 118 0.4 6.1

3.1 0.2 51 0.2 2.6

2.3 0.1 38 0.1 1.9

Note: Metric tons per Year. Source: From Great Lakes Water Quality Board, 1985 Report on Great Lakes Water Quality. Original Source: Eisenreich et al., 1981.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.53 Atmospheric Loading Estimates for Selected Pollutants (kg/yr) in the Great Lakes Pollutant of Concern

Superior

Michigan

Huron

Erie

Ontario

a

PCBs (wet and dry) 1988 1992 1994 1996 PCBsa (net gas transfer)b 1988 1994 DDT (wet and dry) 1988 1992 1994 1996 DDT (net gas transfer) 1988 1994 Benzo(a)pyrene (wet and dry) 1988 1992c 1994 Note: a b

c

550 160 85 50

400 110 69 42

400 110 180 N/A

180 53 37 34

140 42 64 N/A

K1900 K1,700

K5140 K2,700

K2560 —

K1100 K420

K708 K440

90 34 17 4

64 25 32 12

65 25 37 N/A

33 12 46 2

26 10 16 N/A

K681 30

K480 67

K495 —

K213 34

K162 13

69 120 200

180 84 250

180 84 —

81 39 240

62 31 120

—, Not determined or reported.

Data presented for PCB congeners 18, 44, 52, and 101 (each with 3–5 chlorines in chemical structure). The convention is to assign a negative number to loss of pollutant from the lake (i.e., volatilization). Thus, the resulting number expresses the mass of a pollutant going into or coming out of the lake per year (i.e., a positive net gas transfer indicates a net input of the pollutant to the lake and a negative net gas transfer indicates a net loss or output from the lake). Data from 1992 may represent an underestimation in the measurement of benzo(a)pyrene.

Source: Modified From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1997, Deposition of Air Pollutants to the Great Waters Second Report to Congress, EPA-453/R-97-011. 1996; data source: United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, Deposition of Air Pollutants to the Great Waters Third Report to Congress, EPA-453/R-00-005. Original Source: From Eisenreich and Strachan 1992; Hillery et al., 1996; Hoff et al., 1996; Strachan and Eisenreich 1988. Table 10B.54 Sources of PCBs to Lake Superior Source

kg/yr

Atmosphere Tributary Municipal discharges Industrial discharges Total

Percent of Total

6,600–8,300 1,300 66 2 8,000–9,000

82–86 13–16 1 1

Source: From Great Lakes Water Quality Board, 1985 Report on Great Lakes Water Quality. Original Source: From Eisenreich et al., 1981.

Table 10B.55 Concentration of Total PCBs in Lake Superior Water Column Year

Total PCB Concentration (mg/L)

Total Concentration of 25 PCB Congeners (mg/L)

1978 1979 1980 1983 1986 1988 1990 1992

0.00173G0.00065 0.00404G0.00056 0.00113G0.00011 0.0008G0.00007 0.00056G0.00016 0.00033G0.00004 0.00032G0.00003 0.00018G0.00002

NA NA 0.00099G0.00010 0.00073G0.00006 0.00055G0.00015 0.00020G0.00001 0.00021G0.00001 0.00009G0.00001

Note:

NA, not applicable.

Source:

From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1997, Deposition of Air Pollutants to the Great Waters, Second Report to Congress, EPA-453/R-97-01.

Original Source: From Jeremiason et al., 1994.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

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Table 10B.56 Comparison of Water-Quality Criteria to Pollutant Concentrations in the Great Lakes (mg/L) Total Water Column Concentratione

Pollutant

National AWQC: Fresh Water Aquatic Lifea

National AWQC: Human Healthb

Great Lakes WaterQuality Agreement Objectivec

Great Lakes WaterQuality Criteriond

Lake Superior

DDT/DDf Dieldrin

0.001 0.0019

0.00024 0.00071

0.003 0.001g

0.000011 0.0000065

!0.00006 0.00026

0.00045 —

!0.00004 NA 0.0011 0.0016

!0.00006 !0.00006 0.00032– 0.00038 0.00035 0.000072 0.000047 0.0015 0.0011

0.47 0.0000039

0.0004 0.00034 0.00018 0.00020– 0.00036 !0.00046 NA

0.00038 0.00049 0.0007– 0.00122 0.0009 !0.00046 !0.00046

HCB a-HCH Lindane Total PCBs POMh

— —

0.0072 0.092

— —

0.08 0.014

0.186 0.00079

0.01 —

—

0.028

—

—

Lake Michigan NA NA

Lake Huron

Lake Erie

Lake Ontario !0.00006 0.00028– 0.00032 0.000036 0.0008– 0.0009 0.00036 0.0012 !0.00046

Note: a b c d e

f g h

NA, No data available; Bold texts indicate exceedances of GLWQC; bold-italic texts indicate exceedances of AW/QC for human health. Values are for freshwater chronic criteria (U.S. EPA 1986). Values are for human chronic exposure through both fish consumption and drinking water (U.S. EPA 1986). Values are for protection of the most sensitive user of the water among humans, aquatic life and wildlife (IJC 1978). Values are the most stringent (i.e., lowest) among those for protection of human health, aquatic life, or wildlife (U.S. EPA 1995a). Concentrations are taken from De Vault et al. (1995) and L’Italian (1993). Concentrations of dieldrin and PCBs that are reported as ranges represent two different concentrations reported in two different studies. For a-HCH, the range of concentrations in Lake Ontario represents the range reported in a single study. Sampling data are for p,p 0 -DDE. Value for aldrin and dieldrin combined. AWQC for human health is for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), a subset of POM, sampling data are for benzo(a)pyrene, a PAH.

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1997, Deposition of Air Pollutants to the Great Waters, Second Report to Congress, EPA-453/R-97-011, www.epa.gov.

Table 10B.57 Modeled Air Deposition, Depositional Flux, and Waterborne Inputs of Dioxins and Furans to the Great Lakes Dioxins and Furans Atmospheric deposition (g TEQ/yr) (range) Depositional flux (mg/km2/yr) Waterborne inputs (g TEQ/yr) Percent contribution from atmospheric sources

Superior

Huron

Michigan

Erie

Ontario

Total

5.6

8.6

13.7

7.3

6.4

42

(2–17) 69

(3–25) 145

(5–43) 238

(2–21) 284

(2–18) 337

(13–124) 172

1.4

1.4

1.9

11

O3.9

O19.6

80

86

88

40

w62

w68

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, Deposition of Air Pollutants to the Great Waters. Third Report to Congress, EPA-453/R-00-005, www.epa.gov. Orginal Source: From Cohen et al., 1995.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.58 Current Rates of Dioxins and Furans Accumulation in Great Lakes Sediments Accumulation Rates in Sediment (pg/cm2/yr)

Location

Number of Sediment Cores Analyzed

Dioxinsa

Furansa

Dioxinsa

Furansa

2 2 1

7.4–8.0 44–49 17

0.8–0.9 22–25 17

100 33–55 100

100 5–35 5–35

3

120–220

130–230

5–35

!5

Lake Superior Northern Lake Michigan Southern Lake Michigan near Chicago Urban Area Lake Ontario a

Percent Contribution from Atmospheric Sources

Includes the total of all dioxin homologs. Includes the total of all furan homologs.

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, Deposition of Air Pollutants to the Great Waters, Third Report to Congress, EPA-453/R-00-005, www.epa.gov. Orginal Source: From Pearson et al., 1998.

Table 10B.59 Modeled Air Deposition, Depositional Flux, and Waterborne inputs of Hexachlorobenzene to the Great Lakes HCB

Superior

Michigan

Huron

Erie

Ontario

Total

11 (4–49) 0.13

15 (5–73) 0.26

16 (6–74) 0.27

15 (6–65) 0.58

23 (9–101) 1.19

79 (30–362) 0.32

0.1

0.8

0.6

!72

35

!108.5

Total deposition (kg/yr) (range) Depositional flux (g/km2/yr) Waterborne inputs (kg/yr)

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, Deposition of Air Pollutants to the Great Waters, Third Report to Congress, EPA-453/R-00-005, www.epa.gov. Orginal Source: From Cohen et al., 1995.

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Atmospheric Deposition (%)

Location a

Urban Area (%)

Riverine

Groundwater

Direct Discharge

Comments

!1

Not reported

Air-water exchange and sediment burial account for the major loss pathways from the lake, but atmospheric deposition dominates inputs Over 90 percent of the mercury entering the watershed is retained in the terrestrial system and does not reach the aquatic system Tidal exchange, sediment burial, and air-water exchange are major loss pathways, 45 percent of the mercury entering the sound is re-emitted

Lake Michigan

w80

w30 (Chicago)

Chesapeake Bayb

O50 (Wet 47–53) (Dry 9–11)

Baltimore (percent not known)

w33–49

Not reported

Not reported

w10

New York New Jersey (percent not known)

w52

Not reported

w36

Long Island Soundc

w17

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.60 Mercury Sources Identified for Lake Michigan, Chesapeake Bay, and Long Island Sound in Mass Balance Studies (by Percent Contribution)

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, Deposition of Air Pollutants to the Great Waters, Third Report to Congress, EPA-453/R-00-005, www.epa.gov. Original Source: From a Mason and Sullivan (1997); b Mason et al., (1997); c Fitzgerald (1998).

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.61 Preliminary Estimates of Total Atmospheric Mercury Deposition to Lake Michigan Deposition Wet Aerosol Dry Reactive Gaseous Mercurya Dissolved Gaseous Mercuryb Total a

b

Annual Total (kg) 614G186 69G38 506 K460 729

Annual Mean (mg/m2) 10.6G3.2 1.2G0.7 8.8 K8.0 12.6

Reactive gaseous mercury (RGM) deposition values do not include error bars because they reflect a sensitivity analysis performed on a single measurement in place of direct measurements since no measurement method was available for RGM at the time of the study. Dissolved gaseous mercury (DGM) deposition values do not include error bars because the values reflect a single measurement taken to establish modeling parameters.

Source: From United states Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, Deposition of Air Pollutants to the Great Waters, Third Report to Congress, EPA-453/R-00-005, www.epa.gov. Orginal Source: From Landis, 1998.

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Jurisdiction Alabama Alaska American Samoa Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigana Minnesotaa Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee

Rivers

Lakes, Reservoirs, Ponds

11 — — 3 8 4 — 5 6 — 27 68 2 — 19 127 — 10 7 8 15 1 17 62 89 8 5 3 15 1 1 14 3 27 6 2 53 1 6 28 1 39 — 7

2 — — 2 10 12 11 6 5 — 52 33 — 1 11 69 1 1 1 12 — 1 83 64 850 3 — 23 20 1 3 25 23 45 7 18 9 — 7 2 1 17 1 9

Great Lakes

Estuaries

Bayous

Coastal

Canal

Wetland

Multi-class Waters

— — — — — — — — — — —

— — 1 — — 2 — 1 8 — — 3 1 — — — — — — 1 — 2 4 — — — — — — — — 6

— — — — 3 — — — — — —

1 — — — — 11 — — — — 8 1 — — — — — — — 1 1

— — — — — — — — 1 — 1

— — — — — — — — — — — 1 — — — — — — — — — — — 1 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

— — — — 1 1 — — — — 10 — — — — — — — 1 1 — — 1 — — — 1 — — — — 1 — — — — — — — — — 1 — 1

— 1 1 — — — — — — — 13 1 — — — — — — — — 8 — — 1 — — 2 — — — —

3 1 — — — — 1 — — — —

— — — — — — — 6 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

1 — — 1 — — — — 1 2 3 1 — — — — — 1 1 — —

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 2 — — — — — — 1 — — — — — 2 — —

Regional

Statewide

1 — — — — — —

— — — — — — — 1 — 1 — — — — — 1 — — 1 — 2 — 1 1 1 — 1 — — — 1 1 — 1 1 — 1 — — — — — — —

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 1 — — — — — — — 1 — — — — — — — — —

Total Advisories 15 0 1 5 22 30 11 13 20 1 98 106 3 1 31 198 1 11 10 29 18 4 107 141 941 13 8 26 37 2 6 49 26 87 17 21 64 1 13 33 3 60 1 17

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.62 Number of Fish Consumption Advisories from the National Listing of Fish and Wildlife Advisories, 2000

(Continued)

Jurisdiction

Rivers

Lakes, Reservoirs, Ponds

Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsina Totals

4 1 1 10 1 10 101 837

15 1 9 — 1 — 364 1,831

Note: a

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Table 10B.62

Great Lakes

Estuaries

Bayous

Coastal

Canal

Wetland

Multi-class Waters

Regional

Statewide

Total Advisories

— — — — — — 4 31

2 — — — 8 — — 44

— — — — — — — 9

1 — — — 2 — — 37

— — — — — — — 7

— — — — — — — 2

— — — — — — — 19

— — — — — — — —

— — 1 — — — 1 17

22 2 11 10 12 10 470 2,838

Data from the National Listing of Fish and Wildlife Advisories.

Includes Tribal and joint State/Tribal advisories; Alabama, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Maine, Mississippi, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Texas the coastal advisory extends statewide.

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov. THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

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Table 10B.63 Fish Advisories Issued for the Great Lakes Great Lakes Lake Superior Lake Michigan Lake-Huron Lake Erie Lake Ontario

PCBs

Dioxins

Mercury

Chlordane

† † † † †

† † † † †

† † † †

† † †

Mirex

DDT

†

†

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2004, Fact Sheet Update: National Listing of Fish Advisories, EPA-823-F04 016, August 2004, www.epa.gov.

Table 10B.64 Pollution Discharges in Navigable Waters of the United States in 2001 (by Size) Petroleum Spill Size (Gallons) 1–100 101–1,000 1,001–3,000 3,001–5,000 5,001–10,000 10,001–50,000 100,001– 1,000,000 Year-End Statistics

Number of Spills

Chemical

Spill % of Spill Volume Incidents (Gallons)

Number of Spills

Other

Spill % of Spill Volume Incidents (Gallons)

Number of Spills

Spill % of Spill Volume Incidents (Gallons)

% of Spill Volume

7,256 216 45 16 11 14 1

96.00 2.90 0.60 0.20 0.10 0.20 0.00

33,276 86,955 77,447 67,241 89,224 376,057 124,320

86 10 1 1 5 1 1

81.90 9.50 1.00 1.00 4.80 1.00 1.00

624 4,680 2,000 4,006 38,390 21,680 200,049

50 3 2

90.90 5.50 3.60

259 775 4,500

4.70 14.00 81.30

7,559

100.00

854,520

105

100.00

271,429

55

100.00

5,534

100.00

Source: From U.S. Coast Guard, Pollution incidents in and around U.S. waters a spill/release compendium: 1969–2001, Annual Data and Graphics for Oil Spills (1969–2001), www.uscg.mil.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-102

Table 10B.65 Pollution Discharges in Navigable Waters of the United States in 2001 (by Type of Source) Oil

Detailed Source

Number of Spills

% of Spill Incidents

Chemical Spill Volume (Gallons)

% of Spill Volume

Number of Spills

% of Spill Incidents

Other

Spill Volume (Gallons)

95 246 46 562

1.30 3.30 0.60 7.40

125,217 212,298 474 122,454

14.70 24.80 0.10 14.30

Freight barge Freight ship Industrial vessel Oil recovery Passenger Public vessel

27 139 42 4 179 197

0.40 1.80 0.60 0.10 2.40 2.60

86 22,007 1,284 6 1,163 10,192

0.00 2.60 0.20 0.00 0.10 1.20

613 36 382 2,299 38 108

8.10 0.50 5.10 30.40 0.50 1.40

8,907 162 12,980 47,512 1,775 3,314

1.00 0.00 1.50 5.60 0.20 0.40

6 5 4

5.70 4.80 3.80

6 23 4,016

4 4 266

0.10 0.10 3.50

12 13 112,648

0.00 0.00 13.20

25

23.80

61 3

0.80 0.00

23,099 10

2.70 0.00

3

620 27 18 13 21 10

8.20 0.40 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.10

63,470 459 1,339 1,241 12,336 861

7.40 0.10 0.20 0.10 1.40 0.10

40 1

0.50 0.00

13,860 500

1.60 0.10

Unclassified Recreational Research vessel Towboat/Tugboat Unclassified vessel Modu OSV Public tank ship/barge Public freight Designated waterfront facility Land facility nonmarine Other onshore marine facility Fixed platform Mobile facility Municipal facility Offshore pipeline Onshore pipeline Aircraft Other land vehicle Other railroad equipment

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Number of Spills

% of Spill Incidents

Spill Volume (Gallons)

% of Spill Volume

2 8

1.90 7.60

11 200,059

0.00 73.70

1 6

1.80 10.90

120 11

2.20 0.20

1

1.00

1

0.00

1

1.80

1

0.00

1

1.80

3

0.10

0.00 0.00 1.50

4 8 1 1

7.30 14.50 1.80 1.80

4 78 1 1

0.10 1.40 0.00 0.00

36,515

13.50

3

5.50

591

10.70

2.90

2,051

0.80

1

1.80

1

0.00

14 2 1

13.30 1.90 1.00

7,195 402 50

2.70 0.10 0.00

4

7.30

118

2.10

1

1.80

1,500

27.10

1

1.00

1

0.00

1

1.00

250

0.10

1

1.80

3,000

54.20

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Tankship Tankbarge Commercial vessel Fishing boat

% of Spill Volume

Bridge Factory Fleeting area Industrial facility Locks Marina Marpol reception Non-vessel common carrier Outfall/sewer/drain Permanently moored Shipyard/repair facility Shoreline Unknown or other Year-end statistics

1

0.00

5

0.00

1 12 2 28 1 50

0.00 0.20 0.00 0.40 0.00 0.70

40 95 24 7,859 5 2,207

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.90 0.00 0.30

6 1

0.10 0.00

3,042 5

0.40 0.00

7 4 20 252

0.10 0.10 0.30 3.30

20 115 4,134 23,149

0.00 0.00 0.50 2.70

10

9.50

1,073 7,559

14.20 100.00

14,141 854,520

1.70 100.00

16 105

15.20 100.00

6

5.70

1,731

10.635 8,483 271,429

0.60

1

1.80

31

0.60

3.90

1

1.80

50

0.90

3.10 100.00

20 55

36.40 100.00

24 5,534

0.40 100.00

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Tank truck

Source: From U.S. Coast Guard, Pollution incidents in and around U.S. waters a spill/release compendium: 1969–2001, Annual Data and Graphics for Oil Spills (1969–2001), www.uscg.mil.

10-103

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Petroleum Number of Spills

% of Spill Incidents

Spill Volume (Gallons)

% of Spill Volume

Number of Spills

% of Spill Incidents

Spill Volume (Gallons)

83 493 1,728 109 35 1,682 1,140 693 1,396 7,559

1.10 6.50 22.90 1.40 0.50 22.30 15.10 11.80 18.50 100.00

7,168 53,295 133,872 1,600 244 237,980 139,300 158,667 122,394 854,520

0.80 6.20 15.70 0.20 0.00 27.80 16.30 18.60 14.30 100.00

1 7 28

1.00 6.70 26.70

5 16 19,634

20 12 17 20 105

19.00 11.40 16.20 19.00 100.00

3,677 796 118

48.60 10.50 1.60

529,482 121,432 287

62.00 14.20 0.00

50 10 1

1,005

13.30

52,784

6.20

503 1,460 7,559

6.70 19.30 100.00

26,891 123,664 854,520

3.10 14.50 100.00

Other % of Spill Volume

Spill Volume (Gallons)

Number of Spills

% of Spill Incidents

0.00 0.00 7.20

17

30.90

136

2.50

20,492 1,070 206,869 23,343 271,429

7.50 0.40 76.20 8.60 100.00

13 2 8 15 55

23.60 3.60 14.50 27.30 100.00

3,075 2 213 2,108 5,534

55.60 0.00 3.80 38.10 100.00

47.60 9.50 1.00

228,432 7,173 5

84.20 2.60 0.00

22 6 1

40.00 10.90 1.80

3,289 11 1

59.40 0.20 0.00

22

21.00

12,465

4.60

10

18.20

124

2.20

2 20 105

1.90 19.00 100.00

11 23,343 271,429

0.00 8.60 100.00

1 15 55

1.80 27.30 100.00

1 2,108 5,534

0.00 38.10 100.00

% of Spill Volume

Source: From U.S. Coast Guard, Pollution incidents in and around U.S. waters a spill/release compendium: 1969–2001, Annual Data and Graphics for Oil Spills (1969–2001), www.uscg.mil.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Waterbody Atlantic Ocean Pacific Ocean Gulf of Mexico Great Lakes Lakes Rivers & canals Bays & sounds Harbors Other Year-end statistics Location Internal/headlands Coastal (0–3 Ml) Contiguous zone (3–12 Ml) Ocean (12–200 Ml) Ocean general Other Year-end statistics

Chemical

10-104

Table 10B.66 Pollution Discharges in Navigable Water in the United States (by Type of Location and Water Body)

Oil

State

% of Spill Incidents

Spill Volume (Gallons)

% of Spill Volume

Number of Spills

% of Spill Incidents

Other

Spill Volume (Gallons)

% of Spill Volume

350 152 65 641 21 11

4.60 2.00 0.90 8.50 0.30 0.10

47,643 2,450 2,423 24,794 2,665 5,048

5.60 0.30 0.30 2.90 0.30 0.60

6 2

5.70 1.90

15 2

0.00 0.00

3

2.90

403

0.10

1

1.00

10,000

3.70

36 554 20 44 115 2 49 10 2 58 1,487 136 154 53 62 25 8 2

0.50 7.30 0.30 0.60 1.50 0.00 0.60 0.10 0.00 0.80 19.70 1.80 2.00 0.70 0.80 0.30 0.10 0.00

1,621 11,508 47 694 5,854 3 2,034 39 65 125,917 147,740 7,794 4,095 1,607 353 309 75 2

0.20 1.30 0.00 0.10 0.70 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.00 14.70 17.30 0.90 0.50 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

1 1 1

1.00 1.00 1.00

1,000 2 500

10

9.50

3 3 2 1 1

119 126 22 114 156 43 67 42 52 78 58 9 1,072

1.60 1.70 0.30 1.50 2.10 0.60 0.90 0.60 0.70 1.00 0.80 0.10 14.20

2,465 2,399 42 10,854 32,114 2,123 18,765 9,003 779 1,497 1,227 334 213,653

0.30 0.30 0.00 1.30 3.80 0.20 2.20 1.10 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.00 25.00

Number of Spills

% of Spill Incidents

Spill Volume (Gallons)

% of Spill Volume

1

1.80

7

0.10

0.40 0.00 0.20

1

1.80

3

0.10

15,640

5.80

21

38.20

565

10.20

2.90 2.90 1.90 1.00 1.00

256 52 2,020 4 7,600

0.10 0.00 0.70 0.00 2.80

1

1.80

3,000

54.20

1

1.80

1

0.00

2

1.90

17

0.00

4 5

3.80 4.80

109 1,554

0.00 0.60

1 2

1.80 3.60

50 2

0.90 0.00

1

1.00

1

0.00

1

1.80

1

0.00

1

1.80

1

0.00

1 11

1.80 20.00

1 277

0.00 5.00

25

23.80

206,411

76.00

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-105

Alaska Alabama American Samoa California Connecticut District of Columbia Delaware Florida Georgia Guam Hawaii Iowa Illinois Indiana Iowa Kentucky Louisiana Massachusetts Maryland Maine Michigan Minnesota Missouri N. Mariana Islands Mississippi North Carolina New Hampshire New Jersey New York Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania Puerto Rico Rhode Island South Carolina Tennessee Texas

Number of Spills

Chemical

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.67 Pollution Discharges in Navigable Waters of the United States in 2001 by State

(Continued) Oil

State Virginia Virgin Islands Washington Wisconsin West Virginia Unknown or beyond state waters Year-end statistics

10-106

Table 10B.67

Chemical

Other

% of Spill Incidents

Spill Volume (Gallons)

% of Spill Volume

Number of Spills

132 30 465 21 14 882

1.70 0.40 6.20 0.30 0.20 11.70

21,383 1,364 24,800 10,186 543 106,209

2.50 0.20 2.90 1.20 0.10 12.40

3

2.90

21,687

8.00

1

1.80

1

0.00

5 2

4.80 1.90

73 7

0.00 0.00

1 1

1.80 1.80

1 1,500

0.00 27.10

23

21.90

4,076

1.50

10

18.20

124

2.20

7,559

100.00

854,520

100.00

105

100.00

271,429

100.00

55

100.00

5,534

100.00

Number of Spills

% of Spill Incidents

Spill Volume (Gallons)

% of Spill Volume

Number of Spills

% of Spill Incidents

Spill Volume (Gallons)

% of Spill Volume

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Source: From U.S. Coast Guard, Pollution incidents in and around U.S. waters a spill/release compendium: 1969–2001, Annual Data and Graphics for Oil Spills (1969–2001), www.uscg.mil.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-107

Table 10B.68 Type of Oil Discharged to Navigable Waters of the United States in 2001 Oil Type Crude oils Heavy fuel oils Intermediate fuel oils Gasoline products Other petroleum oils Nonpetroleum oils Year-end statistics

Number of Spills

% of Spill Incidents

Spill Volume (Gallons)

% of Spill Volume

1,173 121 2,181 260 3,788 36 7,559

15.50 1.60 28.90 3.40 50.10 0.50 100.00

182,999 82,168 228,320 27,233 333,643 157 854,520

21.40 9.60 26.70 3.20 39.00 0.00 100.00

Source: From U.S. Coast Guard, Pollution incidents in and around U.S. waters a spill/release compendium: 1969–2001, Annual Data and Graphics for Oil Spills (1969–2001), www.uscg.mil.

Table 10B.69 Oil Spills in U.S. Water — Number and Volume: 1998–2001 Number of Spills Spill Characteristics Total Size of spill (gallons) 1–100 101–1,000 1,001–3,000 3,001–5,000 5,001–10,000 10,001–50,000 50,001–100,000 100,001–1,00,000 1,000,000 and over Waterbody Atlantic ocean Pacific ocean Gulf of Mexico Great Lakes Lakes Rivers and canals Bays and sounds Harbors Other Source Tankship Tankbarge All other vessels Facilities Piperlines All other non vessels Unknown

Spill Volume (Gallons)

1998

1999

2000

2001

1998

1999

2000

2001

8,315

8,539

8,354

7,539

885,303

1,172,449

1,431,370

854,520

7,962 259 54 15 15 8 — 2 —

8,212 240 42 18 10 12 4 1 —

8,058 219 37 12 16 6 4 2 —

7,258 216 45 16 11 14 — 1 —

38,093 86,606 96,743 64,609 108,148 216,335 — 274,769 —

38,119 86,530 74,582 73,798 66,274 301,510 245,406 285,230 —

39,355 78,779 67,529 45,512 112,415 108,400 266,380 713,000 —

33,276 86,955 77,447 67,241 89,224 376,057 — 124,320 —

109 644 2,190 119 25 1,944 891 790 1,603

148 758 1,756 129 31 1,924 1,299 907 1,587

150 623 1,838 95 32 1,816 1,248 801 1,750

83 493 1,728 109 35 1,682 1,140 893 1,396

6,674 192,775 181,372 3,006 63 280,651 24,234 97,223 99,305

29,440 150,694 45,786 906 624 504,254 136,650 105,213 198,872

135,010 36,301 112,069 4,535 349 663,404 49,783 273,095 156,824

7,168 53,295 133,872 1,600 244 237,980 139,300 158,667 122,394

104 220 4,848 937 45 571

82 227 5,361 1,019 25 571

111 229 5,220 1,054 25 566

95 246 4,680 995 34 436

56,673 248,089 316,473 166,269 47,863 32,584

8,414 158,977 409,084 367,537 36,140 147,704

608,176 133,540 291,927 311,604 17,021 45,136

125,217 212,298 232,341 201,025 13,577 55,921

1,590

1,244

1,149

1,073

17,352

44,593

23,966

14,141

Note:

Based on reported discharges into U.S. navigable waters, including territorial waters (extending 3 to 12 mi from the coastline), tributaries, the contiguous zone, onto shoreline, or into other waters that threaten the marine environment. Data found in Marine Safety Management System; — Represents or rounds to zero. Source: From U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States 2004–2005, www.census.gov. Orginal Source: From U.S. Coast Guard, www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/nmc/response/stats/Summary.htm and uscg.mil/hq/g-m/nmc/response/ stats/chp2001.pdf (released August 2003).

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Crude Oils Year

Intermediate Fuel Oils

Gasoline Products

Other Petroleum Oils

Nonpetroleum Oils

Number

Volume

Number

Volume

Number

Volume

Number

Volume

Number

Volume

Number

Volume

4,807 5,243 4,643 4,521 4,347 4,481 4,036 3,358 3,216 3,070 3,188 2,919 2,153 875 555 660 1,183 1,992 1,712 1,728 1,598 1,549 1,467 1,783 1,642 1,593 1,352 1,283 1,173 72,127

7,219,648 10,102,280 7,138,446 5,631,995 3,331,533 3,518,825 15,411,430 7,762,112 2,440,608 4,761,261 3,763,206 4,281,504 2,012,551 1,720,405 1,768,240 1,856,136 10,997,750 4,730,679 896,683 803,160 319,467 626,821 195,857 222,976 412,747 304,424 148,654 704,259 182,999 103,266,654

915 932 826 809 863 938 873 773 627 454 448 400 291 379 325 314 371 362 316 350 234 206 223 175 163 122 116 94 121 13,020

2,068,102 1,858,340 7,342,076 9,811,141 1,151,495 925,233 950,344 275,089 4,114,826 2,906,973 409,906 2,159,878 964,056 840,040 489,686 448,387 957,043 499,347 205,063 192,638 743,447 824,254 213,949 266,034 19,710 63,885 108,408 156,135 82,168 41,047,653

1,423 1,712 1,654 1,867 1,944 2,498 2,396 2,083 1,850 1,885 1,873 1,927 1,596 1,772 1,867 1,941 2,578 2,829 2,622 2,659 2,595 2,710 2,963 2,706 2,477 2,576 2,751 2,479 2,181 64,414

2,271,442 1,189,120 1,091,283 1,033,888 1,528,183 1,653,321 1,658,465 1,328,861 850,052 911,026 2,136,142 7,224,260 1,997,320 1,025,190 858,323 3,452,480 1,173,326 1,322,094 366,201 564,314 662,415 345,726 290,186 2,206,213 193,390 299,337 305,096 274,545 228,320 38,440,519

535 684 684 735 762 854 771 604 591 620 603 664 582 439 452 447 429 479 448 542 512 468 469 422 419 423 381 314 260 15,593

1,070,803 1,763,230 2,068,473 1,127,213 993,647 3,780,524 996,134 1,601,836 841,469 815,359 854,318 891,746 721,325 471,692 272,265 597,773 258,328 756,680 98,483 124,806 99,164 219,804 46,416 267,992 124,976 82,499 77,992 32,921 27,233 21,085,101

985 1,051 1,075 1,156 1,285 1,509 1,414 1,259 1,158 1,100 1,355 1,594 1,152 1,469 1,585 1,572 1,998 2,457 3,423 4,161 3,958 3,929 3,829 4,177 3,849 3,531 3,852 4,121 3,788 67,793

2,476,361 664,618 3,763,013 571,926 1,041,758 759,190 1,340,479 1,512,769 427,372 434,293 1,109,342 3,360,784 2,617,914 139,051 158,184 203,555 84,992 603,189 307,422 184,873 217,856 414,767 344,664 147,849 182,535 70,145 520,088 262,373 333,643 25,095,005

349 377 410 334 258 364 344 306 369 355 449 754 395 59 57 64 54 58 48 51 75 98 86 72 74 70 87 63 36 6,116

147,224 121,145 116,792 341,786 142,518 227,015 536,710 116,303 246,666 515,884 106,934 87,706 123,083 85,600 62,187 27,672 7,254 3,017 2,099 5,876 25,039 57,901 707,157 6,767 9,216 65,013 12,211 1,137 157 3,908,069

Source: From U.S. Coast Guard, Pollution incidents in and around U.S. waters a spill/release compendium: 1969–2001. Cumulative date for oil spills 1973–2001, www.uscg.mil.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 2000 2001 Totals

Heavy Fuel Oils

10-108

Table 10B.70 Number and Volume of Spills by Type of Oil in the United States, 1973 to 2001

Tankship Year 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 2000 2001 Totals

Tankbarge

All Other Vessels

Facilities

Pipelines

All Other Nonvessels

Unknown

Number

Gallons

Number

Gallons

Number

Gallons

Number

Gallons

Number

Gallons

Number

Gallons

Number

Gallons

694 846 595 526 533 678 647 547 419 279 258 238 164 196 158 222 200 249 220 193 172 172 148 122 124 104 92 111 95 9,002

3,153,070 1,177,851 8,723,153 9,315,761 202,590 329,699 13,077,598 1,597,088 1,074,621 1,219,922 145,822 4,663,952 732,397 1,164,962 1,547,462 852,287 11,272,324 4,977,251 92,334 118,075 69,541 69,694 125,491 219,311 22,429 56,673 8,414 608,176 125,217 66,743,165

603 754 767 894 993 980 862 799 718 547 523 499 385 516 413 486 504 457 428 322 314 393 353 313 252 220 228 229 246 14,998

1,251,320 2,331,302 2,572,118 1,702,772 1,566,631 3,239,284 1,162,569 1,738,003 4,294,542 2,146,576 1,807,897 2,484,481 3,683,548 1,510,064 550,108 3,164,017 746,833 992,025 241,346 149,212 697,653 955,582 1,101,938 1,163,258 165,649 248,089 210,383 133,540 212,298 42,223,038

1,527 1,566 1,499 1,514 1,760 2,057 1,833 1,698 1,584 1,383 1,444 1,530 1,113 900 1,208 1,300 1,564 1,779 1,780 4,795 4,944 4,681 4,977 5,151 4,971 4,848 5,360 5,220 4,680 78,666

1,049,748 317,939 1,415,466 281,032 275,255 474,151 394,951 290,976 341,595 412,484 378,537 1,863,435 446,966 160,890 848,200 369,985 674,660 417,882 362,809 398,145 409,963 308,343 396,724 298,451 192,801 316,473 357,678 291,927 232,341 13,979,807

3,317 3,844 3,139 2,978 2,671 2,534 2,358 2,011 2,007 2,244 2,443 2,408 2,032 1,382 1,160 1,038 1,688 2,287 2,389 2,045 2,320 2,258 586 509 838 937 1,019 1,054 995 56,491

5,250,092 3,834,292 4,663,214 2,046,062 2,353,360 4,391,595 1,824,738 2,926,797 1,126,966 1,660,560 1,385,766 1,193,770 2,237,558 902,917 317,437 1,368,898 448,792 1,059,302 445,986 504,600 350,141 677,016 868,900 406,384 204,935 166,269 367,537 311,604 201,025 43,486,513

511 582 667 627 461 406 583 552 561 598 582 557 385 91 95 120 110 149 105 36 35 55 30 17 32 45 25 25 34 8,076

2,353,744 6,833,402 2,769,165 4,283,495 2,528,165 1,220,486 3,351,156 3,067,276 1,338,116 4,213,862 3,036,906 1,212,702 777,017 230,785 196,852 704,719 214,920 316,928 49,382 200,396 362,399 62,340 11,894 978,392 224,122 47,863 36,140 17,021 13,577 40,653,222

301 376 390 398 426 530 506 377 324 392 444 565 385 158 142 142 138 148 117 815 826 796 500 552 486 571 571 566 436 12,378

424,055 588,091 1,149,716 647,656 593,305 501,074 608,740 382,505 313,718 368,696 323,750 381,704 235,654 28,596 36,522 39,383 33,030 32,242 10,068 235,839 145,796 348,577 77,428 23,527 72,208 32,584 147,704 45,136 55,921 7,883,225

2,061 2,031 2,235 2,485 2,615 3,459 3,045 2,399 2,198 2,041 2,222 2,461 1,705 1,750 1,665 1,690 2,409 3,108 3,530 1,285 361 605 2,444 2,671 1,921 1,590 1,244 1,149 1,073 59,452

1,771,550 615,854 227,251 241,170 669,827 707,819 473,806 2,594,326 431,436 322,696 1,301,170 6,205,834 323,108 283,764 112,303 86,715 88,137 119,377 674,027 269,400 31,895 77,721 55,854 28,508 60,430 17,352 44,593 23,966 14,141 17,874,030

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.71 Number and Volume of Oil Spills by Source in the United States, 1973–2001

Source: From U.S. Coast Guard, Pollution incidents in and around U.S. waters a spill/release compendium: 1969–2001. Cumulative data for oil spills 1973–2001, www.uscg.mil.

10-109

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-110

Table 10B.72 Number and Volume of Oil Spills by Waterbody in the United States, 1973–2001 Atlantic Ocean Year

Number

Gallons

Pacific Ocean Number

Gallons

Gulf of Mexico Number

Gallons

Great Lakes Number

Lakes

Gallons

Number

Rivers & Canals

Gallons

Bays & Sounds

Number

Gallons

Number

Gallons

Harbors

Other

Number

Gallons

Number

Gallons

73

117

2,459,968

455

281,546

38

8,553

62

72,971

0

0

3,566

8,250,726

1,116

387,285

3,503

3,224,849

157

567,682

74

203

185,682

622

218,073

218

157,926

72

131,059

0

0

2,383

5,613,582

1,941

454,526

4,015

4,714,829

545

4,223,054

75

156

6,107,710

477

253,517

727

1,418,791

72

60,463

0

0

2,544

6,486,011

934

3,184,703

3,789

2,937,545

593

1,071,342

76

175

7,569,064

297

436,868

936

850,660

194

179,912

0

0

2,457

3,763,548

967

512,399

3,614

2,655,553

782

2,549,944

77

283

78

270

119,135

614

88,314

656

402,392

113

40,706

0

0

4,573

4,924,452

726

2,803,394

3,079

701,866

613

1,783,850

79

225

307,823

487

556,054

867

386,281

129

72,982

0

0

4,223

5,804,497

479

11,060,800

2,654

563,290

770

2,141,835

80

173

242,993

362

210,428

743

437,069

80

155,358

0

0

3,294

7,090,268

366

692,490

2,650

1,590,711

715

2,177,654

81

149

350,511

351

49,965

857

99,120

45

29,508

0

0

2,826

6,144,670

471

152,695

2,388

590,160

724

1,504,366

82

119

31,305

276

127,377

1,061

121,889

18

10,027

0

0

2,593

5,388,921

512

366,107

1,896

1,417,451

1,009

2,881,720

83

135

57,083

332

129,264

1,290

295,736

2

11

0

0

2,666

2,814,518

768

1,601,887

1,784

1,212,231

939

2,269,117

84

157

58,201

468

1,555,741

1,583

2,897,179

37

18,612

0

0

2,453

3,928,947

647

192,080

1,848

7,604,388

1,065

1,750,729

85

124

56,026

361

493,419

951

116,969

23

1,583

2

9

1,808

4,169,267

581

201,348

1,143

722,800

1,176

2,674,827

86

59

4,401

229

171,520

431

97,221

130

6,854

14

1,445

1,379

1,410,325

639

335,795

723

1,172,891

1,389

1,081,527

87

63

8,250

348

1,342,548

218

91,524

176

4,951

10

235

1,273

391,057

817

390,047

692

302,665

1,244

1,077,607

88

68

9,961

366

2,191,448

372

1,076,986

155

32,898

6

98

1,166

1,878,896

932

312,885

724

126,498

1,209

956,333

89

45

30,955

524

480,644

1,063

108,519

179

4,875

10

1,752

1,373

322,326

1,145

11,062,200

881

766,281

1,393

701,139

90

92

13,400

480

624,494

1,834

4,115,264

194

129,131

11

383

1,749

1,775,142

988

263,436

940

455,108

1,889

538,649

91

109

9,009

446

199,306

1,977

100,702

191

5,103

14

1,256

2,010

430,905

938

143,723

916

687,563

1,968

298,385

92

129

93

132

14,713

649

262,292

1,763

53,265

256

10,602

19

2,300

1,744

942,114

1,004

418,137

1,095

51,842

2,310

94

206

799,549

666

128,752

1,350

205,151

240

15,984

16

318

1,814

383,171

1,062

72,022

1,016

346,649

2,590

537,677

95

267

48,313

648

69,053

1,485

253,040

282

3,103

26

92

1,849

1,156,002

1,109

41,004

1,176

148,229

2,196

919,393

96

119

27,980

491

29,209

2,403

45,145

228

3,507

19

52

1,984

475,550

793

1,092,207

992

288,252

2,306

1,155,929

97

87

40,875

505

32,841

2,341

105,462

156

4,311

29

210,270

1,821

182,676

811

46,450

858

45,932

2,016

273,775

98

109

6,674

644

192,775

2,190

181,372

119

3,006

25

63

1,944

280,651

891

24,234

790

97,223

1,603

99,305

99

148

29,440

758

150,694

1,756

45,786

129

906

31

624

1,924

504,264

1,299

136,650

907

105,213

1,587

198,872

2000

150

135,010

623

36,301

1,838

112,069

96

4,535

32

349

1,816

663,404

1,248

49,783

801

273,095

1,750

156,824

2001

83

7,168

493

53,295

1,728

133,872

109

1,600

35

244

1,682

237,980

1,140

139,300

893

158,667

1,396

122,394

Total

4,152

19,054,638

13,728

10,653,402

35,381

15,214,328

3,925

1,192,525

320

219,867

66,676

79,244,143

26,418

36,765,442

49,642

34,240,859

38,821

36,257,796

162

731

1,974

0

229

3,763

21

1,125

1,999

2,634

969

552

1,241

2,335 312,123

Source: From U.S. Coast Guard, Pollution incidents in and around U.S. waters a spill/release compendium: 1969–2001. Cumulative data for oil spills 1973–2001, www.uscg.mil.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

594

209

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-111

Table 10B.73 The World’s Major Water-Quality Issues Issue Scale Organic pollution

Pathogens

Salinization

Water Bodies Polluted a

Rivers Lakesa Groundwaterb Riversa Lakesb Groundwaterb Groundwatera Riversb

Heavy metals

Riversb Lakesb Groundwatera All bodies

Organic

All bodies

Acidification

Riversa Lakesa Groundwaterb Lakesa Riversb

Nitrate

Eutrophication

Sediment load (increase and decrease)

Riversb Lakes

Diversions, dams

Riversa Lakesb Groundwatera

Note: a b

Sector Affected

Time Lag between Cause and Effect

Effects Extent

Aquatic environment

!1 yr

Local to district

Healtha

!1 yr

Local

Most uses Aquatic environment Health Health

1–10 yrs

District to region

O10 yrs

District to region

Health Aquatic environment Ocean fluxes Health Aquatic environment Ocean fluxes Health Aquatic environment

!1 to O10 yrs

Local to global

1 to 10 yrs

Local to global

O10 yrs

District to region

O 10 yrs

Local

1–10 years

Regional

1–10 yrs

District to region

Aquatic environment Most uses Ocean fluxes Aquatic environment Most uses Ocean fluxes Aquatic environment Most uses

Pollutants of many kinds eventually find their way into water bodies at all levels. Although it may take some years for problems to become evident, poor water quality affects both human health and ecosystem health.

Very serious issue on a global scale. Series issue on a global scale.

Source: From Water for People Water for Life, The United Nations World Water Development, Copyright q United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) - World Water Assessment Programme (UNESC0-WWAP), 2003. Reproduced by permission of UNESCO. www.unesco.org. Original Source: From WHO/UNEP (World Health Orgauization/United Nations Environment Programme), 1991. Water Quality: Progress in the Implementation of the Mar del Plata Action Plan and a Strategy for the 1990s, Nairobi, Earthwatch Global Monitoring System, World Health Organization, United Nations Environment Programme. Table 10B.74 Median Concentrations of Acidic Drugs in Raw and Finished Drinking Water (ug/L) in Ontario, Canada, Separated According to the Source of the Water Row Water

Clofibric acid Ibuprofen Gemfibrozil Fenoprofen Naproxen Ketoprofen Diclofenac Indomethacin Note:

Finished water

Wells

Lakes

Rivers

Wells

Lakes

Rivers

Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd

0.3 0.6 1.4 Nd 1.3 0.3 Nd Nd

0.5 54.7 8.6 0.5 69.3 Nd 5.7 2.5

Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd

0.1 0.5 Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd

0.4 13 Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd

Nd, not detected.

Source:

From Kummerer, K., (eds.), 2004, Pharmaceuticals in Environment, Sources, Fate, Effects and Risks, Second Edition, q Springer-Verlag, Berline Heidelberg 2004. Table 6.5. With kind permission of Springer Science and Business Media.

Original Source: From Servos M.R. et al., 2004, Presence and removal of acidic drugs in drinking water treatment plants in Ontario, Canada. Water Qual Res J Can (to be published).

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-112

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.75 Theoretical Environmental Loads of Selected Pharmaceuticals to Italy and Concentrations Measured in the River Po

Pharmaceuticals measured in 1997 and 2001 Amoxycillin Atenolol Bezafibrate Ceftriaxone Cyclophosphamide Diazepam Erythromycin Furosemide Ibuprofen Lincomycin Ranitidine Salbutamol Spiramycin Pharmaceuticals measured only in 2001 Ciprofloxacin Clarythromycin Enalapril Hydrochlorothiazide Omeprazole Source:

Theoretical Environmental Load 1997 (tons yrL1)

Theoretical Environmental Load 2001 (tons yrL1)

Measured Concentration in 1997 (range; ng 1L1)

Measured concentration in 2001 (range; ng 1L1)

59.64 7.54 — 11.42 — — 1.00 3.49 1.00 5.11 10.46 0.034 —

125.75 19.86 3.80 5.93 — — 0.39 5.76 0.19 3.60 10.67 0.126 1.02

Nd 49.5–84.32 15.1–22.4 Nd Nd 0.5–0.7 0.7–0.9 Nd Nd-4.0 1.2–4.6 Nd Nd-4.6 Nd

Nd 3.4–39.4 0.8–2.7 Nd Nd Nd-2.1 1.4–15.9 1.7–67.2 Nd-9.7 3.1–248.9 Nd-4.0 Nd-1.7 Nd-43.8

— — — — —

Nd-26.1 0.5–20.3 Nd-0.1 Nd-24.4 Nd

— — — — —

2.96 8.47 1.47 13.93 0.67

From Kummerer, K., (eds.), 2004, Pharmaceuticals in Environment, Sources, Fate, Effects and Risks, Second Edition, q Springer-Verlag Berline Heidelberg 2004. Table 4.2. With kind permission of Springer Science and Business Media.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Total Phosphorus (mgP/L)

Canada

Mexico

U.S.A. Japan

Korea

Austria

Denmark

Finland

France

Germany Hungary

Ireland

Italy

Average Last 3 Yrsa

1996

1997

1998

1999

Average Last 3 yrsa

— — — — — — — — — 0.008 0.020 0.091 0.014 0.019 0.036 — — — — — — — — — — — 0.076

— — — 0.397 — — 0.030 — — 0.009 0.020 0.097 0.018 0.023 0.039 0.008 0.010 0.016 0.008 — 0.212 0.107 0.385 0.012 0.006 0.006 0.065

— — 0.11 0.17 — 0.02 0.16 0.24 — 0.31 0.40 0.91 1.51 1.77 2.14 — — — — — 2.25 0.81 2.18 1.03 0.51 0.20 1.00

— — 0.11 0.12 — 0.01 0.13 0.16 — 0.32 0.42 0.89 1.52 3.06 2.39 — — — — — 2.64 0.80 1.63 1.01 0.48 0.23 0.89

— 0.11 — 0.12 — — — — — 0.33 0.40 1.30 1.44 3.38 2.24 — — — — — 2.80 0.74 1.87 — — — 1.07

— — — — — — — — — 0.32 0.40 0.93 1.60 2.59 2.24 — — — — — — — — — — — 0.88

— — 0.11 0.14 — 0.02 0.13 0.21 — 0.32 0.41 1.04 1.52 3.01 2.29 — — — — — 2.56 0.78 1.89 1.03 0.49 0.22 0.95

— — — — —

— — — — —

— — — — 0.019

— 0.85 0.55 — 0.97

0.44 — — — 0.98

— — — — —

— — — — —

— — — — 0.99

0.089 0.082 0.059 — — — 0.021 0.012 0.038 0.022 0.001 —

0.049 0.056 0.053 — — 0.032 0.019 — — — —. —

0.075 0.083 0.060 0.018 0.011 0.041 0.022 0.011 0.042 0.018 0.001 —

— 0.74 2.53 0.52 0.09 1.24 — 0.83 0.88 0.35 2.50 2.73

— 1.06 2.35 0.48 0.05 1.23 — 0.84 0.89 0.35 2.30 5.15

— 0.98 2.46 0.48 0.08 — — 0.84 0.87 0.36 2.30 3.31

— 0.94 2.12 0.29 0.05 — — — — — — 3.42

— 0.99 2.31 0.41 0.06 0.99 — 0.84 0.88 0.35 2.37 3.96

1996

1997

1998

— — 0.004 0.430 — — 0.050 — — 0.009 0.018 0.120 0.015 0.022 0.032 0.009 0.009 0.014 0.008 — 0.206 0.122 0.543 0.012 0.006 0.007 0.039

— — — 0.380 — — 0.020 — — 0.009 0.021 0.100 0.025 0.027 0.141 0.008 — 0.018 0.008 — 0.230 0.109 0.341 0.013 0.006 0.005 0.050

— 0.004 0.004 0.380 — — — — — 0.010 0.018 0.100 0.016 0.023 0.040 — 0.011 — — — 0.200 0.090 0.270 — — — 0.069

— — — — 0.019

0.013 — — — 0.017

0.130 0.075 0.071 0.017 0.011 0.042 0.023 0.010 0.042 0.017 0.001 —

0.087 0.110 0.069 0.017 0.011 0.048 0.025 0.010 0.046 0.015 0.002 —

1999

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-113

Luxembourg

Ontario Huron Superior Chapala Patzcuaro Catemaco Chairel Cantenano Twin-Portage (Ohio) Biwa (North) Biwa (South) Kasumigaura Chunchonho Chungjiuho Paldang lake Mondsee Ossiachersee Wallersee Zellersee Dons Norreso Arreso Fureso Sobygard Pa¨a¨ja¨rvi Pa¨ija¨nne Yli-Kitka ParentisBiscarrosse Cazaux-Sanguinet Re´servoir Marne Re´servoir-Seine Lac d’Annecy BodenseeFischbach-Uttwil Ferto Balaton Velencei Ennel Owel Derg Sheelin Maggiore Como Garda Orta EschSure

Total Nitrogen (mgN/L)

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.76 Concentrations of Total Phosphorus and Total Nitrogen in Selected Lakes of the World

10-114

Table 10B.76

(Continued) Total Phosphorus (mgP/L)

Norway

Poland

Sweden

Turkey

UK

1996

1997

1998

1999

Average Last 3 Yrsa

1996

1997

1998

1999

Average Last 3 yrsa

0.100 0.007 0.006 0.004 — 0.063 — — 0.023 0.006 0.005 0.033 0.041 0.019 — — — — 0.095 — 0.077

0.500 0.007 0.007 0.004 0.043 0.025 — — 0.018 0.006 0.004 0.033 0.038 0.018 — — — — — — 0.105

0.340 0.005 0.004 — — — — 0.052 0.019 0.006 0.003 0.043 0.040 0.015 — — — — 0.158 0.000 0.065

0.119 0.152 0.003 — — — — — 0031 0.008 0.005 0.039 0.039 0.014 — — — — — 0.000 0.032

0.286 0.021 0.005 — — — — — 0.023 0.007 0.004 0.038 0.039 0.016 — — — — 0.124 0.003 0.067

2.71 0.45 0.53 0.47 — 0.94 — — 0.55 0.80 0.71 0.57 0.68 1.11 — — 1.10 1.27 0.83 — 2.12

2.48 0.44 0.53 0.42 0.90 0.68 — — 0.67 0.88 0.83 0.67 0.67 1.21 — — 1.29 1.84 — — 3.08

2.48 0.46 0.55 — — — — — 0.66 0.85 0.79 0.79 0.66 1.18 — — 0.65 2.74 0.61 0.30 2.60

2.48 0.44 0.51 — — — — 1.06 0.87 0.83 0.78 0.59 0.66 1.19 — — 0.93 1.64 — 0.37 1.29

2.48 0.44 0.53 — — — — — 0.73 0.85 0.80 0.68 0.66 1.19 — — 0.96 2.07 0.62 0.35 2.32

Total Phosphorus Note:

Total Nitrogen Note:

a

CAN, Ontario, Haron and Superior: data represent annual mean surface values from several hundred open water samples for each lake (mainly spring and summer); MEX, Orthophosphates; U.S.A., W. Twin(Ohio), samples obtained from the deepest point in each lake, generally weekly from late spring-eady fall and less frequently the rest of the year at 0.1, 2, 4, 7 and 10 m; FIN, data refer to surface measurements; DEU, Bodensee, Lac Constance (Switzerland); IRL, Derg, 1996 and 1997 data refer to mean values recorded in samples taken in Apr, Jul, Sep and Oct each year; LUX, Weiswarnpach, 96 and 98, upper limits; POL, Data refer to spring and summer surveys, and to surface measurements; CHE, Lac Constance, Bodensee (Germany); UKD, Lomond and Bewl Water: annual averages were calculated using the limit of detection values; actual average may therefore be lower. Bowl Water: 1994–1999 data refer to Total inorganic Phosphate. CAN, Ontario, Huron and Superior data represent annual mean surface values from several handed open water samples for each lake (mainly spring and summer); MEX, Data refer to nitrates only; U.S.A., W: Twin(Ohio): total inorganic nitrogen (NH4CNO3CNO2). Samples obtained from the deepest point in each lake, generally weekly from late-spring early fall, and less frequently the rest of the year at 0.1, 2, 4, 7 and 10 m; AUT, data refer to total inorganic nitrogen (NH4CNO3CNO2) measured in the epilimnion; FIN, Data refer to surface measurements; FRA, Re´servoirs Marne and Seine, and Lac d’Annecy: Kjeldhai nitrogen. Re´servoirs Marme and Seine 1980: 1981 data; DEU, Total inorganic nitrogen (NH4CNO3CNO2). Bodensee: Lac Constance (Switzerland); IRL, Nitrates and nitrites only. Ennel and Owel: 1990–99 data refer to nitrate only and to limited surveys (March–October). Derg: 1996 and 1997 data refer to mean values recorded in samples taken in Apr, Jul, Sep and Oct each year; ITA, Maggiore: total inorganic nitrogen (NH4CNO3CNO2). Average of monthly samples taken at the deepest point of the lake; LUX, Nitrates only; POL, Data refer to spring and summer surveys; CHE, Lac Constance: Bodensee (Germany); TUR, Total inorganic nitrogen (NH4CNO3CNO2); UKD, Neath and Lomond; nitrates (NO3) only. Lomond and Bewel Water: annual averages were calculated using the limit of detection values; actual averages may therefore be lower.

Average over the latest 3 years available: data prior to 1953 have not been taken into account.

Source: Table 3.5a and 3.5b (data from 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, and average last 3 years), OECD Environmental Data Compendium 2002, q OECD 2002, www.oecd.org.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Switzerland

Weiswarnpach Mjoesa Randsfjorden Tyrifjorden Sriardwy Hancza Niegocin Northern Mamry Ma¨laren Va¨nern Va¨ttern Hja¨lmaren Le´man Constance Kurtbogazi Sapanca Gala Altinapa Lough Neagh Lomond Bewl Water

Total Nitrogen (mgN/L)

Substance/Year

DK

F

D

IRL

NL

NO

P

E

S

4.30 3.90 6.70 3.42 3.44 3.81 2.90 2.65 2.45 2.30

0.57 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

4.70 3.30 4.50 3.20 3.20 2.70 2.20 n.a. n.a. n.a.

8.54 7.24 10.55 9.20 8.14 7.54 5.65 6.35 6.25 4.99

4.05 1.15 0.68 2.62 3.10 0.60 0.03 0.25 0.61 0.72

0.13 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

5.70 2.70 8.70 0.80 1.10 0.80 0.50 n.a. n.a. n.a.

10.54 10.01 11.03 10.05 5.65 4.64 2.94 1.95 2.15 2.39

27.5 36.6 32.5 36.6 48.2 43.2 44.5 40.0 51.5 56.5

7.2 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

150.0 150.0 110.0 100.0 170.0 55.0 66.0 n.a. n.a. n.a.

212.8 297.5 314.9 378.1 247.7 185.5 126.5 151.5 181.5 125.4

63.4 63.4 82.1 55.5 79.6 63.3 115.6 120.5 143.0 145.0

346.5 230.0 221.8 393.8 701.8 871.8 382.9 233.0 257.5 326.0

102.0 111.0 82.5 80.0 74.5 55.5 n.a. 66.0 110.5

26.0 26.0 26.0 26.0 26.0 26.0 n.a. n.a. n.a.

175.0 175.0 175.0 175.0 175.0 175.0 100.0 n.a. n.a.

342.0 187.8 208.0 191.5 261.0 291.4 239.0 370.0 261.0

n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

16.7 7.2 10.5 360.0 230.0 370.0 300.0 300.0 259.5

UK

SUM

3.39 3.39 2.31 1.76 2.44 2.17 3.94 2.55 3.45 2.91

10.30 7.00 5.70 4.70 12.76 26.60 8.40 4.05 9.70 11.90

16.21 8.31 7.90 7.18 9.23 8.99 5.85 5.20 7.75 4.60

9.00 15.00 24.00 1.70 3.93 0.20 n.a. 1.35 0.60 0.40

n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.06 0.10 0.10 n.a. 14.50 6.80 12.80

2.45 2.45 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

3.18 3.30 3.26 3.46 6.41 8.06 3.28 2.70 2.15 2.33

0.85 0.50 0.53 0.49 0.38 0.54 0.47 0.40 2.86 1.46

4.90 1.75 0.04 0.26 0.85 0.35 n.a. 1.15 0.75 0.56

120.9 102.8 70.5 58.5 82.6 82.5 62.6 63.7 150.0 53.6 536.0 261.3 97.9 90.9 87.7 107.4 75.9 78.7 84.8

%

0.67 0.34 0.54 0.11 0.42 0.24 n.a. 0.47 0.56 0.90

51.30 49.35 34.69 29.30 25.87 21.31 19.11 15.35 19.75 18.00

108.97 97.83 96.89 60.62 69.52 73.67 48.05 52.47 57.31 58.80

100.00 89.80 88.90 55.60 63.80 67.60 44.10 48.10 52.60 54.00

n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 2.60 0.40 8.60

0.11 0.13 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.15 n.a. 0.09 0.13 0.20

8.81 7.85 6.00 6.55 4.83 4.13 3.26 4.41 4.68 3.31

40.71 29.83 32.78 26.73 24.82 21.67 10.48 13.54 13.72 19.60

100.00 73.30 80.50 65.70 61.00 53.20 25.70 33.30 33.70 48.10

680.0 80.0 120.0 7.3 6.1 2.8 n.a. 43.0 4.9 2.1

n.a. 7.7 2.6 0.9 2.2 1.3 n.a. 17.0 54.0 58.0

8.3 5.3 4.3 3.2 10.5 8.2 n.a. 8.7 14.3 17.3

591.1 575.6 501.6 631.4 528.3 384.8 311.5 303.3 601.5 546.0

2,207.6 1,548.8 1,460.2 1,665.2 1,877.1 1,698.3 1,109.5 980.7 1,458.2 1,330.0

100.0 70.2 66.1 75.4 85.0 76.9 50.3 44.4 66.1 60.2

n.a. n.a. 0.7 3.4 15.0 2.8 n.a. n.a. n.a.

n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 203.5 15.0

n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

588.4 759.5 543.0 601.8 501.8 484.7 312.4 354.5 403.8

1,786.1 1,527.8 1,143.6 1,528.6 1,371.0 1,512.8 1,027.3 1,372.7 1,134.6

100.0 85.5 64.0 85.6 76.8 84.7 57.5 76.9 63.5 (Continued)

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10-115

Cadmium 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Mercury 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Lead 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Lindane 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

B

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.77 Country Contributions to Sum of Direct and Riverine Inputs in Tonnes Per Year of Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Lindane and Pcb to the Northeast Atlantic

(Continued)

Substance/Year 1999 PCB7 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Note:

B

DK

F

D

77.0

n.a.

n.a.

68.0

30.5 24.5 26.5 211.0 223.5 45.9 n.a. 66.0 135.0 164.0

30.3 30.3 30.3 30.3 30.3 30.3 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

100.0 160.0 130.0 130.0 160.0 130.0 100.0 n.a. n.a. n.a.

143.5 89.4 43.6 54.1 95.5 144.0 127.5 109.0 88.0 123.0

IRL

NL

NO

n.a.

279.0

9.4

n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

150.0 130.0 100.0 130.0 300.0 470.0 200.0 170.0 181.0 236.0

484.5 38.0 40.5 21.6 55.0 27.8 16.6 22.6 22.4 n.a.

P

E

S

UK

SUM

%

n.a.

121.0

n.a.

324.0

877.0

49.1

n.a. n.a. 4.9 25.0 84.0 26.0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 158.0

n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

2,158.1 1,183.5 764.7 1,417.1 1,066.9 938.7 739.6 360.0 1,089.4 835.0

3,096.8 1,655.7 1,140.5 2,019.0 2,015.2 1,812.6 1,183.6 727.6 1,515.8 1,516.0

100.0 53.5 36.8 65.2 65.1 58.5 38.2 23.5 48.9 49.0

Source:

From Green, N. et al., 2003, Hazardous Substances in the European Marine Environment: Trends in Metals and Persistent Organic Pollutants, European Environment Agency, Topic Report 2/2003, www.eea.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Belgium (B), Denmark (DK), France (F), Germany (D), Ireland (IRL), the Netherlands (NL), Norway (NO), Portugal (P), Spain (E), Sweden (S), United Kingdom (UK), n.a. indicates where data was not available. Rounded values from EEA Fact Sheet YIR01HS01, zero or near zero (!1 kg) submissions assumed as data not available; %, percent as of 1990.

10-116

Table 10B.77

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.78 PCBs Concentrations in Freshwater and Seawater in China (ng/L) Water Body Freshwater

Seawater

Pearl River, Guangzhou reach Donghu Lake Wuhan Yangtse River, Nanjing section Pearl River Delta

Daya Bay Minjing River Estuary Xiamen Harbor Jiulong River Estuary Pearl River Estuary Source:

Concentration Range

Sampling Date May 24–26, 2000

Humen Hengmen Jiaomen Dourmen Surface water Pore water

May 16–17, 1998 May–June, Oct–Nov, 2000

Aug 4, 1999 Nov, 1999 July 20, 1998 Early than 1999 Early than 1999

K3

K3

0.70!10 w3.96!10 2.7!10K3 1.74!10K3w2.0!10K3 2.08!10K3w3.92!10K3 0.475!10K3w1.54!10K3 1.73!10K3w3.26!10K3 1.73!10K3w3.26!10K3 0.091w1.355 0.204w2.473 3.19w10.86 0.12!10K3w1.69!10K3 0.032w0.169 0.033w1.064

Mean 2.3!10K3 1.91!10K3 2.70!10K3 0.999!10K3 2.62!10K3 1.16!10K3 0.314 0.985 6.37 0.74!10 K3

From Yeru, H. et al., 2003, Water Quality Standards and POPs Pollution in China in United Nations University, Capacity Development Training for Monitoring of POPS in the East Asian Hydrosphere, 1–2 September, 2003, UNU Centre, Tokyo.

10-117

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10-118

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10B.79 Polluting Incidents from Vessels in Canadian Waters, 1974–1983 Transfer Accident Year 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 Total Percent Note:

Collision, Ground, Sinking

Other

Total

Events

Tons

Events

Tons

Events

Tons

Events

Tons

60 52 53 47 51 49 68 75 58 28 541 53

371 116 206 249 154 108 145 97 199 73 1,718 6

21 13 13 11 16 6 12 13 16 7 127 12

4,277 613 1,613 931 1,343 948 121 2,296 2,106 504 14,752 51

60 28 19 38 33 33 68 33 27 22 361 35

248 886 160 294 73 8,186 213 931 989 404 12,384 43

141 93 85 96 99 88 148 121 101 57 1,029 100

4,896 1,615 1,979 1,474 1,570 9,242 479 3,324 3,294 981 28,854 100

Tankers, bulk carriers and other vessels; metric tons.

Source: From Environment Canada, Summary of Spill Events in Canada, 1974–1983, EPS 5/SP/1, www.ec.gc.ca.

Table 10B.80 Top Releases of Chemicals to Water in Canada, 2001 Release Tons

Chemical Ammonia (total)a Nitrate ion in solution at pH R6.0 Manganese (and its compounds) Methanol Zinc (and its compounds) a

26,106 22,450 1,157 697 308

Refers to the total of both ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ion ðNHC 4 Þ in solution.

Source: From Environment Canada, National Pollutant Release Inventory Database, www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri, 2001. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2006.

Table 10B.81 Water Bodies Receiving over 500 Tons of Pollutants in Canada, 2001 Water Body Fraser River Lake Ontario Bow River Ottawa River North Saskatchewan River Red River Hamilton Harbour South Saskatchewan River St. Lawrence River Saint John River Frank Lake Detroit River Kelly Lake Neroutsos Inlet

Total Release (tons)

Dominant Release

Share of Total Release (percent)

9,168 8,877 8,264 3,066 2,953 2,766 1,516 1,275 1,088 984 818 679 619 526

Ammoniaa Ammoniaa Nitrate Ion Ammoniaa Nitrate ion Ammoniaa Ammoniaa Nitrate Ion Nitrate Ion Methanol Nitrate ion Ammoniaa Nickel (and its compounds) Nitrate ion

49.2 41.6 90.8 76.6 61.3 72.7 70.6 62.4 43.6 28.6 70.3 83.8 29.6 64.4

Note: The information in this table is not intended to be an assessment of environmental impact or water quality. The totals do not include releases to tributaries of the named rivers. a

Refers to the total of both ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ion ðNHC 4 Þ in solution.

Source: From Environment Canada, Pollution Data Branch, National Pollutant Release Inventory Database, www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_dat_rep_e_cfm, 2001. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2006. Original Source: From Environment Canada, Pollution Data Branch, National Pollutant Release inventory Database, www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ nprl/npri_dat_rep_e_cfm (accessed March 25, 2003).

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Year

a

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

Date

Showa Manu British Ambassador Jakob Maersk Corinthos/E.M. Queeny Spartan Lady Shell Barge No 2 Mitsu Maru 3 Epic Colocoltroni Saint Peter Urquiola Nepco 140 Crelan Star Boehlen Argo Merchant Irenes Challenge Borag Hawaiian Patriot Venoil/Venpet Grand Zenith Amoco Cadiz Eleni V Cabo Tamar Christos Bitas Esso Bernica Andrus Patria Betelgeuse Antonio Gransci Messlaniki Frontis Kurdistan Gino Aviles Atlantic Express Ionnis Angelicoussis Chevron Hawaii Burmah Agate Independenta Princess Anne Marie Irenes Serenade Tanio Juan A. Lavalleja

Flag Japan UK Denmark U.S.A. Liberia U.S.A. Japan Greece Liberia Spain U.S.A. Cyprus GDR Liberia Liberia Liberia Liberia Panama Liberia Panama Liberia Greece Chile Greece UK Greece France U.S.S.R. Liberia UK Liberia Liberia Greece Greece U.S.A. Liberia Romania Greece Greece Madagascar Uruguay

Country Affected Singapore Japan (Pacif.) Portugal U.S.A. (Delaware) U.S.A. U.S.A. Japan Dominican Rep. Colombia Spain Canada—U.S.A. Indian Ocean France U.S.A. (Massach.) Pacific East China Honolulu (Pacif.) Nicaragua South Africa U.S.A. (Massach.) France UK Chile UK UK (Shetland) Spaint Ireland Sweden, Finland, U.S.S.R. Greece Canada France Arabian Sea Tobago Angola U.S.A. U.S.A. (Texas) Turkey Cuba Greece France, UK Algeria

3 800 45 000 84 000 40 000 25 000 — 500 57 000 33 000 101 000 1 200 28 600 11 000 28 000 34 000 4 000 99 000 30 000 26 000 29 000 228 000 3 000 60 000 5 000 1 160 47 000 27 000 6 000 6 000 7 000 42 000 25 000 276 000 30 000 2 000 40 000 94 600 6 000 102 000 13 500 40 000

Indemnity Million/s USD (estimates) 10.9 — 2.8 5.9 — 5.7 5.7 — 0.9 19.7 11.1 — 20.3 2.5 — 15.6 — — 5.4 — — 10.6 4.2 13.1 9.8 6.4 36.2 54.1 11.5 5.1 0.8 — 1.5 — 12.0 11.5 17.2 51.7 12.5 40.0 — (Continued)

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10-119

6.1 10.1 29.1 31.1 4.4 4.1 17.4 13.5 6.2 12.5 23.6 12.7 14.10 15.12 18.1 7.1 25.2 27.5 16.12 30.12 16.3 6.5 7.7 12.10 30.12 31.12 8.1 28.2 2.3 15.3 28.4 28.6 29.7 16.8 1.9 1.11 15.11 28.1 24.2 7.3 29.12

Name of Ship

Quality Spilled (tons)

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10B.82 Accidental Oil Spills in the World from Tankers, 1975–2000 (a)

(Continued)

Date

Name of Ship

1981

7.1 3.3 7.1 6.8 27.9 25.11 10.12 14.2 6.12 24.3 19.12 29.12 9/11.4

Jose Marti Ondina Assimi Castillo de Bellver Sivand Feoso Ambassador Pericles GC Neptunia Nova Exxon Valdez Kharg 5 Aragon Le Haven ABT Summer Maersk Navigator Braer Red Star Albinoni Maersk Navigator Sea Empress Nakhodka Orapin Global & Evoikos Erika

1985 1989

1991 1992 1993 1994

21.1 5.1 6.1 8.2 21.1 15.2 2.1 15.1 12.12

1995 1996 1997 1999 Note: a

Flag U.S.S.R. Dubai Greece Spain Iran China Greece Liberia Liberia U.S.A. .. Spain Cyprus .. Singapore Liberia .. Bahamas Denmark .. Russia Singapore Malta

Over 25,000 tons or over USD 5 million of indemnity, world.

1986–1988: no major oil spills over 25,000 tons.

Source: Table 6.1, OECD Environmental Data Compendium 2002, q OECD 2002, www.oecd.org. Original Source: From IMO, IOPC-Fund, ACOPS, IFP, TAC, TOVALOP, SIGMA.

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Country Affected Sweden Germany Oman South Africa UK China Qatar Iran Iran U.S.A. (Alaska) Morocco Madeira Italy .. Sumatra UK Portgual Caribbean Indonesia UK Japan Thailand & Cypress France

Quality Spilled (tons) 6 000 5 000 51,431 255 525 6 000 4 000 46 631 60 000 71 120 35 000 70 000 25 000 30 000 260 000 O25 000 84 000 — — — 72 000 37,000 25,000 (Evoikos) 19 800

Indemnity Million/s USD (estimates) 6.7 7.0 — 1.0 5.0 10.0 — — — 2000 37 — — — — — 14.0 50.0 33.0 30.0 1,233 O100 155

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Yeara

1983

10-120

Table 10B.82

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-121

SECTION 10C

Well Disposal pond

GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION

Deep-well injection

Wat er

Spills and leaks

Buried wastes

Well

Table

River

Alluvium Alluvium

Shale Shale Sandstone

Sandstone Figure 10C.54 Waste disposal practices and contamination of groundwater. Movement of contaminants in unsaturated zone, alluvial aquifer, and bedrock shown by dark shading. (From U.S. Geological Survey Water Fact Sheet. Toxic Waste, Groundwater Contamination, 1983.)

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10-122

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Total

Sources Storage tanks (underground)

39

Septic systems

31

Landfills

28

Spills

24

Fertilizer applications

23

Large industrial facilities

22

Hazardous waste sites

22

Animal feedlots

17

Pesticides

15

Surface impoundments

13

Storage tanks (aboveground)

12

Urban runoff

12

Salt water intrusion

11

Mining and mine drainage

10

Agricultural chemical facilities

10

Number reporting on top ten contaminant sources

Pipelines and sewer lines

10

Shallow injection wells

8

Salt storage and road salting

8

Land application of wastes

7

Irrigation practices

6 0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Number of states, tribes, and territories reporting

Figure 10C.55 Major source of groundwater contamination. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2002, National Water Quality Inventory 2000 Report, EPA-841-R-02-001, www.epa.gov.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-123

0 0 Oahu, Hawaii Base from U.S. Geological survey, digital data, 1:2,000,000, 1994 Albers equal-area conic projection standard parallels : 29°30',45°30' Central meridan : 96°W

500 Miles 500 km

Explanation Sampled wells (1,926) Conterminous United States and Hawaii (no wells sampled in Alaska) Sampled wells (no detections) Detection of at least one volatile organic compound with a concentration at or above 0.2 µg/L

Figure 10C.56 Location of rural, untreated, self-supplied domestic wells in the United States where at least one volatile organic compound was detected at an assessment level of 0.2 m/L, 1986–1999. (From Moran, M.J., Lapham, W.W., Rowe, B.L., and Zogorski, J.S., 2002, Occurrence and Status of Volatile Organic Compounds in Groundwater from Rural, Untreated, Self-Supplied Domestic Wells in the Untied States, 1986–1999, United States Geological Survey, Water Resources Investigation Report 02-4085, www.usgs.gov.)

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10-124

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

16

14

Groundwater

Rivers Reservoirs

Frequency of detection (percent)

12

10

8

6

4

2

ne

r

ze

he

en ut -B

-b l hy

te

ylb

ut

yl

th ph Na

hy et m

rt

yl m -A

Di

t

t er

et

en al

th le

et yl op pr iso

e

er

r he

e en nz Be

ze en lb hy

o

Et

-X

yle

ne

ne

s yle -X

m

p

n

Et

M

et

hy

te

-&

rt

l

ne

e en lu To

-b

ut

yl

et

he

r

0

Figure 10C.57 Frequency of detection of gasoline compounds in source-water samples from groundwater, rivers, and reservoirs in the United States from May 3, 1999 through October 23, 2000. (From Grady, S., 2003, A National Survey of Methyl tert-Butyl Ether and Other Volatile Organic Compounds in Drinking Water Sources: Results of a Random Survey, United States Geological Survey, Water-Resource Investigations Report 02-4079, www.usgs.gov.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-125

80 A

Groundwater Rivers Reservoirs

70

60

A

Frequency of detection (percent)

A 50

40 A A 30

A

A A

20

A

10

A

A

A

0 Chloroform

Bromodichloromethance

Chlorodibromomethane

Bromoform

Figure 10C.58 Frequency of detection of trihalomethanes in source-water samples from groundwater, rivers, and reservoirs in the United States from May 3, 1999 through October 23, 2000 (populations that share the same letter symbol are not significantly different at the 95-perecent confidence). (From Grady, S., 2003, A National Survey of Methyl tert-Butyl Ether and Other Volatile Organic Compounds in Drinking Water Sources: Results of a Random Survey, United States Geological Survey, Water-Resource Investigations Report 02-4079, www.usgs.gov.)

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10-126

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

4.5 4.0

Groundwater Rivers Reservoirs

3.5 Frequency of detection (percent)

3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5

e

e

an pr

ro lo

ich

lo ch 2,

3-

Tr

Di 1,

2-

op

nz be ro

lb py

-P

ro 1,

n

en

ne ze

ne et

en

ha

en

ro lo Ch

be ro

lo

ch Di 2-

nz

op pr ro

lo

ne 1,

e

e an

e rid lo ch

et le hy M

et

br Di

Ch

ne ha

ne et

om

ro lo

om

to 1,

2-

Di

ch

th le hy

et M

ha

ne

e yl

ch

on rb

ke

lo

he et te

tra

ro lo ch

Di

Ca

11,

rid

ne

ne ha

ne

ro lo

ich Tr

1,

1,

1-

11,

et

ha

ne

ro

et

he Di

ch

lo ich -D

,2

s ci

lo

ro

et

et lo

ich Tr

-1

Te

tra

ch

lo

ro

ro

et

he

he

ne

ne

0

Figure 10C.59 Frequency of detection of solvents in source-water samples from groundwater, rivers, and reservoirs in the United States from May 3, 1999 through October 23, 2000. (From Grady, S., 2003, A National Survey of Methyl tert-Butyl Ether and Other Volatile Organic Compounds in Drinking Water Sources: Results of a Random Survey, United States Geological Survey, Water-Resource Investigations Report 02-4079, www.usgs.gov.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-127

1.4 Refrigerants

Fumigants

Organic synthesis

1.2 Groundwater Rivers Reservoirs

Frequency of detection (percent)

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0

e

e

an

o

or

l ch

i Tr

fl

h et

om

d

ifl

ro

or

r lo

C

ic

D

i

ch

-D

4 1,

r lo

ne

e

en

r ty

h et

S

om

be

yl

om

Br

im

Tr

,4

h et

o

pr

rid

e nz

o hl

e

lb

y op

Is

e

ne

e nz

lc

ny

Vi

1

,2

-T

2

1,

1,

o

or

hl

ric

-tr

2

2,

, -1

e

an

e nz

e

ob

u ifl

h

o hl

h et

o

om

r uo

ne

an

an

h et

om

r uo

e

e

an

h et

Figure 10C.60 Frequency of detection of refrigerants, fumigants, and organic synthesis compounds in source-water samples from groundwater, rivers, and reservoirs in the United States from May 3, 1999 through October 23, 2000. (From Grady, S., 2003, A National Survey of Methyl tert-Butyl Ether and Other Volatile Organic Compounds in Drinking Water Sources: Results of a Random Survey, United States Geological Survey, Water-Resource Investigations Report 02-4079, www.usgs.gov.)

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10-128

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Explanation Areas with highvolume MTBE use

Groundwater source MTBE not detected MTBE detected

Surface water source MTBE not detected MTBE detected

Figure 10C.61 Distribution of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) in ground- and surface-water sources in the United States and Puerto Rico in relation to high MTBE-use areas. (From Grady, S., 2003, A National Survey of Methyl tert-Butyl Ether and Other Volatile Organic Compounds in Drinking Water Sources: Results of a Random Survey, United States Geological Survey, WaterResource Investigations Report 02-4079, www.usgs.gov.)

Urban areas

Rural areas

76.8%

76.0%

2.0%

2.2%

7.3%

4.8%

13.9%

17.0%

Explanation Solvents, Organic synthesis, and refrigerants

Oxygenates

Gasoline aromatic hydrocarbons

Furnigants

Figure 10C.62 Percent detection of selected classes of VOCs in the United States in urban and rural areas, 1985–1995. (From Squillace, P.J. et al., 1999, volatile organic compounds in untreated ambient groundwater of the United States, 1985–1995, Environ. Sci. Technol., 33, 4167–4187.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-129

Cleanups completed: Historical average, 1999 −2003

Cleanups completed

40,000 35,000 26,000

30,000 25,000

21,000

19,000

19,000

19,000 16,000

20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0

Historical average 1988 −2003

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

Year

Confirmed releases: Historical average, 1999−2003 40,000 Confirmed releases

35,000 30,000

27,000

26,000

25,000 20,000

15,000

12,000

15,000 7,000

10,000

6,000

5,000 0

Historical average 1988− 2003

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

Year All numbers rounded to nearest thousand. Figure 10C.63 Confirmed underground storage tank releases and cleanups complete in the United States: historical average, 1999– 2003. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2004, Underground Storage Tanks: Building On the Past to Protect the Future, EPA 510-R-04-001, March 2004, www.epa.gov.)

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10-130

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

4.0 Transfers off-site to disposal On-site land releases Underground injection Surface water discharges Total air emissions

Billions of pounds

3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0

1998

2000 1999 Metal mining

1998 1999 2000 Manufacturing industries

Yearly totals across industry

Millions of pounds

Billions of pounds

8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0

1998

1999

2000 See key above

1998 1999 2000 Electric utilities

1998 1999 2000 Hazardous waste/Solvent recovery

Change by industry, 1998− 2000

50 0 −50 −100 −150 −200 −250 −300

Metal mining

Manufacturing industries

Electric utilities

Hazardous waste/Solvent recovery

140,000

3500

120,000

3000

100,000

2500

80,000

2000

60,000

1500

40,000

1000

20,000

500

0

Number of spills

Total quantity spilled (tonnes)

Figure 10C.64 United Sates toxics release inventory (TRI) total releases and change by industry, 1998–2000. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2003, EPA’s Draft Report on the Environment, 2003, EPA 600-R-03-050, www.epa.gov.)

0 84

85

86

87

88

89

Quantity

90 Year

91

92

93

94

95

Number of spills

Figure 10C.65 Petroleum sector—number of reported spills in Canada and total quantity, by year. (From Summary of Spill Events in Canada, 1984–1995, EPS 5/SP/3, Environment Canada, Canada Environmental Emergencies Program, 1998. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2006.)

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Percentage of incidents

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

10-131

Air

Land

Wastes, effluents, & others

Freshwater Saltwater Groundwater Environment affected Oils & hydrocarbons

Other

Chemicals

Figure 10C.66 Percent distribution of environment affected by spill category in Canada. (From Summary of Spill Events in Canada, 1984– 1995, EPS 5/SP/3, Environment Canada, Canada Environmental Emergencies Program, 1998. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2006.)

Land 48%

Saltwater 5%

Air 6%

Freshwater 15% Other 26% Figure 10C.67 Percent distribution of environment affected by reported spills in Canada. (From Summary of Spill Events in Canada, 1984–1995, EPS 5/SP/3, Environment Canada, Canada Environmental Emergencies Program, 1998. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2006.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Figure 10C.68 Distribution of tetrachloroethylene and trichloroethylene in groundwater throughout Canada. (From Bajjali, W., 2003, Study of the Distribution of Tetrachloroetheylene and Trichloroethylene in Groundwater Throughout Canada Using SPANS-GIS, frontpage.uwsuper.edu/bajjali/proj/can/c1.htm. With permission. Last updated on June 16, 2003.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-133

Main drinking water problems identified by national reports a) Microbiology b) Nitrates c) Toxics d) Metals No data Outside data coverage (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 10C.69 Main drinking water problems identified in the European Union. (From European Environmental Agency, Indicator Fact Sheet Drinking Water Quality (WEU10) Verslon 13.10.03, www.eea.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.)

Table 10C.83 Major Groundwater Contaminants Reported by States Reported as a Major Contaminant Contaminant Sewage Inorganic chemicals Nitrates Brine/Salinity Arsenic Fluorides Sulfur compounds Organic chemicals Synthetic Volatile Metals Pesticides Petroleum Radioactive materials a

No. of Statesa

% of States

46

89

42 36 19 18 7

75 69 37 35 14

37 36 34 31 21 12

71 69 65 60 40 23

Based on a total of 52 States and territories which cited groundwater contaminants in their 305(b) submittals.

Source:

From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Water Quality Inventory-1986 Report to Congress, EPA-440/4-87-008.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-134

Table 10C.84 Activities Contributing to Groundwater Contamination in the United States Activity

Estimated Sitesa

States Citing

Contaminants Frequently Cited as Result of Activity

41

22 million

Bacteria, viruses, nitrate, phosphate, chloride, and organic compounds such as trichloroethylene

Landfills (active)

51

16,400

Surface impoundments

32

191,800

Dissolved solids, iron, manganese, trace metals, acids, organic compounds, and pesticides Brines, acidic mine wastes, feedlot wastes, trace metals, and organic compounds

Injection wells

10

280,800

Dissolved solids, bacteria, sodium, chloride, nitrate, phosphate, organic compounds, pesticides, and acids.

Land application of wastes

12

19,000 land application units

Bacteria, nitrate, phosphate, trace metals, and organic compounds

Storage and handling of materials Underground storage tanks

39

2.4–4.8 million

Benzene, toluene, xylene, and petroleum products

Above-ground storage tanks

16

Unknown

Material handling and transfers

29

10,000–16,000 spills per year

Organic compounds, acids, metals, and petroleum products Petroleum products, aluminum, iron, sulfate, and trace metals

Mining activities Mining and spoil disposal—coal mines

23

15,000 active; 67,000 inactive

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Acids, iron, manganese, sulfate, uranium, thorium, radium, molybdenum, selenium, and trace metals

Between 820 and 1,460 billion gallons per year discharged to shallowest aquifers (Office of Technology Assessment, 1984) Traditional disposal method for municipal and industrial solid waste. Unknown number of abandoned landfills Used to store oil/gas brines (125,100 sites), mine wastes (19,800), agricultural wastes (17,200), industrial liquid wastes (16,200), municipal sewage sludges (2,400), other wastes (11,100) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987) Wells used for injecting waste below drinking-water sources (550), oil/gas brine disposal (161,400), solution mining (22,700), injecting waste into or above drinking-water sources (14), and storm-water disposal, agricultural drainage, heat pumps (69,100) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987) Waste disposal from municipal wastetreatment plants (11,900), industry (5,600), oil/gas production (730), petroleum and wood-preserving wastes (250), others (620) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987) Useful life of steel tanks, 15–20 yrs. About 25–30 percent of petroleum tanks may leak (Conservation Foundation, 1987) Spills/overflows may contaminate groundwater Includes coal storage piles, bulk chemical storage, containers, and accidental spills Leachates from spoil piles of coal, metal, and nonmetallic mineral mining contain a variety of contaminants. Coal mines are sources of acid drainage

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Waste disposal Septic systems

Remarks

20

550,000 production; 1.2 million abandoned

Brines

Contamination from improperly plugged wells and oil brine stored in ponds or injected underground

Agricultural activities Fertilizer and pesticide applications

44

363 million acresb

Nitrate, phosphate, and pesticides

Irrigation practices

22

376,000 wells; 49 million acres irrigatedc

Dissolved solids, nitrate, phosphate, and pesticides

Animal feedlots

17

1,900

Nitrate, phosphate, and bacteria

Fertilizer applied 1982–83, 42.3 million tons per year (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1984); active ingredients of pesticides applied 1982, 660 million pounds (Gianessi, 1987) Salts, fertilizers, pesticides can concentrate in groundwater. Improperly plugged abandoned wells contamination source Primarily in the Corn Belt and High Plains States (Office of Technology Assessment, 1984)

Urban activities Runoff

15

47.3 million acres urban landd

Bacteria, hydrocarbons, dissolved solids, lead, cadmium, and trace metals

Deicing chemical storage and use

14

Not reported

Sodium chloride, ferric ferrocyanide, sodium ferrocyanide, phosphate, and chromate

Other Saline intrusion or upconing

29

Not reported

Dissolved solids and brines

a b c d

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Oil and gas activities Wells

Infiltration from detention basins, drainage wells, pits, shafts can reach groundwater. Karst areas particularly vulnerable Winter 1983, 9.35 million tons dry salts/abbrasives, 7.78 million gallons of liquid salts applied (Office of Technology Assessment 1984) Present in coastal areas and in many inland areas

Estimated number of sites from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1987) unless otherwise indicated. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1984, p. 658, 1982 data. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1984, p. 639, 1982 data. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1984, p. 195, 1980 data.

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Survey 1986, Water-Supply Paper 2325.

10-135

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Source Subsurface percolation systems Injection wells

Land application

Open dumps Residential disposal Surface impoundments

Waster tailings and piles

Material stockpiles

Graveyards Animal burial Aboveground storage Underground storage

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Organics, metals, nitrates, phosphates, microorganisms Organics, metals, inorganic acids, microorganisms, radionuclides

Number/Volume 22 million domestic systems 25,000 industrial systems 280,752 active wells

Nitrogen, phosphorous, metals organics, 2,463 POTWs—sludge application microorganisms 1,000 POTWs—land treatment 250 hazardous waste land treatment units 18,889 nonhazardous units Organics, inorganics, microorganisms, 16,416 landfills radionuclides 9,284 municipal 3,155 industrial Organics, inorganics, microorganisms 1,856–2,396 dumps Organics, metals, other inorganics, Unknown microorganisms Organics, metals and other inorganics, 191,822 surface impoundments microorganisms, radionuclides 16,232 industrial 2,426 municipal 17,159 agricultural 19,813 mining 125,074 oil and gas 11,118 other Arsenic, sulfuric acid, copper, selenium, Total mining—2.3 billion tons/yr molybdenum, uranium, thorium, Metal—250 million tons/yr radium, lead, manganese, vanadium Uranium—215 million tons/yr. Hazardous waste—0.39 billion tons Metals, inorganics, radionuclides Annual materials production—3.4 billion tons/yr Stockpiles—700 million tons/yr Metals, nonmetals, microorganisms Unknown Unknown Organics, inorganics, microorganisms, Unknown radionuclides Organics, inorganics, microorganisms, Steel—2.4–4.8 million tanks radionuclides Fiberglass—0.1 million tanks Total capacity—25 billion gallons Hazardous storage—2,032 tanks

Geographic Distribution Highest concentration in eastern third of country and portions of west coast Varies by well type Class I (hazardous waste)—Gulf Coast and Great Lakes Class II (oil/gas)—throughout the U.S. Class III (mining)—Southwest Class V—agricultural wells in IA, ID, TX, CA; industrial wells in NY and NJ Unknown

Urban locations nationwide

55 states and territories Nationwide 70% in hydrogeologically vulnerable areas 37% over current groundwater sources of drinking water Highest number of non-hazardous are in AR, KS, LA, MN, OH, OK, PA, TX, WV Unknown

Nationwide

Nationwide Unknown Nationwide Nationwide

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Landfills

Potential Contaminants

10-136

Table 10C.85 Profile of Sources of Groundwater Contamination in the United States

Microorganisms, organics, inorganics

Materials transport

Organics, inorganics, microorganisms

Mining/mine drainage

Acids, metals, radionuclides

Production wells

Organics, inorganics, microorganisms

Other wells (monitoring and exploration) Pesticide application

Fertilizer applications

Deicing

Irrigation practices

Percolation of atmospheric pollutants

Groundwater/surface water interaction Natural leaching Salt water intrusion

Organics, inorganics, microorganisms radionuclides Organics—1,200–1,400 active ingredients Approximately 280 million acretreatments annually Nitrates, phosphates

175,000 miles of petroleum product pipelines (1976) carrying 9.63 billion bbls 700,000 miles of sewer pipeline (1976) carrying 5.6 trillion gallons 10,000–16,000 spills per year; spills account for approximately 0.35 percent of 4 billion tons shipped annually (1984) 15,000 active coal mines (1986) 67,000 inactive coal mines phospate mines; metalic ore mines 548,000 oil wells produced approximately 3.1 billion bbls crude oil (1980) 376,000 irrigation wells for 126,000 farms Up to 1.2 million abandoned wells Unknown 552 million pounds of active ingredients applied to crops in 1982

Fertilizer use has declined from 54 million tons to 42.3 million tons (1980–1983); fertilizers in 1981–1982 contained 11 million tons of nitrogen, 4.8 million tons of phosphates, 5.6 million tons of potash Salts 9.35 million tons dry salts, and abrasives; 1.78 million gallons liquid salts applied to U.S. highways (1982–1983) Fertilizers, pesticides, naturally occurring 14 percent of cropland is irrigated contaminants (e.g., selenium), sediment Sulfhur and nitrogen compounds, Unknown asbestos, heavy metals Organics, inorganics, microorganisms, radionuclides Inorganics, radionuclides Inorganics, radionuclides

Unknown Unknown Unknown

Nationwide

Nationwide

Varies by mining type

Oil Wells—nationwide Geothermal wells—primarily CA, NV, ID Water wells—mostly in the Southwest, Central Plains, Idaho, and Florida

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Pipelines

Unknown 17 pesticides confirmed in 23 states (1986) due to normal agricultural application Highest fertilizer use in 1981–1982: CA, IL, IN, IO, TX

Northeast, Mid-Atlantic, Midwest

Water, Central, and South Plains, Arkansas, Florida Acid rain around Great Lakes, Northeast Distribution of other pollutants varies Unknown Unknown, very localized Predominantly coastal areas—CA, TX, LA, FL, NY, Southwest, Central Plains

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Groundwater Protection, 1987, EPA Activities Related to Groundwater Contamination. 10-137

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Detected Concentrations (mg/L)

Volatile Organic Compound

Predominant Use

Number of Detections/Samples

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Median

Max

MCL, HA, 10L4 CR (mg/L)

Number of Concentrations Exceeding Standard of Criterion 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

— — — — — 17b — 6 110 9,100 11 10 — 24 77 10 5 50,000

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

3 0 0 0 0 — 0 1 0 — — 0 0 0

— 4.5 170 29 2.5 500 3,400 1,500 0.8 — — — 28 —

— 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 — — — 0 —

0 — — 0 0 0 0 2 —

50 19 — 7,000 — 4.3 910 10 —

0 0 — 0 — 0 0 1 —

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

10 (HA) 40 (10K4 CR) 40 (10K4 CR) — 10,000 (MCL) 10,000 (MCL) — 1 (HA) — 6 (10K4 CR) 100 (MCL and HA) — — 600 (MCL) 600 (HA) 1 (HA) 70 (MCL) 5 (MCL)

0.3 1.2 0.2 0.2 1.8 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.8 22 1.1 0.2 0.3

0.6 1.2 0.5 2.8 2.1 0.3 0.4 19.8 0.6 0.8 22 1.8 0.3 0.3

1.1 1.2 4.4 5.4 2.5 12 0.4 39 0.8 0.8 22 2.5 1.9 0.3

3.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.6

3.5 0.5 0.7 1.5 3.7 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.6

3.5 0.7 1.7 2.9 4.4 0.4 4 19.4 0.6

0.05 (MCL) 75 (MCL) 5 (MCL) 700 (MCL) 20 (HA) — 2 (MCL) 7 (MCL) 233 (10–4 CR) — — 3 (HA) 2,000 (HA) 2,100,000 (10–4 CR) 100 (MCL) — — 5 (MCL) 70 (MCL) 100 (MCL) 5 (MCL) 5 (MCL) —

Taste/Odor Thresholda (mg/L)

Number of Concentrations Exceeding Taste/Odor Threshold

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

VOCs Not Detected Bromomethane Fumigant 0/1,677 cisK1,3-Dichloropropene Fumigant 0/1,685 trans-1,3-Dichloropropene Fumigant 0/1,592 n-Butylbenzene Gasoline hydrocarbon 0/1,454 1,2-Dimethylbenzene Gasoline hydrocarbon 0/805 1,3/1,4-Dimethylbenzene Gasoline hydrocarbon 0/799 Bromoethene Organic synthesis 0/688 Hexachlorobutadiene Organic synthesis 0/1,347 2-Propenal Organic synthesis 0/472 2-Propenenitrile Organic synthesis 0/693c Ethenylbenzene Organic synthesis 0/1,915 1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene Organic synthesis 0/1,455 Ethyl tert-butyl ether Oxygenate 0/688 1,2-Dichlorobenzene Solvent 0/1,911 1,3-Dichlorobenzene Solvent 0/1,340 Hexachloroethane Solvent 0/698 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene Solvent 0/1,464 1,1,2-Trichloroethane Solvent 0/1,686 Detection Frequency Greater Than 0 and Less Than or Equal to 1 Percent c 1,2-Dibromoethane Fumigant 3/1,614 1,4-Dichlorobenzene Fumigant 1/1,925 Benzene Gasoline hydrocarbon 6/1,892 Ethylbenzene Gasoline hydrocarbon 2/1,926 Naphthalene Gasoline hydrocarbon 2/1,464 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene Gasoline hydrocarbon 6/1,415 Chloroethene Organic synthesis 1/1,917 1,1-Dichloroethene Organic synthesis 2/1,926 (1-Methylethyl) benzene Organic synthesis 2/1,371 tert-Amyl methyl ether Oxygenate 1/688 Diisopropyl ether Oxygenate 1/581 Chloromethane Refrigerant 2/1,565 Trichlorofluoromethane Refrigerant 7/1,925 Refrigerant 1/1,515 1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2trifluoroethane Chlorobenzene Solvent 1/1,926 Chloroethane Solvent 2/1,677 1,1-Dichloroethane Solvent 5/1,926 1,2-Dichloroethane Solvent 4/1,910 cisK1,2-Dichloroethene Solvent 2/1,705 trans-1,2-Dichloroethene Solvent 1/1,767 Dichloromethane Solvent 12/1,923 1,2-Dichloropropane Solvent 15/1,926 n-Propylbenzene Solvent 1/1,454

Min

Type of Drinking-Water Standard, Health Criterion, or Taste/Odor Threshold

10-138

Table 10C.86 Detections of Individual Volatile Organic Compounds in Groundwater from Rural, Untreated Self-Supplied Domestic Wells in the United States, 1986–1999

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3

0.4 0.7 0.4 1.5 0.6 0.7

0.6 25 2.1 7 11 8.2

5 (MCL) 5 (MCL) 40 (HA) 80 (MCL) 80 (MCL) 80 (MCL)

0 3 0 0 0 0

520 310 — — — 300

0 0 — — — 0

0.2

1.3

3.2

0.2 (MCL)

16

—

—

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

0.3 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5

12 30.2 2 29 120 74

1,000 (MCL) — 1,000 (HA) 5 (MCL) 200 (MCL) 80 (MCL)

0 — 0 3 0 0

42 20f — 190 970 2,400

0 1 — 0 0 0

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Tetrachloromethane Solvent 5/1,925 Trichloroethene Solvent 16/1,926 1,2,3-Trichloropropane Solvent 10/1,615 Trihalomethane 7/1,926 Bromodichloromethaned Chlorodibromomethaned Trihalomethane 7/1,926 Tribromomethaned Trihalomethane 4/1,925 Detection Frequency Greater Than 1 and Less Than or Equal to 5 Percent 1,2-Dibromo-3Fumigant 16/1,459e chloropropane Methylbenzene Gasoline hydrocarbon 21/1,882 Methyl tert-butyl ether Oxygenate 30/1,335 Dichlorodifluoromethane Refrigerant 23/1,916 Tetrachloroethene Solvent 32/1,897 1,1,1-Trichloroethane Solvent 22/1,926 Trichloromethaned Trihalomethane 83/1,926

Note: VOC, volatile organic compound; Min, minimum; Max, maximum; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level; HA, Health-Advisory Level, lifetime 70-km adult consuming 2 L of water per day; 10K4 CR, risk of one additional 70-km adult in ten thousand (1!10–4) contracting cancer over a lifetime of exposure consuming 2 L of water per day; mg/L, micrograms per liter; —, not applicable. a

Taste/odor thresholds from bender and others, 1999. 1,3-Dimethylbenzene. No additional detections exist below 0.2 mg/L. d Bromodichloromethane, chlorodibromomethane, tribromomethane, and trichloromethane can also be classified as solvents or VOCs used in organic synthesis. e When uncensored, the number of detections equals 19. f Lower limit of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Drinking Water Advisory. Source: From Moran, M.J. et al., Occurrence and status of volatile organic comounds in groundwater from rural, untreated, self-supplied domestic wells in the United States, 1986–1999, United States Geological Survey, Water Resources Investigation Report 02-4085, www.usgs.gov. b c

10-139

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10-140

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10C.87 Frequency of Detection and Concentrations of Volatile Organic Compounds in Groundwater Source Samples Collected from United States Drinking Water Supplies between May 3, 1999 and October 23, 2000 Groundwater Statistics Compound Gasoline Oxygenates tert-Amyl methyl ether Diisopropyl ether Ethyl tert-butyl ether Methyl tert-butyl ether Other Gasoline Compounds Benzene n-Butylbenzene sec-Butylbenzene tert-Butylbenzene Ethylbenzene Naphthalene Toluene 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene o-Xylene m- p-Xylene Trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Chlorodibromomethane Chloroform Organic Syntheses Acrylonitrile Bromobenzene Bromochloromethane Carbon tetrachloride Chlorobenzene Chloroethane 2-Chlorotoluene 4-Chlorotoluene Dibromomethane 1,2-Dichlorobenzene 1,3-Dichlorobenzene 1,1 –Dichloroethane 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,1 –Dichloroethene cis-1,2-Dichloroethene trans-1,2-Dichloroethene 1,2-Dichloropropane 1,3-Dichloropropane 2,2-Dichloropropane 1,1-Dichloropropene Hexachlorobutadiene Hexachloroethane Isopropylbenzene p-Isopropyltoluene Methylene chloride Methyl ethyl ketone n-Propylbenzene Styrene 1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane Tetrachloroethene 1,1,1 -Trichloroethane 1,1,2-Trichloroethane Trichloroethene 1,2,3-Trichloropropane

Number of Samples

Number of Detects

Detection Frequency

579 579 579 571

2 2 1 31

0.34 0.34 0.17 5.4

0.21 0.23 0.25 0.20

0.31 1.7 0.25 6.3

578 579 579 579 566 579 562 579 566 564

2 1 0 0 3 1 3 0 4 4

0.34 0.17 0 0 0.53 0.17 0.53 0 0.71 0.71

0.75 0.21 !0.2 !0.2 0.23 0.22 1.1 !0.2 0.26 0.33

3 0.21 !0.2 !0.2 0.63 0.22 4.2 !0.2 0.91 1.6

578 579 578 575

34 27 35 68

579 579 579 579 579 579 579 579 562 579 579 579 579 579 579 579 561 569 579 579 579 579 573 579 577 577 579 562 579 579 577 578 579 576 579

0 0 0 5 1 1 0 0 2 1 0 11 3 8 11 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 2 0 0 24 10 0 19 1

5.9 4.7 6.1 12 0 0 0 0.86 0.17 0.17 0 0 0.36 0.17 0 1.9 0.52 1.4 1.9 0 0.18 0 0 0 0 0 0.17 0 0.17 0.35 0 0.36 0 0 4.2 1.7 0 3.3 0.17

Min Concentration

0.2 0.21 0.21 0.21 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 0.38 1.6 2.6 !0.2 !0.2 0.33 0.37 !0.2 0.21 0.27 0.22 0.33 !0.2 0.47 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 0.38 !0.2 1.6 3.4 !0.2 0.21 !0.2 !0.2 0.2 0.21 !0.2 0.23 0.31

Max Concentration

7.4 49 9.4 22 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 1.8 1.6 2.6 !0.2 !0.2 0.75 0.37 !0.2 10 0.65 23 14 !0.2 0.47 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 !0.2 0.38 !0.2 1.6 5.8 !0.2 0.83 !0.2 !0.2 36 13 !0.2 170 0.31 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10C.87

10-141

(Continued) Groundwater Statistics

Compound 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene Vinyl bromide Vinyl chloride 1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene Fumigants Bromomethane 1,4-Dichlorobenzene cis-1,3-Dichloropropene trans-1,3 –Dichloropropene Refrigerants Chloromethane Dichlorodifluoromethane Trichlorofluoromethane l,l,2-Trichloro-l,2,2Trifluoroethane

Number of Samples

Number of Detects

Detection Frequency

Min Concentration

Max Concentration

571 579 579 579 579

1 0 1 0 0

0.18 0 0.17 0 0

0.46 !0.2 3.2 !0.2 !0.2

0.46 !0.2 3.2 !0.2 !0.2

579 579 579 579

1 1 0 0

0.17 0.17 0 0

6.4 0.25 !0.2 !0.2

6.4 0.25 !0.2 !0.2

579 579 579 579

3 4 5 1

0.52 0.69 0.86 0.17

0.2 1.1 0.24 0.91

0.69 18 1.3 0.91

Note: Concentrations are in micrograms per liter. Source: From Grady, S., 2003, A National Survey of Methyl tert-Butyl Ether and Other Volatile Organic Compounds in Drinking Water Sources: Results of a Random Survey, United States Geological Survey Water-Resource Investigations Report 02-4079, www.usgs.gov.

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10-142

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10C.88 Summary Comparison of Occurrence of Phase II/V Contaminants In United States Water Systems Using Surface Water vs. Groundwater, from National Cross-Section States Percent O MRL

Contaminant

Surface Water (%)

Inorganic Chemicals (IOCs) IOCs Antimony (total) 4.2 Arsenic 13.0 Asbestos (MCL in 8.9 fibers per liter) Barium 49.1 Beryllium (total) 2.5 Cadmium 5.1 Chromium 10.5 Cyanide 5.1 Fluoride 77.8 Mercury 9.0 Nickel 11.8 Selenium 11.2 Thallium (total) 2.5 Synthetic Organic Chemicals (SOCs) 2,3,7,8-TCDD 0.0 (Dioxin) 2,4,5-TP (Silvex) 2.0 2,4-D 11.2 Alachlor (Lasso) 7.3 Atrazine 21.1 Benzo[a]pyrene 0.5 4.9 bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate bis(2-ethylhexyl) 28.9 phthalate Carbofuran 0.8 (Furadan) Chlordane 0.0 Dalapon 9.4 Dibromo4.8 chloropropane (DBCP) Dinoseb 2.5 Diquat 3.5 Endothall 0.3 Endrin 2.1 Ethylene Dibromide 4.2 (EDB) Glyphosate 0.0 (Roundup) Heptachlor 0.4 Heptachlor 0.4 Epoxide Hexachloro0.4 benzene Hexachloro9.6 cyclopentadiene Lindane 1.2 Methoxychlor 1.0 Oxamyl (Vydate) 0.0 Penta3.1 chlorophenol Picloram (Tordon) 3.7 Simazine 15.9 Total PCBs 0.2 Aroclor 1016 0.0 Aroclor 1221 0.0 Aroclor 1232 0.0 Aroclor 1242 0.0 Aroclor 1248 0.0 Aroclor 1254 0.0 Aroclor 1260 0.0 Toxaphene 0.3 Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs) 1,1,17.3 Trichloroethane 1,1,25.7 Trichloroethane 1,1-Dichloroethene 2.9

Percent O 1⁄2 MCL

Percent O MCLa

Groundwater (%)

Surface Water (%)

Groundwater (%)

Surface Water (%)

Groundwater (%)

National MCL Viol.-SW (%)

National MCL Viol.-GW (%)

3.2 19.3 8.5

0.8 0.6 0.7

1.2 1.6 0.9

0.2 0.5 0.7

0.4 0.9 0.4

0.08 0.00 0.00

0.06 0.06 0.01

47.3 2.1 4.9 13.2 2.0 72.5 4.5 10.6 8.6 3.6

0.6 0.4 1.3 0.3 0.4 0.8 1.3 1.2 0.2 0.8

0.8 0.5 1.2 0.5 0.5 3.4 0.7 0.9 0.3 1.3

0.5 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.0 0.0

0.2 0.2 0.6 0.2 0.2 1.3 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.4

0.00 0.02 0.05 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.12

0.06 0.02 0.06 0.01 0.01 0.18 0.04 0.01 0.07 0.06

1.3

0.0

1.3

0.0

1.3

0.00

0.00

0.7 1.2 0.3 2.0 0.5 6.8

0.0 0.2 1.5 13.2 0.0 0.5

0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.4

0.0 0.0 0.2 10.7 0.0 0.5

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.3

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.83 0.00 0.02

0.00 !0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00

14.9

3.2

2.7

2.8

1.7

0.03

0.01

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.00

0.00

0.1 0.8 2.6

0.0 0.2 1.1

0.0 0.0 2.3

0.0 0.2 1.1

0.0 0.0 2.0

0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 !0.01

0.4 0.8 0.2 0.2 1.0

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 3.8

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.0

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 3.7

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.07

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.00

0.00

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0

0.1 0.0

0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0

0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.00

0.00

0.1

1.0

0.0

0.6

0.0

0.00

0.00

0.3 0.2 0.1 0.7

0.3 0.0 0.0 0.4

0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1

0.3 0.0 0.0 0.2

0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 !0.01

0.5 1.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1

0.0 2.5 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0 1.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

!0.01 0.00 !0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 !0.01

3.3

0.9

1.3

0.9

1.3

0.00

0.01

0.7

0.6

0.4

0.3

0.3

0.00

0.01

1.5

0.3

1.0

0.3

0.9

0.02

0.04

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10C.88

10-143

(Continued) Percent O MRL

Contaminant 1,2,4Trichlorobenzene 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,2-Dichloropropane Benzene Carbon tetrachloride Chlorobenzene cis-1,2Dichloroethylene Ethyl benzene Methylene chloride (Dichloromethane) o-Dichlorobenzene p-Dichlorobenzene Styrene Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) Toluene transK1,2Dichloroethylene Trichloroethene (Trichloroethylene, TCE) Vinyl chloride Xylenes (Total) Group Summaries IOCs IOCs-All Regulated SOCs SOCs-Group 1 SOCs-Group 2 VOCs VOCs-All Regulated VOCs-Group 1 VOCs-Group 2

Note:

a

Percent O 1⁄2 MCL

Percent O MCLa

Surface Water (%)

Groundwater (%)

Surface Water (%)

Groundwater (%)

Surface Water (%)

Groundwater (%)

National MCL Viol.-SW (%)

National MCL Viol.-GW (%)

3.1

1.0

0.0

0.4

0.0

0.4

0.00

0.00

3.1 3.2 3.9 9.0 8.1 3.3

1.4 1.0 1.2 1.7 1.0 1.9

0.3 0.6 0.5 1.6 0.2 0.3

0.6 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.7

0.3 0.5 0.3 1.1 0.2 0.3

0.4 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.6

0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.02 0.01 0.04 0.02 !0.01 0.01

7.3 25.6

2.2 11.1

0.3 10.4

0.3 3.3

0.3 4.7

0.1 2.3

0.00 0.03

!0.01 0.05

3.7 6.2 4.1 7.1

1.2 2.0 2.1 4.3

0.2 0.0 0.0 2.5

0.6 0.9 0.2 2.3

0.0 0.0 0.0 1.7

0.5 0.8 0.2 1.8

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.14

11.9 2.7

3.8 0.7

1.0 0.0

0.7 0.2

0.5 0.0

0.4 0.2

0.00 0.00

0.00 !0.01

5.6

3.1

1.9

1.8

1.2

1.5

0.05

0.12

3.1 12.3

0.5 3.9

0.3 0.2

0.2 0.2

0.3 0.0

0.2 0.1

0.00 0.00

0.02 0.00

83.7

83.5

6.8

9.2

2.5

4.2

0.3 1.0

0.6 0.1

21.9 20.4

2.4 13.4

13.2 1.2

0.3 1.9

10.7 0.9

0.1 1.0

41.1 19.5 11.1

19.9 6.6 6.4

15.4 1.7 4.5

7.9 1.3 3.9

8.2 0.9 2.9

6.1 0.9 3.2

0.2

0.4

IOC, Regulated: includes all the regulated IOCs; SOCs, Group 1: includes alachlor, atrazine, and simazine; SOCs, Group 2: includes bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, bis(2-ethylhexyl)adipate, and benzo(a)pyrene; VOCs, Regulated: includes all the regulated VOCs; VOCs, Group 1: includes benzene, ethyl benzene, toluene, and total xylenes (LNAPLEs); VOCs, Group 2: includes cis-1, 2dichloroethylene, trans-1,2-dichloroethylene, 1,1-dichloroethene, tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethene, and vinyl chloride (DNAPLEs). Percent MCL Violations Derived from SDWIS Information for 1/1/93-3/31/1998.

