Encyclopedia of the History of Classical Archaeology [1 ed.] 188496480X, 9781884964800

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An Encyclopedia of the History of Classical Archaeology

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An Encyclopedia of the History of Classical Archaeology Edited by Nancy Thomson de Grummond

~~ ~~~~~;n~~:up LONDON AND NEW YORK

Copyright © 1996 by Nancy Thomson de Grummond All rights reserved, including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. For information, write to: Published by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, 0X14 4RN 270 Madison Ave, New York NY 10016 Transferred to Digital Printing 2011 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of the history of classical archaeology 1. Classical antiquities—Encyclopedias I. De Grummond, Nancy Thomson 937’.003 ISBN 1-884964 80 X (set) 1-884964-78-8 (vol.l) 1-884964-79-6 (vol.2) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available. First published in the U.K. and U.S.A., 1996 The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48-1984).

Publisher’s Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original may be apparent.

In memory o f Louise Ponder Thomson (1913-1994) and Alfred Valerie Thomson (1913-1993)

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Contents Preface Bibliographical Abbreviations THE ENCYCLOPEDIA

ix xix 1

Chronology of the History of Classical Archaeology

1213

Select Bibliography Joann McDaniel

1227

Index

1233

About the Contributors

1307

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Preface I entered upon it, as one does on a country newly discovered; without any paths made and generally much embarrassed. Had any work of this kind been published . . . I certainly could have made this much more perfect, with extremely less pains; whereas all I can beg for it now is, that the difficulty of making one’s way almost everywhere, may be duly considered; and that the many imperfections and errors which that must occasion, may meet with the indulgence that the case deserves. —J. Spence