% OMCL indicates the proportion of systems with any analytical results exceeding the concentration value of the MCL; it does not necessarily indicate an MCL violation. An MCL violation occurs when the MCL is exceeded by the average results from four quarterly samples or confirmation samples as required by the primacy State.

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1999, A Review of Contaminant Occurrence in Public Water Systems, EPA 816-R-99-006, www.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Chemical Name (Threshold in mg/L)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

# GW PWS

# SW PWS

% PWSOMRL

% GW PWSOMRL

% SW PWSOMRL

12,827 11,450

11,446 10,274

1,511 1,284

2.49 1.14

2.51 1.01

2.32 2.10

1.32 0.16

1.35 0.12

0.99 0.47

1.03 0.01

14,910 16,450 12,881 20,024 19,582 20,198 15,266 20,038 20,236 20,039 20,246 16,705 9,211 19,750 16,549 16,076

13,919 14,862 11,576 17,917 17,773 18,472 14,176 18,337 18,507 17,874 18,513 15,026 8,438 17,785 14,953 14,617

1,119 1,726 1,386 2,324 1,979 1,886 1,214 1,859 1,882 2,385 1,894 1,832 836 2,158 1,720 1,588

1.14 0.19 0.50 22.09 9.01 0.77 1.32 0.53 0.39 28.84 1.22 1.47 0.61 18.01 0.36 1.37

1.11 0.14 0.44 14.84 7.56 0.71 1.09 0.26 0.29 21.69 1.11 1.45 0.52 12.41 0.21 1.38

5.18 0.64 1.08 79.69 22.13 1.22 3.95 3.17 1.33 84.40 2.27 1.53 1.44 64.55 1.69 1.39

0.25 N/A 0.03 0.13 0.01 0.09 0.16 0.00 N/A 0.02 0.45 0.03 N/A 0.06 N/A 0.00

0.25 N/A 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.08 0.15 0.00 N/A 0.01 0.41 0.03 N/A 0.02 N/A 0.00

0.27 N/A 0.07 0.86 0.00 0.16 0.25 0.00 N/A 0.17 0.84 0.00 N/A 0.32 N/A 0.00

!2.0 !2.0 !1.0 22.00 7.32 !4.0 1.60 !1.0 !2.0 87.00 !4.0 2.18 !1.0 12.70 !2.0 0.50

20,483 15,282 15,430 19,287 19,591 16,947 16,757 16,947 9,164 20,081 12,284 12,771 20,429 11,329 12,763 12,724 13,452 15,721 19,953 13,987 15,612 15,494 12,167 10,127 12,343 16,623

18,758 14,192 14,180 17,602 17,908 15,338 15,138 15,332 8,303 18,355 10,980 11,480 18,752 10,145 11,471 11,440 12,034 14,154 18,300 12,638 14,057 14,284 10,953 8,956 11,071 14,938

1,876 1,215 1,380 1,836 1,820 1,748 1,754 1,749 898 1,884 1,385 1,359 1,819 1,276 1,371 1,363 1,502 1,702 1,795 1,450 1,689 1,334 1,282 1,230 1,337 1,832

1.14 1.16 1.17 4.05 0.67 0.12 0.15 0.13 0.16 1.62 0.35 0.27 0.25 1.55 0.35 0.33 1.18 0.20 0.28 1.76 0.17 1.25 0.25 1.58 0.23 0.57

1.09 1.10 1.06 3.31 0.66 0.12 0.14 0.10 0.12 1.40 0.30 0.28 0.20 1.47 0.29 0.34 1.08 0.16 0.20 1.69 0.15 1.11 0.26 1.49 0.23 0.45

1.55 1.73 1.45 11.06 0.77 0.11 0.23 0.40 0.56 3.66 0.72 0.22 0.77 2.12 0.88 0.22 1.93 0.53 1.00 2.41 0.36 2.70 0.08 2.36 0.22 1.53

0.18 0.19 0.20 0.77 0.08 N/A N/A N/A 0.00 0.00 0.11 N/A 0.00 N/A N/A N/A 0.01 0.00 0.00 N/A 0.00 0.00 N/A N/A N/A 0.00

0.16 0.17 0.20 0.52 0.09 N/A N/A N/A 0.00 0.00 0.06 N/A 0.00 N/A N/A N/A 0.02 0.00 0.00 N/A 0.00 0.00 N/A N/A N/A 0.00

0.37 0.41 0.22 3.27 0.00 N/A N/A N/A 0.00 0.00 0.51 N/A 0.00 N/A N/A N/A 0.00 0.00 0.00 N/A 0.00 0.00 N/A N/A N/A 0.00

0.10 !5.0 1.80 1.30 !4.0 !1.0 !2.0 !1.0 !1.0 !5.0 !5.0 !2.0 !5.0 !4.0 !2.0 !2.0 !5.0 !1.0 !5.0 !5.0 !1.0 !4.4 !2.0 !5.0 !2.0 !2.0

% PWSOThreshold

% GW PWSOThreshold

% SW PWSOThreshold

99% Value (mg/L)

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Synthetic Organic Chemicals (SOCs) Dibromochloropropane (MCLZ0.2) Ethylene dibromidea (MCLZ0.05) Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs) Benzene (MCLZ5) Bromobenzene (N/A) Bromochloromethane (MCLZ10) Bromodichloromethane (HRLZ60) Bromoform (HRLZ400) Bromomethane (MCLZ10) Carbon tetrachloride (MCLZ5) Chlorobenzene (MCLZ100) Chloroethane (N/A) Chloroform (HRLZ600) Chloromethane (MCLZ3) cis-1,2-Dichloroethene (MCLZ70) cis-1,2-Dichloropropene (N/A) Dibromochloromethane (HRLZ60) Dibromomethane (N/A) Dichlorodifluoromethane (MCLZ1,000) 1,1-Dichloroethane (MCLZ5) 1,2-Dichloroethane (MCLZ5) Dichloroethene (MCLZ7) Dichloromethane (MCLZ5) 1,2-Dichloropropane (MCLZ5) 1,3-Dichloropropane (N/A) 2,2-Dichloropropane (N/A) 1,1-Dichloropropene (N/A) 1,3-Dichloropropene (HRLZ40) Ethyl benzene (MCLZ700) Hexachlorobutadiene (HRLZ0.9) Isopropylbenzene (N/A) m-Dichlorobenzene (HALZ600) m-Xylene (N/A) n-Butylbenzene (N/A) n-Propylbenzene (N/A) Naphthalene (HRLZ140) o-Chlorotoluene (MCLZ100) o-Dichlorobenzene (MCLZ600) o-Xylene (N/A) p-Chlorotoluene (MCLZ100) p-Dichlorobenzene (MCLZ750) p-Isopropyltoluene (N/A) p-Xylene (N/A) sec-Butylbenzene (N/A) Styrene (MCLZ100)

Total # PWS

10-144

Table 10C.89 United States Public Water System Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Information System (UCRIS) (Round 1) 24-State Cross-Section Summary of Occurrence (1988–1992)

12,353 16,956 20,407 19,814 20,089 19,945 9,883 12,876 13,449 15,279 19,964 15,290 16,851 17,392 12,755 12,671 15,184 9,463

11,081 15,338 18,693 18,298 18,364 18,267 9,017 11,567 11,996 14,191 18,253 14,198 15,347 15,771 11,462 11,379 14,099 8,841

1,337 1,753 1,867 1,652 1,887 1,825 959 1,389 1,589 1,213 1,853 1,220 1,637 1,758 1,372 1,370 1,209 670

0.19 0.18 0.45 3.33 3.50 0.64 0.25 0.49 0.49 3.66 0.43 3.54 1.48 0.25 0.83 0.61 0.50 3.04

0.19 0.13 0.39 3.38 3.10 0.59 0.13 0.46 0.45 3.57 0.29 3.37 1.39 0.25 0.76 0.59 0.44 2.51

0.22 0.63 1.02 2.66 7.31 1.10 1.36 0.72 0.78 4.62 1.78 5.66 2.32 0.23 1.38 0.66 1.24 10.75

N/A 0.00 0.05 0.91 0.00 0.01 N/A N/A 0.00 0.03 0.04 0.98 0.01 0.01 N/A N/A 0.28 0.00

N/A 0.00 0.05 0.93 0.00 0.01 N/A N/A 0.00 0.03 0.02 1.00 0.01 0.01 N/A N/A 0.23 0.00

N/A 0.00 0.11 0.67 0.00 0.00 N/A N/A 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.66 0.00 0.00 N/A N/A 0.83 0.00

!2.0 !1.0 !1.0 13.2 0.7 !1.0 !1.0 !5.0 !5.0 3.7 !1.0 20.8 0.6 !2.0 !2.0 !2.0 !2.0 0.6

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

tert-Butylbenzene (N/A) 1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane (HALZ70) 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane (HALZ2) Tetrachloroethylene (MCLZ5) Toluene (MCLZ100) trans-1,2-Dichloroethene (MCLZ100) trans-1,3-Dichloropropene (N/A) 1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene (N/A) 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene (MCLZ70) 1,1,1-Trichloroethane (MCLZ200) 1,1,2-Trichloroethane (MCLZ5) Trichloroethylene (MCLZ5) Trichlorofluoromethane (HALZ175) 1,2,3-Trichloropropane (MCLZ40) 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene (N/A) 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene (N/A) Vinyl chloride (MCLZ2) Xylenes (Total) (MCLZ10,000)

Note: MCL, maximum contaminant level; HAL, health advisory level (as of December 2000); HRL, health reference level (concentration values used only as reference levels for analyses in this report); MRL, minimum reporting level. The MCL, HAL, HRL, and MRL values are used in this report only as reference levels to facilitate occurrence assessments. “% PWSOThreshold” indicates the proportion of systems with any analytical results exceeding the concentration value of the HRL/MCL/HAL. (Note that results for % PWSs greater than an MCL value does not indicate a MCL violation. A formal MCL violation occurs when the MCL is exceeded by the average of four consecutive quarterly samples or confirmation samples as required by the primacy States.) N/A, there is no HRL/MCL/HAL available. a

The high occurrence of ethylene dibromide are, in part, considered false positives related to analytical methods problems.

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2001, Occurrence of Unregulated Contaminants in Public Water Systems - A National Summary, EPA 815-P-00-002, www.epa.gov.

10-145

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-146

Table 10C.90 United States Public Water System Safe Drinking Water Information System/Federal Version (SDWIS/FED) (Round 2) Data—20-State Cross-Section Summary of Occurrence (1993 to 1997) Chemical Name (Threshold in mg/L)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

# GW PWS

# SW PWS

% PWSO MRL

% GW PWS

% SW PWS

16,495

15,009

1,486

88.11

87.76

91.66

11,972 11,968 11,954 11,745 11,940 12,623 14,034 11,788 12,644 12,604 12,953 13,512 12,050

10,509 10,512 10,500 10,420 10,482 11,086 12,220 10,329 11,088 11,068 11,503 11,833 10,600

1,463 1,456 1,454 1,325 1,458 1,537 1,814 1,459 1,556 1,536 1,450 1,679 1,450

0.01 0.08 0.08 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.34 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.83 0.01 0.05

0.00 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.21 0.09 0.02 0.05 0.11 0.01 0.02

24,125 22,974 23,858 18,461 23,328 24,433 23,737 23,478 23,750 23,006 22,141 24,808 24,065 24,096 24,069 16,787 22,736 22,995 24,119 22,972 22,969 22,923 24,118 21,378 22,617 22,973

21,461 20,507 21,152 16,348 20,872 21,925 21,021 21,030 21,059 20,454 19,836 22,114 21,430 21,445 21,438 15,178 20,380 20,524 21,457 20,509 20,501 20,524 21,457 18,808 20,320 20,509

2,664 2,467 2,706 2,113 2,456 2,508 2,716 2,448 2,691 2,552 2,305 2,694 2,635 2,651 2,631 1,609 2,356 2,471 2,662 2,463 2,468 2,399 2,661 2,570 2,297 2,464

0.13 0.46 21.97 12.12 0.75 0.34 27.42 2.25 18.37 0.46 1.27 0.74 0.06 0.09 0.07 0.35 0.18 0.24 0.26 0.13 0.23 0.75 0.14 0.12 0.16 0.14

0.12 0.32 16.14 11.08 0.74 0.32 21.84 2.04 14.55 0.32 1.23 0.67 0.05 0.07 0.06 0.32 0.13 0.23 0.22 0.12 0.19 0.62 0.11 0.10 0.15 0.14

% PWSO Threshold

% GW PWSO

% SW PWSO

99% Value

1.79

1.83

1.41

560,000

0.07 0.41 0.48 0.00 0.27 0.13 1.21 0.14 0.45 0.20 6.55 0.00 0.28

0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 N/A 0.00 0.00 0.09 N/A 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 N/A 0.00 0.00 0.09 N/A 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 N/A 0.00 0.00 0.14 N/A 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

!3.0 !2.0 !4.0 !2.0 !10.0 !10.0 !10.0 !1.0 !10.0 !50.0 !5.0 !2.0 !5.0

0.23 1.62 67.52 20.11 0.86 0.56 70.54 4.08 48.23 1.53 1.65 1.34 0.11 0.26 0.15 0.62 0.59 0.32 0.53 0.20 0.57 1.92 0.38 0.27 0.26 0.20

N/A 0.03 0.08 0.01 0.06 N/A 0.04 0.58 0.08 N/A 0.00 0.08 N/A N/A N/A 0.00 0.02 N/A 0.00 N/A N/A 0.00 0.00 0.00 N/A N/A

N/A 0.02 0.05 0.00 0.05 N/A 0.01 0.55 0.05 N/A 0.00 0.07 N/A N/A N/A 0.00 0.00 N/A 0.00 N/A N/A 0.00 0.00 0.00 N/A N/A

N/A 0.08 0.30 0.05 0.08 N/A 0.26 0.78 0.30 N/A 0.00 0.11 N/A N/A N/A 0.00 0.13 N/A 0.00 N/A N/A 0.00 0.00 0.00 N/A N/A

!1.0 !1.0 18.8 6.5 !9.0 !2.5 110.0 !2.5 9.7 !1.0 !20.0 !1.0 !2.0 !1.0 !1.0 !0.5 !1.0 !2.0 !1.0 !2.0 !2.0 !2.0 !2.0 !2.0 !2.0 !2.0

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Inorganic chemicals (IOCs) Sulfate (HRLZ500,000) Synthetic Organic Chemicals (SOCs) Aldicarba (HRLZ7) Aldicarb sulfonea (HRLZ7) Aldicarb sulfoxidea (HRLZ7) Aldrina (HRLZ0.002) Butachlora (N/A) Carbaryla (MCLZ700) Dicambaa (MCLZ200) Dieldrina (HRLZ0.002) 3-Hydroxycarbofurana (N/A) Methomyla (MCLZ200) Metolachlora (HRLZ70) Metribuzina (HRLZ91) Propachlora (MCLZ90) Volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) Bromobenzene (N/A) Bromochloromethaneb (MCLZ10) Bromodichloromethane (HRLZ60) Bromoform (HRLZ400) Bromomethane (MCLZ10) Chloroethane (N/A) Chloroform (HRLZ600) Chloromethane (MCLZ3) Dibromochloromethane (HRLZ60) Dibromomethane (N/A) Dichlorodifluoromethaneb (MCLZ1,000) 1,1-Dichloroethane (MCLZ5) 1,3-Dichloropropane (N/A) 2,2-Dichloropropane (N/A) 1,1-Dichloropropene (N/A) 1,3-Dichloropropene (HRLZ40) Hexachlorobutadieneb (HRLZ0.9) Isopropylbenzeneb (N/A) m-Dichlorobenzene (HALZ600) n-Butylbenzeneb (N/A) n-Propylbenzeneb (N/A) Naphthaleneb (HRLZ140) o-Chlorotoluene (MCLZ100) p-Chlorotoluene (MCLZ100) p-Isopropyltolueneb (N/A) sec-Butylbenzeneb (N/A)

Total PWS

22,973 24,127 24,800 22,532 22,659 24,088 22,965 22,974

20,508 21,462 22,106 20,144 20,329 21,441 20,504 20,513

2,465 2,665 2,694 2,388 2,330 2,647 2,461 2,461

0.11 0.21 0.08 0.19 1.17 0.08 0.76 0.43

0.10 0.16 0.05 0.15 0.93 0.06 0.63 0.35

0.16 0.64 0.30 0.50 3.22 0.23 1.79 1.10

N/A 0.00 0.00 N/A 0.00 0.00 N/A N/A

N/A 0.00 0.00 N/A 0.00 0.00 N/A N/A

N/A 0.00 0.00 N/A 0.00 0.00 N/A N/A

!2.0 !1.0 !1.0 !2.0 !2.5 !1.0 !1.0 !2.0

Note: MCL, maximum contaminant level; HAL, health advisory level (as of December 2000); HRL, health reference level (concentration values used only as reference levels for analyses in this report); MRL, minimum reporting level. The MCL, HAL, HRL, and MRL values are used in this report only as reference levels to facilitate occurrence assessments. “% PWSOThreshold” indicates the proportion of systems with any analytical results exceeding the concentration value of the HRL/MCL/HAL. (Note that results for % PWSs greater than an MCL value does not indicate a MCL violation. A formal MCL violation occurs when the MCL is exceeded by the average of four consecutive quarterly samples or confirmation samples as required by the primacy States.) N/A, there is no HRL/MCL/HAL available. a b

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

tert-Butylbenzeneb (N/A) 1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane (HALZ70) 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane (HALZ2) 1,2,3-Trichlorobenzeneb (N/A) Trichlorofluoromethaneb (HALZ175) 1,2,3-Trichloropropane (MCLZ40) 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzeneb (N/A) 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzeneb (N/A)

Massachusetts data not included in summary statistics for this contaminant. New Hampshire data not included in summary statistics for this contaminant.

Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2001, Occurrence of Unregulated Contaminants in Public Water Systems - A National Summary, EPA 815-P-00-002, www.epa.gov.

10-147

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-148

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10C.91 Public Water-Supply Wells in the United States Closed Because of Contamination as of 1984 Water-Supply Wells In Service or Standby State and Utility

Shallow (!100 0 )

Arizona Mesa Phoenix Wtr & Swr Dept. Tempe Tucson California Alhambra Anaheim Burbank Fresno Fullerton Garden Grove Glendale La Puente/SW Suburban Long Beach/Dominguez Wtr Corp. Los Angeles Wtr & Power Modesto Pomona Riverside Sacremento/Arcade Cnty Wtr San Bernardino San Jose/Great Oaks Wtr Co. Santa Barbara/Goleta Wtr Dist. Santa Barbara/Santa Barbara Pub. Colorado Colorado Springs Connecticut Clinton/Conn. Wtr Co. Delaware Newark/Artesian Wtr Co. Florida Boca Raton Daytona Beach Englewood Hollywood Miami Naples Ocala/Gen. Dev. Util. Palm Bay/Gen. Dev. Util. Palm Beach Gdns/Seacoast Util. Tallahassee Hawaii Honolulu

1 4

2

Deep (O100 0 )

Closed by Man-Made or Chemical Contamination Shallow (!100 0 )

Deep (O100 0 )

Closed by Natural Contamination Shallow (!100 0 )

Deep (O100 0 )

24 115

2 8

0 5

6 272

2 7

0 0

14 31 4 100 11 14 8 40

3 4 6 1 0 0 4 10

0 0 0 0 1 17 0 2

15

0

2

180

25

0

43 31 70 60

0

34 10

0

4

2 2 28 1

0

8 3

0

0

0 0 0 0 0 0

9

0

1

7

0

2

8

0

1

24

17

6

2

0

0

7

35

0

3

0

0

47 17 73 52

50 21 9 6 7 4 21

39

0 0 6 0

0 1 1

2 24

60

0 0 0 1

73

7 0 0 2

0 0 0

0 0

0

1 5 0 0

9

2 0

0 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10C.91

10-149

(Continued) Water-Supply Wells In Service or Standby

State and Utility

Shallow (!100 0 )

Illinois Elgin Indiana Anderson Richmond/Ind. Am. Wtr. Co. South Bend Iowa Sioux City Louisiana Baton Rouge/B.R. Wtr Co. Michigan Kalamazoo Lansing Minnesota Rochester Nebraska Grand Island Nevada Reno/Sierra Pac. Power Co. New Jersey Brick Harrington Park/Hackensack Wtr Co. Merchantville New Mexico Albuquerque Santa Fe/Sangre de Cristo Wtr Co. New York East Meadow/ Hempstead Wtr Dept. Elmira Farmingdale Lake Success/ Jamaica Wtr Co. Oakdale/Suffolk Wtr Auth. West Nyack/Spring Valley Wtr Co. Ohio Mansfield Oklahoma Oklahoma City Pennsylvania Pittsburgh/West View M.A. Rhode Island Bristol/Bristol Cnty Wtr Co. West Warwick/Kent Cnty W.A.

Deep (O100 0 )

Closed by Man-Made or Chemical Contamination Shallow (!100 0 )

11 4 5

9

15

2 2

108 124

0

0

0

0 0

19

11 1

2

0 0

0

0 0

Deep (O100 0 ) 2

7

50

10 3

Shallow (!100 0 )

0

23 5

Deep (O100 0 )

Closed by Natural Contamination

1 2

0 0

3

0 0 0

9

30

0

2

0

0

0

16

0

0

3

0

7 19

4 68

1 0

0 1

0 1

0 2

4

15

1

1

86 12

1 1

0 1

35

3

3

30

0 11 55

31

0

0

14

1 0 3

0

0 1 0

357

14

20

0

2

19

68

0

1

1

2

3

6

0

0

0

1

4

0

2

24

12

0

2

0

1

1

4

0

0

1

0 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-150

Table 10C.91

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Water-Supply Wells In Service or Standby

State and Utility

Shallow (!100 0 )

Texas El Paso Lubbock Utah Ogden Provo Salt Lake City/Salt Lake Wtr Dept. Virginia Woodbridge/Prince William Cnty Wyoming Cheyenne

7

Deep (O100 0 )

Closed by Man-Made or Chemical Contamination Shallow (!100 0 )

Deep (O100 0 )

Closed by Natural Contamination Shallow (!100 0 )

Deep (O100 0 )

140 330

1 3

0 3

8 10 14

0 0 0

1 2 1

0

0

26

1

0

37

1

0

Source: From Compiled from 1984 Water Utility Operating Data issued by the American Water Works Association. Copyright 1986 AWWA.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Source Type LUST Underground injection State sites DOD/DOE CERCLA (nonNPL) RCRA corrective action Nonpoint sources Landfills NPL

Number of States Reporting Information

Number of Aquifers or Hydrogeologic Settings for Which Information Was Reported

Total Sites

Number

Percent of Total

Number

Percent of Total

Number

Percent of Total

Number

Percent of Total

22 17

72 72

85,067 31,480

48,320 1,313

57 4

15,436 172

18 !1

3,044 61

4 !1

21,438 452

25 !2

17 17 19

34 54 59

12,202 8,705 3,506

6,199 4,470 1,381

51 51 39

3,139 286 802

26 3 23

753 1,717 229

6 20 7

3,242 1,937 316

27 22 9

19

50

2,696

538

20

267

10

95

4

67

3

8 6 22

29 26 66

2,030 1,356 307

44 110 275

2 8 90

31 110 249

!2 8 81

5 2 83

!1 !1 27

3 — 33

!1 — 11

Number of Sites with Confirmed Releases

Number of Sites with Confirmed Groundwater Contamination

Number of Sites with Active Remediation

Number of Sites with Cleanup Completed

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10C.92 Summary of Contaminant Source Type and Number Reported in the United States in 1998

Note: CERCLA, Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act; DOD/DOEZDepartment of Defense/Department of Energy; LUST, leaking underground storage tank; NPL, national priority list; RCRA, Resource Conversation and Recovery Act; —, not available. Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, National Water Quality Inventory 1998. Report to Congress, Groundwater and Drinking Water Chapters, www.epa.gov.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10C.93 Hazardous Waste Sites on the National Priority List by State and Outlying Area in the United States 2003 State and Outlying Area Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Guam Puerto Rico Virgin Islands United States Total Note:

Total Sites 15 6 9 11 98 18 16 15 1 52 15 3 9 45 29 14 12 14 15 12 19 32 69 24 4 25 15 11 1 20 116 12 91 29 — 35 11 12 95 12 25 2 13 45 19 9 30 47 9 40 2 2 9 2 1,283 1,296

Rank

Percent Distribution

Federal

Nonfederal

24 44 40 37 2 22 23 24 (X) 6 24 46 41 8 14 29 32 30 24 33 20 12 5 18 45 16 24 38 49 19 1 34 4 15 50 11 39 35 3 36 17 47 31 9 21 42 13 7 43 10 47 (X) (X) (X) (X) (X)

1.2 0.5 0.7 0.9 7.6 1.4 1.2 1.2 0.1 4.1 1.2 0.2 0.7 3.5 2.3 1.1 0.9 1.1 1.2 0.9 1.5 2.5 5.4 1.9 0.3 1.9 1.2 0.9 0.1 1.6 9.0 0.9 7.1 2.3 — 2.7 0.9 0.9 7.4 0.9 1.9 0.2 1.0 3.5 1.5 0.7 2.3 3.7 0.7 3.1 0.2 (X) (X) (X) 100.0 (X)

3 5 2 — 24 3 1 1 1 6 2 2 2 5 — 1 2 1 1 3 9 7 1 2 — 3 — 1 — 1 8 1 4 2 — 5 1 2 6 2 2 1 4 4 4 — 11 14 2 — 1 1 — — 163 164

12 1 7 11 74 15 15 14 — 46 13 1 7 40 29 13 10 13 14 9 10 25 68 22 4 22 15 10 1 19 108 11 87 27 — 30 10 10 89 10 23 1 9 41 15 9 19 33 7 40 1 1 9 2 1,120 1,132

As of December 31. Includes both proposed and final sites listed on the National Priorities List for the Superfund program as authorized by the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 and the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986. —, represents zero.

Source: From U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2004–2005, www.census.gov. Original Source:

From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Supplementary Materials: National Priorities List, Proposed Rule, December 2003.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-153

Table 10C.94 Number of Injection Wells in the United States in 1998 Number of Wells (Rounded to Nearest 100)

Well Class Class I

500

Class II

164,300

Class III

29,600

Class IV

Banned by all states and EPA under the Safe Drinking Water Act unless authorized for groundwater cleanup Actual numbers unavailable

Class V Source:

Description of Injection Practice Inject fluids into deep, confined geologic formations Associated with municipal or industrial waste disposal, hazardous or radioactive waste sites Inject fluids used in oil and gas production into deep, confined geologic formations Inject fluids into shallower formations for mineral extraction Inject hazardous or radioactive wastes directly or indirectly into drinking water sources Includes all injection methods not included in other four categories

From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, National Water Quality Inventory 1998. Report to Congress, Groundwater and Drinking Water Chapters, www.epa.gov.

Original Source: From U.S. EPA Office of Groundwater and Drinking Water, 1999.

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Table 10C.95 United States Toxic Release Inventory On-Site and Off-Site Disposed or Other Releases, by State, 2003 On-site Disposal or Other Releases On-site Disposal to Class I Underground Injection Wells, RCRA Subtitle C Landfills, and Other Landfills

State

Class I Wells Pounds

RCRA Subtitle C Landfills Pounds

Other On-site Landfills Pounds

Subtotal Pounds

Fugitive Air Emissions Pounds

0 0 0 0 3,303,538 0 0 0 0 0 20,875,927 0 0 0 0 794 1,075,521 0 470,746 0 35,904,030 0 0 0 1,907,236 0 12,654,379 0 0 0 0 0 0 18,605 0 0 0 0 29,289,527 1,307,526 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 85,633,991 0 0 0 0 0 10

7,739,591 0 0 1 295,473 25,491,811 97 0 0 0 84 90 12 0 30,517,289 23,219,451 8,094,913 0 33,000 0 7,050,318 0 0 0 1,046,569 251 65 199,911 81 0 29,771,405 0 104,607 0 2,919,297 2,023 0 0 7,261,217 1,757,603 13,208,609 11,433 13,533 250 62,318 0 54,792 3,619,830 7,672,552 0 0 344 633,020 7,844

10,578,722 310 0 5,854,841 2,439,167 608,973 6,086,523 393 1,252,178 0 10,441,600 522,944 10 0 42,662 4,464,352 17,522,055 1,889,630 3,535,497 15,143,069 7,348,228 838,723 1,827,936 41,739 3,757,600 5,528,048 1,985,150 2,187,364 22,971,757 7,740,974 2,606,310 0 33,841 5,296,008 1,137,787 3,265,168 2,263,167 0 16,604,064 1,814,396 11,729,305 5,711,204 250 0 2,387,601 5,533,657 18,926,296 24,058,727 12,978,810 4 0 3,317,037 191,652 7,700,777

18,318,313 310 0 5,854,842 6,038,178 26,100,784 6,086,620 393 1,252,178 0 31,317,611 523,034 22 0 30,559,951 27,684,597 26,692,489 1,889,630 4,039,243 15,143,069 50,302,576 838,723 1,827,936 41,739 6,711,405 5,526,299 14,639,593 2,387,276 22,971,839 7,740,974 32,377,715 0 138,448 5,314,613 4,057,084 3,267,191 2,263,167 0 53,154,807 4,879,525 24,937,914 5,722,637 13,783 250 2,449,919 5,533,657 18,981,088 113,312,547 20,651,362 4 0 3,317,381 824,673 7,708,631

10,050,670 395,715 8,460 1,063,942 6,279,944 3,946,761 753,351 855,300 290,367 3,338 5,640,681 9,084,590 1,926 180,874 995,037 8,628,864 8,722,806 3,791,907 2,641,059 6,024,718 12,230,196 686,531 596,281 741,565 3,915,701 3,110,524 5,810,502 2,811,105 597,835 886,910 588,282 157,081 1,840,951 300,082 2,855,774 6,936,819 251,193 324 9,765,195 2,467,942 2,538,300 5,871,513 942,381 236,638 6,720,209 656,431 11,030,628 35,163,397 1,857,825 19,824 124,893 5,233,866 1,560,909 3,840,246

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Point Source Air Emissions Pounds 48,028,693 1,689,402 6 3,605,620 14,018,639 14,238,606 2,204,320 2,154,851 7,003,978 1 71,659,217 90,203,030 162,669 1,900,899 3,038,312 47,405,033 64,952,587 18,311,363 10,557,093 51,653,888 42,697,721 3,611,216 35,266,724 5,297,813 46,250,106 10,522,357 25,988,162 24,870,138 3,486,141 5,985,779 1,253,025 5,217,148 10,484,189 647,660 24,254,524 93,358,632 4,621,269 5,701 123,297,398 13,460,673 10,784,137 85,113,791 7,081,569 390,168 45,438,879 807,101 77,689,173 56,502,383 7,268,894 45,025 831,616 45,714,310 11,772,038 75,083,656

Surface Water Discharges Pounds

Class II–V Wells Pounds

Land Treatment Pounds

RCRA Subtitle C Surface Impoundments Pounds

7,805,767 541,992 0 6,965 5,419,186 4,617,780 2,955,073 722,325 918,650 8,062 2,507,602 9,573,187 71,627 364,067 4,642,166 7,221,378 23,296,297 3,274,619 4,021,144 2,986,815 11,303,522 3,334,311 2,704,113 68,806 1,218,195 1,246,533 7,751,711 2,620,282 49,172 18,177,388 88,601 86,194 4,148,642 62,237 7,937,611 8,592,474 248,831 0 6,716,124 3,451,751 2,452,054 9,684,378 24,365 6,947 3,473,022 3,199,143 2,410,104 21,670,283 56,978 136,856 355,871 8,198,926 1,397,187 4,194,526

8,305 21,374,380 0 0 93,481 30,086 0 0 0 0 154,144 0 0 2,670 0 0 0 0 500 2,971 0 0 50,375 0 0 0 0 0 209,716 0 3 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 101 0 42,000 0 0 0 0 0 87

147,954 0 0 167,809 501,024 675,350 341 0 9 0 2,067,467 431,299 0 19,681 669,554 477,550 1,850,171 750 419,554 333,583 46,587 0 159,930 39 123,547 71,993 393,645 12,617 933 678,512 43 0 6,583 326,660 23,565 245,329 17,123 0 499,432 13,387 187,648 12,327 0 0 37,514 685 26,760 3,090,383 292,689 0 597 203,048 29,989 597,291

0 0 0 0 1 5,134 0 0 0 0 405,334 35,472 0 0 2,239,333 29,315 1,500 0 0 334,515 289,599 0 0 0 0 0 15,268 544 0 1,000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 307,465 1 12,337 1,790,272 0 0 85 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 21,088

Other Surface Impoundments Pounds

Other Land Disposal Pounds

14,642,205 270,833,014 0 6,854,241 2,039,402 130,552 2,726,225 78 8,178 2,082 9,159,351 13,660,727 7 0 6,571,414 8,987,454 8,571,928 2,611,789 3,795,286 5,381,917 4,062,499 0 34,954 80,638 5,389,756 5,284,791 6,767,118 40,355,980 10,445,012 755 188,495,103 22,805 6,551 1,270,605 257 6,096,625 7,020,805 2 12,485,002 547,749 503 309,090 0 0 2,944,266 23,556 22,765,611 3,684,426 130,057,726 7 10,124 1,887,312 5,035,903 4,937,887

464,575 244,609,756 0 30,027,815 43,324 444,069 3,317,078 778 48 0 123,809 748,427 3 229,586 12,027,196 447,772 777,844 39,658 127,585 921,961 148,267 9,557 119,632 670,421 1,062,639 63,705 221,233 21,326,736 6,475,019 277,302 185,492,867 165 188,018 9,831,265 398,503 609,420 2,975 0 178,440 524,632 2,350 5,508,710 3,500 0 327,757 5,350 2,457,322 1,953,398 78,732,740 5 0 244,389 517,707 342,718

Subtotal Pounds 81,148,169 539,444,259 8,466 41,726,391 28,395,002 24,088,337 11,956,389 3,733,332 8,221,230 13,482 91,717,605 123,736,732 236,233 2,697,777 30,183,012 73,197,365 108,173,133 28,030,086 21,562,221 67,640,366 70,778,392 7,641,615 38,932,009 6,859,282 57,959,944 20,299,903 46,947,640 91,997,402 21,263,828 26,007,647 375,917,924 5,483,393 16,674,938 12,438,509 35,470,235 115,839,298 12,162,196 6,027 153,249,057 20,466,134 15,977,329 108,290,080 8,051,815 633,753 58,941,732 4,692,347 116,379,598 122,106,261 218,266,853 201,716 1,323,101 61,481,850 20,313,733 89,017,499

Total On-Site Disposal or Other Releases Pounds

Total Off-Site Disposal or Other Releases Pounds

99,466,482 539,444,569 8,466 47,581,233 34,433,180 50,189,121 18,043,008 3,733,725 9,473,408 13,482 123,035,216 124,259,766 236,255 2,697,777 60,742,962 100,881,962 134,865,622 29,919,715 25,601,464 82,783,436 121,080,968 8,480,338 40,759,945 6,901,021 64,671,349 25,826,201 61,587,233 94,384,677 44,235,667 3,748,621 408,295,639 5,483,393 16,813,386 17,753,122 39,527,319 119,106,489 14,425,362 6,027 206,403,864 25,345,659 40,915,243 114,012,717 8,065,598 634,003 61,391,651 10,226,004 135,360,685 235,418,808 238,918,214 201,721 1,323,101 64,799,231 21,138,405 96,726,130

18,982,157 199,327 0 632,299 6,168,633 7,682,581 4,474,503 1,650,391 4,139,175 306 3,417,197 2,391,094 2,048 419,791 584,846 31,519,211 99,900,349 7,482,328 3,262,448 7,798,069 5,764,045 824,733 4,739,560 2,112,307 36,933,939 5,622,420 1,489,728 8,114,819 970,916 17,722,548 758,761 460,749 6,310,629 146,129 4,499,897 10,039,033 9,213,436 0 45,193,295 4,622,081 1,213,679 52,905,725 734,652 258,275 22,316,357 94,109 7,178,908 26,485,939 3,077,073 144,981 7,916 9,431,206 1,741,529 5,443,463

Total On-Site and Off-Site Disposal or Other Releases Pounds 118,448,639 539,643,896 8,466 48,213,532 40,801,813 57,871,702 22,517,511 5,384,116 13,612,583 13,788 126,452,413 126,650,860 238,303 3,117,568 61,327,809 132,401,173 234,765,971 37,402,043 28,863,912 90,581,505 126,845,013 9,305,071 45,499,505 9,013,328 101,605,288 31,448,621 63,076,960 102,499,496 45,206,583 51,471,169 409,054,400 5,944,142 23,124,015 17,899,251 44,027,216 129,145,522 23,638,798 6,027 251,597,159 29,967,740 42,128,922 166,918,443 8,800,250 892,279 83,708,008 10,320,113 142,539,594 261,904,747 241,995,287 346,702 1,331,017 74,230,438 22,879,934 102,169,593

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Alabama Alaska American Samoa Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Guam Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Northern Marianas Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Puerto Rico Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virgin Islands Virginia Washington West Virginia

Other On-site Disposal or Other Releases

0 7,960,400 200,402,228

1,677 2,909 170,794,270

655,225 7,064,110 267,883,840

656,902 15,027,419 639,080,339

2,873,281 513,877 205,095,324

21,768,989 1,638,924 1,381,295,231

4,595,302 10,990 222,628,110

0 0 21,968,824

821,747 1,564 15,675,243

49,651 4,341 5,542,266

21,242 1,019,873 817,040,382

302,494 12,290 612,362,811

30,423,707 3,201,858 3,281,608,191

31,080,609 18,229,277 3,920,688,530

19,717,618 1,034,080 518,031,287

50,798,227 19,263,357 4,438,719,817

Note: This information does not indicate whether (or to what degree) the public has been exposed to toxic chemicals. Therefore, no conclusions on the potential risks can be made based solely on this information (including any ranking information). For more detailed information on this subject refer to The Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) and Factors to Consider When Using TRI Data document at www.epa.gov/trl/tridata. On-site Disposal or Other Releases include Underground injection to Class I Wells (Section 5.4.1), RCRA Subtitle C Landfills (5.5.1A), Other Landfills (5.5.1B), Fugitive or Non-point Air Emissions (5.1), Stack or Point Source Air Emissions (5.2), Surface Water Discharges (5.3), Class II–V Wells (5.4.2), Land Treatment (5.5.2), RCRA Subtitle C Surface impoundments (5.5.3A), Other Surface Impoundments (5.5.3B) and Other Land Disposal (5.5.4). Off-site Disposal or Other Releases include from Section 6.2 Underground Injection to Class I Wells (M81), RCRA Subtitle C Landfills (M65), Other Landfills (M64, M72), Storage Only (M10), Solidification/Stabilization—Metals and Metal Category Compounds only (M41 or M40), Wastewater Treatment (excluding POTWs)—Metals and Metal Category Compounds only (M62 or M61), RCRA Subtitle C Surface Impoundments (M66), Other Surface Impoundments (M67, M63), Land Treatment (M73), Other Land Disposal (M79), Underground Injection to Class II–V Wells (M82, M71), Other Off-site Management (M90), Transfers to Waste Broker—Disposal (M94, M91), and Unknown (M99) and, from Section 6.1, Transfers to POTWs (metals and metal category compounds only).

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Wisconsin Wyoming Total

Does not include Off-site Disposal or Other Releases transferred to other TRI facilities that reported the amounts as On-site Disposal or Other Releases. Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2005, 2003 TRI Public Data Release eReport May 2005, www.epa.gov.

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10-156

Table 10C.96 United States Toxic Release Inventory On-Site and Off-Site Disposal or Other Releases, by Industry, 2003 On-site Disposal or Other Releases On-site Disposal to Class I Underground Injection Wells, RCRA Subtitle C Landfills, and Other Landfills

SIC Code Industry

Class I Wells Pounds

Other On-site Landfills Pounds

Subtotal Pounds

Fugitive Air Emissions Pounds

Point Source Air Emissions Pounds

Surface Water Discharges Pounds

Class II–V Wells Pounds

Land Treatment Pounds

RCRA Subtitle C Surface Impoundments Pounds

Other Surface Impoundments Pounds

Other Land Disposal Pounds

Subtotal Pounds

Total On-Site Disposal or Other Releases Pounds

Total Off-Site Disposal or Other Releases Pounds

Total On-Site and Off-Site Disposal or Other Releases Pounds

0 0 63,205 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 177,818,769 2,487,806 0 0 0

0 0 546 0 0 0 2,273 0 42 87 3,804,019 56 15,272 0 94,933

17,124,349 7,952,585 41,361 2,376 0 0 330,292 1 12,545,504 0 24,987,711 724,902 165,188 6,725 3,332,388

17,124,349 7,952,585 105,112 2,376 0 0 332,566 1 12,545,546 87 206,610,499 3,212,764 180,480 6,725 3,427,320

1,285,236 842,399 16,998,226 58,494 1,130,155 112,094 3,370,921 691,650 27,019,698 7,253,937 62,053,840 16,706,339 14,095,493 269,382 1,556,565

1,753,800 64,775 35,055,551 2,416,426 4,826,038 366,780 27,040,230 5,410,353 146,219,717 7,437,745 168,589,153 34,608,196 51,339,039 655,731 38,084,142

679,446 199,797 83,136,183 130,052 262,178 0 108,277 35 18,715,017 549 44,537,842 17,134,723 125,302 27,908 2,133,677

21,584,184 58,768 17,044 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 273,096 32,752 0 0 2,971

13,150 1,154,725 9,873,967 149,836 123,650 0 115,179 0 1,064,035 0 557,537 54,496 0 60 195

2,236,052 21,088 89,218 0 0 0 250 0 128,025 0 23,290 12 11 0 169

637,974,487 1,817,948 140,913 0 160,937 0 1,108 0 3,635,346 0 12,922,181 61,682 4,997 0 230,674

562,019,783 795,570 428,500 0 53 0 16,190 35,961 307,503 4,951 4,731,869 98,744 81,715 5 337,690

1,227,546,138 4,955,069 145,739,602 2,754,807 6,503,010 478,875 30,652,154 6,137,999 197,089,341 14,697,183 293,688,809 68,696,945 65,646,558 953,086 42,346,084

1,244,670,487 12,907,654 145,844,714 2,757,183 6,503,010 478,875 30,964,719 6,138,000 209,634,887 14,697,270 500,299,307 71,909,709 65,827,018 959,811 45,773,404

1,037,942 4,925 7,340,634 421,402 894,688 200,481 2,021,849 71,580 5,327,919 267,911 44,440,173 3,059,186 9,461,313 1,139,481 5,469,229

1,245,708,429 12,912,580 153,185,349 3,178,586 7,397,699 679,355 33,006,568 6,209,580 214,962,805 14,985,181 544,739,481 74,968,895 75,288,331 2,099,292 51,242,633

945,916 0 0 0 6,354 0 0 0 0

9,728,105 14,789 11 239,206 2,676 5,765 755 51,833 0

36,433,952 48,262 3,688,102 198,932 236,433 168 1,450 144,198,732 0

47,107,973 63,051 3,688,112 438,140 245,463 5,933 2,205 144,250,565 0

13,604,646 12,327,229 2,666,073 3,281,807 11,936,992 1,694,548 926,391 284,136 634,593

35,879,537 23,708,658 4,127,143 6,476,571 51,064,653 5,123,745 3,908,177 721,277,416 839,584

39,443,391 2,331,208 209,418 3,628,323 207,966 1,018,609 62,644 3,340,491 1,218

5 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0

15,115 17,556 210 0 0 341 0 1,993,907 0

0 125 0 750 0 0 0 1,238,158 5

32,623,268 8,368 8 2,466 34 5 5 126,316,380 5

29,540,600 340,049 20,986 5,939 92,279 82,747 504 5,397,157 6,067

151,006,562 38,733,193 7,023,837 13,395,857 63,301,924 7,919,995 4,897,720 859,847,648 1,281,472

198,114,535 38,796,244 10,711,949 13,833,997 63,547,387 7,925,928 4,899,925 1,004,098,213 1,281,472

279,358,340 19,827,879 3,627,929 6,444,050 11,228,710 788,458 2,155,240 78,665,493 117,925

477,472,875 58,624,123 14,339,878 20,278,047 74,776,098 8,714,386 7,055,165 1,082,763,707 1,399,396

0

12

0

12

974,868

1,820,524

12,614

0

0

0

14,333

7,393

2,829,733

2,829,745

349,073

3,178,818

19,080,178

156,200,572

15,801,796

191,082,546

287,991

498,873

300,944

0

10

1,803,701

2

127,109

3,018,630

194,101,176

33,007,422

227,108,598

0 200,402,228

633,316 170,794,270

62,631 267,883,840

695,947 639,080,339

3,131,619 205,095,324

2,902,674 1,361,295,231

4,880,299 222,628,110

0 21,968,824

541,275 15,875,243

1,412 5,542,266

1,125,238 817,040,382

7,883,444 612,362,811

20,465,982 3,281,608,191

21,161,909 3,920,688,530

1,282,055 518,031,287

22,443,964 4,438,719,817

Note: This information does not indicate whether (or to what degree) the public has been exposed to toxic chemicals. Therefore, no conclusions on the potential risks can be made based solely on this information (including any ranking information). For more detailed information on this subject refer Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) and Factors to Consider When Using TRI Data document at www.epa.gov/tri/tridata. On-site Disposal or Other Releases include Underground Injection to Class I Wells (Section 5.4.1), RCRA Subtitle C Landfills (5.5.1A), Other Landfills (5.5.1B), Fugitive or Non-point Air Emissions (5.1), Stack or Point Source Air Emissions (5.2), Surface Water Discharges (5.3), Class II–V Wells (5.4.2). Land Treatment (5.5.2), RCRA Subtitle C Surface Impoundments (5.5.3A), Other Surface Impoundments (5.5.3B) and Other Land Disposal (5.5.4). Off-site Disposal or Other Releases include from Section 6.2 Underground Injection to Class I Wells (M81), RCRA Subtitle C Landfills (M65), Other Landfills (M64, M72), Storage Only (M10), Solidification/Stabilization—Metals and Metal Category Compounds only (M41 or M40), Wastewater Treatment (excluding POTWs)—Metals and Metal Category Compounds only (M62 or M61), RCRA Subtitle C Surface Impoundments (M66), Other Surface Impoundments (M67, M63), Land Treatment (M73), Other Land Disposal (M79), Underground Injection to Class II–V Wells (M82, M71), Other Off-site Management (M90), Transfers to Waste Broker—Disposal (M94, M91), and Unknown (M99) and, from Section 6.1, Transfers to POTWs (metals and metal category compounds only). Does not include Off-site Disposal or Other-Releases transferred to other TRI facilities that reported the amounts as On-site Disposal or Other Releases. Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2005, 2003 TRI Public Data Release eReport, May 2005, www.epa.gov.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

10 Metal mining 12 Coal mining 20 Food 21 Tobacco 22 Textiles 23 Apparel 24 Lumber 25 Furniture 26 Paper 27 Printing 28 Chemicals 29 Petroleum 30 Plastics 31 Leather 32 Stone/ clay/glass 33 Primary metals 34 Fabricated metals 35 Machinery 36 Electrical Equip. 37 Transportation Equip. 38 Measure/Photo. 39 Miscellaneous 491/493 Electric utilities 5,169 Chemical wholesale distributors 5,171 Petroleum terminals/bulk storage 7,389/4,953 Hazardous waste/solvent recovery No codes Total

RCRA Subtitle C Landfills Pounds

Other On-site Disposal or Other Releases

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-157

Table 10C.97 Number of Reported Spills in Canada in Seven Sectors, 1984–1995 Year

Chemical

Government

Metallurgy

Mining

Petroleum

Pulp & Paper

Service Industry

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Total

70 130 206 179 405 582 588 552 667 754 784 534 5,451

223 200 206 228 981 1,080 1,320 1,487 1,991 1,957 2,165 2,204 14,042

31 58 181 139 360 392 361 508 703 618 599 431 4,381

153 83 118 124 172 172 191 195 194 186 199 184 1,971

1,831 2,053 2,398 2,512 3,021 2,971 3,157 3,139 1,144 1,531 1,577 1,642 26,976

38 44 73 63 148 224 312 291 340 371 458 353 2,715

94 104 157 208 281 346 408 434 427 456 464 484 3,863

Source: From Summary of Spill Events in Canada, 1984–1995, EPS 5/SP/3, Environment Canada, Canada Environmental Emergencies Program, 1998. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2006.

Table 10C.98 Total Quantity of Reported Spills in Canada in Seven Sectors (Tons), 1984–1995 Year

Chemical

Government

Metallurgy

Mining

Petroleum

Pulp & Paper

Service Industry

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Total

1,783 12,399 16,160 17,128 5,498 7,194 6,629 1,619 827 1,519 178 325 71,259

142,556 140,820 11,267 133,863 58,480 189,169 84,194 184,449 1,386,991 677,529 678,622 1,576,576 5,265,518

4,860 314 23,923 87,665 23,497 51,266 79,178 32,449 193,435 1,425,753 27,489 11,791 1,961,620

113,078 16,105 29,972 126,939 6,752 42,899 35,247 26,172 58,667 12,094 7,262 4,783 479,969

72,121 46,029 62,232 89,773 29,444 120,765 50,284 43,963 11,164 62,725 18,174 18,176 624,852

2,948 35,447 28,138 90,608 26,933 16,322 35,845 46,491 25,494 35,612 19,751 49,224 412,814

433 211 431,886 616,308 1,115 228 310 5,106 5,625 190 197 763 1,062,374

Source: From Summary of Spill Events in Canada, 1984–1995, EPS 5/SP/3, Environment Canada, Canada Environmental Emergencies Program, 1998. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2006.

Table 10C.99 Hydrocarbon Spills Reported in Canada, 1974–1983 Year

Condensates and Gases

Crude Oil

No. 2 Fuel

No. 6 Fuel

No. 4 & 5 Fuel

Gasoline

Other Oils

Waste Oil

Asphalt

Total

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 Total %

3,623 600 7,429 20,865 845 3,306 705 1,160 281,181 768 320,482 59

14,823 11,530 10,901 10,699 12,067 12,540 15,274 8,041 10,658 8,553 115,086 21

1,046 836 1,650 3,753 2,801 4,724 3,517 12,589 4,602 1,467 36,985 7

1,106 2,499 2,084 804 3,288 9,054 585 763 915 803 21,901 4

5,594 2,844 2,231 1,587 1,932 1,801 649 1,184 1,067 422 19,311 4

810 3,095 2,156 1,638 1,237 1,567 918 1,767 847 460 14,495 3

222 256 220 551 454 339 278 1,013 609 300 4,242 1

631 321 38 85 72 319 108 1,886 46 69 3,575 1

82 266 372 103 476 392 479 287 147 337 2,941 1

27,935 22,250 27,085 40,085 23,170 34,045 22,510 28,690 300,070 13,180 539,020 100

Note: By type; volume in metric tons. Source: From Environment Canada, 1987, Summary of Spill Events, 1974–1983, www.ec.gc.ca. With permission.

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10-158

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10C.100 Quantity Spilled Annually for the Top Five MIACC List 1 Substances in Canada Tonnes Year

Anhydrous Ammonia

Chlorine

Gasoline

Hydrochloric Acid

Propane

Total

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Total

27 25 33 7 17 27 86 4 28 70 13 18 355

2.9 0.2 409.1 0.3 9.2 1.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.4 8.2 16.3 448.4

5,632 1,746 909 837 1,096 746 675 508 6,439 689 206 247 19,730

36 57 53 189 51 250 106 55 346 37 72 25 1,276

19 1,591 25 1 1 11 64 137 15 57 43 2 1,965

5,716 3,418 1,430 1,035 1,174 1,035 930 704 6,829 853 343 308 23,775

Source: From Summary of Spill Events in Canada, 1984–1995, EPS 5/SP/3, Environment Canada, Canada Environmental Emergencies Program, 1998. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2006.

Table 10C.101 Top Five On-Site Releases to Land in Canada, 1996 and 2001 Substance 1996 Zinc (and its compounds) Ethylene glycol Manganese (and its compounds) Lead (and its compounds) Asbestos (friable form) 2001 Calcium fluoride Zinc (and its compounds) Manganese (and its compounds) Ethylene glycol Lead (and its compounds)

Releases (Tons)

Share of Total (%)

4,989.7 3,209.8 1,910.2 894.3 848.2

35.9 23.1 13.8 6.4 6.1

10,211.0 8,143.8 3,637.2 2,044.5 1,641.0

31.0 24.8 11.1 6.2 5.0

Source: From Environment Canada, Pollution Data Branch, National Pollutant Release Inventory Database, www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri, 2001. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2006. Original Source: From Environment Canada, Pollution Data Branch, National Pollutant Release Inventory database, www.gc.ca/pdb/npri/ (accessed April 1, 2003).

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-159

Table 10C.102 Trichloroethene Concentrations Detected in Municipal/Communal and Private/Domestic Water Supplies in Canada Number of Supplies

Percentage of Supplies Where TCE Was Detected

Average Maximum Concentration

Municipal/communal Private/domestic

481 215

8.3 3.3

25 ug/L 1,680 ug/L

TCE Concentration Range

Percentage of Sites within TCE Range

Supply

Nondetectable levels (!0.01–10 ug/L) !1 ug/L 1–10 ug/L 10–100 ug/L O100 ug/L

Percent of Population Supplied with Groundwater within TCE Rangea

93 3.6 1.4 0.43 1.3

49 48 2.1 0.8

a

1.67 Million of the 7.1 million Canadians who relied on groundwater for household use in 1995 were covered this study. Most of sites were from Ontario and New Brunswick. Source: Abstracted from Health Canada, 2005, Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Supporting Documentation— Trichloroethene. Water Quality and Health Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, www.hc-sc.gc.ca. With permission.

Table 10C.103 Sources of Groundwater Contamination Reported by European Countries EEA18 Country/ Pollutant Heavy metals Chlorinated hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons Sulphate Metals Phosphate Bacteria

Phare

AT

DK

ES

FR

DE

†

† †

† †

† †

†

† †

SE

UK

BG

EE

HU

†

† †

†

†

† †

† †

†

†

† †

†

LT

†

T

R CY

RO

SK

SI

MD

† †

† †

† †

†

†

†

† †

†

† † †

†

Note: T, Tacis; R Others, AT, Austria; DK, Denmark; ES, Spain; FR, France; CY, Cyprus; DE, Germany; SE, Sweden; UK, UK; BG, Bulgaria; EE, Estonia; HU, Hungary; LT, Lithuania; RO, Romania; SK, Slovak Rep; MD, Rep. of Moldova. Source: From European Environmental Agency, 1999, Groundwater Quality and Quantity in Europe, Printed with permission, www.eca.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.

Table 10C.104 Known Occurrences of Hydrocarbon Contamination of Groundwater in Australia State or Territory Victoria

Western Australia NSW ACT Queensland South Australia Northern Territory Tasmania a

Area

Source

9 sites 2 sites in Melbourne–Geelong region 1 site 8 sites including 2 sites on the Swan Coastal Plaina 5 sites, including Anna Bay, Botany and Matraville 1 site 3 sites 1 site in Cairns 6 Sites Mt Gambler (2 sites), Bordertown, Jamestown, Fregon and Minlayton 1 site Croker Island Several (number and locations unknown)

Industrial/manufacturing/storage facilities Landfill Fuel station Fuel stations Industrial/manufacturing/storage facilities Landfill Fuel stations Fuel station Fuel stations Fuel station Fuel stations

The two sites on the Swan Coastal Plain are documented in Davis et al. (1993).

Source: From Ball, J. et al., 2001, Inland Waters, Australia State of Environment Report 2001 (Theme Report), CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra, www.deh.gov.au. Original Source: Adapted from Knight 1993.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 10D

SOLID WASTE

Activity Waste piles

10.1

Other

10.2

Tanks

16.7

Drums

24.9

Recycling

33.9 36.7

Surface impoundments

53.1

Landfills

65.9

Manufacturing 0

10

20

30 40 Percent

50

60

70

Figure 10D.70 Types of activities at hazardous waste sites in the United States (percent of 1177 final and proposed sites on the National Priorities list as of June 1988; a site may have more than one type of activity). (From U.S. EPA, Office of Emergency Response, Washington, DC 20460.)

Media

12.2

Air

37.2

Surface water

72.2

Groundwater

0

10

20

30

40 Percent

50

60

70

80

Figure 10D.71 Observed contamination at hazardous waste sites in the United States (percent of 1177 final and proposed sites on the National Priorities list as of June 1988; a site may have more than one type of contamination). (From U.S. EPA, Office of Emergency Response, Washington, DC 20460.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-161

CT

MA RI

DE MD DC

Guam AK

Puerto Rico and US Virgin Islands

HI

Figure 10D.72 Superfund sites in the United States. (From www.images.google.com.)

Total = $209 Billion

Total sites = 294,000 NPL 736

NPL $32B

UST $16B

RCRA-CA $45B

States & private 150,000

States & private $30B DOE $35B Civilian agencies $19B

RCRA-CA 3,800

DOD $33B

Civilian agencies 3,000

UST 125,000

DOE 5,000 DOD 6,400

These estimates are derived from judgements regarding the most likely scenarios within a range of estimates. The estimates described in the report, include a number of assumptions such as the average cleanup cost per site, number of new site discoveries, and future additons to the NPL. NPL: National Priorites List, or Superfund; RCRA-CA: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Corrective Action program; UST: Underground Storage Tanks; DOD; Department of Defense; DOE: Department of Energy; Civilian agencies: non-DOD and non-DOE federal agencies; and State & private: state mandatory, voluntary, and brownfields sites, and private sites. Totals may not add due to rounding.

Figure 10D.73 Estimated number of hazardous waste sites and cleanup costs: 2004–2033. (From clu-in.org/download/market/ 2004market.)

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10-162

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Food scraps 11.4% Yard trimmings 12.2% Other 3.4%

Wood 5.7%

Rubber, leather & textiles 7.1%

Paper 35.7% Plastics 11.1%

Metals 7.9% Glass 5.5% Figure 10D.74 2001 total MSW generation—229 million tons (before recycling). (From www.epa.gov.)

8000

7924 7379

7000 6326 5812

6000

5386

5000

4482

4000

3558

3000

3197 3091 2514 2314 2216

2000

1967 1858

1000 0

1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Figure 10D.75 Number of landfills in the U.S. (From www.epa.gov.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-163

Paper 35.2% Yard trimmings 12.1% Food scraps 11.7% Plastics 11.3% Metals 8.0% Rubber, leather, and textiles 7.4% Glass 5.3% Wood 5.8% Other 3.4% Figure 10D.76 2003 total waste generation—236 million tons (before recycling). (From www.epa.gov.)

250 Million tons

5 lbs.

236.2 4.5

200 Million tons

4.5

205.2

4 lbs.

3.7

150 Million tons

100 Million tons

151.6

3.3

3 lbs.

121.1

2.7 88.1

50 Million tons

1960

1970

1980

1990

2003

2 lbs.

Per capita generation (lbs/person/day) Total MSW generation (mil tons)

Figure 10D.77 Trends in MSW generation 1960–2003. (From www.epa.gov.)

80 Million

35% 72.3

70 Million

30%

60 Million

30.6%

25%

50 Million 40 Million 30 Million

16.2%

20 Million 10 Million 0 Million

15%

14.5 5.6 6.4%

1960

8.0

10%

9.6%

6.6%

1970

1980

1990

Percent recycling Total MSW recycling (millions/yr)

Figure 10D.78 MSW recycling rates 1960–2003. (From www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

20%

33.2

2003

5%

10-164

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

WA MT OR

ME

ND

ID WY

MN WI

SD

UT

AZ

IL

OH

IN

WV

CO

CA

PA

IA

NE NV

NY

MI

KS

KY

MO

AR

NM

SC MS

TX

VA

NC

TN

OK

VT NH MR RI CT NJ DE MD

GA

AL

LA FL

AK HI

States with bottle bills Figure 10D.79 States with bottle deposit rules. (From The Container Recycling Institute 1999, www.epa.gov.)

WA MT OR

ME

ND

ID

MN WI

SD

NY MI

WY NE NV

UT

IL CO

CA

AZ

PA

IA

KS OK

NM

WV KY

MO AR

SC AL

GA

LA FL

AK HI

States with yard waste bans Figure 10D.80 States with yard waste bans. (From BioCycle Magazine, May 1998, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

VA NC

TN MS

TX

OH

IN

VT NH MA RI CT NJ DE MD

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-165

WR 17 OR 50

MT 32 ID 7

NV 1 CA 74

WY 8 UT 14

AZ 23

ME 50

ND 50

CO 11

NM 5

MN 433

WI 176

SD 10 IA 57

NE 5

MI 120

PA 329 IL 55

MO 97

KS 70 OK 4 TX 166

NY 200

IN 51

OH 458

KY 37

NC 120

TN 46 AR 22 LA 21

MS 9

AL 20

WV 22 VA 11

GA 169

SC 69

FL 35

AK 0 HI 9 Less than 10 10 − 99 More than 100

Figure 10D.81 Number of yard waste composting programs. (From BioCycle Magazine, April 1999, www.epa.gov.)

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VT 14 NH 103 MA 250 RI 21 CT 65 NJ 171 DE 3 MD 17 DC 0

10-166

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

WA MT OR

ME

ND

ID

MN WI

SD

NY MI

WY

PA

IA

NE NV

CO

WV

MO

KS

OH

IN

IL

UT

CA

VA

KY

NC

TN OK

AZ

VT NH MA RI VT NJ DE MD DC

AR

SC

NM MS TX

GA

AL

LA FL

AK HI

0 − 9% 10 − 19% 20 − 29%

30 − 39% 40% or more unavailable

Figure 10D.82 State recycling rates. (From BioCycle Magazine, April 1999, www.epa.gov.)

WA 102 OR 122

ID 6

NV 8

MN 771

IA 574

NE 15

UT 14

CO 70

CA 511

WI 600

SD 3

WY 2

AZ 32

ME 84

ND 25

MT 6

KS 101 OK 8

NM 3 TX 159

MI 200

IL 450

MO 197

IN 169

OH 372

PA 879 WV 75

KY 43

MS 15

AL 38

VA 79

NC 271

TN 35

AR 41 LA 33

NY 1,472

GA 179

SC 186

FL 315

AK 1 HI 0

Less than 10 10 − 100 More than 100

Figure 10D.83 Number of curbside recycling programs. (From BioCycle Magazine, April 1999, www.epa.gov.)

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VT 80 NH 38 MA 156 RI 26 CT 169 NJ 510 DE 3 MD 100 DC 1

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-167

WA MT

ME

ND MN

OR

ID

WI

SD

MI

WY

PA

IA

NE NV

IL

UT CO

OH

IN

WV

MO

KS

CA

KY

OK

AR

NM

SC MS

TX

VA NC

TN AZ

VT NH MA RI CT NJ DE MD DC

NY

GA

AL

LA FL

AK HI

Less than 1%

11 − 20%

1 − 5%

More than 20%

6 − 10%

Unavailable

Figure 10D.84 State combustion rates. (From BioCycle Magazine, April 1999, www.epa.gov.)

WA MT

ME

ND MN

OR

ID

WI

SD

NY MI

WY NE NV

PA

IA IL

UT CO

CA

KS

MO

OH

IN

WV KY

NC

TN AZ

OK NM

AR

SC MS

TX

AL

FL

HI

Less than 50% 51 − 70% 71 − 80%

GA

LA

AK

81 − 90% More than 90% Unavailable

Figure 10D.85 State land disposal rates. (From BioCycle Magazine, April 1999, www.epa.gov.)

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VA

VT NH MA RI CT NJ DE MD DC

10-168

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Number of Landfills WA 21 OR 33

MT 33 ID 27

NV 25

ME 8

ND 15

MN 26

SD 15

WY 66

IA 60

NE 23

UT 45

CO 68

CA 188 AZ 54

WI 46

OK 41

NY 28 PA 51

OH 52

IN 45

IL 56

MO 26

KS 53

NM 55

MI 58

WV 19

KY 26

VA 70

NC 35

TN 34

AR 23

VT 5 NH 19 MA 47 RI 4 CT 3 NJ 11 DE 3 MD 22 DC 0

SC 19 MS 19

AL 30

GA 76

LA 25

TX 181 AK 322

FL 95 HI 8

Figure 10D.86 Number of landfills. (From BioCycle Magazine, April 1999, www.epa.gov.)

Years of Remaining Landfill Capacity WA MT

ME

ND MN

OR

ID

WI

SD

NY MI

WY NE NV

PA

IA IL

UT CO

CA

KS

MO

OH

IN

WV KY

NC

TN AZ

OK NM

AR

SC MS

TX

VA

AL

GA

LA FL

AK HI

less than 5 years

more than 10 years

5 − 10 years

unavailable

Figure 10D.87 Years of remaining landfill capacity. (From BioCycle Magazine, April 1999, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

VT NH MA RI CT NJ DE MD DC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-169

Table 10D.105 Composition of Municipal Solid Waste Discards by Organic and Inorganic Fractions in the United States, 1960–2000 Year

Organics

Inorganics

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1990a 1995a 2000a

77.8 78.3 75.2 75.5 77.1 77.5 77.8 78.7 79.6 80.4 80.8 80.8 81.7 82.5

22.3 21.7 24.8 24.5 22.9 22.5 22.2 21.3 20.4 19.6 19.2 19.2 18.3 17.5

Note: In percent of total net discards; discards after materials recovery has taken place, and before energy recovery. a

Estimate.

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1988, Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States 1960 to 2000 (Update 1988), PB88-232780. Based on study by Franklin Associates, Ltd.

Table 10D.106 Composition of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States, 1960–2000 Materials

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1990

1995

2000

Paper and paperboard Glass Metals Ferrous Aluminum Other nonferrous Plastics Rubber and leather Textiles Wood Other Total nonfood product wastes Food wastes Yard wastes Miscellaneous inorganic wastes Total wastes discardeda Energy recoveryb Net wastes discarded

24.5 6.4

32.2 8.5

36.5 12.5

34.4 13.2

42.0 14.2

43.6 14.3

41.4 11.8

45.8 13.3

49.4 12.8

48.7 12.2

50.1 11.8

54.9 12.3

60.2 12.2

66.0 12.0

9.9 0.4 0.2 0.4 1.7 1.7 3.0 0.0 48.2

10.0 0.5 0.2 1.4 2.2 1.9 3.5 0.0 60.5

12.4 0.8 0.3 3.0 3.0 2.0 4.0 0.1 74.7

12.0 1.0 0.3 4.4 3.7 2.2 4.4 0.1 75.6

11.2 1.4 0.4 7.6 4.1 2.6 4.9 0.1 88.6

11.1 1.4 0.4 7.8 4.1 3.4 4.4 0.1 90.5

11.0 1.3 0.3 8.4 3.8 2.8 5.0 0.1 87.8

11.1 1.5 0.3 9.1 3.4 2.8 5.2 0.1 92.6

11.0 1.5 0.3 9.6 3.3 2.8 5.1 0.1 95.9

10.4 1.6 0.3 9.7 3.4 2.8 5.4 0.1 94.5

10.6 11.1 11.3 1.7 2.0 2.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 10.3 11.8 13.7 3.9 3.5 3.6 2.8 3.0 3.1 5.8 5.3 5.7 0.1 0.1 0.1 97.4 104.2 112.5

11.3 2.7 0.4 15.6 3.8 3.3 6.1 0.1 121.3

12.2 20.0 1.3

12.4 21.6 1.6

12.8 23.2 1.8

13.4 25.2 2.0

11.9 26.5 2.2

12.1 26.7 2.3

12.0 27.0 2.4

12.0 27.5 2.4

12.2 27.8 2.4

12.3 28.0 2.5

12.5 28.3 2.6

81.7 0.0 81.7

96.1 0.2 95.9

12.5 29.5 2.8

12.4 31.0 3.0

12.3 32.0 3.2

112.5 116.2 129.2 131.6 129.1 134.5 138.3 137.3 140.8 149.0 158.9 0.4 0.7 2.7 2.3 3.5 5.0 6.5 7.6 9.6 13.3 22.5 112.1 115.5 126.5 129.3 125.6 129.5 131.8 129.7 131.2 135.7 136.4

168.8 32.0 136.8

Note: In millions of tons. a b

Wastes discarded after materials recovery has taken place. Municipal solid waste consumed for energy recovery. Does not include residues. Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1988, Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States 1960 to 2000 (Update 1988), PB88-232780. Based on a study prepared by Franklin Associates, Ltd.

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Table 10D.107 Summary Data on Solid Waste Facilities in the United States Percent of uncontrolled sites that are solid waste facilities Of 1,389 sites with actual or presumed problems of releases of hazardous substances Of 550 sites on National Priority List Two most prevalent effects at problem solid waste sites Leachate migration, groundwater pollution: at 89% of sites Drinking water contamination: at 49% of sites Mean size of problem solid wastes sites Median hazard ranking scorea Solid waste sites on the NPL All NPL sites Estimates for national number of solid waste sites Operating sanitary, municipal landfills Closed sanitary, municipal landfills Operating industrial landfills Closed industrial landfills Operating surface impoundments Closed surface impoundments Total Estimate of need for future cleanup Low: 5% landfills, 1% impoundments likely to release toxic substances High: 10% landfills, 2% impoundments likely to release toxic substances Conservative figure used for cleanup by superfund a

18% 20%

67.4 acres 40.8 42.2 14,000 42,000 75,000 150,000 170,000 170,000 621,000 17,400 34,800 5,000

28.5 required for placement on National Priorities List; current highest site score is 75.6.

Source: From Office of Technology Assessment, 1985.

Table 10D.108 Solid Waste Disposal by Selected Industries in the United States, 1975–1983 1983

Industry Group b

All industries Food Lumber and wood Paper Chemicals Petroleum Stone, clay, glass Primary metal Fabricated metals Machinery exc. electrical Electric equipment Transportation equipment

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

Total

Hazardous Wastea

139.1 12.6 8.1 9.1 38.7 2.0 11.3 42.7 1.9 2.7 1.5 3.8

156.8 15.0 9.3 10.1 50.3 2.6 11.1 42.4 2.1 3.1 1.5 4.3

160.0 13.1 6.3 10.6 55.7 2.9 12.6 41.7 2.0 3.6 1.5 4.7

160.8 13.4 6.7 10.9 48.8 3.6 12.7 46.1 2.0 3.4 1.8 5.2

163.7 14.0 6.5 13.3 45.4 3.1 14.1 47.8 2.0 3.5 2.3 4.3

149.9 14.4 5.9 12.3 43.4 4.9 13.3 37.5 1.9 3.0 2.1 4.2

145.8 13.2 6.4 11.3 43.7 4.7 12.1 36.0 1.8 2.8 1.7 4.0

99.4 9.8 3.7 11.5 36.1 4.4 5.8 16.7 1.4 1.6 1.3 2.9

89.0 9.6 4.0 13.7 18.8 3.6 6.2 17.7 2.0 1.8 1.7 3.0

8.0 0.2 (Z) 0.1 3.6 1.5 0.2 1.0 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3

Nonhazardous Waste 81.0 9.4 4.0 13.5 15.2 2.1 5.9 16.7 1.7 1.7 1.4 2.7

Note: In millions of short tons. Excludes recovered materials. Data included both wet and dry weight figures. Excludes apparel and other textiles, and, beginning 1978, establishments with less than 20 employees. Z, Less than 50,000 short tons. a

b

Covers waste, which because of its quantity, concentration, or physical, chemical, or infectious characteristics, may cause, or significantly contribute to an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating reversible illness; or pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, or disposed of or managed. See Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 1976, Public Law 94-580, for listing of hazardous wastes. Includes industries not shown separately.

Source: From U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1987.

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Table 10D.109 Future Use of Containment Technologies for Cleanup of Hazardous Waste Sites in the United States Technique

Applicability

Barriers Slurry wall Grout curtain Vibrating beam Sheet pile Block displacement Hydraulic controls (wells) Subsurface drains Runon/runoff controls Surface seals and caps Solidification, etc.

2 2–3 2 3 3 2 2 1 1 2

Effectiveness 1 1 1 1–2 1 1,3 1 3 2,3 1,3

Confidence

Capital Cost

2 2 2–3 2 4 1 2 1 2 3–4

2 2–3 2–3 2–3 3 1 1 1 1 2

Cap/O&M

Projected Level of Use

1 1 1 1 1 3 2 2 1 1

Extensive Limited Moderate Nil-Limited Nil Extensive Moderate Extensive Extensive ModerateLimited

Key: Applicability: (1) Very broadly applicable; little or no site dependency. (2) Broadly applicable; some sites unfavorable. (3) Limited to sites of specific characteristics. Effectiveness: (1) Can produce “leak-tight” containment. (2) Can reduce migration—some leakage likely. (3) Used as supporting technique in conjunction with other elements. Confidence: (1) Well proven—long-term effectiveness—high. (2) Well proven— long-term effectiveness—unknown. (3) Limited experience; used in other applications. (4) Developmental; little data. Capital cost for function provided: (1) Low. (2) Normal. (3) High. Capital to operation and maintenance (O&M) cost ratio: (1) Capital higher than O&M. (2) Capital about same as O&M. (3) Capital lower than O&M. Source: From U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, 1985, Superfund Strategy. Original source:

Little, A.D., Evaluation of Available Cleanup Technologies for Uncontrolled Sites, contractor report prepared for the Office of Technology Assessment, Nov. 15, 1984.

Table 10D.110 Future Use of Treatment Technologies for Cleanup of Hazardous Waste Sites in the United States Technique Biological treatment Chemical treatment Neutralization/precipitation

Applicability

Effectiveness Confidence

Capital Cost

Cap/O&M

Secondary Disposal

Projected Level Use of

Or, 1–2

2

1

1

1–2

3

Moderate

In, 1

1

1

1

2

4

Or, 2 In, 3 Or, 3 In, 3

2 1 2 1

2 2 3 2

3 2 3 2

1–2 2 2–3 2

1 1 2 3

Moderate– Extensive Limited Limited Nil Limited

Or, In, 1

1

1

2

2–3

2–3

Or, In, 1

1

1

1

2–3

4

Stripping Flotation Ion exchange Reverse osmosis Gas stream controls Thermal oxidation

Or, 2 Or, 2 In, 3 Or, In, 3

1 2 1–3 1–2

1 1 3 3

1 1 3 3

2 1 3 3

4 4 4 4

Or, 1

1

1

3

3

1

Carbon adsorption

Or, 1

1

1

3

2–3

2–3

Wet air oxidation Chlorination Ozonation Reduction (Cr) Physical treatment Carbon adsorption Sedimentation/filtration

Moderate– Extensive Moderate– Extensive Moderate Limited Nil Nil Limited– Moderate Limited– Moderate (Continued)

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(Continued)

Technique Incineration Onsite Offsite In situ biodegradation

Applicability

Effectiveness Confidence

Or, 1 Or, 1 Or, 3

1 1 2

2 1 3

Capital Cost 3 3 2

Cap/O&M

Secondary Disposal

Projected Level Use of

3a 3b 1

1 NA 3

Limited Moderate Limited

Key: Class: Or, Organic compounds. In, Inorganic compounds. Range: (1) Broadly applicable to compounds in indicated class. (2) Moderated applicable: depends on waste composition concentration. (3) Limited to special situations. Effectiveness: (1) Highest levels available. (2) Output may need further treatment; may have pockets untreated (in situ). Confidence: (1) Well proven—easily transferable to site cleanup. (2) Well proven—but not in clean-up settings. (3) Limited experience. (4) Developmental; little data. Capital cost for function provided: (1) Low. (2) Normal. (3) High. Capital to operations and maintenance (O&M) cost basis: (1) Capital higher than O&M. (2) Capital about the same. (3) Capital lower than O&M. Secondary treatment or disposal: (1) None. (2) Minor. (3) Major, but does not require hazardous waste techniques. (4) Basically a separation process; must be used with subsequent hazardous waste treatment or secure disposal step. a b

Must dispose solid residues. Depends on reactive material used.

Source: From U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, 1985, Superfund Strategy. Original Source: Little, A.D., Evaluation of Available Cleanup Technologies for Uncontrolled Sites, contractor report prepared for the Office of Technology Assessment, Nov. 15, 1984.

Table 10D.111 Generation, Materials Recovery, Composting, and Discards of Municipal Solid Waste, 1960–2001 Millions of Tons

Generation Recovery for recycling Recovery for compostinga Total materials recovery Discarded after recovery

1960

1970

1980

1990

1995

1999

2000

2001

88.1 5.6 Neg. 5.6 82.5

121.1 8.0 Neg. 8.0 113.0

151.6 14.5 Neg. 14.5 137.1

205.2 29.0 4.2 33.2 172.0

213.7 46.2 9.6 55.8 158.0

231.4 50.8 14.7 65.5 165.9

232.0 51.2 16.5 67.7 164.3

229.2 51.4 16.6 68.0 161.2

Note: In millions of tons. Details may not add to totals due to rounding. a

Composting of yard trimmings, food scraps and other MSW organic material. Does not include backyard composting. Source: From Franklin Associates, Ltd., www.epa.gov/epaoswer.

Table 10D.112 Generation, Materials Recovery, Composting, and Discard of Municipal Solid Waste, 1960–2001 Percent of Total Generation 1960 Generation (%) Recovery for recycling (%) Recovery for composting (%)a Total materials recovery (%) Discarded after recovery (%)

100.0 6.4 Neg. 6.4 93.6

1970

1980

100.0 6.6 Neg. 6.6 93.4

100.0 9.6 Neg. 9.6 90.4

1990

1995

1999

2000

2001

100.0 14.2 2.0 16.2 83.8

100.0 21.6 4.5 26.1 73.9

100.0 22.0 6.4 28.4 71.6

100.0 22.1 7.1 29.2 70.8

100.0 22.4 7.2 29.7 70.3

Note: In percent of total generation. Details may not add to totals due to rounding. a

Composting of yard trimmings, food scraps and other MSW organic material. Does not include backyard composting.

Source: From Franklin Associates, Ltd., www.epa.gov/epaoswer.

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Table 10D.113 Generation and Recovery of Materials in MSW, 2001

Paper and paperboard Glass Metals Steel Aluminum Other nonferrous metalsa Total metals Plastics Rubber and leather Textiles Wood Other materials Total materials in products Other wastes Food, otherb Yard trimmings Miscellaneous inorganic wastes Total other wastes Total municipal solid waste

Weight Generated

Weight Recovered

Recovery as a Percent of Generation (%)

81.9 12.6

36.7 2.4

44.9 19.1

13.5 3.2 1.4 18.1 25.4 6.5 9.8 13.2 4.2 171.5

4.6 0.8 0.9 6.3 1.4 1.1 1.4 1.3 0.9 51.4

33.8 24.5 64.8 34.5 5.5 17.4 14.6 9.5 20.7 30.0

26.2 28.0 3.5 57.7 229.2

0.7 15.8 Neg. 16.6 68.0

2.8 56.5 Neg. 28.7 29.7

Note: In millions of tons and percent of generation of each material. Includes waste from residential, commercial, and institutional sources. Neg., less than 5,000 tons or 0.05 percent. a b

Includes lead from lead–acid batteries. Includes recovery of other MSW organics for composting.

Source: From Franklin Associates, Ltd., www.epa.gov/epaoswer.

Table 10D.114 Generation and Recovery by Products in MSW by Material, 2001

Weight Generated Durable goods Steel Aluminum Other nonferrous metalsa Total metals Glass Plastics Rubber and leather Wood Textiles Other materials Total durable goods Nondurable goods Paper and paperboard Plastics Rubber and leather Textiles Other materials Total nondurable goods Containers and packaging Steel Aluminum Total metals

Weight Recovered

Recovery as a Percent of Generation (%)

10.9 1.0 1.4 13.3 1.7 8.0 5.6 5.0 2.9 1.2 37.6

3.0 Neg. 0.9 4.0 Neg. 0.3 1.1 Neg. 0.3 0.9 3.6

27.8 Neg. 64.8 29.6 Neg. 3.9 20.1 Neg. 118.8 73.7 17.5

43.5 6.1 0.9 6.7 3.2 60.4

15.6 Neg. Neg. 1.1 Neg. 16.7

35.9 Neg. Neg. 16.1 Neg. 27.7

2.6 2.0 4.6

1.5 0.8 2.3

58.8 40.0 50.8 (Continued)

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Table 10D.114

(Continued)

Glass Paper and paperboard Plastics Wood Other materials Total containers and packaging Other wastes Food, otherb Yard trimmings Miscellaneous inorganic wastes Total other wastes Total municipal solid waste

Weight Generated

Weight Recovered

Recovery as a Percent of Generation (%)

10.9 38.4 11.2 8.2 0.2 73.5

2.4 21.1 1.1 1.3 Neg. 28.1

22.0 55.0 9.6 15.2 Neg. 38.3

26.2 28.0 3.5 57.7 229.2

0.7 15.8 Neg. 16.5 68.0

2.8 56.5 Neg. 28.7 29.7

Note: In millions of tons and percent of generation of each product. Includes waste from residential, commercial, and institutional sources. Details may not add to totals due to rounding. Neg., less than 5,000 tons or 0.05 percent. a b

Includes lead from lead–acid batteries. Includes recovery of other MSW organics for composting.

Source: From Franklin Associates, Ltd., www.epa.gov/epaoswer.

Table 10D.115 Projections of Materials Generated in the Municipal Waste Stream: 2000 and 2005 Million Tons

% Of Total

Materials

2000

2005

2000

2005

Paper and paperboard Glass Metals Plastics Wood Others Total materials in products Other wastes Food wastes Yard trimmings Miscellaneous inorganic wastes Total other wastes Total MSW generated

87.7 11.9 17.6 23.4 14.0 19.7 174.3

94.8 11.2 18.7 26.7 15.8 22.2 189.4

39.3 5.3 7.9 10.5 6.3 8.8 78.1

39.6 4.7 7.8 11.2 6.6 9.3 79.1

22.5 23.0 3.4 48.9 223.2

23.5 23.0 3.6 50.1 239.5

10.1 10.3 1.5 21.9 100.0

9.8 9.6 1.5 20.9 100.0

Note: In thousands of tons and percent of total generation. Generation before materials recovery or combustion. Details may not add to totals due to rounding. Source: From Franklin Associates, www.epa.gov/epaoswer.

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Table 10D.116 Median Concentrations of Substances Found in MSW Landfill Leachate, in Comparison with Existing Exposure Standards Exposure Standards Substancea Inorganics Animony (11) Arsenic (72) Barium (60) Beryllium (6) Cadmium (46) Chromium (total) (97) Copper (68)

Median Concentration (ppm) 4.52 0.042 0.853 0.006 0.022 0.175 0.168

Type 0

Value (ppm)

T N N T N N

W N W N T W N N W W

0.01 0.05 1.0 0.2 0.01 0.05 0.012 0.018 0.7 1,000 0.05 0.05 0.002 0.07 10 0.01 0.05 0.04 0.110

W T T T T C C T T C T W

21 5 10 5 1,000 5.7 0.0037 2,000 100 0.1 4,000 763

W Cyanide (21) Iron (120) Lead (73) Manganese (103) Mercury (19) Nickel (98) Nitrate (38) Selenium (18) Silver (19) Thallium (11) Zinc (114) Organics Acrolein (1) Benzene (35) Bromomethane (1) Carbon tetrachloride (2) Chlorobenzene (12) Chloroform (8) Bis(chloromethyl) ether (1) p-Cresol (10) 2,4-D (7) 4,4-DDT (16) Di-n-butyl phthalate (5) 1,2-Dichlorobenzene (8) 1,4-Dichlorobenzene (12) Dichlorodifluoromethane (6) 1,1-Dichloroethane (34) 1,2-Dichloroethane (6) 1,2-Dichloropropane (12) 1,3-Dichloropropane (2) Diethyl phthalate (27) 2,4-Dimethyl phenol (2) Dimethyl phthalate (2) Endrin (3) Ethyl benzene (41) Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (10) Isophorone (19) Lindane (2) Methylene chloride (68) Methyl ethyl ketone (24) Naphthalene (23) Nitrobenzene (3) 4-Nitrophenol (1) Pentachlorophenol (3) Phenol (45) 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane (1)

0.063 221 0.162 9.59 0.002 0.326 1.88 0.012 0.021 0.175 8.32

170 202 128 195 250 2,394 129 0.103 70.2 11.8 13.2 237 1,715 1,841 66.7

T N T W C

118 42.5 16.8 274 184

W W T W T

1,168 0.020 5,352 4,151 32.4 54.7 17 173 2,456 210

W T C W W T W T T C

7,000 7 0.58 5 5,700 0.19 30,000 2,120 313,000 0.2 1,400

5,200 4 4.7 2,000 620 20 150 1,000 1,000 1.75 (Continued)

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Table 10D.116

(Continued) Exposure Standards Median Concentration (ppm)

Substancea Tetrachloroethylene (18) Toluene (69) Toxaphene (1) 1,1,1-Trichloroethane (20)

Type 0

132 1,016 1 887

1,1,2-Trichloroethane (4) Trichloroethylene (28)

378 187

Trichlorofluoromethane (10) 1,2,3-Trichloropropane (1) Vinyl chloride (10)

56.1 230 36.1

Value (ppm)

C T N N T C N T T T N

6.9 10,000 5 200 3,000 6.1 5 3.2 10,000 20 2

Note: Types of exposure standards: C, EPA Human Health Criteria, based on carcenogenicity; N, National Interim Primary or Secondary Drinking Water Standard; T, EPA Human Health Criteria, based on systemic toxicity; W, Water-Quality Criteria. a Number of samples in parentheses. Source: From After U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste, Summary of Data on Municipal Solid Waste Landfill Leachate Characteristics, Criteria for Municipal Solid Waste Landfills (40 CFR Pert 258), EPA/530-SW-88-038 (Washington, DC: July 1988), princeton. edu/cgi-bin.

Table 10D.117 NPL Status (June 2004) Number of Sites on Final NPL Total General superfund section Federal facilities section Number of sites remaining on proposed NPL Total General superfund section Federal facilities section Total number of final and proposed sites Number of sites on the construction completion list Number of sites deleted from final NPL Number of sites with partial deletions

1,245 1,087 158 56 50 6 1,301 899 282 45 partial deletions at 37 sites

Note: These numbers reflect the status of sites as of June 29, 2004. Site status changes occurring after this date may affect these numbers at time of rule publication in the Federal Register. Source: From www.epa.gov/superfund/sites.

Table 10D.118 Number of NPL Site Actions and Milestones by Fiscal Year

Action Sites proposed to the NPL Sites finalized on the NPL Sites deleted from the NPL Milestone Partial deletionsa Construction completion

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

30 0 2

52 33 12

36 43 13

9 31 25

27 13 34

20 18 32

34 17 20

37 43 23

40 39 19

45 29 30

9 19 17

14 20 9

26 11 16

7 11 6

— 88

— 68

— 61

— 68

0 64

6 88

7 87

3 85

5 87

4 48

7 42

7 40

7 40

4 7

Note: A fiscal year is October 1 through September 30. Partial deletion totals are not applicable until fiscal year 1996, when the policy was first implemented. a

These totals represent the total number of partial deletions by fiscal year and may include multiple partial deletions at a site. Currently, there are 50 partial deletions at 42 sites.

Source:

From www.epa.gov/superfund/sites.

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Table 10D.119 NPL Site Totals by Status and Milestone as of May 19, 2005 Nonfederal (General)

Federal

Total Sites

58 1,085 283

6 159 13

64 1,244 296

32 890

10 43

Status Proposed sites Final sites Deleted sites Milestone Partial deletions Construction completions

42a 933

Note: Sites that have achieved these milestones are included in one of the three NPL status categories. a

50 partial deletions have occurred at these 42 sites.

Source: From www.epa.gov/superfund.

Table 10D.120 Municipal Landfills in the United States and Protectorates State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennesee Texas Utah

Number of Active Municipal Landills 28 217 59 67 278 72 11 3 67 159 10 37 61 32 77 58 12 29 27 25 106 54 26 14 30 82 21 56 33 14 79 42 114 12 63 94 88 47 4 37 13 81 678 54 (Continued)

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Table 10D.120

(Continued)

State

Number of Active Municipal Landills

Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming

61 152 25 22 46 59

Subtotal

3,536

Protectorates American Samoa Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands

4 3 3 33 2

Total

3,581

Source: From ERG Estimates. 20-Mar-96, www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw.

Table 10D.121 Number and Population Served by Curbside Recyclables Collection Programs, 2001 Population Served Number of Programs

Population (in 1000)

(in 1000)

Percent (%)a

Northeast South Midwest West

3,421 1,677 3,572 1,034

53,805 101,833 64,687 62,612

43,981 26,496 25,851 43,038

82 26 40 69

Total Percent of total U.S. population

9,704

233,931

139,366

60 49

Region

a

Percent of population served by curbside programs was calculated using population of states reporting data.

Source: From U.S. Census Bureau 2002, BioCycle December 2001, www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw.

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SECTION 10E

AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES

Tons/Acre/ Yr 8 or more 4 to 8 Hawaii

Puerto Rico Virgin Islands

Note: Data are only present where Cropland and Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) land are 5 percent or more of the land cover

2 to 4 Less than 2 Less than 5% Cropland and CRP land in sample

NRI sample data, collected a1 approximately 800,000 sites nationwide, have been aggregated to create estimates for USGS hydrologic cataloging unit areas. Because the statistical valiance in some of these areas may be large, the map reader should use this map only to identify broad spatial trends and avoid making highly localised interpretations

Figure 10E.88 Average annual soil erosion by water on cropland and conservation reserve program land in the United States, 1992. (From United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Services, 1997, Water Quality and Agriculture, Status, Conditions, and Trends, www.nrcs.usda.gov.)

Tons/Acre/Yr Increase of more than 3 Increase of 0.5 to 3 Little change –0.5 to 0.5

Hawaii

Purto Rico Virgin Islands

Decrease of 0.5 to 3 Decrease of 3 or more

Note: Data are only present where Cropland and Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) land are 5 percent or more of the land cover NRI sample data, collected at approximately 800,000 sites nationwide, have been aggregated to create estimates for USGS hydrologic cataloging unit areas. Because the statistical vadance In some of these areas may be large, the map reader should use this map only to identify broad spatial trends and avoid making highly localized interpretations

Less than 5% Cropland and CRP land in sample

Figure 10E.89 Change in average annual soil erosion by wind and water on cropland and conservation reserve program land in the United States, 1982–1992. (From United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Services, 1997, Water Quality and Agriculture, Status, Conditions, and Trends, www.nrcs.usda.gov.)

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Watershed classification (number of watersheds) Low potential for delivery (528) Moderate potential for delivery (1,048) High potential for delivery (530) Insufficient data (156) Alaska (no data) Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands Hawaii

Figure 10E.90 Sediment runoff potential from croplands and pasture lands, 1990–1995. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2003, EPA’s Draft Report on the Environment, 2003, EPA 600-R-03-050, www.epa.gov in the United States.)

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Mining 1 percent

Other 7 percent

Urban 4 percent Roadside 3 percent

Streambank 26 percent

Forest lands 7 percent

Pasture and rangeland 12 percent Cropland 40 percent

Figure 10E.91 Sources of sediment discharge to surface waters in the United States, 1977. (From United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, 1978, Environmental Impact Statement: Rural Clean Water Program.)

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Nitrogen

Average pounds per acre .................................... > 8.7 ............................... 2.1 − 8.7 ............................... > 0 − 2.1 Greater than 95% federal land or no acreage in the 7 crops or value equal to zero

Areas outside conterminous United States have no data

Phosphate

Areas outside conterminous United States have no data

Average pounds per acre .................................... > 1.75 ............................... 0.3 − 1.75 ............................... > 0 − 0.3 Greater than 95% federal land or no acreage in the 7 crops or value equal to zero

Figure 10E.92 Potential nitrogen and phosphate fertilizer loss from farm fields. (From United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Services, 1997, Water Quality and Agriculture, Status, Conditions, and Trends, Working Paper No. 16, www.nrcs.usda.gov.)

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Explanation Nitrogen, in tons per square mile, by county Less than 1 Greater than or equal to 1 and less than 2 Greater than or equal to 2 and less than 4 Greater than or equal to 4

Figure 10E.93 Estimated nonpoint-source inputs of nitrogen applied in animal manure, 1987. (From Nolan, B.T. and Stoner, J.D., Nutrients in groundwaters of the conterminous United States, 1992–1995, Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 34, no. 7, 2000, p. 1156–1165, www.usgs.gov.)

Palouse River, Wash.

Platte River, Nebr.

Red River of the North, Minn., N.Dak.

White River, Ind.

Susquehanna River, Penn.

Willamette River Oreg.

Connecticut River, Conn.

Potomac River, D.C.

Snake River, Idaho

Tar River, N.C.

San Joaquin River, Calif.

Altamaha River, GA.

Explanation Nitrogen source Atmosphere Fertilizer Manure Point source

South Platte River, Colo

Trinity River, Tex.

White River, Ark.

Apalachicola River, Fla.

Figure 10E.94 Proportions of nonpoint and point sources of nitrogen in selected United States national water-quality assessment program watersheds. (From Puckett, L.J., 1994, Nonpoint and Point Sources of Nitrogen in Major Watersheds of the United States, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 94-4001, www.usgs.gov.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Palouse River, WA

Platte River, NE

Red River of the North, Minn.,

White River, IN

Susquehanna River, PA

Connecticut River, CT

Willamette River, OR

Potomac River, DC

Snake River, ID

Tar River, NC

San Joaquin River, CA

Altamaha River, GA

Apalachicola River, FL

4.5

4.5

3.0

Nitrogen 3.0 Discharge 1.5

1.5 0

0 White River, AK

Discharge, in cubic feet per second per day per square mile

Nitrogen, in tons per mi2

Explanation

South Platte River, CO

Trinity River, TX

White River, AK

Figure 10E.95 Annual amounts of nitrogen transported in streams and stream discharges in selected United States national water quality assessment program watersheds. (From Puckett, L.J., 1994, Nonpoint and Point Sources of Nitrogen in Major Watersheds of the United States, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 94-4001, www.usgs.gov.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

0 0

10-185

500 Miles 500 Kilometers

Explanation

Land use shown on map Agriculture wheat Corn and soybeans

Nitrate 1980−89 Yield, in tons Percentage per square change mile per year per year

Total phosphorus 1982−89 Yield, in tons Percentage per square change mile per year per year

Suspended sediment 1980−89 Yield, in tons Percentage per square change mile per year per year

0.032

*

0.010

−2.8

10

+0.8

0.932

*

0.163

−2.1

100

−1.0

Mixed

0.304

*

0.066

−1.6

79

−0.7

Urban

0.547

+0.2

0.119

−0.6

23

−0.6

Forest

0.255

*

0.063

−0.8

31

−0.3

Range

0.031

*

0.017

−1.9

33

−0.2

* Between −0.1 and +0.1

Figure 10E.96 Yield and percentage change in yield of nitrate, total phosphorous, and suspended sediment in hydrologic cataloging units in the conterminous United States. That are classified as having agricultural (wheat, corn and soybeans, and mixed), urban, forest, and range land use, 1980–1989. (From Smith, R.A., Alexander, R.B., and Lanfear, K.J., 1993, Stream water quality in the conterminous United States—status and trends of selected indicators during the 1980s in national water summary 1990–1991—stream water quality, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2400, www.usgs.gov.)

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10-186

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

1200

Millions of pounds

1000 Total U.S.

800

600

400

Total agricultural use Insecticides

Herbicides 200 Other 0 1964 1966

1971

1976

'82 '83 '84 '85

Note: Excludes wood preservatives, disinfectants, and sulfur

Figure 10E.97 Use of pesticides in the United States, 1964–1984. (From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pesticide and Toxic Substances, 1987, Agricultural Chemicals in Groundwater: Proposed Pesticide Strategy.)

Explanation Total active ingredient used in county (in pounds per acre of cropland per year) 2.0001 − 20.0000 None 20.0001 − 93.0000 0.0001 − 1.0000 1.0001 − 2.0000

0 0

400 Miles 600 km

Figure 10E.98 Annual estimated pesticide use per acre of agricultural land in each county in the conterminous United States, based on the index years from 1987 to 1991. (From Barbash, J.E. and Resek, E.A., 1996, Pesticides in Groundwater Distribution, Trends and Governing Factors, Ann Arbor Press, Chelsea, Michigan. Printed with permission.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-187

Runoff

Note: Includes dissolved and adsorbed pesticides

Average loss .................................... High ............................... Medium ..................................... Low Greater than 95% federal land or no acreage in the 13 crops or value equal to zero

Areas outside conterminous United States have no data

Leaching

Areas outside conterminous United States have no data

Average loss .................................... High ............................... Medium ..................................... Low Greater than 95% federal land or no acreage in the 13 crops or value equal to zero

Figure 10E.99 Pesticide runoff and leaching potential for field crop production. (From United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Services, 1997, Water Quality and Agriculture, Status, Conditions, and Trends, Working Paper No. 16, www.nrcs.usda.gov.)

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10-188

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Pesticides widespread in streams and groundwater Agricultural areas Fish Streams

85%

Water

92%

Shallow groundwater

59% Urban areas

Fish Streams

100%

Water

99%

Shallow groundwater

49% Mixed land use

Major rivers and streams

Fish

96%

Water

100%

Major aquifers

33% 0

50

100

% Samples with one or more pesticides Figure 10E.100 Percent samples collected from national water quality assessment (NAWQA). Pesticide National Synthesis Project with one or more Pesticides. (From United States Geological Survey, 1999, Pesticides in the Nations Resources, National Water Quality Assessment (NAWQA), Pesticide National Synthesis Project, April 1999, Powerpoint presentation, ca.water.usgs.gov/pnsp/present/water.)

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Dieldrin

Chlorpyrifos Carbofuran

Carbaryl Malathion

Diazinon

Bromacil

Pendimethalin

Tebuthiuron

Diuron

Simazine Prometon 2,4-D

Metribuzin

EPTC Bentazon

Cyanazine Alachlor

DEA

Metolachlor

10-189

Atrazine

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

100 Streams and shallow groundwater in agricultural areas 80

Explanation streame

detections 0.01 µg/L detections 0.05 µg/L

60

groundwater

Frequency of detection, as percentage of samples

40 20 0 100 Streams and shallow groundwater in urban areas 80 60 40 20 0 100 Large streams and major aquifers with mixed land uses 80 60 40 20

Agricultural herbicides

Urban herbicides

Dieldrin

Chlorpyrifos Carbofuran

Carbaryl Malathion

Diazinon

Bromacil

Pendimethalin

Diuron

Tebuthiuron

Metribuzin Simazine Prometon 2,4-D

EPTC Bentazon

Cyanazine Alachlor

Metolachlor

DEA

Atrazine

0

Insecticides

Figure 10E.101 Patterns of occurrence to the 21 most detected compounds in surface and groundwater samples collected from areas included in the United States Geological Survey National Water Quality Assessment Program, 1992–1996. (From United States Geological Survey, 1998, Pesticides in Surface and Ground Water of the United States: Summary of Results of the National Water Quality Assessment Program (NAWQA), July 22, 1998, www.usgs.gov.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Frequency of detection, as percentage of samples with each compound > 0.01µg/L

10-190

70 Common mixtures in agricultural areas

60

Streams Shallow groundwater

50 40 30 20 10 0

Atrazine Atrazine Metolachlor DEA

Atrazine Atrazine Atrazine Atrazine Atrazine Atrazine Atrazine DEA DEA DEA DEA DEA DEA DEA Metolachlor Simazine Prometon Prometon Prometon Prometon Prometon Metolachlor Simazine Metolachlor Metolachlor Metolachlor Simazine Simazine Simazine Alachlor Cyanazine

70 Common mixtures in urban areas

60

Streams Shallow groundwater

50 40 30 20 10 0 Simazine Prometon

Atrazine Prometon

Atrazine Atrazine Atrazine Prometon Atrazine Atrazine Atrazine Simazine Simazine Atrazine Prometon Simazine Simazine Simazine Prometon Prometon Prometon Prometon Prometon DEA Simazine Metolachlor Metolachlor Metolachlor Diazinon DEA Diazinon DEA Diazinon Chlorpyrifos

Figure 10E.102 Frequency of composition of common mixtures in surface water and shallow groundwater samples with detections collected from areas included in the United States Geological Survey National Water Quality Assessment Program, 1992–1996. (From United States Geological Survey, 1998, Pesticides in Surface and Ground Water of the United States: Summary of Results of the National Water Quality Assessment Program (NAWQA), July 22, 1998, www.usgs.gov.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-191

(50/52)

(41/52)

(43/51)

Post-emergence samples

(35/51)

(39/51)

(40/51)

(43/51)

(28/51)

(24/51)

(27/51)

Harvest-season samples

(20/52)

(21/52)

(1/51)

(0/51) (0/52) (0/51)

(0/51) (0/52) (0/51)

(4/51)

(3/51)

(1/51) (1/52) (0/51)

(1/51)

(6/51)

(8/52)

(14/52)

(14/51) (7/52)

(11/51) (9/52) (1/51)

(3/51) (0/51) (0/52) (0/51)

(2/51) (1/52) (0/51)

(3/52) (2/51)

Ac et oc hl Al or ac hl o Am r et ry n At ra zi ne C ya na zi C ya ne na D ee am zine th id D ly e ei at so ra pr op zine yl at D ra im zi et ne he na m Fl id uf en ac M et et ol ac hl or M et rib Pe uz nd in im et ha lin Pr om e Pr ton om et ry Pr n op ac hl Pr o op r az in e Si m az in e Te rb ut ry n

0

(0/51)

(6/52) (1/51)

10

(8/51)

(15/51)

20

(0/51) (0/52) (0/51)

(23/51)

30

(30/52)

Number of detections

40

(45/51)

Pre-emergence samples

(46/51)

(46/51)

50

(51/51) (50/51)

60

Figure 10E.103 Number of detections of selected herbicides and degradation products for pre-emergence, post-emergence, and Harvest-season runoff samples collected from 51 streams in the Midwestern States, 2002. (From Scribner, E.A., Battaglin, W.A., Dietze, J.E., and Thurman, E.M., 2003, Reconnaissance Data for Glyphosate, Other Selected Herbicides, Their Degradation Products, and Antibiotics in 51 Streams in Nine Midwestern States, 2002, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 03-217, www.usgs.gov.)

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10-192

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Insecticides in streams 4

24 4

Portland

2

1

2

2

1

1 2

Denver

3 4

4

Las Vegas

1

4 4

3

2 3

3

2

Albany 2

1 4

Indianapolis

2

1 1

3

3

Atlanta

Dallas

4

2 2 1 1

3

2

4 1 3

3

4

3

2

1

4 4

1

2 1

4

3

Norwalk Harrisburg Washington DC 3

2

1 1 1 1 Tallahassee 3 4

4 3 2 3

75th Percentile concentration (as multiple of national median of 0.012 µg/L) Major rivers Streams Agricultural areas 1 2 3 4

Urban areas

Mixed land use

1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

0.00 − 0.07 0.08 − 1.00 1.01 − 6.21 6.22 − 98.4

Annual use (pounds of active ingredient per square kilometer of agricultural land in a county) No reported use 27

Figure 10E.104 Geographic distribution of insecticides in surface water for streams included in the United States Geological Survey National Water Quality Assessment Program, 1992–1996. (From United States Geological Survey, 1998, Pesticides in Surface and Ground Water of the United States: Summary of Results of the National Water Quality Assessment Program (NAWQA), July 22, 1998, www.usgs.gov.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-193

Herbicides in streams Portland 4

1 3 3 3

1

2 1

2

1

2

2 3

1

Denver 4

1

Las Vegas

4 2 2

4

4

4 4

1 2 3 4

2 3 2

3

2

1 1 1 1

Tallahassee 4 4

75th Percentile concentration (as multiple of national median of 0.30 µg/L)

Washington DC

2

4

Atlanta Dallas 3 44

Agricultural areas

4

4 1 1

1 1

3 33 Norwalk 4 Harrisburg 2 4

3

Indianapolis

1

Streams

1

Albany

2 3

2 3 2 4

1 3

2 2

Major rivers Urban areas 1 2 3 4

Mixed land use 1 2 3 4

0.00 − 0.41 0.42 − 1.00 1.01 − 3.80 3.81 − 27.0

Annual use (pounds of active ingredient per square kilometer of agricultural land in a county) No reported use 155

Figure 10E.105 Geographic distribution of herbicides in surface water for streams included in the United States Geological Survey Pesticide National Water Quality Assessment Program, 1992–1996. (From United States Geological Survey, 1998, Pesticides in Surface and Ground Water of the United States: Summary of Results of the National Water Quality Assessment Program (NAWQA), July 22, 1998, www.usgs.gov.)

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10-194

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Percentile of percent detections at each site

Aquatic-life

NAWQA small urban watersheds (11 sites)

100 80

80

60

60

40

40

20

20

0

0 NAWQA small agricultural watersheds (41 sites)

100

60

60

20 0 NAWQA medium watersheds (14 sites)

100 80 60 40 20

Exceedances aquatic-life criteria, in percent

80

40

40 20 0 100 80 60 40 20

0

0 NASQAN large watersheds (46 sites)

100

100

60

40

40

20

20

0

0

Crop use

Decreasing

hl C

T e on

hi

at ar

py hy

lp

or hl

et M

Increasing

or py M rifo in ala s ph th os ion -m Pa et ra hyl th D ion ia zi no n

60

rb u Ph fos or M a al te at hi Az in Fo on ph n os ofo -m s Pa ethy ra l D thio is ul n fo D ton ia zi Et non ho pr op

80

rif os

80

Az

Detections, in percent

100

80

C

Exceedances

100

Percentile Maximum 75th

OPs were most often detected in samples from small streams draining urban watersheds and from some agricultural watersheds. 50th (Median) Chlorpyrifos, diazinon, and malathion were often detected in samples 25th from rivers in medium and large watersheds. The three pesticides Chlorpyrifos, Malathion and Diazinon have substantial non-cropland use. Minimum Aquatic-life criteria were exceeded most often in streams in small urban watersheds. Boxplots illustrate the distribution of percent detections (or percent aquatic-life exceedances) among sites. For example, the median percent detections of chlorpyrifos among the 46 NASQAN sites is 9%; percent detections range from no detections at the Snake River at Burbank, Washington, to 90% detections at the Arroyo Colorado at Harlingen, Texas. Percentiles presented are not adjusted for varied detection limits and sampling frequency

Figure 10E.106 Organophosphorous pesticide occurrence in surface water for streams included in the United States Geological Survey National Water Quality Assessment Program, 1992–1997. (From Hopkins, E. H. et al., 2000, Organophosphorous Pesticide Occurrence and Distribution in Surface and Ground Water of the United States, 1992–1997, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 00-187, www.usgs.gov.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-195

Fish and Bed sediment 100 Agricultural land 80 60 40

Fish Bed sediment

Frequency of detection, as percentage of samples

20 0 100 Urban land 80 60 40 20 0 100 Major rivers and streams with mixed land use 80 60 40 20

DDT

Dieldrin

Oxychlordane

Trans-chlordane

Cis-nonachlor

Cis-chlordare

Trans-nonachlor

o ,p '-DDE

o ,p '-DDD

o ,p '-DDT

p ,p '-DDT

p ,p '-DDD

p ,p '-DDE

0

Chlordane

Note: The pesticide compounds found most often in fish and bed sediment are related to three major groups of insecticides that were heavily used in the 1960s. Organochlorine compounds related to DDT and dieldrin were widely used in both agricultural and urban areas, and chlordane was mainly used in urban areas. Figure 10E.107 The most frequently detected pesticides in fish and bed sediment in the United States, 1991–1996. (From United States Geological Survey, 1999, The Quality of Our Nation’s Waters, Nutrients and Pesticides, U.S. Geological Survey Circular. 1225, www.usgs.gov.)

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10-196

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Explanation Decreasing trend No trend Figure 10E.108 DDT trends throughout the United States using sediment core data form 1970 to top of core. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, The Incidence and Severity of Sediment Contamination in Surface Waters of the United States, National Sediment Quality Survey, Second Edition, www.epa.gov.)

Herbicides in groundwater 3

Portland

2

2

2

4

3

1

1

3

1 2 4 2

3

4

Reno

2 22 3 3 3 1 3

3 4 1

1

41 4

4 1

4

2 4

4

1

Las Vegas

Indianapolis 4

1

2

2

2

1

Albuquerque

3 1

4 4 1

2

Denver 4 2

Albany

4

2

1

2 1

Dallas 1

Frequency of detection

3

4 1 4

1 3

2

3

4

Norwalk

Harrisburg 4 2 3 3

3

4

1

2

Virginia Beach 1

Atlanta

3

3 4

Tampa

3 2

(as multiple of national median of 37%) Shallow groundwater Agricultural areas 1 2 3 4

Urban areas 1 2 3 4

Major aquifers Annual use

Mixed land use 1 2 3 4

0.00 − 0.50 0.51 − 1.00 1.01 − 1.63 1.64 − 2.72

(pounds of active ingredient per square kilometer of agricultural land in a county) No reported use 155

Figure 10E.109 Geographic distribution of insecticides in groundwater in areas included in the United States Geological Survey National Water Quality Assessment Program, 1992–1996. (From United States Geological Survey, Pesticides in Surface and Ground Water of the United State: Summary of Results of the National Water Quality Assessment Program (NAWQA), www.usgs.gov.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-197

Insecticides in groundwater 1

Portland

2

3

3

4

1 2 2

1

3

1

4 1

4

Reno

1 1 1 4 3 1 2

1

1 3

1 1 4

4

1 1

3

2

3

1

1

1

Denver

4 4

1

Las Vegas 4 2

Albuquerque 4 1

Dallas

1

1

1

Atlanta 3 4

3

4 1

3

3

Shallow groundwater Agricultural areas 1 2 3 4

Urban areas 1 2 3 4

1

Tampa

Frequency of detection (as multiple of national median of 3.3%)

4

1 2 4 4 Norwalk 2 3 3 Harrisburg 1 2 1 1 4 Virginia Beach 4 4 1 4

3

3

3 3

3

Albany

Indianapolis

1 1

1

4

1

Major aquifers Mixed land use 1 2 3 4

Annual use 0.00 0.01 − 1.00 1.01 − 1.88 1.89 − 12.5

(pounds of active ingredient per square kilometer of agricultural land in a county) No reported use 27

Figure 10E.110 Geographic distribution of herbicides in groundwater in areas included in the United States Geological Survey Pesticide National Water Quality Assessment Program, 1992–1996. (From United States Geological Survey, Pesticides in Surface and Ground Water of the United State: Summary of Results of the National Water Quality Assessment Program (NAWQA), www.usgs.gov.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Increasing risk of groundwater contamination

10-198

Explanation Less than six tons nitrogen input per square mile and poorly-drained soils Less than six tons nitrogen input per square mile and well-drained soils Six or more tons nitrogen input per square mile and poorly-drained soils Six or more tons nitrogen input per square mile and well-drained soils

Figure 10E.111 Areas in the United States most vulnerable to nitrate contamination of groundwater. (From Nolan, B. T. and Ruddy, B. C., Nitrate in Ground Waters of the United States-Assessing the Risk, United States Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS-092-96, www.usgs.gov.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-199

Nitrate in farmland streams

Ecosystem comparison: Nitrate in streams, 1992-1998 100

80

Less than 2 ppm 2-6 ppm

60

6-10 ppm 10 ppm or more

40 20 0

% of Streams sites tested

% of Streams sites tested

100

80 60 40 20 0

Farmlands

1992−1998

Urban

Ecosystem comparison: Nitrate in groundwater, 1992-1998

100 Less than 2 ppm

80

2-6 ppm 6-10 ppm

60

10 ppm or more

40 20 0

1992−1998

% of Groundwater sites tested

% of Groundwater sites tested

Nitrate in farmland groundwater

Forests

100 80 60 40 20 0

Farmlands

Forests

Urban

Figure 10E.112 Nitrates in farmland streams and groundwater in the 36 major United States river basins and aquifers sampled by the National Water Quality Assessment Program, 1992–1998. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2003, EPA’s Draft Report on the Environment, 2003, EPA 600-R-03-050, www.epa.gov. The Heintz Cent, The State of the Nation’s Ecosystem 2002.)

1 1 1

1 3 2

3 2

2 1

2

1

2 2

2 3

3 1 2 1

1

2 1

2

3

2

2

3 2

1 3

3

1

2 3

2

2

3

2 2 3 3

1

2 2 1

3

2

Median nitrate concentration (milligrams per liter) Agricultural land use

Urban land use

1 2 3

1 2 3

Concentration ranges

Average annual total nitrogen input by county for 1991-94 (kilograms per hectare)

Highest (greater than 5.0)

Highest (equal to greater than 28)

Middle (0.5 to 5.0)

Middle (7to 28)

Lowest (less than 0.5)

Lowest (less than 7)

Figure 10E.113 Median Nitrate Concentration in Shallow Groundwater Sampled by the NAWQA Program During 1992–1995. (From Nolan, B.T. and Stoner, J.D., Nutrients in groundwaters of the conterminous United States, 1992–1995, Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 34, no. 7, 2000, p. 1156–1165, www.usgs.gov.)

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10-200

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Number of studies: 36 13 A

33

A

1.000

B

Ammonia

100.000

B

0.100 0.010

Number of studies: 36 13 33

10.000 1.000 0.100

A

f. ui aq

aj

or

Ag ric

.

f. ui aq or

M

M

aj

Ag ric

.

0.001 U rb an

0.001

(a)

A

A 0.010

U rb an

10.000

Nitrite-plus-nitrate

Concentration, mg/L

Concentration, mg/L

100.000

Type of groundwater study

Type of groundwater study

(b) Orthophosphate

100.000

Concentration, mg/L

Number of studies: 36

10.000

13

33

1.000 0.100 0.010

A

A

A

f. ui aq or

M

aj

U rb an

Ag ric

.

0.001

(c)

Type of groundwater study

Figure 10E.114 Distribution of nitrate-plus-nitrite, ammonia, and othrophosphate in groundwater samples from land-use studies and major aquifers. (From Nolan, B.T. and Stoner, J.D., Nutrients in groundwaters of the conterminous United States, 1992–1995, Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 34, no. 7, 2000, p. 1156–1165, www.usgs.gov.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-201

Prince Edward Island

No change

Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia

No change

–10

0

10

20

30

40

50

Percent reduction Figure 10E.115 Changes in the area of Canadian cropland at risk of exceeding a tolerable level of water erosion between 1981 and 1996. (From The Health of Our Water, Toward Sustainable Agriculture in Canada, Publication 2020/E, Coote, D.R. and Gregorich, L.J. (eds.), Research Branch Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2000. Original Source: McRae, T., Smith, C.A.S., and Gregorich, L.J., (eds.), 2000, Environmental Sustainability of Canadian Agriculture: Agri-Environmental Indicator Project. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, Ont. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2006.)

(in million tons/yr) 400

Changes in sediment yield reflect changes in basin conditions, including climate, solis, erosion rates, vegetation, topography and land use. It is influenced strongly by human actions, such as in the construction of dams and levees (see high sediment load in China and the Amason basin, where large dams have been implemeted), forest harvesting and farming in drainage basins

Figure 10E.116 World sediment load by basin. (From Water for People Water for Life, The United Nations World Water Development, Copyright q United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization — World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO-WWAP), 2003. Reproduced by permission of UNESCO. www.unesco.org. Original Source: Reprinted from Marine Geology, vol. 154, Syvitski, J.P. and Morehead, M.D., Estimating River-Sediment Discharge to the Ocean: Application to the Eel Margin, Northern California, pp 13–28, 1999. With permission from Elsevier.)

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10-202

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Asia 6349

Global sediment loads Suspended sediment discharged per region

Million tonnes per year 6000 5000 4000 3000

North America 1020

Europe 230

Central America 442 South America 1788

Pacific Ocean

2000

Eurasian Arctic 84

1000 0

Pacific Ocean

Africa 500

Atlantic Ocean

Indian Ocean

Australia 62 Oceanic Islands 3000

Figure 10E.117 Global sediment loads, suspended sediment discharged by region. (From United Nations Environmental-Programme, UNEP/GRID-Arendal, Vital Water Graphics, Global Sediment Loads Suspended Sediment Discharged per Region, Downloaded 9/22/05, www.unep.org/vitalwater/freshwater.htm Data source for chart Gleick. P.H., 1993, Witter in Crisis: A Guide to the World’s Fresh Wafer Resources, Oxford University Press, NY. Reprinted with permission.)

Freshwater fisheries directive sampling points Suspended solids data 2000 < 20 mg/l 20 − 40 mg/l 40 − 60 mg/l > 60 mg/l

Figure 10E.118 Suspended solids loads in sampling points in England and Wales monitored under the freshwater fish directive. (From Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2002, The Government’s Strategic Review of Diffuse Water Pollution from Agriculture in England: Agriculture and Water: A Diffuse Pollution Review, www.defra.gov.uk. Reproduced under the terms of the Click-Use Licence.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-203

Surface water quality 2000 exceedance-Turbidity guidelines Major issue-Greater than 33% of the drainage basin has not met turbidity guidelines for 'good' surface water quality Significant issue-5% to 33% of the drainage basin has not met turbidity guidelines for 'good' surface water quality Not a significant issueGreater than 50% of the drainage basin has monitoring coverage and less than 5% of the drainage basin exceeds turbidity guidelines for 'good' surface water quality Undetermined issue-Less than 50% of the drainage basin has monitoring coverage. Turbidity guidelines for 'good' surface water quality exceeded in less than 5% of the drainage basin No monitoring coverage/data not available

Figure 10E.119 Australian catchments where turbidity is considered an environmental issue. (From Ball, J., Donnelley, L., Erlanger, P., Evans, R., Kollmorgen, A., Neal, B., and Shirley, M., 2001, Inland Waters, Australia State of Environment Report 2001 (Theme Report), CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra. Original Source: National Land and Water Resources Audit, 2001a, Australian Water. Resources Assessment 2000, www.deh.gov.au. Copyright Commonwealth of Australia reproduced by permission.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

% of samples greater than 0.1 µg/L 20

15

10

5

2.4-D

MCPA

Atrazine

Diuron

Simazine

Mecoprop

PCSD

Isoproturon

00 20

99 19

98 19

97 19

96 19

95 19

94 19

19

93

0

Figure 10E.120 Occurrences of some commonly found pesticides in surface freshwaters in England and Wales, 1993–2000. (From European Environmental Agency (EEA), 2003, Europe’s Environment, The Third Assessment, Environmental Assessment Report No. 10, EE1, Copenhagen, www.eea.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-205

Number of sites failing 2,4-d (5) a\b\g\d\e_hch (total) (5) aldrin (2) azinphos-methyl (2) carbendazim(3) chlorfenvinphos (4) cyfluthrin (5) cypermethrin (47) diazinon (18) dichlorvos (3) dieldrin (10) diflubenzuron (4) diuron (5) endosulfan total (a+b) (1) endrin (2)

fenitrothion (5) isoproturon (3) malathion (1) mcpa (6) mecoprop (2) mevinphos (1) permethrin (14) pirimicarb (2) pirimiphos methyl (1) ppddt (3) ppddt/opddt/pptde/ppdde (total) (3) propetamphos (13) tributyl tin as tbt (17) triphenyl tin as tpt (7)

Figure 10E.121 Surface freshwater sites exceeding pesticide environmental quality standards (EQS) For England and Wales, 2000. (From Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2002, The Government’s Strategic Review of Diffuse Water Pollution from Agriculture in England: Agriculture and Water: A Diffuse Pollution Review, www.defra.gov.uk. Reproduced under the terms of the Click-Use Licence.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Consentration (ppt)

10-206

400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 East Java

Central Java

West Java

Sampling site Heptachlor Chlordane pp-DDD Metoxichlor g-HCH

Aldrin Dieldrin op-DDT A-HCH d-HCH

Lampung

North Sumatra

Heptahlor epoxide Endrin pp-DDT B-HCH

Figure 10E.122 Highest concentrations of POPs and OCs compounds in Indonesian surface water in 2002. (From Syafrul, H., 2003, Environmental Standards Related to POPs in Indonesia in United Nations University, Capacity Development Training for Monitoring of POPS in the East Asian Hydrosphere, 1–2 September, 2003, UNUM Centre, Tokyo, www.unu.edu. Printed with permission.)

Maximum recorded levels of endrin in freshwater 0.25 0.2

ppb

0.15 0.1

U.S. EPA CMC 0.086ppb U.S. EPA CCC 0.036

0.05 0 China

Korea Indonesia Banjir Kanal Kimpo Han River Timur River (1999) (2002)

Malaysia

Philippines Tenejeros, Malabon, Manila (2000)

Thailand

Vietnam

Maximum recorded levels of endrin in seawater (logarithmic scale) 10

ppb

1

0.1 U.S. EPA CMC 0.037ppb 0.01

U.S. EPA CCC 0.023ppb

0.001 China

Indonesia Korea Incheon Tanjung Priok South Port (1999) Harbour (2002)

Philippines Manila (2000)

Thailand Gulf Singapore Lim Chu Kang, of Thailand (1999) NW Straits of Johore (2002)

Figure 10E.123 Maximum recorded levels of endrin in freshwater and seawater in East Asia. (From King, C., 2003, Capacity Development for Monitoring Major Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in East Asian Waters: Examples of UNU Monitoring Activities in East Asia in United Nations University, Capacity Development Training for Monitoring of POPS in the East Asian Hydrosphere, 1–2 September, 2003, UNU Centre, Tokyo, www.unu.edu. Printed with permission.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-207

Maximum recorded levels of aldrin in fresh water (logarithmic) 10 U.S. EPA CMC 3ppb

ppb

1

0.1

THAILAND 0.1ppb

0.01

0.001 China Indonesia Yellow Ciliwung River (1999) River (2003)

Korea

Malaysia Selangor (2000)

Philippines Pangasinan (2002)

Thailand

Vietnam West Lake (2002)

Maximum recorded levels of aldrin in seawater 1.4 U.S. EPA CMC 1.3ppb 1.2 PHILIPPINES 1ppb ppb

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 Indonesia China Haihe River (1999) Tanjung Perak Harbour (2003)

Korea

Philippines Batangas Bay (2001)

Singapore E. Thailand Straits of Chumporn Gulf Johore (2003) of Thailand (2000)

Figure 10E.124 Maximum recorded levels of aldrin in freshwater and seawater in East Asia. (From King, C., 2003, Capacity Development for Monitoring Major Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in East Asian Waters: Examples of UNU Monitoring Activities in United Nations University, Capacity Development Training for Monitoring of POPS in the East Asian Hydrosphere, 1–2 September, 2003, UNU Centre, Tokyo, www.unu.edu. Printed with permission.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Maximum recorded levels of dieldrin in freshwater 0.3 U.S. EPA CMC 0.24ppb

0.25

ppb

0.2 0.15 THAILAND 0.1ppb

0.1 0.05

U.S. EPA CCC 0.056ppb

0 China Shanghai (1999)

Indonesia Korea Kimpo Malaysia Philippines Thailand Tha Surabaya Han River Selangor Rizal Laguna Chin River (2002) (1999) (2000) (2003) (2001)

Vietnam

Maximum recorded levels of dieldrin in coastal water 1 PHILIPPINES 1 ppb

0.8 U.S. EPA CMC 0.71ppb

ppb

0.6 0.4 0.2 U.S. EPA CCC 0.0019ppb

0 China

Indonesia Tanjung Priok (2003)

Korea

Philippines Pasig River (2001)

Singapore NE Johor/E Singapore Straits (2003)

Thailand Ranong, Andaman Sea (2001)

Figure 10E.125 Maximum recorded levels of dieldrin in freshwater and seawater in East Asia. (From King, C., 2003, Capacity Development for Monitoring Major Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in East Asian Waters: Examples of UNU Monitoring Activities in East Asia in United Nations University, Capacity Development Training for Monitoring of POPS in the East Asian Hydrosphere, 1–2 September, 2003, UNU Centre, Tokyo, www.unu.edu. Printed with permission.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-209

Maximum recorded levels of p,p'-DDT in freshwater (logarithmic) 0.3

VIETNAM 10ppb

ppb

1

U.S. EPA CMC 1.1ppb CHINA and THAILAND, 1ppb

0.1

UK 0.01ppb

0.01

0.001 China Yandste River (1999)

Indonesia Kali Surabaya River (2001)

Korea

Malaysia Selangor River (2000)

Philippines Ayam River, Limay (2001)

Thailand

Vietnam Balat Estuary (2001)

U.S. EPA CCC 0.001ppb

Maximum observed levels of p,p'-DDT in seawater 0.3 0.25

ppb

0.2 U.S. EPA CMC 0.13ppb

0.15 0.1

CHINA 0.05-0.1ppb

0.05 0 China Bohai sea (1999)

Indonesia Tanjung Perak Harbour (1999)

Korea

Philippines Bataan (2001)

Singapore SE. Straits of Johore between Johore (2003)

Thailand Krabi, Andaman sea (2001)

Viet Nam Hue (1999)

U.S. EPA CCC 0.001ppb

Figure 10E.126 Maximum recorded levels of p,p 0 -DDT in freshwater and seawater 1999–2003. (From King, C., 2003, Capacity Development for Monitoring Major Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in East Asian Waters: Examples of UNU Monitoring Activities in East Asia in United Nations University, Capacity Development Training for Monitoring of POPS in the East Asian Hydrosphere, 1–2 September, 2003, UNU Centre, Tokyo, www.unu.edu. Printed with permission.)

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450

Consentration (ppt)

400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 East Java

Central Java

West Java

North Sumatra

Lampung

Sampling site HCB Heptachlor epoxide Endrin pp-DDE Metoxichlor g-HCH

Heptachlor Chlordane Mirex op-DDT A-HCH d-HCH

Aldrin Dieldrin pp-DDD pp-DDT B-HCH

Figure 10E.127 Highest concentrations of POPs and OCs compounds in Indonesian river sediment in 2002. (From Syafrul, H., 2003, Environmental Standards Related to POPs in Indonesia in United Nations University, Capacity Development Training for Monitoring of POPS in the East Asian Hydrosphere, 1–2 September, 2003, UNU Centre, Tokyo, www.unu.edu. With permission.)

Percentage of samples

25 1994

20

1995 1996

15

1997

10

1998 1999

5

2000

Carbendazim

Chlorotoluron

Atrazine

Dichlorprop

Simazine

2,4-D

MCPA

Diuron

Mecoprop

Isoproturon

0

Pesticide Figure 10E.128 Trends in exceedance of 0.1 ug/L drinking water directive standard for England and Wales, 1994–2000. (From Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2002, The Government’s Strategic Review of Diffuse Water Pollution from Agriculture in England: Agriculture and Water: A Diffuse Pollution Review, www.defra.gov.uk. Reproduced under the terms of the Click-Use Licence.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-211

7.00

Nitrate or TON mg N/l

6.00 5.00 < 10

4.00

10 to < 25 25 to < 50

3.00

50 to < 75 > 75

2.00 1.00 0.00 Small

Medium

Very Large

Large

Largest

Size of river Data from Denmark, France, Germany, Portugal and UK

Figure 10E.129 Median annual average nitrate or total oxidized nitrogen concentrations (mg N/L) at stations in different sized rivers in relation to the percentage total agricultural land use in upstream catchment. (From European Environment Agency, YIR01WQ1 Nitrogen and Phosphorous in River Stations by River Size and Catchment Type, www.eea.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.)

60

Upward trend Downward trend

40 20 0 –20 –40 –70 –80 –100

la

Po

H

un

ga

ry

s e rie nc nt Fra u o

Al

lc

Es to Sw nia ed Bu en lg a Au ria s G tr er ia m D any en m ar k

nd

Fi n Li lan th d ua Sl ni ov a ak R ep ub lic U S ni te lov d Ki eni ng a do m

Nitrate pollution in rivers is higher in the EU-15 than in the New -10 (but lowest of all in the Nordic countries). This reflects differences in agricultural intensity and practices. In 2000/2001, rivers in 14 European countries (out of 24 with available information) exceeded the EU drinking water directive's guide concentration for nitrate; five also exceeded the maximum allowable concentration. In general nitrate concentrations in rivers are declining: 25% of monitoring stations on Europe's rivers recorded a decrease between 1992 and 2001. However, around 15% of river monitoring stations showed an increasing trend in nitrate concentrations over the same period.

Trends in river nitrate concentration (% of monitoring stations, 1992-2001)

Nitrate concentrations in rivers

ia

tv

La

Figure 10E.130 Nitrate concentration trends in European rivers. (From European Environmental Agency, 2004, EEA Signals 2004, A European Environmental Update on Selected Issues, www.eea.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.)

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9364

3224

2533

1808

901

633

Asia

Europe

N.America

Oceania

S. America

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Global

10-212

Nitrate total [mg L−1 N03−]

7.25

5.80

4.35

2.90

1.45

0.00

Figure 10E.131 Statistical distribution of nitrate for major global watersheds, 1976–1990. (From United Nations Environmental Programme Global Environment Monitoring System, Water Programme (GEMS/WATER), The Annotated Digital Atlas of Global Water Quality, www.gemswater.org. Reprinted with permission.)

Figure 10E.132 Percent change of nitrogen, nitrate C nitrite in selected 82 watersheds. (From United Nations Environment Program, Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) Water Programs, 2005, 2004 State of the UNEP GEMS/Water Global Network and Annual Report, 2005, www.gemswater.org. Printed with permission.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-213

Nitrate in groundwater Affected regions 20/25 − 50mg NO3/l > 45/50 mg NO3/l Small affected areas evenly distributed > 25 mg NO3/l > 45/50 mg NO3/l No data available No data collected 0

500

1000 km

BASC MAP: EUROSTAT/GISCO

GRAPHICS & ANALYSIS: AWW

Figure 10E.133 Nitrate in groundwater in Europe. (From European Environmental Agency (EEA), 1999, Groundwater Quality and Quantity in Europe, June 1999, www.eea.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Sweden-2000-3 Latvia-2000-4 Lithuania-2000-5 Ireland-1998-3 Finland-1998-26 Greece-1998-65 Estonia-2000-5 Hungary-1999-11

no exceedance

Bulgaria-2001-64

rare (, 25%)

Poland-2000-3

frequent (25−50%)

Czech Rep.-2000-39 very frequent (> 50%)

Belgium-2001-2 Slovenia-2000-4 Netherlands-2001-8 Austria-2001-14 UK-1998-4 Slovak Rep.-2000-10 Denmark-2000-3 Germany-2000-2 Spain-1999-3 0%

25% 50% 75% % of groundwater bodies

100%

Note: The figure is based on the data for the latest year available (given after the country name). The numbers of groundwater bodies per country indluded in the presentation are given after the year. The four classes represent the percentage of sampling sites within each groundwater body where annual mean nitrate values exceed 50 mg No3/litre. Figure 10E.134 Percentage of sampling sites in groundwater bodies where annual mean values exceed 50 mg/L. Nitrate (From European Environment Agency, Nitrate in Groundwater, Indicator Fact Sheet WEU01, www.eea.europa.eu. Reprinted with permission q EEA.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-215

Figure 10E.135 Distribution of bores across Australia, with nitrate levels greater than 10 mg/L. (From Ball, J., Donnelley, L., Erlanger, P., Evans, R., Kollmorgen, A., Neal, B., and Shirley, M., 2001, Inland Waters, Australia State of Environment Report 2001 (Theme Report), CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra www.deh.gov.au. Original Source: LWRRDC, 1999, Contamination of Australian Groundwater Systems with Nitrate, Occasional Paper No. 03/99, Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation, Canberra, www.lwrrdc.gov.au. Copyright Commonwealth of Australia reproduced by permission.)

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10-216

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10E.122 Trends in Regional Agricultural Activity and Soil Loss, 1975 and 2000 (High Growth Scenario) Acres in Crop Production 1975

Region I. II.

New England New YorkNew Jersey III. Middle Atlantic IV. Southeast V. Great Lakes VI. South Central VII. Central VIII. Mountain IX. West X. Northwest Totalc a b c

Quantity (106 Acres) a

Soil Loss

2000

Percent of National Total

Percent of 1975 Value

b

1

1

129 119

5 27 65 31 58 26 4 7 223

2 12 29 14 26 12 2 3 100

127 121 132 108 107 105 140 129 118

1975

2000

Percent of Percent of National National Quantity 6 Total Total (10 Tons) b

b

1

2 17

2 12 33 13 24 10 2 3 100

180 900 880 590 960 72 10 86 3,700

5 24 24 16 26 1

b

b

2 100

Percent of 1975 Value

Percent of National Total

126 120

b

127 119 136 114 113 100 144 129 121

5 24 27 15 24 2

b

b

2 100

Annual Average Soil Loss Per Acre (Tons) 13 14 36 33 14 20 18 3 3 13 17

Less than 0.5 million acres. Less than 0.5 percent. Rounding may creat inconsistencies in addition.

Source:

From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1980, Environmental Outlook 1980.

Table 10E.123 Estimated Acreage and Erosion in the Contiguous United States, Selected Years, 1938–1997 Item Acreage Cropland and CRP combined CRP land Pasture Range Total erosion Cropland and CRP combined Sheet and rill Wind Pasture Sheet and rillc Windd Range Sheet and rillc Windc Total cropland, pasture, range Erosion per acre Cropland Sheet and rill Wind Subtotal CRP Sheet and rill Wind

1938

1967

1977

1982

398.8a

438.2

413.3

— na na

— na na

— na na

na na

2.60b na

1.93 na

1.69 1.38

1.52 1.4

1.21 0.95

1.06 0.84

na na

na na

na na

1.45 0.13

1.28 0.13

1.26 0.13

1.08 0.12

na na na

na na na

na na na

0.49 1.92 7.12

0.48 1.77 6.46

0.48 1.76 5.76

na na na

Million acres 421 — 131.9 408.9 Billion tons/year

1987

1992

1997

406.6

382.3

377

3.8 127.6 402.8

34 125.9 398.9

32.7 120 406

Tons/acre/year na na 8.9d

5.9 na na

4.7 5.3 na

4 3.3 7.3

3.7 3.2 6.9

3.1 2.4 5.5

2.8 2.2 5

— —

— —

— —

— —

2 6.8

0.6 0.7

0.4 0.3 (Continued)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10E.123

10-217

(Continued)

Item

1938

Subtotal Pasture Sheet and rill Wind Range Sheet and rill Wind

1967

1977

1982

1987

1992

1997

—

—

—

–—

8.8

1.3

0.7

na na

na na

na na

1.1 0.1

1 0.1

1 0.1

0.9 0.1

na na

na na

na na

1.2 4.7

1.2 4.4

1.2 4.4

na na

Note: na, not available; CRP, Conservation Reserve Program. a b c d

Based on 1939 census estimate of cropland. Kimberlin (1976), based on 1967 Conservation Needs Inventory. Based on multiplying published per acre erosion estimates times acreage. Based on dividing sum of sheet, rill, and wind erosion by total U.S. cropland acres.

Source: From Heimlich, R., 2003, Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators 2003, Agriculture Handbook No. (AH722), www.ers.usda.gov; based on data from USDA, ERS, NRCS National Resources Investigations of 1977, 1982, 1987, 1992, and 1997, except where noted.

Table 10E.124 Representative Values for Nutrient Export and Input Rates for Various Land Uses in the United States Land Use

Total Phosphorus

Total Nitrogen

0.2 0.7 0.8 1.1 2.2 255.0

2.5 6.0 14.5 5.0 9.0 2,920.0

a,b

A. Export rates (kg/ha/yr) Forest Nonrow crops Pasture Mixed agriculture Row crops Feedlot, manure storage B. Total atmospheric input rates (kg/ha/yr)a,b Forest Agricultural/rural Urban industrial C. Wastewater input rates (kg/capita/yr)b Septic tank inputc

0.26 0.28 1.01 1.45

6.5 13.1 21.4 4.65

Note: All values are medians and are only approximations owing to the highly variable nature of data on these rates. a b c

Value in this table are all in kg/ha/yr, which is the standard for such measurements. To convert to pounds per acre per year, multiple by 0.892. Source: Reckhow et al., 1980. This is prior to absorption to soil during infiltration; generally, soils will absorb 80 percent or more of this phosphorus.

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1988, The Lake and Reservoir Restoration Guidance Manual, EPA 440/5-88-002.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10E.125 Contribution of Total Nitrogen and Phosphorous from Variable Nonpoint Sources (in Pounds per Acre per Year) Areal Loading Rates Source

Nitrogen (N)

Precipitation Forest land Range land Crop land Land receiving manure Irrigation return flows Surface Subsurface Urban land drainage Animal feedlot runoff

Phosphorus (P)

5.0–9.8 2.7–12 — 0.10–12 3.6–12

0.04–0.05 0.03–0.8 0.07–0.08 0.05–2.7 0.7–2.7

3.0–27 4.0–18 6.4–8.9 90–1,400

1.0–4.1 2.9–10 1.1–5.4 8.9–630

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey, 1984, National Water Summary 1983-Hydrologic Events and Issues, Water Supply Paper 2250; based on data from Loehr, R.C., 1974.

Table 10E.126 Constituents of Livestock Waste Per Day (lb.)

104 Days (lb.)

360 Head/Acre/yr (Tons)

64 2.1 8.2 53.7 0.380 0.048 0.260

8,960 294 1,148 7,518 55.0 6.7 36.4

4,200 144 540 30.7 in. 24.9 3.2 16.8

Wet manure and urine Dry mineral matter Dry organic matter Water Total nitrogen Total phosphorus Total potassium

Note: Some constituents of waste of a 1,000-pound bovine on a daily and feeding period basis, and of 360 head per acre on an annual basis. Source: From Hansen, R.W., 1971, Livestock Waste Disposal and Water Pollution Control, Colorado State University Cooperative Extension Service Bulletin 480a.

Table 10E.127 Fertilizer Elements of Animal Excrements

Wet manure Total mineral matter Organic matter Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P2O5) Potassium (K2O)

Dairy Cattle (lb./day)

Beef Cattle (lb./day)

Hens (lb./day)

Hogs (lb./day)

88 1.80 7.20 0.36 0.10 0.15

64 2.1 8.2 0.38 0.048 0.26

59 4.5 12.9 2 0.69 0.34

50 1.3 5.9 0.4 0.18 0.1

Sheep (lb./day) 37 1.5 6.9

Note: Fertilizer elements of various complete animal excrements per 1,000 pounds of liveweight. Source: From Hansen, R.W., 1971, Livestock Waste Disposal and Water Pollution Control, Colorado State University Cooperative Extension Service Bulletin 480a.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-219

Table 10E.128 Trends in Gross Nutrient Discharges in Agricultural Runoff in the United States, 1975 and 2000 2000 (Tons) Pollutant

1975 (Tons)

High Growth

Low Growth

5,700 3,000 1,400 10,000

8,800 5,700 2,600 17,000

7,600 4,900 2,200 15,000

Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Totala a

Rounding may create inconsistencies in addition.

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environment Outlook 1980.

Table 10E.129 Trends in Gross Discharges of Sediment in Agricultural Runoff in the United States, 1975 and 2000 2000 (103 Tons) Pollutant

1975 (103 Tons)

High Growth

Low Growth

94,000 40,000 630

110,000 49,000 760

97,000 42,000 650

Total suspended solids Total dissolved solids Biochemical oxygen demand

Note: Conservative estimates; discharges may uniformly be too low by a factor of four of five. Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Outlook 1980.

Table 10E.130 Yield and Percentage Change in Yield of Nitrate, Total Phosphorous, and Suspended Sediment in WaterResource Regions of the Conterminous United States, 1980–1989 Nitrate 1980–1989 Water-Resources Region

Suspended Sediment 1980–1989

Yield, in Tons Per Square Mile Per Year

Percentage Change Per Year

Yield, in Tons Per Square Mile Per Year

Percentage Change Per Year

Yield, in Tons Per Square Mile Per Year

Percentage Change Per Year

0.558 0.226 0.647 0.847 0.989 0.333 0.011 0.060 0.056 0.012 0.057 0.049 0.225 0.047

a

0.077 0.092 0.067 0.125 0.157 0.103 0.008 0.028 0.039 0.014 0.036 0.018 0.063 0.060

K1.4 C0.1 K3.3 K1.0 K1.2 K3.8 K0.8 K1.7 K3.1 K0.9 K2.4 K2.7 K1.7 K1.4

32 20 36 85 102 111 4 45 31 15 92 21 40 21

K0.4 C0.2 C0.5 K1.3 K1.3 K1.2 C1.2 K0.2 K0.7 K0.6 K0.8 K0.2 K0.1 K0.6

North Atlantic South Atlantic-Gulf Great Lakes Ohio-Tennessee Upper Mississippi Lower Mississippi Souris-Red-Rainy Missouri Arkansas-White-Red Texas-Gulf-Rio Grande Colorado Great Basin Pacific Northwest California a

Total Phosphorus 1982–1989

a a a

K0.4 K1.6 a a a a a a a a

Between K0.1 and C0.1.

Source: From Smith, R. A., Alexander, R. B., and Lanfear, K. J., 1993, Stream water quality in the conterminous United States – status and trends of selected indicators during the 1980’s in national water summary 1990–91 — stream water quality, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2400, www.usgs.gov.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10E.131 Nitrogen Runoff Estimates in Coastal Regions by Major Source Category, Selected Years 1982–1987 Total Nitrogen (1,000 lbs/yr)

EDA Group

WWTPs

Industries

Urban Runoff

Cropland Runoff

Pature/Range Runoff

Forest Runoff

Upstream Sources

Total

North Atlantic Middle Atlantic South Atlantic Gulf of Mexico East Gulf of Mexico West Pacific-South Pacific-North

23,475 178,810 23,265 27,516 22,917 83,163 18,301

1,335 22,237 13,802 11,154 13,789 1,530 3,877

8,291 46,367 15,184 17,131 7,261 9,437 5,630

2,471 36,277 39,115 42,310 17,021 32,472 5,432

108 780 34 29,362 34,070 33,811 89,307

556 1,166 130 51 46 5,589 89,307

69,930 314,539 82,929 3,057,405 88,626 58,784 173,968

106,166 600,177 174,460 3,184,927 183,730 224,786 303,771

Source: From United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Services, 1997, Water Quality and Agriculture, Status, Conditions, and Trends, www.nrcs.usda.gov. Original Source: From NOAA, 1994.

Table 10E.132 Phosphorus Runoff Estimates in Coastal Regions by Major Source Category, Selected Years 1982–1987 Total Phosphorus (1,000 lbs/yr)

EDA Group

WWTPs

Industries

Urban Runoff

Cropland Runoff

Pasture/Range Runoff

Forest Runoff

Upstream Sources

Total

North Atlantic Middle Atlantic South Atlantic Gulf of Mexico East Gulf of Mexico West Pacific-South Pacific-North

14,826 112,998 14,580 9,202 13,990 59,211 13,749

312 3,823 10,872 27,248 6,580 186 304

1,368 7,512 2,311 2,607 1,105 1,456 886

132 2,001 2,664 433 173 723 113

1 8 0 294 341 338 73

6 12 1 1 0 56 893

4,114 20,579 17,159 434,073 20,458 3,611 27,452

20,760 146,931 47,588 473,857 42,646 65,581 43,470

Source: From United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Services, 1997, Water Quality and Agriculture, Status, Conditions, and Trends, www.nrcs.usda.gov. Original Source: From NOAA, 1994.

Table 10E.133 Load Yield, and Percentage Change in Load and Yield of Nitrate, Total Phosphorous, and Suspended Sediment in Six Coastal Segments of the Conterminous United States, 1980–1989 Nitrate 1980–1988

Coastal Segment North Atlantic South Atlantic Gulf of Mexico Great Lakes Pacific Northwest California Total load Area-weighted average yield Change in Total Load a

Load (tons/yr) 171 37 1,178 205 74 26 1,691 — —

Total Phosphorus 1982–1988

Yield in Percentage Tons Per Square Mile Change Per Year Per Year 0.972 0.257 0.687 1.570 0.267 0.232 — 0.638 —

Load (tons/yr)

Yield, in Percentage Tons Per Square Mile Change Per Year Per Year

C2.1 — —

18 10 136 14 15 15 207 —

0.101 0.068 0.079 0.108 0.055 0.132 — 0.079

K2.1

—

—

C1.8 a

K3.4 a a

a a

K3.5 K2.6 K2.2 a

— — K3.0

Suspended Sediment 1980–1988

Load (tons/yr)

Yield, in Tons Per Square Mile Per Year

1,177 257 16,607 1,484 2,519 4,684 26,728 —

67 18 97 114 91 502 — 104

K21.0 — —

—

—

K6.4

Percentage Change Per Year C8.0 K1.1 K3.8 a a

Not statistically significant.

Source: From Smith, R.A., Alexander, R.B., and Lanfear, K.J., 1993, Stream water quality in the conterminous United States – status and trends of selected indicators during the 1980’s in national water summary 1990–91 — stream water quality, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2400, www.usgs.gov.

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Table 10E.134 Farm Fertilizer Use in the United States, 1939–1998 (Millions of Tons of Primary Nutrients) Year 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953

Fertilizer Applied

Year

Fertilizer Applied

Year

1.6 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.4 2.6 2.7 3.1 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.1 4.7 5.2 5.6

1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968

5.9 6.1 6.1 6.4 6.5 7.4 7.5 7.8 8.4 9.5 10.5 11 12.4 14 15

1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Fertilizer Applied 15.5 16.1 17.2 17.2 18 19.3 17.6 20.8 22.1 20.6 22.6 23.1 23.7 21.4 18.1

Year 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Fertilizer Applied 21.8 21.7 19.7 19.1 19.6 19.6 20.6 20.5 20.7 20.9 22.4 21.3 22.1 22.4 22.3

Source: From U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1976. Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, Series K 193. Washington, DC; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1985. Statistical Abstracts of the United States: 1986, no. 1161, p. 654. Washington, DC; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 1987. Inputs Situation and Outlook Report. AR-5. Washington, DC; U.S. Geological Survey National Water Summary 1986; Heimlich, 2003; Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators 2003, Agriculture Handbook No. (AH722), February 2003.

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Table 10E.135 United States Commercial Fertilizer Use, 1960–1998 Primary Nutrient Use a

Year

Total Materials

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

24.9 25.6 26.6 28.8 30.7 31.8 34.5 37.1 38.7 38.9 39.6 41.1 41.2 43.3 47.1 42.5 49.2 51.6 47.5 51.5 52.8 54.0 48.7 41.8 50.1 49.1 44.1 43.0 44.5 44.9 47.7 47.3 48.8 49.2 52.3 50.7 53.6 55.0 55.0

Nitrogen (N) Million Ions 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.9 4.4 4.6 5.3 6.0 6.8 6.9 7.5 8.1 8.0 8.3 9.2 8.6 10.4 10.6 10.0 10.7 11.4 11.9 11.0 9.1 11.1 11.5 10.4 10.2 10.5 10.6 11.1 11.3 11.4 11.4 12.6 11.7 12.3 12.4 12.3

Phosphate (P2O5)

Potash (K2O)

Totalb

2.6 2.6 2.8 3.1 3.4 3.5 3.9 4.3 4.4 4.7 4.6 4.8 4.9 5.1 5.1 4.5 5.2 5.6 5.1 5.6 5.4 5.4 4.8 4.1 4.9 4.7 4.2 4.0 4.1 4.1 4.3 4.2 4.2 4.4 4.5 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.6

2.2 1.2 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.8 3.2 3.6 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.6 5.1 4.4 5.2 5.8 5.5 6.2 6.2 6.3 5.6 4.8 5.8 5.6 5.1 4.8 5.0 4.8 5.2 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.3 5.1 5.3 5.4 5.3

7.5 7.8 8.4 9.5 10.5 10.9 12.4 14.0 15.0 15.5 16.1 17.2 17.2 18.0 19.3 17.6 20.8 22.1 20.6 22.6 23.1 23.7 21.4 18.1 21.8 21.7 19.7 19.1 19.6 19.6 20.6 20.5 20.7 20.9 22.4 21.3 22.1 22.4 22.3

Note: Includes Puerto Rico. Detailed State data shown in (USDA, 1997). Fertilizer statistics used in this table include commercial fertilizers purchased for use on farms such as chemical fertilizers and natural processed and dried organic materials. Purchased natural processed and dried organic materials historically have represented about 1 percent of total nutrient use. a b

Includes secondary and micronutrients. Most of the difference between total primary nutrient tons and total fertilizer materials is carrier or filler materials. Totals may not add due to rounding.

Source: From Heimlich, R., 2003, Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators 2003, Agriculture Handbook No. (AH722), February 2003, www.ers.usda.gov. Original Source: From Fertilizer use estimates for 1960–1984 are from USDA; Commercial Fertilizers. 1985 and earlier issues; those for 1985–1994 are from Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), Commercial Fertilizers, 1994 and earlier issues; and those for 1995–1997 are from The Association of American Plant Food Control Officials, Commercial Fertilizers, 1995–1998.

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Table 10E.136 United States Regional Commercial Nutrient Use for Year Ending June 30, 1989–1998 Region

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1,000 tons Nitrogen Northeast Lake States Corn Belt Northern Plains Appalachia Southeast Delta States Southern Plains Mountain Pacific U.S. totala Phosphate Northeast Lake States Corn Belt Northern Plains Appalachia Southeast Delta States Southern Plains Mountain Pacific U.S. totala Potash Northeast Lake States Corn Belt Northern Plains Appalachia Southeast Delta States Southern Plains Mountain Pacific U.S. totala

313 1,011 3,041 1,680 613 643 560 1,217

306 1,134 3,215 1,751 667 670 643 1,117

299 1,128 3,280 1,978 662 627 609 1,223

328 1,119 3,279 1,954 718 65 674 1,192

350 1,073 3,003 2,090 705 682 615 1,235

376 1,186 3,562 2,319 720 701 663 1,377

349 1,108 3,228 2,133 694 640 630 1,208

334 1,108 3,354 2,219 752 694 718 1,186

354 1,236 3,243 2,373 741 660 607 1,258

351 1,172 3,220 2,317 763 635 752 1,282

626 916 10,619

642 921 11,065

628 838 11,273

666 849 11,432

744 886 11,382

775 953 12,633

765 953 11,709

806 1,122 12,294

862 1,010 12,344

867 938 12,297

188 477 1,254 522 361 297 154 342

197 508 1,334 550 381 308 177 315

188 479 1,262 583 384 281 154 334

208 468 1,269 577 409 295 180 288

211 474 1,312 646 410 314 172 340

232 465 1,317 649 412 297 192 363

203 461 1,257 617 399 313 197 341

183 474 1,340 626 396 332 213 313

184 537 1,304 713 413 318 198 319

171 487 1,275 772 409 328 221 330

253 270 4,119

279 289 4,339

255 274 4,195

270 248 4,212

296 257 4,431

298 291 4,517

300 326 4,412

312 335 4,523

306 316 4,609

338 290 4,621

232 852 1,974 129 506 558 212 149

261 941 2,132 133 538 559 240 143

262 832 2,044 134 539 517 229 150

267 809 1,987 123 584 556 280 146

262 779 2,034 134 575 581 288 168

299 781 2,133 123 576 535 302 191

280 760 1,996 124 574 563 336 168

230 776 2,098 123 592 587 351 172

234 866 2,153 147 624 563 323 178

228 848 2,074 168 634 564 316 172

53 155 4,820

65 179 5,192

80 200 4,988

55 220 5,026

80 230 5,131

68 252 5,259

79 231 5,112

79 240 5,248

80 249 5,416

91 242 5,335

Note: Totals may not add due to rounding. Northeast, ME, NH, VT, MA, RI, CT, NY, NJ, PA, DE, and MD; Lake States, MI, WI, and MN; Corn Belt, OH, IN, IL, IA, and MO; Northern Plains, ND, SD, NE, and KS; Appalachia, VA, WV, NC, KY, and TN; Southeast, SC, GA, FL, and AL; Delta States, MS, AR, and LA; Southern Plains, OK and TX; Mountain, MT, ID, WY, CO, NM, AZ, UT, and NV; and Pacific, WA, OR, CA, AK, and HA. a

Excludes Puerto Rico. Detailed state data shown in (USDA, 1995).

Source: From Heimlich, R., 2003, Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators 2003, Agriculture Handbook No. (AH722), February 2003, www.ers.usda.gov. Original Source: From USDA, ERS, based on Tennessee Valley Authority, Commercial Fertilizers, 1994 and earlier issues; The Association of American Plant Food Control Officials, Commercial Fertilizers, 1995–1998.

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Table 10E.137 Production and Sales of Synthetic Organic Pesticides in the United States, 1960–1984 Item

Unit

Production, total Herbicides Insecticides Fungicides Production valuea Sales, total Sales value

Mil. lb Mil. lb Mil. lb Mil. lb Mil. dol Mil. lb Mil. dol

1960

1965

1970

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

648 102 366 179 307 570 262

877 263 490 124 577 764 497

1,034 404 490 140 1,058 881 870

1,603 788 660 155 2,900 1,317 2,359

1,364 656 566 142 2,880 1,193 2,410

1,388 674 570 143 3,116 1,263 2,808

1,416 664 605 147 3,342 1,300 3,041

1,429 657 617 155 3,685 1,369 3,631

1,468 806 506 156 4,269 1,406 4,078

1,430 839 448 143 5,136 1,291 4,652

1,113 623 379 111 4,331 1,147 4,432

1,017 570 324 123 3,993 1,017 4,054

1,189 716 350 123 5,056 1,108 4,730

Note: Includes a small quantity of soil conditioners. a

Manufacturers unit value multiplied by production.

Source: From U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1987.

Table 10E.138 United States Production and Sales of Conventional Pesticides, 1994–2001

Production-active ingredient (billions of pounds) Sales Value (billons of dollars)

1994/1995

1996/1997

1998/1999

2000/2001

1.3 7.0

1.3 7.9

1.6 9.6

1.6 9.3

Source: From Kiely, T., Donaldson, D., and Grube, A., 2004, Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage 2000 and 2001 Market Estimates, United States Environmental Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, EPA-733-R-04-001, May 2004. Donaldson, D., Kiely, T., and Grube, A., 2002, Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage 1998 and 1999 Market Estimates, United States Environmental Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, EPA-733-R-02-001, August 2002. Aspelin, A. and Grube, A., 1999, Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage 1996 and 1997 Estimates, United States Environmental Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic, 733-R-99-001, November 1999. Aspelin, A., 1997, Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage 1994 and 1995 Market Estimates, United States Environmental Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, EPA-733-R-97-002, August 1997, www.epa.gov.

Table 10E.139 Annual Amount of Pesticide Active Ingredient Used in the United States by Pesticide Type, 1982–2001 Estimates All Market Sectors Million Pounds of Active Ingredient Year

Herbicides/PGR

Insecticides

Fungicides

Other Conva

Otherb

Total

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

620 573 634 611 590 532 557 567 564 546 554 527 583 556 578 568 555 534 542 553

198 185 173 161 151 141 132 123 121 114 116 115 124 125 116 112 103 126 122 105

117 115 109 110 109 100 99 98 91 86 81 80 79 77 79 81 86 79 74 73

149 148 145 138 138 133 137 154 173 182 189 192 199 203 222 197 168 173 188 157

298 287 284 284 278 269 266 251 252 226 246 248 244 249 234 270 294 332 308 315

1,382 1,308 1,345 1,304 1,266 1,175 1,191 1,193 1,201 1,154 1,186 1,162 1,229 1,210 1,229 1,228 1,206 1,244 1,234 1,203

Note: Excludes wood preservatives, specialty biocides, and chlorine/hypochlorites. a b

Other conventional pesticides include nematicides, fumigants, and other conventional pesticides. “Other” includes sulfur, petroleum, and other chemicals used as pesticides (e.g., sulfuric acid and insect repellents).

Source: From Kiely, T., Donaldson, D., and Grube, A., 2004, Pesticide Industry Sales and Usage, 2000 and 2001 Market Estimates, United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov, based on Croplife America annual surveys, USDA/NASS (www.usda.gov/nass), and EPA proprietary data.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10E.140 Amount of Conventional Pesticide Active Ingredient Used in the United States by Pesticide Type and Market Sector, 2000 and 2001 Estimates Herbicides/Plant Growth Regulators

Year Sector 2000 Agriculture Ind/Comm/Gov Home & Garden Total 2001 Agriculture Ind/Comm/Gov Home & Garden Total

Insecticides/Miticides

Fungicides

Nematicide/Fumigant

Other Conventionala

Total

Mil. lbs of a.i.

%

Mil. lbs of a.i.

%

Mil. lbs of a.i.

%

Mil. lbs of a.i.

%

Mil. lbs of a.i.

%

Mil. lbs of a.i.

%

432 48 62 542

80 9 11 100

90 17 15 122

74 14 12 100

44 19 11 74

59 26 15 100

131 24 1 156

84 15 1 100

25 6 1 32

78 19 3 100

722 114 90 926

78 12 10 100

433 49 71 553

78 9 13 100

73 15 17 105

70 14 16 100

42 19 12 73

58 26 16 100

102 24 1 127

80 19 1 100

25 4 1 30

83 13 3 100

675 111 102 888

76 13 11 100

Note: Totals may not add due to rounding. Table does not cover industrial wood preservatives, specialty biocides, chlorine/hypochlorites, and other chemicals used as pesticides (e.g., sulfur and petroleum oil). The abbreviation “a.i.” stands for active ingredient. a

“Other Conventional” pesticides include rodenticides, molluscicides, aquatic and fish/bird pesticides, and other miscellaneous conventional pesticides.

Source:

From Kiely, T., Donaldson, D., and Grube, A., 2004, Pesticide Industry Sales and Usage, 2000 and 2001 Market Estimates, United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov, EPA estimates based on Croplife America annual surveys, USDA/NASS (www.usda.gov/nass), and EPA proprietary data.

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Table 10E.141 Conventional Pesticide Active Ingredient Used in the United States Agricultural and Nonagricultural Market Sector Shares, 1964–2001 Agricultural Sector

Year

Total U.S. Million Pounds of Active Ingredient

Million Pounds of Active Ingredient

% of Total U.S.

Nonagricultural Sector Million Pounds of Active Ingredient

1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

617 658 682 712 742 763 760 793 843 882 964 1013 1041 1084 1106 1144 1121 1118 1084 1021 1061 1020 988 906 925 942 949 928 940 914 984 961 996 958 912 912 926 888

366 396 414 429 457 491 499 528 575 607 688 729 753 794 813 843 826 831 804 745 794 767 739 666 690 712 720 708 723 698 776 765 803 767 724 706 722 675

59 60 61 60 62 64 66 67 68 69 71 72 72 73 74 74 74 74 74 73 75 75 75 74 75 76 76 76 77 76 79 80 81 80 79 77 78 76

251 262 268 283 285 272 261 265 268 275 276 284 288 290 293 301 295 287 280 276 267 253 249 240 235 230 229 220 217 216 208 196 193 191 188 206 204 213

Note: Conventional pesticides only, excluding sulfur, petroleum oil, and other chemicals used as pesticides (e.g., sulfuric acid and insect repellants), wood preservatives, specialty biocides, and chlorine/hypochlorites. Source: From Kiely, T., Donaldson, D., and Grube, A., 2004, Pesticide Industry Sales and Usage, 2000 and 2001 Market Estimates, United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov, EPA estimates based on Croplife America annual surveys, USDA/NASS (www.usda.gov/nass), and EPA proprietary data.

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Table 10E.142 Most Commonly Used Conventional Pesticide Active Ingredients United States, Agricultural Market Sector, 2001, 1999, 1997, and 1987 Estimates 2001

1999

1997

1987

Active Ingredient

Type

Rank

Range

Rank

Range

Rank

Range

Rank

Range

Glyphosate Atrazine Metam sodium Acetochlor 2,4-D Malathion Methyl bromide Dichloropropene Metolachlor-s Metolachlor Pendimethalin Trifluralin Chlorothalonil Copper hydroxide Chlorpyrifos Alachlor Propanil Chloropicrin Dimethenamid Mancozeb Ethephon EPTC Simazine Dicamba Sulfosate

H H Fum H H I Fum Fum H H H H F F I H H Fum H F PGR H H H H

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

85–90 74–80 57–62 30–35 28–33 20–25 20–25 20–25 20–24 15–22 15–19 12–16 8–11 8–10 8–10 6–9 6–9 5–9 6–8 6–8 5–8 5–8 5–7 5–7 3–7

2 1 3 4 6 7 5 11 12 8 10 9 13 15 16 17 18 14 20 21 24 19 NA 22 NA

67–73 74–80 60–64 30–35 28–33 28–32 28–33 17–20 16–19 26–30 17–22 18–23 9–11 8–10 8–10 7–10 7–10 8–10 6–8 6–8 5–6 7–9 NA 6–8 NA

5 1 3 7 8 NA 4 6 NA 2 9 10 15 13 14 12 22 25 20 17 NA 18 NA 16 NA

34–38 75–82 53–58 31–36 29–33 NA 38–45 32–37 NA 63–69 24–28 21–25 7–10 10–13 9–13 13–16 6–8 5–6 6–9 7–10 NA 7–10 NA 7–10 NA

17 1 15 NA 5 NA NA 4 NA 3 10 6 19 19 14 2 13 NA NA 21 NA 8 NA 23 NA

6–8 71–76 5–8 NA 29–33 NA NA 30–35 NA 45–50 10–13 25–30 5–7 5–7 6–9 55–60 7–10 NA NA 4–6 NA 17–21 NA 4–6 NA

Note: List is limited to conventional pesticides and does not include sulfur and petroleum oil usage. Ranked by Range in Millions of Pounds of Active Ingredient. H indicates herbicide; I, insecticide; Fum, fumigant; F, fungicide; and PGR, plant growth regulator. NA indicates that an estimate is not available. Source: From Kiely, T., Donaldson, D., and Grube, A., 2004, Pesticide Industry Sales and Usage, 2000 and 2001 Market Estimates, United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov, EPA estimates based on USDA/NASS (www.usda.gov/nass) and EPA proprietary data.

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Table 10E.143 Quantity of Pesticides Applied to Selected Crops in the United States, 1990–2001 Type of Pesticide and Commodity Total Herbicides Insecticides Fungicides Other Corn Cotton Wheat Soybeans Potatoes Other vegetables Citrus fruit Apples Other deciduous fruit Pounds of Active Ingredient Per Planted Acre Total Herbicides Insecticides Fungicides Other

1990

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

497.7 344.6 57.4 27.8 67.9 240.7 50.9 17.8 74.4 43.8 39.8 11.0 8.3 10.9

543.3 324.9 69.9 47.5 101.0 201.3 83.7 21.5 68.7 53.1 78.0 14.0 9.0 14.1

575.8 365.7 59.2 46.8 104.0 227.7 65.6 32.9 78.1 49.5 82.8 14.5 9.7 14.9

579.3 362.6 60.2 48.5 108.0 227.3 68.4 25.5 83.5 59.4 73.3 15.0 10.6 16.4

544.4 340.3 52.0 45.7 106.4 212.4 55.4 23.9 78.8 63.6 67.8 14.1 9.3 19.2

553.7 316.8 75.4 42.3 119.1 186.0 90.6 21.4 77.3 64.6 70.5 13.3 7.9 22.2

539.4 308.6 77.4 36.6 116.8 176.1 94.5 19.2 79.1 61.8 70.1 13.0 7.6 18.1

511.1 307.5 62.0 33.2 108.3 187.3 72.8 18.3 72.2 60.5 66.5 12.8 7.6 13.1

2.2 1.5 0.3 0.1 0.3

2.4 1.4 0.3 0.2 0.4

2.4 1.5 0.2 0.2 0.4

2.4 1.5 0.2 0.2 0.4

2.3 1.4 0.2 0.2 0.4

2.3 1.3 0.3 0.2 0.5

2.2 1.3 0.3 0.5 0.5

2.2 1.3 0.3 0.1 0.5

Note: In million pounds of active ingredients, except as indicated (497.7 represents 497,700,000). Source: From U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2002, www.census.gov. Original Source: From U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Production Practices for Major Crops in U.S. Agriculture, 1990–1997, Statistical Bulletin No. 969, August 2000, and unpublished data.

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Characteristics

Uses

b

Water-Quality Criteria (mg/L)

National Use on Farmse (million lb/yr)

Detection Limita (mg/L)

Human Health

Aldrin

0.01

0.0007

0.002

13

Low

Dieldrin

0.03

0.0007

0.002

22

Medium

Chlordane

0.15

0.005

0.004

56

DDD

0.05

0.0002

0.001

DDE DDT

0.03 0.05

0.0002 0.0002

Endrin Heptachlor epoxide Lindane Methoxychlor Toxaphene

0.05 0.01

Aquatic Life

Solubilityc (mg/L)

Relative Persistence within Pesticide Groupd

1971

15

7.9

Termite control, degradation product of aldrin

0.7

0.3

High

Corn, termites, general purpose

0.5

1.9

5

High

Fruits and vegetables, degradation product of DDT

2.9

0.2

0.001 0.001

10 17

High High

Degradation product of DDT and DDD Cotton, fruits, vegetables, general purpose

Nr 27

nr 0.1

*1 0.003

0.002 0.004

14 30

nd Low

0.6 1.5

1.4 1.2

0.01 0.10 0.25

*4 *100 0.007

0.08 *.03 0.013

150 3 400

0.7 2.6 35

0.7 3.0 37

0.2 3.8 33

nr 0.6 5.9

0.8 5.0 16

Diazinon Ethion Malathion Methyl parathion Methyl trithion Parathion Trithion

0.10 0.25 0.25 0.25

nd nd nd nd

nd nd 0.1 nd

40,000 2,000 145,000 57,000

Cotton, wheat Degradation product of heptachlor which is used on corn, and termite control Medium Livestock, seed treatment, general purpose nd Livestock, alfalfa, general purpose nd Cotton, livestock Organophosphate insecticides High Corn, general purpose nd Citrus fruits Low General purpose Low Cotton and wheat

5.6 2.0 5.2 8.0

3.2 2.3 3.6 28

1.6 nr 2.8 23

0.3 nr 1.6 11

9.0 2.0 28 20

0.50 0.25 0.50

nd nd nd

nd 0.04 nd

nd 24,000 340

nr 8.5 nr

nr 9.5 nr

nr nr

nr 4.0 nr

0.1 5.0 0.1

Atrazine 2,4-D 2,4,5-T Silvex

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

nd *100 *10 nd

nd nd nd nd

nd Not identified Low Wheat, corn, sorghum nd General purpose Chlorophenoxy and triazine herbicides High Corn Low Wheat, rangeland, general purpose Medium Rice, rangeland, general purpose nd Sugarcane, rice, rangeland

24 4 0.8 nr

54 31 nr nr

90 38 nr nr

76 23 0.2 nr

92 60 2.2 0.4

33,000 900,000 240,000 140,000

Principal Uses and Sources

Organochlorine insecticides Corn

1976

1982

Total Use, 1981f (million lb/yr)

1966

Chemical

0.9 nr (Most farm uses cancelled 1974) nr nr (Most farm uses cancelled 1974) nr nr (Most farm uses cancelled 1974) nr nr (Cancelled 1972) nr nr nr nr (Cancelled 1972) 0.8 nr 0.6 nrt

0.8 0

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10E.144 Selected Characteristics and Uses of Pesticides Monitored by the U.S. Geological Survey-U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Pesticide Monitoring Network, 1975–1980

9.6 0 0 0 0.3 2.0

Note: mg/L, microgram per liter; lb/yrZpounds per year; nd, no available data; nr, none reported. *See footnoteb. a

Detection limits shown are for water samples. Bed-sediment reporting limits are 10 times greater and are expressed in units micrograms per kilogram (Lucas and others, 1980). All criteria are from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1980), except for values marked by asterisks, which are from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1976). The human-health criteria for all pesticides except endrin, lindane, methoxychlor, 2,4-D, and 2,4,5-T represent the estimated average concentrations associated with an incremental increase in cancer risk of 10K8 (one additional cancer per 100,000 people over a lifetime of exposure). The aquatic-life criteria are for freshwater and are 24-hour average concentrations. c Data from Kenaga and Goring (1980). d Relative persistence within each pesticide group as estimated from Hiltbold (1974) and Wauchope (1978). e Data for 1966, from Eichers and others (1970); for 1971, Andrilenas (1974); for 1976, Eichers and others (1978); for 1982, U.S. Department of Agriculture (1983). Data for 1982 do not include use on livestock or use in California, Colorado, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oregon, Rhode Island, Utah, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wyoming. f Data from Mark H. Glaze (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, written communication, 1983). Source: From U.S. Geological Survey, 1985. National Water Summary 1984. Water-Supply Paper 2275. b

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Table 10E.145 Detection Frequency of Targeted Pesticides in Surface Waters in the United States, 1957–1992 Sampling Sites

Pesticide

Total Sites

Number of Sites with Detections

Samples Percent of Sites with Detections

Total Samples

Number of Samples with Detections

Percent of Samples with Detections

Insecticides Organochlorine Compounds Aldin 951 Chlordane 838 1,185 DDTa DDT-total (sum of DDT, 75 DDD, DDE) Dieldrin 1,016 Endosulfan 469 Endrin 944 1,498 HCH (all isomers)b Heptachlor 948 Kepone 75 Methoxychlor 268 Mirex 212 Perthane 81 Toxaphene 215 Organophosphorus Compounds Azinphos-methyl 79 Chlorpyrifos 108 Crufomate 33 DEF 4 Diazinon 193 Dichlorvos (DDVP) 2 Dimethoate 33 Disulfoton 40 Disyston 4 Ethion 326 Ethoprop 33 Fenitrothion 42 Fensulfothion 9 Fenthion 232 Fonofos 94 Imidan 33 Malathion 426 Methamidophos 10 Methidathion 2 Methyl parathion 387 Methyl trithion 80 Parathion 326 Phorate 121 Phosphamidon 33 Ronnel 35 Sulprofos 33 Terbufos 94 Trithion 314 Other Insecticidesc Aldicarb 4 Carbaryl 24 Carbofuran 84 Deet 26 Dibutyltin (DBT) 10 Fenvalerate 4 Methomyl 8 Oxamyl 4 Permethrin 11 Propargite 7

65 154 258 56

7 18 22 75

3,910 3,366 5,569 77

224 948 945 42

6 28 17 55

459 9 136 462 102 nr 33 2 0 16

45 2 14 31 11 nr 12 1 0 7

4,995 1,614 4,255 7,144 3,877 750 772 512 285 1,490

1,412 42 359 2,087 287 nr 33 13 0 84

28 3 8 29 7 nr 4 3 0 6

0 7 0 2 36 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 0 16 0 2 13 0 4 0 0 0 0 10 1

0 6 0 50 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 0 4 0 100 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 11 0

402 987 33 4 1,836 30 33 349 4 1,046 33 42 9 538 945 33 2,415 100 nr 2,215 185 1,493 1,008 33 63 33 945 805

0 13 0 2 256 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 63 0 104 0 nr 14 0 5 0 0 0 0 2 2

0 1 0 50 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 4 0 nr 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 6 25 22 1 4 0 0 4 3

0 25 30 85 10 100 0 0 36 43

4 333 396 nr 22 nr 8 4 316 316

0 32 119 nr 4 nr 0 0 3 3

0 10 30 nr 18 nr 0 0 1 1 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10E.145

10-231

(Continued) Sampling Sites

Pesticide

Total Sites

Tributyltin (TBT)

Number of Sites with Detections

Samples Percent of Sites with Detections

Total Samples

Number of Samples with Detections

Percent of Samples with Detections

22

15

68

10

8

80 Herbicides

17 372 123 15 497 366 15 26 362 349 270 62 12 244 209 15 22 4

nr 272 11 0 440 242 0 5 280 147 74 9 7 70 119 0 0 0

nr 73 9 0 89 66 0 19 77 42 27 15 58 29 57 0 0 0

121 1,549 947 27 4,650 1,473 27 nr 1,452 1,469 828 523 450 827 632 27 36 16

nr 802 212 0 3,928 755 0 nr 827 245 140 4 48 28 312 0 0 0

nr 52 22 0 84 51 0 nr 57 17 17 1 11 3 49 0 0 0

51 0 4 42 14

1,721 84 141 1,347 1,576

359 0 4 214 79

21 0 3 16 5

54 945 30 1,074 181 16 9 316 nr 395 16 nr 9 316 71 8 16 1,087

16 49 0 nr 17 0 0 63 nr 2 16 nr 0 25 18 0 16 113

30 5 0 nr 9 0 0 20 nr 1 100 nr 0 8 25 0 100 10

580 16 255 16 11

0 0 216 0 8

0 0 85 0 73

20 9 nr

0 9 nr

0 100 nr

Triazines and Acetanilides Acrolein Alachlor Ametryn Atratone Atrazine Cyanazine Cyprazine Hexazinone Metolachlor Metribuzin Prometon Prometryn Propachlor Propazine Simazine Simetone Simetryn Terbutryn Phenoxy Acids 2,4-D 2,4-D (methyl ester) 2,4-DP 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-TP (silvex) Other Herbicides Bensulfuron-methyl Butylate Chloramben Dacthal Dicamba Dinoseb Diquat EPTC Fluometuron Linuron Molinate Norflurazon Paraquat Pendimethalin Picloram Propham Thiobencarb Trifluralin

215 6 50 166 196

110 0 2 70 27

3 94 30 119 68 4 9 15 26 37 27 26 9 15 38 8 27 104

2 8 0 nr 17 0 0 7 7 9 7 5 0 14 15 0 2 24

Captan Chlorothalonil HCB PCNB PCP

30 4 50 4 11

0 0 43 0 8

Azinhos-methyl oxon Carbofuran phenol 2-Chloro-2 0 ,2 0 diethylacetanilide

6 1 26

0 1 8

67 9 0 nr 25 0 0 47 27 24 26 19 0 93 39 0 7 23 Fungicides 0 0 86 0 73 Transformation products 0 100 31

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Table 10E.145

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Sampling Sites

Pesticide

Number of Samples with Detections

Percent of Samples with Detections

nr 3,941 4,869 685 685 nr 154 154 304

nr 543 939 559 249 nr 0 0 222

nr 14 19 82 36 nr 0 0 73

20 73

3,714 nr

552 nr

15 nr

100 100 100 100 0 0

nr nr 14 9 14 33

nr nr 14 9 0 0

nr nr 100 100 0 0

Number of Sites with Detections

Percent of Sites with Detections

26 876 1,128 291 242 26 50 50 76

16 139 219 254 154 2 0 0 60

62 16 19 87 64 8 0 0 79

922 26

181 19

1 1 14 1 14 33

1 1 14 1 0 0

Total Sites

Cyanazine amide DDD DDE Deethylatrazine Deisopropylatrazine Desmethyl norflurazon Endosulfan sulfate Endrin aldehyde ESA (alachlor metabolite) Heptachlor epoxide 2-Hydroxy-2 0 6 0 diethylacetanilide 2-Ketomolinate 4-Ketomolinate Oxychlordane Paranitrophenol Photomirex Terbufos sulfone

Samples

Total Samples

Note: a, alpha; b, beta; g, gamma; d, delta. nr, not reported. a

Detection frequencies for DDT, DDD, and DDE include both p,p 0 -, and o,p 0 -isomers, as many studies did not report which isomer was targeted. b HCH data for all isomers, including, a, b, g (lindane), and d. c Includes compounds used as acaricides, miticides, and nematocides. Source: From Larson, S.J., Capel, P.D., and Majewski, M.S., 1997, Pesticides in Surface Waters Distribution, Trends, and Governing Factors, Volume Three of the Series Pesticides in the Hydrologic System, Ann Arbor Press, Inc., Chelsea, Michigan.

Table 10E.146 Statistical Summary of Concentrations of Glyphosate, Its Degradation Product, AMPA, and Glufosinate Determined for Water Samples Collected form 51 Streams in Nine Midwestern States, 2002 Herbicide

Number of Samples

Pre-emergence runoff samples Glyphosate 51 AMPA 51 Glufosinate 51 Post-emergence runoff samples Glyphosate 52 AMPA 52 Glufosinate 52 Harvest-season runoff samples Glyphosate 51 AMPA 51 Glufosinate 51

Number at or Above MRL

25th Percentile

Median

75th Percentile

95th Percentile

Maximum

18 27 0

!0.10 !0.10 !0.10

!0.10 0.10 !0.10

0.20 0.28 !0.10

0.58 0.55 !0.10

1.00 1.8 !0.10

21 43 2

!0.10 0.18 !0.10

!0.10 0.27 !0.10

0.32 0.42 !0.10

1.5 0.94 !0.10

4.5 2.0 0.26

16 37 0

!0.10 !0.10 !0.10

!0.10 0.21 !0.10

0.14 0.51 !0.10

0.45 1.3 !0.10

8.7 3.6 !0.10

Note: All concentrations in micrograms per liter. MRL, method reporting limit; !, less than; AMPA, aminomethylphosphonic acid. Source: From Scribner, E.A., Battaglin, W.A., Dietze, J.E., and Thurman, E.M., 2003, Reconnaissance Data for Glyphosate, Other Selected Herbicides, Their Degradation Products, and Antibiotics in 51 Streams in Nine Midwestern States, 2002, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 03-217, www.usgs.gov.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

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Table 10E.147 Average Pesticide Concentrations Detected in Sediments from Selected Estuaries in the United States, 1984– 1992 (milligrams per kilogram dry weight) Estuary

tDDT

TDieldrin

tCdane

Hexachl

Lindane

Mirex

Machias Bay, ME-Hog Island Machias Bay, ME-Chance Island Frenchman Bay, ME-Long Porcupine Island Penobscot Bay, ME-Colt Head Island Johns Bay, ME-Pemaquid Neck Casco Bay, ME-Great Chebeague Island Casco Bay, ME-Cousins Island Cape Elizabeth, ME-Richmond Island Merrimac River, MA-Plum Island Salem Harbor, MA-Folger Point Boston Harbor, MA-President Roads Boston Harbor, MA-Deer Island Boston Harbor, MA-Quincy Bay Boston Harbor, MA-Hull Bay Boston Harbor, MA-Mystic RIver Massachusetts Bay, MA-Plymouth Entrance Buzzards Bay, MA-West Island New Bedford Harbor, MA-Clarks Point Narragansett Bay, Rl-Prudence Island Narragansett Bay, Rl-Conanicut Island Niantic Bay, CON-Black Point Long Island Sound, NY-New Haven Long Island Sound, NY – Norwalk Long Island Sound, NY-Long Island Shoal Long Island Sound, NY-Rocky Point Long Island Sound, NY-Lloyd Point Long Island Sound, NY-Oak Neck Point Hudson River, NY Raritan Bay, NY-Upper Bay Raritan Bay, NY-Gravesend Bay Raritan Bay, NY-West Reach Raritan Bay, NJ-East Reach Raritan Bay, NJ-Lower Bay Great Bay, NJ-Wells Island Great Bay, NJ-Seven Island Great Bay, NJ-Intercoastal Waterway Delaware Bay, DE-Cherry Island Range Delaware Bay, DE-Brandywine Shoal Delaware Bay, DE -The Shears Baltimore Harbor, MD-Fort McHenry Channel Baltimore Harbor, MD-Brewerton Channel Chesapeake Bay, MD-Gibson Island Chesapeake Bay, MD-Chester River Chesapeake Bay, MD-Kent Island Chesapeake Bay, MD-Patuxent River Chesapeake Bay, MD-Smith Island Chesapeake Bay, VA-James RIver Chesapeake Bay, VA-York RIver Chesapeake Bay, VA-Elizabeth RIver Pamlico Sound, NC-Jones Bay Cape Fear River, NC-Horseshoe Shoal Charleston Harboar, SC – Coastal Charleston Harboar, SC-South Channel Savannah River, GA-Elba Island Sapelo Sound, GA-High Point St. Johns River, FL -Trout River St. Johns River, FL-West Mill Cove St. Johns River, FL-Ortega River St. Johns River, FL-Piney Point

0.00 0.52 1.14 4.88 0.08 6.53 6.60 0.32 0.00 24.49 87.01 7.21 32.65 6.27 43.67 0.00 1.77 14.38 11.00 8.12 1.85 7.33 7.50 0.10 0.00 0.00 8.02 26.63 9.10 17.48 31.10 34.74 35.75 6.97 8.36 1.45 47.60 4.05 4.63 30.13 15.83 10.52 5.32 7.70 0.53 1.11 3.33 2.11 17.23 1.43 0.10 47.58 1.77 0.00 1.57 5.03 6.86 11.70 1.07

0.00 0.26 1.93 1.08 0.18 3.71 0.23 0.15 0.17 1.64 1.33 1.03 5.16 1.67 8.33 0.00 0.70 0.00 2.67 6.14 0.83 0.00 2.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.49 3.50 1.25 1.83 3.50 2.41 2.05 0.67 0.75 0.17 3.65 0.75 0.00 2.18 3.75 0.80 1.65 2.25 0.10 0.19 0.90 0.19 0.38 0.00 0.00 8.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.47 0.28 0.00 0.00

0.13 0.65 0.86 1.83 0.02 3.61 1.63 0.07 0.89 6.12 7.14 7.04 11.53 3.23 22.43 0.00 0.78 3.90 4.93 4.03 0.40 4.00 3.33 0.04 0.00 0.00 3.15 5.00 2.08 4.35 7.04 6.22 7.79 1.93 2.29 0.13 4.38 6.15 0.53 8.97 5.69 2.45 1.55 2.40 0.07 0.99 0.67 1.02 3.18 0.00 0.00 14.60 0.03 0.00 0.00 3.93 1.09 4.20 1.60

0.53 0.36 0.76 1.46 0.00 1.05 1.43 0.07 0.70 1.77 1.12 1.23 0.67 0.53 0.67 0.00 0.26 1.88 2.33 0.98 0.37 2.00 0.95 0.03 0.36 0.29 0.44 0.77 0.29 0.97 0.83 1.18 1.89 1.30 0.41 0.48 0.70 1.03 0.60 6.18 5.90 1.06 0.35 0.50 0.00 0.14 0.20 0.36 0.51 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.57 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.51 0.25 0.99 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.07 0.21 2.02 0.52 0.08 0.44 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.68 0.07 0.00 2.56 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 1.41 0.00 0.16 0.52 0.71 0.64 1.23 0.67 0.16 0.08 0.03 0.89 0.17 0.00 1.70 0.79 0.70 1.50 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.59 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.31 1.10 0.25 1.40 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.33 0.43 0.52 0.05 0.33 0.33 0.00 0.00 2.67 1.31 0.67 0.22 0.27 0.58 0.41 35.40 0.00 0.29 0.00 1.20 0.00 0.00 0.42 0.31 0.00 0.58 1.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.62 0.14 0.23 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 (Continued)

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Table 10E.147

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(Continued)

Estuary St. Johns River, FL-Orange Point St. Lucie River, FL-Stuart Biscayne Bay, FL-North Bay Biscayne Bay, FL-Chicken Key Charlotte Harbor, FL-Cape Haze Tampa Bay, FL-Northern Tampa Bay Apalachicola Bay, FL -St George Island St. Andrew Bay, FL-Military Point Choctawhatchee Bay, FL Pensacola Bay, FL Mobile Bay, AL-North Point Pascagoula River, MS-Escatawpa River Pascagoula River, MS Round Island, MS-Round Island Herron Bay, MS-Heron Bay Mississippi River Delta, LA-Southeast Pass Mississippi River Delta, LA-Head of Passes Barataria Bay, LA-Barataria Pass Calcasieu River, LA-Prien Lake Calcasieu River, LA-West Cove Galveston Bay, TX-East Bay Galveston Bay, TX-Trinity Bay Galveston Bay, TX-Greens Bayou Galveston Bay, TX-Goat Islands Galveston Bay, TX-Morgans Point Galveston Bay, TX-Eagle Point Galveston Bay, TX-Texas City Lavaca Bay, TX San Antonio Bay, TX-Mosquito Point San Antonio Bay, TX-San Antonio Bay Corpus Christi Bay, TX-Long Reef Lower Laguna Madre, TX -Laguna Heights Lower Laguna Madre, TX -Long Island San Diego Bay, CA-Outside San Diego Bay, CA-National City San Diego Bay, CA-28th Street San Diego Bay, CA-North San Diego Bay, CA-Harbor Island San Diego Bay, CA-Shelter Island Mission Bay, CA-Outside Dana Point Harbor, CA-Outside San Pedro Bay, CA-Seal Beach San Pedro Bay, CA-LongBeach San Pedro Bay, CA-Outer Harbor San Pedro Bay, CA-Cerritos Channel Santa Monica Bay, CA-Southeast Santa Monica Bay, CA-South Santa Monica Bay, CA-Manhattan Beach Santa Monica Bay, CA-West Santa Monica Bay, CA-Deep Santa Monica Bay, CA-North San Luis Obispo, CA-San Luis Obispo Estero Bay, CA-Estero Bay Monterrey Bay, CA-Indian Head Beach San Francisco Bay, CA-Redwood City San Francisco Bay, CA-Hunters Point San Francisco Bay, CA-Oakland Estuary San Francisco Bay, CA-Southampton Shoal San Francisco Bay, CA-Oakland Entrance San Francisco Bay, CA-Castro Creek

tDDT 0.00 6.93 0.90 0.53 0.14 0.27 2.05 718.50 2.50 0.39 17.21 5.30 3.62 0.38 0.17 3.47 390.00 0.04 473.00 25.67 0.00 0.00 123.67 6.38 0.90 1.67 0.00 0.52 0.20 0.65 0.42 0.00 0.00 14.71 8.14 16.36 7.33 37.93 3.89 0.33 2.20 31.26 97.60 498.66 221.80 149.67 833.67 2.51 57.09 24.85 98.33 6.90 0.30 0.74 11.42 6.48 27.33 1.00 5.3 6.6

TDieldrin

tCdane

Hexachl

Lindane

Mirex

0.00 0.40 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.78 0.00 0.43 0.20 0.13 1.20 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.93 2.20 0.11 2.00 0.83 0.00 0.00 7.17 0.94 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.49 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.75 0.94 1.18 0.27 0.32 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.77 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.00 0.62 2.10 0.00 0.00 0.78

0.49 1.17 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.02 0.30 0.00 0.47 0.39 0.15 1.67 1.06 0.12 0.00 0.44 6.58 0.01 6.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 71.00 10.72 0.17 1.39 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.68 7.91 2.01 1.12 0.86 0.17 0.10 1.60 8.19 0.78 14.40 0.83 1.12 0.31 1.69 0.00 0.73 0.00 0.00 0.01 2.27 0.34 5.56 0.00 0.00 1.08

0.00 0.00 0.57 0.00 0.10 0.06 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.44 0.00 0.02 7.50 3.00 0.02 3.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 32.83 10.20 1.35 1.67 0.00 0.37 0.00 0.02 2.03 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.27 0.23 0.10 0.00 0.18 0.09 0.90 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.26 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.68 0.29 0.79 0.47 0.57 0.75

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.67 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.60 0.03 0.70 0.00 0.00 0.43 0.22 0.12 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.03 0.18 0.53 0.00 0.17

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.54 0.00 0.00 0.09 1.80 0.01 3.33 0.23 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.66 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.09 0.17 0.02 0.10 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.35 0.29 0.00 0.00 0.12 (Continued)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10E.147

10-235

(Continued)

Estuary

tDDT

TDieldrin

tCdane

Hexachl

Lindane

Mirex

San Francisco Bay, CA-San Pablo Bay Bodega Bay, CA-North Coos Bay, OR-North Bend Columbia River Mouth, WA-Desdemona Sands Puget Sound, Nisqually Reach, WA Puget Sound, Commencement Bay, WA Puget Sound, WA-Elliott Bay Boca de Quadra, AK-Bacrian Point Lutak Inlet, AK-Chilkoot River Mouth Skagway, AK-Skagway River Nahku Bay, AK-East Side Prince William Sound, AK-Port Valdez Gulf of Alaska, AK-Kamishak Bay Bering Sea, AK,-Dutch Harbor Bering Sea, AK,-Port Moller Chukchi Sea, AK-Red Dog Mine Beaufort Sea, AK-Olitok Point Beaufort Sea, AK-Prudhoe Bay

3.7 0.4 0.83 0.15 0.00 3.48 13.25 0.00 2.17 1.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 1.83 4.67 1.53 0 0.17

0.28 0.06 0.15 0.08 0.00 0.64 1.7 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.17

0.33 0.14 0.08 0.04 0.00 1.75 1.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08

0.28 0.01 0.14 0.03 0.00 3.18 0.27 0.67 0.30 0.47 0.00 0.47 0.73 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.22

0.12 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.53 0.00 0.53 0.70 0.00 1.00 0.27 0.00 0.2

0 0.04 0 0.04 0.00 0.17 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06

Note: tDDT is the sum of 2,4 0 -DDD, 4,4 0 DDD, 2,4 0 -DDE, 4,4 0 -DDE, 2,4 0 DDT, 4,4 0 -DDT. TDieldrin is the sum of aldrin and dieldrin. tCdane is the sum of cis-chlordane and trans-nonachlor, heptachlor, and heptachlorepoxide. Source: From Abstracted from Marmon, M.R., Gottholm, W., and Robertson, A., 1998, A Summary of Chemical Contaminant Levels at Benthic Surveillance Project Sites (1984–1992)—NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS ORCA 124, noa.gov.

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10-236

Table 10E.148 Selected Results of Studies that Monitored Pesticides in Bed Sediment in the United States, 1960–1994 All Monitoring Studies (Published 1960–1994) Concentration Range (mg/kg dry weight)

Target Analytes

nr, 0.05–480 nr, 0.01–4,800 nr, 0.5–100 nr, 0.5–50 nr, 0.01–38 nr, 0.1–50 nr, 0.05–960 nr, 0.01–24 nr, 0.1–50 nr, 0.1–960 nr, 0.01–10 nr, 0.1–50 nr, 0.1–960 nr, 0.01–50 nr, 0.1–100 nr, 0.01–100 nr, 0.1–100 nr, 0.1–480 nr, 0.1–960 nr, 0.01–100 nr, 0.1–100 0.03–480 nr, 0.1–480 nr, 0.1–480 nr, 0.01–480 nr, 0.01–480 nr, 0.03–400 nr, 0.05–480 nr, 0.1–100 nr, 0.1–4,800 nr, 0.01–100 nr, 0.5–100 nr, 0.5–100 nr, 0.5–1,200 nr, 0.05–9,600

In Maximum Concentrations nd-1,065 nd-1,000 nd-293 nd-149 nd-5,100 nd-1,312 nd-5,820 nd-10,000 nd-292 nd-1,870 nd-6,480 nd-807 nd-3,752 nd-30,200,000 nd-13 nd-440 nd-4,530 nd-96 nd-140 nd-120 nd-20 nd-110 nd-2,800 nd-0.8 nd-16.6 nd-106 nd-7,500,000 nd-221 0 nd-366 nd-1,834 nd-5.5 nd-16 nd-770 nd-1,858,000

119 111 25 28 95 29 50 101 29 52 96 35 51 44 42 163 50 14 14 131 10 44 33 25 119 123 47 128 41 70 85 22 21 13 100

Percentage of Studies Concentration Range (mg/kg dry weight) with Detectable In Detection In Maximum Residues in at Least Limits Concentrations One Sample 28 74 24 32 91 28 52 88 21 60 80 37 53 80 19 65 26 50 50 25 30 20 15 4 21 32 32 19 0 20 13 9 10 31 12

nr, 0.1–480 nr, 0.1–4,800 nr, 0.5–100 nr, 0.5–50 nr, 0.01–10 nr, 0.1–50 nr, 0.1–960 nr, 0.01–20 nr, 0.1–50 nr, 0.1–960 nr, 0.01–10 nr, 0.1–50 nr, 0.1–960 nr, 0.1–50 nr, 0.1–50 nr, 0.01–100 nr, 0.1–10 nr, 0.1–480 nr, 0.1–960 nr, 0.1–100 nr, 0.1–100 nr, 0.1–480 nr, 0.1–480 nr, 0.1–480 nr, 0.1–480 nr, 0.01–480 nr, 0.1–400 nr, 0.1–480 nr, 0.1–50 nr, 0.1–4,800 nr, 0.01–50 nr, 0.5–100 nr, 0.5–100 nr, 0.1–1,200 nr, 0.1–9,600

nd-1,065 nd-510 nd-90 nd-149 nd-260 nd-1,312 nd-5,820 nd-430 nd-292 nd-1,870 nd-2,280 nd-807 nd-3,752 nd-4,443,500 nd-0.2 nd-440 nd-339 nd-96 nd-140 nd-43 nd-20 nd-65 nd-2,800 nd-0.8 nd-12 nd-106 nd-7,500,000 nd-65 0 nd-366 nd-310 nd-5.5 nd-16 nd-770 nd-2,800

Total Number of Studies That Reported Data

Percentage of Studies with Detectable Residues in at Least One Sample

70 62 22 25 46 27 44 48 27 45 45 29 43 25 16 97 34 13 13 80 9 39 30 25 72 78 41 75 14 50 64 22 21 8 65

24 69 14 24 91 22 48 90 15 53 76 28 47 68 13 54 21 46 46 20 22 13 17 4 22 28 24 16 0 20 9 9 10 25 11

Note: Results are presented for all monitoring studies (published 1960–1994), and for recent monitoring studies (published 1984–1994) that are listed in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 of the publication. Concentration range in detection limits: “nr” indicates that one or more studies did not report detection limits. Abbreviations: nd, not detected; nr, not reported; mg/kg, microgram per kilogram. a b c

Total or unspecified. (o,p 0 Cp,p 0 )- or unspecified. p,p 0 - or unspecified.

Source: From Nowell, L.H., Capel, P.D., and Dileanis, P.D., 1999, Pesticides in Stream Sediment and Aquatic Biota, Distribution, Trends, and Governing Factors, Volume Four of the Series Pesticides in the Hydrologic System, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton. q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Aldrin Chlordanea Chlordane, cisChlordane, transDDDa DDD, o,p 0 DDD, p,p 0 DDEa DDE, o,p 0 DDE, p,p 0 DDTb DDT, o,p 0 DDT, p,p 0 DDT, total Diazinon Dieldrin Endosulfana Endosulfan I Endosulfan II Endrin HCHa HCH, aHCH, bHCH, dHeptachlor Heptchlor epoxide Hexachlorobenzene Lindane Malathion Methoxychlorc Mirex Nonachlor, cisNonachlor, transPentachlorophenol Toxaphene

In Detection Limits

Total Number of Studies that Reported Data

Recent Monitoring Studies (Published 1984–1994)

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-237

Table 10E.149 Statistical Summary of Organochlorine Concentrations in Sediment, in the United States, 1992–1995 Concentration (mg/kg dry weight) at Given Percentile

Target Analyte p,p 0 -DDE Total PCBsa Total PCBsb p,p 0 -DDD trans-Nonachlor p,p 0 -DDT Dieldrin cis-Chlordane cis-Nonachlor trans-Chlordane Oxychlordane o,p 0 -DDD Pentachloroanisole Hexachlorobenzene o,p 0 -DDT Heptachlor epoxide o,p 0 -DDE g-HCH Dacthal Endrin a-HCH Toxaphene Aldrin Mirex o,p 0 -Methoxychlor p,p 0 -Methoxychlor b-HCH Heptachlor Endosulfan cis-Permethrin transPermethrin Chloroneb Isodrin

Number of Samples

RL

5

10

25

421 428 207 350 411 358 413 411 412 416 405 350 430

1 100 50 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 50

!1 !100 !50 !1 !1 !2 !1 !1 !1 !1 !1 !1 !50

!1 !100 !50 !1 !1 !2 !1 !1 !1 !1 !1 !1 !50

!1 !100 !50 !1 !1 !2 !1 !1 !1 !1 !1 !1 !50

!1 !100 !50 !1 !1 !2 !1 !1 !1 !1 !1 !1 !50

2.2 !100 !50 !1 !1 !2 !1 !1 !1 !1 !1 !1 !50

442

50

!50

!50

!50

!50

354 412

2 1

!2 !1

!2 !1

!2 !1

405 413 414 412 415 419 418 418 382 378 411 419 409 344 340

1 1 5 2 1 200 1 1 5 5 1 1 1 5 5

!1 !1 !5 !2 !1 !200 !1 !1 !5 !5 !1 !1 !1 !5 !5

!1 !1 !5 !2 !1 !200 !1 !1 !5 !5 !1 !1 !1 !5 !5

396 409

5 1

!5 !1

!5 !1

50

75

90

Frequency of Detection (percent)

95

100

7.28 !100 150 4.19 2.08 4.03 1.5 1.8 !1 2.2 !1 !1 !50

12.9 145.5 336 9.24 3 12.05 3.23 3.3 1.6 3.775 !1 2.09 !50

220 13,000 13,000 130 18 180 18 17 10 20 1.3 150 !50

39.4 5.8 18.8 24.9 15.8 18.7 14.3 15.8 9.2 17.1 0.3 10.9 0

!50

!50

!50

!50

0

!2 !1

!2 !1

!2 !1

!2 !1

30 4.6

3.1 1.2

!1 !1 !5 !2 !1 !200 !1 !1 !5 !5 !1 !1 !1 !5 !5

!1 !1 !5 !2 !1 !200 !1 !1 !5 !5 !1 !1 !1 !5 !5

!1 !1 !5 !2 !1 !200 !1 !1 !5 !5 !1 !1 !1 !5 !5

!1 !1 !5 !2 !1 !200 !1 !1 !5 !5 !1 !1 !1 !5 !5

!1 !1 !5 !2 !1 !200 !1 !1 !5 !5 !1 !1 !1 !5 !5

22 5.2 25 !2 !1 240 3 4.4 !5 71 1.2 !1 8.8 26 15

2 1 1.5 0 0 0.2 0.5 1.9 0 0.8 0.5 0.2 2.7 1.2 0.9

!5 !1

!5 !1

!5 !1

!5 !1

!5 !1

!5 !1

0 0

Note: All statistics apply to samples in the national data set. 5. Frequency of detection: percentage of samples with concentrations at or above the reporting limit. PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; RL, reporting limit in microgram per kilogram dry weight; mg/kg, microgram per kilogram; !, less than. a b

Total PCBs censored at a reporting limit of 100 mg/kg dry weight. Total PCBs censored at a reporting limit of 50 mg/kg dry weight.

Source: From Wong, C.S., Capel, P.D., and Nowell, L.H., 2000, Organochlorine Pesticides and PCBs in Stream Sediment and Aquatic Biota — Initial Results from the National Water-Quality Assessment Program, 1992–1995, United States Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Report 00-4053, www.usgs.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10E.150 Comparison of Organochlorine Concentrations in Sediment in the United States with Sediment-Quality Guidelines, 1992–1995 EPA Sediment-Quality Criteria

Target Analytes Total chlordane Total DDT Dieldrin Endosulfan I Endrin Total HCH Heptachlor epoxide Hexachlorobenzene Lindane Total methoxychlor Total PCBs Toxaphene Probability of adverse effects

Criterion (mg/kg-oc) — — 11,000 — 4,200 — — — — — — —

Tier 1 Percent of Sites Exceeding Criterion

Boundary Values and Tier Assignments Tier 2–3 Boundary Valuea (mg/kg dry weight)

Tier 1–2 Boundary Valueb (mg/kg dry weight)

0.5 1.58 0.02 2.9 0.02 0.32 0.6 22 0.32 19 21.6 1.5

6 46.1 6.67c i 45c 3.7 i i 1.38 i 189 100

— — 0 — 0 — — — — — — — High

NAWQA Sites in Each Tier (percent)

Tier 1

Tier 2

Tier 3

10.4 4.7 0 — 0 0.2 — — 0.7 — 3.5 0.2d High

8.3 32.1 14.3 1.2 0 1.2 1.2 0 0.2 0.5 2.3 0d Intermediate

81.3 63.2 85.7 98.8 100 98.5 98.8 100 99 99.5 94.2 99.8d No indication

Note: Percentage of NAWQA sites in Tiers 1, 2, and 3 based on exceedance of sediment-quality guidelines. EPA sediment-quality criteria, and the percent exceedance, are shown because exceedance of this criterion triggers classification in Tier 1 for sites with sediment organic carbon data. Tier 1-2 and Tier 2-3 boundary values are also shown (see text for explanation). The probability of adverse effects on aquatic life is shown for each tier. I, insufficient guidelines to determine a Tier 1-2 boundary value; EPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; wt., weight; mg/kg, microgram per kilogram; mg/kg-oc, microgram per kilogram of sediment organic carbon; —, no guideline available. a b c d

Lowest of the lower screening values. Second lowest of the upper screening values. Values are appropriate only for site with no sediment organic carbon data; if sediment organic carbon data are available, the EPA sediment-quality criterion (column 1) should be used instead. Because the boundary values (1.5 and 100 mg/kg) for this compound are well below its detection limit in the present study (200 mg/kg), the percentage of sites in Tiers 1 and 2 must be considered as underestimates.

Source: From Wong, C.S., Capel, P.D., and Nowell, L.H., 2000, Organochlorine Pesticides and PCBs in Stream Sediment and Aquatic Biota — Initial Results from the National Water-Quality Assessment Program, 1992–1995, United States Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Report 00-4053, www.usgs.gov.

Table 10E.151 Current and Maximum Rates of Toxaphene Accumulation in Great Lakes Sediments

Location Lake Superior Northern Lake Michigan Southern Lake Michigan near Chicago Urban Area Lake Ontario

Number of Sediment Cores Analyzed

Accumulation Rates in Sediment (ng/cm2/yr) Present

Maximum Historical

3 3 1

0.097–0.14 0.52–1.01 0.24

0.25 1.07 0.32

3

0.39–0.60

1.4

Note: All accumulations are focus-corrected. a Total or unspecified. b (O,p 0 Cp,p 0 )- or unspecified. c p,p 0 - or total. Source: From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, Deposition of Air Pollutants to the Great Waters Third Report to Congress, EPA-453/R-00-005. Original Source: From Pearson et al., 1997b, www.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-239

Table 10E.152 Selected Results of Studies That Monitored Pesticides in Whole Fish and the Percentage of Those Studies That Exceeded Guidelines for the Protection of Fish-Eating Wildlife, 1960–1994 Whole Fish: All Monitoring Studies (Published 1960–1994) Concentration Range (mg/kg wet weight)

Target Analytes

In Detection Limits

Aldrin Acephate Alachlor Aldicarb Atrazine Azinphos-methyl Carbaryl Carbofuran Carbofuran, 3-hydroxyCarbophenothion Chlordanea Chlordane, cisChlordane, transChlorpyrifos Coumaphos Cyanazine D, 2,4Dacthal (DCPA) DDDa DDD, o,p 0 DDD, p,p 0 DDEa DDE, o,p 0 DDE, p,p 0 DDTa DDT, o,p 0 DDT, p,p 0 DDT, total Demeton Diazinon Dichlorvos Dicofol Dieldrin Dimethoate Disulfoton Endosulfana Endosulfan I Endosulfan II Endosulfan sulfate Endrin Endrin aldehyde Endrin ketone EPN Ethoprop Famphur Fensulfothion Fenthion Fenvalerate HCHa HCH, aHCH, bHCH, dHeptachlor

nr, 0.01–50 50 nr, 10–100 50 10–8,000 50–300 5–50 nr, 20–200 20–200 50 nr, 0.1–100 nr, 0.01–100 nr, 0.01–50 nr, 10 nr 10 1 nr, 2–10 nr, 0.1–50 nr, 0.01–50 nr, 0.01–100 nr, 0.1–100 nr, 0.01–50 nr, 0.01–100 nr, 0.1–50 nr, 0.01–50 nr, 0.01–100 nr, 0.1–100 50 nr, 100 nr nr, 1–10 nr, 0.01–100 41–50 nr nr, 0.1–20 nr, 0.02–10 nr, 2–10 nr, 2–200 nr, 0.01–100 nr, 200 nr 200 nr nr nr nr nr nr, 0.1–100 nr, 0.0.1–100 nr, 0.01–100 nr, 0.01–100 nr, 0.01–50

In Maximum Concentrations (Cmax) nd-12 nd nd nd nd nd nd-50 nd-560 1,490 nd nd-870 nd-1,090 nd-970 nd nd nd 6 nd-13,400 nd-12,500 nd-420 nd-31,000 nd-31,500 nd-360 nd-140,000 nd-6,750 nd-720 nd-4,600 nd-28,880 nd nd nd nd-560 nd-12,500 nd nd nd-170 nd-285 nd-40 nd-20 nd-2,060 nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd-11 nd-170 nd-610 nd-900 nd-41 nd-600

Percentage of Studies with Percentage of Cmax that Studies with Exceeded Total Number Detectable NAS/NAE of Studies Residues Guidelinea 32 1 2 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 27 44 42 2 1 1 1 14 19 34 61 21 35 61 22 37 55 34 1 2 1 10 87 1 1 6 8 7 6 65 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 12 34 31 25 34

19 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 100 0 63 61 62 0 0 0 100 79 84 29 77 90 23 89 77 35 58 100 0 0 0 40 74 0 0 67 38 29 17 28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 50 35 23 12 35

0 — — — — — — — — — 33 20 12 — — — — — 26 0 10 33 0 28 27 0 7 50 — — — — 31 — — 17 13 0 — 5 — — — — — — — — 17 — — — 6

Percentage of Studies with Cmax that Exceeded NYSDEC Guidelineb 0 — — — — — — — — — 4 5 7 — — — — — 26 9 31 62 3 43 50 5 20 82 — — — — 30 — — — — — — 9 — — — — — — — — 17 — — — 6 (Continued)

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10-240

Table 10E.152

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Whole Fish: All Monitoring Studies (Published 1960–1994) Concentration Range (mg/kg wet weight)

Target Analytes

In Detection Limits

Heptachlor epoxide Hexachlorobenzene Kepone Lindane Malathion Methamidophos Methiocarb Methomyl Methoxychlorc Methyl parathion Metolachlor Mevinphos Mirex Monocrotophos Nonachlor, cisNonachlor, transOxadiazon Oxamyl Oxychlordane Parathion Pentachloroanisole Pentachlorophenol Permethrin Perthane Phorate Phosdrin Photomirex T,2,4,5Terbufos Tetrachlorvinphos Tetradifon Toxaphene Trichlorfon Trifluralin

nr, 0.01–104 nr, 0.01–100 nr, 10–50 nr, 0.01–100 nr, 1–50 nr nr nr nr, 0.1–100 nr, 50 nr nr nr, 0.01–100 nr nr, 0.01–100 nr, 0.01–107 nr nr nr, 0.01–105 30–50 nr nr, 0.1–3,000 nr 0.01–1 50 20 nr 0.2 50 20 nr, 1–10 nr, 0.1–2,000 50–80 nr, 2

In Maximum Concentrations (Cmax) nd-480 nd-27,000 nd-2,800 nd-120 nd nd nd nd nd-130 nd-60 nd nd nd-1,810 nd nd-156 nd-1,550 2,200 nd nd-640 nd 33–160 nd-4,520 0.53 nd nd nd 196–400 nd nd nd nd-2 nd-280,330 nd 7–126

Percentage of Studies with Cmax that Percentage of Studies with Exceeded Total Number Detectable NAS/NAE of Studies Residues Guidelinea 64 51 6 42 3 1 1 1 15 3 1 1 46 1 38 45 1 1 50 2 2 2 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 5 51 2 2

50 45 50 24 0 0 0 0 47 33 0 0 28 0 29 64 100 0 34 0 100 50 100 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 20 37 0 100

5 — — 2 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 37 — —

Percentage of Studies with Cmax that Exceeded NYSDEC Guidelineb 2 14 — 2 — — — — — — — — 11 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

Note: All concentrations are wet weight, NAS/NAE guideline, maximum recommended concentration for protection of fish-eating wildlife. NYSDEC guideline: New York fish flesh criterion for protection of piscivorous wildlife. Abbreviations and symbols: Cmax, maximum concentration in the study; NAS/NAE, National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineering; NYSDEC, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation; na, data not available; nd, not detected; nr, one or more studies did not report this information; mg/kg, microgram per kilogram; —, no guideline available. a

Total or unspecified. (o,p 0 Cp,p 0 )- or unspecified. c p,p 0 - or total. Source: From Nowell, L.H., Capel, P.D., and Dileanis, P.D., 1999, Pesticides in Stream Sediment and Aquatic Biota, Distribution, Trends, and Governing Factors, Volume Four of the Series Pesticides in the Hydrologic System, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton. b

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-241

Table 10E.153 Statistical Summary of Organochlorine Concentrations in Fish in the United States, 1992–1995 Concentration (mg/kg wet weight) at Given Percentile

Target Analyte p,p 0 -DDE Total PCBs p,p 0 -DDD transNonachlor p,p 0 -DDT Dieldrin cis-Chlordane cis-Nonachlor transChlordane Oxychlordane o,p 0 -DDD Pentachloroanisole Hexachlorobenzene o,p 0 -DDT Heptachlor epoxide o,p 0 -DDE g-HCH Dacthal Endrin d-HCH a-HCH Toxaphene Aldrin Mirex p,p 0 -Methoxychlor o,p 0 -Methoxychlor b-HCH Heptachlor

Number of Samples

RL

5

10

25

50

75

90

95

100

Frequency of Detection (percent)

233 233 224 231

5 50 5 5

!5 !50 !5 !5

!5 !50 !5 !5

6.9 !50 !5 !5

27 !50 !5 !5

80.5 150 14 9.2

186 646 33.5 21.8

326 1,400 46 29.4

2,400 72,000 1,200 120

79.8 44.6 42.4 33.8

232 232 231 230 232

5 5 5 5 5

!5 !5 !5 !5 !5

!5 !5 !5 !5 !5

!5 !5 !5 !5 !5

!5 !5 !5 !5 !5

7.08 6.15 !5 !5 !5

21.7 21 15.8 8.59 8.61

30.35 36.05 28.8 11.45 15.35

430 260 150 53 56

32.3 28.9 24.2 18.7 16.8

232 231 232

5 5 5

!5 !5 !5

!5 !5 !5

!5 !5 !5

!5 !5 !5

!5 !5 !5

5.77 !5 !5

11.35 8.82 7.56

30 360 87

12.1 9.5 8.2

234

5

!5

!5

!5

!5

!5

!5

8.875

33

7.3

228 232

5 5

!5 !5

!5 !5

!5 !5

!5 !5

!5 !5

!5 !5

5.2 7.335

140 24

5.7 5.6

227 231 231 232 230 232 233 233 233 233

5 5 5 5 5 5 200 5 5 5

!5 !5 !5 !5 !5 !5 !200 !5 !5 !5

!5 !5 !5 !5 !5 !5 !200 !5 !5 !5

!5 !5 !5 !5 !5 !5 !200 !5 !5 !5

!5 !5 !5 !5 !5 !5 !200 !5 !5 !5

!5 !5 !5 !5 !5 !5 !200 !5 !5 !5

!5 !5 !5 !5 !5 !5 !200 !5 !5 !5

5.06 !5 !5 !5 !5 !5 !200 !5 !5 !5

130 30 67 16 5.5 5.4 210 !5 !5 !5

4.9 4.3 3 1.7 0.4 0.4 0.4 0 0 0

231

5

!5

!5

!5

!5

!5

!5

!5

!5

0

232 233

5 5

!5 !5

!5 !5

!5 !5

!5 !5

!5 !5

!5 !5

!5 !5

!5 !5

0 0

Note: All Statistics apply to samples in the national data set. Compounds are listed in order of detection frequency. Frequency of detection: percentage of samples with concentrations at or above the reporting limit. PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; RL, reporting limit in microgram per kilogram wet weight; mg/kg, microgram per kilogram; !, less than. Source: From Wong, C.S., Capel, P.D., and Nowell, L.H., 2000, Organochlorine Pesticides and PCBs in Stream Sediment and Aquatic Biota - Initial Results from the National Water-Quality Assessment Program, 1992–1995, United States Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Report 00-4053, www.usgs.gov.

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10-242

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10E.154 Comparison of Organochlorine Concentrations in Whole Fish Samples Collected in the United States with Edible-Fish Guidelines for Protection of Human Health, 1992–1995

FDA Action Levelb

Target Analytes Total chlordane Total DDT Total dieldrin Endrin Total heptachlor Hexachlorobenzene Lindane Mirex Total PCBs Toxaphene

EPA Cancer Groupa B2 B2 B2 D/E B2 B2 B2/C —e B2 B2

EPA Guidance for Use in Fish Advisories: Recommended Screening Valuea,c

Standard (mg/kg)

Percent of Sites Exceeding Standard

Guideline (mg/kg)

Percent of Sites Exceeding Guideline

300 5,000 300 300 300 300 — 100 2,000f 5,000

0.4 0 0 0 0 0 — 0 2.6 0

80d 300d 7d 3,000 10d 10d 70d 2,000 10d 100d

5.7 7.8 23 0 3 0 0 0 45 0.4

Note: Because chemical concentrations are in whole fish, whereas standards and guidelines apply to edible fish tissues, exceedance indicates that additional sampling of game fish fillets may be warranted. All concentrations are wet weight. EPA cancer group: B2, probable human carcinogen; C, possible human carcinogen; D, not classified; E, no evidence of carcinogenicity. FDA, Food and Drug Administration; EPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; mg/kg, microgram per kilogram; —, no standard or guideline available. a b c d e f

From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1995). From Food and Drug Administration (1990), unless otherwise specified. Based on chronic toxicity, unless otherwise specified. Based on 1 in 100,000 cancer risk. Not classified by EPA; however, classified as a probable human carcinogen by International Agency for Research on Cancer. FDA tolerance level (from Food and Drug Administration, 1984).

Source: From Wong, C.S., Capel, P.D., and Nowell, L.H., 2000, Organochlorine Pesticides and PCBs in Stream Sediment and Aquatic Biota - Initial Results from the National Water-Quality Assessment Program, 1992–1995, United States Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Report 00-4053, www.usgs.gov.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-243

Table 10E.155 Potential Sources of Pesticide Contamination of Groundwater

SPILLS AND LEAKS Storage areas Storage tanks/pipelines Loading/unloading Transport accidents DISPOSAL Process Waste Off-specification material Cancelled products Containers Rinsate LAND APPLICATION Leaching Backflow to irrigation well Run-in to wells, sinkholes Mixing/loading areas Feed lots

Manufacturer/ Formulator

Dealer

Industrial User

Land Application

x x x x

x x x x

x x x x

x x x x

x x x x

x x x

x x x

x x x x x x x x x

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances, 1987, Agricultural Chemicals in Ground Water: Proposed Pesticide Strategy.

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Pesticide or Transformation Product

USEPA Water-Quality Criteria for Drinking Water (µg/L) MCL

HA

Acute (1 d)

NAWWS

NPS CWS

Chronic (7 yrs)

Acifluorfen

nsr

nsr

2,000

100

ND

Qa

Alachlor

2

nsr

100

NR

0.003–4.270

ND

nsr

nsr

nsr

nsr

0.100–8.630 0.002–0.022

Alachlor ESA

Frequencies of Exceedance of MCL or HA (if MCL not available) Among Sampled Wells (percent)

Ranges of Observed Concentrations (µg/L) in Groundwater MCPS

10-kg Child

MMS

PGWDB

MCPS

RD

0.0385–6.185

NAWWS

NPS CWS

0.003–0.025 4.2

ND

NA

NA

0.006–3,000

0.91b

ND

MMS

PGWDB

RD NA 0.13

0.02

0.38

NA

2,6-Diethylaniline

nsr

nsr

nsr

nsr

Hydroxyalachlor

nsr

nsr

nsr

nsr

Aldicarb

3

1

1

1

ND

ND

0.08–1,264.00

ND

ND

Aldicarb sulfone

2

42

60

60

ND

ND

0.01–153.00

ND

ND

12

Aldicarb sulfoxide

4

9

10

10

ND

ND

0.01–1030.00

ND

ND

9.2

Aldrin

nsr

nsr

0.3

0.3

ND

ND

0.0052–21

ND

ND

0.033c

Ametryn

nsr

60

9,000

900

ND

ND

0.01–0.200

ND

ND

Arsenic

50d

NA

ND NA

ND

4.6

0

1.6–680.0

3

3

100

50

0.003–2.090

Q-0.92

Q-7.0

Deethyl atrazine

nsr

nsr

nsr

nsr

0.002–2.320

ND

ND

Deisopropyl atrazine

nsr

nsr

nsr

nsr

0.050–1.170

0.03–6.719

18

0.001–1,500

0

0

0.13

0.05–2.860

NA

ND

ND

0.100–3.540

NA

0.1

0.64 NA NA

Baygon (propoxur)

nsr

3

40

40

ND

ND

2.0–35.0

ND

ND

0.019

Bentazon

nsr

20

300

300

ND

ND

2.9

0.10–41.89

ND

ND

0

0.28

α-BHC

nsr

nsr

50

50

ND

ND

ND

0.0014–0.16e

ND

ND

ND

NA

β-BHC

nsr

nsr

nsr

nsr

ND

0.04

0.0014–0.16a

ND

ND

δ-BHC

Nsr

nsr

nsr

nsr

Qa

Qa

γ-BHC (lindane)

0.2

0.2

1,200

33

ND

Q-0.42

0.0006– 180.000

NA

NA

0

ND

0.13

0.045 0.12

Bromacil

nsr

90

5,000

3,000

ND

ND

0.03–951.6

ND

ND

Butylate

nsr

350

2,000

1,000

ND

ND

ND

0.87–2.23

ND

ND

ND

0

Carbaryl

nsr

700

1,000

1,000

ND

ND

ND

0.03–610.00

ND

ND

ND

0

ND

ND

Carbofuran

40

36

50

50

ND

ND

0.01–176.00

ND

ND

0.26

Carboxin

nsr

700

1,000

1,000

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

Chloramben

nsr

100

3,000

200

Qa

Qa

1.00

0

0

0

α-Chlordane

2f

nsr

60f

0.5f

Q-0.01

Q-0.01

0.01–20.000f

0f

0f

0.20f

ND

Q-0.01

Chlorothalonil

nsr

nsr

200

200

Chlorpyrifos

nsr

20

30

30

0.005–0.024

Cyanazine

nsr

1

100

20

0.010–0.880

nsr

γ-Chlordane

Cyanazine amide

0.18c

0.140–1.100 ND

ND

0.1205–0.1485

0.05–0.654

0

0.002–29.0

0

0 ND

ND

0

0.29

nsr

nsr

nsr

nsr

0.050–0.550

2,4-D

70

70

1,000

100

0.100–0.890

ND

ND

0.0079–57.1

0

ND

ND

Dacthal (DCPA)

nsr

4,000

80,000

5,000

ND

ND

ND

0.010–300.0

ND

ND

ND

0

nsr

nsr

nsr

nsr

0.010–2.220

Q-7.2

Q-2.4

0.21–431.0

NA

NA

NA

NA

Dalapon Diazinon

200 nsr

200 0.6

3,000 20

300 5

Qa

Qa

ND

0 0

0 ND

ND 0.051

0.2

nsr

200

NR

Qa 0.48– 0.71

ND 0.01–3.2

1,2-Dibromo-3chloropropane (DBCP)

Qa Q

0.001–8000.00

0

0.27

5.5

Dicamba

nsr

200

300

300

ND

ND

0.006–44.0

ND

ND

0

1,3-Dichloropropene

nsr

nsr

30f

30f

ND

ND

0.279–140f

ND

ND

NA

DCPA hydrolysis products

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.100

NA

0

0.33c

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Atrazine

ND 0.910

ND

10-244

Table 10E.156 Pesticide Concentrations Measured in Groundwater during Multistate Studies and Studies from the Pesticides in Groundwater Database in Relation to DrinkingWater-Quality Criteria in the United States, 1971–1993

nsr

nsr

0.5

0.5

Dinoseb Diphenamid

7 nsr

7 200

300 300

10 300

Diquat

20

20

nsr

nsr

Disulfoton

nsr

0.3

10

3

Diuron

nsr

10

1,000

300

Endothall

100

140

800

200

Endrin

ND

ND

ND

0.095c

0 ND

ND ND

0.59 ND

0.04–100.00

0

0

0.61

0.01–5.37

ND

ND

ND

ND

0.001–2.600

3.5 ND

ND ND

0.008–47.00 ND

Qa

Qa

ND

ND

ND

ND ND

ND 0

ND

ND

2

2

20

3

ND

ND

0.001–3.5

ND

ND

0.024

Ethylene dibromide (EDB)

0.05

nsr

8

NR

ND

0.29

0.001– 15,772.4

ND

0.13

10.6

Ethylene thiourea (ETU)7

nsr

nsr

300

100

ND

Q-16

0.725

ND

NA

NA

Fenamiphos

nsr

2

9

5

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

Fluometuron

nsr

90

2,000

2,000

ND

ND

0.8–5.000

ND

ND

0

Fonofos

nsr

10

20

20

Glyphosate

700

700

20,000

1,000

0.4

nsr

10

5.0

ND

ND

0.001–0.8

ND

ND

0.12

0.2

nsr

nsr

0.1

ND

ND

0.01–0.22

ND

ND

0.032 0

Heptachlor Heptachlor epoxide Hexachlorobenzene

ND

0.007–0.90

ND

0

0.004–150.0

0

1

nsr

50

50

Q-0.17

ND

0.0039–0.0056

0

ND

Hexazinone

nsr

200

3,000

3,000

ND

ND

0.060–0.720

ND

ND

Malathion

nsr

200

200

200

ND

0.007–6.17

MCPA

nsr

10

100

100

Methomyl

nsr

200

300

300

Methoxychlor

40

40

50

50

Methyl parathion

nsr

2

300

30

ND

Metolachlor

nsr

100

2,000

2,000

0.003–1.460

ND

ND

Metribuzin

nsr

200

5,000

300

0.050–0.220

ND

nsr

nsr

nsr

nsr

ND

Metribuzin DA

0

ND

0

0.13–5.5 ND

ND

ND

ND

0

1.0–20.00 0.01–0.312

ND

ND

0

ND

ND

0

0.01–0.256

ND

0.02–157.00

0

ND

ND

ND

0.001–25.10

0

ND

ND

0

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND ND

0.0375–3.805

( h)

0 0

0

0.013

Metribuzin DADK

nsr

nsr

nsr

nsr

Qa

Qa

ND

NA

NA

Metribuzin DK

nsr

nsr

nsr

nsr

Qa

Qa

ND

NA

NA

ND

Oxamyl

200

200

200

200

ND

ND

0.01–395.00

ND

ND

0.013

Paraquat

nsr

30

100

50

1

NR

1,000

300

ND

ND

0.001–0.64

ND

ND

0

500

500

20,000

700

0.010–0.030

ND

ND

0.01–30.0

ND

ND

0

Prometon

nsr

100

200

200

0.050–1.350

Q

Q-0.57

0.05–29.6

0

0

0

0

Pronamide

nsr

50

800

800

ND

Qa

Qa

ND

ND

0

0

ND

Pentachlorophenol Picloram

0.01–100.0

0.21 0

Propachlor

nsr

90

500

100

0.002

ND

ND

0.02–3.5

0

ND

ND

0

Propazine

nsr

10

1,000

500

ND

ND

ND

0.01–0.20

ND

ND

ND

0

Propham Simazine

nsr 4

100 4

5,000 500

5,000 50

0.002–0.270

ND Q-0.76

ND Q

6.000 0.001–67.0

0

ND 0

ND 0

0.043–8.359

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Dieldrin

40

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 >40

USEPA/CAMD 07/23/04

USEPA/CAMD 07/28/04

Figure 10G.139 Wet sulfate deposition decreased throughout the early 1990s in much of the Ohio River Valley and Northeastern U.S. Other less dramatic reductions were observed across much of New England, portions of the Southern Appalachian Mountains and in the Midwest. Average decreases in wet deposition of sulfate range from 39 percent in the Northeast to 17 percent in the Southeast, www.epa.gov/airmarkets.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-282

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

3.0 2.8

A

Loss of dryland (sq. mil/thousands)

2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0

Northeast

Mid Atlantic

South Atlantic

South & West Florida

Louisiana

Other Gulf

West

Mid Atlantic

South Atlantic

South & West Florida

Louisiana

Other Gulf

West

3.0 2.8

B

2.6

Loss of dryland (sq. mil/thousands)

2.4 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0

Northeast

Sea level scenario:

Baseline

50 cm

100 cm

200 cm

Figure 10G.140 Loss of dry land in the United States by 2100 (A) if no shores are protected and (B) if developed areas are protected for sea level rise. (From U.S.EPA 1988. The Potential Effects of Global Climate Change on the U.S. Draft report to Congress. Prepared by Titus and Greene, adapted from Park and others.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-283

2000

2050

2100

2000

2050 Year

2100

Total sea-level rise (cm)

150

100

50

0

The dark shading indicates the most probable response to the climate scenario shown in Figure 10G-142. The broken line depicts the response to a warming trend delayed 100 years by thermal inertia of the ocean. A global warming of 6˚C by 2100, which represents an extreme upper limit, would result in a sea level rise of about 2.3 m, but errors on this estimate are very large. Figure 10G.141 Total estimated sea-level rise, 1980–2100. (From Thomas, Robert 1986, Future sea-level rise and its early detection by satellite remote sensing, in Effects of Change in Stratospheric Ozone and Global Climate, vol. 4.)

Greenhouse gases Global warming

Atmosphere

Increased ice melting particularly in GREENLAND

Sea-ice distribution

Increased snowfall on the ice sheets

Ocean

Increased melting beneath ice shelves

Thermal expansion

Increased ice discharge from ANTARCTICA into the ocean Sea-level rise

Sea-level fall

Sea-level rise

Heat trapped by greenhouse gases raises the temperature of the atmosphere and the ocean. The response of sea level to this warming is strongly determined by the partition of available heat between these two processes. If most of the heat remains in the atmosphere, air temperatures rise rapidly and sea level is affected most by increased melting of ice. Alternatively, rapid transfer of heat into the sea would increase ocean temperatures, and sea level would rise because of thermal expansion and by accelerated Antarctic ice discharge associated with increased melting from beneath the floating ice shelves. Moreover, sea-ice distribution both influences, and is affected by, thermal interactions between atmosphere and ocean.

Figure 10G.142 Major processes relating greenhouse warming to average worldwide sea level. (From Thomas Robert 1986, Future sea-level rise and its early detection by satellite remote sensing, in Effects of Changes in Stratospheric Ozone and Global Climate, vol. 4.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-284

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Unpolluted

Polluted

Atmosphere

Acidic deposition

Normal rainfall (pH about 5.6)

SOx

Acid precipitation pH 3.0-5.6

NOx

Dry deposition

Roof catchment Watershed- trees, rocks, soil

Industries and automobiles

Sensitive watershed

Water

Yes

No

Little or no effect

Cistern

Sediment Rare effects

Surface supplies

Large reservoirs

Groundwater supplies

Shallow wells

Small headwater streams

Aluminum

Deep wells

Distribution system

Copper pipe

Lead pipe

Contains lead and copper

Contains cadmium and lead

Aluminum

Treatment: Cl2, pH adjustment

Untreated waters Little or no effect

Aluminum Distribution system

Copper pipe

Lead pipe

Contains lead

Plastic pipe

Galvanized pipe

Plastic pipe

Distribution system

Steel pipe

Copper pipe

Contains aluminum

Lead pipe

Contains lead and aluminum

Plastic pipe

No effects Potential for contamination or often contaminated No data

Figure 10G.143 Probable effects of acid deposition on water supplies. (From Perry, J.A., 1984, Current research on the effects of acid deposition, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., vol. 76, no. 3 Copyright. With permission.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-285

4.0

a EPA High

3.0 Estimate of sea level rise

Sea level rise relative to 1986 (m)

Scenarios used in this study

EPA Mid-High 2.0

a

b NRC High

WMO High

d NRC High

c

a EPA Mid-Low

b NRC Mid

1.0

b NRC a EPA Low d NRC Low b NRC Low

Past century

0.0

WMO Low

Estimated 0.12m rise 2000

2050

c

2100

Year a Environmental Protection Agency, reported in JS Hoffman, D Keyes and JG Titus, Projection Future Sea Level Rise, US GPO, 1983. b Glacial volume estimate of National Research Council, reported in MF Meier et al, Glaciers, Ice Sheets, and Sea Level, National Academy Press, 1985, augmented with thermal expansion estimates of the NRC, reported in R Revelle, Probable future changes in sea level resulting from increased atmospheric carbon dioxide, in Changing Climate, NAP, 1983. c WMO International assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in Climate Variations and Associated Impacts, WMO, 1985. d NRC, Responding to Changes in Sea Level: Engineering Implications, NAP, 1987.

Figure 10G.144 Estimates of future sea level rise. (From yosemite.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-286

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Trends/100 yrs +20% +10% +5% –5% –10% –20%

Figure 10G.145 Precipitation trends from 1900 to present. (From Karl et al. (1996), yosemite.epa.gov.)

0.6 0.4 0.2

∆°F

0 −0.2 −0.4 −0.6 −0.8

91 19 01 19 11 19 21 19 31 19 41 19 51 19 61 19 71 19 81 19 91

81

18

71

18

18

18

61

−1

Year Figure 10G.146 Global temperature changes (1861–1996). (From IPCC (1995), updated yosemite.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-287

(ppm)

360

(°C)

e

ang

e ch

tur pera

1

340

Tem 0.8

320 8 (Gt C) 7 per year

0.6

6 0.4

5 4

0.2

3 2

0

1 0

–0.2

ions

trat

cen

on O2 c

C

–0.4

ns

ssio emi 1 rbon

–0.6 ©2004,

Ca ACIA 10

11

12

00

00

00

00

00

50

14

13

00

18

17

16

00

20

19 00

00

0

rs

Yea

Fossil fuels Land-use change

00

This 1000-year record tracks the rise in carbon emissions due to human activities (fossil fuel burning and land clearing) and the subsequent increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, and air temperatures. The earlier parts of this Northern Hemisphere temperature reconstruction are derived from historical data, tree rings, and corals, while the later parts were directly measured. Measurements of carbon dioxide (CO2) in air bubbles trapped in ice cores form the earlier part of the CO2 record; direct atmospheric measurements of CO2 concentration began in 1957.

Figure 10G.147 1000 years of changes in carbon emissions, CO2 concentrations and temperature, www.amap.no/acia.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-288

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(ppm) 800

Projected future range

700

600

500

400 Current level

350

n atio entr re) onc o c C CO 2 ctic ice tar (An 1800 AD

(˚C) Projected range year 2100

6 300 4

2 Current level 0

250

–2 –4 –6

atur

per

Tem

©2004,

ACIA

1,4

1,6

00

00

00

00

0

0

0

go

sa

ar Ye

,00

,00

,00

,00

0,0

0,0

0,0

0,0

1,0

1,2

40

60

80

20

0

ge

an e ch

0

This record illustrates the relationship between temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over the past 160,000 yrs and the next 100 yrs. Historical data are derived from ice cores, recent data were directly measured, and model projections are used for the next 100 yrs.

Figure 10G.148 Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration and temperature change, www.amap.no/acia.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-289

(˚C) 2

1

0

–1

–2 1900 ©2004,

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

ACIA

Annual average change in near surface air temperature from stations on land relative to the average for 1961–1990, for the region from 60 to 90˚N. Figure 10G.149 Observed arctic temperature, 1900 to present, www.amap.no/acia.

Temperature change (°C)

6 AIB AIT AIFI A2 B1 B2 IS92a

5 4 3 2 1 0

1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100 ©2004,

ACIA

Projections of global temperature change (shown as departures from the 1990 temperature) from 1990 to 2100 for seven illustrative emissions scenarios. The brown line shows the projection of the B2 emissions scenario, the primary scenario used in this assessment and this scenario on which the maps in this report showing projected climate changes are based. The pink line shows the A2 emissions scenario, used to a lesser degree in this assessment. The dark gray band shows the range of results for all the SRES emissions scenarios with one everage model while the light gray band shows the full range of scenarios using climate models. Figure 10G.150 Projected global temperature rise, www.amap.no/acia.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-290

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(°C) 8 A2

B2

CGCM2 ECHAM4/OPYC3 GFDL-R30_C HadCM3 CSM_1.4

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 2000

2010

©2004,

2020

2030

2040

2050

2060

2070

2080

2090

2100

ACIA

The ten lines show air temperatures for the region from 60˚N to the pole as projected by each of the five ACIA global climate models using two different emissions scenarios. The projections remain similar through about 2040, showing about a 2˚C temperature rise, but then diverge, showing increases from around 4˚ to over 7˚C by 2100. The full range of models and scenarios reviewed by the IPCC cover a wider range of possible futures. Those used in this assessment fall roughly in the middle of this range, and thus represent neither best- nor worst-case scenarios. Figure 10G.151

Projected arctic surface air temperatures 2000–2100 608N—Pole: change from 1981–2000 average, www.amap.no/acia.

(million km2) 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 1990

1910 Annual

©2004,

ACIA

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970 1980

1990

2000

Winter (Jan−Mar)

Spring (Apr−Jun)

Summer (Jul−Sep)

Autumn (Oct−Dec)

Annual average extent of arctic sea ice from 1900 to 2003. A decline in sea-ice extent began about 50 years ago and this decline sharpened in recent decades, corresponding with the arctic warming trend. The decrease in sea-ice extent during summer is the most dramatic of the trends. Figure 10G.152 Observed seasonal Arctic sea-ice extent (1900–2003), www.amap.no/acia.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-291

(°C) 7 6

A2 B2

5 4 3 2 1 0 2000 ©2004,

2020

2040

2060

2080

2100

ACIA

Increases in arctic temperature (for 60°–90°N) projected by an average of ACIA models for the A2 and B2 emissions scenarios, relative to 1981–2000. Figure 10G.153 Projected arctic temperature rise, www.amap.no/acia.

–

–

–

Figure 10G.154 Reduced salinity of North Atlantic waters, www.amap.no/acia.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-292

Global ocean circulation, www.amap.no/acia.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Figure 10G.155

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-293

(˚C)

0

–20

100 ©2004,

80 ACIA

60

40

0

20

Thousands of Years Before Present

This record of temperature change (departures from present conditions) has been reconstructed from a Greenland ice core. The record demonstrates the high variability of the climate over the past 100,000 yrs. It also suggests that the climate of the past 10000 years or so, which was the time during which human civilization developed, has been unusually stable. There is concern that the rapid warming caused by the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases due to human activities could destabilize this state.

Figure 10G.156 1000,000 yrs of temperature variation in Greenland, www.amap.no/acia.

Greenland ice sheet melt extent (Maximum melt extent 1979 − 2002) (105 km2)

7 6 5 4 3 2 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 ©2004,

©2004,

ACIA

ACIA / Map ©Clifford Grabhorn

Seasonal surface melt extent on the Greenland Ice Sheet has been observed by satellite since 1979 and shows an increasing trend. The melt zone, where summer warmth turns snow and ice around the edges of the ice sheet into slush and ponds of meltwater, has been expanding inland and to record high elevations in recent years. When the meltwater seeps down through cracks in the ice sheet, it may accelerate melting and, in some areas, allow the ice to slide more easily over the bedrock below, speeding its movement to the sea. In addition to contributing to global sea-level rise, this process adds fresh water to the ocean, with potential impacts on ocean circulation and thus regional climate.

Figure 10G.157 Greenland ice sheet melt extent, www.amap.no/acia.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-294

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(mm)

25 20 15 10 5 0 –5 –10 –15 –20 1992 ©2004,

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

60-days smoothed

10-days averages

ACIA

These data, from a satellite launched in 1992, show the rise in global average sea level over the past decade. Figure 10G.158 Observed global sea level rise, www.amap.no/acia.

(cm) 100

80

60

Emission Scenario AIB AIFI AIT A2 B1 B2

40

20

0 2000 ©2004,

2020

2040

2060

2080

2100

ACIA

The graph shows future increases in global average sea level in centimeters as projected by a suite of climate models using six IPCC emissions scenarios. The bars at right show the range projected by a group of models for the designated emissions scenarios. Figure 10G.159 Projected global sea level rise, www.amap.no/acia.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-295

.122

.097 20%

.104

10 .061

.063

.090

.079

.096

12%

22%

.093

.085 11%

.126 .060

.079 17%

9 6

3

.106

5

.091

14%

.090

.104

2

3

7

.095

8

37%

1

11%

.078

.086 13%

17%

4

The National Trend .105 21%

Figure 10G.160

.083

Trend in fourth highest daily maximum 8-hour ozone concentration (ppm) by EPA region, 1980–2003, www.epa.gov/airtrends.

.104

.091 13%

.069

.104

10 .062

.075

10%

.072 4%

.093

.090

.085 6%

2

7 .097

.081

8

.076

16%

.076

3 .097

5

9

.085 .081

.087 7%

.090 7%

no change

6

1

11%

.085 4

.080

6%

The National Trend .091 .083 9% Figure 10G.161

Trend in fourth highest daily maximum 8-hour ozone concentration (ppm) by EPA region 1990–2003, www.epa.gov/airtrends.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-296

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

80

40

70

30

60

20

50

10

40

0

Ozone (ppm)

Number of days >90˚

Bridgeport, CT 50

30 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03

80

80

70

60

60

40

50

20

40

Ozone (ppm)

Number of days >90˚

Atlanta, GA 100

30

0 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 Unadjusted ozone Meteorologically adjusted ozone

Ozone concentrations are Annual Average Daily Maximum 8-hr values between June and August. Figure 10G.162 Number of days daily maximum temperatures exceed 908 (bar) compared to unadjusted ozone (red line) and meteorologically adjusted ozone (blue line) for Bridgeport and Atlanta, 1990–2003. Ozone concentrations are annual average daily maximum 8-hr values between June and August, www.epa.gov/airtrends.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-297

1

10 7%

8

3% 2

2%

9% 9

5

2% 9%

9%

6

2%

3

2%

7

1%

4% 9% 15%

4

21%

Trend in average daily maximum 8-hour concentrations (ppm) Meteorological-adjusted trend in average daily maximum 8-hr concentrations (ppm)

Figure 10G.163 Trends in unadjusted and meteorologically adjusted ozone levels by EPA region, 1990–2003, www.epa.gov/airtrends.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-298

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

NOx

6

Tons (millions)

5 4 3 2 1 0 1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2001

2002

2003

VOC

6

Tons (millions)

5 4 3 2 1 0 1996 Region 1 Region 2

1997

1998

Region 3 Region 4

1999

2000

Region 5 Region 6

Region 7 Region 8

Region 9 Region 10

Figure 10G.164 NOx and VOC emissions in Region 10 from 1998 to 1999 is due to a change in methodology rather than a true emission increase, www.epa.gov/airtrends.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-299

Trends in NOx Emissions for Eastern States with Largest Reductions in NOx from Electric Utilities 9

Millions of tons NOx

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Ozone levels since 1990 Hartford, CT

1990

Columbia, SC

Pittsburgh, PA

1998

2003 1990

1998

2003 1990

1998

2003

Figure 10G.165 Ozone trends for selected urban areas and corresponding regional emission trends, www.epa.gov/airtrends.

United States 8000

Total greenhouse gas emissions million tons CO2 equivalent

7500

Reduction from projection required to meet commitment:

–24.3% Projection

Actual emissions

7000 6500 6000 5500

Target

5000

Projected emissions Historical emissions Kyoto target

4500 4000 1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

Actual and projected emissions of six greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6)

Figure 10G.166 Actual and projected emission of six greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6). (From Actual emissions UNFCCC/SB12000/11 Table B.1 Projected emissions UNFCCCM998/Add 2 Table C.6, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-300

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

I.

Alaska, Yukon, and Coastal British Columbia Lightly settled/water-abundant region; potential ecological, hydropower, and flood impacts: Increased spring flood risks Glacial retreat/disappearance in south, advance in north; impacts on flows, stream ecology Increased stress on salmon, other fish species Flooding of coastal wetlands Changes in estuary salinity/ecology

V. Sub-Arctic and Arctic Sparse population (many dependent on natural systems); winter ice cover important feature of hydrologic cycle: Thinner ice cover, 1- to 3-month increase in ice-free season, increased extent of open water Increased lake-level variability, possible complete drying of some delta lakes Changes in aquatic ecology and species distribution as a result of warmer temperatures and longer growing season

VI. Midwest U.S.A. and Canadian Prairies Agricultural heartland–mostly rainfed, with some areas relying heavily on irrigation: Annual streamflow decreasing/increasing; possible large declines in summer streamflow Increasing likelihood of severe droughts Possible increasing aridity in semi-arid zones Increases or decreases in irrigation demand and water availability–uncertain impacts on farmsector income, groundwater levels, streamflows, and water quality

II. Pacific Coast States (U.S.A.) Large and rapidly growing population; water abundance decreases north to south; intensive irrigated agriculture; massive water-control infrastructure; heavy reliance on hydropower. endangered species issues; increasing competition for water : More winter rainfall/less snowfall-earlier seasonal peak in runoff, increased fall/winter flooding, decreased summer water supply Possible increases in annual runoff in Sierra Nevada and Cascades Possible summer salinity increase in San Francisco Bay and Sacramento/San Joaquin Delta Changes in lake and stream ecology– warmwater species benefiting; damage to coldwater species (e.g., trout and salmon)

VII. Great Lakes Heavily populated and industrialized region; variations in lake levels/flows now affect hydropower, shipping, shoreline structures: Possible precipitation increases coupled with reduced runoff and lake-level declines Reduced hydropower production; reduced channel depths for shipping Decreases in lake ice extent–some years w/out ice cover Changes in phytoplankton/zooplankton biomass, northward migration of fish species, possible extirpations of coldwater species

VIII. Northeast U.S.A. and Eastern Canada Large, mostly urban population–generally adequate water supplies, large number of small dams, but limited total reservoir capacity; heavily populated floodplains: Decreased snow cover amount and duration Possible large reductions in streamflow Accelerated coastal erosion, saline intrusion into coastal aquifers Changes in magnitude, timing of ice freeze-up/break-up, with impacts on spring flooding Possible elimination of bog ecosystems Shifts in fish species distributions, migration patterns

III. Rocky Mountains (U.S.A. and Canada) Lightly populated in north, rapid population growth in south; irrigated agriculture, recreation, urban expansion increasingly competing for water; headwaters area for other regions: Rise in snow line in winter-spring, possible increases in snowfall, earlier snowmelt, more frequent rain on snow–changes in seasonal streamflow, possible reductions in summer streamflow, reduced summer soil moisture Stream temperature changes affecting species composition; increased isolation of coldwater stream fish

IX. IV. Southwest Rapid population growth, dependence on limited groundwater and surface water supplies, water quality concerns in border region, endangered species concerns, vulnerability to flash flooding: Possible changes in snowpacks and runoff Possible declines in groundwater recharge– reduced water supplies Increased water temperatures–further stress on aquatic species Increased frequency of intense precipitation events–increased risk of flash floods

Southeast, Gulf, and Mid-Atlantic U.S.A. Increasing population–especially in coastal areas, water quality/non -point source pollution problems, stress on aquatic ecosystems: Heavily populated coastal floodplains at risk to flooding from extreme precipitation events, hurricanes Possible lower base flows, larger peak flows, longer droughts Possible precipitation increase–possible increases or decreases in runoff/river discharge, increased flow variability Major expansion of northern Gulf of Mexico hypoxic zone possible–other impacts on coastal systems related to changes in precipitation/non-point source pollutant loading Changes in estuary systems and wetland extent, biotic processes, species distribution

Figure 10G.167 Possible water resources impacts in North America, www.epa.gov/oar.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-301

Table 10G.197 Percent Change in Air Quality and Emissions Percent Change in Air Quality

NO2 O3 1-h 8-h SO2 PM10 PM2.5 CO Pb

a b c d e

1993–2002

K21

K11

K22 K2a K14 C4a K54 K39 — K13 — K8b K65 K42 K94 K57 Percent Change in Emissions K15 K12 K40 K25 K33 K31 K34d K22 — K17 K41 K21 K93 K5

NO2 VOC SO2 PM10c PM2.5c CO Pbe Note:

1983–2002

Trend data not available. Negative numbers indicate improvements in air quality or reductions in emission. Positive numbers show where emissions have increased or air quality has gotten worse.

Not statistically significant. Based on percentage change from 1999. Includes only directly emitted particles. Based on percentage change from 1985. Emission estimates prior to 1985 are uncertain. Lead emissions are included in the toxic air pollutant emissions inventory and are presented for 1982–2001.

Source: From www.epa.gov/airtrends/images/enlarge/sixpoll-1lg.gif.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-302

Table 10G.198 Lead (Pb) National Totals (Thousands of Tons) Lead (Pb) National Totals (Thousands of Tons) Source Category

1970

1980

1985

1990

1991

1992

1993

1997

1998

1999

0.229773

1975

0.128825

0.063955

0.064244

0.061487

0.058603

0.061661

0.062

0.057

0.061

0.063925

0.068881

0.532

0.075254

0.059612

0.03017

0.017612

0.017531

0.017872

0.018884

0.019

0.018

0.016

0.01581

0.014985

0.414

4.110847

0.421131

0.417995

0.416037

0.414095

0.415973

0.415

0.415

0.415

0.413444

0.410383

0.014

0.120227

0.104387

0.118276

0.135801

0.132297

0.093402

0.092

0.096

0.163

0.167

0.187825

0.194212

0.027

9.923236

3.025672

2.096969

2.169625

1.974318

1.77442

1.899989

2.027

2.049

2.055

2.080743

1.991153

1.002

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0.013

1.337357

0.807826

0.315972

0.168558

0.166802

0.056379

0.055

0.054

0.059

0.051

0.054315

0.053518

0.321

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0.273

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0.0007

1.59515

1.21002

0.870866

0.804311

0.808

0.812

0.825

0.83

0.604

0.787782

0.798363

0.805779

0.178

0.420736

0.017849

0.018332

0.018796

0.01903

0.019355

0.01919

0.019996

0.02116

0

0.776437 0 4.975 0.000 4.975

0.574333 0 4.169 0.000 4.169

0.565182 0 3.810 0.000 3.810

0.528556 0 3.916 0.000 3.916

0.525034 0 4.047 0.000 4.047

0.544384 0 3.929 0.000 3.929

0.505382 0 4.077 0.000 4.077

0.502712 0 4.137 0.000 4.137

0.497295 0 4.057 0.000 4.057

0.552 0.029 3.356 0.000 3.356

10.0423

130.2061

60.50133

18.05194

6.129554 4.204813 0.921121 0 0 0 159.659 74.153 22.890 0 0 0 159.659 74.153 22.890

Source: From www.epa.gov/airtrends/pdfs/leadnational.pdf.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1994

1995

1996

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Fuel Comb. 0.327293 Elec. Util. Fuel Comb. 0.236916 Industrial Fuel Comb. 10.05174 Other 0.102811 Chemical & Allied Product Mfg Metals 24.22351 Processing 0 Petroleum & Related Industries Other Industrial 2.028097 Processes Solvent 0 Utilization Storage & 0 Transport Waste Disposal 2.2 & Recycling Highway 171.9611 Vehicles Off-highway 9.737102 Miscellaneous 0 Total 220.869 Fires 0 Total without 220.869 Fires

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) National Totals (Thousands of Tons) Source Category Fuel Comb. Elec. Util. Fuel Comb. Industrial Fuel Comb. Other Chemical & Allied Product Mfg Metals Processing Petroleum & Related Industries Other Industrial Processes Solvent Utilization Storage & Transport Waste Disposal & Recycling Highway Vehicles Off-highway Miscellaneous Miscellaneous Total Fires Total without Fires

Source:

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

30

40

45

32

47

44

44

45

45

44

50

52

56

54

62

61

52

56

150

150

157

134

182

196

187

186

196

206

179

175

174

172

173

176

170

170

541

470

848

1,403

776

835

884

762

748

823

893

893

889

919

949

950

790

878

1,341

1,351

1,595

881

634

710

715

701

691

660

388

388

394

251

254

262

214

218

394

336

273

76

122

123

124

124

126

125

73

78

78

66

67

71

69

72

1,194

1,342

1,440

703

611

640

632

649

647

642

477

487

485

457

428

441

375

380

270

235

237

390

401

391

414

442

438

450

435

438

443

438

454

420

406

412

7,174

5,651

6,584

5,699

5,750

5,782

5,901

6,016

6,162

6,183

5,477

5,621

5,149

5,036

4,831

5,012

4,692

4,562

1,954

2,181

1,975

1,747

1,490

1,532

1,583

1,600

1,629

1,652

1,294

1,328

1,327

1,237

1,176

1,192

1,205

1,178

1,984

984

758

979

986

999

1,010

1,046

1,046

1,067

509

518

535

487

415

420

457

427

16,910

15,392

13,869

12,354

9,388

8,860

8,332

7,804

7,277

6,749

6,221

5,985

5,859

5,681

5,325

4,952

4,543

4,428

1,616 1,101 NA 34,659 917 33,742

1,917 716 NA 30,765 587 30,178

2,192 1,134 NA 31,106 1,024 30,082

2,439 566 NA 27,404 465 26,939

2,662 1,059 NA 24,108 983 23,125

2,709 756 NA 23,577 678 22,899

2,754 486 NA 23,066 407 22,659

2,799 556 NA 22,730 478 22,252

2,845 720 NA 22,569 638 21,931

2,890 551 NA 22,041 464 21,577

2,935 1,940 0 20,871 1,870 19,001

2,752 816 0 19,530 744 18,786

2,673 718 0 18,782 645 18,136

2,682 791 0 18,270 667 17,603

2,644 733 0 17,512 615 16,898

2,622 532 0 17,111 412 16,699

2,688 883 0 16,544 785 15,759

2,572 704 0 16,056 627 15,429

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10G.199 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) National Totals (Thousands of Tons)

From www.epa.gov/airtrends/pdfs/vocnational.

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10-304

Table 10G.200 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) National Totals (Thousands of Tons) Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) National Totals (Thousands of Tons) Source Category

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

17,398

18,268

17,469

16,272

15,909

15,784

15,416

15,189

14,889

12,080

12,767

13,195

13,416

12,583

11,396

10,850

10,293

10,929

4,568

3,310

2,951

3,169

3,550

3,256

3,292

3,284

3,218

3,357

2,849

2,805

2,740

2,135

2,139

2,243

2,299

2,227

1,490 591

1,082 367

971 280

579 456

831 297

755 280

784 279

772 269

780 275

793 286

636 255

648 259

586 261

620 325

628 338

642 342

575 328

596 329

4,775 881

2,849 727

1,842 734

1,042 505

726 430

612 378

615 416

603 383

562 379

530 369

389 335

407 344

405 342

304 312

313 316

332 319

271 348

285 323

846

740

918

425

399

396

396

392

398

403

386

409

415

382

410

429

416

426

NA NA 8

NA NA 46

NA NA 33

1 4 34

0 7 42

0 10 44

1 9 44

1 5 71

1 2 59

1 2 47

1 5 32

1 5 33

1 5 34

1 6 34

1 6 34

1 7 35

2 5 28

2 6 32

273 278 110 NA 31,218 NA 31,218

334 301 20 NA 28,043 NA 28,043

394 323 11 NA 25,925 NA 25,925

455 354 11 NA 23,307 NA 23,307

503 371 12 NA 23,076 12 23,064

469 379 11 NA 22,375 12 22,363

436 385 10 NA 22,082 9 22,073

402 392 10 NA 21,772 9 21,763

369 399 15 NA 21,346 14 21,332

335 406 10 NA 18,619 10 18,609

302 413 15 0 18,385 15 18,370

304 422 7 0 18,840 6 18,834

300 432 6 0 18,944 6 18,939

300 475 67 0 17,545 67 17,478

260 437 70 0 16,347 69 16,278

248 440 44 0 15,932 44 15,888

275 420 91 0 15,353 91 15,263

256 443 88 0 15,943 95 15,848

Source: From www.epa.gov/airtrends/2005.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Fuel Comb. Elec. Util. Fuel Comb. Industrial Fuel Comb. Other Chemical & Allied Product Mfg Metals Processing Petroleum & Related Industries Other Industrial Processes Solvent Utilization Storage & Transport Waste Disposal & Recycling Highway Vehicles Off-highway Miscellaneous Miscellaneous Total Fires Total without Fires

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10G.201 Nitrogen Oxides (Nox) National Emissions Totals (Thousands of Tons) Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) National Emissions Totals (Thousands of Tons) Source Category Fuel comb. Elec. Util. Fuel Comb. Industrial Fuel Comb. Other Chemical & Allied Product Mfg Metals Processing Petroleum & Related Industries Other Industrial Processes Solvent Utilization Storage & Transport Waste Disposal & Recycling Highway Vehicles Off-highway Miscellaneous Miscellaneous Total Fires Total without Fires

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

4,900

5,694

7,024

6,127

6,663

6,519

6,504

6,651

6,565

6,384

6,164

6,276

6,232

5,721

5,330

4,917

4,699

4,458

4,325

4,007

3,555

3,209

3,035

2,979

3,071

3,151

3,147

3,144

3,151

3,101

3,050

2,709

2,723

2,757

2,870

2,775

836 271

785 221

741 213

712 262

1,196 168

1,281 165

1,353 163

1,308 155

1,303 160

1,298 158

1,197 125

1,177 127

1,101 129

768 102

766 105

779 107

725 105

729 102

77 240

73 63

65 72

87 124

97 153

76 121

81 148

83 123

91 117

98 110

83 139

89 143

89 143

86 120

89 122

94 124

84 149

94 137

187

182

205

327

378

352

361

370

389

399

433

460

467

451

479

504

487

504

NA NA 440

NA NA 159

NA NA 111

2 2 87

1 3 91

2 6 95

3 5 96

3 5 123

3 5 114

3 6 99

2 15 153

3 16 157

3 16 163

4 14 162

4 15 129

4 16 130

8 16 152

7 16 137

12,624 2,652 330 NA 26,883 NA 26,883

12,061 2,968 165 NA 26,377 NA 26,377

11,493 3,353 248 NA 27,079 NA 27,079

10,932 3,576 310 NA 25,757 NA 25,757

9,592 3,781 369 NA 25,529 362 25,167

9,449 3,849 286 NA 25,179 247 24,932

9,306 3,915 255 NA 25,260 234 25,026

9,162 3,981 241 NA 25,357 234 25,123

9,019 4,047 390 NA 25,349 382 24,967

8,876 4,113 267 NA 24,956 258 24,698

8,733 4,179 412 0 24,787 405 24,382

8,792 4,178 187 0 24,705 179 24,526

8,619 4,156 179 0 24,348 172 24,176

8,371 4,084 251 0 22,845 236 22,609

8,394 4,167 276 0 22,598 263 22,335

7,774 4,156 184 0 21,549 171 21,378

7,365 4,086 356 0 21,102 341 20,761

7,381 4,103 289 0 20,728 236 20,492

Source: From www.epa.gov/airtrends/pdfs/noxnational.pdf.

10-305

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10G.202 National Air Pollutant Emissions Estimates (Fires and Dust Excluded) for Major Pollutants Millions of Tons Per Year

Carbon monoxide (CO) Nitrogen oxides (NOx)c Particulate matter (PM)d PM10 PM2.5e Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Volatile organic compounds (VOC) Leadf Totalsg a b c d e f g

1985a

1990

1995

2000a

2004b

1970

1975

1980

197.3 26.9

184.0 26.4

177.8 27.1

169.6 25.8

143.6 25.2

120.0 24.7

102.4 22.3

87.2 18.8

12.2a NA 31.2 33.7

7.0 NA 28.0 30.2

6.2 NA 25.9 30.1

3.6 NA 23.3 26.9

3.2 2.3 23.1 23.1

3.1 2.2 18.6 21.6

2.3 1.8 16.3 16.9

2.5 1.9 15.2 15.0

0.221 301.5

0.16 275.8

0.074 267.2

0.022 249.2

0.005 218.2

0.004 188.0

0.003 160.2

0.003 138.7

In 1985 and 1996 EPA refined its methods for estimating emissions. Between 1970 and 1975, EPA revised its methods for estimating particulate matter emissions. The estimates for 2004 are preliminary. NOx estimates prior to 1990 include emissions from fires. Fires would represent a small percentage of the NOx emissions. PM estimates do not include condensable PM, or the majority of PM2.5 that is formed in the atmosphere from “precursor” gases such as SO2 and NOx. EPA has not estimated PM2.5 emissions prior to 1990. The 1999 estimate for lead is used to represent 2000 and 2003 because lead estimates do not exist for these years. PM2.5 emissions are not added when calculating the total because they are included in the PM10 estimate.

Source: From www.epa.gov/airtrends/2005/econ-emission.html.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10G.203 Carbon Monoxide (CO) National Emissions Totals (Thousands of Tons) Carbon Monoxide (CO) National Emissions Totals (Thousands of Tons) Source Category

1970

Fuel Comb. Elec. Util. Fuel Comb. Industrial Fuel Comb. Other Chemical & Allied Product Mfg Metals Processing Petroleum & Related Industries Other Industrial Processes Solvent Utilization Storage & Transport Waste Disposal & Recycling Highway Vehicles Off-highway Miscellaneous Miscellaneous Total Fires Total without Fires

237

276

1975

322

1980

291

1985

363

1990

349

1991

350

1992

363

1993

370

1994

372

1995

770

763

750

670

879

920

955

1,043

1,041

3,625 3,397

3,441 2,204

6,230 2,151

7,525 1,845

4,269 1,183

4,587 1,127

4,849 1,112

4,181 1,093

3,644 2,179

2,496 2,211

2,246 1,723

2,223 462

2,640 333

2,571 345

2,496 371

620

630

830

694

537

548

NA NA 7,059

NA NA 3,230

NA NA 2,300

2 49 1,941

5 76 1,079

163,231 11,371 7,909 NA 204,043 6,766 197,277

153,555 14,329 5,263 NA 188,398 4,433 183,965

143,827 16,685 8,344 NA 185,407 7,622 177,785

134,187 19,029 7,927 NA 176,844 7,289 169,555

110,255 21,447 11,122 NA 154,186 10,583 143,603

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

408

423

451

496

484

485

499

530

1,056

1,188

1,162

1,151

1,213

1,219

1,253

1,436

1,377

4,108 1,171

4,506 1,223

2,741 1,053

2,742 1,071

2,727 1,081

3,829 350

3,081 361

3,088 372

2,498 337

3,003 329

2,536 371

2,475 338

2,380 348

1,599 354

1,710 367

1,702 366

1,255 159

1,295 161

1,380 162

1,294 128

1,422 138

544

594

600

624

561

582

590

571

592

615

635

634

5 28 1,116

5 17 1,138

5 51 1,248

5 24 1,225

6 25 1,185

1 70 2,904

2 71 2,948

2 72 3,121

52 163 3,019

51 169 1,849

50 178 1,851

51 215 1,852

73 241 1,854

104,980 21,934 8,618 NA 147,128 10,583 136,545

99,705 22,419 6,934 NA 140,896 6,389 134,507

94,431 22,904 7,082 NA 135,901 6,537 129,364

89,156 23,389 9,658 NA 133,559 9,089 124,470

83,881 23,874 7,298 NA 126,777 6,705 120,072

78,606 24,358 15,016 0 128,858 14,502 114,356

75,849 23,668 7,316 0 117,910 6,793 111,117

73,244 23,689 7,184 0 115,380 6,654 108,726

68,708 23,316 11,410 0 114,541 10,508 104,033

68,061 24,178 12,964 0 114,467 12,049 102,418

63,476 24,677 8,676 0 106,262 7,744 98,518

62,161 24,450 16,498 0 112,054 15,654 96,401

58,807 24,446 14,033 0 106,886 13,180 93,706

Source: From www.epa.gov/airtrends/2005/pdfs/conational.pdf.

10-307

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-308

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10G.204 Estimated Sea-Level Change by Year 2100, as a Result of Ice Wastage in a Carbon Dioxide-Enhanced Environment Ice Mass Contributing to Sea-Level Change Glaciers and small ice caps Greenland ice sheet Antarctic ice sheet a

Estimated Sea-Level Change (Range, ft) C0.3 to 1.0 C0.3 to 1.0 K0.3 to 3a

Most likely the change will range from 0 to 0.7 foot.

Source: From National Academy of Sciences, Committee on Glaciology, 1985.

Table 10G.205 Nationwide Impacts of Sea-Level Rise in the United States Sea-Level Rise

If densely developed areas are protected Shore protection costs ($ billions) Dryland lost (mi2) Wetlands lost (%) If no shores are protected Dryland lost (mi2) Wetlands lost (%) If all shores are protected Wetlands lost (%)

50 cm

100 cm

200 cm

32–43 2,200–6,100 20–45

73–111 4,100–9,200 29–69

169–309 6,400–13,500 33–80

3,300–7,300 17–43

5,100–10,300 26–66

8,200–15,400 29–76

38–61

50–82

66–90

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1988, The potential effects of Global climate change on the United States, Draft Report to Congress, Data assembled by Titus and Greene.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-309

SECTION 10H

9

8

OFFSHORE WASTE DISPOSAL

Sewage Sludge Industrial Waste

Wet Tons (Millions)

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Year Note: For the purpose of this graph, Industrial Waste Category also includes Fish Waste and Construction Debris.

Figure 10H.168 Sewage sludge and industrial waste dumped in U.S. ocean waters from 1973 to 1986. (From U.S. EPA 1988, Report to Congress on Administration of the Marine Protection Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972, as Amended, 1984–1986, EPA-503/8-88/002.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-310

Table 10H.206 Offshore Waste Disposal in the United States, 1973–1983 Offshore Waste Disposal in the United States, 1973–1983 1974

1975

1976

1977

3,643 4,898 974 0

3,642 5,010 770 0

3,322 5,040 396 0

2,633 5,271 315 0

1,784 5,134 379 0

2,548 5,535 241 0

2,577 6,442 107 0

2,928 7,309 89 0

0 11

0 16

0 6

0 9

0 15

0 18

0 45

0 11

1,408 0

938 0

120 0

100 0

60 0

0.17 0

0 0

0 0

0

12.3

0 0

240 0 5,051 4,890 974 240 0 11 0

1978

0

17.6

0

0

0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0.26 0

200 0

0 0

0 0

0 12.1

0 0

0 0

2,733 5,271 315 0 0 9 0

1,844 5,134 379 0 0 15 17.6

4,580 5,010 770 200 0 16 12.3

3,452 5,040 396 0 0 6 4.1

2,548.17 5,535 241 0 0 18 0

Thousand gallons (prior to incineration).

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Report to Congress January 1981–December 1983.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1980

4.1

Note: Thousands of tons. a

1979

2,577 6,442 107 0 0 45 0

1981

1982

1983

1,063 7,670 0 0

283 8,312 0 0

0 13

0 31

0 0

0 0

0 0

700a

800a

0

2,271 6,703 0 0 0.0003 15

23.3 0

18.8 0

21.5 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

2,928.26 7,309 89 0 0 11 0

2,294.3 6,703 0 0 0.0003 15 700a

1,081.8 7,670 0 0 0 13 800a

304.5 8,312 0 0 0 31 0

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Atlantic (A) Industrial waste Sewage sludge Construction debris Solid waste/chemicals incinerated Explosives Wood incinerated Gulf of Mexico (B) Industrial waste Sewage sludge/construction debris solid waste/explosives/wood incinerated Chemicals incinerated Pacific (C) Industrial waste Sewage sludge/construction debris solid waste/explosives/wood incinerated Solid waste Wood incinerated Totals of (A), (B), (C) Industrial waste Sewage sludge Construction debris Solid waste Explosives Wood incinerated Chemical incinerated Atlantic (A)

1973

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-311

Table 10H.207 Quantities of Sludge Dumped by Sewage Authorities in United States Ocean Waters, 1984–1986 Quantities in Thousand Wet Tons

Sewage Authorities Bergen County Utilities Authority NJ Joint Meeting of Essex and Union Counties NJ Linden Roselle Sewerage Authority NJ Middlesex County Utilities Authority NJ Nassau County Dept. of Public Works NY New York City Dept. of Environmental Protection NY Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission NJ Rahway Valley Sewerage Authority NJ Westchester County Dept. of Environmental Facilities NY

1984

1985

1986

255 335

309 341

353 238

235 966 520 3,085

95 1,039 576 3,345

93 1,018 709 3,591

854 160 539

884 187 470

1,317 98 506

6,999

7,246

7,923

Note: Nine municipal sewage authorities which had previously held interim permits are dumping sewage sludge pursuant to court orders issued by United States district courts in New York and New Jersey. These authorities have been required to submit permit applications to the USEPA, and currently are shifting their dumping from the 12-Mile Site to the Deepwater Municipal Sludge Dump Site, also known as the 106-Mile Site. Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1988, Report to Congress on Administration of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972, as Amended, 1984–1986, EPA-503/8-88/002.

Table 10H.208 Quantities of Industrial Waste Materials Dumped in United States Ocean Waters by Special Permit, 1984–1986 Quantities in Thousand Wet Tons

USEPA Region II Acid waste site (NY Bight Apex) Allied Chemical Corp.a NY Deepwater Industrial Waste Site DuPont—Edge Moorb DE DuPont — Grassellic NJ USEPA Region IX Fish Wastes Site Samoa Packing, American Samoa Star Kist, American Samoa Oil Drilling Muds and Cuttings THUMS Long Beach, CA a b c d

1984

1985

1986

40

40

34

19 146

0 100

140 73

8 7.9

4.6 20.3

21.4 24.1

—d 220.9

2.7 167.6

13.6 306.1

Hydrochloric acid waste. Aqueous iron and miscellaneous chlorides and hydrochloric acid wastes. Solution of alkaline sodium wastes. No permit issued.

Source: From U.S. Environmantal Protection Agency, 1988, Report to Congress on Administration of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972, as Amended, 1984–1986, EPA-503/888/002.

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10-312

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 10I

ENERGY DEVELOPMENT

Table 10I.209 Water-Quality Impacts of Various Energy Processes Frequency and Areal Scale Process

Water-Quality Impacts

Extraction and on-site processing Coal mining Underground mining Most damaging problems are acid mines drainage and disruption of aquifers, which affect pH, dissolved solids and specific ion content, and thus impair utility of streams and groundwaters for other uses. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters Surface mining Surface disturbance results in high sediment transport potential. Discharge from mines may impair water quality through increase in dissolved solids and specific ions. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters Beneficiation Release of chemical and physical treatment materials to streams can impair water quality. Leaching of solid wastes results in pollution similar to acid drainage. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters Oil and gas extraction Primary recovery Principal problems are handling of saline waste waters. Leaks in casings, pipes, and storage ponds can release brines to groundwaters and streams. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters Secondary and Principal concerns are escape of oil and tertiary recovery formation waters through casing, pipe, and storage tank leaks releasing organic and inorganic contaminants to the environment. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters Offshore operation Blowouts with resulting massive oil contamination are a rare but catastrophic problem. Oil-shale extraction Most significant concerns relate to and processing potential for escape of noxious organic and inorganic contaminants to streams. Disruption of aquifers likely, low hazard due to limited occurrence of oil shale. Undergoing mining Concerns center on disruption of aquifers and disposal of sometimes saline dewatering by injection. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters

Regional

Local

Time Frame

Severity

M

L L

3 3

Poor Ineffective

L

M S

3 1

Fair Good

L

M M

2 1

Fair Fair

M

S M

2 3

Good Fair

L L

S L S

2 3 3

Good Good Good

L L

L L

1 1

Good Good

H

H

H

M

L

Effectiveness of Control

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10I.209

10-313

(Continued) Frequency and Areal Scale

Process Surface mining

Surface retorting

In-situ recovery

Tar-sands extraction and processing Surface mining and processing

In-situ recovery

Geothermal extraction Vapor-dominated systems

Water-dominated systems

Water-Quality Impacts

Regional

Surface disturbance results in high sediment transport potential. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters Concerns center on potential for escape of organic and inorganic contaminants from plant site to accidental leaks and spills. A more significant concern is escape of contaminants from waste piles through leaching. a. Surface waters b. Groundwater Underground effects mainly involve contamination of groundwaters by organic and inorganic compounds produced in combustion; where applicable surface effects are similar to those of surface retorting. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters

Main concerns are accidental release of organic contaminants to streams and potential for failure of waste impoundment structures leading to massive downstream damage from fine waste. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters Concerns center on potential for escape of noxious organic and inorganic chemicals to groundwaters. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters

Main concerns are escape of noxious inorganic contaminants to groundwater from waste disposal, blowouts, and leaks in casings and pipes. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters Main problems involve escape of noxious and toxic constituents of thermal waters to surface and groundwaters from production operations, waste disposal, blowouts, and leaks in casings and pipes. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters

Local

Time Frame

Severity

L L

S M

2 1

Excellent Excellent

M L

L L

2 1

Good to fair Good

L M

S L

2 3

Excellent Untested

M L

S L

2 1

Good to fair Untested

L M

S L

2 3

Untested Untested

L M

S L

2 1

Good Fair

H

M L

4 3

Fair Fair

H

Effectiveness of Control

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-314

Table 10I.209

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Frequency and Areal Scale

Process

Water-Quality Impacts

Uranium mining and milling Underground mining Escape of radioactive and other inorganic contaminants to the environment through disposal of dewatering waste and escape from tailings ponds can seriously impair downstream water uses. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters Surface mining Some concern about high sediment transport potential, but main source of concern is potential for radioactive contamination of streams and groundwaters through leakage from tailings disposal ponds. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters Solution mining Main concern centers on escape of radioactive and inorganic process chemicals to off-site groundwaters. a. Surface waters b. Groundwater Transportation Coal slurry lines Main concern centers on pipeline breaks and the potential for contamination of streams. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters Oil pipelines Most significant problems are pipeline breaks and resulting oil pollution of streams. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters Oil tankers Escape of oil to marine environment as result of shipwrecks can be catastrophic to marine life over wide areas. Refining Oil refining Controlled release of waste water and accidental releases of organic and inorganic contaminants are most significant issues; concerns center on impairment of water supplies of other water users. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters Nuclear fuel cycle Accidental releases of radioactive materials to surface and groundwaters from processing and reprocessing plants are main concern; both highand low-level waste disposal also have potential for escape of radioactivity to the water environment. Controlled release of nonradioactive inorganic chemicals adds to chemical load of receiving waters. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters

Regional

Local

Time Frame

Severity

M

S L

4 4

Good Poor

M

S L

4 4

Good Poor

L L

S L

1 4

Excellent Excellent

L L

S L

2 1

Excellent Excellent

M L

S L M

2 1 3

Fair Good Poor

M L

M L

3 3

Good Good

M M

S L

4 4

Good Fair to poor

M

M

L

Effectiveness of Control

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10I.209

10-315

(Continued) Frequency and Areal Scale

Process Conversion Fossil-fueled steam electric generation

Nuclear steamelectric generation

Geothermal electric generation

Hydroelectric generation

Coal conversion processes

Water-Quality Impacts Controlled release of cooling-system blowdown to streams and/or leakage from cooling ponds add dissolved solids and treatment chemicals to stream loads. Once-through cooling contributes to thermal pollution. a. Surface waters b. Groundwater Small controlled releases of radioactive materials and discharge of coolingsystem blowdown add radioactivity, dissolved solids, and treatment chemicals to stream loads. Accidental release of radioactivity through reactor containment failure could endanger human life over wide area. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters Disposal of waste and condensate containing noxious inorganic compounds and thermal load to streams impair downstream uses and damages aquatic life. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters Changes in stream temperature and dissolved gases due to storage and reservoir releases seriously alter the aquatic environment. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters Controlled release of cooling system blowdown and accidental releases of organic and inorganic contaminants, as in oil refining and with similar concern about impairment of other water uses. a. Surface waters b. Groundwaters

Regional

Local

Time Frame

Severity

L

M L

2 1

Good Good

L

M L

5 4

Good Good

H

M L

4 3

Fair Fair

L

L S

2 1

Fair Good

M L

M L

3 3

Good Good

M

M

H

H

Effectiveness of Control

Note: Frequency, H, high, M, medium, L, low. Time frame, L, longer than 10 yrs, M, 1 to 10 yrs, S, less than 1 yr, Severity, 5, direct threat to human life, 4, hazardous to human health, 3, severe economic damage, 2, damage to biota, 1, aesthetic or other Intangible harm. Source: From Davis, G.H., 1985, Water and Energy: Demand and Effects, Unesco Studies and Reports in Hydrology 42. Copyright Unesco. Reprinted with permission.

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10-316

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 10J

WATERBORNE DISEASES/HEALTH HAZARDS

Microbial pathogens

Waterborne disease Animals

Humans

Water environment

Figure 10J.169 Waterborne disease interactions in the water environment, (From Cotruvo, J.A., et al., 2004, Waterborne Zoonoses, Identification, Causes, and Control, Published on Behalf of the World Health Organization by IWA Publishing, www.who.int.)

60 Legionella species* AGI Chemical Viral Parasitic Bacterial

Number of outbreaks

50 40 30 20 10 0 1971

1974

1977

1980

1983

1986

1989

1992

1995

1998

2001

Year * Beginning in 2001, Legionnaires disease was added to the surveillance system, and Legionella species were classified separately. Acute gastrointestinal illness of unknown etiology.

Figure 10J.170 Number of waterborne-disease outbreaks (nZ764) associated with drinking water, by year and etiologic agent in the United States, 1971–2002. (From Blackburn, B.G. et al., 2004, Surveillance of waterborne-disease outbreaks associated with drinking water — United States, 2001–2002, MMWR Surveillance Summaries, vol. 53, no. SS-08, pp. 23–45, www.cdc.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-317

Number of outbreaks

60

Individual Noncommunity Community

50 40 30 20 10 0

1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001

Year * Excludes outbreaks of Legionnaires disease

Figure 10J.171 Number of waterborne disease outbreaks (nZ758)* associated with drinking water, by year and type of water system — United States, 1971–2002. (From Cotruvo, J.A. et al., (ed.), 2004, Waterborne Zoonoses, Identification, Causes, and Control, Published on Behalf of the World Health Organization by IWA Publishing, Copyright q World Health Organization 2004, wlio.int.)

100 90 80

Outbreaks

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 y y ch ar ar ar ru nu M b a e J F

Ap

r il

M

ay

n Ju

e

ly Ju

g Au

us

t

Se

pt

em

be

r O

o ct

be

r

N

em ov

be

r

D

ec

em

be

r

Figure 10J.172 Outbreaks of waterborne disease by month, 1973–1998. (From Gleick, P.H. et al., 2004, The World’s Water 2004–2005, The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources, Island Press, Washington, www.worldwater.org.)

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10-318

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Giardiasis

52% 38%

Undefined AGI Shigellosis

2%

Campylobacterosis

2%

Viral AGI

2%

Hepatitis A

2%

Salmonellosis

2% 10

20

30

40

50

60

Percent of Waterborne Outbreaks in Surface Water Systems (n = 123)

7

3500

6

3000

5

2500

4

2000

3

1500

2

1000

1

500

Cases

Outbreaks

Figure 10J.173 Etiology of waterborne disease outbreaks in untreated, disinfected-only, and filtered surface water systems in the United States, 1971–1985. (From Craun, G.F., 1988, Surface water supplies and health, J. American Water Works Association, vol. 80, no. 2. Copyright AWWA. Reproduced with permission.)

Outbreaks Cases

0

0 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20

Year Figure 10J.174 Outbreaks of Waterborne Disease by Month, 1973–1998 (From World’s Water 2004–2005, by Peter H. Gleick. Copyright q 2004 Island Press. Reproduced by permission of Island Press, Washington, DC.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-319

100 90 4

80 60 50

2

40

Cases

Outbreaks

70 3

Outbreaks Cases

30 1

20 10

0

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

0

Year Figure 10J.175 Outbreaks of waterborne disease associated with private water supplies in England and Wales from 1980–2000. (From Stanwell-Smith, R., Anderson, Y., and Levy, D., 2003, National surveillance systems in Hunter, P.R., Waite, M., and Ronchi, El., (eds.), Drinking Water and Infectious Disease Establishing the Links, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida. Reproduced with permission.)

Number of outbreaks

10 8 6 4 2 0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month

Figure 10J.176 Seasonal distribution of outbreaks associated with both private and public drinking water supplies in England and Wales from 1991 to 2000. (From Stanwell-Smith, R., Anderson Y., and Levy, D., 2006, National Surveillance Systems in Hunter, P.R., Waite, M., and Ronchi, El. (eds.), Drinking Water and Infectious Disease Establishing the Links, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida.)

14

16000

12

14000 12000 10000

8

8000 6

Cases

Outbreaks

10

No of outbreaks Cases

6000

4

4000

2

2000

0

0

80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19

Year Figure 10J.177 Outbreaks and cases of waterborne disease in Sweden, 1980–1999. (From Stanwell-Smith, R., Anderson Y., and Levy, D., 2006, National Surveillance Systems in Hunter, P.R., Waite, M., and Ronchi, El. (eds.), Drinking Water and Infectious Disease Establishing the Links, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida.)

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10-320

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Salmonella Shigella Campylobacter Tox. prod. E. coli Giardia Entamoeba Cryptospordium Calicivirus Unknown 0

20

40

60

80

100

Figure 10J.178 Microbial agents associated with waterborne outbreaks in Sweden, 1980–1999. (From Stanwell-Smith, R., Anderson, Y., and Levy, D., 2003, National surveillance systems in Hunter, P.R., Waite, M., and Ronchi, El., (eds.), Drinking Water and Infectious Disease Establishing the Links, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida. Reproduced with permission.)

40

Other* Dermatitis

Number of outbreaks

35

Meningoencephalitis† Gastroenteritis

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

Year * Includes keratitis, conjunctivitis, otitis, bronchitis, meningitis, hepatitis, leptospirosis, Pontiac fever, and acute respiratory illness. † Also includes data from report of ameba infections.

Number of outbreaks

Figure 10J.179 Number of waterborne-disease related outbreaks (nZ445) associated with recreational water by year and illness in the United States, 1978–2002. (From Yoder, J.S. et al., 2004. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks associated with recreation water — United States, 2001–2002, MMWR Surveillance Summary, vol. 53, no. SS08, pp 1–22, October 22, 2004, www.cdc.gov.)

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Other* Meningoencephalitis Dermatitis Gastroenteritis

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

2001–2002 * Acute respiratory illness, Pontiac fever, or chemical exposure.

Figure 10J.180 Number of waterborne-disease related outbreaks (nZ65) associated with recreational water by illness and month in the United States, 2001–2002. (From Yoder, J.S. et al., 2004, Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks associated with recreation water — United States, 2001–2002, MMWR Surveillance Summary, vol. 53, no. SS08, pp 1–22, October 22, 2004, www.cdc.gov.)

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Suitability of climate conditions for the transmission of malaria 2004 climate suitable, malaria endemic

6 Malaria around the world

5 4

2004 1

Malaria transmission occurs

3

2 3

Limited risk

2

No malaria

1 climate unsuitable, malaria absent

Africa bears the overwhelming burden of malaria. It is home to the deadliest form of the malaria parasite and to climatic conditions where mosquitoes fluorish. Local environmental conditions, such as wetlands and drainage patterns, also influence the abundance of mosquitoes Consequently, dams and irrigation schemes must be carefully planned and managed in order to reduce opportunities for mosquitoes to breed

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Malaria in Africa

3 1

2

2 1

2

1

3 5

1 4

3 2

6

1

978 661

Child deaths from malaria Annual deaths from malaria of children under five years 2002 by WHO region

Other vector-borne diseases Schistosomiasis

Flat worms, whose life cycle partly takes place in freshwater snails, burrow through the skin. 200 million people, many of them children, are currently infected with schistomiasis

Japanese encephalities

This is a virus transmitted by mosquitoes in Asia. 90% of the cases occur in children under 5 yrs

Leishmaniasis

Transmitted by sand flies, this parasite causes skin lesions and damage to internal organs. It killed 59,000 people in 2001

Dengue fever

Mosquitoes transmit the virus, which kills more than 10,000 children every yr

Lymphatic filariasis

Worms lodging in the lymphatic system can cause deformations in children as young as 12 yrs

2

6

3

4

1

57 877 Africa

5

4 2 3

5

51 059

Figure 10J.181 Malaria. (From Gordon, B., Mackay, R., and Rehfuess, E., 2004, Inheriting the world: The Atlas of Children’s Health and the Environment, World Health Organization, www.who.int.) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-321

9443 44 1266 South-East Eastern Western Europe The Asia Mediterranean Pacific Americas

10-322

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

1,000,000 900,000 800,000

Comprehensive monitoring begins

Number of cases

700,000 600,000 500,000 400,000 300,000 200,000 100,000

19

7 19 2 73 19 7 19 4 75 19 7 19 6 77 19 7 19 8 79 19 8 19 0 81 19 8 19 2 83 19 8 19 4 85 19 8 19 6 87 19 8 19 8 89 19 9 19 0 91 19 9 19 2 93 19 9 19 4 9 19 5 96 19 9 19 7 98 19 9 20 9 00

0

Figure 10J.182 Dracunculiasis (guinea worm) cases worldwide, 1972–2000. (From Gleick. et al., 2002. The world’s water, The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources, 2002–2003, Island Press, Washington, www.worldwater.org. Reproduced with permission.)

700,000

100% Sixth pandemic

Seventh pandemic

90%

600,000

80% 70% 60%

400,000

50% 300,000 200,000

Case fatality rate (Ploynomial trend)

Africa The Americas

40%

Case fatality rate

Number of casees

500,000

30%

Asia 20% 100,000 10% 0%

19

50 19 52 19 54 19 5 19 6 5 19 8 60 19 6 19 2 64 19 66 19 68 19 70 19 72 19 74 19 76 19 78 19 80 19 8 19 2 8 19 4 86 19 8 19 8 90 19 92 19 94 19 96 19 98

0

Figure 10J.183 Cholera, reported number of cases and case fatality rates, 1950–1998. (From World Health Organization, WHO Report on Global Surveillance of Epidemic-Prone Infectious Diseases-Cholera, www.who.int.)

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-323

1,000

76 71

22 11

10

10

African (child: high; adult: high) Southeast Asian (child: high; adult: high) Eastern Mediterranean (child: high; adult: high) Eastern Mediterranean (child: low; adult: low) Southeast Asian (child: low; adult: low) American (child: high; adult: high) American (child: low; adult: low) Western Pacific (child: low; adult: low) European (child: low; adult: low) European (child: low; adult: high) European (child: very low; adult: high) American (child: very low; adult: very low)

0

Western Pacific (child: very low; adult: very low)

11 11 11

1

African (child: high; adult: very high)

DALYs per 1,000 (log scale)

100

237 234 164163 146 116

Region (mortality strata)

Figure 10J.184 Diarrheal disease from water, sanitation, and hygiene: DALYs per 1,000 children (under 5 years old) by region. (From Pru¨ss, A., Kay, D., Fewtrell, L., and Bartram, J., 2002, Estimating the burden of disease from water, sanitation, and hygiene at a global level, Environmental Health Prerspectives, vol. 110, no. 5, May 2002, www.ehponline.org.)

140,000,000 No millennium goal: Low 120,000,000

No millennium goal: High Millennium goal: Low

Total deaths

100,000,000

Millennium goal: High

80,000,000 60,000,000 40,000,000 20,000,000

20 20

20 18

20 16

20 14

20 12

20 10

20 08

20 06

20 04

20 02

20 00

-

Figure 10J.185 Total water-related deaths between 2000 and 2020. (From Gleick, P. H., 2002, Dirty water: estimated deaths from waterrelated diseases 2000–2020, Pacific Institute Research Report, q 2002 Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security, on-line at www.pacinst.org.)

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10-324

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Blood lead concentrations, micrograms per deciliter (mg/dL)

30

25 90th percentile (10 percent of children have this blood lead level or greater) 20

15

101,2

5

0

Median value (50 percent of children have this blood lead level or greater) 1976 − 1980

1988 − 1991

1992 − 1994

1999 − 2000

Figure 10J.186 Concentration of lead in blood of children age 5 and under, 1976–1980, 1988–1991, 1992–1994, 1999–2000. (From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2003, EPA’s Draft Report on the Environment, 2003, EPA 600-R-03050. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. America’s Children and the Environment Measures of Contaminants, Body Burdens, and Illnesses, Second Edition, February 2003. Data from CDC National Center for Health Statistics, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1976–2000, www.epa.gov. 1 10 mg/dL of blood lead has been identified by CDC as elevated, which indicates the need for interventions. (CDC Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young Children, 1991.) 2 Recent research suggests that blood levels less than 10 mg/dL may still produce subtle, subclinical health effects in children. (Schmidt, C.W. Poisoning Young Minds, 1999.)

Table 10J.210 Magnitude of Waterborne Disease Outbreaks in the United States, 1920–1980 Frequency of Occurrence (Number of Outbreaks) Size of Outbreak (Cases of Illness) !2 2–5 6–10 11–25 26–50 51–100 101–200 201–300 301–500 501–1,000 1,001–3,000 3,001–5,000 5,001–10,000 O10,000 Total

Community Systems

Noncommunity Systems

Individual Systems

All Systems

3 26 71 145 94 68 63 28 29 29 28 9 5 5 603

0 35 50 119 124 82 50 14 14 9 3 0 0 0 500

3 95 81 63 34 16 6 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 302

6 156 202 327 252 166 119 44 44 39 31 9 5 5 1,405

Source: From Craun, G.F., 1986, Waterborne Diseases in the United States. Copyright CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. Reprinted with permission.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-325

Table 10J.211 Etiology of Waterborne Disease Outbreaks in the United States, 1920–1984 Time Period 1920–1925 1926–1930 1931–1935

1936–1940

1947–1945

1946–1950

1951–1955

1956–1960

1961–1965

Disease

Outbreaks

Cases

Deaths

Typhoid fever Gastroenteritis Typhoid fever Gastroenteritis Typhoid fever Gastroenteritis Amebiasis Hepatitis A Gastroenteritis Typhoid fever

127 11 100 17 85 25 1 1 91 60

7,294 27,756 3,072 63,902 2,114 7,664 1,412 28 77,403 1,281

435 0 234 0 140 0 98 0 2 80

Shigellosis Chemical poisoning Amebiasis Gastroenteritis Thyhoid fever Shigellosis Salmonellosis Paratyphoid fever Chemical poisoning Gastroenteritis Typhoid fever

10 1

3,308 92

0 0

1 126 56 10 1 2

4 36,118 1,450 2,817 12 14

0 3 46 6 0 0

1

30

0

87 18

10,718 264

0 5

Hepatitis A Shigellosis Paratyphoid fever Leptospirosis Tularemia Gastroenteritis Typhoid fever Hepatitis A Shigellosis Amebiasis

5 4 1

173 2,321 5

0 1 0

1 1 31 7 7 4 1

9 4 5,297 103 340 732 31

0 0 0 0 0 1 2

Salmonellosis Poliomyelitis Gastroenteritis Typhoid fever Hepatitis A Shigellosis

1 1 21 13 11 7

2 16 2,306 128 417 3,081

0 0 0 3 0 0

Chemical poisoning Salmonellosis Amebiasis Tularemia

3

14

4

2 1 1

17 5 2

0 0 0

Gastroenteritis Typhoid fever Hepatitis A Shigellosis

18 11 10 7

20,627 63 334 520

0 0 0 4

Time Period

1966–1970

1971–1975

1976–1980

Disease

Outbreaks

Cases

Deaths

Chemical poisoning Salmonellosis Giardiasis Paratyphoid fever Gastroenteritis Hepatitis A Shigellosis Typhoid fever Salmonellosis Toxigenic E. coil AGI Chemical poisoning Amebiasis

5 3 1 1 21 19 14 4 4 4

30 16,425 123 5 5,922 562 1,215 45 226 188

6 3 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 4

4 3

15 39

0 2

Giardiasis Gastroenteritis Shigellosis Hepatitis A Giardiasis Chemical poisoning

2 63 14 14 13 13

53 17,752 2,803 368 5,136 513

0 0 0 0 0 0

Typhoid fever

4

222

0

Salmonellosis Toxigenic E. coil AGI Gastroenteritis Giardiasis Chemical poisoning

2 1

37 1,000

0 0

114 26 25

22,093 14,416 3,081

0 0 1

Shigellosis Viral gastroenteritis Salmonellosis Campylobacteriosis Hepatitis A

10 10 6 3 2

2,392 3,147 1,113 3,821 95

0 0 0 0 0

Gastroenteritis, undetermined etiology Giardiasis Chemical poisoning Shigellosis Hepatitis A

59

20,772

0

48 11 7 7

4,048 179 532 274

0 0 0 0

Viral gastroenteritis, Norwalk agent Salmonellosis

7

1,077

0

2

1,150

0

Campylobacterosis

6

993

0

Viral gastroenteritis, rotavirus Cholera Yersiniosis Cryptosporidium Entamoeba

1

1,761

0

1 1 1 1

17 16 117 4

0 0 0 0

1981–1984

Source: From Craun, G.F., 1986, Waterborne Diseases in the United States, Copyright CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. Reprinted with permission; amended with statistics from Center for Disease Control Annual Summaries, 1981–1984.

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Table 10J.212 Etiologic Agents Most Frequently Identified in Waterborne Outbreaks of Infectious Diseases in the United States, 1971–1992 Etiologic Agent

Outbreaks

Cases of Illness

118 57 24 29 13 12 7 23 283

26,733 9,967 10,908 807 5,257 2,370 17,194 4,243 77,479

Giardia lamblia Shigella Norwalk-like virus Hepatitis A Campylobacter Salmonella Cryptosporidium parvum All othersa Total a

Toxigenic E. coli, Yersinia, rotavirus, S. typhi, V. cholera and others.

Source: From Chlorine Chemistry Council, 1997, Drinking Water Chrlorination White Paper, A Review of Disinfection Practices and Issues, June 12, 1997, www.c3.org.

Table 10J.213 Etiology of Waterborne Disease Outbreaks in the United States, by Type of Water System, 1991–2000 Community Water Systemsa Etiological Agent Giardia Cryptosporidiumd Campylobacter jejuni Salmonellae, nontyphoid E. coli E. coli O157:H7/C. jeuni Shigella Plesiomonas shigelloides Non-01 V.cholerae Hepatitis A virus Norwalk-like viruses Small, round-structured virus Chemical Undetermined Total

Non-community Water Systemsb

Individual Water Systemsc

All Systems

Outbreaks

Cases

Outbreaks

Cases

Outbreaks

Cases

Outbreaks

Cases

11 7 1 2 3 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

2,073 407,642 172 749 208 0 83 0 11 0 594 148

5 2 3 0 3 1 5 1 0 1 4 1

167 578 66 0 39 781 484 60 0 46 1,806 70

6 2 1 1 3 0 2 0 0 1 0 0

16 39 102 84 12 0 38 0 0 10 0 0

22 11 5 3 9 1 8 1 1 2 3 2

2,256 408,259 340 833 259 781 605 60 11 56 2,400 218

18 11 57

522 10,162 422,364

0 38 64

0 4,837 8,934

7 11 34

9 238 548

25 60 155

531 15,237 431,846

Note: Data are compiled from CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Surveillance Summaries for 1991–1992, 1993–1994, 1995– 1996, 1997–1998 and 1999–2000. Figures include adjustments to numbers of outbreaks and illness cases originally reported, based on more recent CDC data. a b c d

Community water systems are those that serve communities of an average of at least 25 year-round residents and have at least 15 service connections. Non-community water systems are those that serve an average of at least 25 residents and have at least 15 service connections and are used at least 60 days yK1. Individual water systems are those serving less than 25 residents and have less than 15 service connections. There were 403,000 cases of illness reported in Milwaukee in 1993.

Source: From Chlorine Chemistry Council, 2003, Drinking Water Chlorination, A Review of Disinfection Practices and Issues, February 2003, www.c3.org.

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Table 10J.214 Waterborne-Disease Outbreaks (nZ25) Associated with Drinking Water, by Etiologic Agent and Type of Water System (Excluding Outbreaks Caused by Legionella Species) — United States, 2001–2002 Type of Water Systema Community Etiologic Agent

Outbreaks

Unknown AGlb Viruses Norovirus Parasitic Giardia intestinalis Cryptosporidium species Naegleria fowleri Chemical Copper Copper and other minerals Ethyl benzene, toluene, xylene Ethylene glycol Bacterial (other than Legionella species) Campylobacterjejuni C. jejuni and Yersinia enterocolitica Escherichia coli O157:H7 Total Percentage a

b

Noncommunity

Cases

Outbreaks

Cases

Individual Outbreaks

Cases

Total Outbreaks

Cases

0 0 1 1 3 2 0 1 3 2 0 0

0 0 71 71 14 12 0 2 33 30 0 0

2 2 4 4 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

98 98 656 656 0 0 0 0 4 0 4 0

5 5 0 0 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

19 19 0 0 16 6 10 0 2 0 0 2

7 7 5 5 5 3 1 1 5 2 1 1

117 117 727 727 30 18 10 2 39 30 4 2

1 0

3 0

0 1

0 12

0 2

0 15

1 3

3 27

0 0

0 0

0 1

0 12

1 0

13 0

1 1

13 12

0 7 (28.0)

0 118 (12.6)

0 8 (32.0)

1 25 (100.0)

2 940 (100.0)

0 770 (81.9)

1 10 (40.0)

2 52 (5.5)

Com, community; Ncom, noncommunity; Ind, individual. Community and noncommunity water systems are public water systems that serve O15 serv connections or an average of R25 residents for R60 days/year. A community water system serves year-round residents of a community, subdivision, mobile home park with R15 service connections or an average of R25 residents. A noncommunity water system can be nontransient or transient. Nontransient systems serve R25 of the same persons for O6 months of the year, but not yearround (e.g., factories or schools), whereas transient systems provide water to places in which persons do not remain for long periods of time (e.g., restaurants, highway rest stations, or parks). Individual water systems are small systems not owned or operated by a water utility that serve !15 connections or !25 persons. Outbreaks associated with water not intended for drinking (e.g., lakes, springs and creeks used by campers and boaters, irrigation water, and other nonpotable sources with or without taps) are also classified individual systems. Acute gastrointestinal illness of unknown etiology.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10J.215 Total Outbreaks of Drinking-Water Related Disease, United States, 1973–2000 Schneiderb Year 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Total a b c

CDC Datac

Heinz Centera Outbreaks

Outbreaks

Cases

21 20 16 29 26 22 26 29 24 30 35 20 16 18 11 15 12 10 11 18 8 11 11 3 4 7

22 17 33 41 49 32 40 40 26 25 22 15 15 12 14 15 27 17 13 16 6 7 10

3,860 1,911 11,435 6,761 20,005 4,430 3,456 20,905 1,755 2,117 1,569 22,149 2,159 2,540 1,748 12,960 4,724 404,183 1,178 2,375 192 304 1,734

453

514

534,450

Outbreaks

Cases

22 15 13 13 14 15 27 18 12 16 6 7 10 15 24 227

25,846 (1986–1988)

17,464 (1991–1992) 405,366 (1993–1994) 2,567 (1995–1996) 2,038 (1997–1998) 2,068 (1999–2000) 455,349

Heinz Center State of the Nations; Ecosystem report, heinzctr.org/ecosystems/fr_water/datasets/freshwater_waterborne_ disease_ outbreaks.shtm. Data compiled by Dr. Orren D. Schneider and used by permission, water.sesep.drexel.edu/outbreaks/US_summaryto1998.htm. Data part of the Center for Disease Control. Surveillance for Waterborne-Disease Outbreaks program. Waterborne Disease Outbreaks, 1986–1988, www.cdc.gov/epo.mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00001596.htm; Waterborne-Disease Outbreaks, 1991–1992, www.cdc.gov/ epo.mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/000025893.htm; Waterborne-Disease Outbreaks, 1993–1994, www.cdc.gov/epo.mmwr/preview/ mmwrhtml/0004088.htm; Waterborne-Disease Outbreaks, 1995–1996, www.cdc.gov/epo.mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00055820.htm; Waterborne-Disease Outbreaks, 1997–1998, www.cdc.gov/epo.mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss4904a1.htm; Waterborne-Disease Outbreaks, 1999–2000, www.cdc.gov/epo.mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5108a1.htm.

Source: From World’s Water 2004–2005, by Peter Gleick. H. Copyright q 2004 Island Press. Reproduced by permission of Island Press, Washington, DC.

Table 10J.216 Number of Waterborne Outbreaks by Type of Water System and Etiology in the United States, 1971–2000 Water System Type Non-community Community Treated and untreated recreational watera Individual All water systems a

Unidentified Agents

Protozoa

Viruses

Bacteria

Chemicals

228 98 40

31 96 98

27 20 18

43 40 97

11 54 5

39 405

16 241

9 74

18 198

21 91

An outbreak attributed to algal toxins is not included. An outbreak of both Shigella and Cryptosporidium is included in the protozoa category.

Source: From Cotruvo, J.A. et al., (ed.), 2004, Waterborne Zoonoses, Identification, Causes, and Control, Published on Behalf of the World Health Organization by IWA Publishing, Copyright q World Health Organization 2004, www.who.int.

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Table 10J.217 Drinking-Waterborne Outbreaks of Zoonotic Agents in the United States, 1971–2000 Type of Water Systema Etiologic Agent

Total

C

NC

I

GW

SW

M/U

126 19 15 15 11 2 1 1

83 9 11 11 4 — — —

29 7 2 2 4 1 1 1

14 3 2 2 3 1 — —

31 12 8 11 8 2 1 1

90 3 5 2 2 — — —

5 4 2 2 1 — — —

190

118

47

25

74

102

14

Giardia Campylobacter Cryptosporidium Salmonella E. coli O157:H7 Yersinia E. coli O6:H16 E. coli O0157:H7 and Campylobacter Total a b

Water Sourceb

C, community; NC, noncommunity; I, individual. GW, groundwater; SW, surface water; M/U, mixed or unknown.

Source: From Cotruvo, J.A. et al., (ed.), 2004, Waterborne Zoonoses, Identification, Causes, and Control, Published on Behalf of the World Health Organization by IWA Publishing, Copyright q World Health Organization 2004, www.who.int.

Table 10J.218 Waterborne Outbreaks Reported in United States Drinking Water Systems by Type of System and Water Source, 1991–1998 Number of Waterborne Outbreaks Water Source Groundwatera Surface waterb Unknown Totals a b

Community Systems

Non-Community Systems

Individual Systems

All Water Systems

22 22 3 47

52 2 8 62

11 1 5 17

85 25 16 126

Surfacewater, lakes, reservoirs, rivers, streams. Groundwater, wells and springs.

Source: From Craun, G.F., Calderon, R.L., and Nwachuku, N., 2003, Causes of waterborne outbreaks reported in the United States, 1991-1998 in Hunter, P.R., Waite, M., and Ronchi, El., (eds.), Drinking Water and Infectious Disease Establishing the Links, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL.

Table 10J.219 Etiology of Waterborne Outbreaks in United States Drinking Water Systems, 1991–1998; Number of Outbreaks by Type of Water System and Water Source Community Water Systems Etiological Agent Undetermined Chemical Giardia Cryptosporidium Norwalk-like virus Campylobacter Salmonella, non-typhoid Escherichia coli O157:H7 Shigella Vibrio cholerae Hepatitis A virus Plesiomonas shigelloides Total

Non-Community Water Systems

SurfaceWater

GroundWater

Unknown Source

SurfaceWater

GroundWater

Unknown Source

5 7 6 3 1

1 9 4 3 1 1 1 1 1

1

1

36

5 1

1

1

3 1 2

1

3 5

1

1

22

22

3

2

1 1 52

8

Source: From Craun, G.F., Calderon, R.L., and Nwachuku, N., 2003, Causes of waterborne outbreaks reported in the United States, 1991–1998 in Hunter, P.R., Waite, M., and Ronchi, El., (eds.), Drinking Water and Infectious Disease Establishing the Links, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL.

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Table 10J.220 Etiology of Waterborne Outbreaks Reporting in United States Drinking Water Systems; Cases of Illness by Type of Water System and Water Source, 1991–1998 Community Water Systems Etiological Agent Undetermined Chemical Giardia Cryptosporidium Norwalk-like virus Campylobacter Salmonella, non-typhoid E. coli O157:H7 Shigella Vibrio cholerae Hepatitis A virus Plesiomonas shigelloides Total

Noncommunity Water Systems

SurfaceWater

GroundWater

Unknown Source

SurfaceWater

GroundWater

Unknown Source

10,210 104 1,937 403,343 148

18 409 49 4,294 594 172 625 157 83

67

250

4,789

101 2

77

27

128 551 51

7

39 484

27

11

415,742

6,401

155

277

46 60 6,148

137

Source: From Craun, G.F., Calderon, R.L., and Nwachuku, N., 2003, Causes of waterborne outbreaks reported in the United States, 1991–1998 in Hunter, P.R., Waite, M., and Ronchi, El., (eds.), Drinking Water and Infectious Disease Establishing the Links, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL.

Table 10J.221 Etiology of Waterborne Outbreaks in Individual Water Systems in the United States Outbreaks and Cases of Illness by Water Source, 1991–1998 Outbreaks Etiological Agent Undetermined Chemical Giardia Cryptosporidium E. coli Shigella Hepatitis A virus Total

Cases of Illness

SurfaceWater

GroundWater

Unknown Source

SurfaceWater

GroundWater

Unknown Source

0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

2 3 1 2 1 1 1 11

1 3 0 0 0 1 0 5

0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2

43 3 10 39 3 33 10 141

8 5 0 0 0 5 0 18

Source: From Craun, G.F., Calderon, R.L., and Nwachuku, N., 2003, Causes of waterborne outbreaks reported in the United States, 1991–1998 in Hunter, P.R., Waite, M., and Ronchi, El., (eds.), Drinking Water and Infectious Disease Establishing the Links, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL.

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Table 10J.222 Waterborne Disease Outbreaks Caused by Use of Contaminated, Untreated Surface Water in the United States, 1920–1980 Type of Water System Community Deficiency Contamination on watershed Use of surface water for supplemental source Overflow of sewage or outfall near water intake Flooding, heavy rains Dead animals in reservoir Insufficient data Total a

a

Noncommunity a

Individual a

All a

OB

Cases

OB

Cases

OB

Cases

OB

Cases

26

3,498

3

57

12

257

41

3,812

7

3,613

7

245

2

115

16

3,973

3

103

3

39

5

87

11

229

2

125

1

93

1

77

4

295

—

—

1

100

—

—

1

100

27 65

1,228 8,567

24 39

726 1,260

28 48

436 972

79 152

2,390 10,799

Number of outbreaks.

Source: From Craun, G.F., 1986, Waterborne Diseases in the United States. Copyright CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. Reprinted with permission.

Table 10J.223 Waterborne Disease Outbreaks Caused by Use of Contaminated, Untreated Groundwater (Springs) in the United States, 1920–1980 Type of Water System Community Deficiency Overflow or seepage of sewage Surface runoff Flooding Creviced limestone Contamination of raw water transmission line Improper construction Insufficient data Total a

a

Non-Community a

Individual a

OB

Cases

OB

Cases

OB

8

238

3

35

5

11 2 1 2

265 76 200 284

5 2 3 1

162 123 213 7

— 12 36

— 508 1,571

1 18 33

26 1,961 2,527

All

Cases

a

OB

Cases

39

16

312

7 — — —

75 — — —

23 4 4 3

502 199 413 291

1 20 33

9 415 538

2 50 102

35 2,884 4,636

Number of outbreaks.

Source: From Craun, G.F., 1986, Waterborne Diseases in the United States. Copyright CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. Reprinted with permission.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10J.224 Waterborne Disease Outbreaks Caused by Use of Contaminated, Untreated Groundwater (Wells) in the United States, 1920–1980 Type of Water System Community Deficiency Overflow or seepage of sewage Surface runoff, heavy rains Creviced limestone, fissured rock Improper construction, faulty well casing Flooding Chemical contamination Contamination by stream or river Contamination of raw water transmission line Seepage from abandoned well Animal in well Insufficient data Total a

a

OB

Noncommunity

Individual

Cases

a

a

OB

Cases

OB

28 25 9 8

14,915 2,492 1,404 342

104 26 19 10

10,236 947 2,044 414

9 3 3 8

5,883 77 445 10,481

3 2 6 —

3 1 19 116

144 34 18,480 54,697

1 1 67 239

All

Cases

a

OB

Cases

52 34 12 9

675 824 660 141

184 85 40 27

25,826 4,263 4,108 897

107 16 392 —

5 10 3 —

211 68 48 —

17 15 12 8

6,201 161 885 10,481

50 238 3,309 17,753

— 2 40 167

— 19 413 3,059

4 4 126 522

194 291 22,202 75,509

Number of outbreaks.

Source: From Craun, G.F., 1986, Waterborne Diseases in the Untied States, Copyright CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, FL. Reprinted with permission.

Table 10J.225 Waterborne Disease Outbreak and Disease Rates Attributed to Source Contamination and Treatment Inadequacies in Community Systems in the United States Using Surface Water Sources, 1971–1985 Type of Community Water System

Waterborne Disease Outbreaks per 1,000 Water Systems

Waterborne Illnesses per MillionPerson Years

32.5 40.5 5.0

370.9 66.3 4.7

Untreated Disinfected only Filtered and disinfected water

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987; Craun, G.F., 1987.

Table 10J.226 Water Supply Deficiencies Responsible for Waterborne Outbreaks in the United States, 1971–1985. Source of Deficiency Surface water source No treatment Disinfection only, or inadequate disinfection Disinfection with other treatment (but no filtration) Filtration and disinfection Totals Groundwater source No treatment Inadequate disinfection Disinfection with other treatment Totals Distribution system Cross-connection Contamination of mains/plumbing Contamination of storage Corrosive water Totals Grand Total (reported) Outbreaks Illnesses

Outbreaks

Reported Illnesses

31 67 5 20 123

1,647 23,028 969 9,852 35,496

154 90 1 245

11,266 40,893 22 52,181

44 14 11 10 79

8,124 3,413 6,244 147 17,928

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987; Craun, G.F., 1987.

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447 105,605

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

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Table 10J.227 Waterborne Outbreaks and Deficiencies in United States Public Water Systems Surfacewater Sources, 1991–1998 Community Systems Surfacewater Source Type of Contamination Untreated surface water Inadequate or interrupted disinfection; disinfection only treatment Inadequate or interrupted filtration Distribution system contamination Inadequate control of chemical feed Miscellaneous/unknown Total

Noncommunity Systems Surfacewater Source

Outbreaks

Percent

Outbreaks

Percent

0 4

0 18

0 1

0 50

4 9 2

18 41 9

0 0 0

0 0 0

3 22

14 100

1 2

50 100

Source: From Craun, G.F., Calderon, R.L., and Nwachuku, N., 2003, Causes of waterborne outbreaks reported in the United States, 1991–1998 in Hunter, P.R., Waite, M., and Ronchi, El., (eds.), Drinking Water and Infectious Disease Establishing the Links, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida.

Table 10J.228 Waterborne Outbreaks and Deficiencies in United States Public Water Systems Groundwater Sources, 1991–1998 Community Systems Groundwater Source Type of Contamination Untreated groundwater Inadequate or interrupted disinfection; disinfection only treatment Inadequate or interrupted filtration Distribution system contamination Inadequate control of chemical feed Miscellaneous/unknown Total

Noncommunity Systems Groundwater Source

Outbreaks

Percent

Outbreaks

Percent

5 3

23 14

18 21

35 40

1 8 3

4 36 14

0 8 0

15

2 22

9 100

5 52

10 100

Source: From Craun, G.F., Calderon, R.L., and Nwachuku, N., 2003, Causes of waterborne outbreaks reported in the United States, 1991–1998 in Hunter, P.R., Waite, M., and Ronchi, El., (eds.), Drinking Water and Infectious Disease Establishing the Links, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10J.229 Causes of Waterborne Disease Outbreaks in Community Water Systems in the United States — 1971–1998 Outbreaksa — %

Time Period

Number of Outbreaks

Distribution System Deficiencies

34 39 90 60 24 27 20 294

32.4 41.0 24.4 31.7 16.7 29.6 45.0 30.3

1971–74 1975–78 1979–82 1983–86 1987–90 1991–94 1995–98 1971–98

Untreated Groundwater

Inadequate, Interrupted Disinfection of Groundwater

Inadequate Disinfection of Unfiltered Surface Water

Filtered Surface Water

14.7 2.6 8.0 6.7 12.5 11.1 10.0 8.8

17.6 17.9 16.7 11.7 16.7 7.4 10 14.6

20.6 17.9 23.3 28.3 29.2 11.1 5 21.4

2.9 7.7 11.1 13.3 12.5 14.8 10 10.5

a

Rows do not total 100% because miscellaneous and unknown causes of outbreaks are not tabulated. Source: Reprinted from Journal AWWA, vol. 93, no. 9 (September 2001), by permission. Copyright q 2001, American Water Works Association, www.awwa.org.

Table 10J.230 Causes of Waterborne Disease Outbreaks in Noncommunity Water Systems in the United States — 1971–98 Outbreaksa — %

Time Period

Number of Outbreaks

Distribution System Deficiencies

51 77 67 38 29 41 21 325

0 14.3 4.5 2.6 3.4 12.2 14.3 7.4

1971–74 1975–78 1979–82 1983–86 1987–90 1991–94 1995–98 1971–98 a

Untreated Groundwater

Inadequate, Interrupted Disinfection of Groundwater

Inadequate Disinfection of Unfiltered Surface Water

Filtered Surface Water

40.4 40.3 49.3 50.0 34.5 34.1 19.0 40.6

28.8 26 26.9 39.5 41.4 34.1 33.3 31.1

11.5 7.8 4.5 7.9 5.1 2.4 0 6.8

1.9 0 3.0 0 0 0 0 1.0

Rows do not total 100% because miscellaneous and unknown causes of outbreaks are not tabulated.

Source: Reprinted from Journal AWWA, vol. 93, no. 9 (September 2001), by permission. Copyright q 2001, American Water Works Association, www.awwa.org.

Table 10J.231 Etiology of Outbreaks Caused by Distribution System Contamination in the United States — 1971–1998 CWSa Etiology Chemical Unidentified pathogen Giardia Salmonella Norwalk-like virus Shigella Campylobacter Hepatitis A Salmonella typhimurium Cyclospora Escherichia coil 0157:H7 Vibrio cholerae Total a b

NCWSb

Outbreaks

%

Outbreaks

%

35 29 8 4 3 3 3 1 1 1 1

39.3 32.6 9.0 4.5 3.4 3.4 3.4 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1

3 11 4 1 1 1 1 1

12.5 45.8 16.7 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.1

1 24

4.1 100

89

100

CWS — community water system. NCWS — noncommunity water system.

Source: Reprinted from Journal AWWA, vol. 93, no. 9 (September 2001), by permission. Copyright q 2001, American Water Works Association, www.awwa.org.

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Table 10J.232 Number of Waterborne Outbreaks by Deficiencies in Drinking Systems, in the United States 1971–2000 Type of Contamination

Giardia, Cryptospridium

Campylobacter, E. coli, Salmonella, Yersinia

16 52 22 14 14 13 10 141

11 3 — 14 2 11 8 49

Distribution system contamination Inadequate disinfection; only treatment, surface watera Inadequate, interrupted, or bypass of filtration; surface water Untreated groundwater Untreated surface water Inadequate or interrupted disinfection; groundwaterb Water not intended for drinking; contaminated faucet or ice; unknown Total a b

Includes two outbreaks with surface water and groundwater sources. Includes three outbreaks where groundwater was filtered.

Source: From Cotruvo. J.A. et al., (ed.), 2004. Waterborne Zoonoses, Identification, Causes, and Control, Published on Behalf of the World Health Organization by IWA Publishing, Copyright q World Health Organization 2004, www.who.int.

Table 10J.233 Epidemiological Characteristics of the Principal Pathogenic Agents in Wastewater

Agents Virus Enterovirus (including polio, echo and coxsackie) Hepatitis A Rotavirus Bacteria Colibacilli Salmonella thyphi Other salmonellas Shigella Campylobacter Cholera Yersinia enterocolitica Leptospira Parasites Dysentery amoeba Glardia Balantidium coli Ascaris Ancyclostoma Anguillula Trichocephalus Hymenolepis Taenia Fasciola hepatica Other flukes a b c

Quantity Excreted per g/feces

Multiplication in the Environment

Infecting Dose ID 50c

Latencya

Survivalb

107

0

3 mo

no

100

106? 106?

0 0

? ?

no no

? ?

108 108 108 107 107 107 105 urine

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

3 mo 2 mo 2–3 mo 1 mo 7d 1 mo 3 mo 7d

yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no

G 109 107 106 104 106 108 109 low

107 105 ? 104 102 10 103 ? 104 ? 102

0 0 0 10 d 7d 3d 20 d 0 2 mo 2 mo 6–8 wks

25 d 25 d 20 d? 1y 3 mo 3 wks 9 mo 10 d 9 mo 4 mo Life of Host

no no no no no yes no no no yes yes

10–100 25–100 25–100 Several units 1 1 Several units 1 1 Several units Several units

Period necessary for excreted pathogenic agent to become infectious to receiving or susceptible individual; (0, is immediate). In environment, outside final host (man or animal). Dose sufficient to provoke the appearance of clinical symptoms in 50% of individuals tested.

Source: From Prost, A., 1987, Heath risks stemming from wastewater reutilization, Water Quality Bulletin, vol. 12, no. 2.

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Table 10J.234 Microbial Pathogens Linked to Drinking Water or Recreational Water Contact Organism Helminths Schistosoma spp. Dracunculus medinentis Protozoa Giardia duodenalis

Disease Schistosomaisis Dracunculiasis Giardiasis

Cryptosporidium parvum

Cryptosporidiosis

Cyclospora cayetanensis

Cyclosporiasis

Entamoeba histolytica Toxoplasma gondii

Amebiasis Toxoplasmosis

Free-living amoebae

Amoebic meningoencephalitis

Algae Cyanobacteria Pfesteria piscicida

Bacteria Vibrio cholerae Salmonella spp. Salmonella typhi Shigella spp. Campylobacter spp. Enterotoxigenic E. coli Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli Yersinia spp. Francisella tularensis Helicobacter pylori Mycobacteria spp. not M. tuberculosis Viruses Hepatitis A and Hepatitis E viruses Various, esp. Norwalk-like viruses Enteroviruses

Transmission Contact with surface water infected with free swimming cercariae Drinking water

Urinary and intestinal damage. Bladder cancer Painful ulcers on lower limbs and feet

Faecal oral spread through drinking water or recreational water Faecal oral spread through drinking water or recreational water Faecal oral spread through drinking water

Diarrhoea and abdominal pain, weight loss and failure to thrive Diarrhoea often prolonged

Faecal and spread through drinking water Drinking water contaminated by feline animals Aspiration of infected surface water into nose

Various

Clinical Features

Diarrhoea and abdominal pain, weight loss and failure to thrive Diarrhoea, may be severe dysentery Glandular fever, foetal damage in pregnant women Fatal encephalitis

Toxins in drinking water or direct contact with surface water blooms Toxins in water

Dermatitis, hepatitis, respiratory symptoms, potentially fatal Respiratory and eye irritation, deficiencies in learning and memory and acute confusional states

Cholera Salmonellosis Typhoid

Drinking water Occasional outbreaks with drinking water Drinking water

Shigellosis (bacillary dysentery) Campylobacteriois

Both drinking and recreational water

Watery diarrhoea, may be severe Diarrhoea, colicky abdominal pain and fever Fever, malaise and abdominal pain with high mortality Diarrhoea frequently with blood loss

Estuary-associated syndrome

Both drinking and recreational water Drinking water Drinking water and recreational water contact Drinking water Drinking water

Varies

Drinking water Potable water systems in hospitals, some recreation

Diarrhoea frequently with blood loss Watery diarrhoea Bloody diarrhoea and haemolyic uraemic syndrome in children Fever, diarrhoea and abdominal pain Typhoid-like or mucocutaneous with suppurative skin lesions Gastritis that can progress to gastric cancer Varies, includes respiratory disease, wound infections, skin disease

Viral hepatitis

Drinking and recreational water contact

Hepatitis

Viral gastroenteritis

Drinking and recreational water contact

Vomiting and diarrhoea

Various, including poliomyelitis

Drinking and recreational water contact

Various

Yersiniosis Tularaemia

Source: From Hunter, P.R., 2003, Climate change and waterborne and vector-borne disease in Sartory, D., Jones, K., Semple, K., and Godfree, A., (eds.), The Society for Applied Microbiology Symposim Series no. 32, Pathogens in the Environment and Changing Ecosystems, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK.

Table 10J.235 Occurrence of Cryptosporidium Oocysts in Various Waters throughout the Western United States Water Sampled Raw sewage Treated sewageb Reservoir, lake Stream, river Filtered drinking water Nonfiltered drinking water a b

Number of Samples

Number of Samples Positive

Percent Positive

Oocysts/La

11 22 32 58 10 4

10 20 24 45 2 2

91 91 75 77 20 50

28.4 17 0.91 0.94 0.001 0.006

Geometric means. Activated sludge.

Source: From Craun, G.F., 1988. Surface water supplies and health, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., vol. 80, no.2. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10J.236 Cryptosporidiosis Case Reports by State/Area — United States, 1999–2002 1999

State/Area

No.

(%)

Rate

16 NRb 16 2 279 14 22 1 7

(0.6)

0.4

(0.6) (0.1) (10.1) (0.5) (0.8) (!0.1) (0.3)

0.3 0.1 0.8 0.3 0.6 0.1 1.2

189 170 NR 8 90 47 56 2 7 24 81 17 71 52 91 12 26 13 15 9 20

(6.8) (6.1)

1.2 2.1

(0.3) (3.3) (1.7) (2.0) (0.1) (0.3) (0.9) (1.1) (0.6) (2.6) (1.9) (3.3) (0.4) (0.9) (0.5) (0.5) (0.3) (0.7)

0.6 0.7 0.6 1.9 0.1 0.2 0.5 2.4 0.3 1.1 0.5 1.9 0.4 0.5 1.4 0.9 0.5 1.6

54 44 452

(2.0) (1.6) (16.3)

0.6 2.4 2.4

a

No. of Outbreak Cases

(%)

Rate

16 NR 10 16 285 72 29 9 18

(0.6) (0.3) (0.8) (0.5) (7.5) (2.3) (0.9) (0.3) (0.6)

0.4 0.2 0.6 0.7 1.7 0.9 1.1 3.1

(7.7) (6.1)

1.5 2.3

4 20

240 191 NR 28 126 72 77 9 7 14 20 14 87 97 190 16 31 10 82 4 25

(0.9) (4.0) (2.3) (2.5) (0.3) (0.2) (0.4) (0.6) (0.4) (1.2) (3.1) (6.1) (0.5) (1.0) (0.3) (2.6) (0.1) (0.8)

2.2 1.0 1.2 2.6 0.3 0.2 0.3 1.6 0.3 0.6 1.0 3.9 0.6 0.6 1.1 4.8 0.2 2.0

4

19 26 910

(0.6) (0.8) (9.9)

0.2 1.4 1.6

186

1 7

55 2

No.

2001 No. of Outbreak Cases

14

233

7

2 4

8 25

2002 No. of Outbreak Cases

(%)

Rate

No.

(%)

Rate

18 1 11 10 229 44 17 6 14

(0.5) (!0.1) (0.3) (0.3) (6.0) (1.2) (0.4) (0.2) (0.4)

0.4 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.8 2.4

47 1 19 8 200 57 19 4 5

(1.6) (!0.1) (0.6) (0.3) (6.6) (1.9) (0.6) (0.1) (0.2)

1.0 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.6 1.3 0.5 0.5 0.9

91 162 3 23 488 90 82 7 5 8 19 40 55 187 197 15 55 37 185 7 17

(2.4) (4.3) (0.1) (0.6) (12.8) (2.4) (2.2) (0.1) (0.1) (0.2) (0.5) (1.1) (1.5) (4.9) (5.2) (0.4) (1.5) (1.0) (4.9) (0.2) (0.4)

0.6 1.9 0.2 1.7 3.9 1.5 2.8 0.1 0.1 0.2 1.5 0.7 0.9 1.9 4.0 0.5 1.0 4.1 10.8 0.3 1.4

17

106 123 2 29 121 70 49 16 10 10 12 19 77 135 206 10 41 6 52 4 31

(3.5) (4.1) (0.1) (1.0) (4.0) (2.3) (1.6) (0.5) (0.3) (0.3) (0.4) (0.6) (2.6) (4.5) (6.8) (0.3) (1.4) (0.2) (1.7) (0.1) (1.0)

0.6 1.4 0.2 2.2 1.0 1.1 1.7 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.9 0.3 1.2 1.3 4.1 0.3 0.7 0.7 3.0 0.2 2.4

24 80 248

(0.6) (0.8) (6.5)

0.3 1.6 1.3

4

17 20 300

(0.6) (0.7) (9.9)

0.2 1.1 1.6

No.

3 341

5

11

No. of Outbreak Cases

97 2

10

2 32

31

3

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-337

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New Yorkc

2000

(Continued) 1999

State/Area

2000

No.

(%)

Rate

260 85 20 67 14 98 123 6 NR 7 13 69 4 36 30 NR 3 386 1 2,769

(9.4) (1.3) (0.7) (2.4) (0.5) (3.5) (4.4) (0.2)

3.5 0.4 3.1 0.6 0.4 2.9 1.0 0.6

(0.3) (0.6) (2.5) (0.1) (1.9) (1.1)

0.9 0.2 0.3 0.2 6.0 0.4

(0.1) (13.9) (!0.1) (100.0)d

0.2 7.2 0.2 1.0

a

No. of Outbreak Cases 4

61

7

2 353

2001

No.

(%)

Rate

171 28 18 260 30 20 64 4 NR 15 12 115 26 28 21 NR 3 428 5 3,128

(5.5) (0.9) (0.6) (8.3) (1.0) (0.6) (2.0) (0.1)

2.1 0.3 2.8 2.3 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.4

(0.5) (0.4) (3.7) (0.9) (0.9) (0.7)

2.0 0.2 0.6 1.3 4.6 0.3

(0.1) (13.7) (0.2) (100.0)

0.2 8.0 1.0 1.1

No. of Outbreak Cases

134

1

5 428

2002

No.

(%)

Rate

123 31 15 185 16 58 102 10 7 8 24 96 84 34 27 NR 2 664 7 3,787

(3.2) (0.8) (0.4) (4.9) (0.4) (1.5) (2.7) (0.3) (0.2) (0.2) (0.6) (2.5) (2.2) (0.9) (0.7)

1.5 0.4 2.4 1.6 0.5 1.7 0.8 0.9 0.2 1.1 0.4 0.4 3.7 5.5 0.4

(0.1) (17.5) (0.2) (100.0)

0.1 12.3 1.4 1.3

No. of Outbreak Cases

6 2 389

No. 147 40 41 119 16 40 111 21 8 42 61 34 16 33 35 46 3 515 9 3,016

(%) (4.9) (1.3) (1.4) (3.9) (0.5) (1.3) (3.7) (0.7) (0.3) (1.4) (2.0) (1.1) (0.5) (1.1) (1.2) (1.5) (0.1) (17.1) (0.3) (100.0)

Rate 1.8 0.5 6.5 1.0 0.5 1.1 0.9 2.0 0.2 5.5 1.1 0.2 0.7 5.4 0.5 0.8 0.2 9.5 1.8 1.0

No. of Outbreak Cases 1

22

5 2 207

Note: Population estimates are from the Population Division, U.S. Census Bureau. Estimates of the population of states: ST-99-4 State Rankings of Population Change and Demographic Components of Population Change for the Period July 1, 1998 to July 1, 1999, available at census.goalpopest/archives/1990s/ST-99-01.txt, and Table 1: Annual estimates of the population for the United States and States and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2001, to July 1, 2003 (NST-EST 2003 01), available at www.census.gov/popset/estates/ tables/NST-EST2003-01.xls. Estimates of the New York City population: (SU-99-7) Population Estimates for Places (Sorted Alphabetical Within State): Annual Time Series, July 1, 1990 to July 1, 1999 (Includes April 1, 1990 Population Estimates Base), available at www.census.gov/popset/archives/1990a/su-99-07/SU-99-7_NY.txt, and Table 1: Annual Estimates of the Population for incorporated Places over 100,000, Ranked by July 1, 2003 Population; April 1, 2001, to July 1, 2003 (SUB-EST 2003-01) available at www.census.gov/popest/cities/tables/SUB-EST2003-01.xls. a b c d

Per 100,000 population on the basis of U.S. Census Bureau population estimates. No cases reported. New York State case counts include New York City cases. Percentages might not total 100% because of rounding.

Source: From Hlavsa, M.C., Watson, J.C. and Beach, M.J., 2005, Cryptosporidiosis surveillance – United States 1999–2002, MMWR Surveillance Summaries, vol. 54, no. SS-01, January 28, 2005, www.cdc.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

New York City North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total

10-338

Table 10J.236

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-339

Table 10J.237 Outbreaks and Cases of Cryptosporidiosis in England and Wales, 1983–1997

Year

Number of Outbreaks

Drinking Water Outbreaksa

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Total

1 1 3 4 1 2 6 4 9 12 9 7 5 4 12 80

0 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 2 4 3 2 1 3 5 25

a

Total Outbreak Cases 16 19 60 98 69 102 1,090 92 93 549 358 373 612 244 874 4,649

Outbreak Total Cases in Cases as a Total Drinking England and Percentage of Water Casesa Wales the Total 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,042 49 46 343 164 257 575 236 743 3,455

61 876 1875 3560 3277 2750 7,768 4,682 5,165 5,211 4,832 4,432 5,691 3,660 4,321 58,161

Drinking Water Outbreak Cases as a Percentage of the Totala

26 2 3 3 2 4 14 2 2 11 7 8 11 7 20 8

0 0 0 0 0 0 13 1 1 7 3 6 10 6 17 6

Cases include those with a strong probable or possible association with public drinking water.

Source: From Nichos, G., 2003, Using existing surveillance-based data in Hunter, P.R., Waite, M., and Ronchi, El., (eds.), Drinking Water and Infectious Disease Establishing the Links, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL.

Table 10J.238 Some Published Cases of Cryptosporidiosis Outbreaks in Recreational Waters, 1986–2001

Year

Location

Facility

Disinfectant

1986 1988 1988 1990 1992 1992 1992 1993 1993 1993 1993 1994 1994 1994 1994 1995 1995 1995 1996 1996 1996 1996 1997 1997 1997 1997 1998 1998

New Mexico, United States Doncaster, England Los Angeles county, United States British Columbia, Canada Gloucestershire, England Idaho, United States Oregon, United States Wisconsin, United States Wisconsin, United States Wisconsin, United States Wisconsin, United States Missouri, United States New Jersey, United States South west England Sutherland Australia Kansas, United States Georgia, United States Nebraska, United States Florida, United States California, United States Andover, England Indiana, United States England and Wales England and Wales Minnesota, United States Queensland, Australia Canberra, Australia Oregon, United States

Lake Pool Pool Pool Pool Water Slide Pool (wave) Pool (motel) Pool (motel) Pool Pool Pool (motel) Lake Pool Pool Pool Water Park Water Park Pool Water Park Pool Lake River Pool Fountain Pools 3 Pools Pool

None Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Ozone/Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine None Chlorine Chlorine a

Chlorine a a

Chlorine Chlorine None None Ozone/Chlorine (Sand Filter) a a a

No. of Cases Estimated (Confirmed) 56 (79) 44 (5) 66 (23) (13) 500 (52) 51 (22) 64 5 54 101 (26) 2,070 (46) 14 (8) (70) 101 (2) 2,470 (6) (14) 22 (16) 3,000 (29) 8 3 27 (7) (9) 369 (73) 129 (210) 51 (8) (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-340

Table 10J.238

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Year

Location

Facility

1998 1998 1998 1999

New South Wales, Australia Hutt Valley, New Zealand Minnesota, United States Florida, United States

2000 2000 2000 2000 2001 2001

Ohio, United States Nebraska, United States Trent region, England London, England South west England South west England

a

Disinfectant

Pools Pools Pool Interactive water fountain Pool Pool Pool Pool Pool Stream onto Beach

a a a

Chlorine a a

Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine None

No. of Cases Estimated (Confirmed) 370 (171) (26) 38 (2) 700 (186) 225 (65) 41 (41) 3 (3) 14 (8) 14 (6)

Data not available.

Source: From Pond, K., 2005. Water Recreation and Disease Plausibility and Associated Infections: Acute Effects, Sequelae, and Mortality, Published on behalf of the World Health Organization by IWA Publishing, London Copyright q World Health Organization 2005, www.who.int. Original Source: From Fayer et al., 2002; CDR Weekly website: hpa.org.uk.

Table 10J.239 Total Waterborne Outbreaks of Giardiasis in United States Water Systems, 1965–1995 Time Period 1965–1970 1971–1975 1976–1980 1981–1985 1986–1990 1991–1995 Source:

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Number of Outbreaks 3 12 26 49 16 11

From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1998, Giardia: Human Health Criteria Document, EPA823-R-002, www.epa.gov.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

10-341

Table 10J.240 Waterborne Outbreaks of Giardiasis by Type of Water System in the United States, 1965–1996 Community Water Systems Year 1965 1966–1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Total Source:

Noncommunity Water Systems

Individual Systems & Nonpotable Water

Total

Outbreaks

Cases

Outbreaks

Cases

Outbreaks

Cases

Outbreaks

Cases

1 0 0 1 0 1 2 2 0 1 2 2 5 7 8 9 17 3 1 4 2 2 3 1 0 2 2 3 1 0 82

123 0 0 34 0 12 52 4,878 0 600 950 5,130 3,789 1,724 265 497 2,216 463 703 251 633 262 380 123 0 95 27 358 1,449 0 25,014

0 0 1 0 0 3 1 1 0 2 2 1 2 0 2 2 0 1 2 1 0 0 1 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 26

0 0 19 0 0 112 16 18 0 39 62 23 2,120 0 39 60 0 400 38 23 0 0 152 42 28 0 0 0 0 0 3,191

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 10

0 0 0 0 0 0 5 34 9 0 0 18 0 6 7 4 4 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 100

1 0 1 1 0 3 4 4 1 3 4 4 7 8 11 12 18 5 3 5 2 2 4 3 2 2 2 3 2 0 117

123 0 19 34 0 124 73 4,930 9 639 1,012 5,171 5,909 1,730 311 561 2,220 866 741 274 633 262 532 165 28 95 27 358 1,459 0 28,305

From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1998, Giardia: Human Health Criteria Document, EPA-823-R-002, www.epa.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10-342

Table 10J.241 Glardiasis Case Reports, by State/Area — United States, 1998–2002 1998

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New Yorkc

a

No.

(%)

Rate

288 109 250 168 NRb 618 NR 39 34

(1.2) (0.4) (1.0) (0.7)

6.6 17.7 5.4 6.6

(2.6)

15.6

(0.2) (0.1)

5.2 6.5

(6.9) (5.0) (0.5) (0.7) (6.1) (3.2) (1.8) (0.9)

11.2 15.9 10.3 14.4 12.2 (13.1) 15.0 8.6

(1.1)

20.2

(3.4) (4.8) (5.5) (0.5) (3.3) (0.5) (1.0) (0.9) (0.3 (0.9) (1.0) (15.4)

13.6 11.9 28.0 4.8 14.5 13.5 15.0 12.7 7.0 2.7 13.7 20.6

1,676 1,215 123 177 1,472 772 429 226 NR NR 277 NR 833 1,172 1,324 131 790 119 249 222 83 218 238 3,789

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No. of Outbreak Cases

No. 340 96 255 152 NR 704 NR 52 37

1,636 99 1

4 7

637 8 8 131 2 140 83

55

1,360 1,355 117 134 1,458 654 377 220 NR 21 236 119 851 1,166 1,555 145 807 83 288 215 64 NR 261 3,696

2000 No. of Outbreak Cases

(%)

Rate

(1.5) (0.4) (1.1) (0.7)

7.8 15.5 5.3 6.0

(3.0)

17.4

(0.2) (0.2)

6.9 7.1

(5.8) (5.8) (0.5) (0.6) (6.3) (2.8) (1.8) (0.9)

9.0 17.4 9.9 10.7 12.0 11.0 13.1 8.3

(0.1) (1.0) (0.5) (3.7) (5.0) (6.7) (0.6) (3.5) (0.4) (1.0) (0.9) (0.3)

0.5 19.0 2.3 13.8 11.8 32.6 5.2 14.8 9.4 14.3 11.9 5.3

121 64

(1.1) (15.9)

15.0 20.3

1 78

4

1,334 117 1 11 3

640 2 9

1

No. 227 115 313 203 NR 695 462 92 38 1,521 1,201 105 139 1,093 517 420 205 NR 41 238 125 632 1,135 1,227 116 839 91 300 211 56 NR 164 3,346

2001 No. of Outbreak Cases

(%)

Rate

(1.0) (0.5) (1.4) (0.9)

5.1 18.3 6.1 7.6

(3.2) (2.1) (0.4) (0.2)

16.2 13.6 11.7 6.6

5

(7.0) (5.5) (0.5) 0.6 (5.0) (2.4) (1.9) (0.9)

9.5 14.7 8.7 10.7 8.8 8.5 14.4 7.6

1,459

(0.2) (1.1) (0.6) (2.9) (5.2) (5.6) (0.5) (3.8) (0.4) (1.4) (1.0) (0.3)

0.9 18.7 2.4 10.0 11.4 24.9 4.1 15.0 10.1 17.5 10.6 4.5

1 1 138 56

(0.8) (15.3)

9.0 17.6

83

105

8 12 1 22

No. 231 121 267 160 NR 632 417 59 70 1,155 963 118 172 1,108 3 345 178 NR 14 197 NR 906 1,003 1,061 NR 715 95 234 208 98 494 148 2,903

2002 No. of Outbreak Cases

(%)

Rate

(1.2) (0.6) (1.4) (0.8)

5.2 19.1 5.0 5.9

(3.2) (2.1) (0.3) (0.4)

14.3 12.1 7.4 12.2

(5.9) (4.9) (0.6) (0.9) (5.6) (!0.1) (1.8) (0.9)

7.1 11.5 9.6 13.0 8.9 !0.1 11.8 6.6

(0.1) (1.0)

0.3 15.3

1

(4.6) (5.1) (6.4)

14.2 10.0 21.3

27 1 16

(3.6) (0.5) (1.2) (1.1) (0.2) (2.5) (0.8) (14.7)

12.7 10.5 13.6 9.9 3.0 5.8 8.1 15.2

2

2

118 1

38

66

No.

(%)

Rate

205 115 269 175 2,561 571 260 54 47

(1.0) (0.5) (1.3) (0.8) (12.0) (2.7) (1.2) (0.3) (0.2)

4.6 17.9 4.9 6.5 7.3 12.7 7.5 6.7 8.3

1,318 926 91 137 1,011 NR 314 192 NR 6 213 118 935 923 982 NR 512 94 191 162 46 474 153 2,764

(6.2) (4.3) (0.4) (0.6) (4.8)

7.9 10.8 7.3 10.2 8.0

(1.5) (0.9)

10.7 7.1

(!0.1) (1.0) (0.6) (4.4) (4.3) (4.6)

0.1 16.4 2.2 14.6 9.2 19.5

(2.4) (0.4) (0.9) (0.8) (0.2) (2.2) (0.7) (13.0)

9.0 10.3 11.1 7.5 3.6 5.5 8.3 14.4

No. of Outbreak Cases

21 1

5

1,226 91 1

5 1

46

80

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

State/Area

1999

2,079 NR 82 1,093 148 900 1,681 130 NR 181 220 NR 291 326 503 740 90 1,003 45 24,204 9 NR 13 24,226

(8.6)

28.1

(0.3) (4.5) (0.6) 3.7 (6.0) (0.5)

12.9 9.7 4.4 27.4 12.2 13.2

(0.7) (0.9)

24.8 4.0

(1.2) (1.9) (2.1) (3.1) (0.4) (4.1) (0.2) (99.9) (!0.1)

13.9 55.2 7.4 13.0 5.0 19.2 9.4 9.0 6.0 —

(0.1) (100)d

0.3

1

2

4

2,818

2,818

1,894 NR 104 1,110 162 808 1,124 149 NR 143 187 NR 256 345 471 560 93 936 37 23,245 23 NR 13 23,281

(8.1)

25.5

(0.4) (4.8) (0.7) (3.5) (4.8) (0.6)

16.4 9.9 4.5 24.4 9.4 15.0

(0.6) (0.8)

19.5 3.4

5

(1.1) (1.5) (2.0) (2.4) (0.4) (4.0) (0.2) (99.8) (0.1)

12.0 58.1 6.9 9.7 5.1 17.8 7.7 8.5 15.1 —

19 30 1

(0.1) (100.0)

0.3

2 2 4

1 10 2,460

2,460

1,797 NR 65 1,058 96 654 1,083 157 NR 108 187 NR 281 217 487 622 80 811 49 21,772 17 NR 24 21,813

(8.0)

21.7

(0.3) (4.9) (0.4) (3.0) (5.0) (0.7)

10.1 9.3 2.8 19.1 8.8 15.0

(0.5) (0.9)

14.3 3.3

16

(1.3) (1.0) (2.0) (2.9) (0.4) (3.7) (0.2) (99.8) (0.1)

12.6 35.6 6.2 10.6 4.4 15.1 9.9 7.7 10.9 —

42

(0.1) (100.0)

0.6

1 13 10

3 3 1 1,980

1,980

1,620 NR 78 1,090 NR 543 1,150 168 NR 106 169 NR 284 220 417 512 89 765 87 19,659 9 NR 40 19,706

(7.7)

18.9

(0.4) (5.5)

12.3 9.6

(2.8) (5.8) (0.9)

15.6 9.4 15.9

4 8

(0.5) (1.0)

14.0 3.3

15

(1.4) (1.1) (2.1) (2.6) (0.4) (3.9) (0.2) (99.8) (!0.1)

12.5 35.9 5.8 8.5 4.6 14.2 7.5 6.9 5.7 —

3

(0.2) (100.0)

1.0

1

12 1 316

3 319

1,417 NR 47 972 85 447 1,066 170 149 83 191 3 335 145 386 510 78 691 29 21,206 7 1

(6.7)

17.6

(0.2) (4.6) (0.4) (2.1) (5.0) (0.8) (0.7) (0.4) (0.9) (!0.1) (1.6) (0.7) (1.8) (2.4) (0.4) (3.2) (0.1) (99.6) (!0.1) (!0.1)

7.4 8.5 2.4 12.7 8.6 15.9 3.6 10.9 3.3 !0.1 14.4 23.5 5.3 8.4 4.3 12.7 5.8 7.4 4.3 1.4

86 21,300

(0.4) (100.0)

2.2

6 4 1

7

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

New York City North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total state Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico Total

5 1,500

2 1,502

Note: Population estimates are from the Population Division, U.S. Census Bureau, Estimates of the population of states: ST-99-4 State Rankings of Population Change and Demographic Components of Population Change for the Period July 1, 1998 to July 1, 1999, available at www.census.gov/popest/archives/states/1990s/ST-90-01.txt, and Table1: Annual estimates of the population for the United States and States and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2001, to July 2003 (NST-EST 2003 01), available at www.census.gov/ popest/states/tables/NST-EST2003-01.xls. Estimates of the New York City population: (SU-99-7) Population Estimates for Places (Sorted Alphabetically With in State): Annual Time Series, July 1, 1990 to July 1, 1999 (includes April 1, 1990 Population Estimates Base), available at www.census.gov/popest/archives/1990s/su-99-07/SU-99-7_NY.txt, and Table 1: Annual Estimates of the Population for Incorporated Places over 100,000. Ranked by July 1, 2003 Population: April 1, 2001, to July 1, 2003 (SUB-EST 2003-01), available at www.census.gov/popest/cities/tables/SUB-EST2003-01.xls. Estimates of the population of Guam, the Northern Marians Islands, and Puerto Rico: International Data Base (IDB) Data access — Spreadsheet, available at www.census.gov/ipc/www/dbsprd.html. a Per 100,000 population on the basis of U.S. Census Bureau population estimates. b No cases reported to CDC. c New York State counts include New York City cases. d Percentages might not total 100% because of rounding. Source: From Hlavsa, M.C., Watson, J.C. and Beach, M.J., 2005, Giardiasis surveillance – United States 1998-2002, MMWR Surveillance Summaries, vol. 54, no. SS-01, January 28, 2005, pp. 9–16, www.cdc.gov.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10J.242 Causes of Waterborne Outbreaks of Giardiasis in the United States, 1971–1994 Water Source, Treatment, or Deficiency

Outbreaks

Surface water source Untreated Chlorination only Filtered (includes outbreaks when filtration was bypassed) Groundwater source Untreated Chlorination only Filtration Contamination of distribution system or storage Use of water not intended for drinking or ingestion during water recreation or other water activities Insufficient information Total Source:

13 51 17 8 7 1 12 14 4 127

From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1998, Giardia: Human Health Criteria Document, EPA-823-R-002, www.epa.gov.

Table 10J.243 Causes of Waterborne Diseases in England and Wales, 1971–2000 Decade Public Supplies 1971–1980

1981–1990

1981–2000

Private Supplies 1971–1980

1981–1990

1991–2000

Cause Gastroenteritis Giardia Total Cryptosporidium Campylobacter Gastroenteritis Total Cryptosporidium Campylobacter Gastroenteritis Total Paratyphoid Gastroenteritis Total Campylobacter Streptobacillary fever Gastroenteritis Total Campylobacter Mixed Campylobacter and Cryptosporidium Cryptosporidium Gastroenteritis Giardia E. coli O157 Total

No. Outbreaks

No. Cases

2 1 3 7 3 3 13 23 1 1 25

3,114 60 322 1,157 629 310 2,096 2,837 281 229 3,347

1 1 2 3 1 1 5 8 1

6 160 166 520 304 56 962 178 43

3 2 1 1

74 81 31 14 421

Source: From Stanwell-Smith, R., Anderson, Y., and Levy, D., 2003, National surveillance systems in Hunter, P.R., Waite, M., and Ronchi, El., (eds.), Drinking Water and Infectious Disease Establishing the Links, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

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Table 10J.244 Etiology of Recreational Waterborne Outbreaks, Outbreaks, and Cases of Illness by Type of Water Source in the United States, 1991–1998 Outbreaks

Cases of Illness

Swim Etiological Agent Cryptosporidium Naegleria E. coli O157:H7 Shigella Undetermined Giardia Schistosoma Pseudomonas Leptospira Norwalk-like virus Chemical Salmonella, on-typhoid Adenovirus Total a b

a

Lake

Swim Pool

3 9 9 11 8 3 6

19

Swim b

River

Other

Lake

Swim Pool

1 4

429 9 293 1,216 1,016 59 173

9,477

4 2 1 5

1 1

1 1

1

4

369 4

100 187

15 6

9 61 30

162

2 2

1 1

48 48

55 55

2 1 35

Otherb

44

5

1 54

River

29 3 6

595 4,219

9

10,002

25

528

Includes wading pools and pools and other activities at water parks. Water slide park, dunking booth, hot spring, canal, fountain, ocean unknown.

Source: From Craun, G.F., Calderon, R.L., and Nwachuku, N., 2003, Causes of waterborne outbreaks reported in the United States, 1991–1998 in Hunter, P.R., Waite, M., and Ronchi, El., (eds.), Drinking Water and Infectious Disease Establishing the Links, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL. Table 10J.245 Waterborne-Disease Outbreaks (nZ65) Associated with Recreational Water, by Etiologic Agent and Type of Water in the United States, 2001–2002 Type Treated Etiologic Agent Bacterial Pseudomonas aeruginosa Escherichia coli (O157:H7, O26:NM) Shigella sonnei Bacillus species Legionella species Staphylococcus species Parasitic Cryptosporidum species Naagleria fowleri Giardia intestinalis Avian schistosomes Unknown AGIc ARId Viruses Norovirus Chemical Chlorine gas Chloramines Total Percentage a b c d

Outbreaks 24 18a 1 2 1 1 1 9 9 0 0 0 5 4 1 2 2 4 2 2a 44 (67.7)

Fresh Cases 571 393 9 78 20 68 3 1,469 1,469 0 0 0 63 59 4 51 51 102 50 52 2,256 (89.0)

Outbreaks 3 0 3b 0 0 0 0 12 2 8 1 1a 3 3 0 3b 3b 0 0 0 21 (32.3)

Total Cases 69 0 69 0 0 0 0 34 5 8 2 19 82 82 0 95 95 0 0 0 280 (11.0)

Outbreaks

Cases

27 18 4

640 393 78

2 1 1 1 21 11 8 1 1 8 7 1 5 5 4 2 2 65 (100)

78 20 68 3 1,503 1,474 8 2 19 145 141 4 146 146 102 50 52 2,536 (100)

Includes outbreaks of suspected etiology on the basis of clinical syndrome and setting. Includes one mixed-pathogen outbreak. Acute gastrointestinal illness of unknown etiology. Acute respiratory illness of unknown etiology.

Source: From Yoder, J.S. et al., 2004, Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks associated with recreation water – United States, 2001–2002, MMWR, vol. 53, no. SS08, pp 1–22, October 22, 2004, www.cdc.gov.

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Table 10J.246 Causes of Waterborne Disease Outbreaks Associated with Recreational Water in the United States Number of Outbreaks

Source of Contamination or Deficiency Fecal accident or ill bather Children in diapers Poor maintenance, inadequate treatment or operation of swimming or wading pool Bather overload or crowding Floods Livestock Geese Seepage or overflow of sewage Total

13 8 9 3 1 1 2 3 40

Source: From Craun, G.F., Calderon, R.L., and Nwachuku, N., 2003, Causes of waterborne outbreaks reported in the United States, 1991–1998 in Drinking Water and Infectious Disease Establishing the Links, Hunter, P.R., Waite, M., and Ronchi, El., (eds.), CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL.

Table 10J.247 Swimming-Associated Giardiasis Outbreaks Reported in the United States, 1982–1996 State

Year

Cases

Washington Illinois New Jersey Maryland Maryland Georgia Georgia Maryland Washington Maryland New Jersey Washington Indiana Florida

1982 1985 1985 1987 1988 1991 1991 1991 1991 1993 1993 1993 1994 1996

78 15 9 266 34 9 7 14 4 12 43 6 80 60

Source:

Location Swimming pool Swimming pool Indoor pool Swimming pool Swimming pool Swimming pool Swimming pool Pool Swimming pool Swimming pool Swimming pool River Swimming pool Wading pool

Additional Information Fecal contamination Inadequate chlorination Day-care center Day-care center Park; fecal contamination Wild animals near lake Met water quality limits Filter malfunction

From United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1998, Giardia: Human Health Criteria Document, EPA-823-R-002, www.epa.gov.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

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Table 10J.248 Number of Cases of Shigellosis Associated with Recreational Waters in the United States, 1991–2000 State

Date

Etiologic Agent

Illness

No. of Cases

Source and Settings

Rhode Island Mass. Virginia New Jersey Ohio New Jersey Minnesota Colorado Colorado Penn. Mass. Florida

July 1991 June 1991 July 1992 June 1992 July 1993 June 1994 May 1994 July 1995 July 1995 Aug 1995 July 1997 1999

S. sonnei S. sonnei S. sonnei S. sonnei S. sonnei S. sonnei S. flexneri S. sonnei S. sonnei S. sonnei S. sonnei S. sonnei

GI GI GI GI GI GI GI GI GI GI GI GI

23 203 9 54 150 242 35 81 39 70 9 38

Missouri Minnesota Minnesota

Sept 2000 July 2000 Aug 2000

S. sonnei S. sonnei S. sonnei

GI GI GI

6 15 25

Lake, swimming area Lake, park Lake, camp Lake, Campground Lake, park Lake, park Lake, park Lake, recreational area Lake, recreational area Lake, beach Pool/fountain, public park Interactive fountain, beach park Wading pool, municipal pool Lake/pond, beach Lake, public beach

Notes: GI, gastroenteritis; Mass., Massachusetts; Penn., Pennsylvania. Source:

From Pond, K., 2005. Water Recreation and Disease Plausibility and Associated Infections: Acute Effects, Sequelae, and Mortality, Published on behalf of the World Health Organization by IWA Publishing, London Copyright q World Health Organization 2005, www.who.int. Original Source: From Minnesota Department of Health 1974; Anonymous 1993; 1995; 1996b; Levy et al., 1998; Barwick et al., 2000; Lee 2002.

Table 10J.249 Water- and Sanitation-Related Infections in Developing Countries and Their Control Importance of Alternate Control Methodsa

Infections

Water Quality

Diarrhoeal diseases and enteric fevers Viral agents 2 Bacterial agents 3 Protozoal agents 1 Poliomyelitis and hepatitis A 1 Worms with no intermediate host Ascaris and Trichuris 0 Hookworms 0 Beef and pork tapeworms 0 Worms with intermediate stages Schistosomiasis 1 Guinea worm 3 Worms with two aquatic 0 intermediate stages Skin, eye and louse-borne 0 infections Infections spread by water-related insects Malaria 0 Yellow fever and dengue 0 Bancroftian filariasis 0 a

Personal and Domestic Cleanliness

Drainage and Sullage Disposal

Food Hygiene

Public Health Importancea

Water Availability

Excreta Disposal

Excreta Treatment

3 3 3 3

2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1

3 3 3 3

0 0 0 0

2 3 2 1

3 3 2 3

1 1 0

3 3 3

2 2 3

1 1 0

1 0 0

2 1 3

2 3 2

1 0 0

3 0 2

2 0 2

1 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 3

3 2 1

3

0

0

3

0

0

2

0 0 0

0 0 3

0 0 0

0 0 0

1 1 3

0 0 0

3 3 3

0, no importance; 1, little importance; 2, moderate importance; 3, great importance.

Source: From Feachem, R.G., 1984, The Health Dimension of the Decade, in world Water ’83: the World Problem, Proceedings of July 1983 Conference of Institution of Civil Engineers, London.

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Table 10J.250 Some Water-Associated Diseases by Cause and Sex Estimates for 2001 Deaths (in Thousands) Both Sexes Number Total burden of disease (000s of DALYs) Total deaths (000s) Communicable diseases, matemal and perinatal conditions and nutritional deficiencies overall Infectious and parasitic diseases altogether Diarrhoeal diseases Malaria Schistosomiasis Lymphatic filariasis Onchocerciasis Dengue Japanese encephalitis Trachoma Intestinal nematode infections Ascariasis Trichuriasis Hookworm infection Unintentional injuries overall Drowning

%

Males Number

Burden of Disease (in Thousands) Females

%

Number

Both Sexes %

Number 1.467,183

Males

Females

%

Number

%

100

768,064

100

Number 699,119

% 100

56,552 18,374

100 32.5

29,626 9,529

100 32.2

26,926 8,846

100 32.9

615,737

42.0

304,269

39.6

10,937

19.3

5,875

19.8

5,063

18.8

359,377

24.5

184,997

24.1 174,380

2,001 1,123 15 0 0 21 15

3.5 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

1,035 532 11 0 0 10 8

3.5 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

966 591 5 0 0 11 8

3.6 2.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

62,451 42,280 1,760 5,644 987 653 767

4.3 2.9 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.1

31,633 20,024 1,081 4,316 571 287 367

4.1 2.6 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.0 0.0

30,818 22,256 678 1,327 416 365 400

4.4 3.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1

0 12

0.0 0.0

0 6

0.0 0.0

0 5

0.0 0.0

3,997 4,706

0.3 0.3

1,082 2,410

0.1 0.3

2,915 2,296

0.4 0.3

4 2 4 3,508

0.0 0.0 0.0 6.2

2 1 2 2,251

0.0 0.0 0.0 7.6

2 1 2 1,256

0.0 0.0 0.0 4.7

1,181 1,649 1,825 129,853

0.1 0.1 0.1 8.9

604 849 932 82,378

0.1 0.1 0.1 10.7

577 800 893 47,475

0.1 0.1 0.1 6.8

402

0.7

276

1.0

126

0.5

11,778

0.8

8,150

1.1

3,628

0.5

311.468

44.6

24.9

Note: The burden of disease is calculated through an indicator of population health the DALY: a DALY represents a lost year of healthy life and is the unit used to estimate the gap between the current health of a population and an idea situation in which everyone in that population in which everyone in that population would live into old age in full health. This table shows the total deaths and burden of disease caused by communicable diseases, maternal and perinatal conditions and nutritional deficiencies noncommunicable diseases and injuries related to water. Source: From Water for People Water for Life, The United Nations World Water Development, Copyright q United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)-World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO-WWAP), 2003. Reproduced by permission of UNESCO. www.unesco.org. Original Source: From WHO (World Health Organization), 2002, Report on the Status of the Dracunculiasis Eradication Campaign in 2001. Document WHO/CDS/CPE/CEE/2002.30, Geneva. Reprinted with permission.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10J.251 Reported Dracunculasis Cases by Country, 1972–2000 Region and Country Africa Benin Burkina Faso Cameroon Central African Republic Chad Coˆte d’Ivoire Ethiopia Ghana Kenya Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Senegal Sudan Togo Uganda Asia and Middle East India Pakistan Yemen Number of Countries Reporting Number of Cases

1972

1973

1974

1,480 5,822

4,404

820 4,008

1975

1976

6,277 251

1,557

1978

1979

1980

2,885

2,694

2,565

1981

1982

1983

1984

4,362

1,739 0

458 168

2,558 86

9 1,889 1,467 4,501

314 1,177 3,385 4,717

4,072 1,291 1,373 5,234 62

5,640

5,207

172 6,993

6,712

7,978

1,421

1,617

1,676

2,703

853

3,413

3,040

1,472 2,573 2,882 4,244

760

1,084 127 3,000

777 663 2,113

401 903 1,530

428 1,612

5,008 1,241

5,560

816 651 1,906 1,693 161

4,891

4,654

6,283

4,971

4,656

693

1,606

1,226

4,052

668

786

737

542

334

208

1,007 65

137

3,261

1,648

2,600 98

1977

2,259

8,777

2,617

2,673

1,748

951

2,592

7,052

6,827 250

2,846

2,729 14,155

5,406

42,926

1985

1986

1987

400 1,957

1,272 2,302 18,398

435 227 699 2,821 216,848 128 132 822 399 1,325

1988

1989

1990

33,962 1,266 752

7,172 45,004 871

37,414 42,187 742

1991

1992

1993

4,315 11,784 127

13,887 8,281 72

4,302 6,861 30

156 1,370 1,555 1,360 12,690 1,487 3,565 2,233 303 71,767 179,556 123,793 66,697 33,464 5 6 564 1,111 884 16,024 608 447 8,036 1,557 288 32,829 500 653,492 640,008 394,082 281,937 183,169 138 38 1,341 728 542 2,447 178 2,749 3,042 5,118 8,179 1,960 1,309 4,704 126,852

1,231 8,034 1,120 17,918 35 12,011 3,533 21,564 75,752 630 2,984 10,349 42,852

640 5,061 1,252 8,432 53 5,581 5,029 18,562 39,774 195 53,271 5,044 10,425

371 0 94 19

4,006 393

1,839 6,230

1,456 4,070

44,818

39,792

30,950

23,070

17,031 2,400

12,023 1,110

7,881 534

4,798 160

2,185 106

1,081 23

755 2

12

13

15

15

15

11

15

18

6

25 6

6

8

7

6

8

3

11

7

6

6

12

14

13,652

11,809

13,282

20,426

12,779

18,087

26,980

8,213

35,839

18,741

51,765

56,519

75,797

57,000

1994

1995

1997

1998

1999

2000

855 2,477 19 5

695 2,227 23 34

492 2,184 8 26

186 1,956 5 35

149 127 25 3,801 2,794 1,254 514 371 451 8,894 4,877 8,921 23 0 6 4,218 2,402 1,099 1,762 562 388 13,821 2,956 3,030 16,374 12,282 12,590 76 19 4 64,608 118,578 43,596 2,073 1,626 1,762 4,810 1,455 1,374

3 1,414 366 5,473 7 650 379 2,700 13,420 0 47,977 2,128 1,061

2,273 6,281 15 18

60 0 82 20

1996

1,472 3,241 17 9

9 0 62 20

0 0 7 20

0 0 0 20

46,043 262,136 781,219 892,055 623,844 547,575 374,202 229,773 164,973 129,852 152,814 77,863

78,557

1 3 476 297 249 60 9,027 7,402 1 4 410 290 255 136 1,920 1,166 13,237 7,869 0 0 66,097 54,890 1,589 828 321 96

0 0 0 20

0 0 0 20

96,293 75,223

Source: From World’s Water 2002–2003, by Peter H. Gleick. Copyright q 2002 Island Press. Reproduced by permission of Island Press, Washington, DC.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10J.252 Deaths and DALYs from Selected Water-Related Diseases, 2000

Diarrheal diseases Childhood cluster diseases Poliomyelitis Diphtheria Tropical-cluster diseases Trypanosomiasis Schistosomiasis Trachoma Intestinal nematode infections Ascariasis Trichuriasis Hookworm disease Other Intestinal Infections Total

Deaths

DALYs

2,019,585

63,345,722

1,136 5,527

188,543 187,838

49,129 15,335 72

1,570,242 1,711,522 3,892,326

4,929 2,393 3,477 1,692 2,103,274

1,204,384 1,661,689 1,785,539 53,222 75,601,028

Notes: DALYs, The DALY is a measure of population health that combines in a single indicator years of life lost from premature death and years of life lived with disabilities. One DALY can be thought of as one lost year of “healthy” life. This table excludes mortality and DALYs associated with water-related insect vectors, such as malaria, onchocerciasis, and dengue fever. Trachoma, while few deaths from trachoma are reported, approximately 5.9 million cases of blindness or severe complications occur annually. Source: From World’s Water 2004–2005, by Peter H. Gleick. Copyright q 2004 Island Press. Reproduced by permission of Island Press, Washington, DC.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

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Table 10J.253 Annual Number of Diarrhoeal Cases Avoided if the Combined Water and Sanitation Millennium Goals Are Achieved by WHO subregion

WHO Sub-Region 2 5 11 13 15 World

Region/ Country AFR-E AMR-D EUR-D SEAR-D WPR-B1

Number of Cases Avoided Per Year (‘000s), by Intervention

Pop. (m)

Cases of Diarrhoea (million)

1a

2b

481 93 223 1,689 1,488 7,183

619 93 43 1,491 1,193 5,388

28 0 548 3 0 250 112 26 0 895 39 0 454 154 0 854

87 0 405 9 0 307 568 146 0 829 131 0 171 545 0 950

3c 127 0 049 13 0 208 1 0 056 272 0 361 239 0 104 903 0 004

4d 345 0 132 48 0 679 19 0 816 807 0 596 659 0 687 2 0 860 0 951

5e 439 0 980 64 0 106 27 0 983 1 0 04 0 922 844 0 381 3 0 717 0 971

Notes: Therefore, in the analysis, account is taken of the proportion of populations in each country who did not have access to improved” water and sanitation in 2000. Level VI, No improved water supply and no basic sanitation in a country which is not extensively covered by those services, and where water supply is not routinely controlled; Level Vb, Improved water supply and no basic sanitation in a country which is not extensively covered by those services, and where water supply is not routinely controlled; Level Va, Improved sanitation but no improved water supply in a country which is not extensively covered by those services, and where water supply is not routinely controlled; Level IV, Improved water supply and improved sanitation in a country which is not extensively covered by those services, and where water supply is not routinely controlled; Level III, Improved water supply and improved sanitation in a country which is not extensively covered by those services, and where water supply is not routinely controlled, plus household water treatment; Level II, Regulated water supply and full sanitation coverage, with partial treatment for sewage, corresponding to a situation typically occurring in developed countries; Level I, Ideal situation, corresponding to the absence of transmission of diarrhoeal disease through water, sanitation and hygiene. a

b

c d e

Intervention 1. Millennium targets: halving the proportion of people who do not have access to improved water sources by 2015, with priority given to those already with priority given to those already with improved sanitation. This means: Scenario Va to IV (applied to half the population without improved water supply). Intervention 2. Millennium targets with sanitation targets: halving the proportion of people who do not have access to improved water sources and improved sanitation facilities, by 2015. This means: Scenario VI to IV, or Scenario Va or Vb to IV (applied to half the population without improved water supply and half the population without improved sanitation). Intervention 3. Access for all to improved water and improved sanitation. This means: Scenario VI, Va and Vb to IV (applied to the entire population without improved water and the entire population without improved water and the entire population without improved sanitation). Intervention 4. A minimum of water disinfected at the point of use for all, on top of improved water and sanitation services. This means: Scenarios VI, Va, Vb and IV go to Scenario III. Intervention 5. Access for all to a regulated piped water supply and sewage connection into their houses. This means: Scenarios VI, Va, Vb, IV and III go to Scenario II. All the interventions were compared to the situation in 2000, which was defined as the baseline year.

Source: From Hutton, G. and Haller, L., 2004, Evaluation of Costs and Benefits of Water and Sanitation Improvements at the Global Level, Water, Sanitation and Health Protection of the Human Environment, Work Health Organization, Geneva. Copyright q World Health Organization 2004, www.who.int.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 10J.254 Clinical Syndromes and Incubation Periods of Infectious and Chemical Agents Causing Acute Waterborne Disease in the United States Agent Bacteria Campylobacter jejuni Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Salmonella Salmonella typhi Shigella Vibrio cholerae 01 Yersinia enterocolitica Viruses Hepatitis A Norwalk virus Rotavirus Parasites Entamoeba histolytica

Incubation Period 2–5 d 6–36 hr 6–48 hr 10–14 d 12–48 hr 1–5 d 3–7 d

Clinical Syndrome Gastroenteritis, often with fever Gastroenteritis Either gastroenteritis (often with fever), enteric fever, or extraintestinal infection Enteric fever — fever, anorexia, malaise, transient rash, splenomegaly, and leukopenia Gastroenteritis, often with fever and bloody diarrhea Gastroenteritis, often with significant dehydration Either gastroenteritis, mesenteric lymphadenitis, or acute terminal ileitis; may mimic appendicitis

2–6 wks 24–48 hr 24–72 hr

Hepatitis — nausea, anorexia, jaundice, dark urine Gastroenteritis, of short duration Gastroenteritis, often with significant dehydration

2–4 wks 1–4 wks

Varies from mild gastroenteritis to acute fulminating dysentery with fever and bloody diarrhea Chronic diarrhea, epigastric pain, bloating, malabsorption, and weight loss

Giardia lamblia Chemicals Fluoride Heavy metals Antimony Cadmium Copper Lead Tin Zinc, etc

!1 hr

Nausea, vomiting, and abdominal cramps

!1 hr

Nausea, vomiting, and abdominal cramps, often accompanied by a metallic taste

Others Pesticides Petroleum products, etc

Variable

Variable

Source: From Craun, G.F., 1986, Waterborne Diseases in the United States, Copyright CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, FL. Reprinted with permission.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

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Table 10J.255 Pathogens in Drinking Water, Infectious Dose, Estimated Incidence through Consumption of Drinking Water in the United States, Survival in Drinking Water, and Potential Survival Strategies Infectious Dosea Bacteria Vibrio cholera Salmonella spp. Shigella spp. Toxigenic Escherichia coli Campylobacter spp. Leptospira spp. Francisella tularensis Yersinia enterocolitica Aeromonas spp. Helicobacter pylori Legionella pneumophila Mycobacterium avium Protozoa Giardia lambia Cryptosporidium parvum Naegleria fowleri Acanthamoeba spp. Entamoeba histolica Cyclospora cayetanensis Isospora belli The microsporidia Ballantidium coli Toxoplasma gondii Virusesf Total estimates

Estimated Incidenceb

Survival in Drinking Water (Days)

Survival Strategiesc

108 106–7 102 102–9 106 3 10 109 108 ? O10 ?

(very few)c 59,000 35,000 150,000 320,000 ?d ? ? ? High 13,000e ?

30 60–90 30 90 7 ? ? 90 90 ? Long Long

VNC, IC VNC, IC VNC, IC VNC, IC VNC, IC ? ? ? ? ? VNC, IC IC

1–10 1–30 ? ? 10–100 ? ? ? 25–100 ?

260,000 420,000 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

25 ? ? ? 25 ? ? ? 20 ?

Cyst Oocyst Cyst Cyst Cyst Oocyst Oocyst Spore, ICd Cyst Oocyst

1–10

6,500,000

5–27g

Adsorption/ absorption

Note: ?, unknown; IC, intracellular survival and/or growth; VNC, viable but not culturable. a b c d e f g

Infectious dose is number of infectious agents that produce symptoms in 50% of teted volunteers. Volunteers are not usually susceptible individuals, and therefore these numbers are not useful for risk estimates. U.S. point estimates. Very few outbreaks of cholera occur in the United States, and these are usually attributable to imported foods (14). Possible IC with microsporidialike organisms (15). Data form Breiman and Butler (14). Includes Norwalk virus, poliovirus, coxsachievirus, echovirus, reovirus, adenovirus, HAV, HEV, rotavirus, SRSV, astrovirus, coronavirus, calicivirus, and unknown viruses. Estimated for HAV, Norwalkvirus, and rotavirus (13).

Source: From Ford, T.E., 1999, Microbiological safety of drinking water: United States and global perspectives, Environmental Health Perspectives Supplements, vol. 107, no. S1, February 1999, www.ehponline.org Original Source:

Except where noted, data are compiled from Morris and Levin (2), WHO (10), Hazen and Toranzos (11), and Geldreich (12).

Table 10J.256 Survival of Bacteria In Various Media Organism E. coli E. coli E. coli Coliforms Salmonella S. typhi S. typhi S. typhi Shigella S. flexneri Vibrio cholerae

Survival Time

Media

63 days 3–3.5 months 4–4.5 months 17 hours-50 percent reduction 44 days 2–85 days 24–27 days 25–41 days 24 days 26.8 hours-50 percent reduction 7.2 hours-50 percent reduction

Recharge well Groundwater in the field Groundwater held in lab Well water Water infiltrating sand column Soil Septic tank Soil Water infiltrating sand column Well water Well water

Source: From McGinnis, J.A. and DeWalle, F.B., 1983, The movement of typhoid organisms in saturated permeable soil, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., Vol. 75, no. 6. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission.

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Table 10J.257 Survival Times of Organisms Organism

Media

Survival Time Days

Ascaris ova

Vegetables Soil Vegetables Soil Water Soil Grass Water Vegetables Soil Pasture Grass Vegetables Lettuce Soil Water Vegetables Grass Tomatoes Soil Vegetables Water Water

27–35 730–2010 3 6–8 60C 180C 10–40 30–90 3–40C 15–280C 200C 100C 10–53 18–21 2–120 87–104 7 42 2–10 26–77 5–14 32 20

Entamoeba histolytica

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Salmonella (spp.)

Salmonella typhi

Shigella (spp.) Shigella sonnel Streptococcus faecalis Vibrio cholerae Vibrio comma Poliovirus

Source: From Crook, James, 1985, Water reuse in California, Journal American Water Works Assoc., Vol. 77, no. 7. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission.

Table 10J.258 Movement of Bacteria in Soil in Relation to Groundwater Velocity Pollution River water Sewage Sewage Sewage Sewage Sewage River water Sewage Sewage Wastewater River water Sewage Sewage Polluted water Sewage Sewage Pure culture Sewage Sewage Sewageb Sewage Sewage Sewage Sewage Polluted water Polluted water a b

Organism

Length of Travel (m)

Medium

Velocity (m/d)

E. coli Bacteria Bacteria Coliforms Bacteria E. coli E. coli B. coli Bacteria Coliforms Bacteria B. coli C. welchii Bacteria B. coli B. coli B. stearothermophilis Coliforms Bacteria S. typhi Bacteria Coliforms Coliforms Coliforms Bacteria Bacteria

0.30 0.31 0.61 0.91 1.50 2.00 3.00 3.10 4.50 6.10 7.50 10.70 15.20 18.30 19.80 24.40 28.70 30.50 61.00 64.00 70.70 91.00 457.20 830.00 850.00 1,000.00

Dune sand Dense soil Porous soil Coarse sand Fine sand Fine sand Sand Fine sand Fine sand Fine sand Sand Sand gravel Fine sand Sand gravel Fine sand Sand gravel Crystalline rock Sand Sand gravel Gravel loam Fine sand Sand gravel Coarse gravel Sand gravel Coarse gravel Fractured limestone

0.11 0.01a 0.10a 0.08 0.03a 0.128 0.004 0.50 0.03a 0.03a 0.08 1.50 0.50 0.53a 0.11 4.10 25.50 21.80 30.50 42.70 0.11 0.24 30.50 1.60 5.50a 5.50a

Estiamted from soil description, using a hydraulic gradient of 0.01. Other groundwater velocity values were measured by other authors. Yakima outbreak.

Source: From McGinnis, J.A. and DeWalle, F.B., 1983, The movement of typhoid organisms in saturated permeable soil, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., Vol. 75, no. 6. Copyright AWWA. Reprinted with permission.

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Table 10J.259 Migration of Viruses Beneath Land Treatment Sites Maximum Distance of Virus Migration (m) Site Location St. Petersburg, FL Gainesville, FL Lubbock, TX Kerrville, TX Muskegon, MI San Angelo, TX East Meadow, NY Holbrook, NY Sayville, NY 12 Pines, NY North Massapequa, NY Babylon, NY Ft. Devons, MA Vineland, NJ Lake George, NY Phoenix, AZ Dan Region, Israel

Site Type

Depth

Horizontal

S S S S S S R R R R R R R R R R R

6.0 3.0 30.5 1.4 10.0 27.5 11.4 6.1 2.4 6.4 9.1 22.8 28.9 16.8 45.7 18.3 31–67

— 7.0 — — — — 3.0 45.7 3.0 — — 408.0 183.0 250.0 400.0 3.0 60–270

Note: R, Rapid infiltration; S, Slow-rate infiltration. Source: Adapted from Gerba, C.P. and Goyal, S.M., 1985, Pathogen removal from wastewater during groundwater recharge, in Asano, T., Artificial Recharge of Groundwater, Copyright Butterworth Publ, Boston. Reprinted with permission.

Table 10J.260 Selected Human Health and Environmental Effects from Toxic Chemicals Human Health Effectsa Chemical

Carcinogenb

Aldrin/dieldrin

B

Arsenic

† †

Benzene Cadmium

Carbon tetrachloride Chromium

Teratogenb

B

B

†

Di-n-butyl phthalate Dioxin

Environmental Effects

Tremors, convulsions, kidney damage

Toxic to aquatic organisms, reproductive failure in birds and fish, bioaccumulation in aquatic organisms Toxic to legume crops

Vomiting, poisoning, liver and kidney damage Anemia, bone marrow damage Suspected causal factor in many human pathogies: tumors, renal dysfunction, hypertension, arteriosclerosis, ltai-itai disease (weakened bones), emphysema Kidney and liver damage, heart failure Kidney and gastrointestinal damage, respiratory complications Gastrointestinal irritant, liver damage

Copper DDT

Others

B

B (minimal)

Tremors, convulsions, kidney damage

Central nervous system damage B

Lead

B B

Acute skin rashes, systemic damage, mortality Convulsions, anemia, kidney and brain damage

Toxic to some fish and aquatic invertebrates Toxic to fish, bioaccumulates significantly in bivalve mollusks

Toxic to some aquatic organisms Toxic to juvenile fish & other aquatic organisms Reproductive failure of birds and fish, bioaccumulates in aquatic organisms, biomagnifies in food chain Eggshell thinning in birds, toxic to some fish Bioaccumulates, lethal to aquatic organisms birds and mammals Toxic to domestic plants and animals, bio-magnifies to some degree in food chain (Continued)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Human Health Effectsa

Chemical

Carcinogenb

Methyl Mercury

PCBs

B

Teratogenb

Others

Environmental Effects

B

Irritability, depression, kidney and liver damage, Minamata disease

B

Vomiting, abdominal pain, temporary blindness, liver damage

Reproductive failure in fish species, inhibits growth and kills fish; biomagnifies Liver damage in mammals, kidney damage and eggshell thinning in birds, suspected reproductive failure in fish Reproductive effective in aquatic organisms toxic to fish Decreased productivity of phytoplankton communities, birth defects in fish and birds, toxic to fish and invertebrates

Phenols Toxaphene

a b

B

B

Effects on central nervous system, death at high doses Pathological changes in kidney & liver; changes in blood chemistry

In many cases human health effects are based upon the results of animal tests. If a substance is identified as a carcinogen, there is evidence that it has the potential for causing cancer in humans; if it is identified as a teratogen, it has the potential for causing birth defects in humans.

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; National Water Quality Inventory, 1984 Report to Congress and The Conservation Foundation, State of the Environment 1982.

Table 10J.261 Chemicals Causing Distribution System Outbreaks in the United States — 1971–98 Chemical Copper Chlordane Nitrite Unidentified herbicide Ethylene glycol Oil Other chemicalsc Total a b c

CWSa

NCWSb

16 3 2 2 2 1 9 35

2

1 3

CWS — community water system. NCWS — noncommunity water system. Each of the following was responsible for one outbreak; fluoride, lead, chromium, sodium hydroxide, chlorine, liquid soap, ethyl acrylate, morpholine, and hydroquinone.

Source: From Reprinted from Journal AWWA, vol. 93, no. 9 (September 2001), by permission. Copyright q 2001, American Water Works Association, www.awwa.org.

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Table 10J.262 Potential Exposure to Lead in Tap Water Percent of Samples O20 ug/L a

Age of House

pH of Water

First-Flush (%)

Fully-Flushed (2 min) (%)

!6.4 7.0–7.4 R:8.0 %6.4 7.0–7.4 R8.0 %6.4 7.0–7.4 R8.0

93 83 72 84 28 18 51 14 13

51 5 0 19 7 4 4 0 3

0–2 yrs

2–5 yrs

6Cyrs

Note: Percentage of samples taken from kitchen taps exceeding 20 ug/L of lead at different pH levels, by age of house. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets drinking water standards and has determined that lead is a health concern at certain levels of exposure. There is currently an action level of 15 parts per billion (mg/L). The most common cause of lead entering drinking water is corrosion, a reaction between the water and the lead pipes or the lead-based solder. When water stands in the pipes of a residence for several hours without use, there is a potential for lead to leach, or dissolve, into the water if a lead source is present. Soft water (water that makes soap suds easily) can be more corrosive and, therefore, has higher levels of dissolved lead. Some home water treatment devices may also make water more corrosive. a

A measure of the concentration of hydrogenions and potential electrochemical corrosion.

Source: From U.S. EPA, 1987, Preliminary Results from “Lead Solder Aging Study” More recent data are available at: U.S. EPA, 2005, Is there Lead in my Drinking Water? www.epa.gov/safewater/lead.

Table 10J.263 Geometric Mean and Selected Percentiles of Lead in Blood in the United States. Population Aged 1 Yr and Older, National Health, and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999–2002 Survey Yrs Total, age 1 and older Age group 1–5 yrs 6–11 yrs 12–19 yrs 20 yrs and older Gender Males Females Race/ethnicity Mexican Americans Nonhispanic blacks Nonhispanic whites

Selected Percentiles (95% Confidence Interval)

Geometric Mean (95% Conf. Interval)

50th

75th

90th

95th

Sample Size

99–00 01–02

1.66 (1.66–1.72) 1.45 (1.39–1.51)

1.60 (1.50–1.60) 1.40 (1.30–1.40)

2.40 (2.30–2.60) 2.20 (2.10–2.20)

3.80 (3.60–3.90) 3.40 (3.10–3.50)

4.90 (4.60–5.30) 4.40 (4.20–4.70)

7,970 8,945

99–00 01–02 99–00 01–02 99–00 01–02 99–00 01–02

2.23 (1.96–2.53) 1.70 (1.55–1.87) 1.51 (1.36–1.66) 1.25 (1.14–1.36) 1.10 (1.04–1.17) 0.942 (0.899–0.986) 1.75 (1.68–1.81) 1.56 (1.49–1.62)

2.20 (1.90–2.50) 1.50 (1.40–1.70) 1.30 (1.20–1.50) 1.10 (1.00–1.30) 1.00 (0.900–1.10) 0.800 (0.800–0.900) 1.70 (1.60–1.70) 1.60 (1.50–1.60)

3.30 (2.80–3.80) 2.50 (2.20–2.80) 2.00 (1.70–2.40) 1.60 (1.50–1.80) 1.40 (1.30–1.60) 1.20 (1.20–1.30) 2.50 (2.50–2.60) 2.20 (2.20–2.30)

4.80 4.10 3.30 2.70 2.30 1.90 3.90 3.60

(4.00–6.60) (3.40–5.00) (2.70–3.60) (2.40–3.00) (2.10–2.30) (1.80–2.00) (3.70–4.00) (3.30–3.70)

7.00 5.80 4.50 3.70 2.80 2.70 5.20 4.60

(6.10–8.30) (4.70–6.90) (3.40–6.20) (3.00–4.70) (2.60–3.00) (2.30–2.90) (4.80–5.50) (4.20–4.90)

723 898 905 1,044 2,135 2,231 4,207 4,772

99–00 01–02 99–00 01–02

2.01 (1.93–2.09) 1.78 (1.71–1.86) 1.37 (1.32–1.43) 1.19 (1.14–1.25)

1.80 1.70 1.30 1.10

(1.80–1.90) (1.70–1.80) (1.20–1.30) (1.10–1.20)

2.90 (2.80–3.00) 2.70 (2.50–2.80) 1.90 (1.90–2.10) 1.80 (1.70–1.80)

4.40 3.90 3.00 2.60

(4.10–4.80) (3.70–4.10) (2.90–3.20) (2.40–2.70)

6.00 5.30 4.00 3.60

(5.40–6.40) (5.00–5.50) (3.70–4.20) (3.00–3.80)

3,913 4,339 4,057 4,606

99–00 01–02 99–00 01–02 99–00 01–02

1.83 (1.75–1.91) 1.46 (1.34–1.60) 1.87 (1.75–2.00) 1.65 (1.52–1.80) 1.62 (1.55–1.69) 1.43 (1.37–1.40)

1.80 1.50 1.70 1.60 1.60 1.40

(1.60–1.80) (1.30–1.60) (1.60–1.90) (1.40–1.70) (1.50–1.60) (1.30–1.40)

2.70 (2.60–2.90) 2.20 (2.00–2.60) 2.80 (2.50–2.90) 2.50 (2.30–2.80) 2.40 (2.30–2.40) 2.10 (2.10–2.20)

4.20 3.60 4.20 4.20 3.60 3.10

(3.90–4.50) (3.30–4.00) (4.00–4.60) (3.80–4.60) (3.40–3.70) (3.00–3.40)

5.80 5.40 5.70 5.70 5.00 4.10

(5.10–6.60) (4.40–6.60) (5.20–6.10) (5.30–6.50) (4.40–5.70) (3.90–4.50)

2,742 2,268 1,842 2,219 2,716 3,806

Source: From Department of Health and Human Services, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 2005, Third National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals, NCEH Pub. No. 05-0570, July 2005, www.cdc.gov.

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Table 10J.264 Pesticide Residues In Human Adipose Tissue in the United States Pesticide Residues

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1983

Sample size DDT Dieldrin Oxchlordane Heptachlor Epoxide Trans-Nonachlor Beta-Benzene Hexachloride Hexachlorobenzene

1,386 7.95 0.16 (NA) 0.09 (NA) 0.37

1,560 8.06 0.22 (NA) 0.09 (NA) 0.35

1,886 6.97 0.18 0.10 0.07 (NA) 0.19

1,092 5.96 0.17 0.12 0.09 (NA) 0.25

900 5.15 0.14 0.12 0.08 (NA) 0.21

779 4.76 0.12 0.11 0.08 0.06 0.19

682 4.35 0.09 0.11 0.08 0.13 0.18

789 3.14 0.09 0.10 0.07 0.10 0.14

827 3.52 0.09 0.11 0.07 0.12 0.14

796 3.10 0.08 0.10 0.07 0.12 0.15

98 2.82 0.10 0.12 0.08 0.14 0.12

384 2.24 0.05 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.09

407 1.67 0.06 0.09 0.09 0.12 0.10

(NA)

(NA)

(NA)

(NA)

0.03

0.04

0.04

0.04

0.04

0.04

0.04

0.04

0.03

Note: Concentration levels, 1970–1983 in parts per million (ppm), Data represent geometric means and are based on a sample of measurements of pesticide residues and associated chemicals found in human tissue collected by medical pathologists from selected cities in the conterminous 48 states as part of the National Human Adipose Tissue Monitoring Program. NA, Not available. Source: From U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1987.

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Selected Percentiles (95% Confidence Interval)

Geometric Mean Hexachlorobenzene Lipid adjusted (ng/g of lipid) Whole weight (ng/g of serum) p,p 0 -DDT Lipid adjusted (ng/g of lipid) Whole weight (ng/g of serum) p,p 0 -DDE Lipid adjusted (ng/g of lipid) Whole weight (ng/g of serum) o,p 0 -DDT Lipid adjusted (ng/g of lipid) Whole weight (ng/g of serum) Oxychlordane Lipid adjusted (ng/g of lipid) Whole weight (ng/g of serum) trans-Nonachlor Lipid adjusted (ng/g of lipid) Whole weight (ng/g of serum) Hetachlor epoxide Lipid adjusted (ng/g of lipid) Whole weight (ng/g of serum) Mirex Lipid adjusted (ng/g of lipid) Whole weight (ng/g of serum) Aldrin Lipid adjusted (ng/g of lipid) Whole weight (ng/g of serum) Dieldrin Lipid adjusted (ng/g of lipid) Whole weight (ng/g of serum) Endrin Lipid adjusted (ng/g of lipid) Whole weight (ng/g of serum)

50th

75th

90th

95th

Sample Size

—a —a

!LOD !LOD

!LOD !LOD

!LOD !LOD

!LOD !LOD

2,277 2,277

—a —a

!LOD !LOD

!LOD !LOD

!LOD !LOD

26.5 (22.4–32.7) 0.184 (0.161–0.221)

2,305 2,305

295 (267–327) 1.81 (1.64–2.01)

250 (227–277) 1.57 (1.37–1.72)

597 (521–699) 3.97 (3.43–4.59)

1,400 (1,210–1,500) 8.81 (7.85–10.1)

2,320 (1,830–2,780) 15.4 (12.9–17.6)

2,298 2,298

—a —a

!LOD !LOD

!LOD !LOD

!LOD !LOD

!LOD !LOD

2,279 2,279

11.4 (!LOD–12.5) 0.070 (0.063–0.077)

11.1 (!LOD–12.5) 0.069 (0.058–0.078)

21.7 (19.2–24.2) 0.143 (0.126–0.160)

36.3 (31.4–41.4) 0.248 (0.215–0.297)

49.7 (42.0–61.2) 0.352 (0.289–0.441)

2,249 2,249

17.0 (15.2–18.9) 0.104 (0.093–0.116)

17.9 (15.5–20.5) 0.112 (0.097–0.124)

33.7 (30.2–37.2) 0.217 (0.191–0.243)

56.3 (49.6–65.9) 0.389 (0.328–0.470)

78.2 (63.6–111) 0.589 (0.432–0.797)

2,286 2,286

—a —a

!LOD !LOD

!LOD !LOD

14.8 (13.0–17.8) 0.102 (0.089–0.121)

21.6 (18.1–26.2) 0.153 (0.125–0.179)

2,259 2,259

—a —a

!LOD !LOD

!LOD !LOD

15.8 (!LOD–73.7) 0.101 (0.049–0.468)

57.1 (13.2–230) 0.414 (0.080–1.73)

2,257 2,257

—a —a

!LOD !LOD

!LOD !LOD

!LOD !LOD

!LOD !LOD

2,275 2,275

—a —a

!LOD !LOD

!LOD !LOD

15.2 (14.3–17.0) 0.109 (0.099–0.121)

20.3 (18.7–22.4) 0.146 (0.129–0.164)

2,159 2,159

—a —a

!LOD !LOD

!LOD !LOD

!LOD !LOD

5.10 (!LOD–5.20) 0.021 (0.020–0.021)

2,187 2,187

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10J.265 Geometric Mean and Selected Percentiles of Blood Serum Concentrations for Organochlorine Pesticides in the United States Population Aged 12 Yrs and Older, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2001–2002

Note: !LOD means less than the limit of detection, which may vary for some chemicals by individual sample. Maximum detection limits (ng/g of lipid) for Hexachlorobenzene, p,p 0 -DDT, o,p 0 -DDT, Heptachlor epoxide, Mirex, Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin were 31.4, 17.4, 17.4, 10.5, 10.5, 5.94, 10.5, 5.09, respectively. a

Not calculated. Proportion of results below limit of detection was to high to provide a valid result.

Source: From Department of Health and Human Services, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 2005, Third National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals, NCEH Pub. No. 05-0570, July 2005, www.cdc.gov.

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Table 10J.266 Selected Synthetic Organic Chemicals Detected in Drinking Water Wells in the United States Chemical Benzene a-BHC b-BHC g-BHC (Lindane) Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Bromoform Butyl benzyl phthalate Carbon tetrachtoride Chloroform Chloromethane Cyclohexane Dibromochloropropane (DBCP) Dibromochloromethane 1,1-Dichloroethane 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,1-Dichloroethylene 1,2-Dichloroethylene Di-n-butyl phthalate Dioxane Ethylenedibromide(EDB) Isopropyl benzene Methylene chloride Parathion Tetrachloroethylene Toluene 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 1,1,2-Trichloroethane Trichloroethylene (TCE) Trifluorotrichloroethane Vinyl chloride Xylene

Cancer Classification A C B2 B2–C B2 B2 C B2 B2 C D B2 C C B2 C D D B2 B2 NTA B2 C B2–C D D C B2–C D A D

Note: A, Known human carcinogen; B1, Probable human carcinogen — limited evidence in humans; B2, Probable human carcinogen — sufficient evidence in animals and inadequate data in humans; C, Possible human carcinogen — limited evidence in animals; D, Inadequate evidence to classify. Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Integrated Risk Information System URL: www.epa.gov/iris.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Table 10J.267 Summary of Toxic Effects of Some Organic and Inorganic Chemicals Known to Occur In Groundwater

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,

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 10-363

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10-364

Numerical key of toxic effects: (1) Eye irritation, (2) Skin irritation, (3) Allergic sensitization, (4) Upper respiratory tract irritation, (5) Lung/respiratory effects, (6) Liver damage, (7) Kidney damage, (8) Pancreatic damage, (9) central nervous system, (CNS) effects, (10) Peripheral nervous system effects, (11) Blood cell disorders, (12) Immunological effects, (13) Cardiovascular effects, (14) Gastrointestinal effects, (15) Cholinesterase inhibition, (16) Methemoglobinemia, (17) Skin damage, (18) Visual damage, (19) Endocrine effects, (20) Reproductive effects, (21) Embryotoxicity, (22) Teratogenicity, (23) Mutagenicity, (24) Carcinogenicity. Source: From Office of Technology Assessment. Compiled from a partial survey of literature conducted by Environ Corp., 1983.

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

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Table 10J.268 Estimated Drinking Water Concentration Corresponding to a 1!10-6 Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk for Selected Known, Probable, or Possible Carcinogens for a Lifetime Consumption of Water Drinking Water Concentration (mg/L)

Sex, Species

Tumor Type

Benzene a-BHC b-BHC Carbon tetrachloride 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,4-Dioxanea Ethylene dibromide (EDB)

1–10 0.006 0.02 0.3 0.4 3 0.02

Human M mouse M mouse Various M rat M rat Mrat

DDT Heptachlor 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane 1,1,2-Trichloroethane Vinyl chloride — continuous lifetime exposure from birth Vinyl chloride — continuous lifetime exposure during adulthood

0.1 0.008 0.2 0.5 0.024

Mouse/rat Mouse Mouse Mouse F rat

0.048

F rat

Leukemia Hepatocellular carcinoma Hepatocellular carcinoma Hepatocellular carcinoma Hemangiosarcoma of circulatory system Nasal squamous cell carcinoma Forestomach tumors, hemangiosarcomas, thyroid follicular cell adenomas or carcinomas Benign and malignant liver tumors Hepatocellular carcinomas Hepatocellular carcinoma Hepatocellular carcinoma Total of liver angiosarcoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, and neoplastic nodules Total of liver angiosarcoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, and neoplastic nodules

Chemical

a

Toxicity values under review; revised assessment due in 2006 or 2007.

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), 2005, www.epa.gov/iris.

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CHAPTER

11

Water Resources Management Gustavo˜ Suarez

CONTENTS Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section

11A 11B 11C 11D 11E 11F 11G 11H 11I 11J

Dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hydroelectric Power . . . . . . . Costs of Water Projects . . . . . Project Planning and Analysis Research and Expenditures . . Desalination . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Conservation . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

. . . . . . . . . .

............................................ ............................................ ............................................ ............................................ ............................................ ............................................ ............................................ ............................................ ............................................ ............................................

11-2 11-48 11-88 11-131 11-139 11-160 11-223 11-242 11-263 11-293

11-1

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11-2

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 11A

DAMS

China Asia North and Central America Western Europe Africa Eastern Europe South America Australasia 0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

Number of dams Figure 11A.1 Regional distribution of large dams in 2000. (From WCD compilation of various sources and ICOLD, 1998. damsreport.org. Annex V, Dams, Water and Energy: A Statistical Profile.)

Table 11A.1 World’s Largest Dams Volume (Thousands) Dam Syncrude Tailings Chapeto´n Pati New Cornelia Tailings Tarbela Kambaratinsk Fort Peck Lower Usuma Cipasang Atatu¨rk Yacyreta´-Apipe Guri (Raul Leoni) Rogun Oahe Mangla Gardiner Afsluitdijk Oroville San Luis Nurek Garrison Cochiti Tabka (Thawra) Bennett WAC Tucuruı´i Boruca High Aswan (Sadd-el-Aali) San Roque Kiev Dantiwada Left Embankment Saratov Mission Tailings 2 Fort Randall Kanev Mosul Kakhovka

Location

m3

yds3

Year Completed

Canada Argentina Argentina United States Pakistan Kyrgyzstan Montana Nigeria Indonesia Turkey Paraguay/Argentina Venezuela Tajikistan South Dakota Pakistan Canada Netherlands California California Tajikistan North Dakota New Mexico Syria Canada Brazil Costa Rica Egypt Philippines Ukraine India Russia Arizona South Dakota Ukraine Iraq Ukraine

540,000 296,200 238,180 209,500 121,720 112,200 96,049 93,000 90,000 84,500 18,000 78,000 75,500 70,339 65,651 65,440 63,400 59,639 59,405 58,000 50,843 48,052 46,000 43,733 43,000 43,000 43,000 43,000 42,841 41,040 40,400 40,088 38,227 37,860 36,000 35,640

706,320 387,410 274,026 274,026 159,210 146,758 125,628 121,644 117,720 110,522 105,944 102,014 98,750 92,000 85,872 85,592 82,927 78,008 77,700 75,861 66,500 62,850 60,168 57,201 56,242 56,242 56,242 56,242 56,034 53,680 52,843 52,435 50,000 49,520 47,086 46,617

UC UC UC 1973 1976 UC 1940 1990 UC 1990 1998 1986 1985 1963 1967 1968 1932 1968 1967 1980 1956 1975 1976 1967 1984 UC 1970 UC 1964 1965 1967 1973 1953 1976 1982 1055 (Continued)

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WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11A.1

11-3

(Continued) Volume (Thousands)

Dam

Location

Itumbiara Lauwerszee Beas Oosterschelde

Brazil Netherlands India Netherlands

m3

yds3

Year Completed

35,600 35,575 35,418 35,000

46,563 46,532 46,325 45,778

1980 1969 1974 1986

Note: UC, under construction in 2004. China’s Three Gorges dam, on the Yangtze River, begun in 1993 and expected to be completed in 2009, will be the world’s largest and highest dam. Source: From Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation and International Water Power and Dam Construction.

Number of dams

8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

Asia North America Europe Africa South America Australasia

00

e

or ef

19

0s

0

19

19

1

0s

19

2

0s

0s

3

19

4

19

B

0s

19

5

0s

6

0s

19

19

7

0s

0s

9

8

19

Time

90

r1

te

Af

Figure 11A.2 Cumulative commissioning of large dams in the 20th century. (From ICOLD 1998, excluding over 90% of large dams in China. damsreport.org. Annex V, Dams, Water and Energy: A Statistical Profile.)

Table 11A.2 Number of Dams in the World in 1950 and 1982 by Continent 1950

1982

Continent

Dams

%

Dams

%

Europe Asia America Africa Australasia Total China

1,292 1,541 2,090 123 150 5,196 8

25 30 40 2 3 100 0.2

3,800 22,701 7,241 610 446 34,798 18,595

11 65 21 2 1 100 53

Source: From International Commission on Large Dams, 1984, Register of Dams; percentages rounded.

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11-4

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 11A.3 Dams in 140 Countries Regions and Countries Africa South Africa Zimbabwe Algeria Morocco Tunisia Nigeria Coˆte d’Ivoire Angola Dem. Rep. of Congo Kenya Namibia Libya Madagascar Cameroon Mauritius Burkina Faso Ethiopia Mozambique Lesotho Egypt Swaziland Ghana Sudan Zambia Botswana Malawi Benin Congo Guinea Mali Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Tanzania Togo Gabon Liberia Uganda Total Western Europe Spain France Italy United Kingdom Norway Germany Sweden Switzerland Austria Portugal

Number of Dams 539 213 107 92 72 45 22 15 14 14 13 12 10 9 9 8 8 8 7 6 6 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1,209 1,196 569 524 517 335 311 190 156 149 103

Regions and Countries Finland Cyprus Greece Iceland Ireland Belgium Denmark Netherlands Luxembourg Total South America Brazil Argentina Chile Venezuela Colombia Peru Ecuador Bolivia Uruguay Paraguay Guyana Suriname Total Eastern Europe Albania Romania Bulgaria Czech Republic Poland Yugoslavia Slovakia Slovenia Croatia Bosnia Herzegovina Ukraine Lithuania Macedonia Hungary Latvia Moldova Total North and Central America United States Canada Mexico Cuba Dominican Republic Costa Rica Honduras Panama El Salvadaor Guatemala

Number of Dams 55 52 46 20 16 15 10 10 3 4,277 594 101 88 74 49 43 11 6 6 4 2 1 979 306 246 180 118 69 69 50 30 29 25 21 20 18 15 5 2 1,203 6,575 793 537 49 11 9 9 6 5 4

Regions and Countries Nicaragua Trinidad & Tobago Jamaica Antigua Haiti Total Asia China India Japan South Korea Turkey Thailand Indonesia Russia Pakistan North Korea Iran Malaysia Taipei China Sri Lanka Syria Saudi Arabia Azerbaijan Armenia Philippines Georgia Uzbekistan Iraq Kazakstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Jordan Lebanon Myanmar Nepal Vietnam Singapore Afghanistan Brunei Cambodia Bangladesh Laos Total Austral-Asia Australia New Zealand Papua New Guinea Fiji Total

Number of Dams 4 4 2 1 1 8,010 22,000 4,291 2,675 765 625 204 96 91 71 70 66 59 51 46 41 38 17 16 15 14 14 13 12 11 7 5 5 5 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 31,340 436 86 3 2 577

Source: Based on ICOLD, 1998, ID, 1000 and other sources. damsreport.org. Annex V, Dams, Water and Energy: A Statistical Profile. With permission.

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WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-5

6000

5418

Number of dams

5000

4788

4431

4000 3000

2735 2069

2000 1000

630

353

601

809 964 913

Be fo re

19 00 19 00 s 19 10 s 19 20 s 19 30 s 19 40 s 19 50 19 s 60 s 19 70 s 19 Af 80 s te r1 99 0

0

Figure 11A.3 Commissioning of large dams globally by decade in the 20th century. (From ICOLD, 1998, excluding over 90% of large dams in China. damsreport.org. Annex V, Dams, Water and Energy: A Statistical Profile.)

Table 11A.4 Countries with More Than 100 Dams in 1982 China U.S.A. Japan India Spain Korea Canada Great Britain

18,595 5,338 2,142 1,085 690 628 580 529 29,587

(16,500) (5,046) (2,006) (999) (630) (558) (494) (519)

Brazil Mexico France Italy Australia South Africa Norway

489 487 432 408 374 342 219

(443) (433) (388) (403) (320) (316) (205)

Germany Czechoslovakia Sweden Switzerland Yugoslavia Austria Bulgaria Romania

2,751

184 142 134 130 114 112 108 106 1,030

(158) (131) (132) (128) (93) (97) (106) (81)

Note: Numbers in brackets represent number of dams in service at the end of 1977. Source: From International Commission on Large Dams, 1984, Register of Dams.

Table 11A.5 Rate of Dam Construction in the World, 1950–1982 Outside of China

Period Up to 1950 1951 to 1974 1975 to 1977 1951 to 1977 1978 to 1982 1975 to 1982 1951 to 1982

China

Number per Period

Total Number

Number per Annum

5,188 8,948 752 9,700 1,315 2,067 11,015

5,188 14,136 14,888 14,888 16,203 16,203 16,203

373 251 359 263 258 344

Number per Period

Total Number 8

16,492 2,095

16,500 18,595

611 419

1.70 1.60

18,587

18,595

581

1.69

Source: From International Commission on Large Dams, 1984, World Register of Dams.

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Number per Annum

Ratio China Compared to Outside China

11-6

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

12000

Number of dams

10000 8000 6000 4000 2000

Height, m

>1 50

90 –1 20 12 0– 15 0

60 –9 0

30 –6 0

20 –3 0

10 –2 0

0– 10

0

Figure 11A.4 Global distribution of dam heights (m). (From ICOLD, 1998. damsreport.org. Annex V, Dams, Water and Energy: A Statistical Profile.)

Table 11A.6 Classification of Dams in the World by Type and Height Number of Dams/Height

Earth (TE) and Rockfill (ER) Gravity (PG) Arch (VA) Buttress (CB) Multi-Arch (MV) Total Source:

Total

15–30 m

30–60 m

28,844

24,567

3,657

3,954 1,527 337 136 34,798

2,222 775 175 74 27,813

1,294 428 110 48 5,537

60–100 m

100–150 m

150–200 m

O200 m

477

116

21

6

361 204 40 13 1,095

65 83 12 — 276

8 24 — — 53

4 13 — 1 24

From International Commission on Large Dams, 1984, World Register of Dams.

Table 11A.7 World’s Highest Dams No 1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Height above Lowest Foundation (m)

Typea

335 300 285 272 262 261

TE/ER TE PG VA VA ER

261 253 245 243 242 237 237 234 233 230 226 221

ER/TE ER/TE VA/PG ER TE ER VA VA VA TE PG VA/PG

Name Rogun Nurek Grande Dixence Inguri Vajont Manuel Moreno Torres (Chicoase´n) Tehri Kishau Sayano-Shushensk Guavio Mica Chivor Mauvoisin El Cajo´n Chirkey Oroville Bhakra Hoover

Country

Year

U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. Switzerland U.S.S.R. Italy Mexico

U/C 1980 1961 1980 1961 1980

India India U.S.S.R. Colombia Canada Colombia Switzerland Honduras U.S.S.R. U.S.A. India U.S.A.

U/C U/C U/C U/C 1972 1975 1957 U/C (1984) 1978 1968 1963 1936 (Continued)

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WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11A.7 No 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41

42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

54

11-7

(Continued)

Height above Lowest Foundation (m) 220 220 219 216 215 214 213 210 208 207 202 201 200 200 196 195 194 192 191 186 186 186 185 185 184 183 183 180 180 180 180 180 176 175 174 173 173 172 172 171 169 168 168 168 168 167 167 166 165 165 165 164 164 162 162 100 160 160 160 160

Typea VA VA PG VA PG MV VA ER VA ER/PG VA VA VA VA PG/ER/TE ER VA PG ER VA TE VA VA VA ER PG TE VA ER VA VA VA ER ER PG TE VA VA PG VA VA ER ER ER PG ER VA/PG VA TE VA PG ER TE PG/ER ER ER TE/ER ER ER/TE VA

Name Contra Mratinje Dworshak Glen Canyon Toktogul Daniel Johnson Dez San Roque Luzzone Keban Almendra Khudoni Karoun Kolnbrein Itaipu Altinkaya New Bullard’s Bar Lakhwar New Melones Kurobe Swift Zillergru¨ndl Mossyrock Oymapinar Atatu¨rk Shasta WAC Bennett Amir Kabir Dartmouth Emmosson Tehchi Tignes Takase Ayvacik Alpe Gera Don Pedro Karakaya Hungry Horse Longyangxia Cabora Bassa Idukki Charyak Gura Apelor La Grande 2 Grand Coule´e Fierze Daniel Palacios Vidraru Kremasta Ross Wujiangdu Thomson Trinity Guri Talbingo Foz de Areia Grand-Maison Salvajina Thein Dam Ranjit Yellowtail

Country Switzerland Yugoslavia U.S.A. U.S.A. U.S.S.R. Canada Iran Philippines Switzerland Turkey Spain U.S.S.R. Iran Austria Brazil Turkey U.S.A. India U.S.A. Japan U.S.A. Austria U.S.A. Turkey Turkey U.S.A. Canada Iran Australia Switzerland Taiwan France Japan Turkey Italy U.S.A. Turkey U.S.A. China Mozambique India U.S.S.R. Romania Canada U.S.A. Albania Ecuador Romania Greece U.S.A. China Australia U.S.A. Venezuela Australia Brazil France Columbia India U.S.A.

Year 1965 1976 1973 1966 1978 1968 1962 U/C 1963 1974 1970 U/C 1975 1977 1982 U/C 1970 U/C 1979 1964 1958 U/C 1968 U/C U/C 1945 1967 1964 1979 1974 1974 1952 1978 1981 1964 1971 U/C 1953 U/C 1974 1974 1977 U/C 1978 1942 1978 U/C 1965 1965 1949 1981 U/C 1962 U/C 1971 1980 U/C U/C U/C 1966 (Continued)

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11-8

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 11A.7 No

55 56 57

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

72 73 74 75 76

(Continued)

Height above Lowest Foundation (m) 158 158 158 158 158 158 157 157 157 156 156 155 155 155 155 155 154 154 153 153 153 153 153 151 151 151 150 150 150 150 150 150

Typea

Name

ER TE ER ER VA ER VA PG VA PG VA–TE ER VA VA VA PG VA/PG ER VA VA ER PG/ER VA PG ER VA PG VA ER ER VA/CB TE

Canales Yacambu Cougar Emborcaca˜o Go¨kcekaya Naramata Dongjiang Okutadami Speccheri Sakuma Zeuzier Goescheneralp Monteynard Nagawado Place Moulin Sadar Sarovar Bhumibol Tedorigawa Curnera Flaming George Gepatsch Revelstoke Santa Giustina Dorna Menzelet Zervreila Baishan Canelles Finstertal Kenyir Roselend Big Horn

Note: U/C, under construction. a

TE, Earth; ER, Rockfill; PG, Gravity; CB, Buttress; VA, Arch; MV, Multi-Arch.

Source: From International Commission on Large Dams, 1984, World Register of Dams.

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Country

Year

Spain Venezuela U.S.A. Brazil Turkey Japan China Japan Italy Japan Switzerland Switzerland France Japan Italy India Thailand Japan Switzerland U.S.A. Austria Canada Italy Spain Turkey Switzerland China Spain Austria Malaysia France Canada

U/C U/C 1964 1982 1972 U/C U/C 1961 1957 1956 1957 1960 1962 1969 1965 U/C 1964 1979 1967 1964 1965 U/C 1950 U/C U/C 1957 U/C 1960 1980 U/C 1961 1972

Name of Dam Afghanistan Kajakaiv Albania Fierze Koman Algeria Bou Hanifia Bou Roumi Keddara Sly Argentina Las Pirquitas Gral. M. Belgrano Cabra Corral Res. Las Maderas (B.L) Futaleufu AmutuiQuimei Res. Los Reyunos Alicura

Year of Completion

River

Nearest City

1952

Helmand

Kandahar

1978 C

Drin Drin

B. Curri Shkoder

1948 C (1984) C (1986) C (1985)

El Hammam Bou Roumi Boudouaou Sly

1961 1973

State Province or Country

Type

Height above Lowest Foundation (m)

Length of Crest (m)

Volume Content of Dam (103 m3)

Gross Capacity of Reservoir (103 m3)

Purpose

Maximum Discharge Capacity of Spillways (m3/sec)

ER

98

274

3,230

2,680,000

I

Tropoje Shkoder

ER ER

167 133

400 275

8,000 4,500

2,700,000 450,000

H H

Bou Hanifia Bou Medfa Boudouaou El Asnam

Mascara Blida Blida El Asnam

ER TE ER TE

99 100 108 87

464 300 560 395

1,530 4,200 4,380 3,565

73,000 188,000 146,000 286,000

IS I S I

5,500 800 380 1,700

Del Valle Juramento

Piedra Blanca Coronel Moldes

Catamarca Salta

TE TE

83 112

410 470

2,900 8,000

65,000 3,100,000

ICH IH

1,400 1,500

1974 1976

Las Maderas Futaleufu´

El Carmen Trevelin

Jujuy Chubut

TE TE

98 130

460 600

4,500 6,000

300,000 5,600,000

IH H

30 3,000

1980 C (1984)

Diamante Limay

25 de Mayo S.C.de Bariloche

TE TE

131 130

266 880

3,220 13,000

260,000 3,215,000

IH H

2,300 3,000

Cerro Pelado Australia Upper Yarra Eucumbane South Para Glenbawn Warragamba Geehi Blowering Corin Talbingo Cethana Wyangla Ord River Lake Argyle (Res.) Cardinia

C (1985)

Grande

Amboy

Mendoza Rio Negro/ Neuque´n Co´rdoba

TE

104

410

3,700

370,000

HICR

3,300

1957 1958 1958 1958 1980 1966 1968 1968 1971 1971 1971 1972

Yarra Eucumbene South Para Hunter Warragamba Geehi Tumut Cotter Tumut Forth Lachlan Ord

Melbourne Cooma Adelaide Scone Sydney Cooma Tumut Canberra Tumut Devonport Cowra Wyndham

Victoria NSW Sth Aust. NSW NSW NSW NSW ACT NSW Tasmania NSW West Aust.

TE/ER TE TE ER PG ER ER ER ER ER ER ER

89 116 48 78 137 91 112 76 162 110 85 99

610 579 284 823 351 265 808 282 701 213 1,510 341

5,660 6,735 581 7,650 1,233 1,421 8,563 1,376 14,490 1,376 3,580 1,908

207,200 4,798,400 51,190 360,000 2,057,000 21,093 1,628,000 74,970 921,400 109,000 1,220,000 5,797,000

1973

Melbourne

Victoria

TE/ER

86

1,542

5,150

288,905

Copeton

1976

Cardinia Creak Gwydir

Inverell

NSW

ER

113

1,484

8,333

1,364,000

S H S IC SH H IH S H H I I S I

9,300

2,165 191 736 1,700 12,740 1,534 2,350 1,190 4,290 1,980 14,700 3,500 13 14,800

11-9

(Continued)

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WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11A.8 High Dams of the World Arranged by Country

(Continued)

Name of Dam

Year of Completion 1979 1980 1980

Mangrove Creek

1982

Blue Rock Thomson Lower Pieman Austria Gepatch Oschaniksee Ko¨lnbrein Rotlech Finstertal Zillergru¨ndl Brazil Euclides Da Cunha

Nearest City

State Province or Country

Type

Length of Crest (m)

Volume Content of Dam (103 m3)

Gross Capacity of Reservoir (103 m3)

Purpose

Mitta Mitta Ipswich Melbourne

Victoria Queensland Victoria

ER ER ER

180 76 89

670 1,140 1,000

14,100 3,371 4,700

4,000,000 28,700 100,000

Wyong

NSW

ER

80

380

1,340

170,000

S

570

C (1984) C (1984) C (1985)

Mitta Mitta Pryde Creek Sugarloaf Creek Mangrove Creek Tanjil Thomson Pieman

Moe Moe Queenstown

Victoria Victoria Tasmania

TE ER ER

75 164 122

640 1,180 374

1,530 13,300 2,950

200,000 1,175,000 641,000

S SI H

1,018 1,040 4,714

1965 1972–1978 1977 1977 1980 C (1986)

Faggenbach tr. Fragant Malta tr. Lech tr. Naderbach Ziller

Landeck Obervellach ¨ nd Om Reutte ¨ tz O Mayrhofen

Tyrol Carinthia Carinthia Tyrol Tyrol Tyrol

ER ER VA PG/ER ER VA

153 116 200 32 150 186

600 530 626 128 652 506

7,100 2,250 1,580 14/11 4,500 1,355

140,000 33,000 205,000 1,260 60,500 90,000

H H H H H H

325 6 188 200 23 215

1960–1977

Pardo

Sa˜o Paulo

TE

92

312

2,200

13,400

H

2,340

Tres Marias

1960

Minas Gerais

TE

75

2,700

14,250

19,790,000

CHI

8,700

Furnas Estreito

1963 1969

Sa˜o Francisco Grande Grande

S.Jose´ do Rio Pardo Tres Marias

ER/PG ER/PG

127 92

779 715

9,697 4,446

22,950,000 1,418,000

HC H

13,000 13,000

Xavantes

1970

Xavantes

Minas Gerais M.Gerais/Sa˜o Paulo Sa˜o Paulo

TE/ER

92

500

6,000

8,750,000

H

Paraitinga Paraitinga Dike Paraitinga Res. Itauba

1975 1975

Paraibuna Paraibuna

Sa˜o Paulo Sa˜o Paulo

TE TE

105 80

586 530

11,051 3,391

2,430,000 2,430,000

HC

1975

Jacui

ER

90

385

3,410

510,000

Paraibuna Sa˜o Sima˜o

1978 1978

Paraibuna Paranaiba

TE TE/ER/PG

94 120

1,285 3,611

7,892 27,378

2,463,000 12,540,000

HCI H

1,500 24,100

Foz Do Areia Itumbiara

1980 1980

Iguac¸u Paranaiba

ER TE/PG

160 106

850 6,780

13,000 38,820

6,100,000 17,030,000

H HC

11,000 16,200

Salto Santiago (Main) 1980 Jequitai 1981 Emborcac¸a˜o 1982

Iguac¸c¸u´ Jequital Paranaiba

ER TE ER

80 80 158

1,400 580 1,607

9,860 2,300 25,000

6,750,000 1,200,000 17,600,000

H I H

24,000 1,850 7,800

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Paranapanema Paraitinga

Passos Pedregulho

Julio de Castilhos Rio Grande do Sul Paraibuna Sa˜o Paulo Sa˜o Sima˜o Minas Gerais (Goia´s) Bituruna Parana´ Itumbiara Gola´s/Minas Gerais Laranjeiras do Sul Parana´ Jequital Minas Gerais Araguari Minas Gerais/Goia´s

IHS H S

Maximum Discharge Capacity of Spillways (m3/sec)

H

2,584 570 7

3,200 600 — 8,130

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Dartmouth Split-Yard Creek Winneke

River

Height above Lowest Foundation (m)

11-10

Table 11A.8

1982 C (1983) C (1986)

Pedra Do Cavalo

C

Parana´ Tocantis Sa˜o Francisco Paraguassu

Segredo Bulgaria Belmeken Canada Kenney Lajoie WAC Bennett Daniel Johnson (Manic 5) Outardes 4 No. 1 Outardes 4 No. 2 Lower Notch Big Horn Abraham Lake Res. Mica Manicouagan 3 Revelstoke Barrage principal

C (1987)

Foz do Iguac¸u Tucuruı´ Petrola´ndia

Brasil/Paraguai Para´ Pernambuco

ER/PG/TE TE/ER/PG ER

196 93 105

7,900 10, 667 4,150

29,200 64,300 16,530

29,000,000 43,000,000 10,700,000

Bahia

ER

142

510

6,500

5,330,000

HCS

12,000

Iguac¸u

Cachoeira de S. Fe´lix Pinha˜o

Parana´

ER

140

700

6,700

3,000,000

H

13,000

1976

Kriva

Sestrimo

S

ER

94

760

3,560

145,000

H

1952 1955 1967 1968

Nechako Bridge Peace Manicouagan

Prince George Goldbridge Hudson Hope Baie Comeau

British Columbia British Columbia British Columbia Quebec

ER ER TE MV

104 87 183 214

457 1,033 2,042 1,314

3,071 2,860 43,733 2,255

23,700,000 720,728 70,308,930 141,851,350

H H H H

1968 1968 1971 1972

Outardes Outardes Montreal North Sask.

Baie Comeau Baie Comeau North Bay Nordeag

Quebec Quebec Ontario Alberta

ER ER TE/PG TE

122 108 132 150

649 726 1,969 472

7,533 4,688 1,817 4,330

170,960 1,768,000

H H H H

1972 1975 C 1978

Columbia Manicouagan Columbia La Grande Riviere La Grande Riviere La Grande Riviere R. aux Meandres Riviere Stephane

Revelstoke Baie Comeau Revelstoke Radisson

British Columbia Quebec British Columbia Quebec

TE TE PG/ER ER

242 108 153 168

792 366 1,620 2,826

32,111 9,175 13,000 23,192

24,699,800 10,422,991 5,180,000 61,715,000

H H H H

7,080 16,000

Radisson Radisson Radisson

Quebec

ER

13,511 8,601 18,800

H

9,970

TE/ER

2,156 1,689 3,780

60,020,000

Quebec

93 93 125

19,530

H

7,350

Radisson

Quebec

TE

95

1,435

3,000

—

H

—

Radisson

Quebec

TE

90

1,940

10,100

—

H

—

1967 1968 1981 1981

Grande Cato Cauquenes Los Leones

Ovalle Parral Rancagua Los Andes

IV Regio´n VII Regio´n VI Regio´n V Regio´n

TE TE TE TE

96 89 83 128

1,000 420 1,200 330

7,350 3,650 9,400 4,360

740,000 220,000 170,000 42,500

I I T T

6,500 300 220 10

Barrage Nord Sud Barrage

1981

Digue QA-1

1981

Digue QA-8

1982

1981

H HN IH

61,400 110,000 28,700

— 566 10,194

1,425

4,248

Chile Paloma Digua Colihues A Los Leones – 1st stage Colbun China Shuifeng Fengman

C (1985)

Maule

Linares

VII Regio´n

TE

116

530

13,870

1,490,000

I–H

7,570

1943 1955

Kuandian Jilin

Liaoning Jilin

PG PG

106 81

899 1,080

3,400 1,940

14,700,000 10,778

H CIH

37,500 10,000

Nangudong Sanmenxia

1960 1960

Yalu Jiang Songhua Jiang Loushui He Huang He

Linxian Sanmenxia

Henan Henan

ER PG

78 106

164 713

1,750 1,630

64,500 35,400,000

IC HI

3,285 3,843

11-11

(Continued)

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WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Itaipu Tucuruı´ Itaparica

(Continued)

Name of Dam

Year of Completion 1960 1970 1970 1972 1972 1973 1973 1974 1976 1979 1980 1981 C C

Baoquan Guxian Hunanzhen Longyangxia Lubuge Shibianyu Shitouhe Wuqiangxi Colombia Calima I Prado Alto Anchicaya Chivor(La Esmeralda) Chuza (Golillas) Punchina Betania Salvajina Guavio Czechoslovakia Orlik Dalesice Dominican Republic Tavera

C C C C C C C C

Sabana Yegua

State Province or Country

Type

Length of Crest (m)

1,380 4,915 2,740 1,196 3,464 1,711 4,660 2,928 4,241 1,040 1,080 1,930 2,100 1,630

21,626 3,340,000 3,911,000 3,450,000 655,000 1,218,000 168,000 20,900 521,000 1,550,000 2,300,000 2,580,000 6,215,000

CI HIS H HI HIS CH H CIHM IH I IHC H HN H

2,790 1,340 1,450 1,750 1,850 2,080 8,550 2,670

46,000 1,200,000 2,060,000 24,700,000 110,000 28,000 147,000 10,800,000

HIC HC HNS HIS IH I IH HI

Purpose

Maximum Discharge Capacity of Spillways (m3/sec)

Zhejiang Guangdong Jilin Liaoning Fujian Guangdong Henan Hubei Gansu Hebei Hunan Guizhou Shaanxi Jilin

PG TE PG PG ER ER TE PG ER VA PG VA PG VA

105 80 114 79 76 81 76 97 101 95 111 165 120 150

tr. Wei He Yuan Shui

Huixian Luoning Juzhou Gonghw Luoping Changan Meixian Yuanling

Henan Henan Zhejiang Qinghai Yunnan Shaanxi Shaanxi Hunan

PG PG CB VA ER ER ER PG

116 121 129 172 97 85 105 104

1965 1971 1974 1975 1978 1982 C (1984) C (1985) C (1987)

Calima Prado Anchicaya´ Bata´ Chuza Guatape Magdalena Cauca Guavio

Buga Ibague´ Cali Guateque Bogota´ Medellin Neiva Popayan Gachala´

Valle Tolima Valle Boyaca´ Cundinamarca Antioquı´a Huila Cauca Cundinamarca

ER TE ER ER ER TE ER/PG ER ER

115 90 140 237 135 77 90 160 243

240 260 240 280 106 750 670 360 390

2,820 2,000 2,500 10,800 1,400 5,800 6,300 3,500 17,755

563,000 1,400,000 45,000 815,000 257,000 72,000 1,971,000 904,000 1,020,000

H HI H H S H HICS H H

370 1,200 46,000 10,600 545 7,500 19,000 3,550 3,500

1963 1979

Vitava Jihlava

Pribram Trebı´c

Bohe´me C. Moravie S.

PG ER

91 100

550 330

1,030 1,800

703,800 127,300

HCS HSRI

2,555 442

1974

Yaque del Norte Yaque del Sur

Tavera

Santiago

TE

82

405

1,850

170,000

IH

6,900

Los Bancos

San Juan

TE

90

1,200

14,700

677,000

IHC

1,885

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

462 730 828 593 305 215 245 246 297

Gross Capacity of Reservoir (103 m3)

Hangzhou Woxian Jian Huairen Nan’an Shaoguan Lingbao Xiangfan Wenxian Xingtai Yuanling Zun’yi Ankang Huadian

1978

Xin’an Jiang Nandu Jiang Yalu Jiang Hun Jiang tr. Dong Jiang Bel Jiang Hongnong He Han Jiang Bailong Jiang Nanli He Youshui Wu Jiang Han Jiang Songhua Jiang Luo He Luo He Wuxi Jiang Huang He Huangni He

Nearest City

Volume Content of Dam (103 m3)

488 368 542 670

315 440 342

600

14,000 6,300 24,200 23,910 8,570 400 1,950 4,700 2,310 23,300 19,796 30,900 6,300

10,600 10,500

7,150

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Xin’Anjiang Songtao Yunfeng Huairen Shanmei Nanshui Zhaikou Danjiangkou Bikou Zhuzhuang Fengtan Wujiangdu Ankang Baishan

River

Height above Lowest Foundation (m)

11-12

Table 11A.8

France Serre-Poncon Mont-Cenis Grand’Maison Pla De Soulcem Ghana Akosombo (Main) Great Britain Scammonden Llyn Brianne Greece Kremasta Polyphyton Mornos Pournari Sfikia Peghai (Main Dam) Guatemala Pueblo Viejo Hong Kong High Island East High Island West India Koyna (Shivaji Sagar) Rihand (Gobind Ballabh Pant Sagar) Bhakra Dam (Gobind Sagar)

a

C (1980)

Bao

Sabana Iglesia

Santiago

TE

112

425

3,050

280,000

HIS

C (1983)

Paute

Cuenca

Azuay

PG/VA

167

420

1,200

120,000

H

7,700

C (1980)

Daule

Quevedo

Los Rı´os

TE/ER

90

250

3,000

6,000,000

M

3,600

1970

Daule

Aswan

Egypt

TE/ER

111

3,830

44,300

168,900,000

1973

Lempa

Hutyapa

ER

80

900

5,100

1982

Nanuku Ck

Suva

Fiji

ER

85

485

1959 C (1983)

Rur Kleiner Regen

Heimbach Zwiesel

Nordrhein Bayern

TE ER

77 86

1960 1968 C (1985) C (1983)

Durance Cenise Eau d’Olle Mounicou

Gap Modane Grenoble Tarascon

Htes Alpes Savoie Ise`re Arie`ge

TE TE/ER TE/ER TE

1965

Volta

Accra/Tema

Ghana

ER

1970 1972

Black Brook Towy

Huddersfield Llandovery

Best Yorkshire Dyfed

TE/ER ER

1965 1974 1979 1980 C (1984) C (1987)

Achelo¨os Aliakmon Mornos Arachthos Aliakmon Ao¨os

Agrinion Kozani Lidhoriki Arta Veria Metsovon

Etolo-Akarnanie Makedhonia Phocide Ipiro Makedhonia Ipiro

C (1983)

Chixoy

San Cristobel

Alta Verapaz

GR

11,000

1,430,000

H

11,000

1,738

133,000

H

625

480 640

2,600 2,263

181,800 20,300

CNH SNCH

450 58

129 120 160 76

600 1,400 550 275

14,100 14,850 12,500 1,675

1,270,000 332,200 140,000 29,300

HI H H H

3,430 265 65 134

134

671

7,991

147,960,000

H

14,160

76 91

624 274

4,304 2,085

7,873 60,000

S S

850

TE ER TE TE ER TE

165 112 126 102 80 78

460 298 815 574 230 295

8,170 3,459 17,000 9,500 1,620 2,800

4,750,000 2,244,000 780,000 730,000 99,000 262,000

H HI S H H H

3,000 1,375 1,135 6,100 1,600 160

ER

130

230

3,200

460,000

H

3,850

3443 6120

284,375

S

435

)

Kwun Mun Kwun Mun

Sai Kung Sai Kung

New Territories New Territories

ER ER

85 76

457 762

1961 1962

Koyna Rihan

Karad Mirzapur

Maharashtra Uttar Pradesh

PG PG

103 93

808 934

1,555 1,680

2,796,500 10,600,000

H H

3,823 13,339

1963

Satluj

Nangal Township

Himachal Pradesh

PG

226

518

4,130

9,621,000

IH

8,372

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-13

1977 1977

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Tavera-Bao Ecuador Daniel Palacios (Amaluza Res.) Daule-Peripa Egypt Aswan High Dam (Sadd-el-Aali) El salvador Cerron Granda (Silencio) Fiji Monasavu Germany (F.R.) Rur Frauenau

(Continued)

Name of Dam

River

Nearest City

State Province or Country

Type TE,PG TE,PG TE,PG TE

105 81 125 133

1,282 5,065 4,865 1,950

2,496 25,180 7,960 35,500

160,660 8,511,000 11,550,000 8,570,000

IH IHC IH IH

1,474 35,960 53,450 12,374

PG TE TE PG TE,ER TE,PG TE,PG PG PG PG PG PG

138 75 128 89 84 89 86 100 192 155 143 101

650 4,363 743 938 568 1,264 2,688 903 440 1,210 512 322

1,700 19,096 11,013 1,679 1,715 1,449 3,219 1,937 2,000 4,100 1,953 1,150

1,996,000 3,610,000 2,442,600 915,000 219,000 708,260 3,417,000 630,000 580,000 9,500,000 8,722,000 4,418,000

H IH IH SIH H I IH I IH IHC H H

5,012 10,930 8,467 3,775 1,416 2,247 20,530 17,275 8,000 62,269 37,400 2,830

IH IHC

13,150 21,890

Length of Crest (m)

Volume Content of Dam (103 m3)

Gross Capacity of Reservoir (103 m3)

Purpose

1972 1972 1974 1974

Sholayar Tapi Krishna Beas

Colmbatore Fort Songadh Hyderabad Mukerian

1976 1977 1978 C C C C C C C C C

Cheruthoni Sileru Ramganga Bhatsa Chakra Dudhganga Hasdeo Karjan Yamuna Narmada Krishna Kali

Idukki Jeypur Dhampur Bombay Shimoga Kolhapur Bilaspur Rajpipla Dehradun Rajpipla Hyderabad Dandeli

Tamil Nadu Gujarat Andhra Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Kerala Orissa Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra Karnataka Maharashtra Madhya Pradesh Gujarat Uttar Pradesh Gujarat Andhra Pradesh Karnataka

C C

Bhagirathi Ravi

Tehri Pathankot

Uttar Pradesh Punjab

TE,ER ER,TE

261 160

570 565

22,750 16,187

3,539,000 3,280,000

C

Warna

Kolhapur

Maharashtra

TE,PG

91

1,580

15,310

964,000

1967

Citarum

Purwakarta

W–Java

ER

100

1,225

9,000

3,345,000

1972 C

Brantas Citarum

Malang Cianjur

E–Java W–Java

ER ER

100 98

823 300

6,156 2,570

342,000 609,000

1975 1978 1982

Karun Ghesh-Lagh Lar

Masjed Soliman Sanandaj Tehran

Iran Iran Iran

VA TE TE

200 80 105

380 300 1,500

1,570 2,000 1,300

3,005,000 224,000 960, 000

1951 1983

Diyala Tigris

Sulaymaniya Mosul

Sulaymaniya Nienava

ER ER

128 131

535 3,500

7,480 23,000

3,000,000 12,500,000

1964 1965

Cormor Buthier

Sondrio Aosta

Adige Lombardia Valle d’Aosta

PG VA

174 155

628 678

1,700 1,510

68,088 105,000

H H

1956 1957 1960

Tenryu Tama Sho

Toyohashi Ome Gifu

Aichi Tokyo Gifu

PG PG ER

156 149 131

294 353 405

1,120 1,680 7,950

327,000 189,000 370,000

H SH H

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

I

3,222

IHCSR

3,000

IHCR HCR

1,310 2,400

IH S IH

16,200 2,600 1,700

ICH ICH

11,400 17,000 59 473 7,700 1,800 1,800

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Sholayar Ukai Dam Nagarjunasagar Dam Pong Dam (Beas Project) Cheruthoni Balimela Dam Ramganga Bhatsa Chakra Dudhganga Hasdeo Project Karjan (Lower) Lakhwar Sardar Sarovar Srisailam H.E. Project Supa (Kalinadi Project) Tehri Dam Thein Dam Ranjit Sagar (Res.) Warna Indonesia IR.H.Juanda (Jatiluhur) Karangkates Saguling Iran Karoon Ghesh-Lagh Lar Iraq Derbendikhan Mosul Italy Alpe Gera Place Moulin Japan Sakuma Ogochi Miboro

Year of Completion

Maximum Discharge Capacity of Spillways (m3/sec)

Height above Lowest Foundation (m)

11-14

Table 11A.8

1960

Tadami

Arimine Makio Okutadami Kurobe Oshirakawa Tsuruta Yanase Kuzuryu Shimokubo

1961 1961 1961 1964 1964 1965 1965 1968 1968

Kisenyama

1969

Koshibu

1969

Misakubo

1969

Shimokotori

1973

Aburatani

1974

Fukuchi Kajigawa Kurokawa Matsukawa

1974 1974 1974 1974

Miyama Niikappu Sameura Taisetsu Hirose Nabara

1974 1974 1974 1974 1975 1975

Iwaya Kusaki

1976 1976

Myojin

1976

Terauchi

1977

Futai Kassa Miho

1978 1978 1978

Joganji Kiso Tadami Kurobe Oshirakawa Sendai Nabari Kuzuryu Kanna, tr. Tone Samutani, tr. Yodo Koshibu, tr. Tenryu Misakubo, tr. Tenryu Kotori, tr. Jintsu Aburatani, tr. Kuma Fukuchi Kaji Ichi Matsu, tr Tenryu Naka Niikappu Yoshino Ishikari Fufuki, tr. Fuji Nabara, tr. Ota Mase, tr. Kiso Watarase, tr. Tone Nabara, tr. Ota Sada, tr. Chikugo Kiyotsu Kassa Sakawa

Nanakura

1978

Takase

Aizuwakamatsu Toyama Matsumoto Koide Omachi Gifu Kagoshima Aki Ono Fujioka

Fukushima

PG

145

462

1,990

494,000

H

2,200

Toyama Nagano Fukushima Toyama Gifu Kagoshima Kochi Fukui Saitama

PG ER PG VA ER PG ER ER PG

140 105 157 186 95 118 115 128 129

500 260 480 489 390 448 202 355 626

1,570 2,616 1,640 1,360 1,700 1,124 2,842 6,300 1,190

218,000 75,000 601,000 199,000 14,200 123,000 105,000 320,000 130,000

H IHS H H H Ch H HC HIS

380 3,200 1,500 1,500 330 4,965 1,900 1,560 1,600

Uji

Kyoto

ER

91

255

2,338

7,230

Iida

Nagano

VA

105

293

311

58,000

IHC

Tenryu

Shizuoka

ER

105

268

2,410

30,000

H

900

Takayama

Gifu

ER

119

321

3,530

123 037

H

1,920

Yatsushiro

Kumamoto

er

82

189

1,277

5,420

h

430

Nago Shibata Himeji Iida

Okinawa Niigata Hyogo Nagano

ER PG ER PG

92 107 98 84

260 286 325 165

1,622 433 3,623 263

51,500 22,500 33,390 7,400

Kuroiso Tomakomai Nankoku Asahikawa Enzan Hiroshima

Tochigi Hokkaido Kochi Hokkaido Yamanashi Hiroshima

ER ER PG ER ER ER

76 103 106 87 75 86

334 326 400 440 255 305

1,967 3,071 1,200 3,874 1,400 2,213

Minokamo Kiryu

Gifu Gunma

ER PG

128 140

366 405

Hiroshima

Hiroshima

ER

89

Amagi

Fukuoka

ER

Nagaoka Nagaoka Minamiashigara Omachi

Niigata Niigata Kanagawa Nagano

H

6 2,160

ICS C H CIS

800 1,920 175 900

25,800 145,000 316,000 66,000 14,300 5,658

IHS H IHCS CHIS IHCS H

840 1,500 6,000 1,000 1,380 475

5,780 1,374

173,500 60,500

IHCS IHCS

2,950 4,320

402

3,268

6,145

83

420

3,012

18,000

ICS

1,300

ER ER ER

87 90 95

280 487 588

2,350 4,450 5,816

18,300 13,500 64,900

H H CHS

1,950 114 3,100

ER

125

340

7,380

32,500

H

1,950

H

80

11-15

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Tagokura

(Continued)

Year of Completion

Takase Seto Tedorigawa Terauchi Urushizawa Inamura Tamahara Agigawa Arakawa Arima Doyo Igarashigawa Jozankei Kuriyama Kyuragi Naramata Nitchu Ogaki Okawa

1978 1978 1979 1980 1980 1981 1982 C (1986) C (1985) C (1985) C (1984) C (1990) C (1986) C (1985) C (1985) C (1986) C (1986) C (1985) C (1984)

Takase Setodani Tedori Sada Naruse Seto Hotchi Kiso Ara Iruma Doyo Igarashi Ishikari Nebesawa Matsuura Naramata Oshikiri Ukedo Agano

Ouchi

C (1985)

Ono

Sagae Sagurigawa Takami Tamagawa Shichigashuku Shintsuruko Shitoki Tokachi Yasaka Jordan King Talal Dam Wadi Arab Dam Libya Ghan Malaysia Temengor Kenyir Batang Ai

C C C C C C C C C

River

Nearest City

Mogami Saguri Shizunai Omono Abukuma Nyu Shitoki Tokachi Oze

Omachi Gojo Kanazawa Amagi Furusawa Kochi Numata Ena Kofu Hanno Yonago Sanjo Sapporo Imaichi Taku Numata Kitakata Haramachi Aizuwakamatsu Aizuwakamatsu Sagae Ojiya Tomakomai Omagari Shiroishi Obanazawa Iwaki Obihiro Iwakuni

1977 C (1985)

Zarqa River Wadi Arab

1982

Ghan

1978 C (1984) C (1985)

S. Perak Grik S. Trengganu Kuala Brang Batang Ai Lubok Antu

(1985) (1988) (1984) (1987) (1988) (1985) (1984) (1984) (1987)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

State Province or Country

Type

Length of Crest (m)

Volume Content of Dam (103 m3)

Gross Capacity of Reservoir (103 m3)

Nagano Nara Ishikawa Fukuoka Miyagi Kochi Gunma Gifu Yamanashi Saitama Tottori Niigata Hokkaido Tochigi Saga Gunma Fukushima Fukushima Fukushima

ER ER ER ER ER ER ER ER ER ER ER ER PG ER PG ER ER ER PG

176 111 154 83 80 88 116 102 88 84 87 76 113 89 117 158 106 85 78

362 343 420 420 310 325 570 430 320 260 480 360 405 340 386 520 468 262 407

11,600 3,740 10,050 3,000 2,143 3,100 5,435 4,400 3,000 1,600 2,700 2,278 1,150 2,200 1,045 12,300 5,010 1,729 1,000

76,200 16 850 231,000 18,000 18,000 5,800 14,800 48,000 10,800 7,600 7,680 21,100 82,300 6,890 7,400 90,000 24,600 19,500 57,500

Fukushima

ER

102

340

4,400

18,500

Yamagata Niigata Hokkaido Akita Miyagi Yamagata Fukushima Hokkaido Yamaguchi

ER ER ER PG ER ER ER ER PG

115 116 120 100 93 93 84 84 120

510 420 427 432 565 303 300 443 540

9,490 7,214 5,120 1,105 5,050 2,645 2,580 3,658 1,600

109,000 27,500 229,000 254,000 109,000 31,500 12,100 112,000 48,000

Jarash North Shuneii

Salt District Irbid District

TE/ER ER

94 82

330 482

4,216 2,968

Ghrian

NE/Ghrian

ER

80

316

Perak Trengganu Sarawak

ER ER ER

115 150 85

128 800 810

Purpose H H HCSI CIS HCS H H CS CS CS H CS CS H CSH CIS ICS I CSIH H

Maximum Discharge Capacity of Spillways (m3/sec) 1,700 230 3,500 1,300 1,500 230 160 2,000 1,680 670 80 1,420 675 52 1,080 1,650 1,120 1,680 5,230 176

CSIH CS CH CISH CSI I CSI CH CS

2,600 1,690 2,400 3,500 2,620 1,100 1,540 2,600 4,050

52,000 20,000

IC IS

2,950 430

1,650

39,500

IC

1,640

6,980 16,500 4,000

570,000 13,600,000 2,360,000

HC HC H

2,720 7,000 2,175

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Name of Dam

Height above Lowest Foundation (m)

11-16

Table 11A.8

1947

Nazas

C. Lerdo

Durango

TE

95

330

5,300

3,152,000

IC

6,000

1948

Tamazula

Culiaca´n

Sinaloa

TE

81

1,031

4,900

845,000

IH

6,300

1952

Yaqui

Obrego´n

Sonora

TE

90

1,457

8,773

3,237,000

IHC

11,100

1955 1955

Rı´o Mayo Rı´o Tonto

Navojoa C.Alema´n

Sonora Oaxaca

TE TE

81 76

780 830

4,196 4,059

1,014,700 6,515,000

IHC ICH

8,000 5,500

1956

Rı´o Fuerte

El Fuerte

Sinaloa

TE

86

3,230

10,200

3,290,000

IGH

16,450

1961 1963 1964

Tehuantepec Balsas Grijalva

Tehuantepec Apatzingan Ca´rdenas

Oaxaca Michoaca´n Chiapas

TE TE TE

86 148 138

375 350 478

3,540 5,500 5,077

942,000 9,340,000 8,300,000

IC H HC

5,500 10,350 21,750

1964 1968

Humaya Bravo

Culiaca´n Acun˜a

Sinaloa Coahuila

TE PG/TE

107 87

820 9, 760

7,141 11,620

3,150,000 4,379,000

IC IHCS

5,600 43,690

1974 1980

Grijalva Grijalva

Tuxtla Gutierrez Tuxtla Gutie´rrez

Chiapas Chiapas

TE TE

146 261

323 485

4,030 15,370

9,200,000 1,613,000

H H

6,900 15,000

1981 1982

San Lorenzo Sinaloa

Cosala´ Guamuchil

Sinaloa Sinaloa

TE TE

136 114

400 800

7,090 9,315

2,850,000 1,800,000

IHC IHC

C (1985) C (1985)

Ocoroni Balsas

Guasave Iguala

Sinaloa Guerrero

TE TE

79 126

400 347

2,367 6,327

300,000 782,000

IC H

2,450 17,000

C (1986)

Tepalcatepec Apatzingan

Jalisco

TE

104

1,150

5,898

600,000

IC

7,000

1970 1971 1973 1974

Tessaout Ziz Masa Bou Regreg

Marrakech Er Rachidia Tiznit Rabat

Marrakech Er Rachidia Tiznit Rabat

TE TE ER ER

100 85 85 100

725 785 670 340

5,300 5,800 3,700 3,000

200,000 380,000 310,000 493,000

IH I IS SI

3,000 1,700 3,400 5,000

C (1986)

Lakhdar

Demnate

Azilal

TE

145

380

9,500

270,000

IHS

1,820

1981

Kulekhani

Kathmandu

Nepal

ER

114

406

4,419

85,300

H

2,540

1965 1965 1977

Waitaki Rangataiki Mangatangi

Oamaru Whakatane Manukau

Otago South Auckland South Auckland

TE TE TE

118 86 78

957 345 340

12,500 3,500 2,240

2,200,000 25,000 39,000

H H S

3,400 1,900 510

5,000 7,000

11-17

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Mexico Lazaro Cardenas (El Palmito) Sanalona Alvaro Obregon (Oviachic) Adolfo Ruiz Cortines (Mocu´zari) Presidente Aleman (Temascal) Migual Hidalgo (El Mahone) Presidente Benito Juarez (El Marques) El Infiernillo Netzahualcoyoti Pte.Adolfo Lopez Mateos (Humaya) Internacional La Amistad La Angostura Manuel Moreno Torres (Chicoase´n) Jose Lopez Portillo Pte. (Comedero) Gustavo Diaz Ordaz Pdte. (Bacurato) El Sabinal Carlos Ramirez Ulloa (Caracol) Chilatan Morocco Moulay Youssef Hassan Addakhil Youssf Ben Tachfine Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah Ait Chouarit Nepal Kulekhani Dam New Zealand Benmore Matahina Mangatangi

(Continued)

Name of Dam Patea Nigeria Shiroro

Chinchan Philippines Ambuklao Binga Angat Pantabangan

River

Nearest City

State Province or Country

Type

Length of Crest (m)

Volume Content of Dam (103 m3)

Gross Capacity of Reservoir (103 m3)

Purpose

Maximum Discharge Capacity of Spillways (m3/sec)

C

Patea

Wanganui

Taranaki

TE

82

190

1,100

138,000

H

2,800

C (1984)

Kaduna/ Dinya

Minna

Niger

ER

125

700

3,457

7,000 000

H

7,500

1965 1970 1977 1979 C (1987) C (1987)

Walldaiselv Sira-Digea Sira Leiro Oddeana Brattliana

Haugesund Flekkefjord Stavanger Bergen Haugesund Haugesund

Hordaland Vest-Agder Vest-Agder

90 90 129 84 140 98

350 400 420 1,140 500 1,460

1,450 2,700 4,715 3,624 5,400 9,700

see Storvatn 3,105,000

H H H H H H

375 45

Rogaland Rogaland

ER ER ER ER ER ER

600

1967 1976 1967

Jehlum Indus Saddle Dam

Dehlum Taxila Mirpur

Punjab NWFP A. Kashmir

TE TE/ER TE

138 143 84

3,139 2,743 2,073

65,379 105,570 26,240

7,251,811 13,689,644

HI IH I

31,144 42,186 —

1982

Parana´

Hernandarias

Brazil/Paraguay

ER/PG/TE

190

7,655

33,690

29,000,000

H

62,000

1982 C (1985) C (1987)

Yauliyacu Colca Jequetepeque Yuracocha

Casapalca Chivay Pacasmayo

Lima Arequipa Cajamarca

TE ER ER

75 92 112

220 503 750

3,000 4,300 14,200

7,500 260,000 400,000

M I IH

1,300 1,830

Casapalca

Lima

TE

90

230

5,800

13,500

M

Baguio Baguio Manila Cabanatuan

Benguet Benguet Bulacan Neva Ecija

ER ER ER TE

129 107 131 107

452 215 368 1,615

6,000 2,000 7,000 12,300

327,170 63,000 1,099,000 2,996,000

H H IH IHC

7,300 5,200 7,500 4,200

1982 C

Agno Agno Angat Upper Pampanga Magat Agno

Santiago Dagupan

Isabela Pangesinan

TE/ER ER

106 210

2,925 1,130

13,200 43,150

1,250,000 990,000

IH IHC

30,400 12,600

1958 1964 1968

Ca´vado Rabaga˜o Mira

Chaves Chaves Odemira

Vila Real Vila Real Beja

ER VA/PG TE

110 94 86

540 1,897 428

2,700 1,117 3,966

164,500 569,000 485,000

H H I

720 500 208

H

2,400

C (2007) 1956 1960 1967 1977

250

Magat San Roque Portugal Paradela Alto Rabaga˜o Santa Clara Romania Izvorul Muntelui (Bicaz) Fintinele Somes

1961

Bistrita

P.Nearnt

Nearnt

PG

127

430

1,625

1,230,000

1978

Huedin

Cluj

ER

92

400

2,320

225,000

HR

700

Cerna Principal

1979

Somesul Cald Cerna

Tg.Jiu

Gorj

ER

110

342

2,550

124,000

SHI

1,080

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Norway Hyttejuvet Digea Svartevatn Sysenvatn Oddatjorn Blasjo Storvatn Reservoir Pakistan Mangla Tarbela Auxiliary-1 Jari Paraguay Itaipu Peru Yauliyacu Arriba Condorma Gallito Ciego

Year of Completion

Height above Lowest Foundation (m)

11-18

Table 11A.8

1979 C (1983) C (1984) C (1984) C (1985) C (1985) C (1985) C (1986) C (1987)

Sebes Bistrita Rıˆul Mare Dıˆmbovita Teleajen R. Tirgului Buza`u Bistrita Bistra Maˆrului

Sebes Bistrita Hateg Tirgoviste Vaˆlenii de Munte Cimpulung Nehoiu Tg.Jiu Otelul Rosu

Alba Bistrita Na´saˆud Hunedoara Dimbovita Prahova Arges Buzaˆu Gorj Caras Severin

ER ER ER TE TE ER ER ER ER

91 92 168 105 75 120 122 93 130

300 250 450 270 720 380 440 270 400

1,600 1,600 9,020 2,400 5,000 3,500 8,800 1,700 5,320

136,000 90,000 225,000 68,900 60,000 60,000 155,000 29,400 96,000

1977

Orange

Petrusville

VA

107

853

1,300

3,237,000

IH

20,400

Sterkfontein

1980

Harrismith

TE

93

3,060

19,800

2,656,000

S

—

Goedertrouw South Korea So Yang Gang Sam Rang Jin Upper part Dam An Dong

1982

Nue Jaar Spruit Mhlatuze

Eshowe

Orange Free State Orange Free State Natal

TE

88

660

5,330

321,000

IS

7,000

1973 C

Han Nakdong

Chunchon Samrangjin

ER ER

123 85

530 250

9,591 1,003

2,900,000 6,140

IHCR H

5,500

1976

Nakdong

Andong

Kangwondo Kyeongsangnamdo Keongsangnamdo

ER

83

624

4,015

1,248,000

IHCS

5,360

Spain Mequinenza Porto De Mouros Grado I Iznajar Almandra El Atazar Arenos Beninar

1966 1967 1969 1969 1970 1972 1979 1983

Mequinenza Arzua El Grado Rute Almendra Atazar Montanejos Beninar

Zaragoza La Corun˜a Huesca Cordoba Salamanca Madrid Castellon Almeria

PG ER PG PG VA VA ER ER

81 93 130 122 202 134 108 87

451 460 958 407 557 484 428 386

1,000 2,337 1,225 1,450 2,186 1,200 3,014 3,800

1,533,800 297,000 399,000 980,000 2,649,000 426,000 132,000 70,000

H H IH HIS H S I IS

Limonero

1983

Malaga

Malaga

ER

93

410

3,188

27,000

S

Canales Cuevas De Almanzora Negratin

C (1983) C (1983)

Ebro Ulla Cinca Genil Tormes Lozoya Mijares Grande De Adra Guadalmedina Benil Almanzora

Granada Almeria

ER ER

159 113

340 623

1,217 6,510

71,000 191,000

IS IH

226 2,520

Granada

PG/ER

75

439

1,150

546,000

IH

3,440

Sallente

C (1983)

Guadiana Menor Flamisell

Guejar Sierra Cuevas De Almanzora Freila

Lerida

ER

89

398

1,100

6,000

H

63

La Vin˜uela Zahara Sri Lanka Kotmale Randenigala

C (1983) C (1983)

Guaro Guadalete

Torre De Capdella La Vin˜uela Zahara

Malaga Cadiz

ER/TE ER

94 85

460 500

3,345 2,011

25,000 212,000

IS I

120 1,000

C (1985) C (1986)

Kotmale Oya Mahaweli

Gampola Mahiyangana

CP UP

ER ER

87 94

600 495

4,159 3,700

175,000 860,000

H HIC

5,550 8,085

C (1983)

HCR SH H SHI SCHI SH CISH HS HI

264 650 1,750 600 1,200 620 3,400 800 830

12,800 1,550 3,420 6,550 3,000 410 1,300 232 283

11-19

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Oasa Colibita Gura Apelor Pecineagu Mineciu Riusor Siriu Vija Poiana Marului South Africa P K Le Roux

Name of Dam

(Continued)

Year of Completion

Goescheneralp

1950

Grande Dixence Luzzone

1961 1963

Mattmark Emosson Taiwan Shihmen Tsengwen Thailand Sirikit Bang Lang Srinagarind Khao Laem Turkey Seyhan Hirfanli Demirko¨pru¨ Almus Kozan Keban Ayvacik Gu¨zelhisar Go¨nen Doganci C ¸ amlidere Aslantas Adigu¨zel Kilic¸kaya

Nearest City

State Province or Country

Type

1961 1961 1963 1967 1968

Dala¨lven Klara˜lven Lule a¨lv Lule a¨lv Lule a¨lv

Mora Hagfors Jokkmokk Jokkmokk Porius

Kopparberg,M Va˜rmland,M Norrbotten,N Norrbotten,N Norrbotten,N

ER ER/TE TE ER ER

1954

Julia

Bivio

Grisons

1957

Fionnay

1967 1974

Drance de Bagnes Go¨schenerreuss Dixence Brenno di Luzzona Seaser Vispa Barberine

1964 1973

Length of Crest (m)

Volume Content of Dam (103 m3)

Gross Capacity of Reservoir (103 m3)

Purpose

Maximum Discharge Capacity of Spillways (m3/sec)

125 80 101 85 106

850 400 1,900 570 1,450

7,200 1,750 10,500 2,300 4,900

880,000 270,000 50,000 67,000 1,650,000

H H H H H

1,000 1,280 2,300 1,500 875

TE

91

400

2,700

62,600

H

200

Valais

VA

237

520

2,030

181,500

H

100

Go¨schenen

Uri

ER

155

540

9,300

76,000

H

200

He´re´mence Olivone

Valais Tessin

PG VA

285 208

695 530

6,000 1,330

401,000 88,000

H H

— 88

Saas-Fee Finhaut

Valais Valais

TE VA

120 180

780 555

10,500 1,090

101,000 227,000

H H

150 60

Tahan Tsengwen

Chungli Tainan

Taiwan Taiwan

ER TE

133 133

360 400

7,059 9,296

309,120 707,530

IHCS ICSH

1972 1981 1981 C(1984)

Nan Pattani Quae Yai Quae Noi

Uttaradit Yala Kanchanaburi Kanchanaburi

N S Central Region Central Region

TE TE/ER ER ER

114 85 140 90

800 422 610 910

9,800 2,900 12,100 8,000

10,550,000 1,360,000 17,745,000 7,450,000

IHC IHC IHC IHC

3,250 4,500 2,420 3,200

1956 1959 1960 1965 1972 1974 1981 1982 C C C C C C

Seyhan Kizilirmak Gediz Yesilirmak Kilgen Firat Yesilirmak Gu¨zelhisar Go¨nen Nilu¨fer Bayindir Ceyhan B.Menderes Kelkit

Adana Kirsehir Manisa Tokat Adana Elazig Samsun Izmir Balikesir Bursa Ankara Adana Denizli Sivas

South A Inner A West.A NEA South.A East North West West West Inner A South West Inner

TE ER TE TE TE/ER PG/ER ER ER TE ER TE/ER TE/ER ER ER

77 83 77 95 83 207 175 89 78 82 106 95 145 135

1,955 364 543 371 289 1,126 405 511 293 288 278 566 377 405

7,500 2,000 4,300 3,500 1,195 15,585 2,327 3,204 2,036 2,278 2,487 8,000 5,892 6,030

1,200,000 5,980,000 1,320,000 950,000 163,000 30,600,000 10,800,000 158,000 164,000 50,000 133,000 1,150,000 1,188,000 14,000 000

ICB ICH ICH IH I CH CH IS I S IS ICH ICH ICH

2,500 2,300 200C6272 1,550 1,250 17,000 11,000 2,550 2,785 1,978 662 11,930 4,260 2,450

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

13,400 9,470

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Sweden Trangsist Holjes Messaure Letsi Seitevare Switzerland Marmorera (Castilleto) Mauvolsin

River

Height above Lowest Foundation (m)

11-20

Table 11A.8

C C C C C C C C

First Seyhan Asagiaksu Pupa Go¨ksu Kizilirmak Ceyhan Firat

Diyarbakir Adana Burdur Isparta Mersin Samsun K.Maras Diyarbakir

SE South West SE South North East

VA TE TE TE TE ER ER ER

173 95 95 75 75 195 151 184

462 309 428 315 171 604 425 746

2,000 7,664 3,500 1,800 1,110 2,600 8,000 85,000

9,580,000 1,629,000 1,340,000 24,000 66,000 5,763,000 19,500 48,700

1916

Calaveras

1925

Dix Tieton Cobble Mountain Reservoir New Exchequer Salt Springs

1925 1925 1931

Esopus Creek Calaveras Creek Dix Tieton Little

1926 1931

El Capitan Hoover (Boulder) Fort Peck Alcova Mathews

1934 1936 1937 1938 1938

Tygart Quabbin Winsor San Gabriel No 1 Friant Grand Coulee Marshall Ford Lake Travis (res) Nantahala Lake Green Mountain

1938 1939 1939 1942 1942

Merced N Fork Mokelumne San Diego Colorado Missouri North Platte Tr Cajalco Creek Tygart Swift San Gabriel San Joaquin Columbia

1942 1942 1942

Colorado Nantahala Blue

Fontana

1944

Merriman

1945

Shasta Mud Mountain Watauga Anderson Ranch Leroy Anderson

1945 1948 1948 1950 1950

Little Tennessee Roundout Creek Sacramento White Watauga S Fork Boise Coyote Creek

H ICH ICH I H ICH IH ICH

17,000 8,900 4,495 295 4,385 11,800 4,850 16,800

Olive Bridge

New York

TE

77

1,417

1,950

484,018

S

5,938

Sunol

California

ER

75

366

2,646

123,348

S

702

High Bridge Naches Westfield

Kentucky Washington Mass.

ER TE TE

87 97 80

311 280 221

1,343 1,567 2,294

222,027 244,229 86,380

H ICR S

1,300 1,416 113

Snelling

California California

ER ER

146 9

378 396

3,952 2,294

1,265,552 171,947

H HS

9,911 1,580

Lakeside Boulder Frazer Casper Corona

California Nevada Montana Wyoming California

TE/ER VA TE TE/ER TE

82 221 76 81 84

357 379 6,534 233 1,988

2,049 364 96,050 1,250 7,309

88,811 34,852,028 22,118,763 227,577 224,494

S IHCN CHIN IHR S

4,831 11,327 6,514 1,557 382

Grafton Ware Azusa Fresno Coulee Dam

W Virginia Mass. California California Washington

PG TE ER PG PG

76 85 123 97 168

586 805 463 1,063 1,272

1,055 3,058 8,104 1,632 8,093

135,190 1,561,256 54,725 642,027 11,794,553

NC S CS ISCR ICHN

8,948 425 7,524 2,350 26,986

Austin Nantahala Hot Sulphur Springs Fontana Village

Texas N Carolina Colorado

TE TE TE/ER

85 76 94

1,230 318 351

1,251 5,532 3,333

1,446,381 142,590 190,696

HCSR H IHR

16,197 2,503 708

N Carolina

PG

146

721

2,734

603,715

H

4,474

Lackawack

New York

TE

114

732

4,434

189,956

S

5,097

Redding Buckley Elizabethton Boise San Jose

California Washington Tennessee Idaho California

PG ER ER TE TE

183 130 97 139 77

1,055 213 274 411 421

6,660 1,758 2,660 7,380 2,485

5,614,809 130,698 398,415 620,071 112,617

ISHN C CHNR ICRH I

5,239 3,892 1,756 566 1,195

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-21

(Continued)

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Karakaya C ¸ atalan Karacaoren Uluborlu Gezende Altinkaya Menzelet Ataturk United States Ashokan

(Continued)

Name of Dam

Year of Completion 1950

Bull Shoals Center Hill Wolf Creek Bradbury Detroit Hungry Horse

1951 1951 1951 1953 1953 1953

Lookout Point

1953

Yale Lucky Peak Pine Flat Lake Folsom Beardsley

1953 1954 1954 1956 1957

Brownlee Courtwright Oahe Swift Wishon Casitas Table Rock Mammoth Pool Arthur R. Bowman (Prineville) Ball Mountain Lewis Smith Sly Creek Hills Creek

1958 1958 1958 1958 1958 1959 1959 1960 1961

Smith Trinity Abiquiu Dillon Lermon Navajo Union Valley Whiskeytown Briones

1962 1962 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1964

1961 1961 1961 1962

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

S Fork Holston White Caney Fork Cumberland Santa Ynez N Santiam S Fork Flathead Middle Fork Whillamette Lewis Boise Kings American Mid Fk Stanislaus Snake Helms Creek Missouri Lewis N Fk Kings Coyote Creek White San Joaquin Crooked West Dipsey Fork Lost Crook M Fk Willamette Smith Trinity Rio Chama Blue Florida San Juan Silver Crk Clear Creek Bear Creek

Nearest City

State Province or Country

Type

Bluff City

Tennessee

ER

Cotter Lancaster Burkesville Santa Barbara Mill City Kalispell

Arkansas Tennessee Kentucky California Oregon Montana

PG TE/PG TE TE PG VA

Eugene

Oregon

Woodland Boise Piedra Sacramento Melones Oxbow Village Piedra Pierre Woodland Piedra Santa Barbara Branson

Length of Crest (m)

Volume Content of Dam (103 m3)

Gross Capacity of Reservoir (103 m3)

87

488

4,499

402,115

78 76 79 85 141 172

688 658 1,748 1,021 482 645

1,606 2,736 8,713 5,119 1,147 2,359

TE

84

968

Washington Idaho California California California

TE TE PG PG TE

98 104 134 104 85

Bend

Idaho California So. Dakota Washington California California Missouri California Oregon

ER ER TE TE ER TE TE/PG TE TE

Jamaica Dilworth Oroville Oakridge

Vermont Alabama California Oregon

Belknap Springs Redding Abiquiu Silverthorne Durango Blanco Coloma Redding El Sobrante

Oregon California New Mexico Colorado Colorado New Mexico California California California

Purpose

Maximum Discharge Capacity of Spillways (m3/sec)

CHNR

1,756

3,759,653 1,033,658 4,927,760 252,864 561,152 4,277,715

CH CHR HCR ISR HCRI IHCN

14,158 12,856 15,659 4,559 4,984 1,501

5,892

562,385

CINH

7,646

472 713 561 3,109 250

3,211 4,511 1,835 6,866 2,294

495,860 377,445 1,233,492 1,245,817 120,264

HCR CRI CIRH ISHC H

4,899 2,642 11,072 16,056 2,027

120 95 75 186 80 102 77 124 75

421 263 2,890 640 1,021 610 1,958 250 244

4,587 1,193 70,339 11,774 2,829 6,967 3,479 4,094 1,089

1,759,808 152,088 27,432,595 932,512 157,886 313,304 3,332,900 151,718 190,573

HCR HS CHIN HCR HS ISC CH HS IRC

8,593 400 2,266 4,106 1,379 210 15,801 4,757 230

TE TE TE TE

83 93 83 104

279 671 640 703

1,767 3,930 4,000 8,257

2,760 1,714,540 80,238 439,055

CR HCR H CHIS

4,248 5,873 328 4,010

TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE TE

101 164 99 94 87 123 138 86 87

351 747 469 1,798 415 1,112 549 1,190 629

1,911 22,486 9,017 9,140 2,326 20,521 7,646 3,412 7,578

18,502 3,019,563

H IHCR CR S I IR S IHCR S

255 680 447 333 272 963 1,260 815 93

311,674 49,463 2,108,020 334,274 297,269 83,285

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

South Holston

River

Height above Lowest Foundation (m)

11-22

Table 11A.8

1964

Homestake

1964

Round Butte Summersville Blue Mesa Glen Canyon John W. Flannagan Lost Creek Lower Hell Hole Millwood Yellowtail San Luis

1964 1965 1966 1966 1966 1966 1966 1966 1966 1967

Alamo (res) Blue River Oroville Ruedi International Amistad Lopez

1968 1968 1968 1968 1969 1969

New Bullards Bar Coedar Springs Don Pedro Heron Castaic

1970 1971 1971 1971 1973

Dworshak

1973

Jocassee Libby Pyramid Soldier Creek Carters Cochiti

1973 1973 1973 1973 1974 1975

Lost Creek Ririe Gross

1976 1976 1977

S Fork Mckenzie M Fk Homestake Deschutes Gauley Gunnison Colorado Pound Lost Creek Rubicon Little Bighorn San Luis Creek Bill Williams Blue Feather Fryingpan Rio Grande Arroyo Grande Crk North Yuba W Fk Mojave Tuolumne Willow Creek Castaic Creek N. Fork Clearwater Keowee Kootenai Piru Creek Strawberry Coosawattee Bio Grande and Santa Fe Rogue Willow Creek South Boulder Crk

Springfield

Oregon

ER

158

488

9,939

270,463

HCIR

Minturn

Colorado

ER

81

608

2,628

53,780

Warm Springs Swiss Montrose Less Ferry Elkhorn City Devils Slide Auburn Ashdown Hardin Los Banos

Oregon W Virginia Colorado Arizona Virginia Utah California Arkansas Montana California

TE ER TE/ER VA TE TE ER ER VA TE

134 119 119 216 79 76 125 89 160 116

442 695 239 475 279 329 472 5,350 451 5,639

7,340 10,371 2,355 3,747 1,824 1,401 6,357 6,117 1,182 59,559

659,913 236,215 1,160,706 33,304,009 83,261 27,753 257,058 189,000 1,076,830 2,517,536

HR CRS HCR HSCR CR ISRC SH CS ICHR ISHR

1,286 11,667 954 7,815 1,240 70 132 13,403 2,605 29

Parker Springfield Oroville Basalt Del Rio Arroyo Grande

Arizona Oregon California Colorado Texas/Mex. California

TE TE TE TE/ER TE/PG TE

105 95 230 98 77 85

297 381 2,073 318 9,754 341

2,328 3,726 59,635 2,863 2,652 2,705

539,350 110,380 4,297,451 126,432 4,323,847 64,758

CRI CR SCHR IRC CIHR S

1,175 1,501 4,248 157 42,673 1,256

Marysville Victorville La Grange Tierra Amarillo Castaic

California California California New Mexico California

VA ER TE TE/ER TE

194 76 173 84 125

671 725 549 372 1,585

1,988 6,040 12,233 2,317 33,640

1,195,984 96,212 2,503,968 495,243 431,719

SH IRS H ISR IRS

4,219 913 13,380 19 2,220

Ahsahka

Idaho

PG

219

1,002

4,931

4,259,213

HCR

6,258

Libby Piru Duchesne Carters Cochiti Pueblo

S Carolina Montana California Utah Georgia New Mexico

ER PG ER TE ER TE

133 129 122 77 141 77

549 881 329 393 594 8,785

8,869 2,875 5,315 2,440 11,468 50,228

1,431,206 7,165,296 220,793 1,365,464 465,146 52,726

H HCR IRSH ICR CHR CIR

1,761 4,060 4,248

Shady Cove Idaho Falls Louisville

Oregon Idaho Colorado

ER TE PG

105 77 104

1,097 326 332

8,257 2,046 7,809

573,485 123,348 50,557

CHSR IC SH

4,474 1,133 444

S

2,152 99

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Cougar

520 4,280

(Continued) 11-23

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(Continued)

Name of Dam

Year of Completion

River

Nearest City

State Province or Country

Type

Height above Lowest Foundation (m)

Length of Crest (m)

Volume Content of Dam (103 m3)

Gross Capacity of Reservoir (103 m3)

Penn.

TE

122

640

9,939

13,568

Covington Modesto Bloomington

Virginia California Maryland

ER ER ER

78 191 90

368 475 649

1,988 12,233 7,646

152,582 2, 960,356 116,793

Warm Springs

Virginia

ER/TE

143

731

18,000

43,790

Cloverdale

California

TE

97

914

22,920

469,365

Mingechaur UstKamenogorsk Tbilisi Bratsk

Azerb. SSR Kazakh, SSR

TE PG

80 90

1,550 380

15,600 1,170

Georg. SSR Irkutsk

Murmansk Yevlakh Tashkent Alma-Ata

Murmansk Azerb. SSR Uzbek. SSR Kazakh. SSR

86 125 36 40 78 125 168 144

780 1,430 2,987 723 2,625 590 764 530

1977

Voronlya Terter Chirchik Malaya Almaatinka Angara

TE PG TE TE ER TE ER ER

Ust-Ilimsk

Irkutsk

1978 1978 1978 1980 1980 1980 C C C C C C C

Sulak Naryn Zeye Karadarya Inguri Vakhsh Yenisei Bureya Avar Koisu Kolyma Vakhsh Vorotan Aragvi

Makhachkala Naryn Blagoveshchensk Osh Zugdidi Nurek Minusinsk Blagoveshchensk Makhachkala Magadan Nurek Sisian Tbilisi

Daghest. SSR Kirgh. SSR Amur. Kirghiz. SSR Georgian SSR Tadjik SSR Krasnoyarsk Kharbarovsk Daghest. SSR Magadan Tajik SSR Armen. SSR Georg. SSR

PG TE/ER VA PG CB CB VA TE VA/PG PG TE/ER ER TE/ER TE TE

102 47 233 215 115 115 272 300 245 139 111 126 335 87 102

1978 C

Onia Tucupido

El Vigia Guanare

Mo´rida Portuguesa

TE TE

301 92

1977

Gathright New Melones Bloomington

1978 1979 1981

Bath County Upper

C

Warm Springs U.S.S.R. Mingechaur Bukhtarma

C

Little Blue Run of Ohio Jackson Stanislaus N Branch of Potomac Little Back Creek Dry Creek

1953 1960

Kura Irtysh

Sioni Bratsk

1963 1964

Iori Angara

Serebrianka No 1 Sarsang Charvak Medeo

1970 1976 1977 1977

Ust-Ilim Chirkey Toktogul Zeya Andizhan Inguri Nurek Sayano-Shushensk Bureya Irganai Khudoni Rogun Spandarian Zhinvali Venezuela Onia Tucupido

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

48

RC CIHR CSR H

173 3,171 5,465 509

CSR

1,056

16,000,000 49,800,000

HNIC HN

3,600 1,000

6,300 4,415 6,547 2,147 5,660 5,820 21,600 8,500

325,000 169,000,000

IH HNS

596 7,090

4,170,000 560,000 2,000,000 —

H IH HI C

675 800 1,200 —

1,477 2,248 333 293 758 920 680 74 1,066 810 312 759 660 317 412

3,800 5,066 1,358 3,345 2,160 3,700 3,960 58,000 9,075 3,561 5,827 12,550 75,500 2,250 5,200

59,300,000

HN

9,700

2,780,000 19,500,000 68,400,000 1,750,000 1,100,000 10,500,000 31,300,000 20,900,000 705,000 14,600,000 13,300,000 277,000 520,000

HIS HI HCN HI HI HI NH HC H H HI HI HS

450 290

1,300

6,600 3,300

C IHC

2,870 2,340 6,600 2,392 2,500 4,000 13,600 19,100 2,760 17,500 3,500 160 2,500 435 —

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

East Liverpool

Little Blue Run

Purpose

Maximum Discharge Capacity of Spillways (m3/sec)

11-24

Table 11A.8

C C C C C C C

Turija Gazivode Sjenica Lazici Zavoj Zambia/Zimbabwe Kariba

Yacambu´ Cojedes

Lara Cojedes Tachira Me´rida Ta´chira Miranda Ta´chira

TE TE TE TE TE TE TE

158 77 108 118 120 100 108

107 750

Caparo Camburito Taguaza Uribante

Sanare Acarigua San Cristo´bal Buena Vista San Cristobal Sta. Lucia San Cristo´bal

1962 1968 1969 1969

Uvac Crna Reka Crni Drim Rama

Nova Varos Kavadarci Debar Prozor

ER ER ER ER

82 114 112 103

1970 1977 1979 C (1983) C (1987)

Turija Ibar Veliki Uvac Beli Rzav Visocica

Strumica Titova Mitrovica Nova Varos Bajina Basta Pirot

SR Srbija SR Makedonija SR Makedonija SR Bosna and Hercegovina SR Makedonija SAP Kosovo SR Srbija SR Srbija SR Srbija

ER ER ER ER ER

1959

Zambezi

Lusaka

VA

Zambia/ Zimbabwe

3,000 7,000 7,500 15,000 6,600 2,000 7,800

427,000 810,000 1,400,000 5,300,000 212,000 770,000

ICS IHC H H H S H

1,220 338 330 230

2,480 2,722 2,699 1,510

250,000 475,000 520,000 487,000

H J H H

1,500 2,050 2,890 400

93 108 106 123 80

417 520 310 120 250

1,978 5,000 2,430 2,170 1,400

65,000 370,000 190,000 150,000 16,000

J H H H H

76 720 1,000 180 1,800

128

579

1,032

160,368

H

9,500

300

480

430

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Yacambu´ Las Palmas Las Cuevas La Vueltosa Borde Seco Taguaza La Honda Yugoslavia Kokin Brod Tikves Spilje Rama

Note: Height—over 75 m; Volume—over 1,000,000 cubic m. Dam types are identified by the following abbreviations: Earth TE; Rockfill ER; Gravity PG; Buttress CB; Arch VA; Multi-Arch MV. Purpose for which reservoir is used is indicated by the following abbreviations: Irrigation I; Hydroelectric H; Flood Control C; Navigation N; Water Supply S; Mine Tailings T; Recreational R. Under year of completion, C is under construction and P is planned. Source : Compiled from World Register of Dams, 1984, published by the International Commission on Large Dams, 151 Boulevard Haussmann, 75008 Paris.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 11A.9 World’s Highest Dams Structural Height Name Rogun Nurek Grande Dixence Inguri Vaiont Manuel M. Torres Tehri Alvaro Obregon Mauvoisin Alberto Lleras Mica Sayano-Shushenskaya Ertan La Esmeralda Kishau Oroville El Cajo´n Chirkey Bhakra Luzzone Hoover Contra Mratinje Dworshak Glen Canyon Toktogul Daniel Johnson Keban Zimapan Karun Lakhwar Dez Almendra Berke Khudoni Ko¨lnbrein Altinkaya New Bullards Bar New Melones Itaipu Kurobe 4 Swift Mossyrock Oymopinar Atatu¨rk Shasta Bennett WAC Karakaya Tignes Amir Kabir (Karad) Tachien Dartmouth ¨ zko¨y O Emosson Zillergrundl Los Leones New Don Pedro

River, Location Vakhsh, Tajikistan Vakhsh, Tajikistan Dixence, Switzerland Inguri, Georgia Vaiont, Italy Grijalva, Mexico Bhagirathi, India Mextiquic, Mexico Drance de Bagnes, Switzerland Orinoco, Colombia British Columbia, Canada Yenisei, Russia Yangtze/Yalong, China Bata´, Colombia Tons, India Feather, CA, U.S.A. Humuya, Honduras Sulak, Russia Sutlej, India Brenno di Luzzone, Switzerland Colorado, AZ-NV, U.S.A. Verzasca, Switzerland Piva, Herzegovina North Fork Clearwater, ID, U.S.A. Colorado, AZ, U.S.A. Naryn, Kyrgyzstan Manicouagan, Canada Firat, Turkey Moctezuma, Mexico Karun, Iran Yamuna, India Dez, Abi, Iran Tormes, Spain Ceyhan, Turkey Inguri, Georgia Malta, Austria Kizil Irmak, Turkey No. Yuba, CA, U.S.A. Stanislaus, CA, U.S.A. Parana´, Brazil/Paraguay Kurobe, Japan Lewis, WA, U.S.A. Cowlitz, WA, U.S.A. Manavgat, Turkey Firat, Turkey Sacramento, CA, U.S.A. Peace, Canada Firat, Turkey Ise`re, France Karadj, Iran Tachia, Taiwan Mitta-Mitta, Australia Gediz, Turkey Barberine, Switzerland Ziller, Austria Los Leones, Chile Tuolumne, CA, U.S.A.

Gross Reservoir Capacity

ft

m

Thousands of acre ft

Millions of cum

Year Completed

1,099 984 935 892 859 856 856 853 820 797 797 794 797 778 774 770 768 764 741 738 732 722 722 717 710 705 703 689 679 673 669 666 662 659 659 656 640 637 625 623 610 610 607 607 604 602 600 591 591 591 591 591 591 590 590 587 585

335 300 285 272 262 261 261 260 250 243 243 242 240 237 236 235 234 233 226 225 223 220 220 219 216 215 214 210 207 205 204 203 202 201 201 200 195 194 191 190 186 186 185 185 184 183 183 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 1799 178

9,404 8,512 324 801 137 1,346 2,869 n.a. 146 811 20,000 25,353 4,720 661 1,946 3,538 4,580 2,252 8,002 71 28,500 70 713 3,453 27,000 15,800 115,000 25,110 n.a. 2,351 470 2,707 2,148 n.a. n.a. 166 4,672 960 2,400 23,510 162 756 1,300 251 39,482 4,550 57,006 7,767 186 166 188 3,243 762 184 73 86 2,030

11,600 10,500 400 1,100 169 1,660 3,540 n.a. 180 1,000 24,670 31,300 5,800 815 2,400 4,299 5,650 2,780 9,870 87 35,154 86 880 4,259 33,304 19,500 141,852 31,000 n.a. 2,900 580 3,340 2,649 n.a. n.a. 205 5,763 1,184 2,960 29,000 199 932 1,603 310 48,700 5,612 70,309 9,580 230 205 232 4,000 940 225 90 106 2,504

1985 1980 1962 1984 1961 1981 UC 1926 1957 1989 1972 1980 1999 1975 1985 1968 1984 1977 1963 1963 1936 1965 1973 1974 1964 1978 1968 1974 1994 1976 1985 1963 1970 2000 n.a. 1977 1986 1968 1979 1982 1964 1958 1968 1983 1990 1945 1967 1986 1952 1962 1974 1978 1983 1974 1986 1986 1971 (Continued)

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WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11A.9

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(Continued) Structural Height

Name Alpa-Gera Kopperston Tailings 3 Takase Nader Shah Hasan Ugurlu Revelstoke Hungry Horse Longyangxia Cabora Bassa Maqarin Amaluza Idikki Charvak Gura Apelor Retezat Grand Coulee Boruca Vidraru Kremasta (King Paul) Pauti-Mazar

River, Location Cormor, Italy Jones Branch, WV, U.S.A. Takase, Japan Marun, Iran Yesil Irmak, Turkey Columbia, B.C., Canada S.Fk., Flathead, MT, U.S.A. Huanghe, China Zambezi, Mozambique Yarmuk, Jordan Paute, Ecuador Periyar, India Chirchik, Uzbekistan Riul Mare, Romania Columbia, Washington Terraba, Costa Rica Arges, Romania Achelo¨us, Greece Mazar, Ecuador

Gross Reservoir Capacity

ft

m

Thousands of acre ft

Millions of cum

Year Completed

584 580 577 574 574 574 564 564 561 561 558 554 552 552 550 548 545 541 541

178 177 176 175 175 175 172 172 171 171 170 169 168 168 168 167 166 165 165

53 — 62 1,313 874 4,298 3,470 20,025 51,075 259 81 1,618 1,620 182 9,390 12,128 380 3,850 405

65 — 76 1,620 1,078 5,300 4,280 24,700 63,000 320 100 1,996 2,000 225 11,582 14,960 465 4,750 500

1965 1963 1979 1978 1980 1984 1953 1983 1974 1987 1982 1974 1970 1980 1942 UC 1965 1965 1984

Note: UC, under construction in 2004, n.a., not available. China’s Three Gorges dam on the Yangtze River, begun in 1993 and expected to be completed in 2009, will be the world’s largest and highest dam. Source: From International Commission on Large Dams, World Register of Dams 1998, and other sources.

1 200

Number of dams

1 000 800 600 400 200

Be fo re

19 00 19 s 00 19 s 10 19 s 20 19 s 30 s 19 40 s 19 50 s 19 60 19 s 70 19 s Af 80 s te r1 99 0

0

Decades

Figure 11A.5 Large dams commissioned per decade in Europe. (From ICOLD, 1998. damsreport.org. Annex V, Dams, Water and Energy: A Statistical Profile.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

2500

Number of dams

2000

1500

1000

500

Be fo re

19 0 19 0 00 s 19 10 s 19 20 s 19 30 s 19 40 s 19 60 s 19 00 19 s 70 s 19 Af 80 s te r1 99 0

0

Decades Figure 11A.6 Large dams commissioned per decade in Asia. (From ICOLD, 1998. damsreport.org. Annex V, Dams, Water and Energy: A Statistical Profile.)

2000 1800

Number of dams

1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200

Be fo re

19 00 19 00 19 s 10 19 s 20 19 s 30 s 19 40 19 s 50 s 19 60 s 19 70 s 19 Af 80s te r1 99 0

0

Decades

Figure 11A.7 Large dams commissioned per decade in North and Central America. (From ICOLD, 1998. Note: Rates of dam commissioning in the 1990s are underreported. damsreport.org. Annex V, Dams, Water and Energy: A Statistical Profile.)

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WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

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200 180

Number of dams

160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20

Be fo re

19 00 19 00 s 19 10 s 19 20 s 19 30 19 s 40 s 19 50 s 19 60 s 19 70 s 19 Af 80 s te r1 99 0

0

Decades Figure 11A.8 Large dams commissioned per decade in South America. (From ICOLD, 1998. Note: Rates of dam commissioning in the 1990s are underreported.)

350 300

Number of dams

250 200 150 100 50

Be fo re

19 00 19 00 19 s 10 s 19 20 19 s 30 s 19 40 19 s 50 19 s 60 s 19 70 1 s Af 980 te s r1 99 0

0

Decades

Figure 11A.9 Large dams commissioned per decade in Africa. (From ICOLD, 1998. Note: Rates of dam commissioning in the 1990s are underreported. damsreport.org. Annex V, Dams, Water and Energy: A Statistical Profile.)

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

120

Number of dams

100 80 60 40 20

Be fo re

19 0 19 0 00 s 19 10 19 s 20 19 s 30 s 19 40 19 s 50 s 19 60 s 19 70 s 1 Af 980 te r1 s 90 0

0

Decades Figure 11A.10 Large dams commissioned per decade in Austral-Asia. (From ICOLD, 1998. Note: Rates of dam commissioning in the 1990s are underreported. damsreport.org. Annex V, Dams, Water and Energy: A Statistical Profile.)

Table 11A.10 Modes and Causes of Earth Dam Failures Form Overtopping

General Characteristics

Causes

Hydraulic Failures (30% of all failures) Flow over embankment, washing Inadequate spillway capacity out dam Clogging of spillway with debris Insufficient freeboard due to settlement, skimpy design

Wave erosion Toe erosion Gullying

Loss of water

Notching of upstream face by waves, currents Erosion of toe by outlet discharge

Lack of riprap, too small riprap

Spillway too close to dam Inadequate riprap Rainfall erosion of dam face Lack of sod or poor surface drainage Seepage Failures (40% of all failures) Excessive loss of water from Previous reservoir rim or bottom reservoir and/or occasionally increased seepage or increased groundwater levels near reservoir Previous dam foundation Pervious dam Leaking conduits Settlement cracks in dam

Shrinkage cracks in dam

Preventive or Corrective Measures Spillway designed for maximum flood Maintenance, trash booms, clean design Allowance for freeboard and settlement in design; increase crest height or add flood parapet Property designed riprap Training walls Properly designed riprap Sod, fine riprap; surface drains

Blanket reservoir with compacted clay or chemical admix; grout seams, cavities

Use foundation cutoff; grout; upstream blanket Impervious core Watertight joints; waterstops; grouting Remove compressible foundation, avoid sharp changes in abutment slope, compact soils at high moisture Use low-plasticity clays for core, adequate compaction (Continued)

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Table 11A.10

11-31

(Continued)

Form Seepage erosion or piping

General Characteristics Progressive internal erosion of soil from downstream side of dam or foundation backward toward the upstream side to form an open conduit or “pipe.” Often leads to a washout of a section of the dam

Causes Settlement cracks in dam

Remove compressible foundation, avoid sharp changes, internal drainage with protective filters

Shrinkage cracks in dam

Low-plasticity soil; adequate compaction; internal drainage with protective filters Foundation relief drain with filter; cutoff Construction control; core; internal drainage with protective filter Toe drain; internal drainage with filter Stub cutoff walls, collars; good soil compaction Watertight joints; waterstops; materials Riprap, wire mesh

Pervious seams in foundation Pervious seams, roots, etc. in dam Concentration of seepage at face Boundary seepage along conduits, walls Leaking conduits

Foundation slide

Upstream slope

Animal burrows Structural Failures (30% of all failures) Sliding of entire dam, one face, or Soft or weak foundation both faces in opposite directions, with bulging of foundation in the direction of movement Excess water pressure in confined sand or silt seams Slide in upstream face with little or no bulging in foundation below toe

Steep slope

Weak embankment soil Sudden drawdown of pond Downstream slope

Flow slide

Slide in downstream face

Collapse and flow of soil in either upstream or downstream direction

Preventive or Corrective Measures

Steel slope Weak soil Loss of soil strength by seepage pressure or saturation by seepage or rainfall Loose embankment soil at low cohesion, triggered by shock, vibration, seepage, or foundation movements

Flatten slope; employ broad berms; remove weak material; stabilize soil

Drainage by deep drain trenches with protective filters; relief wells Flatten slope or employ berm at toe Increased compaction; better soil Flatten slope, rock berms; operating rules Flatten slope or employ berm at toe Increased compaction; better soil Core; internal drainage with protective filters; surface drainage Adequate compaction

Source: From National Academy Press, 1983, Safety of existing dams: evaluation and improvement. With permission. Original Source: From Sowers, G.F., 1961, The Use and Misuse of Earth Dams, Consulting Engineering, July.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 11A.11 World’s Largest Dams According to Spillway Capacity No

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

14 15

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

Capacity, (m3 sec)

Name

113,000 110,000 82,300 64,845 64,600 63,713 62,297 62,296 61,400 60,000 59,000 58,500 58,400 57,000 54,862 54,400 53,450 52,000 50,000 49,800 49,600 47,000 46,970 46,259 45,312 45,307 44,752 43,000 43,690 42,459 42,186 41,280 40,300 40,000 39,644 39,644 39,158 37,945 37,500 37,400 36,200 25,960 35,620 35,000 33,980 33,800 33,600 33,414 33,131 31,400 31,152 31,144

Gezhouba Tucurui Dajiangkou The Dalles Burdekin Falls John Day Lock and Dam MacNary Lock and Dam Sardar Sarovar Itaipu Oosterscheldekering Shuifeng Saratov Gavins Point Salto Grande Jhuj Panjiakou Nagarjuna Sagar Porto Primavera Jupia Wanan Kadana Ankang Gohira Alvin Wirtz Sri Rama Sagar Bonneville Bargi Owen Falls International la Amistad Hirakud Tarbela Xinanjiang Kuibyshev Ilha Solteira Priest Rapids Wanapum Tom Miller Narayanpur Shuifeng Srisailam HE Fengman Ukai Daheiting Guri Kentucky Fuchunjing Chief Joseph Wells Conowingo Xijin Marala Mangla

Note: U/C, under construction. Source: From International Commission on Large Dams, 1984, World Register of Dams.

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Country China Brazil China U.S.A. Australia U.S.A. U.S.A. India Brazil Netherlands China/Korea U.S.S.R. U.S.A. Uruguay/Argentina India China India Brazil Brazil China India China India U.S.A. India U.S.A. India Uganda U.S.A./Mexico India Pakistan China U.S.S.R. Brazil U.S.A. U.S.A. U.S.A. India China India China India China Venezuela U.S.A. China U.S.A. U.S.A. U.S.A. China Pakistan Pakistan

Year U/C U/C 1974 1957 U/C 1968 1957 U/C 1982 U/C 1943 1967 1958 1979 U/C 1979 1974 U/C 1968 U/C 1978 U/C U/C 1950 U/C 1937 U/C 1954 1969 1957 1976 1965 1955 1973 1959 1963 1939 U/C 1943 1943 1954 1972 1980 U/C 1944 1968 1955 1967 1928 1966 1968 1967

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

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Table 11A.12 Summary of Regional Statistics on Large Dams

World

Europe

Asia

North and Central America

25,420a–48,000a 31 23 269 14,370

5,480 33 7 70 1,225

31,340 33 44 268 6,800

8,010 28 13 998 1,660

979 37 30 1,011 2,665

1,269 28 43 883 1,750

577 33 17 205 270

2,643

552

753

700

534

62

42

O18%

O45%

O11%

O42%

O20%

a

Total number of large dams Average heightb(m) Average reservoir areab (km2) Avg. reservoir capacityb (million m3) Technically feasible hydroelectric potentialc (TWh/yr) Annual hydroelectric productionc (TWh/yr) Exploited technically feasible hydroelectric potentialc (%) a

b c

South America

AustralAsia

Africa

O3.5%

The primary source of data is ICOLD 1998, but the regional divisions in this Table and in Figure V.16 through Figure V.27 follow those described in Table V.3. The 1998 ICOLD Register has 25,420 dams registered. Reporting depends on the member countries. Table V.I indicates how the global estimate of neatly 48,000 large dams is arrived at, with the main issue being the number of dams in China. The ICOLD 1998 database was used to calculate the average dam height, reservoir capacity, and surface area by region. I/HD 2000. Technical Flexibility is based on the conversion of all river lead and flow in the major rivers in region into energy.

Source: Based on ICOLD, 1998. damsreport.org. Annex V, Dams, Water and Energy: A Statistical Profile. With permission.

Table 11A.13 Dam Incident Summary NPDP ID CO00203 DE00018 DE00052 FL00723 IDS00011 KYS00004 MS00128 MS02734 MS01731 MDS00002 IDS00013 IA01967 NJ00235 NM00445 NYS00007 SC01458 UT00379 WI00160 WI00053 TN15712 NYS00018 NMS00006 SD00921 VTS00016 VT00122 UTS00009 UTS00008 SCS00004 NY13130 OR00185 NY00561 WIS00005 WI10607 WI00248

Dam Name Maple Grove Millsboro Pond Wiggins Mill Pond Dam Martin Plant Cooling Water Reservoir Mud Creek Dam Samsel Spring Lake Pine Lake Dam Vance Lake Big Millpond (Route 50) Dam on Pierce Park Gulch Fertile Mill Dam Gropps Lake Dam United Nuclear Churchrock Swimming Poll Dam Huttos Lake Dam Goshen Pulcifer Little Falls Edwards Sherman Dam Phelps Dodge Corporation Tailings Dam No. 3 East Lemmon Steward Fairfield Swamp Pond Lower North Eden Reservoir South Eden Reservoir Tutens Mill Pond Tannersville Reservoir #1 Dam Crump Reservoir Snow BIrd Lake Dam Kohlsville Dam Lepper Wyocena

Incident Date

Incident Type

Dam Failure

2/1979 2/1979 2/1979 10/30/1979 1/12/1979 2/2/1979 9/1979 4/1979 4/13/1979 2/25/1979 2/12/1979 8/22/1979 5/27/1979 7/16/1979 1979 9/9/1979 2/14/1979 6/1979 4/1979 4/2/1979 9/14/1979 10/13/1980

Vandalism Piping Internal Erosion Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Seepage Erosion Erosion Piping Undermining Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Sliding Cracking and Internal Erosion Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Deterioration Gate Structural Failure Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Structural Failure

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Unknown Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unknown Yes Yes No Unknown No Yes Yes

6/5/1980 1980 4/13/1980 4/20/1980 4/20/1980 3/14/1980 3/22/1980 4/19/1980 9/1/1980 4/1980 3/1980 1/1/1980

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Even Piping Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Embankment Erosion Piping Piping Seepage Gate Structural Failure Abutment Erosion

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unknown Unknown (Continued)

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Table 11A.13

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

NPDP ID

Dam Name

Incident Date

COS00006 DE00028 GAS00214 MN00519 ID00001 CA10268 KYS00006 NHS00007 TXS00002 UTS00011 WI00146 ORS00005 WA00240

Prospect Reservoir Dam Lake Como Dam Rail Road Lake Dam Pickwick Saint John Cascade Eastover Mining Company Dam Mascoma River Dam No. 2 Unnamed Dam (TXS00002) Upper North Eden Reservoir Necedah Mann Creek Dam Alexander Lake Dam

2/10/1980 7/29/1980 5/23/1980 9/21/1980 5/7/1980 1981 12/18/1981 2/12/1981 1981 4/20/1981 9/20/1981 11/8/1982 12/3/1982

WAS00013 UTS00006 COS00004 CT00157 CT00396 CT00417 CT00426 CT00545 CTS00008 CTS00007 CTS00006 CTS00005 CTS00003 CTS00002 CTS00001 CT00662 CT00427 IDS00009 IDS00008

Alexander Lake Milk Pond Dam Lawn Lake Gorton Pond Jennings Pond Upper Millpond Bushy Hill Pond Holbrook Pond Comstock Pond (CT 424 C. D. Batchelor Pond Bushy Pond (CT 391) Bronson Company Dam (CT 691) Urban Pond Hempstead Pond Crystal Lake Leesville Dam Pratt Read Cameron Dam Howard Dam

12/3/1982 6/23/1982 7/15/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/1982 6/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 4/24/1982 4/24/1982

CTS00017 CTS00016 CTS00015 CTS00014 CTS00013 CTS00012 CTS00011 CTS00010 CTS00009 CTS00023 CTS00022 CTS00021 CTS00020 CTS00019 CTS00018 CT00423 CT00404 CT00339 COS00005 MNS00002 MS01738 UT00080 WAS00010 WAS00009 NJS00062

Whalebone Creek Pond (CT 1024) Upper Pond (CT 433) Mansure Pond (CT 517) Main Street Pond (CT 880) Lower Mill Pond (CT 1190) Lower Pond (CT 1512) Ivoryton Pond (CT 882) Forman Pond Falls River Pond (CT 884) Abbott Pond (CT 774) Dennison Road Pond (CT 1504) Dolan Pond (CT 883) Hunts Brook Dam Mile Creek Pond (CT 1191) Shady Brook Pond (CT 846) Mill Pond Deer Lake Johnson Pond Cascade Lake Dam Fishhook River Dam Cofferdam Lakeview Reservoir Dam Dmad Peters Reservoir No. 2 Peters Reservoir No. 1 Unnamed Dam (NJS00062)

6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/4/1982 6/1982 6/4/1982 7/15/1982 10/1983 11/27/1983 6/23/1983 3/10/1983 3/10/1983 1984

Incident Type Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Concrete Deterioration Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Earthquake Sabotage—Other Structural Failure Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Spillway Failure Not Known Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Animal Attack Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Erosion Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Upstream Dam Failure Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flow—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flow—Hydrologic Event Seepage Not Known Not Known Not Known Not Known Inflow Flood—Hydrologic

Dam Failure Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Unknown Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unknown Unknown Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Unknown Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unknown Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unknown Unknown Unknown Yes Unknown Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Unknown Yes Yes No (Continued)

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Table 11A.13

11-35

(Continued)

NPDP ID

Dam Name

Incident Date

Incident Type

WIS00003 VTS00015 VTS00014 VTS00013

Grettum Flowage Halls Lake Laraway Wards Pond

6/13/1984 5/31/1984 6/7/1984 6/7/1984

VT00081 UTS00001 TX05119 TNS00017 TNS00011 SD00695 CTS00004 NE02138 NES00003 MTS00006 IL00712 MO31374 WI00726 OK00663 OK11073 WA00074 VTS00012 UT00301 PAS00005 TNS00014 MI00209 MI00573 MI00616 MIS00001 NE00492 ND00426

North Montpelier Pond Doty-Tex Johnson (Utah) Bass Haven Lake Dam Unnamed Dam on Del Rio Creek Shangri La Lake Dimock Haas Pond Dam Merlyn Schrunk Dam Atkinson Reservoir Brownes Lake Riverview Dam Richardet Dam Port Wing Scs-Upper Red Rock Creek Site–20 Cedar Lake Upriver Dam Noonan Trial Lake Unnamed Dam (PAS00005) Demery’s Lake Barryton Dam Danaher Lake Dam Rainbow Lake Dam Bruce Nordland Dam Haeker Dam Simpson Dam; Alvin

6/7/1984 4/12/1984 8/17/1984 5/6/1984 9/1984 6/20/1984 5/20/1984 4/1984 4/8/1984 6/20/1984 11/21/1985 12/1985 9/1/1985 10/3/1986 11/8/1986 5/20/1986 1986 6/7/1986 1986 4/1986 9/10/1986 9/10/1986 9/10/1986 9/10/1986 8/1986 7/17/1986

MIS00004 MIS00003 MIS00002 MI00678 MI00574 MI00526 MI00281 OK20844 TNS00008 TNS00009 TN10305 WI00638

Childsdale Dam Cat Creek Dam Carson City Dam Hesperia Dam Luther Pond Dam White Cloud Dam Hart Lake Scs—Little Washita River Site–13 Tomkins Lake Sky Lake No. 1 Rebecca Lake Bog Brook

9/10/1986 9/10/1986 9/10/1986 9/10/1986 9/10/1986 9/10/1986 9/10/1986 9/1987 12/25/1987 12/24/1987 12/25/1987 5/1988

WI00330 UT00514

Bischel Quail Creek

3/1988 12/31/1988

MO31923 MTS00002

Marschke Lake Dam Hein Coulee Structure (Lower Birch Creek Watershed) Unnamed Dam (KYS00005) Unnamed Dam (MNS00004) Unnamed Dam (MNS00005) Evans Dam Lockwood Dam Unnamed Dam (MNS00006) Unnamed Dam (MNS00007)

4/19/1988 7/6/1988

Inflow Flow—Hydrologic Event Piping Inflow Flow—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flow—Hydrologic Event; Piping Inflow Flow—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flow—Hydrologic Event Embankment Erosion Piping Sliding Inflow Flow—Hydrologic Event Piping Inflow Flow—Hydrologic Event Spillway Failure Plugged Spillway Seepage Seepage; Embankment Slide Inflow Flow—Hydrologic Event Seepage; Piping Not Known; Seepage; Piping Gate Closure Piping Seepage; Piping Not Known Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Seepage; Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Animal Attack Piping Seepage; Piping; Embankment Erosion Not Known Piping

1989 1989 1989 9/15/1989 9/15/1989 1989 1989

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Embankment Failure Embankment Failure Not Known Not Known Embankment Failure Embankment Failure

KYS00005 MNS00004 MNS00005 NC02149 NC02152 MNS00006 MNS00007

Dam Failure Unknown Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes No No (Continued)

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11-36

Table 11A.13

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

NPDP ID

Dam Name

Incident Date

NJS00014

Holmdel Park Dam

7/1989

NYS00015 TNS00010 ORS00004 TNS00018 TNS00025 TX03546 TNS00019 OH00575 VAS00006 VT00217 VTS00011 WAS00015 WI00191 WA01707

Unnamed Dam (NYS00015) Southern Clay Company Dam No. 2 Avion Water District Summit Landfill Dam Summit Landfill Nix Lake Dam Unnamed Dam (TNS00019) Acton Lake Dam Cockram Mill Dam Beaver Pond Eight Trout Club Unnamed Dam (WAS00015) Leland Chinook Water District Dam

1989 9/8/1989 1989 9/29/1989 10/1/1989 3/29/1989 6/23/1989 1990 7/14/1990 7/23/1990 3/15/1990 11/1990 6/1990 11/1990

VTS00010 SCS00005 SC02298 SC00459 AL00539 ALS00006 ALS00007 NE02363 NC03195 MOS00004

5/1990 7/18/1990 10/10/1990 10/10/1990 1990 1990 1990 12/1990 2/16/1990 2/15/1990

IL50233 IDS00002

Riddel Pond Unnamed Dam (SCS00005) Brewer Gold Company Dam 1 Kendall Lake Dam Caddis Lake Dam Campbell Unnamed Dam (ALS00007) Timperley Wildlife Res Landrum Lake Dam(Failer) St. Joe State Park Sediment Impoundment Christiansen Lake Dam Hester Lake Dam Wilmington Dam (Kankakee River Mill Race Dam) Lake Carroll Sedimentation Pond 2 Dam Kirby Dam (Manns Lake; Atlanta Dam)

5/1990 7/9/1990

ALS00008 NCS00039 NHS00006 NYS00009 TX00309 SCS00002 SCS00001

Unnamed Dam (ALS00008) Unnamed Dam (NCS00039) Unnamed Dam (NHS00006) Unnamed Dam (NYS00009) Lake Center Dam Upper Twin Lake Dam Lower Twin Lakes Dam

1990 4/29/1991 8/8/1991 1991 8/4/1991 8/2/1991 8/2/1991

RIS00003 RIS00002 RI04258 NYS00010 NYS00011 NYS00012 NYS00014 NYS00013 WVS0005 WAS00001

Unnamed Dam (RIS00003) Unnamed Dam (RIS00002) Burton Pond Dam Unnamed Dam (NYS00010) Unnamed Dam (NYS00011) Unnamed Dam (NYS00012) Unnamed Dam (NYS00014) Unnamed Dam (NYS00013) Unnamed Dam (WVS00005) Seminary Hill Reservoir, City of Centralia

1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 10/5/1991

VTS00009 NJ00541 OK01437 WY00037

Swanson Port Republic dam Scs-Upper Black Creek Site–62 Wyoming Hereford Ranch No. 2

4/1991 1992 1992 1992

MO20145 MO12279 IL50319

5/1990 6/27/1990 6/1990

Incident Type Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Seepage; Piping Not Known Piping Faulty Design and Construction Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Drain Gate Failure Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Inadequate Spillway Capacity Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Inadequate Spillway Capacity Piping Piping Not Known Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Animal Attack Structural Failure Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Inadequate Spillway Capacity Embankment Erosion Not Known Not Known Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Not Known; Seepage; Embankment Erosion Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Not Known Seepage Not Known Not Known Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Upstream Dam Failure Not Known Not Known Concrete Deterioration Not Known Not Known Not Known Not Not Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Landslide; Seepage; Concrete Deterioration Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Not Known

Dam Failure Yes Unknown Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unknown Yes Yes Yes Unknown Unknown Yes Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Yes Yes Yes No Yes (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11A.13

11-37

(Continued)

NPDP ID

Dam Name

Incident Date

WI00468

La Blonde

7/1992

NV00024 MDS00001

Bilk Creek Res Black Rock Estates Pond

1992 4/21/1992

MOS00015 COS00007 NE01419 ND00107

Unnamed Dam (MOS00015) Greeley Krone Dam Jund (Zeeland) Dam

6/5/1992 1/1993 1993 7/16/1993

MOS00002 MO32026 MO31996 MO31526 MO12370 MO10107 MD00330 OHS00002 WI00112 WI00158 WI12788 WI10130 WI01073 WI00154 WI00035

Norman Swinney’s Dam Freddies Lake Dam Boyd Lake Dam Bockelman Lake Dam Harrison County Lake Stevens Lake Dam Annapolis Mall Swm Pond Middletown Hydraulic Dam Rock Briggsville Hatfield Headrace Lake Family Fairchild Partridge Lake Cambria

5/26/1993 9/26/1993 9/25/1993 7/1993 1/3/1993 6/1993 3/4/1993 5/13/1993 6/20/1993 3/23/1993 7/20/1993 4/23/1993 6/1993 1/1993 6/26/1993

OHS00005 OHS00004 WI00016

Unnamed Dam (OHS00005) Unnamed Dam (OHS00004) Hatfiled

1993 1993 6/18/1993

WA00408

Iowa Beef Processors Waste Pond No. 1

1/25/1993

OHS00003 NV10311 WI00791 WI00502 WA00063 VT00035

Unnamed Dam (OHS00003) Buckskin Tailings Ladysmith Gomulak And Profit Sherry Lake Dam Newport No. 11 Diversion Dam

1993 9/12/1994 9/15/1994 9/16/1994 1994 5/1/1994

TX04210 TX03916 TX03876 WI10532

Cade Lake Number 3 Dam Bearfoot Lake Dam Lake Tinkle Dam Eleva Roller Mill

1994 1994 1994 3/26/1994

SC00167

Lake Pauline Dam

6/27/1994

SC00149

Crystal Lake Dam

6/27/1994

SC00142

Saxe-Gotha Millpond Dam

6/27/1994

PA00899 PA00780 OH00355 OH00088

Fishpond Arrowhead Lake Invex of Ohio Upper Lake Dam Chopper’s Lake Dam

4/28/1994 4/26/1994 8/13/1994 4/10/1994

Incident Type Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Debris-Reservoir Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Piping Erosion Animal Burrows Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Biological Attack (i.e. bush, tree growth); Embankment Erosion; Inadequate Spillway Capacity Inadequate Compaction Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Embankment Slide Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Undermining Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Reconstruction Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Gate Misoperation Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Seepage; Piping; Gate Structural Failure Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Animal Attack; Seepage; Inadequate Spillway Capacity Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Earthquake Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Embankment Erosion Inadequate Spillway Capacity Spillway Failure Spillway Failure Piping; Biological Attack (i.e. bush, tree growth) Inflow Flood—Upstream Dam Failure Inflow Flood—Upstream Dam Failure Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Gate Misoperation Concrete Deterioration Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Dam Failure Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unknown Unknown Yes

Yes

Unknown No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-38

Table 11A.13

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

NPDP ID

Dam Name

Incident Date

FLS00001

IMC–AGRICO Hopewell Mine

11/19/1994

GA00211 GA00238 GA00239 GA00287 GA00831 GA02902 GA02899 GA02746 GA02744 GA02743 GA02677 GA01679 GA01419 GA01070 GA03574 GA03572 GA03571 GA03568 GA03567 GA03540 GA03527 GA03526 GA03203 GAS00005 GAS00004 GAS00003 GAS00002 GAS00001 GA04987 GAS00086 GAS00085 GAS00084 GAS00083

Gibson—Cary Development Corp Dam Houston Lake Dam Mossy Lake Dam Giles Lake Dam Grisp County (Warwick) Holoka Lake Dam Mulkey Lake Dam Whatley Lake Dam Rustins Pond Dam Hortmans Pond Dam Goose Lake Dam McGill Lake Dam Philema Lake Dam Phillips Pond Dam Lies Lake Dam Coffin Lake Dam Wolhwender Lake Dam Shellhouse Lake Dam Merritt Lake Dam Lake Yohola Dam McKemie Lake North Dam McKemie Lake Dam Thomas Millpond Dam Cordrays Pond Dam City of Senoia Dam Birch Creek Farms Baker/Austin Pond Dam 6 acre lake on Forrest Road Suggs Millpond Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam S of US 27 By-Pass & Webster St. Unnamed small dam 2 miles SW of Cuthbert Unnamed small dam 3 miles S of Cuthbert, u/s of US Unnamed small dam SE of County Rds. #134 & #152 Unnamed small dam SE of County Rds. #134 &152 Unnamed small dam on Collins Mill Creek Unnamed small dam north of Bethlehem Church Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed dam Unnamed small dam 1 mile NW of Buena Vista Lake Dam Unnamed small dam

GAS00082 GAS00081 GAS00080 GAS00079 GAS00078 GAS00077 GAS00076 GAS00075 GAS00074 GAS00073 GAS00072 GAS00071 GAS00070 GAS00069 GAS00068 GAS00067

Incident Type

Dam Failure

7/5/1994 7/6/1994 7/6/1994 8/30/1994 7/9/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 7/21/1994 7/5/1994 7/21/1994 7/21/1994 8/17/1994 7/6/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 7/7/1994 9/12/1994 9/12/1994 7/6/1994 8/17/1994 7/5/1994 7/6/1994 7/6/1994 7/8/1994 7/5/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Seepage; Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

9/12/1994 8/30/1994 8/30/1994 8/30/1994 8/30/1994 8/30/1994 8/30/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11A.13

(Continued)

NPDP ID GAS00066 GAS00065 GAS00064 GAS00063 GAS00062 GAS00061 GAS00060 GAS00059 GAS00058 GAS00057 GAS00056 GAS00055 GAS00054 GAS00053 GAS00052 GAS00051 GAS00050 GAS00049 GAS00048 GAS00047 GAS00046 GAS00045 GAS00044 GAS00043 GAS00042 GAS00041 GAS00040 GAS00039 GAS00038 GAS00037 GAS00036 GAS00035 GAS00034 GAS00033 GAS00032 GAS00031 GAS00030 GAS00029 GAS00028 GAS00027 GAS00026 GAS00025 GAS00024 GAS00023 GAS00022 GAS00021 GAS00020 GAS00019 GAS00018 GAS00017 GAS00016

11-39

Dam Name Unnamed small dam Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed small dam west of SR 214, north of SR26 Unnamed small dam west of SR 128 Unnamed small dam at RR, SE of Montezuma Unnamed small dam on Meadow Creek Unnamed small dam 1 mile SW of Marshallville Unnamed small dam 1 mile E of Marshallville Lake Dam Unnamed small dam on Gin Creek, west of Flint River Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam 1 mile east of Felder Lake Dam Unnamed small dam 1.5 miles NW of Sutton’s Corner Unnamed small dam 2 miles SE of Bluffton Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Underwood Millpond Dam Thorton Place Pond Dam Taylor’s Mill Pond Dam Swearingen Lake Dam Small Rovoli Lake Dam Small Lake above Double “O” Ranch Shofill Lake Dam Scout Lake Dam Rockhill Lake Dam Parish Lake Dam South Owens Lake Dam Old Farm Dam Minor’s Millpond Lake Dam McNeil Lake Dam McMath Millpond Upper McMath Millpond Lower Lower Leisure Lake Dam Loki Lake Dam Levee @ Macon Lamar County Reservoir Dam Lake Jennifer Upper Lake Jennifer Lower Lake Corinth Dam Iris “B” Lake Dam Hutcheson Lake Dam Housers Millpond Dam

Incident Date

Incident Type

Dam Failure

8/17/1994 7/21/1994 7/21/1994 8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes Yes Yes Yes

8/17/1994 8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes Yes

8/17/1994 8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/29/1994 7/29/1994 7/29/1994 8/30/1994 8/30/1994 8/30/1994 8/30/1994 8/30/1994 8/30/1994 7/14/1994 9/12/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

9/12/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

9/12/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 7/14/1994 7/5/1994 7/21/1994 7/5/1994 7/5/1994 8/30/1994 8/30/1994 7/5/1994 9/12/1994 8/17/1994 7/5/1994 7/21/1994 9/12/1994 7/6/1994 7/6/1994 7/5/1994 7/6/1994 7/6/1994 7/5/1994 7/29/1994 7/29/1994 7/6/1994 7/6/1994 7/6/1994 8/30/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-40

Table 11A.13

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

NPDP ID GAS00015 GAS00014 NE00419 NE00212 IL50330 GAS00210 GAS00183 GAS00182 GAS00181 GAS00180 GAS00179 GAS00178 GAS00177 GAS00176 GAS00175 GAS00174 GAS00173 GAS00172 GAS00171 GAS00170 GAS00169 GAS00168 GAS00167 GAS00166 GAS00165 GAS00164 GAS00163 GAS00162 GAS00161 GAS00160 GAS00159 GAS00158 GAS00157 GAS00156 GAS00155 GAS00154 GAS00153 GAS00152 GAS00151 GAS00150 GAS00149 GAS00148 GAS00147 GAS00146 GAS00145

Dam Name Harell Lake Dam Hancock Waterman Dam Morgan Dam East Peoria Dredge Disposal Facility Unnamed Dam (GAS00210) Williamson Downs Lake Dam Wells Millpond Lake Dam Wainwright Lake Dam (2) Wainwright Lake Dam (1) Vinny Mill Pond Dam Upper & Lower Marimac Upper Jackson north of County Road #152 Upper Iris “A” Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Leverett Pond Dam Unnamed small dam within city limits of Weston Unnamed small dam 1.5 miles NE of Weston Unnamed small dam N of County Rd #18, E of PBS tower Unnamed small dam N of County Rd #18, E of PBS tower Unnamed small dam just upstream of Kennedy Unnamed small dam upstream of Holoka Lake Dam Unnamed small dam North of Bear Creek Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam 1/2 mile U/S SR 45 on Mossy Creek Unnamed small dam above Taylor Mill Pond Dam Unnamed small dam above Taylor Mill Pond Dam Unnamed small dam above Taylor Mill Pond Dam Unnamed small dam above Taylor Mill Pond Dam Unnamed small dam, Bottsford quad in draw, E. of T

Incident Date

Incident Type

Dam Failure

8/17/1994 7/6/1994 8/1994 1994 11/11/1994 1994 7/5/1994 7/29/1994 7/21/1994 7/21/1994 7/6/1994 7/8/1994 8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Seepage; Piping Flood Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

7/6/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

7/5/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/5/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/5/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/5/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/29/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11A.13

(Continued)

NPDP ID GAS00144 GAS00143 GAS00142 GAS00141 GAS00140 GAS00139 GAS00138 GAS00137 GAS00136 GAS00135 GAS00134 GAS00133 GAS00132 GAS00131 GAS00130 GAS00129 GAS00128 GAS00127 GAS00126 GAS00125 GAS00124 GAS00123 GAS00122 GAS00121 GAS00120 GAS00119 GAS00118 GAS00117 GAS00116 GAS00115 GAS00114 GAS00113 GAS00112 GAS00111 GAS00110 GAS00109 GAS00108 GAS00107 GAS00106 GAS00105 GAS00104 GAS00103 GAS00102

11-41

Dam Name Unnamed small dam above Tharpe Lake Dam Unnamed dam in NW part of Sumeter County Unnamed dam in NW part of Sumter County Unnamed small dam 1m. SW of Powell Dairy Lake Dam Unnamed small dam NW of Plains Unnamed small dam 0.75 miles SW of Lake Collins Unnamed small dam below Kornonia Lake Unnamed small dam below Kornonia Lake Unnamed small dam below Kornonia Lake Unnamed small dam 1 mile west of Americus Unnamed small dam 1 mile north of Americus Unnamed small dam 1 mile east of Americus Unnamed small dam S. of SR27, 1 mile E. of Americus Unnamed dam in Americus Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed dam Unnamed small dam south of Gussie Lake Dam Unnamed dam 1 mile north of Union Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam upstream of Wolhwender Unnamed small dam SW of intersect. Of US #19 & SR 2 Unnamed small dam S of Ebenezer Rd on Little Mucka Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam

Incident Date

Incident Type

Dam Failure

7/29/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/29/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/29/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/29/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/29/1994 7/29/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes Yes

7/29/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/29/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/29/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/29/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/29/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/29/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/29/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/9/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 9/12/1994 9/12/1994 9/12/1994 9/12/1994 9/12/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

9/12/1994 9/12/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-42

Table 11A.13

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

NPDP ID

Dam Name

Incident Date

GAS00101 GAS00100 GAS00099 GAS00098 GAS00097 GAS00096 GAS00095 GAS00094 GAS00093 GAS00092 GAS00091 GAS00090 GAS00089 GAS00088 GAS00087 GAS00013 GAS00012 GAS00011 GAS00010 GAS00009 GAS00008 GAS00007 GAS00006 GA04904 GA04832 GA04765 GA04764 GA04763 GA04712 GA04537 GA03189 GA03188 GA03187 GA03186 GA03042 GA03041 GA03018 GA03017 GA01067 GA01050 GA01029 GA01019 GA00835 GA01417 GA01412 GA01411 GA01410 GA01364 GA01235 GA01193 GA00289 GA00242 CO00390 MI00109 MS03334 NC01137

Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Unnamed small dam Goodroe Lake Dam Goffs Mill Lake Dam Free Lake Dam Fountain Lake Dam Forbes Lake Dam Ferguson Lake Dam English Lake Dam Edgemon Andrews Lake Dam Silberman Lake Dam Harper Lake Dam Yara Lake Dam Pace Lake Dam South Kennedy Lake Dam West Leisure Lake Dam Pace Lake Dam Esperanza Farms Lake Dam Tharpe Lake Dam Reeves Lake Dam Horsehead Creek Lake Dam Whitewater Creek Lake Dam Flat Creek Lake Dam Kersey Lake Dam Cloud Lake Dam Barnesville Reservior Dam Hicks Millpond Dam Garant Lake Dam Flint River Statham Lake Dam Browns Millpond Lake Dam Shipp Lake Dam Able Acres Lake Dam Tyrone Lake Dam Kraftsmans Association Lake Dam McKnight Lake Dam Lake Clopine Dam Wilkinson Lake Dam Frenchman Creek Barnes Dam Lake Gary Dam Lake Lynn Dam

8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/30/1994 8/17/1994 7/21/1994 8/30/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 8/17/1994 7/29/1994 8/17/1994 7/21/1994 7/29/1994 7/29/1994 7/29/1994 8/17/1994 7/6/1994 8/17/1994 7/29/1994 7/29/1994 7/29/1994 7/21/1994 7/21/1994 6/5/1994 8/30/1994 8/17/1994 7/5/1994 7/5/1994 7/21/1994 7/7/1994 7/6/1994 7/9/1994 7/29/1994 7/29/1994 7/5/1994 7/5/1994 7/6/1994 8/30/1994 8/30/1994 6/4/1995 5/29/1995 9/1995 6/19/1995

NC04944

Jaycees Pond Dam

6/19/1995

Incident Type Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Seepage; Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Seepage

Dam Failure Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes (Continued)

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WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11A.13

11-43

(Continued)

NPDP ID

Dam Name

Incident Date

NCS00004 NHS00001 ND00339

McReady Chicken Waste Lagoon Dike Willey House Dam Appert

7/5/1995 10/28/1995 7/15/1995

NCS00013 NCS00011

NCS00007 NCS00003 NC02159 MT03839 CO01967 ID00151 NJ00408 WY02028 WI12794 WI00092

Unnamed small dam Southern Pines Country Club Golf Course Dam 3 Southern Pines Country Club Golf Course Dam 2 Southern Pines Country Club Golf Course Dam 1 Reedy Swine Farm Lagoon Dike Lancaster Dam Moose Lodge Dam Eureka Holding Pond Dike Vincent No. 2 Troy Kenilworth Lake Dam Cottonwood Hazel Lake Mount Morris Dam

WAS00002 VT00182 VA03102 NV00051 NV00070

CSC Orchards, Frost Protection Pond Wolcott Pond Timber Lake Dam Boyd Reservoir Milk Ranch Dam

7/1995 8/5/1995 6/22/1995 1/1995 7/8/1995

NJS00001 PA00422

Mendham Reservoir Dam Brookville Waterworks

4/1996 7/19/1996

TNS00001 WA01045 WV07719 WI10386 WI01102 WI00450 WA01782 WA01406 VTS00008 TX07035 TX01961 TN15768

Dillard Dam Olufson Dam Bruceton Mills Dam Hamilton Mill Vernon Marsh-Ref. Flowage Cranberry Creek Boeing Creek North Stormwater Pond Yelm Diversion Rinse Casa Monte Dam Roberts Tank Dam Mallard Lake

12/17/1996 12/11/1996 1/19/1996 4/20/1996 5/19/1996 4/21/1996 12/31/1996 2/7/1996 6/14/1996 11/26/1996 7/14/1996 11/3/1996

CO01122 KSS00002 NH00600 MT01173 MI00876 ME00072 KSS00001 IL00918 IL01110 IL50394 AZ00187 AZS00003

Henry Speer Dam Bergerson Dam Canyon Lake Hollenbeck Dam Highland Lake Dam Decker Dam Aurora-West Dam Puddle Pond Dam Channahon Dam Udall Centennial Narrows Dam

4/10/1996 11/14/1996 3/13/1996 7/1/1996 1996 10/20/1996 1996 7/17/1996 7/17/1996 7/17/1996 8/11/1997 9/26/1997

NSC00010 NCS00009

Incident Type

Dam Failure Yes Unknown Yes

6/19/1995 7/1995

Not Known Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Seepage Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

7/1995

Not Known

Yes

7/1995

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes

7/18/1995 6/26/1995 6/19/1995 7/8/1995 6/9/1995 2/5/1995 1/18/1995 7/1995 12/15/1995 8/29/1995

Rupture Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Seepage; Piping Partial Dam Breach Not Known Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Inflow Flood—Upstream Dam Failure; Seepage; Piping Seepage; Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Embankment Erosion Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Embankment Erosion Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Seepage Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Seepage Piping Not Known; Piping Inadequate Spillway Capacity Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Animal Attack; Piping; Embankment Erosion; Embankment Slide Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Piping

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unknown Yes Yes

Yes Yes

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Unknown Yes Yes Yes Yes

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes (Continued)

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Table 11A.13

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

NPDP ID AZS00001 NE00695 MTS00001 MO20164 MI00496 ME00567 MA00376 GA04975

FLS00003

Dam Name Middle Goose Tailings Dam (No. 2 Tailings Impoundment) Scott Dam Anita Dam Lake Venita Dam Hamilton Dam Apple Valley Lake Dam East Head Pond Dam Forsyth Reservoir

Incident Date

Incident Type

Dam Failure

10/21/1997

Liquefaction Failure

Yes

4/7/1997 3/26/1997 2/21/1997 6/20/1997 4/16/1997 1997 12/24/1997

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Seepage; Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Debris—Reservoir; Piping Not Known; Seepage; Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Seepage; Piping; Concrete Deterioration Not Known; Seepage; Piping

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Seepage; Piping Spillway Failure Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Upstream Dam Failure Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Inflow Flood—Upstream Dam Failure Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Earthquake Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Spillway Failure Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Inadequate Spillway Capacity Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Fire Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inadequate Spillway Capacity Spillway Failure Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

FLS00002 NJ00716 NJS00009 NJS00006 WA01377 WA00133

Ridgewood Avenue Dam (Lake Apopka Dam) RGC Minerals Containment Moss Mill Lake Dam Stockton College Dam Tarkiln Pond Dam (Route 548 Dam) Horn Rapids Dam Wishkah Reservoir No. 2 Dam

11/27/1997 4/27/1997 8/20/1997 8/20/1997 8/20/1997 2/1997 3/19/1997

VTS00007 TX02021 TNS00003 TNS00002 TN11306 SD00025 SC00377

Sibley Holland Dam Site A Patton Mullens Farm Pond Johnson Ck #4 Woodruff (Breached 1997) Starnes/Brown Dam

1997 1/1/1997 3/1/1997 3/5/1997 3/1/1997 3/22/1997 7/24/1997

WI10610 WA01741 SC00307

Linnie Lac Dam Galbreath Sediment Dam Malcolm B. Rawls Dam

6/21/1997 1/18/1997 7/24/1997

OH02964 OH02900 NY13600 NV00223 ORS00002 VTS00006 VTS00005 VTS00004 VTS00003 VTS00002 VTS00001 VT00241 VT00229 TX01580 TN09910

Green Acres Levee Thomas Pond Dam Henry Kaufman Pond Dam Carson City Wastewater Dam Lacomb Diversion Name Unknown Sanville Name Unknown Name Unknown Clay Brook Water Supply Golf Course Pond Sunset Lake Lake Runnemede Jan Land Company Lake No. 1 Dam Johnson Lake

3/4/1997 3/1/1997 6/14/1997 10/30/1998 5/11/1998 1/7/1998 1/16/1998 6/27/1998 6/27/1998 6/27/1998 6/27/1998 8/11/1998 7/18/1998 10/1998 7/13/1998

TN09902 WA01756 RI03201 NY00494 NY13643 OH01978 NY01539 NY12015 CO00508 GA00084 GAS00185

Bennett Lake Klickitat Mill Pond Dam Peace Dale Pond Dam Camp Weona Dam Peru Water Supply Dam Bookhamer Lake Dam Gouldtown-Mill 5 West Channel Natural Dam Vertrees Little Ocmulgee Lake Dam Bay Meadows

7/13/1998 2/8/1998 2/18/1998 6/8/1998 6/27/1998 7/5/1998 1/7/1998 1/7/1998 5/29/1998 3/11/1998 3/7/1998

No

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes (Continued)

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WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11A.13

11-45

(Continued)

NPDP ID

Dam Name

Incident Date

GAS00188 GAS00191 NC00725 MS01402 JY00174 GAS00189

Pine Cove Pond Dam County Road 15 Dam Ramseur Lake Dam Archusa Crk Wtr Park Lk Hematite Boy Scout Camp Lake Dam

4/5/1998 3/8/1998 2/19/1998 1/8/1998 6/11/1998 2/2/1998

GAS00186 GA05053 GA01826 CO00629 FLS00004

Not Named (Exempt) Dam Big Sandy Plantation, Inc. Lake Dam Southern States Lake Dam Carl Smith E.R. Jahna-Independent North Sand Mine Tailings Nagels Mill Pond Colee Naylor Pond Dam House Autry Mill Dam Hog Waste Lagoon Dike Winkler Lake Dam Lower (Flat Rock Lakes) Dubose Lake Dam Hall Lake Dam Kellys Pond Dam Rolling Green Community Lake Nubble Pond Dam Cold Brook Not Known Stubbs Farm Dam Riley Mill Pond Foreman Branch Dam Jones Lake Dam Lake Lanahan

3/7/1998 2/2/1998 2/9/1998 5/2/1998 7/2/1999

Tuckahoe State Park Dam Frazers Dam Bostwicks Pond Dam Unregistered Dam (No Name) Stubbs Sassafras Mill Dam Lake “Jimmy Carter” Lake Bray Dam J.B. Dunnell Dam Veteran’s Memorial State Park Dam Pittsfield Dredge Disposal Pond Dam Caloosa Sand Mine Reclamation Lake Lookover Lake Dam Kirbys Mill Dam Unnamed Dam Saddler Dam Unnamed Dam (at Williamsburg Country Club) Sydnors Millpond Dam Old Forge Pond Dam Lower Rosegill Lake Dam Town Bridge Pond Dam Rosegill Upper Dam Allens Mill Dam Lake Powell Dam

9/16/1999 9/15/1999 9/16/1999 9/16/1999 9/16/1999 9/16/1999 6/28/1999 9/17/1999 9/17/1999 9/17/1999 4/29/1999 8/25/1999 3/21/1999 9/16/1999 9/1999 9/1999 9/1999

MD00074 NCS00031 NCS00029 NCS00022 NC03056 NC01191 NC01084 NC00946 MD00345 NH00598 NH00270 MD00342 MD00319 MD00190 MD00189 MD00170 MD00152 MD00149 MD00098 NJ00039 NHS00002 MDS00003 MD00025 GAS00194 MA00537 MA01258 MA02531 IL50396 FLS00005 NJ00565 NJ00634 VAS00005 VAS00003 VAS00002 VA13303 VA12709 VA11912 VA11911 VA11906 VA09704 VA09512

9/16/1999 9/20/1999 9/21/1999 4/18/1999 4/20/1999 9/21/1999 9/21/1999 9/15/1999 2/11/1999 10/1/1999 10/1/1999 9/16/1999 9/16/1999 9/16/1999 9/16/1999 9/16/1999 5/7/1999

9/1999 9/1999 9/1999 9/1999 9/1999 9/1999 9/1999

Incident Type Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Not Known; Seepage; Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Embankment Erosion Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Seepage Embankment Slide Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Piping Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Sabotage—Other Seepage Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Not Known Not Known Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Embankment Erosion Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Seepage; Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Embankment Erosion Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event; Wind; Animal Attack; Biological Attack (i.e., bush, tree growth)

Dam Failure Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

(Continued)

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Table 11A.13

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

NPDP ID

Dam Name

Incident Date

VA07308 VA07305 VA05707 TNS00007 TNS00006 SD00536 SD00444 PAS00002 OH02867 OH02795 NY13278 NJS00028 NY01345 NJ00768 RI04389 WIS00002 TX09244 TX03797 NY14821 NJS00046 NJS00050 AK00144 NJ00010 NHS00004

Cypress Shores Cow Creek Dam Essex Mill Dam Deer Creek Bent Tree Dam Covey Dam W. Day Longo Pond Dam Beldon Pond Lake Dam Crown City Mining Pond No. 24 Dam Lake Hyenga Dam Spencer/Estates Detention Basin High Falls Seneca Lake Dam Mill Pond Chenowith Dam Camp La Junta Dam Powell Lake Dam Murtha Pond Dam Furnace Pond Dam Edison Pond Dam City Of Kake Dam Tomahawk Lake Dam Middle Pond

9/1999 9/1999 9/1999 7/1/1999 4/22/1999 5/9/1999 9/3/1999 1/26/1999 4/1999 5/19/1999 9/17/1999 9/16/1999 11/27/1999 8/12/2000 8/6/2000 3/14/2000 10/23/2000 3/22/2000 7/5/2000 8/12/2000 8/12/2000 7/24/2000 8/12/2000 6/7/2000

NH01364 ND00540 MS01687 GAS00196 ARS00001 GA00459 GAS00203 IL01077 NY16046 TN03510 OR00467 RIS00006

Mountain Lake Grand Forks Co. Com. #1 Ascalmore Creek Str Y-17a-11 Lott Dam Ponca Dam Pritchard Lake Dam Ingles Shopping Center Wardens Pond North Dam Eagle Lake Dam HIll #1 Smith River Lbr. Co. Pond Sweet’s Mill

1/7/2000 6/12/2000 4/4/2000 9/18/2000 6/2000 3/16/2001 6/13/2001 7/19/2001 7/16/2001 2001 5/31/2002 5/8/2002

WA83006 GAS00205 MS01611 MN00486 CA00724 CA00812 CA00813 CA10122 CA10123

Swift No 2 Hydroelectric Project Clarke Apple Orchard Lake Dam No. 1 Big Sand Creek Str Y-32-32 Wild Rice River Las Tablas Cr Nacimiento San Antonio El Piojo Hughes

4/21/2002 12/24/2002 4/2002 6/2002 3/17/2004 3/17/2004 3/17/2004 3/17/2004 3/17/2004

Incident Type Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Concrete Spillway Cap Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Embankment Erosion Not Known Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Not Known Animal Attack; Inadequate Spillway Capacity Not Known Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Animal Attack Deterioration Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Deterioration Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Not Known Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Piping Biological Attack (i.e., bush, tree growth); Embankment Erosion) Seepage; Piping Piping Not Known; Animal Attack; Piping Inflow Flood—Hydrologic Event Earthquake Earthquake Earthquake Earthquake Earthquake

Note: Number of Events Found: 680. Time period: 1979 to 2004; Incident: all; Dam type: all; Dam failure: all; State: all. Source: From npdp.standford.edu. With permission.

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Dam Failure Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-47

Table 11A.14 Causes of Dam Incidents in the United States Type of Dam Concrete Cause Overtopping Flow erosion Slope protection damage Embankment leakage, piping Foundation leakage, piping Sliding Deformation Deterioration Earthquake instability Faulty construction Gate failures Total

Othera

Embankment

F

A

F

A

F

6 3

3

18 14

7 17 13

3

23

14

6

11

43

2 6

5 3 2

28 29 3 3

5 2

2 1 19

F

A

F&A

27 17

10 17 13

37 34 13

23

14

37

1

17

49

66

3

7 6 2

28 31 9 3

35 37 11 3

2

3

5

2 103

5 182

7 285

3 2 19

1 77

3 163

Totals

7

A

Note: F, failure; A, accident (an incident where failure was prevented by remedial work or operating procedures, such as drawing down the pool). a

Steel, masonry-wood, or timber crib.

Source: From National Academy Press, 1983, Safety of Existing Dams: Evaluation and Improvement. Based on Schnitter, 1979, Lessons from Dam Incidents U.S.A., ASCE/USCOLD, and supplementary date supplied by U.S. Committee on Large Dams for period to 1979.

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11-48

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 11B

Paducah

RESERVOIRS

Kentucky

Cumberland River Nashville

Clinch River Melton Hill

Knoxville

Fort Lodoun Little Tennessee River Hiwassee River Chickamauga Charleston/Calhoun Chattanooga Nickajack Watts Bar

Pickwlck Wilson Yellow Creek

Wheeler

Muscle Shoals Decatur Tennessee-Tombigbee Guntersville Waterway

Guntersville Major Port City Lock and Dam

Figure 11B.11 Route of the river. The Tennessee River’s main navigable channel is 652 miles long. It officially begins a mile above Knoxville, Tennessee, and eventually empties into the Ohio River at Paducah, Kentucky. Commercial navigation also extends into three major tributaries: 61 miles up the Clinch River, 29 miles up the Little Tennessee River, and 21 miles up the Hiwassee River. Another 150 miles of channel—too shallow for commercial traffic—is marked for recreational use. (From www.tva.gov.)

Paducah, Kentucky Tennessee River Mile 0 Elevation 302

Knoxville, Tennessee Tennessee River Mile 652 Watts Bar Mile 530 Nickajack Elevation 745 Mile 425 Elevation 635

Wheeler Mile 275 Elevation 556.3 Kentucky Mile 22 Elevation 375

Pickwick Mile 207 Elevation 418 Guntersville Mile 349 Wilson Elevation 595.4 Mile 259 Elevation 507.9

Fort Loudoun Mile 602 Elevation 815 Chickamauga Mile 471 Elevation 685.4

Figure 11B.12 Tennessee river system. Nine main-river dams form a “staircase” of quiet, pooled water, and controlled current—a continuous series of reservoirs that stretches along the entire length of the Tennessee River. From its beginning just above Knoxville, the Tennessee drops a total of 513 ft in elevation before it empties into the Ohio River. (From www.tva.gov.)

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WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-49

Table 11B.15 The Tennessee Valley Authority Multipurpose Reservoir System The TVA reservoir system was designed to provide for navigation, flood control, and the production of hydroelectricity. Today the reservoir system is also operated for such other purposes as providing municipal and industrial water supplies, regulating flows to minimize the effects of effluents including thermal discharges, fluctuating water levels for control of mosquitos and troublesome aquatic vegetation, and controlling flows and levels for various recreational uses This reservoir system encompasses more than 11,000 miles of shoreline and 600,000 acres of water. The overall benefit of this system to the Nation and the region are incalculable, but some indication is provided by a consideration of the more quantifiable benefits: flood damages prevented, transportation savings, hydroelectric power production, and recreation visits There are 39 dams operating in the Tennessee Valley’s integrated water control system. They are: 35 TVA dams — Apalachia, Blue Ridge, Boone, Chatuge, Cherokee, Chickamauga, Douglas, Fontana, Fort Loudoun, Fort Patrick Henry, Guntersville, Hiwassee, Kentucky, Melton Hill, Nickajack, Normandy, Norris, Nottely, Ocoee No. 1, Ocoee No. 2, Ocoee No. 3, Pickwick Landing, South Holston, Tellico, Tims Ford, Watauga, Watts Bar, Wheeler, Wilson, Bear Creek, Little Bear Creek, Nolichucky, Upper Bear Creek, Cedar Creek, and Wilbur 4 Alcoa dams — Calderwood, Cheoah, Chilhowee, and Santeetlah Raccoon Mountain Pumped Storage Project stores energy (generated elsewhere) to meet peak power demands. There are 9 dams in the Cumberland River basin for which TVA distributes power generation. They include one TVA dam, Great Falls, and 8 Corps of Engineer dams — Barkley, Center Hill, Cheatham, Cordell Hull, Dale Hollow, J. Percy Priest, Old Hickory, and Wolf Creek The 4 Bear Creek projects (Bear, Little Bear, and Upper Bear and Cedar), the 2 Duck River projects (Normandy and Columbia), and the Tims Ford dam were planned under Tributary Area Development programs but have been counted among those in the Integrated Water Control System because they were all partially justified as having system flood control value. Tims Ford also contributes power to the system In the 1960’s TVA built two systems of small dams in tributary watersheds: Beech River Project — Beech, Cedar, Dogwood, Lost Creek, Pine, Pin Oak, Redbud, and Sycamore Bristol Project — Beaver Creek and Clear There are 12 dams owned by Alcoa in The Little Tennessee River Valley which are not included in TVA’s integrated water control system The Elk River Dam operated by the Air Force, the Burnett Dam operated by the city of Asheville, and the Walters Dam of the Carolina Power and Light Company are other structures in the Tennessee Valley, but are not controlled by TVA

Table 11B.16 Tennessee Valley Authority Reservoirs Lake Elevation (Feet above Sea Level)

Main River Projects Kentucky Pickwick Landing Wilson Wheeler Guntersville Nickajack Chickamauga Watts Bar Fort Loudoun Raccoon Mtn. (Pumped Storage Project) Tributary Projects Columbia Normandy Tims Ford Apalachia Hiwassee Chatuge Ocoee No. 1 Ocoee No. 2

Length of Lake (Miles)

Length of Lake Shoreline (Miles)

Area of Lake (Acres)

Normal Minimum

184.3 52.7 15.5 74.1 75.7 46.3 58.9 95.5 60.8 —

2,380 496 154 1,063 949 192 810 771 360 —

160,300 43,100 15,500 67,100 67,900 10,370 35,400 39,000 14,600 528

354 408 504.5 550 593 632 675 735 807 1,530

54 17 34.2 9.8 22.2 13 7.5 —

236 73 246 31 163 132 47 —

12,600 3,160 10,600 1,100 6,090 7,050 1,890 —

603 859 865 1,272 1,450 1,905 811 —

Lake Volume (Acre-Feet) at Top of Top of Gates Gates

Useful Controlled Storage in Reservoir (Acre-Feet)

375 418 507.88 556.28 595.44 635 685.44 745 815 —

6,129,000 1,105,000 640,200 1,069,000 1,049,000 251,600 737,300 1,175,000 393,000 37,310

4,008,000 417,700 53,600 349,000 162,400 31,500 345,300 379,000 111,000 35,110

635 880 895 1,280 1,526.5 1,928 830.76 1,115.2

363,000 126,100 608,000 57,800 434,000 240,500 83,300 —

283,000 60,500 282,600 8,650 306,000 123,000 31,030 Silted (Continued)

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Table 11B.16

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued) Lake Elevation (Feet above Sea Level)

Main River Projects Ocoee No. 3 Blue Ridge Nottely Melton Hill Norris Tellico Fontana Douglas Cherokee Ft. Patrick Henry Boone S. Holston Watauga Wilbur Great Falls Nolichucky Totalsa a

Length of Lake (Miles) 7 11 20.2 44 129 33.2 29 43.1 54 10.4 32.7 23.7 16.3 1.8 22 —

Length of Lake Shoreline (Miles)

Area of Lake (Acres)

Normal Minimum

24 65 106 173 800 373 248 555 393 37 130 168 106 3.6 120 26 11,195

480 3,290 4,180 5,690 34,200 15,860 10,640 30,400 30,300 872 4,310 7,580 6,430 72 3,080 383 641,455

1,413 1,590 1,735 790 960 807 1,580 940 1,020 1,258 1,330 1,675 1,915 1,645 780 1,238.9

Does not include the Columbia Dam Project.

Source: From Tennessee Valley Authority, 1988.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Lake Volume (Acre-Feet) at Top of Top of Gates Gates 1,435 1,691 1,780 796 1,034 815 1,710 1,002 1,075 1,263 1,385 1,742 1,975 1,650 805.3 1,240.9

4,180 195,900 174,300 126,000 2,552,000 424,000 1,443,000 1,461,000 1,541,000 26,900 193,400 764,000 677,000 715 50,200 2,003 23,771,708

Useful Controlled Storage in Reservoir (Acre-Feet) 3,629 183,900 117,140 31,900 1,922,000 120,000 946,000 1,251,000 1,148,000 4,250 148,400 438,300 353,000 327 35,700 496 13,408,432

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-51

Raccoon River at Van Meter, IA Q = 68,900 ft3 sec−1 July 10, 1993

120°

South Skunk River below Squaw Creek near Ames, IA Q = 25,300 ft3 sec−1 July 9, 1993

Mississippi River at St. Paul, MN. Q = 105,000 ft3 sec−1 June 28,1993

Minnesota River near Jordan, MN Q = 91,500 ft3 sec−1 June 25,1993

1 1 5°

110°

105°

100°

Mississippi River at Clinton, IA Q = 234,000 ft3 sec−1 June 8,1993

95°

70° 85°

90°

45°

80°

75°

40°

35°

Kansas River at Topeka, KS Q = 196,000 ft3 sec−1 July 24, 1993 Mississippi River at Keokuk, lA Q = 435,000 ft3 sec−1 July 10, 1993 Missouri River at Hermann, MO Q = 732,000 ft3 sec−1 July 31, 1993

Explanation

0

200

400 Miles

0

200

400 Kilometers

Mississippi River at St. Louis, MO Q = 1,030,000 ft3 sec−1 August 1, 1993

Area of flooding streams Boundary of Mississippi River basin Streamflow-gaging station

Figure 11B.13 Peak discharges (Q) and dates of occurrence for the 1993 flood at selected streamflow-gaging stations in the upper Mississippi River basin. (From www.geo.mtu.edu.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-52

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

120°

1 1 5°

110°

105°

100°

95°

70°

90°

45°

85°

80°

75°

40°

35°

Explanation Area of flooding streams Boundary of Mississippi River basin

0

200

400 Miles

0

200

400 Kilometers

Figure 11B.14 The Mississippi River basin and general area of flooding streams, June to August 1993. (From www.geo.mtu.edu.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-53

Figure 11B.15 Areal distribution of total precipitation in the area of flooding in the upper Mississippi River basin, January to July 1993. (From www.geo.mtu.edu.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-54

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Figure 11B.16 Location of selected streamflow-gaging stations and ranges in recurrence interval for the 1993 peak discharges in the upper Mississippi River basin. (From www.geo.mtu.edu.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-55

Figure 11B.17 Consumptive use and renewable water supply by water resources region. (From U.S. Geological Survey, 1984, updated using 1995 estimates of water use.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-56

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Data are provisional and subject to change) Capacity of reservoirs reported in thousands of acre-feet 3188 82 %

5566

63 %

52 %

61 %

14365 66 %

65 %

37065

1448

64 %

57 %

6708

60 %

52 %

30 %

25 %

3632

3866 77 %

77 %

52 %

3260 73 %

5290

53 %

43 %

71 %

49 %

AZ

CO

ID

MT

NV

NM

OR

UT

WA

WY

3 of 4

74 of 74

24 of 24

43 of 45

7 of 7

13 of 13

29 of 31

26 of 28

10 of 13

13 of 13

Number of reservoirs reported Select here for the reservoir dataset for this period Storage is below average (% of capacity) Storage is at or above average (% of capacity) Average storage as % of capacity * = Data are not available for this state.

te

rn

La

Gr

ea

ak es

Upper Mississppi Central Pacific

Upper Arkansas Red Upper Rio Grande and Pecos

e Cumb

Lower Arkansas Red and White

Western Gulf

Figure 11B.19 Water resources regions of the United States. (From U.S. Geological Survey.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ste

rn

Ohio River

Lower Mississippi

South Pacific

Colorado River

Gr

Ea

r we ri Lo sou is M

Great Basin

tL

Te

nd rla

e nn

ss

ee t

as

e uth

So

ea

t

Chesapeaks Bay

Upper Missouri

s ke Delaware and Hudson

W es

Pacific Northwest

New Eng land

Figure 11B.18 Reservoir storage as percent of capacity for April 1, water year 2005. (From www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov.)

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-57

Table 11B.17 Normal Surface-Water Reservoir Capacity in the United States Normal Reservoir Capacityb Area of Region, in Thousands of Square Miles

Average Renewable Supply, in Billion Gallons per Daya

In Million Acrefeet

In Acre-feet of Storage per Square Mile

As a Percentage of Annual Renewable Supply

New England Mid-Atlantic South Atlantic-Gulf Great Lakes Ohio (exclusive of Tennessee Region) Tennessee

69 103 271 134 160

78.4 80.7 233.5 74.3 139.5

13.0 10.3 38.7 6.9 19.6

188 100 143 51 123

15 11 15 8 13

43

41.2

11.2

260

24

Upper Mississippi (exclusive of Missouri Region) Mississippi (entire basin) Souris-Red Rainy Missouri Arkansas-White-Red Texas-Gulf

181

77.2

12.2

67

14

1241 55 511 244 178

464.3 6.5 62.5 68.6 33.1

164.8 8.0 84.3 31.8 24.7

133 145 165 130 139

32 110 120 41 67

Rio Grande Upper Colorado Colorado (entire basin) Great Basin Pacific Northwest California

137 103 258 139 271 165

5.1 14.7 15.6 9.9 276.2 70.2

10.4 37.7 70.4 3.3 60.9 38.8

76 366 273 24 225 235

182 229 403 30 20 49

Alaska Hawaii Caribbean

586 6 4

975.5 7.4 5.1

1.5 0.0 0.3

3 2 90

Water Resources Region

a b

0.1 0.1 5

Adjusted by adding exports and subtracting imports. About two-thirds of maximum capacity.

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey, 1984, National Water-Summary 1983—Hydrologic Events and Issues, Water—Supply Paper 2250.

Table 11B.18 Summary of Reservoir Storage, Including Controlled Natural Lakes, in the United States and Puerto Rico Reservoir Storage (Range, in Acre-feet)

Total Reservoir Storage Number of Reservoirs

Acre-feet

Percentage of Total

5 569 295 374 1,411 2,654

107,655,000 322,852,000 20,557,000 13,092,000 15,632,000 479,788,000

22.4 67.3 4.3 2.7 3.3 100.0

Greater than 10,000,000 100,000–10,000,000 50,000–100,000 25,000–50,000 5,000–25,000 Totala

Note: Reservoir storage is expressed as normal capacity, which is the total storage space in a reservoir below the normal retention level, including dead storage and inactive storage, and excluding any flood control or surcharge storage. a

In addition, there are perhaps at least 50,000 reservoirs with capacities ranging from 50 to 5,000 acre-feet, and about 2 million smaller farm ponds used for storage.

Source: From U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1981.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-58

Table 11B.19 Hydraulic Test Data from Aquifer Storage and Recovery Well Systems in Southern Florida

Production Well Identifier

Open Interval Tested (ft)

956–1130a

S

—

12/10/92 ASR-1 Broward County WTP 2A 11/21/96 ASR-1

956–1130a

M

MW-1

995–1200a

S

—

11/26/96 11/26/96 11/26/96 9/19/96 Springtree WTP 6/6/97

ASR-1 ASR-1 ASR-1 MW-1

995–1200a 995–1200a 995–1200a 990–1200a

M M M S

MW-1 MW-1 ASR-1 —

ASR-1

1,110–1,270a

S

7/28/97 Fiveash WTP 1/12/98

ASR-1

1,110–1,270a

FMW-1

Broward County Deerfield Beach West WTP NR ASR-1

1/13/98 FMW-1 1/15/98 FMW-1 3/16/98 FMW-1 3/17/98 FMW-1 3/25/98 ASR-1 3/30/98 ASR-1 Charlotte County Shell Creek WtP 11/5/97 ASR-1 11/17/97 ASR-1 11/18/97 ASR-1

Pumping Rate (gal/min)

950–2,100

1,200

Length of Test (hr)

Transmisivity (ft2/d)

Storage Coefficient (unitless)

Leakance (1/day)

Method of Analysis

NR

—

—

—

—

5.7

1,050–2,950

8

1,000 1,000 1,000 48

24 24 24 6

—

700–1,900

8

R

—

2,115

48

998–1,028

P, R

—

160

998–1,042 1,058–1,175a 1,055–1,175a 1,055–1,175a 1,055–1,200a 1,055–1,200a

P, R P S S S R

— — — — — —

P S R

— — —

700–755 700–764 700–764

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

24,200 —

1.33!10K6

6.3!10K2

—

28,900 37,200 44,000 —

1.1!10K4 5.3!10K5 — —

—

None — — —

42.6–32.0

NR

Problems and Comments

Step-drawdown test was performed prior to multiwell, but date of test was not given in report

H-J —

Walton C-J Theis Rec — —

90.6–51.1 Data collected for multiwell test but no information on whether corrections were made — — NR NR

—

—

5,700

—

—

Theis Rec

22.75

4

4,700

—

—

Theis Rec

4.7

160 600 100–160 164 968–2,104 2,100

4 10 min 4 24 4 24

8,000 23,500 — NR — 19,500

— — — — — —

— — — — — —

Theis Rec C-J — — — Theis Rec

300–550 231–597 546

NR 12 54

— —

— — —

— — —

— — SC

1,300

BackGround Measurements

18.4–16.5

NR

Acidization of well done after step test and before constant rate test. Interpretation of recovery data favored late time data

NR

Third packer test showed apparent failure after about 10 min, which may have affected data. FMW-1 apparently not used in 24-hour test of ASR-1

5 46 3.8–3.6 w3.5 25.5–17.7 w17.5

10.0–5.6 5.3–4.6 4.4

Walton method should give same transmissivity if no leakance as C-J method Curve matches look okay

NR

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Test Type

Monitoring Well

Specific Capacity (gallons per minute per foot)

3/7/00 3/31/00 4/20/00 4/18/00 4/18/00 Collier County Manatee Road 11–90

S

—

610–600

P, R

—

10

8 1.33

—

—

—

450

—

—

Theis Rec SC SC SC SC SC

TPW-1 TPW-1 SZMW-1 IMW-1 SMW-1

630–807 507–700a 510–700a 280–320 170–205

P S S S S

— — — — —

131 490–1,050 31–101 28.3–59.5 9.3–17.7

4 NR NR NR NR

1,300 4,700 3,700 2,300 300

— — — — —

— — — — —

MW-A

360–460

P, S

—

NR

NR

2,400

—

—

P, S P, S P, S P, S P, S M M

— — — — — MW-B MW-B

NR NR NR NR NR 670 670

NR NR NR NR NR 17 17

20,000 15,000 6,700 6,300 5,700 9,400 12,000

—

220–600

NR

67,000

465–530a 680–760 930–1020 1,180–1,220 1,345–1,606 465–528a 465–528

11-90 11–90 11–90 11–90 11–90 NR NR Macro Lakes NR

MW-A MW-A MW-A MW-A MW-A ASR-1 ASR-1 DZMW

296–399

S

NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR

DZMW DZMW DZMW ASR-1 ASR-1 ASR-1 ASR-2 ASR-3

296–399 550–622 745–811a 745–790a 745–790a 745–790a 736–780a 736–780a

R P, R R M M M S S, M

— — — ASR-1 DZMW DZMW ASR-1 ASR-2,

600 5 187 463 463 463 400–650

3 4 4.5 8.3 8.3 8.3 NR ASRZMW

42,400 47 8,200 16,300 9,100 12,000 — 400–820

— — — — — 1.00!10K4 — —

— — — — — 3.7!10K4 — —

— — — — — — — — K5 K 6.5!10 7!10 4 — — — — NR 8,000–8,100

—

10.6 1

Multiwell aquifer test planned in the future

NR

All of the step-drawdown tests are indicated to be packer tests; however, some could have been a test of an open interval below casing. For step test, transmissivity was determined at each step by an unspecified method in Walton (1970).

NR

Estimated transmissivity in lower Hawthorn zone I (550 to 622 ft) was too low for consideration as an aquifer storage and recovery interval. No dates were reported for any tests. Good agreement between tests

C-J

17.4–15

5 17.34 (avg) 13.87 (avg) 5.5–4.0 1 (avg)

See comment

NR

See comment See comment See comment See comment See comment H-J Theis Rec

NR NR NR NR NR — —

Walton

220–170

Theis Rec Theis Rec Theis Rec Theis Rec H-J Theis Rec Theis Rec —

NR

NR NR NR NR — — 25–24 —

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

6/28/99 ASR-1 764–933a Englewood South Regional WWTP NR TPW-1 563–583

Lee County Lee County WTP

(Continued) 11-59

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(Continued)

Production Well Identifier NR

11-60

Table 11B.19

ASR-1

Corkscrew WTP 08–94 MW-A

Open Interval Tested (ft)

Pumping Rate (gal/min)

Length of Test (hr)

Transmisivity (ft2/d)

445–600a

M

NR

350

48

800

428–515

P

—

NR

NR

500

—

—

SC

— — — MW-C MW-C MW-C MW-A MW-A MW-C MW-C — — — — —

39 15–74 NR 400 400 400 415 415 415 415 115–410 129–497 153–450 163–380 130–490

5 min. 4 NR 115.5 115.5 115.5 120 120 120 120 NR NR NR NR NR

500 13,000 100 3,410 3,380 3,460 1,760 1,900 3,180 3,410 2,040 7,350 4,020 — 13,400

— —

— —

SC SC NR Hantush C-J Theis Rec Theis C-J Theis C-J SC SC SC — SC

8/17/94 8/24/94 NR 09–95 09–95 09–95 06–96 06–96 06–96 06–96 7/13/99 2/12/99 6/25/99 7/8/99 7/20/99 North Reservoir 12/7/98

MW-A MW-A MW-B ASR-1 ASR-1 ASR-1 ASR-1 ASR-1 ASR-1 ASR-1 ASR-2 ASR-3 ASR-4 ASR-5 ASR-5

524–578 744–778 452–504 328–397a 328–397a 328–397a 328–397a 328–397a 328–397a 328–397a 337–397a 285–347a 310–368a 253–291a 253–291a

P P, S NR M M M M M M M S S S S S

MW-1

480–518

S

—

92–430

NR

14,400

12/9/98 12/11/98 12/16/98 12/18/98 3/3/99 3/8/99

MW-1 MW-1 MW-1 MW-1 ASR-1 ASR-1

529–619a 640–703 808–890 904–977 540–642a 540–642a

P, S P, S P, S P, S S M

— — — — — MW-1

73–295 79–281 55–190 85–322 162–590 379

NR NR NR NR 4 72

5,200 2,040 680 9,590 2,220 8,290

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Storage Coefficient (unitless)

Method of Analysis

Leakance (1/day)

1.00!10K4

NR 7.70!10K5 6.70!10K5 — 2.30!10K4 1.70!10K4 5.70!10K5 4.90!10K5 — — — — — —

— — — — — 3.27!10K4

H-J

NR 1.6!10K5 — — — — — — — — — — — —

— — — — — 7.33!10K4

SC

SC SC SC SC SC H-J

NR

2.5

BackGround Measurements NR

Data collected for multiwell test in September 1995

Problems and Comments Storage zone in ASR-1 is located in the lower Hawthorn producing zone of the Upper Floridan aquifer as defined by Reese (2000) Test of MW-A, interval 744 to 778 ft, was of upper 34 of 240 ft thick Suwannee Limestone. Second multiwell test of ASR-1 followed backplugging of MW-A to injection zone. Transmissivity values for step-drawdown test of ASR-2, 3, 4, and 5 were obtained

NR 1.3–0.6 NR — — — — — — 7.8–6.6 26.9–19.4 15.0–11.7 7.4–5.2 50.0–36.1 44.4–41.3 Data collected for 3 days prior to the multiwell test 9.7–3.5 6.6–2.8 2.8–1.8 10.5–3.1 8.65–7.00 —

Fit of line to ASR-1 recovery data for multiwell test is poor

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Test Type

Monitoring Well

Specific Capacity (gallons per minute per foot)

MW-1 ASR-1

379 379

72 72

455–554a

S

—

135

15 min

NR ASR-1 6/16/99 ASR-1 6/17/99 ASR-1 10/23/99 ASR-1 10/23/99 ASR-1 10/23/99 ASR-1 10/23/99 ASR-1 San Carlos Estates 6/7/99 TPW-1

455–647 455–574a 455–575a 455–553a 455–553a 455–553a 455–553a

S P P M M M M

— — — ASR-1 ASR-1 SZMW-1 SZMW-1

160 479 483 1,540–1,400 1,540–1,400 1,540–1,400 1,540–1,400

15 min 70 min 18 min 27 27 27 27

650–701a

S

—

710–1,480

8

7/29/99 8/2/99 11/10/99 11/10/99 Olga WTP 1/5/99

SZMW-1R SMW-1 TPW-1 TPW-1

659–721a 234–321 650–701a 650–701a

S S M M

170–350 150–220 985 985

8 8 8 8

— — 39,000 70,000

MW-1

515–605

S

—

110–400

NR

2,500

1/7/99 2/3/99 2/4/99 2/4/99

MW-1 MW-1 MW-1 MW-1

612–689 835–935a 710–935 835–935a

P P P P

— — — —

70–200 70–355 70–350 70–350

NR NR NR NR

1,300 7,600 7,600 7,600

— — SZMW-1R SZMW-1R

8,740 8,570 —

— 29,100 26,600 24,700 25,400 27,400 29,000 —

4.64!10K4 —

— —

—

—

— — — — — NR —

— — — — — NR —

—

—

— — 1.00!10K2 —

C-J (recovery) C-J (recovery) —

— C-J (recovery) C-J (recovery) C-J C-J (recovery) C-J C-J (recovery) —

— NR 59.7

Ninety hours collected prior to multiwell test, but apparently not used to correct drawdown data

Pumping rate for multiwell test was 1,540 for first 6.5 hr, then changed to 1,400. No attempt was made to analyze multiwell test data for storage coefficient or leakance. Storage zone is located in the lower Hawthorn producing zone of Upper Florida

Unknown for multiwell test. Test followed 10 days of recharge at 1,955 gal minK1 and then 6-day static period

High specific capacity in TPW-1 due to two pilot holes in open interval. Pumping rate for test on 11/10/99 of 985 gallons per minute was natural flow. C-J solution for drawdown in SZMW-1R is suspect. Solution is for very late time only, and background changes due to prior recharge may have affected response

Measured for multiwell test, but unknown if used to correct drawdown

H-J results for multiwell test agree better with single well and packer test than C-J results. A second constant rate test was run but is not reported here. Storage zone is about 150 ft below top of Suwannee Limestone

86.3 NR NR NR — — — 250–130

— — — —

— — C-J Theis Rec

15–9.0 8.9–6.5 — —

—

—

SC

NR

— — — —

— — — —

SC SC SC SC

NR NR NR NR

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-61

M M

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

540–642a 540–642a

3/8/99 ASR-1 3/8/99 ASR-1 Winkler Avenue NR ASR-1

11-62

Table 11B.19

(Continued)

Production Well Identifier

West Well Field 1/26/97 ASR-1

Pumping Rate (gal/min)

Length of Test (hr)

Test Type

Monitoring Well

945–1,101 740–820 830–945a 854–945a 857–945a 859–920a 859–920a 859–920a 859–920a 859–920a

P S P P R S M M M M

— — — — — — MW-1 MW-1 MW-3 MW-3

6–15 78–480 80–340 75–350 300 112–545 500 500 500 500

953–1,060a

M

ASR-1

250

850–1,302a

S

—

1,400–4,000

8

NR NR NR NR NR 5 60 60 60 60

1.66

Transmisivity (ft2/d)

Storage Coefficient (unitless)

Leakance (1/day)

33 1,900 9,000 6,400 8,700 5,000 7,200 12,000 9,400 11,000

— — — — — — 5.10!10K5 4.10!10K5 5.50!10K5 4.20!10K4

— — — — — — 5.2!10K3 — 6.0!10K2 —

11,000

8.4!10K5

—

J-L

—

—

—

—

269–52.1

—

2/25/97 4/8/97 12/9/97 12/9/97 12/9/97 12/9/97 12/9/97 Monroe County Marathon 5/3/90

ASR-2 ASR-3 ASR-1 ASR-1 ASR-1 ASR-1 ASR-1

845–1,250a 835–1,210a 850–1,302a 850–1,302a 850–1,302a 850–1,302a 850–1,302a

S S M M M M M

— — ASR-1 ASR-2 ASR-2 ASR-3 ASR-3

1,500–3,800 1,500–3,800 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500

8 8 72 72 72 72 72

— — 10,300 15,400 18,200 15,400 19,700

N/A 3.90!10K4 2.90!10K4 4.40!10K4 3.30!10K4

ASR-1

387–432a

M

OW-1

105

25

2,290

3.20!10K4

NR

5/3/90 5/3/90 5/3/90

ASR-1 ASR-1 ASR-1

387–432a 387–432a 387–432a

M M M

OW-1 OW-1 OW-2

105 105 105

25 25 25

2,510 1,760 2,180

3.70!10K4 — 5.20!10K4

— — NR

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Method of Analysis

— —

— — N/A 1.6!10K3 N/A 3.90!10K5 N/A

SC SC SC SC Theis Rec SC H-J C-J H-J C-J

— — C-J Walton C-J Walton C-J

Walton

C-J Theis-Rec Walton

BackGround Measurements

Problems and Comments

NR NR NR NR NR 14.9–8.5 — — — —

NR

Transmissivity estimate from Meyer (1989b). Storage coefficient estimated by model simulation of pumping test

Measured for Multiwell test. Correction was not done, due to negligibility

All three aquifer storage and recovery wells were heavily acidized prior to all tests. Late time drawdown data problematic because of pump going down several times

Measured for 3 weeks prior to multiwell test. A regional increasing trend in water level was determined

Leakance using Walton (1962) method not determined

126.6–51.1 46.1–38.2 NR — — — —

—

— — —

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

2/8/99 MW-1 3/17/99 MW-3 3/25/99 MW-3 3/25/99 MW-3 3/26/99 MW-3 11/1/99 ASR-1 11/3/99 ASR-1 11/3/99 ASR-1 11/3/99 ASR-1 11/3/99 ASR-1 Miami-Dade County Hialeah 2/10/75 MW-1

Open Interval Tested (ft)

Specific Capacity (gallons per minute per foot)

4/20/98 MW-1 8/2/98 ASR-1 8/2/98 ASR-1 8/2/98 ASR-1 Palm Beach County Boynton Beach East WTP 4/9/92 ASR-1

P, R M M M

— ASR-1 MW-1 MW-1

804–900a

S

10/15/92 ASR-1 804–909a Delray Beach North Storage Reservoir 6/5/96 ASR-1 849–899

6/11/96 ASR-1 6/14/96 AR-1 6/18/96 ASR-1 9/20/96 ASR-1 2/24/98 ASR-1 West Palm Beach WTP 8/22/96 FAMW

9/14/96 8/29/96 9/1/96 9/4/96 9/6/96

FAMW FAMW FAMW FAMW FAMW

105 95–350

25 NR

10

6.4

706

10 6,500 6,500 6,500

6.4 24 24 24

2,940 620,000 586,000 765,000

—

320–2,100

NR

6,800–13,000

S

—

798–1,723

NR

Not calculated

P

—

49

NR

900–952 974–1,020 1,020–1,100 1,020–1,200a 1,020–1,200a

P P P S S

— — — — —

83 90 98 575–1,100 760–2,550

975–1,091

P, S

—

1,304–1,384 975–1,090 975–1,190a 975–1,290 975–1,384

P, S S S S S

— — — — —

1,175–1,227 1,268–1,710a 1,268–1710a 1,268–1,710a

—

4,090

— —

—

NR

— N/A 1.25!10K3 1.90!10K4

NR

— —

Theis-Rec —

—

C-J

— N/A 0.01–0.001 N/A

Recovery C-j (recovery) H-J C-J (recovery)

— 3.9–2.7

NR

Water-level data taken for 5 days prior to constant rate test; corrections made using a long-term increasing trend

Leakance derived by extrapolation; longer pumping period required for more accurate value

NR 1,600 1,600 1,600

—

C-J

18–28

—

—

C-J

29–27

—

—

—

—

NR NR NR 24 13.2

— — — — —

— — — — —

— — — — —

— — — — —

64–142

NR

—

—

—

—

55–110 300–584 300–584 550–740 550–740

NR NR NR NR NR

— — — — —

— — — — —

— — — — —

— — — — —

0.37

NR

Second step test is with permanent equipment installed in well. Average of estimates for transmissivity was 70,000 gallons per day per foot

NR

Second step test performed after acidization of well. For the second step test, pump malfunctioned after about 10 min of pumping during the last step at 2,550 gal minK1

NR

Recovery was allowed following step test of ASR-1 before multiwell test was begun. Large deviation from Theis curve during late time, but leaky aquifer solution not used

0.9 2.4 2 10.8–7.8 17.2–15.7 194–86

220–110 75–58 110–101 116–105 116–99

11-63

OW-2 —

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

5/3/90 ASR-1 387–432a M 5/6/90 ASR-1 387–432a S Okeechobee County Taylor Creek-Nubbin Slough (Lake Okeechobee) 4/20/98 MW-1 1,175–1,227 P

(Continued)

Production Well Identifier 11/19/96 1/30/97 2/1/97 2/1/97 Western Hillsboro 4/5/00

11-64

Table 11B.19

Open Interval Tested (ft)

FAMW 975–1,191a ASR-1 985–1,200a ASR-1 985–1,200a ASR-1 985–1,200a Canal, Site 1 EXW-1 1,160–1,225

Length of Test (hr)

Transmisivity (ft2/d)

550–732 508–704 700 700

NR 24 24 24

— — 138,000 108,000

Pumping Rate (gal/min)

Test Type

Monitoring Well

S S M M

— — FAMW FAMW

P

—

95

NR

—

105 1,000–3,000

NR NR

— —

Storage Coefficient (unitless) — — 1.00!10K4 8.00!10K4

Leakance (1/day)

Method of Analysis

Specific Capacity (gallons per minute per foot)

— — — —

— — C-J Theis

62–42 390–306 — —

—

—

—

22.6

— —

— —

— —

10.9 31.1–26.2

EXW-1 EXW-1

1,015–1,150 1,015–1,225a

P S

— —

MW-1

600–775a

M

ASR-1

388

72

5,910

1.64!10K4

4.3!10K2

H-J (drawdown)

—

8/24/82

MW-1

600–775a

M

ASR-1

388

72

6,430

2.67!10K4

4.7!10K4

H-J (recovery)

—

Problems and Comments

NR

Acidized EXW-1 with 4,300 gallons of 36 percent HCl on 6-2-00

NR

Also conducted four pump tests of ASR-1 during drilling with total depth ranging from 627 to 1,000 ft and casing at 600 feet. Transmissivity was calculated from these tests based on recovery data from ASR-1

Note: Depths are in feet below land surface. Test type: M, multiwell constant rate; P, Packer test; R, single well constant rate recovery; S, step drawdown. Method of analysis; SC, specific capacity; Theis, Theis (1935) confined aquifer; C-J, Cooper and Jacob (1946) confined aquifer; Theis (1935) residual drawdown recovery; H-J, Hantush and Jacob (1955) leaky aquifer; Walton, Walton (1962) leaky aquifer; J-L, Jacob and Lohman (1952). Other annotations: WTP, water treatment plant; WWTP, wastewater treatment plant; —, not applicable; NR, not reported. a

Open interval tested is the same (or about the same) as the storage zone.

Source: From damsreport.org.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

4/10/00 5/25/00 St. Lucie County 8/24/82

BackGround Measurements

Storage Required to Produce Indicated Flow 100% of Time Region

Flow

Storage

New England Delaware and Hudson Rivers Chesapeake Bay Southeast Western Great Lakes Eastern Great Lakes Ohio River Cumberland River Tennessee River Upper Mississippi River Upper Missouri River Lower Missouri River Upper Arkansas-Red Rivers Lower Arkansas-Red and White Rivers Lower Mississippi River Upper Rio Grande and Pecos Rivers Western Gulf Colorado Great Basin South Pacific Central Pacific Pacific Northwest United States

6,300 3,200

1,300 590

5,600 21,000 8,400 2,300 7,400 1,500 9,000 7,800

Flow

Storage

Flow

Storage

Flow

Storage

Flow

Storage

9,700 4,800

1,900 900

16,000 7,800

4,200 2,000

22,000 11,000

7,300 3,800

39,000 19,000

26,000 11,000

960 4,900 780 720 4,100 160 400 1,100

8,400 31,000 12,000 3,700 9,400 2,100 11,000 12,000

1,400 7,800 1,100 1,100 5,200 290 600 2,300

13,000 49,000 16,000 6,500 15,000 3,300 15,000 18,000

3,400 14,000 2,800 2,200 7,200 620 1,200 5,200

18,000 71,000 21,000 9,700 21,000 4,500 19,000 25,000

6,000 25,000 5,100 3,700 11,000 1,100 2,500 8,700

32,000 126,000 32,000 19,000 46,000 7,800 28,000 41,000

20,000 78,000 20,000 11,000 29,000 3,100 9,600 26,000

1,200 410 410

340 660 250

1,800 550 700

660 840 410

3,200 1,200 1,300

1,200 1,300 720

4,500 2,200 2,100

2,100 2,300 1,200

9,000 5,800 4,500

5,700 5,200 3,000

1,000

1,400

2,100

2,500

4,400

5,000

8,400

9,400

20,000

22,000

2,100

900

3,600

1800

6,500

3,200

10,000

5,500

21,000

14,000

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

920 210 300 30 1,000 9,700 90,000

1,300 90 72 10 880 2,600 24,000

1,700 320 470 40 1,900 21,000 140,000

1,700 120 100 13 1,760 6,600 40,000

3,400 560 780 60 3,800 26,000 210,000

3,800 230 240 26 3,100 9,300 71,000

5,900 830 1,200 100 6,300 39,000 300,000

5,500 380 420 43 5,300 16,000 120,000

14,000 1,700 2,100 180 16,000 76,000 560,000

12,000 1,200 1,000 119 11,400 47,000 350,000

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11B.20 Reservoir Storage Required to Produce Selected Dependable Flows in the United States

Note: Flow is in millions of gallons per day, and storage is in thousands of acre-feet. a

Appropriations currently exceed supply.

Source: From Select Committee on National Water Resources, U.S. Senate 1960.

11-65

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-66

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 11B.21 Advantages and Disadvantages of Subsurface and Surface Reservoirs Subsurface Reservoirs

Surface Reservoirs

Advantages 1. Many large-capacity sites available 2. Slight to no evaporation loss 3. Require little land area 4. Slight to no danger of catastrophic structural failure 5. Uniform water temperature 6. High biological purity 7. Safe from immediate radioactive fallout 8. Serve as conveyance systems—canals or pipeline across lands of others unnecessary Disadvantages 1. Water must be pumped 2. Storage and conveyance use only 3. Water may be mineralized 4. Minor flood control value 5. Limited flow at any point 6. Power head usually not available 7. Difficult and costly to investigate, evaluate, and manage 8. Recharge opportunity usually dependent on surplus surface flows 9. Recharge water may require expensive treatment 10. Continuous expensive maintenance of recharge areas or wells

Disadvantages 1. Few new sites available 2. High evaporation loss even in humid climate 3. Require large land area 4. Ever-present danger of catastrophic failure 5. Fluctuating water temperature 6. Easily contaminated 7. Easily contaminated by radioactive material 8. Water must be conveyed Advantages 1. Water may be available by gravity flow 2. Multiple use 3. Water generally of relatively low mineral content 4. Maximum flood control value 5. Large flows 6. Power head available 7. Relatively easy to evaluate, investigate, and manage 8. Recharge dependent on annual precipitation 9. No treatment required of recharge water 10. Little maintenance required of facilities

Source: From U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1977, Groundwater Manual, U.S. Department of the Interior.

Table 11B.22 Summary of Storage Reservoirs on United States Bureau of Reclamation Projects Active Capacity Category Constructed and operated by Bureau of Reclamation Rehabilitated and operated by Bureau of Reclamation Constructed by others, operated by Bureau of Reclamation Under construction by Bureau of Reclamation Constructed by Bureau of Reclamation, operated by others Rehabilitated by Bureau of Reclamation, operated by others Constructed and operated by others Constructed or rehabilitated under loan program Total

Total Capacity

No. of Reservoirs

1000 m3

Acre-Feet

1000 m3

Acre-Feet

110

106,709,244

86,510,251

144,632,109

117,254,697

10

247,069

200,302

248,694

201,618

11

6,337,601

5,137,957

7,009,548

5,682,711

8

837,118

678,660

5,469,294

4,434,012

109

18,183,188

14,741,292

19,878,391

16,115,611

14

852 561

691,180

865,130

701,370

71

78,238,538

63,428,765

100,529,146

81,499,984

22

444,806

360,609

493,310

399,932

355

211,850,129

171,749,017

279,125,626

226,289,936

Note: As of September 30, 1986. Source: From U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, 1986, Statistical Compilation of Engineering Features on Bureau of Reclamation Projects.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Reservoir Caonillas Carite Cidra Dos Bocas Garzas Guajataca Guayo La Plata Loiza Loco Lucchetti Patillas Prieto Yahuecas Average

Original Capacity (Mm)3

Const. Year

Study Year

55.66 13.95 6.54 37.50 5.80 48.46 19.20 40.21 26.81 2.40 20.35 17.64 0.76 1.76

1948 1913 1946 1942 1943 1928 1956 1974 1953 1951 1952 1914 1955 1956

2000 1999 1997 1999 1996 1999 1997 1998 1994 2000 2000 1997 1997 1997

Age

Storage Capacity (Mm)3

Total Vol. Loss (Mm)3

52 86 51 57 53 71 41 24 41 49 48 83 42 41

42.27 10.74 5.76 18.04 5.11 42.28 16.57 35.46 14.20 0.87 11.88 13.84 0.22 0.33

13.39 3.21 0.78 19.46 0.69 6.18 2.63 4.75 12.61 1.53 8.47 3.80 0.54 1.43

Long-Term Volume Loss (m3/yr)

Loss in Percent

Long-Term Storage Loss per Year (Percent)

257,500 37,326 15,294 341,404 13,019 87,042 64,146 197,917 307,561 31,224 176,458 102,703 12,857 34,878 119,952

24 23 12 52 12 13 14 12 47 64 42 22 71 81 35

0.5 0.3 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.5 1.1 1.3 0.9 0.6 1.7 2.0 0.7

Drainage Area (km)2

Surface Area (km)2

126.65 20.51 21.39 310.00 15.60 79.77 24.86 469.00 538.00 21.76 44.81 65.27 24.80 45.17

2.70 1.20 1.08 1.78 0.40 3.42 1.09 3.09 2.67 0.29 1.11 1.35 0.06 0.22

Deposition Sediment Yield Rate (m3/km2/yr) (cm/yr) 9.5 3.1 1.4 19.2 3.2 2.5 5.9 6.4 11.5 10.8 15.9 7.6 21.4 15.8 9.6

2,186 1,938 768 1,299 878 1,188 2,660 483 750 1,774 4,102 1,739 900 1,430 1,578

Storage Loss (m3/km2/yr)

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11B.23 Results of Bathymetric Surveys of 14 Reservoirs in Puerto Rico

2,033 1,820 715 1,103 834 1,091 2,580 422 572 1,435 3,937 1,617 518 772 1,389

Note: Const., construction; vol., volume; m3/yr, cubic meter per year; Mm3, mega cubic meter; km2, square kilometer; cm/yr, centimeter per year; m3/km2/yr, cubic meter per square kilometer per year. Source: From www.usgs.gov.

11-67

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-68

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 11B.24 Percent of Annual Inflow Storage and Water Demand Storage for Lago Caonillas, Lago Cidra, Lago Dos Bocas, Lago Guajataca, Lago Loiza, and Lago La Plata

Reservoir

Average Annual Inflow (Million Cubic Meters)

Percent of Annual Inflow Stored

Annual Demand (Mm3)

Ability to Store Annual Water Demand (Percent)

14.5 400.00 104.50 363.85 270.98

40.0 4.0 40.0 4.0 13.1

6.9 103.61 62.16 138.15 96.52

83 17 68 10 37

Lago Cidra Lago Dos Bocas Lago Guajataca Lago Loiza Lago La Plata Note: Mm3, mega cubic meter. Source: From www.usgs.gov.

Table 11B.25 Major Storage Reservoirs on United States Bureau of Reclamation Projects Project, State, Reservoir Name (Dam Name), Stream, Operator Pacific Northwest Region Boise ID-OR Cascade Reservoir North Fork Payette River Columbia Basin, WA Banks Lake (North and dry falls) Offstream Billy Clapp Lake (Pinto) Offstream Franklin D. Roosevelt LK (Grand Coulee) Columbia River Potholes Reservoir (O Sullivan) Lower Crab Creek Hungry Horse, MT Hungry Horse Reservoir South Fork Flathead River Minidoka-Palisades, ID-WY American Falls Reservoir Snake River Island Park Reservoir Henrys Fork River Jackson Lake Snake River Palisades Reservoir South Fork Snake River Owyhee, ID-OR Lake Owyhee Owyhee River Owyhee Project North Board of Control Yakima, WA Cle Elum Lake Cle Elum River Mid-Pacific Region Central Valley, CA Clair Engle Lake (Trinity) Trinity River

Category

Purpose

Active Capacity Acre-Feet

Total Capacity Acre-Feet

Reservoir Area Acres

Year Completed

A

I–P–FC

653,000

703,000

28,300

1948

A

I

715,000

1,280,000

27,000

1951b

A

I–FC

21,200

64,200

1,010

1948

A

I–P–FC–RR–N

5,190,000

9,390,000

82,300

1942

A

I–FC

332,000

512,000

27,800

1949

A

I–P–FC–N

2,980,000

3,470,000

23,800

1953

B

I–FC–MI

1,670,000

1,670,000

58,100

1978c

A

I–FC

127,500

1,280,000

7,794

1938c

A

I–FC

624,000

847,000

25,500

1916c,e

A

I–P–FC–FW

1,200,000

1,401,000

16,150

1957

D

I–FC

715,000

1,120,000

12,700

1932

A

I

437,000

710,000

4,812

1933

A

I–P

2,140,000

2,450,000

16,500

1962 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11B.25

11-69

(Continued)

Project, State, Reservoir Name (Dam Name), Stream, Operator Folsom Lake American River Lake Isabella Kern River U.S. Corps of Engineers Millerton Lake (Friant) San Joaquin River New Hogan Lake Calaveras River U.S. Corps of Engineers New Melones Lake Stanislaus River O Neill Reservoir San Luis Creek California Department of Water Resources Pine Flat Lake Kings River U.S. Corps of Engineers San Luis Reservoir San Luis Creek California Department of Water Resources Shasta Lake Sacramento River Klamath, CA-OR Clear Lake Reservoir Lost River Gerber Reservoir Miller Creek Upper Klamath Lake Upper Klamath Lake Outlet Pacific Power and Light Newlands, NV Lake Tahoe Truckee River Truckee-Carson Irrigation District Solano, CA Lake Berryessa (Monticello) Putah Creek Lower Colorado Region Boulder Canyon, AZ-CA-NV Lake Mead (Hoover) Colorado River Colo R Front WorkLevee System Senator Wash Reservoir

Category

Purpose

Active Capacity Acre-Feet

Total Capacity Acre-Feet

Reservoir Area Acres

Year Completed

B

I–P–FC

920,000

1,010,000

11,400

1956

E

I–FC

567,900

570,000

11,400

1953

A

I–FC

434,000

521,000

4,900

1942

E

I–FC

309,000

324,000

4,410

1964

B

I–P–FC

2,100,000

2,400,000

12,500

1979

D

I–P

20,800

56,400

2,250

1967

E

I–FC

1,000,000

1,000,000

5,970

1954

D

I–P

1,960,000

2,040,000

13,000

1967

A

I–P–FC–RR–N– MI

3,970,000

4,550,000

29,700

1945

A

I–FC

513,000

527,000

25,800

1910

A

I

94,300

94,300

3,830

1925c

E

I–P

465,000

873,000

90,900

1921a,c

D

I–P

732,000

732,000

120,000

1913c

A

I–FC–MI

1,590,000

1,600,000

20,700

1957

A

I–P–FC–RR–N– MI

17,400,000

2,8500,000

163,000

1936

12,300

13,800

470

1966b

A

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-70

Table 11B.25

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Project, State, Reservoir Name (Dam Name), Stream, Operator Senator Wash Parker-Davis, AZ-CA-NV Lake Havasu (Parker) Colorado River Salt River, AZ Theodore Roosevelt Lake Salt River Salt River Valley Water Users Assoc. Upper Colorado Region Central Utah, UT Strawberry Reservoir Strawberry River Colorado River Storage Blue Mesa Reservoir Gunnison River Flaming Gorge Reservoir Green River Lake Powell (Glen Canyon) Colorado River Navajo Reservoir San Juan River Southwest Region Brantley, NM Brantley Reservoir Canadian River, TX Lake Meredith (Sanford) Canadian River Canadian River Municipal Water Authority Colorado River, TX Marshall Ford Reservoir Colorado River Lower Colorado River Authority Middle Rio Grande, NM Cochiti Lake Rio Grande River U.S. Corps of Engineers Nueces River, TX Choke Canyon Reservoir Frio River Rio Grande, NM-TX Elephant Butte Reservoir Rio Grande River San Angelo, TX Twin Buttes Reservoir Middle South Concho River; Spring Creek San Angelo Water Supply Corporation Tucumcari, NM Conchas Lake Canadian River

Purpose

Active Capacity Acre-Feet

Total Capacity Acre-Feet

A

P–FC–MI

180,000

619,400

20,400

1938

D

I–P–MI

1,336,700

1,336,700

17,315

1936e

A

I–MI–FC

951,000

1,106,500

17,000

1974

A

I–P–FC

748,500

940,800

9,180

1966

A

I–P

3,515,700

3,788,700

42,020

1964

A

P–R

20,876,000

27,000,000

161,390

1964

A

I–FC–RR

1,036,100

1,708,600

15,610

1963

C

FC–I

42,000

3,485,000

15,320

D

FC–MI–FW

1,304,554

1,382,478

16,513

1965

D

I–P–FC–RR–N

1,590,763

1,953,936

18,929

1942

E

I–FC–S–FW

676,217

722,000

10,690

1975

A

MI–FW

689,480

691,130

25,733

1982

A

I–P

2,060,000

2,110,000

36,521

1916

D

I–FC–MI–FW

632,214

640,568

9,079

1963

E

I–FC

451,161

528,951

13,664

1940

Category

Reservoir Area Acres

Year Completed

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11B.25

11-71

(Continued)

Project, State, Reservoir Name (Dam Name), Stream, Operator U.S. Corps of Engineers Missouri Basin Region Colorado-Big Thompson, CO Lake Granby Colorado River Fort Peck, MT Fort Peck Lake Missouri River U.S. Corps of Engineers Kendrick, WY Seminoe Reservoir North Platte River North Platte, NE-WY Pathfinder Reservoir North Platte River Pick-Sloan Missouri Basin Program Lake Francis Case (Fort Randall) Missouri River U.S. Corps of Engineers Lake Oahe Missouri River U.S. Corps of Engineers Lake Sharpe (Big Bend) Missouri River U.S. Corps of Engineers Lewis and Clark Lake (Gavins Point) Missouri River U.S. Corps of Engineers Bostwick Division, KS-NE Harlan County Lake Republican River U.S. Corps of Engineers Boysen Division, WY Boysen Unit Boysen Reservoir Wind River Garrison Division, ND Audubon Lake (Snake Creek) Offstream Lake Sakakawea (Garrison) Missouri River U.S. Corps of Engineers Helena-Great Falls Div, MT (Canyon Ferry Unit)

Category

Purpose

Active Capacity Acre-Feet

Total Capacity Acre-Feet

466,000

540,000

7,260

1950

14,626,000

18,909,000

249,000

1940

Reservoir Area Acres

Year Completed

A

I–P

E

I–P–FC–N

A

I–P

985,603

1,017,273

20,300

1939

A

I–P

985,102

1,016,507

22,000

1909

E

P–FC–N

4,033,000

5,603,000

102,100

1953

E

I–P–FC

17,886,400

23,337,600

372,800

1962

E

P

1,882,302

1,884,000

64,000

1964

E

P–FC–N

156,000

504,000

32,000

1955

E

I–FC

691,121

825,782

23,064

1952

A

I–P–FC

802,000

952,400

22,166

1952

B

I

356,000

500,000

19,400

1965d

E

I–P–FC–N– MI–FW

18,933,500

23,923,000

381,900

1956a

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-72

Table 11B.25

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Project, State, Reservoir Name (Dam Name), Stream, Operator Canyon Ferry Lake Missouri River Lower Bighorn Div, MT-WY (Yellowtail Unit) Bighorn Lake (Yellowtail Dam) Bighorn River Marias Division, MT (Lower Marias Unit) Lake Elwell (Tiber) Marias River Oregon Trail Div, NE-WY (Glendo Unit) Glendo Reservoir North Platte River Solomon Division, KS (Glen Elder Unit) Waconda Lake (Glen Elder) Solomon River

Category A

Purpose I–FC–P–MI–F– W

Active Capacity Acre-Feet

Total Capacity Acre-Feet

Reservoir Area Acres

1,605,057

2,050,519

35,181

1954

Year Completed

A

P

834,776

1,328,360

17,298

1966

A

I–FW

790,533

1,368,157

23,152

1956f

A

I–P–FC

726,254

789,402

12,400

1958

A

I–FC–MI

927,104

963,775

12,600

1969

Note: As of September 30, 1986; total capacity of 500,000 acre-feet or more. Purpose, FW, fish wildlife; FC, flood control; I, irrigation; MI, municipal industrial; N, navigation; P, power; RR, river regulation; S, sediment. Capacity-active, storage available for project, usually the storage above the lowest point of release. Total, storage at highest controlled water surface. Reservoir area, water surface area at active conservation capacity. Year completed, date original construction completed except as indicated in footnote e. Operating agency, agency directly and officially responsible for operation and maintenance of feature. Does not include agencies that may administer recreational or other secondary function as a service to the primary operator. Category, A, constructed and operated by bureau of reclamation; B, constructed by others, operated by bureau of reclamation; C, under construction by bureau of reclamation; D, constructed by bureau of reclamation, operated by others; E, constructed and operated by others. a b c d e f

The bureau of reclamation has responsibility for the proper care and management of five reservoirs by special agreement. Reregulating reservoir. Dead storage not evaluated. Not yet in operation. Date indicates bureau of reclamation rehabilitation work. Tiber dam modification completed in 1981.

Source: From U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation, 1986, Statistical Compilation of Engineering Features on Bureau of Reclamation Projects.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Characteristics of Dam

Name Alaska Chena River Lakes Arizona Adobe Alamo Cave Buttes Dreamy Draw New River Painted Rock Tat Momolikot Whitlow Ranch Arkansas Blakely Mountain Dam Blue Mountain DeGray DeQueen Dierks Gillham Millwood Narrows Dam Nimrod California Black Butte Brea Buchanan Dam-H.V. Eastman Lake Carbon Canyon

River Basin

Stream

Community in Vicinity

Year Placed in Operation

Total Storage (acre-ft)

Permanent Pool (Acreage) or No Pool (NPP)

Project Functionsa

Type

Height (ft)

Length (ft)

Chena River

Fairbanks

1981

2,000

NPP

FR

Earth

50

40,200

Gila Colorado Gila Gila Gila Gila Gila Gila

Skunk Creek Bill Williams River Cave Creek Dreamy Draw New River Gila River Santa Rosa Wash Queen Creek

Phoenix Wenden Phoenix Phoenix Phoenix Gila Bend Casa Grande Superior

1982 1968 1979 1973 1985 1959 1974 1960

18,350 1,046,310 46,600 320 43,520 2,491,700 198,550 35,500

NPP 560 NPP NPP NPP NPP NPP NPP

FR FRWX FRX FRX F FRWX FWX FX

Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth

109 283 109 50 104 181 75.5 149

2,275 975 2,275 448 2,320 4,780 12,500 837

Ouachita Arkansas Ouachita Red Red Red Red Ouachita Arkansas

Ouachita Petit Jean River Caddo Rolling Fork River Saline River Cossatot River Little River Little Missouri Fourche La Fave River

Hot Springs Paris Arkadelphia DeQueen Dierks Gillham Ashdown Murfreesboro Plainview

1955 1947 1971 1977 1975 1975 1966 1949 1942

2,768,500 257,900 881,900 136,100 96,800 221,800 1,854,930 407,900 336,010

20,900 2,910 6,400 1,680 1,360 1,370 29,200 2,500 3,550

FP FRWX FPQRS FSQRW FSRAW FSQW FSW FP FSWX

Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth and Rock Earth and Rock Earth Concrete Concrete

235 115 243 160 153 160 88 175 97

1,100 2,800 3,400 2,360 2,500 1,750 17,554 941 1,012

Sacramento Santa Ana San Joaquin

Stony Creek Brea Creek Chowchilla River

Orland Fullerton Chowchilla

1963 1942 1975

160,000 4,010 150,000

770 NPP 470

FIRX FRX FIRW

Earth Earth Earth and Rock

156 87 205.5

2,970 1,765 1,800

Santa Ana

Carbon Canyon River East Fork Russian River Dry Creek

Brea

1961

6,610

NPP

FRX

Earth

99

2,610

Ukiah

1959

122,500

1,700

FRX

Earth

160

3,500

Healdsburg

1983

381,000

500

FRSW

Earth

319

3,000

Farmington Fullerton

1952 1941

52,000 760

NPP NPP

F FRX

Earth Earth

60 46

7,800 575

Los Angeles Marysville Madera

1940 1941 1975

25,450 69,000 90,000

120 400 5,000

FRWX DR FIRW

Earth Concrete Earth

97 280 163

10,475 1,142 5,730

Bakersfield San Fernando

1953 1954

570,000 440

1,850 NPP

FIRW FX

Earth Earth

185 50

4,952 1,300

Coyote Valley

Russian

Dry Creek (Warm Springs) Lake and Channel Farmington Fullerton

Russian

Hansen Harry L. Englebright Hidden Dam-Hensley Lake Isabella Lopez

Los Angeles Sacramento San Joaquin

Littlejohn Creek East Fullerton Creek Big Tujunga Wash Yuba River Fresno River

San Joaquin Los Angeles

Kern River Pacoima Wash

San Joaquin Santa Ana

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-73

Yukon-Kuskokwim

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11B.26 Flood Control Reservoirs in the United States

11-74

Table 11B.26

(Continued) Characteristics of Dam

Name

Colorado Bear Creek Chatfield Cherry Creek John Martin Trinidad Connecticut Black Rock Colebrook River

Hancock Brook Hop Brook Mansfield Hollow Northfield Brook Thomaston West Thompson Idaho Lucky Peak Illinois Cariyle Farmdale Fondulac Shelbyville Rend Lake

Stream

Community in Vicinity

Year Placed in Operation

Total Storage (acre-ft)

Sacramento

Martis Creek

Reno

1971

20,400

71

San Joaquin San Joaquin San Joaquin San Joaquin Mojave San Joaquin Sacramento San Joaquin Santa Ana Santa Ana San Gabriel Los Angeles San Joaquin San Joaquin San Gabriel

Bear Creek Burns Creek Mariposa Creek Owens Creek Mojave Calaveras American River Kings River Santa Ana River San Antonio Creek San Gabriel River Los Angeles River Tule River Kaweah River San Gabriel River and Rio Hondo

Merced Merced Merced Merced Victorville Valley Springs Auburn Piedra Corona Upland Duarte Van Nuys Porterville Visalia El Monte

1954 1950 1948 1949 1971 1963 1939 1954 1941 1956 1948 1941 1960 1961 1957

7,700 7,000 15,000 3,600 89,670 325,000 14,700 1,000,000 196,240 7,700 32,110 17,430 85,000 150,000 35,150

NPP NPP NPP NPP NPP 715 280 NPP NPP NPP NPP NPP 400 345 NPP

Missouri Missouri Missouri Arkansas Arkansas

Bear Creek South Platte River Cherry Creek Arkansas River Purgatoire River

Denver Denver Denver Lamar Trinidad

1978 1974 1950 1943 1977

30,810 231,429 93,920 615,500 123,500

109 1,412 852 1,844 280

Housatonic Connecticut

Thomaston Riverton

1970 1969

8,700 97,700

Housatonic Housatonic Thames Thames Housatonic Thames

Branch Brook West Branch, Farmington River Hancock Brook Hop Brook Natchaug River Northfield Brook Naugatuck River Quinebaug

Plymouth Middlebury Willimantic Thomaston Thomaston Thompson

1960 1968 1952 1965 1960 1965

Columbia

Boise River

Boise

Upper Upper Upper Upper Upper

Kaskaskia River Farm Creek Fondulac Creek Kaskaskia River Big Muddy River

Carlyle East Peoria East Peoria Shelbyville Benton

Mississippi Mississippi Mississippi Mississippi Mississippi

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Project Functionsa

Type

Height (ft)

Length (ft)

FSR

Earth

113

2,670

F F F F FRWX FIRX DR FIRX FRX FX FRX FRX FIRX FIRX FRWX

Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth and Rock Concrete Concrete Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth

92 55 88 75 200 210 155 429 106 160 92 57 142 250 56

1,830 4,075 1,330 790 2,200 1,960 620 1,820 2,280 3,850 23,800 15,444 3,490 2,375 16,960

FRX FRX FRX FIR FIRX

Earth Earth Earth Concrete and Earth Earth

180 148 141 106 200

5,300 12,500 14,300 13,274 6,610

20 760

FR FRSX

Earth Earth

154 223

933 1,300

4,030 6,970 52,000 2,430 42,000 26,800

40 21 450 8 NPP 200

FRW FR FRW FRW F FRW

Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth

57 97 68 118 142 70

630 520 12,420 810 2,000 2,550

1956

306,000

2,850

FIR

Earth

250

1,700

1967 1951 1951 1970 1970

983,000 15,500 3,780 684,000 294,000

26,000 NPP NPP 11,100 18,900

FSNRWA F F FSNRW FQRSW

Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth

67 80 67 108 54

6,570 1,275 1,000 3,000 10,600

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Martis Creek Merced County Stream Group Bear Burns Mariposa Owens Mojave River New Hogan North Fork Pine Flat Prado San Antonio Santa Fe Sepulveda Success Terminus Whittier Narrows

River Basin

Permanent Pool (Acreage) or No Pool (NPP)

Ohio

Brookville

1974

359,600

2,250

FRSW

Earth and Rock

182

3,000

Terre Haute Rockville Huntington Peru Harrodsburg Ellsworth Wabash

1952 1960 1969 1967 1964 1978 1966

228,120 132,800 153,100 368,400 441,000 301,600 263,600

1,400 1,100 500 1,100 3,280 2,010 976

FRX FRX FRW FRW FARS FRSQW FRW

Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth and Rock Earth

150 117 91 137 93 84 133

950 1,790 5,332 8,100 1,400 1,550 6,100

Cagles Mill Cecil M. Harden Huntington Mississinewa Monroe Patoka Salamonie Iowa Coralville Rathbun Red Rock Saylorville Kansas Clinton Council Grove El Dorado Elk City Fall River Hillsdale John Redmond Kanopolis Marion Melvern

Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio

East Fork of Whitewater River Mill Creek Raccoon Creek Wabash River Mississinewa Salt Creek Patoka River Salamonie

Upper Mississippi Missouri Upper Mississippi Upper Mississippi

Iowa River Chariton River Des Moines River Des Moines River

Iowa City Centerville Des Moines Des Moines

1958 1969 1969 1975

492,000 552,000 1,830,000 602,000

1,820 11,000 8,950 74,000

FARW FNRWXQ FARWQ FARWQ

Earth Earth Earth Earth

100 86 110 125

1,400 10,600 5,676 6,750

Missouri Arkansas Arkansas Arkansas Arkansas Missouri Arkansas Missouri Arkansas Missouri

Lawrence Council Grove El Dorado Independence Fall River Kansas City Burlington Salina Marion Melvern

1977 1964 1981 1966 1949 1981 1964 1948 1968 1972

397,200 112,265 236,200 284,300 256,400 160,000 630,250 450,000 143,850 363,000

7,000 3,235 8,000 4,450 2,350 4,580 9,280 3,815 6,200 6,930

FSWAXR FSQR FSQR FSQ FSX FSQR FSQR FRWX FRQS FRQWX

Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth

114 96 99 107 94 75 86.5 131 67 98

9,250 6,500 20,930 4,840 6,015 11,600 21,790 15,360 8,375 9,700

Milford Pearson Skubitz Big Hill Perry Pomona Toronto Tuttle Creek Wilson Kentucky Barren River Buckhorn

Missouri Arkansas

Wakarusa River Grand (Neosho) Walnut River Elk River Fall River Big Bull Creek Grand (Neosho) Smoky Hill River Cottonwood River Marias Des Cygnes Republican River Big Hill Creek

Junction City Cherryvale

1965 1981

1,160,000 40,600

15,600 1,240

FRSXWQ FSR

Earth and Rock Earth

126 83

6,300 3,870

Missouri Missouri Arkansas Missouri Missouri

Delaware River 110 Mile Creek Verdigris River Big Blue River Saline River

Perry Pomona Toronto Manhattan Wilson

1969 1963 1960 1962 1964

770,000 230,000 200,800 2,346,000 776,000

12,200 4,000 2,660 15,800 9,000

FRSXW FRSWXQ FX FRWXQAN FIRWXNA

Earth and Rock Earth and Rock Earth Earth and Rock Earth

95 85 90 157 160

7,750 7,750 4,712 7,500 5,600

Ohio Ohio

Glasgow Buckhorn

1964 1960

815,200 168,000

4,340 550

FARS FR

Earth Earth

146 162

3,970 1,020

Carr Fork Cave Run Dewey Fishtrap

Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio

Hazard Farmers Paintsille Pikeville

1976 1974 1949 1968

47,700 614,100 93,000 164,360

530 6,790 1,100 569

FQRW FQRW FARW FARW

Earth and Rock Earth and Rock Earth Rock

130 148 118 195

720 2,740 913 1,100

Grayson Green River Martins Fork Paintsville Nolin Rough River

Ohio Ohio Cumberland Ohio Ohio Ohio

Barren River Middle Fork of Kentucky River Carr Fork Licking River Johns Creek Levisa Fork, Big Sandy River Little Sandy Green River Martins Fork Paint Creek Nolin River Rough River

Grayson Campbellsville Harlan Paintsville Kyrock Leitchfield

1967 1969 1978 1983 1963 1958

118,990 723,200 21,000 73,500 609,400 334,400

1,050 5,070 578 261 2,890 2,180

FQRW FRSQW FQ FQRW FAR FRX

Earth and Rock Earth and Rock Concrete Earth and Rock Earth and Rock Earth and Rock

120 142 97 160 174 124

1,460 2,350 574 1,600 990 1,530

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-75

(Continued)

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Indiana Brookville

11-76

Table 11B.26

(Continued) Characteristics of Dam

Name

Stream

Community in Vicinity

Year Placed in Operation

Total Storage (acre-ft)

Project Functionsa

Type

Height (ft)

Length (ft)

164

1,280

76 48

12,850 3,600 4,934

Ohio

Salt River

Taylorsville

1983

291,670

1,625

FQRW

Earth and Rock

Red Red Red

Bayou Bodcau Cypress Bayou Cypress Bayou

Shreveport Shreveport Shreveport

1949 1971 1946

357,300 175,000 88,300

NPP 32,700 2,300

FRW NFRS FR

Earth Concrete and Earth Earth

Potomac

North Branch

Barnum

1981

130,900

952

FQRS

Earth and Rock

296

2,130

Connecticut Connecticut Thames Charles

Ware River Millers River Little River Charles River

Barre So.Royalston Charlton Millis

1958 1941 1958 1983

24,000 49,900 12,700 35,000

NPP NPP 200 NPP

FRW FRW FRW F

Earth and Rock Earth and Rock Earth and Rock Nonstructural

62 56 66 —

885 1,400 3,255 —

Connecticut Connecticut Connecticut Connecticut Connecticut

Monson Fiskdale Oxford Huntington Chester

1966 1960 1959 1941 1965

3,740 30,000 12,800 49,000 32,400

NPP 360 NPP NPP 275

F FRW FRW FRW FRWS

Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth

and Rock and Rock and Rock and Rock and Rock

85 55 55 160 1,164

1,060 520 2,140 1,200 1,360

Connecticut Blackstone Thames

Conant Brook Quinebaug River French River Westfield River Middle Branch, Westfield River Tully River West River Quinebaug River

Fryville Uxbridge Sturbridge

1949 1960 1961

22,000 12,350 11,100

300 NPP 23

FRW FRW FRW

Earth and Rock Earth and Rock Earth and Rock

62 51 78

1,570 2,400 560

Upper Mississippi

Minnesota River

Ortonville

1973

45,000

12,700

FRW

Earth

25

13,700

Upper Mississippi

Chippewa River

Montevideo

1950

—

NPP

FRWX

Earth and Rock

23.3

17,975

Upper Mississippi Upper Mississippi Red River of the North Red River of the North

Minnesota River Minnesota River Otter Tail River

Montevideo Montevideo Fergus Falls

1950 1950 1953

122,800 35,000 14,100

6,500 5,100 210

FRWX FRWX FARS

Earth and Rock Earth and Rock Earth and Rock

21 19.5 47

4,100 11,800 1,355

Red Lake River

Red River

1951

2,680,000

279,000

FARSX

Earth and Rock

15.5

36,500

Mississippi Arkabutla Lake Enid Lake Grenada Lake Okatibbee Sardis Lake

Lower Mississippi Lower Mississippi Lower Mississippi Pascagoula Lower Mississippi

Coldwater River Yocona River Yalobusha River Okatibbee Creek Little Tailahatchie River

Arkabutla Enid Grenada Meridian Sardis

1943 1951 1954 1969 1940

525,300 660,000 1,337,400 142,400 1,570,000

5,100 6,100 9,800 1,280 10,700

F F F FQSR F

Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth

Missouri Clearwater Long Branch

White Grande Chariton

Black River Little Chariton

Piedmont Macon

1948 1980

413,700 65,000

1,630 2,430

FRWX FRSQW

Tully West Hill Westville Minnesota Big Stone LakeWhetstone River Lac Qui Parle Chippewa River Lac Qui Parle Marsh Lake Orwell Red Lake

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

and Rock and Rock and Rock and Rock

81 99 102 67 117

11,500 8,400 13,900 6,543 15,300

Earth and Rock Earth

154 71

4,225 3,800

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Taylorsville Louisiana Bayou Bodcau Caddo Lake Wallace Lake Maryland Jennings Randolph Lake Massachusetts Barre Falls Birch Hill Buffumville Charles River Natural Valley Storage Conant Brook East Brimfield Hodges Village Knightville Littleville

River Basin

Permanent Pool (Acreage) or No Pool (NPP)

Missouri Missouri

Smithville Wappapello Nebraska Harlan County Papillion Creek and Tributaries: Glenn Cunningham (Site 11) Standing Bear Lake (Site 16) Salt Creek and Tributaries Olive Creek (Site 2) Blue Stem (Site 4)

Missouri

Wagon Train (Site 8)

Missouri

Stagecoach (Site 9)

Missouri

Yankee Hill (Site 10) Conestoga (Site 12) Twin Lake (Site 13) Pawnee (Site 14) Holmes Park Lake (Site 17) Branched Oak (Site 18) Nevada Mathews Canyon Pine Canyon New Hampshire Blackwater Edward MacDowell Franklin Falls Hopkinton-Everett Otter Brook Surry Mountain New Mexico Abiquiu Cochiti Conchas Galisteo Jemez Canyon Two Rivers Diamond “A” Dam

Kansas City Hermitage

1986 1961

46,900 650,000

930 7,820

FRWQ FRWX

Earth and Rock Earth and Rock

120 155

1,900 4,630

Missouri Lower Mississippi

Little Blue River Pomme de Terre River Little Platte River St. Francis River

Smithville Wappapello

1982 1941

246,500 613,200

7,190 4,100

FSQRW FR

Earth Earth and Rock

95 109

4,200 2,700

Missouri

Republican River

Republican City

1952

850,000

13,600

FIRWX

Earth and Rock

107

11,827

Missouri

Knight Creek

Omaha

1975

17,910

392

FQRX

Earth

67

1,940

Missouri

Trib. of Big Papillion Creek

Omaha

1973

5,220

137

FRX

Earth

70

1,460

Missouri

Kramer

1964

5,470

174

FR

Earth

45

3,020

Sprague

1963

10,260

315

FR

Earth

57

2,760

Holland

1963

9,280

303

FR

Earth

52

1,650

Hickman

1964

6,640

196

FR

Earth

48

2,250

Missouri Missouri Missouri Missouri Missouri

S. Trib. Olive Br. Creek N. Trib. Olive Br. Creek N. Trib. Hickman Creek S. Trib. Hickman Creek Cardwell Creek Holmes Creek Middle Creek N. Middle Creek Antelope Creek

Denton Denton Pleasantdale Emerald Lincoln

1966 1964 1966 1965 1963

7,560 10,640 8,080 29,520 6,510

208 230 255 728 100

FR FR FR FR FR

Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth

52 63 58 65 55

3,100 3,000 2,075 5,000 7,700

Missouri

Oak Creek

Raymond

1968

97,560

1,780

FR

Earth

70

5,200

Colorado Colorado

Mathews Canyon Pine Canyon

Caliente Caliente

1957 1957

6,270 7,750

NPP NPP

FX FX

Earth Earth

71 92

800 884

Merrimack Merrimack Merrimack

Webster West Peterborough Franklin

1941 1950 1943

46,000 12,800 154,000

NPP NPP NPP

FRW FRW FRW

Earth Earth Earth

75 67 140

1,150 1,030 1,740

Merrimack Merrimack Connecticut Connecticut

Blackwater River Nubanusit Brook Pemigewasset River Contoocook River Piscataquog River Otter Brook Ashuelot River

West Hopkinton East Weare Keene Keene

1962 1962 1958 1941

71,500 87,500 18,300 32,500

200 120 85 265

FRW FRW FRW FRW

Earth Earth Earth Earth

76 115 133 86

790 2,000 1,288 1,670

Rio Grande Rio Grande Arkansas Rio Grande Rio Grande

Rio Chama Rio Grande Canadian River Galisteo Creek Jemez River

Abiquiu Pena Blanca Tucumcari Albuquerque Bernalillo

1963 1975 1939 1970 1953

1,212,000 596,300 529,000 89,000 102,700

NPP 1,200 3,000 NPP NPP

FXS FRWX FI FX FX

Earth Earth Concrete and Earth Earth Earth

325 251 200 158 135

1,540 28,300 19,400 2,820 780

Rio Grande

Rio Hondo

Roswell

1963

168,000

NPP

FX

Earth

98

4,885

11-77

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Longview Pomme de Terre

11-78

Table 11B.26

(Continued) Characteristics of Dam

Name

Bowman-Haley Homme Pipestem Ohio Alum Creek Berlin Caesar Creek Clarence J. Brown Deer Creek Delaware Dillon Michael J. Kirwan Mosquito Creek Muskingum River Reservoirs Atwood Beach City Bolivar Charles Mill Clendening Dover Leesville Mohawk Mohicanville Piedmont

Stream

Community in Vicinity

Year Placed in Operation

Total Storage (acre-ft)

Rio Grande Pecos

Rocky Arroyo Pecos

Santa Rosa

1979

447,000

NPP

Susquehanna Susquehanna Susquehanna Genesee Susquehanna

Canacadea Creek Canisteo Creek Ouleout Creek Genesee River Otselic River

Hornell Arkport Franklin Mount Morris Whitney Point

1949 1940 1950 1952 1942

14,600 7,900 33,550 337,000 86,440

124 NPP 210 170 1,200

Cape Fear Neuse Yadkin-Pee Dee

New Hope Neuse Yadkin

Durham Raleigh Wilkesboro

1982 1983 1963

753,500 335,600 153,000

14,300 11,300 1,470

Red River of the North Missouri

Sheyenne River

Valley City

1950

70,000

325

North Fork, Grand River South Branch of Park River Pipestem Creek

Haley

1967

92,980

1,750

Park River

1951

3,650

Jamestown

1974

Africa Deerfield Wilmington Springfield New Holland Delaware Zanesville Newton Falls

Ohio

Alum Creek Mahoning River Caesar Creek Buck Creek Deer Creek Olentangy River Licking River West Branch, Mahoning River Mosquito Creek

Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio

Indian Fork Sugar Creek Sandy Creek Black Fork Brushy Fork Tuscarawas River McGuire Creek Walhonding River Lake Fork Stillwater Creek

Red River of the North James River Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Project Functionsa

Type

Height (ft)

Length (ft)

FIX

Earth

118 212

2,940 1,950

FRW F FRW FR FRW

Earth Earth Concrete and Earth Concrete Earth

90 113 130 210 95

1,260 1,200 2,010 1,028 4,900

FQRSWX FQRSWX FARSX

Earth Earth Earth

112 92 148

1,330 1,915 1,740

FARS

Earth

61

1,650

FSRWX

Earth

79

5,730

51

FARS

Earth

67

865

146,880

885

FRWX

Earth

108

4,000

1975 1943 1978 1974 1968 1951 1961 1966

134,800 91,200 242,200 63,700 102,500 132,000 273,000 78,700

348 240 13,300 1,010 727 950 1,325 580

FRSW FARSWQ FRSQW FQRW FRW FARWX FRWX FAQRSW

Concrete and Earth Concrete and Earth Earth and Rock Earth and Rock Earth Earth Earth Earth

93 96 165 72 93 92 118 83

10,000 5,750 2,750 6,620 3,880 18,600 1,400 9,900

Cortland

1944

104,100

700

FARSWQ

Earth

47

5,650

New Cumberland Beach City Bolivar Mufflin Tippecanoe Dover Leesville Nellie Mohicanville Piedmont

1937 1937 1938 1936 1937 1938 1937 1937 1936 1937

49,700 71,700 149,600 88,000 54,000 203,000 37,400 285,000 102,000 65,000

1,540 420 NPP 1,350 1,800 350 1,000 NPP NPP 2,270

FRX FRX FR FRX FRX FRX FRX FR FR FRX

Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Concrete Earth Earth Earth Earth

65 64 87 48 64 83 74 111 46 56

3,700 5,600 6,300 1,390 950 824 1,694 2,330 1,220 1,750

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Rocky Dam Santa Rosa Dam Reservoir New York Almond Arkport East Sidney Mount Morris Whitney Point North Carolina B. Everett Jordan Falls W. Kerr Scott North Dakota Baldhill

River Basin

Permanent Pool (Acreage) or No Pool (NPP)

Ohio Ohio Ohio

Clear Fork Seneca Fork Little Stillwater Creek Wills Creek North Branch of Kokosing River

Perrysville Senecaville Tappan

1938 1937 1936

87,700 88,500 61,600

850 3,550 2,350

FRX FRSX FRX

Earth Earth Earth

113 45 52

775 2,350 1,550

Conesville Fredericktown

1937 1973

196,000 14,900

900 98

FRX FRW

Earth Earth

87 71

1,950 1,400

Paint Creek East Branch, Sunday Creek Mill Creek Little Miami River

New Petersburg Gloucester

1972 1951

145,000 26,900

710 394

FRSQW FRSWX

Earth and Rock Concrete

118 84

700 944

Mount Healthy Williamsburg

1952 1978

11,380 284,500

200 18,760

FRX FRSQW

Earth Earth

100 200

1,100 1,450

Barnsdall Canton

1977 1948

58,200 377,100

1,137 7,910

FSQRW FSI

Earth Earth

97 73

3,193 15,140

Copan Fort Supply Cherokee

1983 1942 1941

227,700 100,700 271,400

4,850 1,820 8,690

FSQRW FSX FRWX

Earth Earth Earth

70 85 68

7,730 12,225 6,010

Sapulpa Hugo Caney Ponca City Oologah Hardesty

1950 1974 1951 1976 1963 1978

55,030 966,700 289,000 1,348,000 1,519,000 229,500

880 13,250 3,570 17,040 29,460 5,340

FRWXS FSQRW FSAX FSQRW FSN FSRW

Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth

89 101 94 125 137 120

2,920 10,200 5,200 9,466 4,000 15,200

Wright City Clayton Skiatook Waurika Wister

1969 1983 1985 1977 1949

465,780 429,600 500,700 343,500 427,900

3,750 14,360 10,190 10,100 5,360

FSQW FSRW FSQRW FISQWR FSAX

Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth

124 81 143 106 99

7,712 14,138 3,590 16,600 5,700

AFIQRSW

Gravel Embankment Earth Concrete and Earth

242

1,300

319 114

1,329 2,110

Concrete and Earth Rockfill and Concrete Rockfill and Concrete Roller Compacted Concrete

145 193

3,352 5,100

49

6,624

160

1,780

165 90 170 98

1,350 1,270 4,300 1,775

Wills Creek North Branch, Kokosing River Lake Paint Creek Tom Jenkins

Ohio Ohio

West Fork Mill Creek William H. Harsha Oklahoma Birch Canton

Ohio Ohio Arkansas Arkansas

Copan Fort Supply Great Salt Plains

Arkansas Arkansas Arkansas

Heyburn Hugo Hulah Kaw Oologah Optima

Arkansas Red Arkansas Arkansas Arkansas Arkansas

Pine Creek Sardis Skiatook Waurika Wister Oregon Applegate

Red Red Arkansas Red Arkansas

Birch Creek North Canadian River Little Caney River Wolf Creek Salt Fork, Arkansas River Polecat Creek Kiamichi River Caney River Arkansas River Verdigris River North Canadian River Little River Jackfork Creek Hominy Creek Beaver Creek Poteau River

Rogue River

Applegate River

Medford

1981

82,000

988

Blue River Cottage Grove

Columbia Columbia

Blue River Cottage Grove

1968 1942

85,000 30,060

975 1,155

FINR FINR

Dorena Fall Creek

Columbia Columbia

Cottage Grove Eugene

1949 1965

70,500 115,000

1,885 1,865

FINR FINR

Fern Ridge

Columbia

Blue River Coast Fork, Willamette River Row River Middle Fork, Willamette River Long Tom River

Eugene

1941

110,000

10,305

FINR

Willow Creek

Columbia

Willow Creek

Heppner

1983

13,250

96

FRN

Pennsylvania Alvin R. Bush Aylesworth Creek Beltzville Blue Marsh

Susquehanna Susquehanna Delaware Delaware

Kettle Creek Aylesworth Creek Pohopoco Tulephocken

Renovo Archbald Lehighton Blue Marsh

1962 1970 1971 1978

75,000 1,700 68,250 22,900

160 NPP 947 963

Ohio Ohio

FRW F FQRSW FAQRS

Earth Earth Earth Earth

and Rock and Rock and Rock and Rock

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-79

(Continued)

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Pleasant Hill Senecaville Tappan

11-80

Table 11B.26

(Continued) Characteristics of Dam

Name

River Basin Ohio Susquehanna Ohio Susquehanna River

East Branch, Clarion River Foster Joseph Sayers Francis E. Walter (Bear Creek) Gen. Edgar Jadwin Indian Rock Kinsua Loyalhanna Mahoning Creek Prompton Raystown

Ohio

Shenango Stillwater Tioga-Hammond Lakes Hammond Lakes Tionesta Union City Woodcock Creek Youghiogheny River

Ohio Susquehanna Susquehanna

Community in Vicinity

Year Placed in Operation

Total Storage (acre-ft)

Project Functionsa

Type

Height (ft)

Length (ft)

FW FR FRW FR

Concrete and Earth Earth and Rock Earth Earth

137 151 143 131

1,265 3,100 1,480 2,850

FARQW

Earth

184

1,725

Conemaugh River Cowanesque River Crooked Creek West Branch, Susquehanna River East Branch, Clarion River Bald Eagle Creek Lehigh River

Saltsburg Lawrenceville Ford City Curwensville

1952 1980 1940 1965

274,000 89,000 93,900 124,200

300 410 350 790

Wilcox

1952

84,300

90

Blanchard White Haven

1969 1961

99,000 110,000

1,730 90

FRW FNRW

Earth Earth and Rock

100 234

6,835 3,000

Dyberry Creek Codorus Creek Allegheny River Loyalhanna Creek Mahoning Creek Lackawaxen River Raystown Branch, Juniata River Shenanago River Lackawanna River Tioga River

Honesdale York Warren Saltsburg New Bethlehem Honesdale Huntingdon

1960 1942 1965 1942 1941 1960 1973

24,500 28,000 1,180,000 95,300 74,200 52,000 762,000

NPP NPP 1,900 210 170 290 8,300

F FRW PFAQRW FRW FRW FNRW FRW

Earth Earth Concrete and Earth Concrete and Earth Concrete Earth Earth and Rock

109 83 177 114 162 140 225

1,225 1,000 1,877 960 926 1,230 1,700

Sharpsville Uniondale Tioga

1966 1960 1978

191,400 12,000 62,000

1,910 85 470

FAQRW FS FR

Concrete Earth Earth and Rock

68 77 140

720 1,700 2,710

Susquehanna Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio

Crooked Creek Tionesta Creek French Creek French Creek Youghiogheny River

Tioga Tionesta Union City Meadville Confluence

1978 1940 1970 1973 1943

63,000 133,400 47,640 20,000 254,000

680 480 NPP 118 450

FR FRW F FQRA FARWQ

Earth and Rock Earth Earth Earth Earth

122 154 88 90 184

6,450 1,050 1,420 4,650 1,610

Missouri Missouri

Cold Brook Cottonwood Springs Creek

Hot Springs Hot Springs

1953 1970

7,200 8,385

36 41

FRWX FRWX

Earth Earth

127 123

925 1,190

Red River of the North Red River of the North

Bois de Sioux River Wheaton

1941

164,500

10,925

FRX

Earth

14

9,100

Bois de Sioux River Wheaton

1941

85,000

6,500

FRX

Earth

16

14,400

Texas Addicks

San Jacinto

Addicks

1948

204,500

NPP

FX

Earth

49

61,166

Aquilla Bardwell Barker

Brazos Trinity San Jacinto

South Mayde Creek Aquilla Creek Waxahachie Creek Buffalo Bayou

Hillsboro Ennis Barker

1983 1965 1945

146,000 140,000 207,000

3,280 3,570 NPP

FSX FRSX FX

Earth Earth Earth

104.5 82 37

11,890 15,400 72,844

South Dakota Cold Brook Cottonwood Springs Lake Traverse Reservation Control Dam White Rock

Susquehanna Delaware Delaware Susquehanna Ohio Ohio Ohio Delaware Susquehanna

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Conemaugh Cowanesque Crooked Creek Curwensville

Stream

Permanent Pool (Acreage) or No Pool (NPP)

Brazos Trinity

Canyon Ferrells Bridge Dam Lake O’ the Pines Granger Dam and Lake Grapevine Hords Creek Lake Kemp Lavon

Guadalupe Red

Lewisville

Trinity

Navarro Mills North San Gabriel Dam, Lake Georgetown O. C. Fisher

Trinity Brazos

Pat Mayse Proctor Somerville Stillhouse Hollow Waco Wright Patman Vermont Ball Mountain North Hartland

Red Brazos Brazos Brazos Brazos Red

North Springfield Townshend Union Village

Connecticut Connecticut Connecticut

Virginia John W. Flannagan Gathright Dam and Lake Moomaw North Fork of Pound River Washington Howard A. Hanson Mill Creek Mud Mountain Wynoochee West Virginia Beech Fork Bluestone

Leon River Clear Fork, Trinity River Guadalupe Cypress Creek

Belton Fort Worth

1954 1952

1,097,600 258,600

12,300 3,770

FIRSX FNRXA

Earth Earth

192 130

5,524 9,130

New Braunfeis Jefferson

1964 1959

740,900 842,100

8,240 18,700

FRSX FRS

Earth Earth

224 97

6,830 10,600

San Gabriel River Denton Creek Hords Creek Wichita River East Fork, Trinity River Elm Fork, Trinity River Richland Creek North Fork, San Gabriel River

Granger Grapevine Coleman Wichita Falls Fort Worth

1980 1952 1948 1972 1953

244,200 425,500 25,310 502,900 748,200

4,400 7,280 510 15,590 21,400

FRSWX FNRSXA FARSX FX FRSX

Earth Earth Earth Earth and Rock Earth

115 137 91 115 81

16,320 12,850 6,800 8,890 19,483

Lewisville

1954

989,700

23,280

FRSX

Earth

125

32,888

Corsicana Georgetown

1962 1980

212,200 130,800

5,070 1,310

FRSX FRSWX

Earth Rock

82 164

7,570 6,700

North Concho River Sanders Creek Leon River Yegua Creek Lampasas River Bosque River Sulphur River

San Angelo

1952

396,400

5,440

FRSX

Earth

128

40,885

Paris Comanche Somerville Belton Waco Texarkana

1967 1963 1967 1968 1965 1957

189,100 374,200 507,500 630,400 726,400 2,654,300

5,993 4,610 11,460 6,430 7,270 20,300

FRSX FRSX FRSX FRSX FRSX FRSX

Earth Earth Earth Earth Concrete and Earth Earth

96 86 80 200 140 100

7,080 13,460 26,175 15,624 24,618 18,500

West River Ottauguechee River Black River West River Ompompanoosuc River

Jamaica North Hartland

1961 1960

54,600 71,420

75 220

FRW FRW

Concrete and Earth Concrete and Earth

265 185

915 1,520

Springfield Townshend Union Village

1960 1961 1950

51,067 33,700 38,000

290 100 NPP

FRW FRW FRW

Concrete and Earth Concrete and Earth Concrete and Earth

120 133 170

2,940 1,700 1,100

Ohio James

Pound River Jackson

Haysi Alleghany

1963 1979

145,700 123,739

310 2,532

FAQR FQR

Concrete and Earth Earth and Rock

250 257

960 1,172

Ohio

North Fork, Pound River

Pound

1966

11,293

106

FR

Rock

122

600

Green Columbia Puyallup Chehalis

Green River Mill Creek White River Wynoochee River

Kanaskat Walla Walla Enumclaw Montesano

1961 1942 1953 1972

106,000 8,300 106,000 70,000

1,600 225 NPP 1,150

FAS FR FR FSARI

Rock Earth Rock Concrete and Earth

235 145 425 177

675 3,200 700 1,700

Ohio Ohio

Beech Fork New River

Lavalette Hinton

1977 1952

37,540 631,000

450 1,800

FRW FRWX

Earth Concrete

86 180

1,080 2,048

Brazos Trinity Colorado Red Trinity

Colorado

Connecticut Connecticut

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Belton Benbrook

Note: Operable as of September 30, 1986. a

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-81

Project Functions: A, Low Flow Augmentation; D, Debris Control; F, Flood Control; I, Irrigation; N, Navigation; P, Power; Q, Water Quality Control; R, Public Recreation (Annual Attendance exceeding 5,000); S, Water Supply; W, Fish and Wildlife (Federal and State); X, Water Conservation and Sedimentation.

11-82

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 11B.27 Largest Manmade Reservoirs in the United States Dam Name

Reservoir

Location

Hoover

Lake Mead

Nevada

Glen Canyon

Lake Powell

Arizona

Oahe Garrison Fort Peck Grand Coulee

Lake Oahe Lake Sakakawea Fort Peck Lake F D Roosevelt Reservoir Lake Koocanusa Lake Shasta

South Dakota North Dakota Montana Washington

Toledo Bend Reservoir Lake Francis Case Flaming Gorge Reservoir Lake Oroville Hungry Horse Reservoir Dworshak Reservoir Amistad International Reservoir Bull Shoals Lake Sam Rayburn Reservoir

Louisiana

Libby Shasta Toledo Bend Fort Randall Flaming Gorge Oroville Hungry Horse Dworshak Amistad

Bull Shoals Sam Rayburn Dam

Montana California

South Dakota Utah California Montana Idaho Texas

Arkansas Texas

Owner

Acre-Feet

Completed

Bureau of Reclamation Bureau of Reclamation Corps of Engineers Corps of Engineers Corps of Engineers Bureau of Reclamation Corps of Engineers Bureau of Reclamation Sabine River Authority Corps of Engineers Bureau of Reclamation California DWR Bureau of Reclamation Corps of Engineers International Boundary Water Commission Corps of Engineers Corps of Engineers

28,255,000

1936

27,000,000

1964

19,300,000 18,500,000 15,400,000 9,562,000

1966 1953 1957 1942

5,809,000 4,552,000

1973 1966

4,477,000

1966

3,800,000 3,788,900

1954 1964

3,540,000 3,468,000

1968 1953

3,468,000 3,384,000

1973 1969

3,048,000 2,898,200

1951 1965

Source: From USBR Register of Dams, www.usbr.gov.

Table 11B.28 World’s Largest Reservoirs in Terms of Capacity No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Capacity, 108 m3 204,800 169,270 168,900 160,368 147,960 141,851 135,000 73,300 70,309 68,400 63,000 61,715 60,020 59,300 58,000 53,790 50,700 49,800 48,000 46,000 43,000 35,900 35,400 34,852 34,100

Name a

Owen Falls Bratsk High Aswan Kariba Akosombo Daniel Johnson Guri Krasnoyarsk W A C Bennett Zeya Cabora Bassa La Grande 2 La Grande 3 Ust-llim Kuibyshev Caniapiscau Barrage KA 3 Upper Wainganga Bukhtarma Atatu¨rk Irkutsk Tucurui Vilyui Sanmenxia Hoover Sobradinho

Country Uganda U.S.S.R. Egypt Zimbabwe/Zambia Ghana Canada Venezuela U.S.S.R. Canada U.S.S.R. Mozambique Canada Canada U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. Canada India U.S.S.R. Turkey U.S.S.R. Brazil U.S.S.R. China U.S.A. Brazil

Year 1954 1964 1970 1959 1965 1968 U/C 1967 1967 1978 1974 1978 1981 1977 1955 1980 U/C 1960 U/C 1956 U/C 1967 1960 1936 1979 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11B.28 No 21 22 23 24

(Continued) Capacity, 108 m3 33,304 32,203 31,790 31,500 31,300 30,600 29,959 29,000 28,973 28,370 28,100 29,000 27,920 27,675 27,433 26,000 25,400 24,700 24,700 24,700 23,700 23,550 22,950 22,119 21,626 21,166

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44

11-83

Name Glen Canyon Skins Lake No 1 Jenpeg Volgograd Sayano-Shushensk Keban Iroquois Itaipu Churchill Falls (GR-1) Missi Falls Control Kapchagay Loma de la Lata Garrison Kossou Oahe Razzaza Dyke Rybinsk Longyangxia Mica Tsimlyansk Kenney Ust-Khantaika Furnas Fort Peck Xinanjiang Ilha Solteira

Country U.S.A. Canada Canada U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. Turkey Canada Brazil Canada Canada U.S.S.R. Argentina U.S.A. Ivory Coast U.S.A. Iraq U.S.S.R. China Canada U.S.S.R. Canada U.S.S.R. Brazil U.S.A. China Brazil

Year 1966 1953 1975 1958 U/C 1974 1958 1982 1971 1976 1970 1977 1953 1972 1958 1970 1941 U/C 1972 1952 1952 1970 1963 1937 1960 1973

Note: U/C, under construction. a

This capacity is not fully obtained by a dam; the major part of it is the natural capacity of a lake; Owen Falls is not the greatest manmade lake.

Source: From International Commission on Large Dams, 1984, World Register of Dams.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-84

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 11B.29 Depth of Reservoirs in the United States and Loss by Evaporation Region

Median Depth (ft)

Loss (ft/acre)

New England Delaware and Hudson Chesapeake Bay Southeast Eastern Great Lakes Western Great Lakes

19 29 25 23 16 18

0.55 0.96 0.64 0.53 0.68 0.79

Ohio Cumberland Tennessee Upper Mississippi Lower Mississippi

24 44 40 7 20

0.47 0.54 0.36 0.83 0.81

Upper Missouri Lower Missouri Upper Arkansas-White-Red Lower Arkansas-White-Red Western Gulf Upper Rio Grande and Pecos

25 21 9 (15) 10 8 (15) 20

1.97 1.11 3.27 1.33 2.75 4.26

Colorado Great Basin Pacific Northwest Central Pacific South Pacific

16 15 25 33 44

3.79 3.00 1.44 2.58 4.81

Source: From U.S. Geological Survey, 1960.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Pend Oreille Etowah Cumberland

Newport, WA Cartersville, GA Grand Rivers, KY

1,153,000 670,000 2,082,000

1952 1950 1964

1955 1950 1966

42,600 74,000 130,000

42,600 74,000 130,000

NFPR FPRW NPFR

C C CE

90 190 157

1,055 1,250 9,959

White Missouri

Eureka Springs, AR Chamberlain, SD

1,952,000 1,883,000

1963 1964

1965 1965

112,000 468,000

112,000 468,000

FPSR FPRIW

CE E

228 95

2,575 10,570

Ouachita

Mt. Pine, AR

2,768,000

1953

1956

75,000

75,000

FPRW

E

235

1,100

Columbia

Bonneville, OR

537,000

1938

1938

1,076,600

1,076,600

NPR

C

122

2,690

Mountain Fork Chattahoochee White

Broken Bow, OK Buford, GA Mountain Home, AR

1,368,230 2,554,000 5,408,000

1968 1956 1952

1970 1957 1953

100,000 86,000 340,000

100,000 86,000 340,000

FPWSR NFPW FPR

E E C

225 192 258

2,690 5,400 2,256

Salt Coosawatte Caney Fork Cumberland Columbia

Perry, MO Carters, GA Lancaster, TN Ashland City, TN Bridgeport, WA

1,428,000 472,756 2,092,000 104,000 593,100

1983 1975 1948 1952 1955

1985 1975 1951 1958 1956

58,000 500,000 135,000 36,000 2,069,000

58,000 500,000 135,000 36,000 2,273,160

FNPRSW FPRW FPR NPR PIR

CE ER CE C C

138 450 250 75 220

1,700 1,950 2,160 801 4,300

Savannah

Augusta, GA

2,900,000

1952

1953

280,000

280,000

NFPRSW

CE

200

5,680

Santee

St. Stephen, SC

2,580,000

N/A

1985

84,000

84,000

PW

CE

86

876

Cumberland S. Fork McKenzie Obey

Carthage, TN Blue River, OR Celina, TN

310,900 219,000 1,706,000

1973 1963 1943

1974 1964 1949

100,000 25,000 54,000

100,000 64,600 54,000

NPR NFPRI FPR

CE ER C

445 445 200

1,738 1,738 1,717

Arkansas Caddo Red

Dardanelle, AR Arkadelphia, AR Denison, TX

486,200 831,900 5,312,300

1969 1969 1944

1965 1972 1945

124,000 68,000 70,000

124,000 108,000 175,000

NPR FNPRS FPSRN

C E E

68 243 165

2,683 3,400 17,200

North Santiam

Mill City, OR

461,000

1963

1954

118,000

118,000

NFPRI

C

382

1,528

N. Fork, Clearwater

Orofino, ID

3,453,000

1972

1973

400,000

1,060,000

PNFR

C

717

3,300

Canadian Grand (Neosho) Missouri

Eufaula, OK Ft. Gibson, OK Glasgow, MT

3,825,400 1,284,400 18,909,000

1964 1950 1938

1964 1953 1944

90,000 45,000 185,250

90,000 67,500 185,250

ENPS FP NFPRIW

E CE E

114 110 251

3,200 2,990 21,026

River

Existing Installation (kW)

Scheduled Installation (kW)

204,160c

Ultimate Installation (kW)

Project Functions

Typeb

Height (ft)

Length (ft)

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-85

Community in Vicinity

Total Storage Capability (acre-ft)a

Project Albeni Falls, ID Allatoona Lake, GA Barkley Dam and Lake Barkley, KY and TN Beaver Lake, AR Big Bend Dam (Lake Sharpe), SD Blakely Mountain DamLake Ouachita, AR Bonneville L&D Lake Bonneville, OR & WA Broken Bow Lake, OK Buford Dam Lanier, GA Bull Shoals Lake, AR & MO Clarence Cannon Dam Carters Dam, GA Center Hill Lake, TN Cheatham L&D, TN Chief Joseph Dam (Rufus Woods Lake), WA Clarks Hill Lake, GA & SC Cooper River, Charleston Harbor, SC Cordell Hull L&D, TN Cougar Lake, OR Dale Hollow Lake, TN & KY Dardanelle L&D, AR DeGray Lake, AR Denison Dam (Lake Texoma), TX & OK Detroit Lake, OR, including Big Cliff Lake, OR Dworshak Dam and Reservoir, ID Eufaula Lake, OK Fort Gibson Lake, OK Fort Peck Lake, MT

Flood Control and/or Nav. Feature Placed in Useful Initial Operation Power In FY

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11B.30 Multipurpose Reservoirs in the United States

11-86

Table 11B.30

(Continued)

Project

Ice Harbor L&D (Lake Sacajawea), WA Jim Woodruff Dam (Lake Seminole), FL, GA & AL John Day L&D (Lake Umatilla), OR & WA John H. Kerr Dam and Reservoir, NC & VA Robert F. Henry L&D, AL J. Percy Priest Dam and Reservoir, TN Keystone Lake, OK Laurel River Lake, KY Libby Dam, Lake Koocanusa, MT Little Goose L&D (Lake Bryan), WA Lookout Point Lake, Including Dexter Lake, OR Lost Creek Lake, OR Lower Granite L&D, WA Lower Monumental L&D, WA McNary L&D—Lake Wallula, OR & WA

Missouri

Lake Andes, SD

Missouri

Riverdale, ND

Missouri

Existing Installation (kW)

Scheduled Installation (kW)

Ultimate Installation (kW)

Project Functions

Typeb

Height (ft)

Length (ft)

5,574,000

1953

1954

320,000

320,000

NFPRIW

E

165

10,700

24,137,000

1954

1956

430,000

430,000

NFPRIW

E

210

11,300

Yankton, SD

504,000

1956

1957

100,000

100,000

NFPRIW

E

74

8,700

Middle Santiam

Sweet Home, OR

491,000

1967

1967

100,000

100,000

PFNIR

C

340

1,380

Little Red Osage

Heber Springs, AR Warsaw, MO

2,844,000 5,202,000

1962 1982

1964 1982d

96,000 160,000

96,000 160,000

FPRW FPRW

CE CE

96 96

5,000 5,000

Sevannah Middle Fork Willamette Snake

Hartwell, GA Oakridge, OR

2,842,700 356,000

1961 1961

1962 1962

344,000 30,000

344,000 30,000

NFPRS NFPRI

CE GE

204 304

17,852 2,150

Pasco, WA

417,000

1962

1962

603,000

603,000

NPRI

CE

130

2,790

Appalachicola

Chattahoochee, FL

367,300

1957

1957

30,000

30,000

NPRW

CE

67

6,150

Columbia

Rufus, OR

2,500,000

1968

1969

2,160,000

2,700,000

NPRFI

CE

161

5,900

Roanoke

Boydton, VA

2,750,300

1952

1953

204,000

204,000

FPRW

CE

144

22,285

Alabama Stones

Benton, AL Nashville, TN

234,200 652,000

1972 1967

1975 1970

68,000 28,000

68,000 28,000

NPRW FPRW

CE CE

101 147

14,962 2,716

Arkansas Laurel Kootenai

Tulsa, OK London, KY Libby, MT

1,737,600 435,600 5,809,000

1964 1973 1972

1968 1978 1975

70,000 61,000 525,000

70,000 61,000 840,000

FNPWS FPRW FPR

E R C

121 282 420

4,600 1,420 3,055

Snake

Starbuck, WA

565,000

1970

1970

810,000

810,000

NPRI

CE

160

2,670

Willamette Middle Fork, Willamette

Lowell, OR

483,000

1954

1955

135,000

135,000

NFPRI

CE

243

3,381

Rogue Snake Snake

Trail, OR Pomeroy, WA Kahlotus, WA

465,000 484,000 376,000

1977 1975 1969

1977 1975 1969

49,000 810,000 810,000

49,000 810,000 810,000

DFPISWR NPRIF NPRI

CE CE CE

345 146 135

3,600 3,200 3,800

Columbia

Umatilla, OR

1,550,000

1953

1954

980,000

1,625,000

NPRI

CE

183

7,300

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Fort Randal Dam (Lake Francis Case), SD Garrison Dam (Lake Sakakawea), ND Gavins Point Dam (Lewis and Clark Lake), SD & NE Green Peter Lake, OR, including Foster Lake, OR Greers Ferry Lake, AR Harry S. Truman Dam and Res. Hartwell Lake, GA & SC Hills Creek Lake, OR

River

Community in Vicinity

Total Storage Capability (acre-ft)a

Flood Control and/or Nav. Feature Placed in Useful Initial Operation Power In FY

Snettisham, AKf Stockton Lake, MO Table Rock Lake, AR & MO Tenkiller Lake, OK The Dalles L&D (Lake Celilo), WA & OR Walter F. George L&D, GA & FL Webbers Falls L&D, OK West Point Lake, AL & GA Whitney Lake, TX Wolf Creek Dam (Lake Cumberland), KY

Alabama Little Missouri

Camden, AL Murfreesboro, AR

331,800 407,900

1969 1950

1970 1950

75,000 25,500

75,000 25,500

NPRW FPRW

CE C

90 183.5

Stanislaus North Fork Missouri

Oakdale, CA Norfolk, AR Pierre, SD

2,400,000 1,983,000 23,337,000

1978 1943 1959

1979 1944 1962

300,000 80,550 595,000

Cumberland Arkansas

Hendersonville, TN Ozark, AR

545,000 148,400

1954 1969

1957 1973

Roanoke Arkansas

Bassett, VA Sallisaw, OK

318,500 525,700

1951 1970

Angelina

Jasper, TX

3,997,600

Great Lakes

Sault Ste. Marie, MI

300,000 163,000 595,000

FIPRW FPRS NFPRIW

ER C E

625 216 245

1,560 2,624 9,300

100,000 100,000

100,000 100,000

NPR NPR

CE C

98 58

3,605 2,480

1954 1971

14,000 110,000

14,000 110,000

FPR NPR

C E

220 75

892 7,230

1965

1966

52,000

52,000

FPWR

CE

120

19,430

—

1855

1952

18,400

NP

Juneau, AK Stockton, MO Branson, MO

352,400 1,647,000 3,462,000

1969 1958

1973 1973 1959

46,700 45,200 200,000

P FPRW FPR

Control Gate Ch CE CE

Speel Sac White

18 128 252

338 5,100 6,423

Illinois Columbia

Gore, OK The Dalles, OR

1,230,800 53,000

1952 1957

1953 1957

34,000 1,806,800

34,000 1,806,800

FP NPR

E CR

197 300

3,000 8,875

Chattahoochea

Fort Gaines, GA

934,000

1963

1963

130,000

130,000

NPRW

CE

114

13,585

Arkansas Chattahoochee

Webbers Falls, OK West Point, GA

170,100 604,500

1970 1975

1973 1975

60,000 73,375

60,000 108,375

NP FPRW

E CE

84 97

4,370 7,250

Brazos Cumberland

Whitney, TX Jamestown, KY

1,999,500 6,089,000

1953 1950

1954 1952

30,000 270,000

30,000 270,000

FPR FPR

CE CE

159 258

17,695 5,736

18.400 27,000g

73,700 45,200 200,000

11,380 941

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Millers Ferry L&D, AL Narrows Dam—Lake Greeson, AR New Melones Lake, CAe Norfolk Lake, AR& MO Oahe Dam (Lake Oahe), SD & ND Old Hickory L&D, TN Ozark-Jeta Taylor L&D, AR Philpott Lake, VA Robert S. Kerr L&D and Reservoir, OK Sam Rayburn Dam and Reservoir, TX St. Mary’s River, MI

Note: In operation September 30, 1986. Nomenclature for project functions: Fy, Fiscal year; D, debris control; F, flood control; I, irrigation; N, navigation; P, power; R, public recreation (annual attendance exceeding 5000); W, fish and wildlife (federal or state). a b c d e f g h

Total of all storage functions, including inactive and dead storage to normal full pool level. G, gravel; R, rock; C, concrete; E, earth. Chief Joseph Additional Units and Operating Units 1–16. All units are synchronized-to-line and two units have passed the pumpback test. However, due to damaging effects to fish, no further pumping will be done for their testing or operation until a solution to the problem is found. Being operated for the Department of Interior by the Bureau of Reclamation. Being operated by the Alaska Power Administration. Crater Lake Unit. Weir for Long Lake.

Source: From Department of the Army Annual Report FY86 of the Secretary of the Army on Civil Works Activities, Washington, D.C.

11-87

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-88

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 11C

HYDROELECTRIC POWER

29.9 22.1 5.0 4.4

0.2 Great Lakes

Souris-Red-Rainy Alaska Pacific Northwest Great Basin

0.2 0.8

8.010.1

5.3 3.4

2.4 1.5

Missourl

Arkansas-White-Red 3.6 1.9

Rio Grande

Lower Colorado

By water resources regions

0.1 0.2

Million kilowatts

0.4

4.8

3.9 2.2

0.6 1.3

Mid Atlantic 3.7

1.6 1.2 Tennessee

6.1

5.4

1.5 Texas-Gulf

North Atlantic

1.5

Ohio 4.3

Upper Colorado 1.9 1.7

California

Upper Mississippi

1.5

South Atlantic Gulf

0.21.0

Lower Mississippi

Developed Undeveloped The hydro potential of Hawaii and the Souris-Red-Rainy Region Drainage is relatively small and thus is not shown.

Figure 11C.20 Conventional hydroelectric power developed and undeveloped, January 1, 1984. (From Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 1984.)

34.8

22.7

5.0 0.2 1.6

18.2 4.6

Alaska 2.8

3.0

Mountain 7.9

Pacific

5.4

East North Central 1.1

West North Central

New England

4.3

Middle Atlantic

1.8 0.4

East South Central

5.7

By geographic divisions Million kilowatts

2.6

6.0

5.3 2.3

West South Central

South Atlantic

Developed Undeveloped The hydro potential of Hawaii is relatively small and thus is not shown

Figure 11C.21 Conventional hydroelectric power developed and underdeveloped, January 1, 1984. (From Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 1984.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Installed Capacity — Kilowattsb

Plant Corps of Engineers Lincoln School Tocks Island Gathright John H Kerr Philpott St. Stephen Clark Hill Richard B Russell Richard B Russell Hartwell Jim Woodruff L&D Walter F George L&D West Point Buford Lower Auchumpkee Lazer Creek Spewrell Bluff Spewrell Bluff Millers Ferry L&D Jones Bluff Carters Carters Allatoona St. Marys Falls Barkley Cheatham L&D J Percy Priest Old Hickory L&D Center Hill Cordell Hull Dale Hollow Celina Wolf Creek Laurel Booneville Bluestone Rowlesburg Clarence F Cannon

Stream

State

Year of Initial Oper.

St John R Delaware R Jackson R Roanoke R Smith R Santee & Cooper R Savannah R Savannah R Savannah R Savannah R Apalachicola R Chattahoochee R Chattahoochee R Chattahoochee R Flint R Flint R Flint R Flint R Alabama R Alabama R Coosawattee R Coosawattee R Etowah R St Marys R Cumberland R Cumberland R Stones R Cumberland R Caney Fk, Cumberland R Cumberland R Obey R Cumberland R Cumberland R Laurel R S Fk Kentucky R New R Cheat R Salt R

ME NJ VA VA VA SC GA GA GA GA FL GA GA GA GA GA GA GA AL AL GA GA GA MI KY TN TN TN TN TN TN KY KY KY KY WV WV MO

— — — 1952 1953 — 1953 — — 1962 1957 1963 1975 1957 — — — — 1970 1975 1975 1977 1950 1951 1966 1958 1970 1957 1950 1973 1948 — 1951 1977 — — — —

Gross Static Head (ft) 76 107 194 90 164 70 152 162 162 178 31 92 78 155 84 123 144 144 49 45 387 387 145 21 46 22 85 46 161 49 135 60 163 251 140 125 938 107

Usable Power Storage 1000 Acre-Feeta 32 426 61 1029 111 1420 1510 127 127 1415 37 207 86 1049 124 60 242 242 17 12 135 135 284 NA 258 19 34 63 492 54 496 15 2142 185 258 238 8 437

Developed — — — 204,000 14,000 280,000 — — 344,000 30,000 130,000 73,375 86,000 — — — — 75,000 68,000 250,000 250,000 R 74,000 18,400 130,000 36,000 28,000 100,000 135,000 100,000 54,000 — 270,000 61,000 — — — —

Under Construction — — — — — 84,000 — 3,00,000 3,00,000 R — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 27,000

Authorized 70,000 70,000 49,000 204,000 14,000 84,000 280,000 300,000 300,000 R 344,000 30,000 130,000 108,375 86,000 77,000 83,000 100,000 50,000 R 75,000 68,000 250,000 250,000 110,000 18,400 130,000 36,000 28,000 100,000 135,000 100,000 54,000 108,000 270,000 61,000 7,300 180,000 350,000 R 27,000

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-89

(Continued)

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11C.31 Conventional and Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Plants in the United States

11-90

Table 11C.31

(Continued) Installed Capacity — Kilowattsb

Plant

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

State

Gross Static Head (ft)

Salt R Des Moines R Sylvan Slough, Miss R Little Missouri R Caddo R Caddo R Ouachita R Osage R Pomme de Terre R Sac R Missouri R Missouri R

MO IA IL AR AR AR AR MO MO MO NE SD

— — 1919 1950 1971 1971 1955 1979 — 1973 1956 1954

107 53 16 145 188 188 181 46 117 86 44 131

437 400 NA 202 393 393 1286 90 165 660 100 3500

— — 2,752 25,500 40,000 28,000 R 75,000 160,000 R — 45,200 100,000 320,000

31,000 R — — — — — — — — — — —

31,000 R 17,200 2,752 25,500 80,000 28,000 R 75,000 160,000 R 16,800 45,200 100,000 320,000

Missouri R Missouri R Missouri R Missouri R Mountain Fk R, Little R Red R Arkansas R Arkansas R Arkansas R Canadian R Illinois R Arkanasas R Neosho R Arkansas R Little Red R North Fork R White R White R White R Neches R Angelina R Neches R Neches R Leon R Brazos R N Santiam R N Santiam R S Santiam R

SD SD ND MT OK TX AR AR OK OK OK OK OK OK AR AR AR MO AR TX TX TX TX TX TX OR OR OR

1964 1962 1956 1943 1970 1944 1965 1973 1971 1964 1953 1973 1953 1968 1964 1944 1952 1959 1965 — 1966 — — — 1953 1954 1953 1968

67 189 172 213 194 108 49 23 42 82 143 30 60 76 183 174 194 204 190 24 71 13 61 110 89 97 357 284

260 17000 17900 13800 9 1730 65 19 NA 1481 345 NA NA 351 763 445 952 1098 956 NA 1400 NA 1488 399 133 243 40 28

468,000 595,000 430,000 185,300 100,000 70,000 124,000 100,000 110,000 90,000 39,100 60,000 45,000 70,000 96,000 80,550 340,000 200,000 112,000 — 52,000 — — — 30,000 18,000 100,000 20,000

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

468,000 595,000 430,000 185,300 100,000 175,000 124,000 100,000 110,000 90,000 39,100 60,000 67,500 70,000 96,000 165,550 340,000 200,000 112,000 3,000 52,000 2,700 13,500 19,000 30,000 18,000 100,000 20,000

Stream

Developed

Under Construction

Authorized

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Clarence F Cannon Red Rock Rock Island L&D 15c Narrows Degray Degray Blakely Mountain Harry S Truman Pomme de Terre Stockton Gavins Point Fort Randall Corps of Engineers Big Bend Oahe Garrison Fort Peck Broken Bow Denison Dardanelle Ozark Robert S Kerr Eufula Tenkiller Ferry Webbers Falls Fort Gibson Keystone Greers Ferry Norforkd Bull Shoals Table Rock Beaver Town Bluff Sam Rayburn Dam A Rockland Belton Whitney Big Cliff RRG Detroit Foster RRG

Usable Power Storage 1000 Acre-Feeta

Year of Initial Oper.

Flatiron 3 Big Thompson Pole Hill Estes Marys Lake Guernsey Glendo Alcova Fremont Canyon Kortes Seminoe Yellowtail Heart Mountain Boysen Pilot Butte Canyon Ferry Otero

M Fk Santiam R S Fk Mckenzie R S Fk Mckenzie R M Fk Willamette R M Fk Willamette R M Fk Willamette R Columbia R Columbia R Columbia R Columbia R Columbia R Columbia R Snake R Snake R Snake R Snake R N Fk Clearwater R Columbia R Pend Oreille R Kootenai R Rogue R Yube R

OR OR OR OR OR OR OR WA WA OR WA OR WA WA WA WA ID WA ID MT OR CA

1967 — 1964 1955 1954 1962 1938 1981 1957 1968 1968 1953 1961 1969 1970 1975 1973 1955 1955 1975 1977 —

310 64 435 48 231 318 59 59 83 105 105 74 98 100 98 100 630 167 28 341 321 210

63 3 10 4 12 49 87 87 53 300 300 185 24 20 49 44 2000 NA 1153 4934 315 775

80,000 — 25,000 15,000 120,000 30,000 518,400 558,220 1,806,800 1,957,500 202,500 980,000 603,000 810,000 810,000 810,000 400,000 2,069,000 42,600 420,000 49,000 — 19,011,197 438,000 R

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 420,000 — — 831,000 331,000 R

80,000 4,500 60,000 15,000 120,000 30,000 544,600 558,220 1,806,800 1,957,500 742,500 980,000 603,000 810,000 810,000 810,000 1,060,000 2,069,000 42,600 840,000 49,000 50,000 22,297,897 1,169,000 R

Prairie Cr, Platte R Rattlesnake Cr, Big Thoom Dry Cr, Big Thompson R Big Thompson R Dry Cr, Big Thompson R Big Thompson R Fish Cr, Big Thompson R N Platte R N Platte R N Platte R N Platte R N Platte R N Platte R Bighorn R Shoshone R Bighorn R Wyoming Cnl (Wind R) Missouri R Arkansas Cnl (Arkansas R)

NE CO

— 1954

51 1113

NA 1

— 74,500e

— —

16,800 R 74,500

CO CO CO CO CO WY WY WY WY WY WY MT WY WY WY MT CO

1954 1954 1954 1950 1951 1927 1958 1955 1960 1950 1939 1966 1948 1952 1935 1953 —

292 835 835 570 217 92 133 164 350 204 218 463 275 110 106 147 270

100 NA NA NA NA 41 511 1842 1015 4 1011 613 421 742 NA 1512 93

8,500 R 4,500 33,250 45,000 8,100 4,800 24,000 36,000 48,000 36,000 45,000 250,000 5,000f 15,000 1,600 50,000 —

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

8,500 R 4,500 33,250 45,000 8,100 4,800 24,000 36,000 48,000 36,000 45,000 250,000 5,000 15,000 1,600 50,000 11,000

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-91

(Continued)

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Green Peter Strube RRG Cougar Dexter RRG Lookout Point Hills Creek Bonneville Bonneville 2nd Ph The Dalles John Day John Day McNary Ice Harbor Lower Monumental Little Goose Lower Granite Dworshak Chief Joseph Albeni Falls Libby Lost Creek Maryville Total Conventional Total Reversible Bureau of Reclamation Prairie Creek Flatiron 1 and 2

11-92

Table 11C.31

(Continued) Installed Capacity — Kilowattsb

Plant Mt Elbert Elephant Butte Glen Canyon Flaming Gorge Fontenelle Crystal Morrolw Point Blue Mesa Upper Molina

Roza(Canal) Grand Coulee Grand Coulee P/G Hungry Horse Green Springs Trinity Nimbus Folsom Auburn Judge Francis Carr

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Stream

State

Arkansas Cnl (Arkansas R) Rio Grande Colorado R Green R Green R Gunnison R Gunnison R Gunnison R Cottonwood Cr, Plateau Cr Plateau Cr, Colorado R Blue R Senator Wash Cr Colorado R Colorado R Colorado R Colorado R L Truckee R E Fk Carson R Provo R Diamond Fk Pipeline Sixth Water Cr, Diamond Strawberry Offstream Payette R Boise R S Fk Boise R Snake R Snake R Chandler Pwr Cnl (Yakima R) Roza Cnl (Yakima R) Columbia R Columbia R S Fk Flathead R Emigrant Cr, Bear Cr Trinity R American R American R N Fk American R Clear Cr Tnl (Trinity R)

CO

1981

464

7

100,000 R

100,000 R

200,000 R

NM AZ UT WY CO CO CO CO

1940 1964 1963 1968 1977 1970 1967 1962

190 566 435 110 220 403 356 2663

1730 20876 3516 149 18 42 774 6

24,300 1,042,000 108,000 10,000 28,000 120,000 60,000 8,640

— — — — — — — —

24,300 1,042,000 108,000 10,000 28,000 120,000 60,000 8,640

CO CO CA CA AZ AZ NV CA NV UT UT UT UT ID ID ID ID ID WA

1962 1943 — 1942 1951 1936 1936 — — 1958 — — — 1925 1912 1950 1909 1957 1956

1600 261 74 78 131 530 530 183 236 144 848 823 431 94 40 300 48 244 121

6 146 9 218 1809 7227 7927 NA 90 149 700h 700h 700 NA NA 423i 95j 1200 NA

4,860 26,000 — 120,000 240,000 717,000 717,000 — — 4,950 — — — 8,000 1,500 40,000 13,000 118,750 12,000

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

4,860 26,000 7,210 R 120,000 240,000 717,000 717,000 3,000 8,000 4,950 33,000 90,000 10,500 8,000 1,500 40,000 13,400 118,750 12,000

WA WA WA MT OR CA CA CA CA CA

1958 1941 1974 1952 1960 1964 1955 1955 — 1963

160 343 280 477 1984 469 43 333 675 695

NA 5232k 53 2982m U 2285 2 920 1966 2289

11,250 6,180,000l 150,000 R 285,000 16,000 105,556 13,500 198,720 — 160,000

— — 150,000 R — — — — — — —

11,250 6,180,000 300,000 R 285,000 16,000 105,556 13,500 198,720 300,000 160,000

Developed

Under Construction

Authorized

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Lower Molinag Green Mountain Senator Wash Parker Davis Hoover Hoover Stampede Watasheamu Deer Creek Dyne Sixth Water Syar Black Canyon Boise Anderson Ranch Minidoka Palisades Chandler

Gross Static Head (ft)

Usable Power Storage 1000 Acre-Feeta

Year of Initial Oper.

Shasta New Melones O’Neill San Luis Siphon Drop Total Conventional Total Reversiable Tennessee Valley Authority Great Falls Kentucky Pickwick landing Wilson Wheeler Tims Ford Guntersville Nickajack Raccoon MT Chickamauga Ocoee 1 Ocoee 2 Ocoee 3 Blue Ridge Apalachia Hiwassee/ Hiwassee Nottely Chatuge Watts Bar Melton Hill Norris Fonatna Fort Londoun Douglas Cherokee Ft Patrick Boonce Wlbur Watauga South Holston Total Conventional Total Reversible

Sacramento R Spring Cr, Sacramento R Sacramento R Stanislaus R Delta Mendota Cnl (San Jose) Calif Aqueduct Yuma Main Cnl (New R)

Caney Fk, Cumberland R Tennessee R Tennessee R Tennessee R Tennessee R Elk R Tennessee R Tennessee R Tennessee R Tennessee R Ocoee R Ocoee R Ocoee R Toccoa R Hiwassee R Hiwassee R Hiwassee R Nottely R Hiwassee R Tennessee R Clinch R Clinch R Little Tennessee R Tennessee R French Broad R Holston R S Fk Holston R S Fk Holston R Watauga R Watauga R S Fk Holston R

CA CA

1949 1964

87 625

23 2517

75,000 150,000

— —

75,000 150,000

CA CA CA

1944 1979 1967

482 583 56

4050 2050 20

539,000o 300,000n 25,200R

— — —

539,000 300,000 25,200 R

CA CA

1968 —

327 15

1961 NA 12,139,176 707,700R

424,000 Rp —

424,000 R 1,600

250,000R

— — 12,596,276 981,710R

TN

1916

148

39

31,860

—

31,860

KY TN AL AL TN AL TN TN TN TN TN TN GA TN NC NC GA NC TN TN TN NC TN TN TN TN TN TN TN TN

1944 1938 1942 1936 1972 1939 1968 1979 1940 1912 1913 1943 1931 1943 1940 1956 1956 1954 1942 1964 1936 1945 1943 1943 1942 1953 19583 1912 1949 1951

50 46 88 48 133 39 35 1040 45 111 245 308 148 440 246 246 168 124 54 58 193 430 70 135 147 67 119 65 312 240

715 236 47 328 240 131 21 35 220 33 NA 4 186 35 350 352 171 229 214 25 1761 1136 81 1136 1411 4 150 U 518 519 3,242,910 1,589,500 R

175,000 220,040 629,840 361,800 45,000 115,200 103,950 1,530,000 R 120,000 18,000 21,000 28,800 20,000 82,800 57,600 59,500 R 15,000 10,000 166,500 72,000 100,800 238,500 139,140 120,600 135,180 36,000 75,000 10,700 57,600 35,000

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 3,242,91 1,589,500 R

175,000 220,040 629,840 361,800 45,000 115,200 103,950 1,530,000 R 120,000 18,000 21,000 28,800 20,000 82,800 57,600 59,500 R 15,000 10,000 166,500 72,000 100,800 238,500 139,140 120,600 135,180 36,000 75,000 10,700 57,600 35,000

R

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-93

(Continued)

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Keswick Spring Creek

11-94

Table 11C.31

(Continued) Installed Capacity — Kilowattsb

Plant

State

Gross Static Head (ft)

Merced R

CA

1918

356

NA 2,000

2,000

— 2,000

2,000

Rio Grande Rio Garnde

TX TX

1954 1983

115 213

2767 500 97,500

31,500 66,000 —

— — 97,500

31,500 66,000

Gila R Yakima R (offstream) Yakima R (offstream) Big Cr, Flathead R

AZ WA WA MT

1929 1942 1932 1916

204 30 34 585

1164 NA NA NA 14,560

10,000 2,500 1,700 360

— — — — 14,560

10,000 2,500 1,700 360

Eklutna R Speel R

AK AK

1955 1973

851 823

174 138 77,160 34,584,503 2,735,200 R

30,000 47,160

— — 104,160 38,355,303 3,740,210 R

30,000 74,160

Stream

Developed

831,000 581,000 R

Under Construction

Authorized

Note: Federally owned, developed, under construction, and authorized January 1, 1984. R Capacity shown is in reversible equipment. U—Less than 1,000 acre-ft. NA—Data not available. b Includes main generating units only. c Operated by Rock island Army Arsenal. Nameplate rating is 3,440 kilowatts which cannot be obtained. d Storage Capacity for ultimate development is 420,000 acre-ft. e All water used for generation must be returned by pumping. f Storage in Buffalo Bill Reservoir is used jointly for irrigation and power. g Pipeline collects water form Big Creek and Cottonwood Creek, tributaries of Plateau Creek. h Water to be stored in the enlarged Strawberry Reservoir which is located upstream. i Used jointly for irrigation, power, and flood control. j Used jointly for irrigation and power. k Used jointly for irrigation, power, flood control, and navigation. l Includes two of three 10,000 kilowatt station service units used to supply commercial power. m Used jointly for power and flood control. n Dam and reservoir were constructed by the Corps of Engineers. o Includes one of two 2,000 kilowatt station service units used to supply commercial power. p 222,000 kilowatts are allocated to the state of California under contact. q Constructed by the Bureau of Reclamation. r Constructed by the Corps of Engineers. a

Source: From Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 1984, Hydroelectric Power Resources of the United States—Developed and Undeveloped, FERC-0070, Washington, DC.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

National Park Service Cascades Total Conventional International Boundary & Water Commission Falcon Amistad Total Conventional Bureau of Indian Affairs Coolidge Drop 2 Drop 3 Big Creek Total Conventional Alaska Power Administration Eklutnaq Snettishamr Total Conventional Grand Total Conventional Grand Total Reversible

Usable Power Storage 1000 Acre-Feeta

Year of Initial Oper.

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-95

Table 11C.32 Trends in Pumped Storage Capacity Development in the United States Installed Capacity in Reversible Units (millions of kilowatts) Developed

Under Construction

Year as of January 1

Pure

Combined

Total

Pure

Combined

Total

1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984

0 0.4 1.6 2.6 7.3 9.3 10.1

0.1 0.3 0.5 1.3 2.4 3.6 3.7

0.1 0.7 2.1 3.9 9.7 12.9 13.8

0 0.7 1.2 6.0 2.7 3.2 4.9

0.2 0.5 1.6 1.4 1.6 1.5 0.4

0.2 1.2 2.8 7.4 4.3 4.7 5.3

Note: A pure pumped storage project with a large peaking capacity can be developed at a site with two potential reservoirs of reasonable size in close proximity and with a relatively large difference in elevations. Projects are usually more economically developed at sites with high usable heads; consequently, the more favorable sites are normally located in mountainous terrain. However, consideration has been given to the construction of pumped storage projects in areas of level terrain by placing the lower reservoir in an underground cavern or excavated area. For any development, an assured supply of water at least sufficient to replace evaporation, seepage, and other losses is essential. Source: From Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 1984.

Allaga

Skag it St. Joe

Flathead

Missouri M. F Clearwk. ater Salmon Rapid M. Fk. Salmon

Snake Rog

ue

Smith

Klama th Trinity M. Fk . Feath er

Eel

sh

St. Croix Lower St. Croix

Wolf

Pere Marquette

Missouri Little Miami

Ame

rican

Colorado

Rio Grande

Buffalo

Little Beaver

S. Fk. Eleven Current and m Cu berl Point Obed

r Uppe re wa la e D ware Dela

New River Gorge S. Fk. New

Chattooga

Legend Component of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System under section 2(a) and 3(a) of the Act.

Rio Grande

River segment established by special act. Figure 11C.22 River segments covered by the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act and special acts precluded from hydroelectric development. (From Federal Energy Regulation Commission, 1984.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-96

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Pries

t

Moyie

t

Snak e

o Penobsc

Kettle

John Day O Illinoiewyhee

Clarks F ork

Ausable

Manistee

Snake

Brune

Fish Creek

Upper Mississippi

Wisconsin

reek Pine C

au

Tuolumn e

Kern

Sweetwater Upper Encampm Iowa ent Green Etk Cache La Poudre Yampa Colorado Big Thompson Gunnison Dolores Los Pinos Gasconado Conejos Piedra Varde Illinois Salt San Francisco

y Atteghen Gauley

Red

y ioghen Yough pon a c a C

ar Greenbri e Blueston key c u h c Noli

Buffalo

rk Sipsey Fo Cahaba

Black Creek

Ogeechee

Escatawpa Soldier Creek

Legend River segment designated for study under section 5(a) of the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act

atonic Hous ug a Shep

Suwannee

Myakka

Loxahatchee

Figure 11C.23 River segments designated for study under section 5(a) of the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act. (From Federal Energy Regulation Commission, 1984.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-97

105 100 90 Pumped storage

80

Rocky river plant (first pumped atorage plant) began operation in 1929

60

Grand coulee plant (largest hydroelectric plant) began operation in 1941

50

LEGEND Existing capacity Projected capacity

40

Millions of kilowatts

70

Appleton plant (first hydroelectric plant) began operation on September 30, 1882

30

Conventional

20 10

1880

1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

0 2000

Figure 11C.24 Hydroelectric capacity in the United States 1882–2000. (From Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 1984.)

Table 11C.33 Small Hydroelectric Capacity in the United States 5,000 kW and Less Category Developed Number of sites Capacity (MW) Generation (GWh) Under Construction Number of sites Capacity (MW) Generation (GWh) Planned (NERC)a Number of sites Capacity (MW) Generation (GWh) Projectedb Number of sites Capacity (MW) Generation (GWh) Totals Number of sites Capacity (MW) Generation (GWh)

15,000 kW and Less

30,000 kW and Less

1980

1984

1980

1984

1980

1984

751 1,194.6 4.8

864 1,351.1 16.8

946 3,294.7 16.8

1,124 3,729.7 18.8

1,071 5,834.6 28.0

1,252 6,574.0 30.8

16 23.5 0.1

137 168.6 0.7

29 135.6 1.0

153 325.8 1.4

33 229.9 1.3

158 444.8 2.0

12 34.2 0.1

25 54.3 0.3

23 136.2 0.5

39 191.4 0.9

25 182.4 0.6

50 436.8 1.9

157 317.5 1.2

1,699 2,587.1 20.0

227 1,241.8 4.9

2,278 6,669.4 29.4

279 2,317.5 8.9

2,367 8,5724.4 37.3

936 1,569.8 6.2

2,725 4,160.8 27.6

1,225 4,808.3 23.2

3,594 10,916.3 50.3

1,408 8,564.4 38.8

3,827 16,028.0 72.0

Note: Developed, Under Construction, and Projected. In reports of the Regional Electric Reliability Councils. b Potential developments not under construction or included in NERC reports but which have FERC licensing or exemption status, are authorized or recommended for Federal construction, or have structural provisions for plant additions. a

Source: From Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 1984.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-98

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Reservoir

Long distance power lines

Powerhouse Intake Generator

Penstock Turbine River

Figure 11C.25 Hydroelectric dam. (From www.tva.gov.)

Table 11C.34 Hydroelectric Plants Having Potential Conventional Capacity over 1,000,000 Kilowatts Installed Capacity in Conventional Units Kilowatts Plant Grand Coulee John Day Chief Joseph R. Moses Niagara The Dalles Hoover Rocky Reach Wanapum Priest Rapids Bonneville Dworshak Glen Canyon Boundary

River Columbia Columbia Columbia Niagara Columbia Colorado Columbia Columbia Columbia Columbia N. Fork Clearwater Colorado Pend Oreille

Total a

Developed

Under Construction

Ultimate Authorized

Bureau COE COE PASNY COE Bureau CC PUD No. 1 GC PUD No. 2 GC PUD No. 2 COE

6,180,000 2,160,000 2,069,000 1,950,000 1,806,800 1,434,000 1,213,950 831,250 788,500 1,076,620

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

6,180,000 2,700,000 2,069,000 1,950,000 1,806,800 1,434,000 1,213,950 1,151,250 1,108,500 1,102,820

COE Bureau

400,000 1,042,000

0 0

1,060,000 1,042,000

392,000 23,834,920

1,026,600

Ownera

Seattle 21,586,720

634,600 392,000

Bureau, Bureau of Reclamation; COE, Corps of Engineers; PASNY, Power Authority, State of New York; GC, Grant County; CC, Chelan County; and Seattle, Seattle Dept. of Lighting.

Source: From Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 1984.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-99

Switchyard

Visitors center

Reservoir Intake

Elevator

Main access tunnel Discharge

Surge chamber

Powerplant chamber Breakers Transformer vault Figure 11C.26 Pumped-storage plant. (From www.tva.gov.)

Hydropower Plants COE Owned and Operated FERC Licensees (Non-Federal Owners) Corps District Boundaries

Figure 11C.27 Hydropower plants. (From nwd-wc.usace.army.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Background. The Corps of Engineers (Corps) is the single largest owner and operator of hydropower in the U.S., with 24% of the nation's hydropower generating capacity. The percentage is 16% for the Bureau of Reclamation and 6% for the Tennessee Valley Authority. Corps dams have a total nameplate capacity of close to 21,000 megawatts (MW) and produce an average of almost 100 million kilowatt-hours (kWh) of energy annually. Nonfederal power plants at Corps facilities add about another 2,000 MW of capacity.

11-100

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Pac Nor th ific west

Souris-RedRainy

w d Ne glan n E

Great Lakes

Missouri

sin

Ca

lifo

rn

MidAtlantic

Upper Mississippi

Great Ba

Upper Colorado

Ohio

ia

Lower Colorado

e

Arkansas-White-Red Lower Mississippi

Rio Grande

sse

ne

n Te

South Atlantic-Gulf

Texas-Gulf

Explanation Water use, in million gallons per day 0 − 100,000 100,000 −200,000 200,000 − 300,000 300,000− 1,300,000

Hawaii Caribbean Alaska Figure 11C.28 Hydroelectric power water use by water resources region, 1995. (From www.usgs.gov.)

Table 11C.35 Hydroelectric Power Water Use by Water Resources Region, 1995 Water Use Region New England Mid-Atlantic South Atlantic-Gulf Great Lakes Ohio Tennessee Upper Mississippi Lower Mississippi Souris-Red-Rainy Missouri Basin Arkansas-White-Red Texas-Gulf Rio Grende Upper Colorado Lower Colorado Great Basin Pacific Northwest California Alaska Hawaii Caribbean Total

Mgal/d

1000 acre-ft/yr

Power Generated (million kWh)

156,000 144,000 229,000 340,000 172,000 209,000 119,000 78,200 3,970 141,000 95,400 14,500 3,860 17,900 23,400 5,060 1,260,000 140,000 2,090 229 349 3,160,000

175,000 162,000 258,000 382,000 192,000 235,000 133,000 87,700 4,450 159,000 107,000 16,300 4,320 20,000 26,300 5,670 1,140,000 157,000 2,340 256 391 3,540,000

6,720 5,260 17,100 24,200 5,250 16,000 2,990 1,320 100 16,000 6,740 1,050 464 7,220 9,740 633 140,000 47,000 1,440 148 101 310,000

Note: Figures may not add to totals because of independent rounding. Mgal/d, million gallons per day; kWh, kilowatthour. Source: From http://npdp.stanford.edu; www.usgs.gov.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

WA

MT

11-101

ND

MN

OR WY

ID

CA NV

VT NY NH

WI

SD

MI IL

CO

IN OH

MO

KS

KY AZ

NM TX

OK

MA

CT

IA

NE

UT

ME

AR

MS AL

MD WV VA NC

TN GA

RI

PA

SC

NJ DE DC Explanation Water use, in million gallons per day 0−10,000

LA

10,000 −50,000 FL

100,000−300,000

Hawaii Virgin Islands Alaska

Puerto Rico

Figure 11C.29 Hydroelectric power water use by state, 1995. (From www.usgs.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

50,000 − 100,000

300,000−660,000

11-102

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 11C.36 Hydroelectric Power Water Use by State, 1995 Water Use State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkonsas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Puerto Rico Virgin Islands Total

Mgal/d

1000 acre-ft/yr

Power Generated (million kWh)

157,000 2,090 21,200 42,700 146,000 6,810 3,610 0 0 16,900 50,900 229 115,000 55,800 12,300 2,350 1,250 83,000 76,100 85,200 14,400 24,200 39,800 19,800 0 17,100 66,200 15,000 6,080 33,000 309 2,750 356,000 56,400 13,900 14,200 49,100 458,000 55,900 339 42,200 62,400 122,000 18,600 3,720 17,500 14,800 653,000 51,500 50,800 5,150 349 0 3,160,000

177,000 2,340 23,700 47,900 164,000 7,630 4,050 0 0 19,000 57,100 256 129,000 62,500 13,800 2,630 1,410 93,100 85,400 95,500 16,100 27,100 44,600 22,200 0 19,200 74,200 16,800 6,810 37,000 346 3,090 399,000 63,200 15,600 15,900 55,100 511,000 62,600 380 47,300 69,900 137,000 20,900 4,170 19,600 16,600 733,000 57,700 57,000 5,770 391 0 3,540,000

9,510 1,440 7,960 2,630 47,100 2,140 317 0 0 443 4,850 148 11,300 1,010 467 21 11 2,880 1,110 3,440 1,450 992 1,410 1,030 0 1,920 10,400 1,040 6,320 1,460 241 353 24,600 5,810 2,480 227 3,300 40,400 352 6.1 3,070 6,420 9,430 1,520 931 983 922 82,300 1,210 1,600 793 101 0 310,000

Note: Figures may not add to totals because of independent rounding, Mgal/d, million gallons per day; kWh, kilowatt-hour. Source: From npdp.stanford.edu. 1988.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

WA

11-103

MT

ND

OR ID CA

WY

WI

SD

UT

IL

AZ

NM

IN

OH WV

VA

KY OK

RI CT NJ DE DC

PA

MO

KS

MA

MI

NE CO

ME

NY

IA

NV

NH

VT

MN

AR

SC

MS

TX

MD

NC

TN GA

AL

LA

0 − 2.9 3 − 4.9 5 − 9.9

FL HI

10 − 19

AK

20 − 41 (Million gallons) Figure 11C.30 Water used to produce 1 kWh of hydroelectric power in the United States in 1990. (From ga.water.usgs.gov.)

WA

MT

ND

OR ID CA

WY

VT

MN

ME MA

WI

SD

NY

NV

MI

IA UT

IL

NE

PA

IN

OH

CO MO

KS AZ

NH

NM

KY OK

SC MS

LA

VA NC

TN

AR

TX

WV

AL

GA

RI CT NJ DE DC MD

0− 2 2.1− 10 12 −30

FL HI

AK

40 −64 83−100 (Percent)

Figure 11C.31 Percent of total power produced coming from hydroelectric sources in the United States in 1990. (From ga.water.usgs.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-104

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

WA

MT

ND

VT

MN

NH

ME

OR ID CA

NV

WI

SD

WY

MI

IA CO KS AZ

NM

OK

PA

IL IN

NE

UT

OH WV

MO KY

VA NC

TN

AR

TX

MA

NY

RI CT NJ DE DC MD

SC MS

LA

AL

GA

0 - 20 20 - 1,500

HI

1,500 - 4,500

FL

AX

4,000 - 20,000 20,000 - 88,000 (Million kilowatt–hours)

Figure 11C.32 Hydroelectric power production in the United States in 1990. (From ga.water.usgs.gov.)

Installed capacity (thousands of megawatts)

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1960

1964

1968

1972

1976

1980

1982

1988

Number of applications

Figure 11C.33 Developed conventional hydroelectric capacity in the United States (From FERC, 1988a, xix. With permission.)

2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Figure 11C.34 U.S. Hydro applications a 1980–1990. (From FERC, 1988a, xix. With permission.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-105

Table 11C.37 U.S. Hydro Operations and Potential 1988

# Plants in operation Developed capacity Mean plant capacity % of developed capacity under FERC jurisdiction Total potential capacity % of potential capacity developed a b

Conventional

Pumped Storagea

Total

2010 70,800 MW 35 MW 46.2%

37 17,100 MW 462 MW 81.3%

2047 87,900 MW 43 MW 53.0%

146,900 MW 48.2%

19,100 MWb 89.5%

166,000 MWb 53.0%

Includes both pure pumped storage and combined conventional and pumped storage facilities. Because of the enormous number of sites potentially suitable for pumped storage, only developed facilities and those actually under construction are included in the total potential capacity estimates for pumped storage facilities.

Source: From FERC, 1988a, vii–viii.

Table 11C.38 Hydro Development and Potential in the UMRB 1988 Number of Plants

Average Plant Size

Developed Capacity (MW)

Undeveloped Capacity (MW)

Total Potential Capacity (MW)

Percentage of Total Potential Developed

7 6 31 8 116 168 2047

4,268 21,939 6,121 133,000 4,045 11,217 42,936

29.9 131.6 189.7 1,064.0 469.2 1,884.5 87,889.7

285.9 388.0 299.9 857.8 492.4 2,324.0 78,048.5

315.8 519.6 489.6 1,921.8 961.6 4,208.5 165,938.2

9 25 39 55 49 45 53

Illinois Iowa Minnesota Missouri Wisconsin 5 states United States

Source: From FERC, 1988a, pp. 101, 132–41, 264.

Number of facilities

120 100 80 Projects 60 Dams 40 20 0 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 Figure 11C.35 New conventional hydro projects and dams in the United States (From FERC, 1988a, xix. With permission.)

200,000 150,000 100,000 50,000 0

Nfld.

Que.

Orl.

Production GWh Figure 11C.36 Hydroelectricity by province. (From nrcan.gc.ca.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Man.

B.C.

Capacity MW

Owers

11-106

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

200

15,000

180 Installed capacity MW

10,000

140

Units

120 Capacity

7,500 5,000

100 80 60

Number of units

160

12,500

40 2,500 0 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Year

20 0

Figure 11C.37 Reclamation hydroelectric development 1909–2000. (From U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation Power Resources Office—October 2004.)

21

18

12

Undeveloped

Millions of kilowatts

15

9

6 3 0 Potential for development depends on many interrelated factors Figure 11C.38 Undeveloped hydroelectric power. (From U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation Power Resources Office—October 2004.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Developed

Water Resource Region

a

Total Potential

Installed Capacity kW

Average Annual Generation 1,000 kWh

248 122 128

1,538,631 1,506,299 6,094,348

6,359,847 6,091,861 16,190,853

669 409 261

4,387,567 4,786,750 5,396,194

13,299,262 13,732,622 10,633,130

5,926,198 6,293,049 11,490,542

19,659,209 19,824,483 26,826,983

25.9 23.9 53.0

209 36 47 105

3,895,123 1,646,672 3,749,075 617,237

24,354,228 6,104,170 16,249,440 3,187,639

229 200 33 104

2,243,431 4,313,176 1,150,985 1,267,796

9,852,598 13,330,111 2,777,781 5,459,595

6,138,554 5,959,848 4,900,060 1,885,033

34,206,826 19,443,281 19,027,221 8,47,234

63.4 27.6 76.5 32.7

5

205,800

430,400

29

1,000,075

3,106,275

1,205,875

3,536,675

17.0

8

13,000

68,000

8

45,880

158,290

58,880

226,290

22.0

62 23

3,462,023 1,854,460

15,549,519 5,341,446

234 128

5,307,568 3,581,693

17,595,761 9,065,790

8,769,591 5,436,153

33,145,280 14,407,236

39.4 34.1

18 5 26 17 60 176

393,970 131,408 1,452,497 1,910,463 188,422 29,909,275

1,066,359 389,521 5,923,214 6,601,700 655,837 143,542,447

87 25 137 33 112 1,128

1,481,627 233,886 2,370,246 1,650,983 765,697 22,104,337

3,032,279 632,431 6,221,787 5,085,441 1,862,008 67,221,564

1,875,597 365,294 3,822,743 3,561,446 954,119 52,013,612

4,098,638 1,021,952 12,145,001 11,687,141 2,517,845 210,764,011

21.0 35.9 37.9 53.6 19.7 57.5

211 26 14 1,546

8,033,509 155,737 17,652 66,775,601

37,644,560 634,082 104,100 296,489,223

740 96 15 4,677

10,099,470 5,041,107 62,890 77,291,358

25,983,648 22,192,656 310,950 231,563,079

18,132,979 5,196,844 80,542 144,066,959

63,628,208 22,826,738 415,050 528,052,302

44.3 2.9 21.9 46.3

No. of Plants

North Atlantic Region Mid Atlantic Region South Atlantic-Gulf Region Great Lakes Region Ohio Region Tennessee Region Upper Mississippi Region Lower Mississippi Region Souris-Red-Rainy Region Missouri Region Arkansas-White-Red Region Texas-Gulf Region Rio Grande Region Upper Colorado Region Lower Colorado Region Great Basin Region Pacific Northwest Region California Region Alaska Region Hawaii Region Total United States

Undeveloped

No. of Sites

Installed Capacity kWa

Average Annual Generation 1,000 kWh

Installed Capacity kW

Average Annual Generation 1,000 kWh

Percent Total Potential Cap. Now Developed

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 11C.39 Conventional Hydroelectric Power in the United States Developed, Undeveloped, and Total Potential — January 1, 1984

Includes potential capacity additions or subtractions at existing plants.

Source: From Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 1984.

11-107

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-108

Table 11C.40 Conventional Hydroelectric Power in the United States Developed, Undeveloped, and Total Potential — January 1, 1984 Developed

No. of Plants

Installed Capacity kW

Average Annual Generation 1,000 kWh

279 157 210 65 166 57 43 192 337 26 14 1,546

1,618,739 4,297,372 1,087,054 2,808,465 6,013,182 5,734,292 2,338,020 7,869,611 34,835,480 155,737 17,652 66,775,601

6,684,066 25,703,831 5,159,366 12,187,539 17,216,643 22,024,618 6,516,705 32,866,583 167,391,690 634,082 104,100 296,489,223

New England Middle Atlantic East North Central West North Central South Atlantic East South Central West South Central Mountain Pacific Alaska Hawaii Total United States a

Includes potential capacity additions or subtractions at existing plants.

Source: From Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 1984.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No. of Sites 74 421 208 157 355 119 214 876 1,472 96 15 4,677

Total Potential

Installed Capacity kWa

Average Annual Generation 1,000 kWh

4,555,434 5,370,969 1,789,913 3,011,876 8,395,423 2,842,266 5,328,495 18,201,259 22,691,726 5,041,107 62,890 77,291,358

13,887,230 18,152,584 7,158,041 9,999,018 17,795,208 9,337,538 12,734,953 53,698,630 66,296,271 22,192,656 310,950 231,563,079

Installed Capacity kW

Average Annual Generation 1,000 kWh

Percent Total Potential Cap. Now Developed

6,174,170 9,668,341 2,876,967 5,820,341 14,408,605 8,576,558 7,666,515 26,070,870 57,527,206 5,196,844 80,542 144,066,959

20,571,296 43,856,415 12,317,407 22,186,557 35,011,851 31,362,156 19,251,658 86,565,213 233,687,961 22,826,738 415,050 528,052,302

26.2 44.4 37.7 48.2 41.7 66.8 30.4 30.1 60.5 2.9 21.9 46.3

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Geographic Division

Undeveloped

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-109

5 Fuel Maintenance 4 Cents per kilowatt-hour

Operation

3

2

1

0 Hydroelectric

Nuclear steam

Fossil-fueled steam

Gas turbine/ small-scale

Hydropower is an economical source of electrical energy. It is one type of electricity that is immune to rising fuel costs. Hydropower costs above include pumped-storage. Figure 11C.39 Average power production expenses per kWh, 1995–1999. (From Energy Information Administration Financial Statistics of Major U.S. Investor-Owned Utilities.)

Table 11C.41 Federal Hydroelectric Capacity by Operating Agency, January 1, 1984 Installed Capacity Conventional and Reversible (Kilowatts) In Operation Corps of Engineers Bureau of Reclamation Tennessee Valley Authority International Boundary and Water Commission Alaska Power Administration Bureau of Indian Affairs National Park Service Total

Under Construction

Ultimate Authorized

19,449,197 12,846,876 4,832,410 97,500

1,162,000 250,000 — —

23,466,897 13,577,986 4,832,410 97,500

77,160 14,560 2,000 37,319,703

— — — 1,412,000

104,160 14,560 2,000 42,095,513

Source: From Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 1984.

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11-110

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 11C.42 TVA’s Hydro Plants

Tennessee River Fort Loudeun Watts Bar Chickamauga Nickajack Guntersville Wheeler Wilson Pickwick Landing Kentucky Raccoon Mountain Pumped Storage Clinch River Norris Melton Hill French Broad River Douglas Holston River South Holston Boone Fort Patrick Henry Cherokee Walauga River Walauga Wilbur Little Tennessee River Fontana Hiwassee River Chaluge Nottety Hiwassee Apalachia Ocoee River Blue Ridge Ocoee 1 Ocoee 2 Ocoee 3 Elk River Tims Ford Caney Fork River Great Falls

Dam Height (ft)

Dam Length (ft)

Reservoir Length (mil)

Capacitya (MW)

Construction Span

125 122 129 86 97 72 137 113 206 230

4,190 2,960 5,800 3,767 3,979 6,342 4,541 7,715 8,422 8,500

61 96 59 46 76 74 16 53 184 1.2

123 175 129 100 114 355 611 193 199 1,532

1940–43 1939–42 1936–40 1964–67 1935–39 1933–36 1918–24 1934–38 1938–44 1970–78

265 103

1,860 1,020

129 44

111 72

1933–36 1960–63

215

1,705

43

90

1942–43

285 168 95 183

1,600 1,697 737 6,760

24 33 10 59

46 83 32 126

1942–50 1950–52 1951–53 1940–41

331 77

925 375

16 2

68 12

1942–48 1912

480

2,365

29

241

1942–44

150 199 307 150

3,336 3,915 1,376 1,308

13 20 22 10

10 16 121 74

1941–42 1941–42 1936–40 1941–43

174 135 30 110

1,553 840 450 612

11 8 0.8 7

13 25 19 28

1925–30 1910–11 1912–13 1941–42

175

1,580

34

37

1966–70

92

800

22

37

1915–16

Note: To find information on dam releases, reservoir levels, and other river system data, go to http://lakeinfo.tva.com. a

Net winter dependable capacity; the amount of power a plant can produce on an average winter day, minus the electricity used by the plant itself.

Source: From www.tva.com.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Region PN

Project Boise

Columbia Basin Hungary Horse Minidoka Palisades Rogue River Basin Yakima Total MP

Total UC

Boulder Canyon Parker-Davis

Collbran Colo. River Storage

State Location

River

Initial Date in Service

Number of Units

Installed Capacity (kW)

Gross Generation (kWh)

Idaho Idaho Idaho Washington

So. Fork, Boise Payette Boise Columbia

12–50 12–25 5–12 3–41

2 2 3 33

40,000 10,200 3,450 6,809,000

117,267,000 66,221,000 7,054,000 18,854,034,875

Hungry Horse

Montana

So. Fork, flathead

10–52

4

428,000

851,474,000

Minidoka Palisades Green Springs

Idaho Idaho Oregon

Snake So. Fork, Snake Trans. Mtn. Div.

5–09 2–57 5–60

4 4 1

27,700 176,564 17,290

84,345,000 422,987,000 53,649,000

Chandler Roza

Washington Washington

Yakima Yakima

2–56 8–58

California California California California California California California California California

2 1 56 2 3 3 2 2 6 8 7 2

12,000 12,937 7,537,141 154,400 198,720 117,000 300,000 13,500 25,200 a 202,000 646,000 180,000

40,885,000 59,568,700 20,557,485,575 494,153,000 493,687,000 470,903,000 342,689,000 55,253,000 6,094,000 176,083,000 2,209,689,300 582,083,000

2 1 2 40 19

140,000 350 3,650 1,980,820 2,078,800

594,842,000 3,075,000 13,657,130 5,442,208,430 4,040,245,040

255,000 120,000 2,453,800 4,860 8,640 86,400

1,170,088,000 458,320,999 5,668,654,039 14,369,675 24,818,100 142,539,000

28,000

4,705,000

Trinity Lewiston Stampede

California California California

Tunnel, Lewiston American Sacramento Stanislaus American San Luis Creek San Luis Creek Sacramento Tunnel, Clear Creek Trinity Trinity Little Truckee

5–63 6–55 10–49 6–79 5–55 11–67 3–68 6–44 1–64

Hoover

Arizona/Nevada

Colorado

9–36

Davis Parker

Arizona California

Colorado Colorado

1–51 12–42

Lower Molina Upper Molina Blue Mesa

Colorado Colorado Colorado

Pipeline Pipeline Gunnison

12–62 12–62 9–67

5 4 28 1 1 2

Crystal

Colorado

Gunnison

6–78

1

2–64 2–64 9–87

(Continued)

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11-111

Anderson Ranch Black Canyon Boise River div. Grand Coulee

Central Valley Judge F. Carr Folsom Keswick New Melones Nimbus O’Neill San Luis Shasta Spring Creek

Washoe Total LC

Plant

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11C.43 Bureau of Reclamation Power Facilities

Region

(Continued) Project

Provo River Rio Grande Seedskadee Dolores Total GP

11-112

Table 11C.43

Colo.-Big Thompson

North Platte Pick-Sloan mo. Basin

Shoshone

Total

State Location

Initial Date in Service

River

Installed Capacity (kW)

Gross Generation (kWh)

151,950 1,296,000 173,334 4,950 27,945 10,000 1,283 11,495 1,804,857 4,500

236,681,000 3,328,793,000 195,118,000 14,261,154 28,224,800 45,472,000 2,655,481 16,486,900 4,054,124,110 10,010,000

Flaming Gorge Glen Canyon Morrow Point Deer Creek Elephant Butte Fontenelle McPhee Towaoc

Utah Arizona Colorado Utah New Mexico Wyoming Colorado Colorado

Green Colorado Gunnison Provo Rio Grande Green Dolores Towaoc Canal

Big Thompson

Colorado

Trans. Mtn. Div.

4–59

3 8 2 2 3 1 1 1 26 1

Estes Flatiron Green Mountain Marys Lake Pole Hill Mt. Elbert

Colorado Colorado Colorado Colorado Colorado Colorado

Trans. Mtn. Trans. Mtn. Blue Trans. Mtn. Trans. Mtn. Trans. Mtn.

9–50 1–54 5–43 5–51 1–54 6–81

3 3 2 1 1 2

45,000 94,500 26,000 8,100 38,200 200,000

107,647,000 229,031,000 27,690,000 38,686,000 180,065,000 347,142,760

Alcova Seminoe Guernsey Boysen

Wyoming Wyoming Wyoming Wyoming

North Platte North Platte North Platte Wind

7–55 8–39 7–27 8–52

2 3 2 2

41,400 51,750 6,400 15,000

70,301,000 63,319,000 10,150,000 30,139,000

Canyon Ferry Fremont Canyon Glendo Kortes Yellowtail Buffalo Bill Heart Mountain Pilot Butte Shoshone Spirit Mountain

Montana Wyoming Wyoming Wyoming Montana Wyoming Wyoming Wyoming Wyoming Wyoming

Missouri North Platte North Platte North Platte Big Horn Shoshone Shoshone Wind Shoshone Shoshone

12–53 12–60 12–58 6–50 8–66 7–92 12–48 1–25 6–92 10–94

3 2 2 3 4 3 1 2 1 1 44

50,000 66,880 38,000 36,000 250,000 18,000 5,000 1,600 3,000 4,500 1,003,750

239,121,000 144,776,000 46,405,000 83,793,000 322,981,000 47,604,000 9,115,000 4,416,000 18,413,000 17,087,000 2,047,891,760

Div. Div. Div. Div. Div.

11–63 9–64 12–70 2–58 11–40 5–68 12–92 5–93

Number of Units

Note: Hydroelectric powerplants for which the bureau of reclamation has operating responsibility fiscal year 2004. Grand Total Number of Plants, 58; Grand Total Number of Units, 194; Grand Total Installed Capacity, 14,780,368 kW; Grand Total Gross Generation, 37,770,363,914 kWh. Revised December 16, 2004. a

Federal share of 424,000 kW installed capacity-plant operated by the State of California-Navajo stem plant: reclamation share is 546,750 kW installed capacity with 2004 gross generation of 4,713,459,920 kWh.

Source: From www.usbr.gov.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Frying PanArkansas Kendrick

Plant

NPDP ID VA17702 VA01706 VA01707 UT00310

Dam Name North Anna Dam Bath Co. Pumped Storage— Upper Dam Bath Co. Pumped Storage— Lower Dam Logan No. 3

State

Dam Type

Dam Height (ft)

Primary Purpose

Secondary Purpose

VA VA

Earth Earth

90 381

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management

VA

Earth

136

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

UT

Concrete Gravity Gravity Rockfill Gravity Earth Rockfill Earth Earth Gravity Gravity Earth Multiple Arch Gravity Earth Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Earth Gravity Concrete Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Buttress Stone Concrete Timber Crib Gravity Timber Crib Concrete Gravity Gravity Gravity Earth Gravity

TN02702 OR00015 OR00004 OR00011 OR00012 OK83001 OK10314 OK00134 OK00135

Dale Hollow Dam Cougar Detroit John Day Dam Foster Salina Dike Fort Gibson Lake Robert S. Kerr Pensacola

TN OR OR OR OR OK OK OK OK

NY83112 NY83028 NY00374

Bennetts Bridge—Dike A Stillwater—South Dam Bennetts Bridge

NY NY NY

NY00375 NY00376 NY00397

Bennetts Bridge—Dike B Bennetts Bridge—Dike C Cranberry Lake

NY NY NY

NY00316

Stillwater—North Dam

NY

NY00146 NY00120

Conklingville Clark Mills Upper

NY NY

NH127 NH00052

Stone Dam Shelburne

NH NH

MT00652 MT00561 MT00568

Libby Madison Dam Canyon Ferry

MT MT MT

MT00559 MT00560 MT00134 MO30014

Holter Dam Hauser Dam Hebgen Dam Osage

MT MT MT MO

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

31.5 200 519 463 230 126 45 110 87 151

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control

5 20 45

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management

13 10 19

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management

55

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

95 23

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management

16.5 17

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management

422 39 225

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management

124 125 88 148

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control

and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water

and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water

Management Management Management Management Management Management Management Management Management

Management Management Management Management 11-113

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11C.44 Number of Dams Found: 160

NPDP ID

11-114

Table 11C.44

(Continued) Dam Name

Dam Type Earth Rockfill Gravity Gravity Masonry Gravity Gravity Earth Gravity Earth Concrete Rockfill Earth Earth Earth Earth Concrete Earth Concrete Timber Crib Concrete Gravity Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Earth Concrete Gravity Concrete Earth Stone Earth Rockfill Stone Timber Crib Gravity Rockfill Earth Timber Crib Rockfill Gravity

MO20725

Harry S. Truman Dam

MO

MN83002

International Falls

MN

MI00547 MI00548 MI00549 ME96172

Secord Smallwood Edenville Pleasant Pond Dam

MI MI MI ME

ME83048 ME83049 ME83050 ME83051 ME96079 ME96100

North Twin—Dike 4 North Twin—Dike 5 North Twin—Dike 6 Stone Dam—Dike 8 Davee Brook #1 Dam Andres Mill Dam

ME ME ME ME ME ME

ME83006

Gilman Falls Dam

ME

ME83038 ME83039 ME83040 ME83041 ME83042 ME83043 ME83044 ME83045 ME83046 ME83047 ME10103

ME ME ME ME ME ME ME ME ME ME ME

ME00534

Stone Dam—Dike 1 Stone Dam—Dike 2 Stone Dam—Dike 3 Stone Dam—Dike 4 Stone Dam—Dike 5 Stone Dam—Dike 6 Stone Dam—Dike 7 North Twin—Dike 1 North Twin—Dike 2 North Twin—Dike 3 Automatic Dam Messalonskee #4 #1 Fitch’s Mill Pond Dam

ME00535

Rich Mill Dam

ME

ME00508

Rainbow Lake Dam

ME

ME00518 ME00468

Ripley Pond Dam Long Pond Storage Dam

ME ME

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ME

Dam Height (ft)

Primary Purpose

Secondary Purpose

98

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

29

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

57 36 54 12

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control

and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water

Management Management Management Management

11 11 13 9 26 4

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control

and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water

Management Management Management Management Management Management

18

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

10 10 10 9 9 9 9 11 11 15 40

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control

18

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

9

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

9

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

6 7

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management

and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water

Management Management Management Management Management Management Management Management Management Management Management

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

State

Mapleton Dam

ME

ME00430 ME00398 ME00352

Parson’s Mill Dam Long Pond Dam Morneau’s Dam

ME ME ME

ME00360

Blake Dam

ME

ME00341 ME00283

Upper Dam Behind The Mill Dam

ME ME

ME00291

Mainstream Dam, Main Stem

ME

ME00305

Sokokis Lake Dam

ME

ME00254

Alford Lake Dam

ME

ME00225

Mars Hill Dam

ME

ME00198

Lock Dam

ME

ME00200

East Millinocket

ME

ME00201

Dolby

ME

ME00202

Stone Dam

ME

ME00203

North Twin

ME

ME00204

Ripogenus

ME

ME00205

Millinocket Lake

ME

ME00206

Seboomook

ME

ME00209

Ragged Lake

ME

ME00211

Caucomgomoc

ME

ME00215

Canada Falls

ME

ME00166

Branns Mill Dam

ME

Timber Crib Rockfill Gravity Concrete Stone Earth Timber Crib Gravity Concrete Earth Rockfill Concrete Concrete Gravity Concrete Timber Crib Stone Concrete Stone Gravity Concrete Earth Stone Concrete Earth Gravity Timber Crib Earth Gravity Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Concrete Gravity Timber Crib Earth Stone

11

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

10 8 10

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management

16

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

8 20

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management

21

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

15

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

7

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

14

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

14

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

28

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

66

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

27

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

35

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

83

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

20

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

60

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

30

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

16

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

50

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

14

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-115

(Continued)

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

ME00483

11-116

Table 11C.44

(Continued)

NPDP ID

Dam Name

State

Dam Type

Dam Height (ft)

Primary Purpose

Masonry Gravity Concrete Timber Crib Concrete Buttress Earth Concrete Rockfill Gravity Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Concrete Earth Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Concrete Earth Stone Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Timber Crib Masonry Concrete Gravity Concrete Earth Concrete Masonry Gravity Concrete Gravity Gravity Rockfill Timber Crib Masonry Gravity Gravity Earth Gravity Earth Gravity Gravity

8

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

14

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

50

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

18

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

45

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

12

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

9

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

43

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

32

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

20

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

17.5

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

21

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

17

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

12 38

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management

45

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

14

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

10

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

9 157 258 9

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control

Bridge Street

ME

ME00128

Spencer Lake Dam

ME

ME00133

Brassua

ME

ME00135

First Roach Dam

ME

ME00143

Mattaceunk

ME

ME00157

Upper Dam

ME

ME00125

Mill Pond Dam

ME

ME00127

Flagstaff

ME

ME00071

Sebago Lake Dam

ME

ME00091

Moosehead—East Outlet

ME

ME00092

Moosehead—West Outlet

ME

ME00095

Gardiner Water District Dam

ME

ME00029

Rangeley Lake Dam

ME

ME00058 ME00062

Lermond Pond Dam Great Works Pond Dam

ME ME

ME00002

Brunswick Dam/Topsham Dam

ME

MA83013

Collins

MA

MA00719

Chicopee

MA

MA00501 KY03001 KY03010 IL83003

New Home Barkley Dam Wolf Creek Upper Sterling

MA KY KY IL

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

and and and and

Storm Water Storm Water Storm Water Storm Water

Management Management Management Management

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

ME00187

Secondary Purpose

Albeni Falls Brownlee J. Storm Thurmond Dam

ID ID GA

GA01702

Hartwell Dam

GA

GA00068

Richard B. Russell Dam

GA

CT01677

Putnam

CT

CA01352 CA00863 CA00421 CA00200 CA00095 AR00150 AL01420 AL01425 AL01413 AL01414 AL01417 WA00004 WA00084 WA00085

Collett Afterbay New Bullards Bar New Drum Afterbay San Gabriel Upper Gorge Pp Blakely Mountain Dam Lewis Smith Martin Point “A” Gantt Logan Martin Chelan Rock Island Wanapum

CA CA CA CA CA AR AL AL AL AL AL WA WA WA

WA00086 WA00088

Rocky Reach Priest Rapids

WA WA

WA00135 WA00147 WA00148 WA00151 WI00141 WI00724

Yale Saddle Dam Swift No. 1 Yale Mossyrock Lower Watertown Dam Castle Rock

WA WA WA WA WI WI

WI00740

Petenwell

WI

WI00741

Rice

WI

WI00749

Spirit

WI

WI00764

Burnt Rollways

WI

WI00765

Seven Mile

WI

Gravity Rockfill Gravity Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Other Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Arch Arch Earth Rockfill Gravity Earth Rockfill Gravity Earth Gravity Earth Buttress Earth Gravity Earth Gravity Gravity Gravity Rockfill Concrete Gravity Gravity Rockfill Concrete Earth Arch Earth Earth Arch Gravity Gravity Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete

180 395 200

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management

204

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

195

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

24

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

13 645 95 381 57 240 300 175 41 35 142 40 128 205.5

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control

130 187

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management Flood Control and Storm Water Management

40 412 323 606 10 38

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control

50

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

19

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

26

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

16

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

10

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water

and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water

Management Management Management Management Management Management Management Management Management Management Management Management Management Management

Management Management Management Management Management Management

11-117

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

ID00319 ID00056 GA01701

11-118

Table 11C.44

(Continued)

NPDP ID

Dam Name

Dam Type Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Concrete Earth Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Concrete Concrete Gravity Earth Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Gravity Concrete Gravity Concrete Gravity Concrete Gravity Earth Concrete Earth Earth Earth Earth

WI00766

Sugar Camp

WI

WI00767

Minocqua

WI

WI00772

North Pelican

WI

WI00774

Willow

WI

WI00775

Rainbow

WI

WI00777

Combined Locks

WI

WI00784

Du Bay

WI

WI00804

Buckatahpon

WI

WI00808

Twin Lakes

WI

WI01005

Long-On-Deerskin

WI

WI01017

Little St Germain

WI

WI01138

Lac Vieux Desert

WI

WI01146

Big St Germain

WI

WI83003

Squirrel Lake

WI

WI83005

Old Badger

WI

WI83006

New Badger

WI

WI83007

Rapide Croche

WI

WI83010

Eau Pleine

WI

WI83012 WI83014 WI83015 WI83034

Sawyer Dike Cth “E” Dike Jim Hall Dike Willow Doberstein Dike

WI WI WI WI

Source: From http://npdp.stanford.edu.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Dam Height (ft)

Primary Purpose

Secondary Purpose

10

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

9

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

11

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

35

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

39

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

28

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

40

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

8

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

10

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

10

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

9

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

8.5

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

7

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

7

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

21.5

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

24

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

23.6

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

45

Hydroelectric

Flood Control and Storm Water Management

20 24 22 10

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric Hydroelectric

Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control Flood Control

and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water and Storm Water

Management Management Management Management

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

State

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-119

Table 11C.45 Hydro Development in UMRB States 1/1/88 to 9/12/90

Illinois Iowa Minnesota Missouri Wisconsin 5 states

Developed Capacity 1988 (MW)

Developed Capacity 1990 (MW)

Percent Change

Change in Number of Plants

29.9 131.6 189.7 1,064.0 469.2 1,884.5

32.6 131.9 209.1 1,062.3 502.3 1,938.2

9.2 0.2 10.2 K0.2 7.0 2.9

C2 C1 C3 C1 K4 C3

Source: From FERC, 1988a, pp. 101, 132–41; FERC, 1990j.

Table 11C.46 Hydro Capacity on the Upper Mississippi River and Illinois Waterway

Mississippi River Site Bemidji Lake Winnibigoshish Grand Rapidsc,d Brainerdc,d Little Falls 2c,d Little Falls 1c,d Blanchardc Sartellc St. Cloudc St. Cloud Clearwater Monticello Bailey Coon Rapids St. Anthony Falls—Upperc St. Anthony Falls—Lowerc L&D 1c L&D 2c Lake Pepine L&D 5 L&D 5A L&D 6 L&D 7 L&D 8 L&D 9 L&D 10 L&D 11 L&D 12 L&D 13 L&D 14 L&D 15 L&D 15 L&D 15 L&D 16 L&D 17 L&D 18 L&D 19 L&D 19 L&D 20 L&D 21 L&D 22 L&D 24 L&D 25

Owner

Class of Ownershipa

Otter Tail Power Co Ball Club Association Blandin Paper Co Potlatch Corp. NW Ppr Minnesota Pwr & Lt Co Minnesota Pwr & Lt Co Minnesota Pwr & Lt Co Champion Intl Corp St. Cloud, City of St. Cloud Association

P R I I P P P I M R

Coon Rapids Hydro Assoc Northern States Power Northern States Power Co. Ford Motor Co. Hastings, City of Southern Minn Municipal Power Agency Winona Hydro Partners Mountain City Assoc. Trempealeau Assoc. Wisc. Public Power Inc. Upper Mississippi Hydro Assoc. United Hydro Partnership Guttenburg Partners Ltd. Three City Miss. R. Hydro Bellevue, City of Winnetka, Village of LeClaire, City of Iowa-Illinois G&E Co. Corps of Engineers Davenport Hydro Assoc. Lock 16 Assoc. Wapello Assoc. Burlington Hydro Assoc. Union Electric Co. Corps of Engineers Canton Assoc. Quincy Assoc. Hannibal Assoc. Clarksville Hydro Assoc. Winfield Hydro Assoc.

M P P I I P R R R M R R R M M M M P F R R R R P F R R R R R

Developed Capacity (MW)

Potential Capacity (MW)

Status of Potential Capacityb

0.7 2.1 3.3 0.6 3.9 18.0 3.2 8.0

12.4 17.9 4.0

1.0 3.2 7.0

6.3 2.1 11.2 11.2 11.2 10.5 2.0 16.0 7.2 500.0

PO LA

PO

10.0 6.0 10.8 12.7 10.5

3.6 2.8

10.0 10.0 18.4 19.3 6.8 24.0 19.7 28.0 14.0 10.5 28.0

PO

MA

MA

124.8 103.8 30.0 10.0 10.0 50.0 50.0

PO PO (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-120

Table 11C.46

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

(Continued)

Mississippi River Site L&D 26 L&D 27

Owner

Class of Ownershipa

Missouri Joint Mun. Elec. Uty. Comm. Corps of Engineers

Developed Capacity (MW)

M

78.0

F

15.3

Mississippi Total

Illinois Waterway Site Calumet/e Lockport Brandon Road Dresden Island Marseilles Marseilles Starved Rock

Owner

Class of Ownershipa

Edc Fndtn of Chicago Sanitary Dist. of Chicago Rockdale, Village of Channahon, Village of Illinois Power Co. Marseilles, City of Peru, City of

205.3

1139.4

Developed Capacity (MW)

Potential Capacity (MW)

M

30.0

M M P M M

7.3 7.76 11.0 7.6 63.5

UMRS Total

220.9

1202.9

c d e

MO MO

2.0

15.6

b

Status of Potential Capacityb

13.6

Illinois Total

a

Status of Potential Capacityb

Potential Capacity (MW)

PO

F, federally owned; I, industrially owned; M, nonfederal publicly owned; P, private utility owned; R, private non-utility owned. LA, License amendment pending; PO, Preliminary permit outstanding; MA, Major license applied for (O1.5 MW); MO, Major license outstanding (O1.5 MW). Existing plant is operating under a FERC license or exemption. Other plants are either federal or are not under FERC’s jurisdiction because of their age. License expires December 31,1993. Pumped storage facility.

Relicensing: In addition to the development of new projects, decisions regarding the relicensing of existing projects will have an important effect on the character of hydropower in the UMRB. Hydro projects are typically licensed for a period of 30 to 50 years. Many projects under FERC’s jurisdiction are due for relicensing in the next few years. Nationwide, the licenses for 227 projects will expire between 1990 and 1999. Twenty-two percent of these projects are in the five UMRB states, which is far greater than the region’s proportion of hydro plants. Wisconsin has the highest relicensing workload of any state in the country between 1990 and 1999. (See Appendix C.) Source: From FERC, 1988a; FERC, 1990j.

Table 11C.47 River Segments Protected from Hydro Development in UMRB States

Wild and Scenic Rivers Wolf Lower St. Croix Eleven Point St. Croix Vermillion, Middle Fork Special Act Current and Jacks Fork (Ozark National Scenic Riverway)

State

Exiting Plants

Capacity of Undeveloped Sites (MW)

WI MN–WI MO MN–WI IL

0 1 0 2 0

16.0 26.2 14.2 47.5 NA

MO

0

170.7 274.6

Source: From FERC, 1988a, pp. 222–23.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Project Numbera

Plant Name

River

Owner

State

County

Project Statusb

Capacity (kW)

Exp. Date (YYMMDD)

Waverly (East Hydro) Maquoketa

Cedar R

Waverly, City of

IA

Bremer

495

Maquoketa R

IA

Jackson

1,200

Keokuk L&D 19 Iowa Falls

Mississippi R Iowa R

IA IA

Lee Hardin

925 4344

Ottumwa Five-In-One Dam

Des Moines R Cedar R

IA IA

Wapello Linn

MO LE

3,000 1,600

8364

Anamusa

Wapsipinicon R

IA

Jones

LE

288

Moline L&D 15

IL

Rock Island La Salle Rock Island

FA

2,024 2,752

IL

La Salle

MO

3,600

040410

2373

Rockton

Rock R

IL

Winnebago

NO

1,100

931231

2446

Dixon

Rock R

IL

Lee

MO

3,200

931231

2866

Lockport

IL

Will

MO

13,600

011130

2936

Sears

Chicago Sani & Ship Cnl, Des Plaines Rock R

Illinois Power Co. Corps of Engineers Hydro-Op One Assoc. South Beloit WG & E Co. Commonwealth Edison Co. Sanitary Dist of Chicago

IL IL

287

Marseilles Rock Island L&D 15 Dayton

Sylvan Slough, Mississippi R Illinois R Sylvan Slough, Mississippi R Fox R

Iowa Elec Lt and Pwr Co. Union Electric Co Iowa Elec Lt and Pwr Co. Ottumwa, City of Cedar Rapids, City of Iowa Elec Lt and Pwr Co. Iowa IL G & E Co.

IL

Rock Island

LE

746

7004

Upper Sterling Rochester Lanesboro Hy Redwood Falls

Rock R Zumbro R S Br Root R Redwood R

IL MN MN MN

Whiteside Wabasha Fillmore Redwood

LE

2,000 2,680 477 500

Bemidji

Mississippi R

MN

Beltrami

740

Thief River Falls

Red Lake R

MN

Pennington

550

346

Blanchard

Mississippi R

MN

Morrison

MO

18,000

030824

362 469

Twin City L&D 1 Winton

Mississippi R Kawishiwi R

White Hydropower Co. Rock Falls, City of Rochester, City of Lanesboro, City of Redwood Falls, City of Otter Tail Power Co. Thief River Falls, City of Minnesota Pwr and Lt Co. Ford Motor Co. Minnesota Pwr and Lt Co.

MN MN

Hennepin Lake

MO MO

17,920 4,000

030606 031031

124,800 540 080430

3,600

11-121

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11C.48 Existing Plants in Upper Mississippi River Basin States

(Continued)

Project Numbera

River

Owner

State

County

Project Statusb

2056B

Hennepin Island

Mississippi R

MN

Hennepin

MO

12,400

001231

2056A

Lower Dam

Mississippi R

MN

Hennepin

MO

8,000

001231

2360C

Scanlon

St. Louis R

MN

Carlton

MO

1,600

931231

2360D

Knife Falls

St. Louis R

MN

Carlton

MO

2,400

931231

2360B

Thompson

St. Louis R

MN

Carlton

MO

68,600

931231

2360A

Fond Du Lac

St. Louis R

MN

Carlton

MO

12,000

931231

2361

Prairie River

Prairie R

MN

Itasca

NO

1,084

931231

2362 2363 2454

Grand Rapids Cloquet Sylvan

Mississippi R St. Louis R Crow Wing R

MN MN MN

Itasca Carlton Morrison

MO MO MO

2,100 6,514 1,800

931231 931231 931231

2532B

Little Falls 2

Mississippi R

MN

Morrison

MO

600

931231

2532A

Little Falls 1

Mississippi R

MN

Morrison

MO

3,900

931231

2533

Brainerd

Mississippi R

MN

Crow Wing

MO

3,342

931231

2663

Pillager

Crow Wing R

MN

Morrison

MO

1,600

970511

3071

Rapidan

Blue Earth R

MN

Blue Earth

LE

5,000

4108 4306 5223

St. Cloud Mississippi L&D 2 International Falls

Mississippi R Mississippi R Rainy R

MN MN MN

Stearns Dakota Koochiching

MO MO MO

8,000 4,000 10,800

6299

Lake Byllesby

Cannon R

MN

Dakota

LE

2,500

8315

Startell

Mississippi R

MN

Benton

MO

3,172

8423

Granite Falls

Minnesota R

MN

Chippewa

LE

1,367

10853D

Hoot Lake

Otter Tail R

MN

Otter Tail

MA

1,000

10853C

Central (Wright)

Otter Tail R

Northern States Power Co. Northern States Power Co. Minnesota Pwr and Lt Co. Minnesota Pwr and Lt Co. Minnesota Pwr and Lt Co. Minnesota Pwr and Lt Co. Minnesota Pwr and Lt Co. Blandin Paper Co. Potlatch Corp. Minnesota Pwr and Lt Co. Minnesota Pwr and Lt Co. Minnesota Pwr and Lt Co. Potlatch Corp, NW Ppr Minnesota Pwr and Lt Co. Rapidan Revelopment Ltd. St. Cloud, City of Hastings, City of International Falls Pwr Co. Dakota & Goodhue Counties Champion Intl Corp. Granite Falls, City of Otter Tail Power Co. Otter Tail Power Co.

MN

Otter Tail

MA

400

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Capacity (kW)

Exp. Date (YYMMDD)

241130 330630 271130

250228

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Plant Name

11-122

Table 11C.48

Pisgah

Otter Tail R

10853E

Friberg (Tablin Gorge) Dayton Hollow

Otter Tail R

10853A

Otter Tail R

Clarence F. Cannon Clarence F. Cannonc Harry S. Trumanc

Salt R

Osage R

Stockton

Sac R.

Table Rock

White R

Riverdale

Salt R

459 2221

Osage (Bagnell) Ozark Beach

Finley Cr., James R Osage R White R

2277 2561

Taum Saukc Niangua

E Fk Black R Niangua R

Figor

Duck Cr, Tagatz Cr Duck Cr., Tagatz Cr Montello Lk, Montello R Montello R Wautoma R

Lawrence Montello Harrisville Wautoma Pardeeville Appleton Appleton (Lower) Neenah Dam Nepco Lake Merillan Kilbourn

Otter Tail Power Co. Otter Tail Power Co. Otter Tail Power Co. Corps of Engineers Corps of Engineers Corps of Engineers Corps of Engineers Corps of Engineers Turner, Glenn O. Frances Union Electric Co. Empire Dist Elec Co. Union Electric Co. Sho Me Power Corp. Figor, D.J.

MN

Otter Tail

MA

520

MN

Otter Tail

MA

560

MN

Otter Tail

MA

970

MO

Ralls

FA

27,000

MO

Ralls

FA

31,000

MO

Benton

FA

160,000d

MO

Cedar

FA

45,200

MO

Taney

FA

200,000

MO

Christian

MO MO

Miller Taney

MO MO

172,000 16,000

060228 930831

MO MO

Reynolds Camden

MO MO

408,000 3,000

100630 931231

WI

Marquette

38

WI

Marquette

200

WI

Marquette

379

WI WI

Marquette Waushara

187 252

WI

Columbia

50

WI

Outagamie

1,940

WI

Outagamie

1,445

WI

Winnebago

400

WI

Wood

2,920

WI WI

Jackson Sauk

100 8,200

112

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-123

Pioneer Pwr & Lt Co. Montello Granite Co. Miller, Duane J. North Amer Hydro Inc. Fox R Pardeeville Elec Comm. Fox R Wisconsin Elec Pwr Co. Fox R Consolidated Papers Inc. Fox R Bergstrom Paper Co. Four Mile Cr., Nekoosa Papers Wisconsin R Inc. Halls Cr., Black R Merillan, Village of Wisconsin R Wisconsin Power & Light Co.

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

10853B

(Continued)

Project Numbera

Project Statusb

River

Owner

State

County

Barron Merrill

Yellow R Prairie R

WI WI

Barron Lincoln

100 135

La Valle Pine River Island Woolen Radisson

Baraboo R Pine R Baraboo R Couderay R

WI WI WI WI

Sauk Richland Sauk Sawyer

50 100 412 393

Linen Mill

Baraboo R

WI

Sauk

100

Oak Street

Baraboo R

WI

Sauk

156

Prairie Du Sac

Wisconsin R

WI

Sauk

28,440

Nancy

Totagatic R

WI

Washburn

450

Clam Falls

Clam R

WI

Burnett

112

St. Croix Falls

St. Croix R

WI

Polk

Gordon

Eau Claire R

WI

Douglas

257

Balsam Lake

Balsam R, Apple R Milwaukee R

Barron, City of Ward Paper Company La Valle El Co. Miller, Clair Island Woolen Co. North Central Power Co. McArthur, George and Son McArthur, George and Son Wisconsin Power & Light Co. Dahlberg Lt and Pwr Co. Northwestern Wis Elec Co. Northern States Power Co. Dahlberg Lt and Pwr Co. Northerwestern Wis Elec Co. Roy Kleisch

WI

Polk

68

WI

Washington

17

WI

Richland

60

WI

Shawano

MO

700

770719

WI

Outagamie

MO

4,800

190331

WI

Lincoln

MO

2,600

161231

WI

Portage

MO

7,200

910630

WI

Vilas

NO

500

300630

WI

Rusk

MO

15,000

010228

WI

Lincoln

MO

17,240

180331

WI

Oneida

LE

1,700

Barton (Gadow Milling) Muscoda

Mill Cr, Wisconsin R Wolf R

710

Shawano (Upper)

1510 1940

Kaukauna (Lower) Tomahawk

Wisconsin R

1953

Du Bay

Wisconsin R

1957

Otter Rapids

Wisconsin R

1960

Flambeau

Flambeau R

1966

Grandfather Falls

Wisconsin R

1968

Hat Rapids

Wisconsin R

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Fox R

Muscoda, Village of Wisconsin Power & Light Co. Kaukauna, City of Wisconsin Public Service Corp Consolidated Water Pwr Co. Wisconsin Public Service Corp Dairyland Power Coop Wisconsin Public Service Corp Wisconsin Public Service Corp

Capacity (kW)

Exp. Date (YYMMDD)

23,200

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Plant Name

11-124

Table 11C.48

1981 1982 1984B 1984A 1989 1999 2064 2110 2161 2180 2181 2192 2207 2212 2239 2255 2256 2291 2292 2347 2348 2390 2395

Alexander

Wisconsin R.

WI

Lincoln

MO

4,200

040630

WI WI

Oconto Chippewa

MO MO

1,000 33,900

000229 980630

WI

Adams

MO

20,000

980131

WI

Adams

MO

15,000

980131

WI

Lincoln

LE

2,340

WI

Marathon

MO

5,400

950630

WI

Sawyer

MO

600

011130

WI

Portage

MO

4,800

000630

WI

Oneida

MO

2,120

000630

WI WI

Lincoln Dunn

MO MO

3,000 5,400

030630 050331

WI

Wood

MO

3,800

000630

WI

Marathon

MO

3,050

041231

WI

Marathon

MO

3,640

930731

WI

Lincoln

MO

320

930731

WI

Wood

MO

3,200

930731

WI

Wood

MO

4,400

930731

WI

Wood

MO

2,920

930731

WI

Wood

MO

3,800

930731

WI

Rock

NO

500

931231

WI

Rock

NO

380

931231

WI

Rusk

MO

9,000

931231

WI

Price

NO

960

931231 (Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-125

Wisconsin Public Service Corp Stiles Oconto R. Oconto Elec Coop Holcombe Chippewa R. Northern States Power Co. Petenwell Wisconsin R. Wisconsin River Power Co. Castle Rock Wisconsin R. Wisconsin River Power Co. Merrill Wisconsin R. Wisconsin Public Service Corp Wausau Wisconsin R. Wisconsin Public Service Corp Last Fork (Winter) E Fk Chippewa R. North Central Power Co. Stevens Point Wisconsin R. Consolidated Water Pwr Co. Rhinelander Wisconsin R. Rhinelander Paper Co. Grandmother Wisconsin R. Nekoosa Corp. Menomonie Red Cedar R. Northern States Power Co Biron 2 Wisconsin R. Consolidated Water Pwr Co. Mosinee Wisconsin R. Mosinee Paper Mills Co. Rothschild Wisconsin R. Weyerhaeuser Co. Kings Wisconsin R. Tomahawk Pwer & Pulp Co. Centralia Wisconsin R. Nekoosa Papers Inc. Wis Rpds 1 Wisconsin R. Consolidated Water Pwr Co. Port Edwards Wisconsin R. Nekoosa Papers Inc. Nekoosa Wisconsin R. Nekoosa Papers Inc. Central Rock R. Wisconsin Power (Janesville) & Light Co. Blackhawk Rock R. Wisconsin Power & Light Co. Big Falls Flambeau R. Northern States Power Co. Pixley N Fk Flambeau R. Flambeau Paper Corp.

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

1979

(Continued)

Project Numbera

River

2417

Hayward

Namekagon R.

2421

Lower Hydro

2430

Ladysmith

2440

Chippewa Falls

2444

White River

2464

Weed Dam

2473

Crowley Rapids

2475

Thornapple

2476

Jersey

2484

Gresham

2486

Pine

2491

Jim Falls

2522

Johnson Falls

2523

Oconto Falls (Upper) Caldron Falls

2525 2536

2550

Little Quinnesec Falls Sandstone Rapids Weyauwega

2560

Potato Rapids

2567

Wissota

2581

Peshtigo

2588

Little Chute

2546

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Owner

Northern States Power Co. N Fk Flambeau R. Flambeau Paper Corp. Flambeau R. Lake Superior Dist Pwr Co. Chippewa R. Northern States Power Co. White R. Northern States Power Co. Red R. Gresham, Village of N Fk Flambeau R. Flambeau Paper Corp. Flambeau R. Northern States Power Co. Tomahawk R. Wisconsin Public Service Corp Red R. Gresham, Village of Pine R. Wisconsin Elec Pwr Co. Chippewa R. Northern States Power Co. Peshtigo R. Wisconsin Public Service Corp Oconto R. Wisconsin Elec Pwr Co. Peshtigo R. Wisconsin Public Service Corp Menominee R. Niagara of Wis Paper Corp. Peshtigo R. Wisconsin Public Service Corp Waupaca R. Wisconsin Elec Pwr Co. Peshtigo R. Wisconsin Public Service Corp Chippewa R. Northern States Power Co. Peshtigo R. Wisconsin Public Service Corp Fox R. Kaukauna, City of

State

County

Project Statusb

WI

Sawyer

NO

200

931231

WI

Price

NO

1,200

931231

WI

Rusk

LE

3,900

WI

Chippewa

MO

21,600

931231

WI

Ashland

NO

1,000

931231

WI

Shawano

NO

700

150630

WI

Price

NO

1,500

931231

WI

Rusk

NO

1,400

931231

WI

Lincoln

NO

512

931231

WI

Shawano

NO

423

191231

WI

Florence

MO

3,600

931231

WI

Chippewa

MO

48,600

330930

WI

Marinette

MO

3,520

931231

WI

Oconto

NO

1,320

931231

WI

Marinette

MO

6,400

931231

WI

Marinette

MO

8,388

930630

WI

Marinette

MO

3,840

931231

WI

Waupaca

NO

400

931231

WI

Marinette

NO

1,380

931231

WI

Chippewa

MO

35,280

000630

WI

Marinette

NO

584

931231

WI

Outagamie

MO

3,300

000731

Capacity (kW)

Exp. Date (YYMMDD)

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Plant Name

11-126

Table 11C.48

2595 2639 2640 2670 2677B 2677A 2677C 2684 2689 2697 2711 2715 2744B 2894 2970 3052 4914 6476 7264 8015 8286 9002 9003 9184 9185

Wisconsin R.

Consolidated Water Pwr Co. High Falls Peshtigo R. Wisconsin Public Service Corp Cornell Chippewa R. Northern States Power Co. Upper Hydro N Fk Flambeau R. Flambeau Paper Corp. Dells Chippewa R. Northern States Power Co et al Badger (Old) Fox R. Kaukauna, City of Rapid Croche Fox R. Kaukauna, City of Badger (New) Fox R. Kaukauna, City of Arpin E Fk Chippewa R. North Central Power Co. Oconto Falls Oconto R. Scott Paper Co. Cedar Falls Red Cedar R. Northern States Power Co. Trego Namekagon R. Northern States Power Co. Combined Locks Fox R. Kaukauna, City of Park Mill Menominee R. Menominee Co. Black Brook Apple R. Northwestern Wis Elec Co. Argyle E Pecatonica R. Argyle, Village of Black River Falls Black R. Black River Falls, City of West De Pere Fox R. International Paper Co. Neshonoc La Crosse R. North Amer Hydro Inc. Appleton (Middle) Fox R. Fox Valley Corp. et al. Shawano Wolf R. Little Rapids Corp. Chippewa Chippewa R. Northern States Power Co. et al. Apple River Apple R. Northern States Power Co. Riverdale Apple R. Northern States Power Co. Danbury Yellow R. Northwestern Wis Elec Co. Clam River Clam R. Northwestern Wis Elec Co. Junction Kinnickinnic R. River Falls, City of River Falls Kinnickinnic R. River Falls, City of

WI

Portage

MO

1,800

930630

WI

Marinette

MO

7,000

931231

WI

Chippewa

MO

30,800

231130

WI

Price

NO

900

931231

WI

Eau Claire

MO

9,500

000831

WI WI WI WI

Outagamie Outagamie Outagamie Sawyer

MO MO MO NO

2,000 2,400 3,600 1,450

191231 191231 191231 190430

WI WI

Oconto Dunn

MO MO

1,810 6,000

931231 010130

WI

Washburn

NO

1,200

930331

WI WI WI

Outagamie Marinette Polk

MO MO NO

7,000 1,724 650

240729 150228 201231

WI WI

Lafayette Jackson

LE NO

50 900

010830

WI

Brown

NO

1,078

041130

WI

La Crosse

LE

500

WI

Outagamie

NO

1,290

WI WI

Shawano Sawyer

LE LE

380 3,100

WI

St. Croix

LE

3,700

WI

St.Croix

LE

620

WI

Burnett

NO

1,076

070531

WI

Burnett

NO

1,200

070331

WI WI

Pierce Pierce

NO NO

250 125

180831 180831

050630

(Continued)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-127

10489A 10489B

Wisconsin R. Div.

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

2590

(Continued)

Project Numbera

Plant Name

River

Owner

State

County

Project Statusb

10674

Midtec

Fox R.

WI

Outagamie

MA

2,700

10805

Hatfield

Black R.

Midtec Paper Corp. Midwest Hydraulic Co.

WI

Jackson

PO

4,800

a b c d

Capacity (kW)

Exp. Date (YYMMDD)

11-128

Table 11C.48

920931

Plants without project numbers are not under FERC jurisdiction and thus have no entries under the project status or license expiration columns. Project Status: FA, Federally authorized; LE, Exempted from licensing; MA, Major license applied for (O1.5 MW); MO, Major license outstanding or annual license during major relicensing proceeding (O1.5 MW); NO, Minor license outstanding or annual license during minor relicensing proceeding (%1.5 MW); PO, Preliminary Permit Outstanding. Pumped storage. Reversible capacity could be used for conventional generation.

Source: From FERC, 1990j.

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-129

Table 11C.49 Small Hydroelectric Capacity in the United States 5,000 kW and Less Category Developed Number of sites Capacity (MW) Generation (GWh) Under Construction Number of sites Capacity (MW) Generation (GWh) Planned (NERC)a Number of sites Capacity (MW) Generation (GWh) Projectedb Number of sites Capacity (MW) Generation (GWh) Totals Number of sites Capacity (MW) Generation (GWh)

15,000 kW and Less

30,000 kW and Less

1980

1984

1980

1984

1980

1984

751 1,194.6 4.8

864 1,351.1 16.8

946 3,294.7 16.8

1,124 3,729.7 18.6

1,071 5,834.6 28.0

1,252 6,574.0 30.8

16 23.5 0.1

137 168.6 0.7

29 135.6 1.0

153 325.8 1.4

33 229.9 1.3

158 444.8 2.0

12 34.2 0.1

25 54.3 0.3

23 136.2 0.5

39 191.4 0.9

25 182.4 0.6

50 436.8 1.9

157 317.5 1.2

1,699 2,587.1 20.0

227 1,241.8 4.9

2,278 6,669.4 29.4

279 2,317.5 8.9

2,367 8,572.4 37.3

936 1,569.8 6.2

2,725 4,160.8 27.6

1,225 4,808.3 23.2

3,594 10,916.3 50.3

1,408 8,564.4 38.8

3,827 16,028.0 72.0

Note: Developed, Under Construction, and Projected. a b

In reports of the Regional Electric Reliability Councils. Potential developments not under construction or included in NERC reports but which have FERC licensing or exemption status, are authorized or recommended for Federal construction, or have structural provisions for plant additions.

Source: From Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 1984.

Table 11C.50 Trends in Pumped Storage Capacity Development in the United States Installed Capacity in Reversible Units (Millions kW) Developed

Under Construction

Year as of January 1

Pure

Combined

Total

Pure

Combined

Total

1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984

0 0.4 1.6 2.6 7.3 9.3 10.1

0.1 0.3 0.5 1.3 2.4 3.6 3.7

0.1 0.7 2.1 3.9 9.7 12.9 13.8

0 0.7 1.2 6.0 2.7 3.2 4.9

0.2 0.5 1.6 1.4 1.6 1.5 0.4

0.2 1.2 2.8 7.4 4.3 4.7 5.3

Note:

A pure pumped storage project with a large peaking capacity can be developed at a site with two potential reservoirs of reasonable size in close proximity and with a relatively large difference in elevations. Projects are usually more economically developed at sites with high usable heads; consequently, the more favorable sites are normally located in mountainous terrain. However, consideration has been given to the construction of pumped storage projects in areas of level terrain by placing the lower reservoir in an underground cavern or excavated area. For any development, an assured supply of water at least sufficient to replace evaporation, seepage, and other losses is essential.

Source: From Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 1984.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-130

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 11C.51 Hydroelectric Plants Having Potential Conventional Capacity over 1,000,000 kW Installed Capacity in Conventional Units Kilowatts Plant Grand Coulee John Day Chief Joseph R. Moses Niagara The Dalles Hoover Rocky Reach Wanapum Priest Rapids Bonneville Dworshak Glen Canyon Boundary

a

River

Ownera

Developed

Under Construction

Ultimate Authorized

Columbia Columbia Columbia Niagara Columbia Colorado Columbia Columbia Columbia Columbia N. Fork Clearwater Colorado Pend Oreille Total

Bureau COE COE PASNY COE Bureau CC PUD No. 1 GC PUD No. 2 GC PUD No. 2 COE

6,180,000 2,160,000 2,069,000 1,950,000 1,806,800 1,434,000 1,213,950 831,250 788,500 1,076,620

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

6,180,000 2,700,000 2,069,000 1,950,000 1,806,800 1,434,000 1,213,950 1,151,250 1,108,500 1,102,820

COE Bureau

400,000 1,042,000

0 0

1,060,000 1,042,000

Seattle

634,600 21,586,720

392,000 392,000

1,026,600 23,834,920

Bureau, Bureau of Reclamation; COE, Corps of Engineers; PASNY, Power Authority, State of New York; GC, Grant County; CC, Chelan County; and Seattle, Seattle Dept. of Lighting.

Source: From Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 1984.

Table 11C.52 Federal Hydroelectric Capacity by Operating Agency, January 1, 1984 Installed Capacity Conventional and Reversible (kW)

Corps of Engineers Bureau of Reclamation Tennessee Valley Authority International Boundary and Water Commission Alaska Power Administration Bureau of Indian Affairs National Park Service Total

In Operation

Under Construction

Ultimate Authorized

19,449,197 12,846,876 4,832,410 97,500 77,160 14,560 2,000 37,319,703

1,162,000 250,000 — — — — — 1,412,000

23,466,897 13,577,986 4,832,410 97,500 104,160 14,560 2,000 42,095,513

Source: From Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 1984.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-131

SECTION 11D

COSTS OF WATER PROJECTS

B

H F

E

H

H

I

G I

B

B E

B

D

C

I

B G B

E E H

B E

B G

I

F

E H

C H

G I

J

I G

I

F D

H

G

F

H

A

E

B

H

I B

D

B

I

H

B

H

I

F

B

G H

A

E

I E

A

H

H

Legend Areas in which major storage reservoirs cannot be constructed or are not likely to be needed. Major navigable waterway.

Figure 11D.40 Map of physiographic regions in the United States (for reservoir costs). (From Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army, 1960.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-132

Table 11D.53 Costs of Reservoirs in the Physiographic Regions of the United States

Physiographic Region A B C D E F G H I J

10

30

50

80

150

300

700

1500

3000

7000

30,000

$230 200 180 160 155 145 140 120 95 65

$190 160 135 120 115 106 103 86 65 43

$175 145 120 105 98 90 87 73 55 37

$162 132 110 93 85 80 75 62 46 32

$145 115 95 78 73 65 60 50 38 25

$130 100 80 65 60 55 50 40 30 20

$113 85 66 52 47 43 38 30 22 15

$100 75 56 42 38 34 30 24 18 12

$88 64 49 35 32 28 25 18 15 10

$77 55 40 28 25 21 19 14 10 8

$60 40 28 18 16 14 12 10 8 6

Note: Values are costs in dollars of reservoir storage per acre-feet. Size class in thousand acre-feet. Source: From Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army, 1960.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Size Class

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-133

24a

24b

23a

23b

13b

20e 20c

24d

7a

19

20b

23c

9b

13a

20a

24c

1

12b

18 20d

13c

12a

12c

22a

23d 24f

21a

16

21c

24e 24g 25

21e 22b

22c

8d

13d

21b

12e

11b 8g 14a

13g

21d

14b

13h

21f

12f

22d

5b

11c 15b

8f

3e

6a

4a 3b

3d 13j

22e

3f

13i 3c

Paleozoic

Permian

544

Precambrian

Pennsylvanian

Paleozoic

Devonian Mississippian

Quaternary Cretaceous

360

248

Ages uncertain

410

145

Metamorphic rock

Silurian

Triassic-Jurassic

505

325

440

Figure 11D.41 U.S. physiographic region. (From www.tapestry.usgs.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

440

286

Tertiary

Cenozoic

1.8

65

Mesozoic

248

0

Cambrian Ordovician

Geologic time scale Millions of years ago (Non-Linear)

9b

6b

4b 3a

5a

11a

15a

8c

8e

12d

13e

13f

9c

8a 10 8b

12a

17

24f

9d

3a

9a 9e 6c

11-134

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

USS

Africa

180 154

160 140

160

160

Asia LA & C

120

120

112

115 104

100

90

80

60

60

60 50

50

57

50 52

40

60 33 26

20 0 Sewer Small bore Septic tank connection sewer

Poor-lesh

VIP

Simple pin

Figure 11D.42 Average construction cost of sanitation facilities for Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, 1990–2000. (From www.who.int.)

Cost USS per m

Production cost

0.6 0.5

0.2

0.3

0.3

Tariff/cost ratio

1.2 0.54

0.5

0.4 0.3

Median ratio

0.8 0.3

0.2

0.1

1.0

0.6 0.4 0.2 0

0 Africa

Asia

LA & C N.Amer Oceania Europe

Figure 11D.43 A comparison of the median unit production cost of urban water supply and the median tariff/production cost ratio by region 1990–2000. (From www.who.int.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-135

USS per m2 1.0 0.9

Water tariff

0.8

Sewerage tariff

0.7

0.57 0.59

0.6 0.5

0.48

0.44

0.4 0.35 0.3 0.2

0.32

0.12

0.1

0.41

0.40

0.21 0.14

0 Africa

Asia

LA & C

N.Amer

Oceania

Europe

Figure 11D.44 Median water supply and sewerage tariffs by region, 1990–2000. Average construction cost per person served of water supply facilities for Africa, Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean 1990–2000. (From www.who.int.)

Table 11D.54 Typical Costs of Irrigation Development in Latin America, Africa, Asia, and Far East

Region Latin America Africa (excl. Sudan) Sudan Near East Asia and Far East (excl. South Asia) South Asia (Bangladesh, India, Pakistan) Rehabilitation in all regions except South Asia, $1760/ha Rehabilitation in South Asia, $800/ha

$/ha

Gravity Schemes Share in Total (%)

Pump and Tubewells ($/ha)

All Schemes Weighted Average Cost ($/ha)

6,000 11,000 5,000 7,000 4,000 2,500

50 70 50 70 60 40

3000 6000 4000 4000 2000 1000

4000 9500 4500 6100 3200 1600

Note: 1980 prices; US $ per hectare. Source: From FA0, 1982, The State of Food and Agriculture.

USS 160

144

Africa

140 120 100

Asia LA & C

112 52

80

54

60

55

41

40

31

20

23

48

49 34 36

17

21 22

0 House connection

Standpost

Borehole

Dog well

Rain water

Figure 11D.45 Average construction cost per person served of water supply facilities for Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, 1990–2000. (From www.who.int.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-136

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 11D.55 Typical Cost Structures for Water-Supply Systems in the United States Small Systemsa

Percentage of Operating Expenses

Percentage of Operating Expenses Excluding Interest Charges

Percentage of Operating Expenses

Percentage of Operating Expenses Excluding Interest Charges

19 15 36 14 16 100

22 18 43 17 — 100

15 10 31 25 19 100

19 13 38 30 — 100

Acquisition Treatment Distribution and Transmission Support Services Interest Charges Total a b

Large Systemsb

Serving between 300 and 75,000 people. Serving over 75,000 people.

Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986, Guidelines for Ground Water Classification under the EPA Ground Water Protection Strategy; ACT Systems Inc., 1977, 1979.

Table 11D.56 Typical Water System Costs in the United States (1984 $/million of gallons produced) Source Population Served by System 1000–3300 3300–10,000 10,000–25,000 25,000–75,000 75,000–500,000 Over 5,00,000

Surface Water

Groundwater

1,085 1,063 795 727 596 457

1,493 924 718 710 606 574

Note: Operating expenses (including depreciation and capital charges), inflated to 1984 dollars. Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986, Guidelines for Ground Water Classification under the EPA Ground Water Protection Strategy ; Survey of Operating and Financial Characteristics of Community Water Systems, Temple, Barker and Sloane, Inc. 1982.

Table 11D.57 Costs of Groundwater Supply Systems in the United States Population Served by System 25–1000 1000–3300 3300–10,000 10,000–25,000 25,000–75,000 75,000–5,00,000 Over 5,00,000

Annual Cost 4,616 1,493 924 718 710 606 574

Note: By population size category; 1984 $/million gallons produced. Operating expenses (including depreciation and capital charges, inflated to 1984 dollars). Source: From U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986, Guidelines for Ground Water Classification under the EPA Ground Water Protection Strategy ; Survey of Operating and Financial Characteristics of Community Water Systems, Temple, Barker and Sloane, Inc. 1982.

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Table 11D.58 Costs of Community Water Supply Technology in Developing Countries Low Technology

High

Handpumps

Standpipes

Yardtaps

Handpumps

Standpipes

Yardtaps

4000 1300 None 5300 13.3

2,000 4,000 4,500 10,500 26.3

2,500 4,500 16,000 23,000 57.5

10,000 2,500 None 12,500 31.2

5,000 8,000 10,000 23,000 57.5

6,000 9,000 30,000 45,000 112.5

700 200 None 900 1400 2300

1,500 600 150 2,250 1,100 3,350

3,200 1,000 450 4,650 None 4,650

1,400 400 None 1,800 3,000 4,800

3,000 1,200 300 4,700 2,200 6,900

6,000 2,000 900 8,900 None 8,900

Capital cost (US$) Wellsa Pumps (hand/motor) Distributionb Sub-total Cost per capita Annual cost (US$/year) Annualized capitalc Maintenance Operation (fuel) Sub-total (cash) Haul costs (labor)d Total (including labor) Total annualized cost per capita Cash only CashClabor

2.3 5.8

5.6 8.4

11.6 11.6

4.5 12.0

11.8 17.3

22.3 22.3

Note: Capital and recurrent costs for a community of 400 people. a b c d

Pumping water level assumed to be 20 m. Two wells assumed for handpump system (200 persons per handpump). Distribution system includes storage, piping, and taps with soakaway pits. Capital costs with replacement of mechanical equipment after 10 years annualized at a discount rate of 10% over 20 years. Labour costs for walking to the water point, queuing, filling the container, and carrying the water back to the house. Time valued at US $ 125/h.

Source: From Arlosoroff, Saul, and others, 1987, Community Water Supply: The Handpump Option, The World Bank, Washington, DC.

Table 11D.59 Projection of Irrigation Expansion in Developing Countries and Related Costs (1993–2000)

Asia (30 countries) Near East (10 countries) Latin America (40 countries) Africa (50 countries) Total (130 countries)

Total Irrigated Land-1990 (millions of hectacres)

Projected Increases

Unit Cost (US dollars)

132.11 9.50 16.31 14.21 172.11

2.02 0.45 0.84 0.07 5.24

400 800 000 200

Total Costs (billions of dollars) 2.88 2.32 7.20 7.20 5.52

Source: From www.munfw.org.

Table 11D.60 Estimated Targets and Costs for the Modernization of Existing Irrigation Schemes (1990–2000)

Asia Near East Latin America Africa Developing Countries—130 Source: From www.munfw.org.

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Total Irrigated Area-1990 (millions of hectacres)

Total Area Upgraded

Unit Cost (US dollars)

Total Costs (US dollars)

132.11 95.9 16.3 14.2 172.11

3.21 5.1 1.63 1.42 7.2

600 450 1000 1800 113.1

1.4 1.6 2.52 4

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Table 11D.61 Options for Community Water Supply: A Comparative Study Step

Type Of Service

Water Source

Quality Protection

Water Use LPCa

Energy Source

Operation and Maintenance Needs

High capital and O&M costs, except for gravity schemes

Most desirable service level, but high resources needs

High capital and O&M costs, except gravity schemes Moderate capital and O&M costs, except gravity schemes; collection time Low capital and O&M costs; collection time

Very good access to safe water: fuel and institutional support critical Good access to safe water: cost competitive with handpumps at high pumping lifts Good access to safe water: sustainable by villagers Improvement if traditional source was badly contaminated Starting point for supply improvement

House connections

Groundwater Surface water Spring

Good, no treatment May need treatment Good, no treatment

100 to 150

Gravity, Electric, Diesel

4

Yardtaps

Groundwater Surface water Spring

Good, no treatment May need treatment Good, no treatment

50 to 100

Gravity, Electric, Diesel

3

Stand pipes

Groundwater Surface water Spring

Good, no treatment May need treatment Good, no treatment

10 to 40

Gravity, Electric, Diesel, Wind, Solar

2

Handpumps

Groundwater

Good, no treatment

10 to 40

Manual

Trained repairer: few spare parts

1

Improved traditional Groundwater sources (partially Surface water protected) Spring Rainwater Traditional Sources Surface water (unprotected) Groundwater Spring Rainwater

Variable Poor Variable Good, If protected Poor Poor

10 to 40

Manual

General upkeep

Very low capital and O&M costs: collection time

10 to 40

Manual

General upkeep

Low O&M costs (buckets, etc.) collection time

a

Liters per capita per day.

Source: From www.skipumps.com.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

General Remarks

5

0

Well trained operator; Reliable fuel and chemical supplies; many spare parts: wastewater disposal Well trained operator; reliable fuel and chemical supplies: many spare parts Well trained operator; reliable fuel and chemical supplies: many spare parts

Costs

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

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SECTION 11E

PROJECT PLANNING AND ANALYSIS

Figure 11E.46 Linear flows. (From The African Water Page, adapted from Esrey et al. 2001, www.thewaterpage.com. With permission.)

People

Excreta

Food

Pathogen destruction

Transport & storage

Safe fertilizer

Crops

Plants Figure 11E.47 Circular flows. (From The African Water Page, www.thewaterpage.com. With permission.)

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120 100

%

80 60 40

62

81

85

88

96

100

Africa

Asia

LA & C

Oceania

Europe

N. America

20 0 Figure 11E.48 Proportion (%) of population with water supply services. (From The African Water Page, www.thewaterpage.com. WHO/ UNICEF, 2000.)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

%

90 66 35 0 Africa

14 Asia

LA & C

Oceania

Europe

N. America

Figure 11E.49 Lack of treatment of waste water. (From The African Water Page, www.thewaterpage.com. WHO/UNICEF, 2000.)

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Table 11E.62 Elements Comprising a Water Resources Project Investigation A. Purposes of a multiple-purpose project 1. Irrigation 2. Drainage 3. Domestic or industrial water supply 4. Flood control 5. Hydro-power generation 6. Navigation 7. Fish and wildlife conservation 8. Recreation 9. Water quality control 10. Salinity control 11. Watershed management 12. National defense 13. International relation B. Land resources 1. Land classification 2. Land use and capabilities 3. Development 4. Settlement 5. Drainage C. Water resources 1. Water supply, surface and groundwater and salvage 2. Water quality and treatment 3. Water requirements, all purposes 4. Water rights including international treaties 5. Flood studies 6. Sediment, including transport, erosion and aggradation 7. Project operation studies 8. Forecasting for operation 9. Hydraulic design requirements D. Engineering and geology 1. Aerial photography, surveying and mapping 2. Geology, foundation and materials 3. Anticipated construction problems 4. Plans and cost estimates, physical plan formulation 5. Anticipated operation, maintenance and replacement problems and estimates of cost Source: From ECAFE, United Nations, 1964.

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E. Economics 1. Existing economy and resource use 2. Future economy without the project 3. Future economy with the project, and regional and national impact 4. Economic criteria for plan formulation 5. Economic justification F. Financial considerations 1. Cost allocation to various purposes 2. Repayment of capital investment 3. Payment of annual operation, maintenance and replacement costs G. Legal considerations 1. Right to use of water 2. International agreements and treaties 3. Land acquisition and rights-of-way H. Public relations 1. Determination of public interest in contemplated development 2. Dissemination of factual information on progress and objectives of investigation 3. Establishment of government policy and enabling legislation I. Reports 1. Reconnaissance reports (a) Basin plan (b) Preliminary project report 2. Special interim or progress reports 3. Feasibility 4. Definite plan J. Administration 1. Organizational requirements for supervision of construction and operation of proposed projects 2. Program and budget requirements and control

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Table 11E.63 Purposes of a Water Resources Project Purpose Flood control

Irrigation

Hydroelectric

Navigation

Description Flood-damage prevention or reduction, protection of economic development, conservation storage, river regulation, recharging of groundwater, water supply, development of power, protection of life Agricultural production

Provision of power for economic development and improved living standards Transportation of goods and passengers

Domestic and industrial water supply

Provision of water for domestic, industrial, commercial, municipal, and other uses

Watershed management

Conservation and improvement of the soil, sediment abatement, runoff retardation, forests and grassland improvement, and protection of water supply Increased well-being and health of the people

Recreational use of water

Fish and wildlife

Pollution abatement

Insect control

Drainage

Sediment control

Salinity control

Improvement of habitat for fish and wildlife, reduction or prevention of fish or wildlife losses associated with man’s works, enhancement of sports opportunities, provision for expansion of commercial fishing Protection or improvement of water supplies for municipal, domestic, industrial, and agricultural use and for aquatic life and recreation Public health, protection of recreational values, protection of forests and crops Agricultural production, urban development, and protection of public health Reduction of control of slit load in streams and protection of reservoirs

Abatement or prevention of saltwater contamination of agricultural, industrial, and municipal water supplies

Type of Works and Measures Dams, storage reservoirs, levees, floodwalls, channel improvements, floodways, pumping stations, floodplain zoning, flood forecasting

Dams, reservoirs, wells, canals, pumps and pumping plants, weed-control and desilting works, distribution systems, drainage facilities, farmland grading Dams, reservoirs, penstocks, power plants, transmission lines Dams, reservoirs, canals, locks, open-channel improvements, harbor improvements Dams, reservoirs, wells, conduits, pumping plants, treatment plants, saline-water conversion, distribution systems Soil-conservation practices, forest and range management practices, debris-detention dams, small reservoirs, and farm ponds Reservoirs, facilities for recreational use, works for pollution control, reservations of scenic and wilderness areas Wildlife refuges, fish hatcheries, fish ladders and screens, reservoir storage, regulation of streamflows, stocking of streams and reservoirs with fish, pollution control, and land management Treatment facilities, reservoir storage for augmenting low flows, sewage-collection systems, legal control measures Proper design and operation of reservoirs and associated works, drainage, and extermination measures Ditches, tile drains, levees, pumping stations, soil treatment Soil conservation, sound forest practices, proper highway and railroad construction, desilting works, channel and revetment works, bank stabilization, special dam construction and reservoir operations Reservoirs for augmenting low streamflow, barriers, groundwater recharge, coastal jetties (Continued)

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Table 11E.63

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(Continued)

Purpose Artificial precipitation Employment

Public works acceleration

New water-resources policies

Description

Type of Works and Measures

Control of precipitation within meteorological limits Stimulation of employment and sources for increased income in depressed areas of unemployment and underdevelopment Acceleration of Federal, state, and local constructions of public works on cost-sharing basis New policies to be used by Federal agencies, according to S. Document no. 97 (27), approved by the President May 15, 1962, affecting the economies of project justification as well as project formulation and composition

Portable cloud-seeding equipment, ground generators Area Redevelopment Act and Area Redevelopment Administration

Public Law 87–658

Senate Document no. 97

Source: From Dixon, In Chow, Handbook of Applied Hydrogeology, McGraw-Hill, Copyright, 1964. With permission.

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Table 11E.64 Items to be Considered in Planning a Multiple-Purpose Water Resources Project

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

A. Physical and Related Items 1. Project area a. Physical geography: location and size; physiography; climate; soils b. Settlement: history; population; cultural background, both rural and urban c. Development: industry; transportation; communication; commerce; power; land uses; water uses; minerals; undeveloped resources d. Economic conditions: general; relief problems; community needs; national needs e. Investigations and reports: previous investigations; history; scope 2. Hydrologic data a. Hydrologic records and networks: gaging and observation stations; data-collecting agencies b. Hydrometeorological data: precipitation; evaporation and evapotranspiration c. Surface water: low flows; normal flows; maximum floods; “design floods;” drought; quality d. Groundwater: aquifers; recharge; quality 3. Supply of water a. Sources of supply: surface-water supply; groundwater supply; reservoirs b. Variation of supply: variability; consumptive use; regulation; diversion requirements; return flow; evapotranspiration losses; seepage losses or gains c. Quality of water: physical, chemical, biological and radioactive qualities; quality requirements; pollution d. Legal rights: water rights; development of project rights; operation rights 4. General considerations for design and planning a. Geology: explorations; geological formations; foundation problems b. Design problems: design criteria; methods of analysis; project operation and maintenance c. Construction problems: accessibility to project site; rights of way and relocation; construction materials; construction period; flow diversion; manpower; equipment, accessibility d. Alternative plans: comparison of alternative plans; supplementary plans; possible alternative plans; relationships to areas to be served e. Estimates of costs f. Intrastate, interstate, and international problems g. Organizations involved: public and/or private; technical, social, and political 5. Flood control a. Flood characteristics of the project area: Historical floods; flood magnitude and frequency b. Design criteria: project design storms and floods; degree of protection c. Damage: survey of flooding areas and things affected by floods, nearby or quite a distance away, including commerce, good will, dates of delivery of goods, etc. d. Measure of control: reduction of peak flow by reservoirs; confinement of flow by levees, floodwalls, or a closed conduit; reduction of peak stage by channel improvement; diversion of floodwater through bypasses or floodways; flood-plain zoning and evacuation; floodproofing and flood insurance of specific properties; reduction of flood runoff by watershed management e. Existing remedial works 6. Agricultural use of water (irrigation and related drainage) a. Factors for land classification: soil texture; depth to sand, gravel, shale, raw soil, or penetrable lime zone; alkalinity; salinity; slopes; surface cover and profile; drainage; water logging b. Present and anticipated development: crops; livestock; financial resources; improvements; organizations; development period c. Water requirements, if any: total crop requirement; irrigation-water demand; farm-delivery losses; diversion amounts d. Available water: sources; quality; quantity; distribution e. Irrigation methods: flooding; furrow irrigation; sprinkling; subirrigation; supplemental irrigation f. Structural works: storage reservoirs; dams; spillways; diversion works; canals and distribution systems 7. Hydroelectric power a. Development: sources; present potential and future capacities b. Alternative sources of power: stream; oil; gas; nuclear power; interties

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

c. Types of power plants: run-of-river; storage; pumped storage d. Structural components: dams; canals; tunnels; penstock; forebay; powerhouse; tailrace e. Power problems: load demand and distribution; interties (interconnections with other power transmission systems) f. Markets; revenues; costs 8. Navigation a. Water traffic: present and future needs and savings in shipping costs, if any, on the basis of which the justifications are primarily judged at the present time b. Alternative means of transportation: air; land c. Navigation requirements: depth, width, and alignment of channels; locking time; current velocity; terminal facilities d. Methods of improving navigation: channel improvement by reservoir regulation; contraction works; bank stabilization, straightening, and snag removal; lock-and-dam construction; canalization; dredging 9. Domestic and industrial water supply a. Sources of supply: surface and/or groundwater; location and capacity; desalination b. Water demand: climate; population characteristics; industry and commerce; water rates and metering; size of project area; fluctuation c. Water requirements: quantity; pressure; quality (tastes, odors, color, turbidity, bacteria content, chemicals, temperature, etc.) d. Methods of purification: plain sedimentation; chemical sedimentation or coagulation; filtration; disinfection; aeration; water softening e. Treatment plant: location; design; purpose or purposes f. Distribution systems: reservoirs; pumping stations; elevated storage; layout and size of pipe systems; location of fire hydrants g. Waterworks organizations: maintenance and operation of supply, distribution, and treatment facilities 10. Recreational use of water a. Population tributary (population near enough to the project area to use it for recreational purposes) b. Facilities: boating; fishing; swimming; etc. c. Water requirements: depth of water; area of water surface; sanitation 11. Fish and wildlife a. Biological data: species; habits b. Facilities: reservoirs; fish ladders c. Water requirements: temperature; current velocity; biological qualities 12. Drainage a. Existing projects b. Drainage conditions: rainfall excess; soil condition; topography; disposal of water c. Drainage system: urban; farmland 13. Water-quality control a. Problems involved: sources; nature and degree of pollution; sediment; salinity; temperature; oxygen content; radioactive contamination b. Hydrologic information and measurement c. Methods of control B. Economic Aspects of Project Formulation 1. Benefits and damages: identification and evaluation 2. Costs: identification and estimation 3. Financial feasibility 4. Allocation of costs 5. Reimbursement requirements and sharing of allocated costs 6. Methods and costs of financing the project, whether federal, state, or local, bringing all benefits and all costs to an annual basis and recognizing interest on the investment not only during construction, but throughout the entire proposed “life of the project” 7. Benefit-cost-ratio analysis: alternative plans Source: From Dixon, In Chow, Handbook of Applied Hydrogeology, McGraw-Hill, Copyright, 1964. With permission.

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Table 11E.65 Potential Benefits of Water Quality Improvements In-Stream use

Commercial fisheries, shell fisheries, and aquaculture; navigation Recreation (e.g., fishing, hunting, boating, swimming) Subsistence fishing Human health risk reductions Water-enhanced noncontact recreation (e.g., picnicking, photography, jogging, biking, camping) Nonconsumptive use (e.g., wildlife viewing, hiking near water) Flood control (reduced property loss and risk to health and safety) Industry/commercial (process and cooling waters) Agriculture/irrigation Municipal drinking water (treatment cost savings, water storage dredging and construction savings, and human health risk reduction) Residing, working, traveling, and owning property near water, etc. Existence (satisfaction gained from knowing the resources exist and knowing others enjoy the resources; ecologic value, including reduced mortality and morbidity, improved reproductive success, increased diversity of aquatic and piscivorous wildlife, improved habitat for threatened and endangered species, and improved integrity of aquatic and aquatic-dependent ecosystems) Bequest (intergenerational equity)

Near-stream use

Diversionary use

Aesthetic use Passive use

Note: Previous analyses have included option value as a potential benefit of environmental improvement. For this analysis, EPA adopted Freeman’s (1993) conclusion that option value does not exist as a separate benefit category. Source: From www.epa.gov. Table 11E.66 Some Examples of Water Management Purposes and the Need for Planning Function

Primary Responsibilitya

Irrigation

F, S, L, P

Municipal water supply

L

Best construction of systems Cost effectiveness

Industrial water supply

P

Cost effectiveness

Energy cooling water

P

Development of supplies

Hydropower

F, P

Wastewater treatment

L

Development of economic power Cost effectiveness

Navigation

F

Flood damage reduction Urban drainage

F, S, L L

Agricultural drainage Recreation Fish and wildlife

L F, S, L F, S

Watershed management Preservation of ecological systems Preservation of systems of unique value

L F, S F, S

a

Capital Investment

National economic efficiency Optimum facilities Plans for economical systems Plans for systems Development of facilities Preservation and enhancement of species Best plans Preservation of systems Preservation of systems

Operating Plans Best use of water and money Contingencies, best use of facilities Contingencies, best use of facilities Best use of facilities, meeting standards Maximization of energy production Meeting standards, reducing costs Operation of facilities Optimum operation Maintenance, warning, etc Operation of systems Effective operation Effective operation Maintenance and operation NA NA

FZFederal SZState LZLocal PZPrivate

Source: From Grigg, N.S., 1985, Water Resources Planning. Copyright 1985 McGraw-Hill, Inc. Reprinted with permission.

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Table 11E.67 Stages of Planning for Water Resources Management

Policy Planning Examples of Activities Assess broad national needs

Framework Planning Examples of Activities From viewpoint of broad regionwide totals and on “no-project” basis

Hypothesize national goals and objectives Inventory and evaluate available data Identify problems and opportunities in achieving goals Identify costs and benefits in achieving goals

Recommend policy choices

Coordinate national priorities Review programs for achievement of goals

Assess present and future water use and environmental needs Assess available water and related land resources

Evaluate general regulation potential and identify water quality management approaches Inventory present status of development Inventory general means available to satisfy needs Assess general alternatives to meet different goals

General Appraisal Planning Examples of Activities On basis of local projects or measures, and over regional of watershed areas Estimate present and future water use and environmental needs Estimate available water and related land resources Make preliminary evaluations of alternative water quality management approaches Make preliminary estimates of costs, benefits and consequences of specific alternative projects and measures Compare alternative projects and measures Devise alternative early action and future programs Recommend specific early action and alternative future programs, including selection of projects or measures for implementation study

Identify problem areas that need priority attention Recommend actions that can be taken at present and those that require further study

Implementation Planning Examples of Activities For specific projects or measures

Evaluate specific water use and environmental needs Evaluate available water and related land resources Evaluate regulation potential for different degrees of storage

Evaluate degree of water quality control with different types of facility

Prepare conceptual designs and cost estimates Make economic analyses of benefits and consequences Make financial analyses to demonstrate payout

Compare alternatives on basis of costs, benefits and payout Recommend an alternative to be selected

Recommend concerning authorization Source: From National Water Commission, 1972, Water Resources Planning.

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 11E.68 Water Body Classification Categories Description of Desired Usea Category I: Water bodies typically used for direct contact recreational activities, including swimming, scuba diving, snorkeling and waterskiing

Category II: Water bodies typically used for indirect contact recreational activities, including sail boating, motor boating, canoeing, and fishing. These activities involve incidental contact with lake water, but do not generally require the water clarity found in direct contact recreational waters. Algal blooms in mid- to late-summer may limit direct contact recreational activities such as swimming and waterskiing Category III: Water bodies that typically serve important functions such as wildlife habitat and aesthetics. May also provide opportunities for warm water fishing, provided winterkill does not occur. Generally accessible to the public for education, interpretation, and nature appreciation.

Category IV — Nutrient Traps: The intended use of these water bodies is to reduce downstream loading of phosphorus and other nutrients that contribute to water pollution. These ponds are generally artificially modified to improve their nutrient trapping capacity. These ponds may become hypereutrophic, and frequent summer algal blooms would be considered normal Category V — Sediment Traps: These water bodies are similar to Category IV water bodies, but too small to effectively remove a significant fraction of nutrients a b

Guidelines for Desired Useb Minimum summer Secchi disc depth of at least 1.0 meters; summer average of at least 1.4 meters. Total phosphorus concentrations less than 45 g/L. Chlorophyll-a concentrations less than 20 g/L. Carlson TSI index (Secchi disc based) no greater than 55 Mean summer Secchi disc depth of at least 0.9 meters, but less than 1.4 meters Total phosphorus concentration of at least 45 g/L, but less than 75 g/L Chlorophyll-a concentration of at least 20 g/L, but less than 40 g/L Carlson TSI index (Secchi disc based) should be no greater than 60 Of primary importance are guidelines related to aesthetic enjoyment and wildlife habitat to maintain/improve desired use of these water bodies — see Table 5.2 for a listing of aesthetic and habitat indicators. Of secondary importance are the following water quality guidelines: Mean summer Secchi disc depth of at least 0.7 meters Total phosphorus concentration of at least 75 g/L, but less than 105 g/L Chlorophyll-a concentration of at least 40 g/L, but less than 60 g/L Carlson TSI index (Secchi disc based) no greater than 65 Design for phosphorus removal efficiencies of at least 50%. Depth should be managed to prevent or reduce odors associated with algal blooms. No numeric standards for water quality parameters are defined for this category Generally have phosphorus removal efficiencies less than 50%. No numeric standards for water quality parameters are defined for this category

Categories I–III could also include ecologically or biologically unique resources, or water bodies that directly or indirectly affect such a resource. The water quality criteria for Categories I–III may not apply in the case of ecologically or biologically unique resource; resource-specific criteria may be required.

Source: From Black Dog Watershed Management Organization, www.dakotacountyswcd.org. With permission.

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Table 11E.69 Aesthetic and Habitat Indicators and Recommended City Actions Indicator Localized shoreline erosion

Prevalence

Recommended Actionsa

10% or less of shore 10% to 25% 25% or more Present

A (note # of sites), B A (note # of sites), B, C A (note # of sites), B, D E

Average density of shallow water aquatic plantsc

Present 10 cubic yards or more O75% 50% to 75% 25% to 50% !25% Present Not present Present Not present !1.5

Non-native invasive shallow water aquatic plantsd

1.5 to 2.5 O2.5 Present

E F A A, B A, B, Computer A, B, D A (note # of colonies), G, H A A, G, I A A, B (to encourage growth of desirable plants), J A A, K A, B (to encourage growth of desirable plants), L A

Shoreline erosion resulting from upstream activity Sedimentation/deltas Shoreline buffer/percent vegetatedb

Purple loosestrife, non-native invasive species Glossy and common buckthorn, non-native invasive species

Not present a

b c d

Key to recommended city actions: A, Monitor annually; B, Targeted education materials regarding the importance of lakescaping and buffers; C, Lakescaping demonstration project; D, Lakescaping incentive program (e.g. small grants to encourage residents to implement lakescaping techniques); E, Evaluate source of problem and develop methods to address problem; F, Excavate sediment; G, Targeted education materials regarding the detrimental impacts of the plants, the importance of removing them, methods to remove them, and replacement plantings; H, Recruit citizens to take part in the DNR’s purple loosestrife (beetle) program to eradicate plants; I, Recruit citizens to remove/replace plants; J, Evaluation needed to determine why so few plants are present and if more are needed; K, Evaluate extent of plant growth and develop/implement aquatic plant management plan; L, Evaluate extent of plant growth and develop/implement aquatic plant management plan — may not include eradication of non-native invasive plants, especially if they are the only aquatic plants present. Percent vegetated — percent of shoreline that is vegetated, exclusive of landscaped lawns, with buffer at least 10 f in width. Based on density ratings given for numerous locations within the littoral zone of each water body; density of 1, low, 2, moderate, 3, high. Non-native invasive aquatic plants include Eurasian watermilfoil and curly leaf pondweed.

Source: From Black Dog Watershed Management Organization, www.dakotacountyswcd.org. With permission.

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Table 11E.70 Recommended Lake Water Quality Management Actions for Category I and II Lakes Type(s) of Management Action Needed Most Recent Summer Average Lake Water Quality, as Compared to Management Action Level Better than

5–10-Year Water Quality Trend No trend analysis available

Improving

Steady

Degrading

Worse than

No trend analysis available Improving

Steady

Degrading

Watershed Management

Lake Monitoring

No action

Continue existing water quality monitoring program: Survey Level— Category I Secchi Disc—Category II No action Survey Level— Category I Secchi Disc—Category II No action Survey Level— Category I Secchi Disc—Category II No action Management Level— Category I Survey Level—Category II No action Management Level— Category I Survey Level—Category II Implementation of Management Level— runoff BMPs Category I Survey assumed; no further Level—Category II action required Diagnostic study (e.g., Management Level— P8 modeling) Category I Survey Level—Category II

Intensive lake Comprehensive monitoring as part of lake/watershed diagnostic feasibility diagnostic feasibility study study

Source: From Black Dog Watershed Management Organization, www.dakotacountyswcd.org. With permission.

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Runoff Monitoring or Equivalent None

None

None

Watershed land use review None

None

Watershed land use review; And subsequent, focused runoff water quality monitoring in potential problem subwatersheds Detailed runoff water quality monitoring as part of diagnostic feasibility study

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 11E.71 Detailed Listing of Possible Best Management Practices Type of Practice

Storm Protection Benefit

Pollutants Controlled

Construction Requirements

Public education (billing inserts, news releases, radio public service announcements, school programs, and pamphlets)

Not applicable

Reduced pollutant load to storm drain system

Can reduce improper disposal of paints, varnishes, thinners, pesticides, fertilizers, and household cleansers, and chemicals, etc.

None

Litter control

Site dependent

Reduced potential for clogging and discharge

Household and restaurant paper, plastics, and glass

Increase number of trash receptacles and regularly service

Recycling programs

Site dependent

Reduction in potential for clogging and harmful discharge

Household paper, glass, aluminum, and plastics. Oil and grease from auto maintenance

Collection and sorting stations

“No Littering” ordinance

Storm drain system and receiving water

Prohibits littering and prevents litter from entering storm drains

Paper, plastics, glass, food wrappers, and containers

None

“Pooper Scooper” ordinance

Storm drain system and receiving water

Requires animal owners to clean Coliform bacteria and nitrogen/urea up and properly dispose of animal wastes

None

Develop and enact spill response Site dependent plan

Prevent pollutants from entering Hazardous chemical, harmful storm drain chemicals, oil, and grease

None

Clean up vacant lots

Prevent debris from Hazardous and/or harmful accumulating on lot. Prevent chemicals, wind blown for water site from appearing as a borne debris “dump” for others to use for disposal. Eliminate sources of hazardous waste

None

Prohibit illegal and illicit Storm drain system and connections and dumping into receiving water storm drain system

Reduces pollutant load entering storm drains

Coliform bacteria, nitrogen, contaminants, and toxic or harmful chemicals

None

Identify, locate, and prohibit illegal or illicit discharge to storm drain system

Halt hazardous and harmful discharges, whether intentional or negligent

Sewage from cross connections, oil, grease, direct disposal of pesticides and fertilizers, contaminated water, paint, varnish, solvents, water from site dewatering, swimming pool and spa water, flushing water from radiators and cooling systems, and hazardous or harmful chemicals

Monitor storm drain system for flows and water quality

Institutional Source Controls

Site dependent

Area-wide

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-151

Area of Benefit

(Continued)

Type of Practice

Area of Benefit

Storm Protection Benefit

Require proper storage, use, and Site dependent (city, state, or Reduce pollutant load to storm county-wide) system disposal of fertilizers, pesticides, solvents, paints and varnishes, and other household chemicals (oil, grease, and antifreeze, etc.) Restrict paving and use of nonporous cover materials in recharge areas

Pollutants Controlled

Construction Requirements

Household hazardous materials

None

Recharge area site

Promotes infiltration to groundwater and reduces runoff volume and velocity. Filters pollutants

Street sweeping

Street right-of-way

Reduction in potential for clogging storm drains with debris. Some oil and grease control possible

Sidewalk cleaning

Sidewalk right-of-way in areas Reduction in pollutants entering of heavy foot traffic storm drain

Clean and maintain storm drain channels annually

Silt and sediment and the Prevent erosion in channel. Channel capacity and contaminants contained therein. Improve capacity by removing receiving water. Upstream Plastic, glass, paper, and metal silt and sedimentation. flood control benefits. thrown or washed in channel Remove debris that is habitat Includes benefits to destroying or toxic to wildlife channel wildlife habitat and vegetation

None

Clean and inspect storm inlets and catch basins annually

Site dependent flood control benefits

Allows proper drainage to Silt and sediment and the prevent flooding and contaminants contained therein. Plastic, glass, paper, and metal continued proper operation of thrown or washed into facilities facilities

None

Clean and inspect debris basins Site dependent flood control annually benefits

Silt and sediment and the Allows proper drainage to contaminants contained therein. prevent flooding and Plastic, glass, paper, and metal continued proper operation of thrown or washed into facilities facilities

None

Storm drains cleaned and Flood control and water maintained every 3 to 6 years quality benefits

Silt and sediment and the Allows proper drainage to contaminants contained therein. prevent flooding and Plastic, glass, paper, and metal continued proper operation of thrown or washed into facilities facilities

None

Storm system pump stations cleaned and maintained annually

Prevents flooding and allows Silt and sediment and the continued proper operation of contaminants contained therein. facilities Plastic, glass, paper, and metal thrown or washed into facilities

None

11-152

Table 11E.71

Establishment of vegetation or use of recharge/infiltration materials

Nonstructural Source Controls Acquire street sweeping equipment

Oil and dirt

None

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Site dependent flood control and water quality benefits

Paper and plastics, leaves and twigs, dust, and oil and grease

Storm drain system and receiving water

Prevents and eliminates sewer system surcharges

Contaminants, toxics, and coliform bacteria

None

Minor Structural Source Controls Storm drain inlet protection

Storm drain drainage area

Prevent debris from entering storm drain

Dirt, leaves, twigs, paper, plastic, and other incidentals

Not available

Outlet protection

Storm drain receiving water

Prevent erosion at the outlet of pipes or paved channels and protect downstream water quality

Turbidity and sediment

Structural apron lining at the outlet location. Made of riprap, grouted riprap, concrete, or other structural materials

Slope stabilization and erosion control measures

Site and topography dependent

Reduce silt and sediment load to Silt and sediment and the storm drains contaminants therein

None

Interceptor swale

Dependent on flow velocity. Max. velocity for earth channel is 6 fps. Max. velocity for vegetated or riprap channel is 8 fps

Sediments and silt and the Shorten length of exposed contaminants contained therein slopes and intercept and divert storm runoff from erodible areas

Excavation drainageway across disturbed areas or rightsof-way

Improve and maintain natural channels

Silt and sediment and the Prevent erosion in channel. Channel capacity and contaminants contained therein. Improve capacity by removing receiving water. Upstream Plastic, glass, paper, and metal silt and sedimentation. flood control benefits. thrown or washed in channel Remove debris that is habitat Includes benefits to destroying or toxic to wildlife channel wildlife habitat and vegetation

None

Diversion channel

Intercept and convey runoff to Dependent of flow velocity. outlets at nonerosive velocity Maximum velocities: 5 fps for vegetated channel and 8 fps for riprap channel. Not for use on slopes greater than 15%. Drainage area should be 5 acres of less

Sediment and erosion controls

Lined drainageway of trapezoidal cross section

Grass-lined channel

Intercept runoff and convey Site dependent but of larger runoff from site capacity than interceptor or perimeter swales

Sediment and silt and the contaminants contained therein

Excavation of channel or improvements to natural channel. Stabilization with vegetation

Filters sediment from runoff Sediment and the contaminants before it enters inlet. Provides contained therein relatively good protection

Barrier around storm drain inlet. Useful for areas where storm drain is operational before area runoff area is stabilized

Riprap

Provides stabilization and erosion control for stream banks and channels, outlet, and slopes

Placement of rock on area to be stabilized. May also require use of filter fabric liner

Site dependent

Erosion and sediment

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-153

Storm drain drop inlet protection Areas less than 1 to 2 acres

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Inspect and maintain sewer system

(Continued) Area of Benefit

Storm Protection Benefit

Pollutants Controlled

Construction Requirements

Gabions

Site dependent

Provides stabilization and erosion control for stream banks, outlet, and slopes

Erosion and sediment

Placement of wire cage will with rocks over area to be stabilized. May also require use of filter fabric liner

Vegetative control

Applicable and effective for most sites

Erosion and sediment Provides stabilization and erosion control for streambanks, swales, channels, outlets, slopes, open disturbed areas. Can be up to 99% effective with established cover. Temporary seeding can be up to 90% effective

Site preparation (can include land leveling and installation of irrigation system), seeding or planting, and netting or mulching to establish seed. Can also include other sodding, ground cover, shrubs, trees, and native plants

Filter strips

Site dependent

Receives overland flow slowing Silt, sediment, trash, organic runoff and trapping matter, and to an extent, soluble pollutants through infiltration particulates. Can be 30 to 50% effective for sediment control

Fence open channels

Site dependent

Prevent windblown trash from entering channel. Prevents illegal dumping in channel

Grading and vegetative establishment. Should have a minimum width of 15 to 20 feet. Good performance is achieved with a 50- to 75-foot width Construction of fences

Trash and pollutants

Discharge Elimination Methods French drains and subsurface drains

Dependent on site topography Provides drainage of “wet” soils Sediment and soil permeability to allow establishment of vegetation. Can reduce runoff

Underground perforated pipe leading to a surface water outlet. Pipe size, bedding and depth is dependent on site conditions

Infiltration trench and dry well

Small drainage areas. Runoff Provides temporary storage of runoff and infiltration to soil. from rooftops, parking lots, Not for use in areas where residential, etc. groundwater could become contaminated

Excavation of a shallow trench 2 0 to 10 0 deep. Backfilled with coarse stone aggregate

Exfiltration trench

Site dependent

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Prevents 100% of pollutants from entering surface water. Oil, grease, floating organic matter, and settleable solids should be removed before water enters trench

Prevent silting on underlying filter Prevents pollutants from entering gravel or rock bed. Retain first surface water. Oil, grease, flush, reduce runoff volume floating organic matter, and and peak discharge rate and settleable solids should be promote water quality removed before water enters improvement trench

Uses perforated pipe with suitable membrane filter material. Installed before receiving water outlet or in groundwater recharge area

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Type of Practice

11-154

Table 11E.71

Site dependent. Requires relatively flat surface

Retention basin

Best for sites of 5 to 50 acres Promotes infiltration to groundwater and reduces runoff volume and velocity. Filters pollutants

Sediment, trace metals, nutrients, and oxygen-demanding substances

Install porous pavement. May require twice as much paving materials as standard asphalt to achieve same strength Excavation of a basin over permeable soils. Size is site dependent. Depth is 3 to 12 feet

Floatables and Oil Removal Clarifies and oil and water separators on parking structures

Parking lot structure and receiving water

Collect debris before it can enter Oil, grease, and antifreeze from storm drain vehicles and foods and food wrappers

Install grit and separators

Oil and grit separators

Site dependent. For heavy traffic areas or areas with high potential for oil spills

Remove pollutants

Sediments and hydrocarbons

Install oil and grit separators on storm drains

Sediment/grease trap

Installed on storm drain inlets Intercept and trap sediment and grease from runoff

Sediment, oil, and grease

Install sediment and grease traps

Detention basin

Temporary storage of storm Four acres of drainage area runoff until release. Can also for each acre/foot of improve water quality storage provided to retain a permanent pool of water

Sediment, trace metals, hydrocarbons, nutrients, and pesticides

Excavation of a basin over soils which will cause excessive seepage. May require a liner. Can be used aesthetically as a small pond in landscaping

Extended detention basin

Size for a minimum detention Temporary storage of runoff for time of 24 hours an extended period of time. Can improve water quality

Sediment, trace metals, hydrocarbons, nutrients, and pesticides

Excavation of a basin over soils which will cause excessive seepage. May require a liner. Can be used aesthetically as a small pond in landscaping

Bar screens

Site dependent

Large debris

Install bar screens before pump station suction bays

Wetlands

Requires large area, 3% of the Remove pollutants. Provide watershed area habitat and recreational area

Hydrocarbons, silt and sediment, oxygen-demanding substances, bacteria, and nutrients

Create a new wetlands area or use existing wetlands

Site dependent. Is abandoned Treats stormwater flows prior to treatment facility available? discharge

Process dependent. Chlorination facilities may be added to remove microorganisms

Treatment conversion

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Allow infiltration of surface runoff. Oil and grease Reduce runoff volume and pollutant loadings from low volume traffic areas

Porous pavement

Solids Removal

Restrict passage of objects which may obstruct pump station suction bays

Microorganism Removal 11-155

Conversion of wastewater treatment plants to wet weather facilities

(Continued) q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(Continued) Area of Benefit

Storm Protection Benefit

Pollutants Controlled

Construction Requirements

Install treatment facilities on “Dirty” storm drains

Site and need dependent

Microorganisms Treats stormwater flows. Dry weather flows should be halted or routed to existing wastewater treatment facility if possible

Site specific

Swirl concentrators and chlorination/dechlorination

Site and need dependent

Treats stormwater flows prior to discharge

Floatables, settleable solids, suspended solids, and coliform bacteria

Install concentrators

Chlorination/dechlorination facilities

Site and need dependent

Treats stormwater flows prior to discharge

Microorganisms

Install chlorination/ dechlorination facilities

Primary clarifiers

Site and need dependent

Treats stormwater flows prior to discharge

Floatables, settleable solids, suspended solids, and coliform bacteria

Install primary clarifiers

Primary clarifiers and filters

Site and need dependent

Treats stormwater flows prior to discharge

Suspended solids, nutrients and coliform bacteria

Construct sedimentation basins and filters

Primary clarifiers and lime precipitation

Site and need dependent

Treats stormwater flows prior to discharge

Floatable, settleable solids, suspended solids, coliform bacteria, and metals

Install primary clarifiers and lime precipitation facilities

Detention basin and wetland treatment

Requires large area, 3% of the Remove pollutants. Provide watershed area habitat and recreational area

Hydrocarbons, silt and sediment, oxygen-demanding substances, bacteria, metals, and nutrients

Create a new wetlands area or use existing wetland

Metals Removal

Source: From Black Dog Watershed Management Organization ENR 4900, www.dakotacountyswcd.org. With permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Type of Practice

11-156

Table 11E.71

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-157

Table 11E.72 Recommended Best Management Practices According to Watershed Watersheds Tributary to a Ponding Area that Treats Stormwater Runoff (Treated Watershed)

Best Management Practice Retrofit dry ponds to wet detention ponds Retrofit dry ponds to constructed water quality wetlands Retrofit dry ponds to extended detention basins Construct sedimentation (pretreatment) basins, when opportunity arises Create additional water quality storage to meet NURP standards Perform stormwater system maintenance in accordance with local plan Install “Stormceptors” or other precast stormwater treatment systems Prioritize street sweeping Construct skimmers to prevent downstream discharge of oil and floatables Develop/implement lawn fertilizer ordinance Construct filter strips/grassed swales Increase opportunities for infiltration Stabilize slopes and implement other permanent erosion/sediment controls Develop and implement education program emphasizing good housekeeping practicesg Provide vegetative buffers around ponds and wetlands a b c d e f g

No Outleta

NURP Detentionb

Wet Detentionc

Dry Detentiond

Watersheds Receiving No Treatment No Detentione

Direct Dischargef

X

X

X X X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X

X X

X X

X X X

X X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

No outlet watershed — area tributary to a landlocked basins (i.e., no outlet); receives highest level of treatment (i.e., 100% total phosphorus removal). NURP watershed — area tributary to a wet detention pond that provides treatment to NURP standards (i.e., 40%–60% total phosphorus removal). Wet detention watershed — area tributary to a wet detention pond that provides treatment to less than NURP standards (i.e., 5%–40% total phosphorus removal). Dry detention watershed — area tributary to a dry detention basin that provides for settlement of larger particles and traps floatables, but provides minimal water quality treatment (i.e., 0%–10% total phosphorus removal). No detention watershed — area tributary to a storm sewer system that does not receive any type of detention storage or treatment. Direct watershed — area that directly discharges as sheet flow into a major waterbody without any treatment. “Good housekeeping practices” include: fertilizer and chemical management, lawn and garden care guidelines, litter control, control of illegal dumping/illicit discharges, pet waste management, vacant lot cleanup, recycling programs, etc. See also Table 5.4.

Source: From Black Dog Watershed Management Organization, www.dakotacountyswcd.org. With permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

Table 11E.73 Current Status the WHO/UNICEF/WSSCC Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report Provides Information on the Current Status of Basic Water and Sanitation Services throughout the World 1990 Population (Millions) (76% of Global Population Represented) Total Population Population Population Served Unserved Global Urban water supply Rural water supply Total water supply Urban sanitation Rural sanitation Total sanitation Africa Urban water supply Rural water supply Total water supply Urban sanitation Rural sanitation Total sanitation Asia Urban water supply Rural water supply Total water supply Urban sanitation Rural sanitation Total sanitation Latin American and the Caribbean Urban water supply Rural water supply Total water supply Urban sanitation Rural sanitation Total sanitation Oceania Urban water supply Rural water supply Total water supply Urban sanitation Rural sanitation Total sanitation Europe Urban water supply Rural water supply Total water supply Urban sanitation Rural sanitation Total sanitation Northern America Urban water supply Rural water supply Total water supply Urban sanitation Rural sanitation Total sanitation

% Served

2000 Population (Millions) (89% of Global Population Represented) Total Population Population Population Served Unserved

% Served

2292 2179 113 95 2974 1961 1013 66 5266 4140 1126 79 2292 1877 415 82 2974 1028 1946 35 5266 2905 2361 55 (72% of regional population represented) 197 166 31 84 418 183 235 44 615 349 266 57 197 167 30 85 418 206 212 49 615 373 242 61 (88% of regional population represented) 1029 972 57 94 2151 1433 718 67 3180 2405 775 76 1029 690 339 67 2151 496 1655 23 3180 1186 1994 37 (77% of regional population represented)

2845 2672 173 94 3210 2284 926 71 6055 4956 1099 82 2845 2442 403 86 3210 1210 2000 38 6055 3652 2403 60 (96% of regional population represented) 297 253 44 85 487 231 256 47 784 484 300 62 297 251 46 84 487 220 267 45 784 471 313 60 (94% of regional population represented) 1352 1254 98 93 2331 1736 595 75 3683 2990 693 81 1352 1055 297 78 2331 712 1619 31 3683 1767 1916 48 (99% of regional population represented)

313 287 26 92 128 72 56 56 441 359 82 82 313 267 46 85 128 50 78 39 441 317 124 72 (64% of regional population represented) 18 18 0 100 8 5 3 62 26 23 3 88 18 18 0 99 8 7 1 89 26 25 1 96 (15% of regional population represented) 522 522 0 100 200 199 1 100 722 721 1 100 522 522 0 100 200 199 1 100 722 721 1 100 (99.9% of regional population represented) 213 213 0 100 69 0 69 0 100 282 282 0 100 213 213 0 100 69 69 0 100 282 282 0 100

391 362 29 93 128 79 49 62 519 441 78 85 391 340 51 87 128 62 66 49 519 402 117 78 (85% of regional population represented) 21 21 0 98 9 6 3 63 30 27 3 88 21 21 0 99 9 7 2 81 30 28 2 93 (44% of regional population represented) 545 542 3 100 184 161 23 87 729 703 26 96 545 537 8 99 184 137 47 74 729 674 55 92 (99.9% of regional population represented) 239 239 0 100 71 71 0 100 310 310 0 100 239 239 0 100 71 71 0 100 310 310 0 100

Note: The report charts the developments since 1990. The current status is provided in the table above. Source: From thewaterpage.com. With permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11-159

Table 11E.74 Table Annual Investments in Water Supply and Sanitation Indicating Proportional Disparity Region

Water Supply (US$ Billion)

%

Sanitation (US$ Billion)

%

Africa Asia LA & C Total

4.091 6.063 2.41 12.564

88 85 62 80

0.542 1.104 1.503 3.148

12 15 38 20

Note: Investment figures indicate that a higher priority has been given over the 90s for water supply as opposed to sanitation, both through national governments and by the international community. Source: From WHO/UNICEF, 2000. thewaterpage.com. With permission.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

11-160

THE WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA: HYDROLOGIC DATA AND INTERNET RESOURCES

SECTION 11F

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Step 5

RESEARCH AND EXPENDITURES

Identify regulated entities Private sector Public sector

Identify cost categories Capital Operation and maintenance (O &M) Research and development (R&D) Regulation and monitoring (R&M) Other

Collect data Annual WPA expenditures Other supporting data

Simulate without-CWA WPA expenditures Regression-projection approach Alternative approach

Estimate annual WPA costs (with and without-CWA) Capital costs annualization procedure O&M, R&D, R &M, other costs

Step 6

Compute incremental annual costs attributable to CWA

Step 7

Compare cost and benefit estimates for CWA

Figure 11F.50 Outline of methodology for assessing CWA costs. (From A Retrospective Assessment of the Costs of the Clean Water Act—1972–1997 Final Report, www.epa.gov.)

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

POEU O&M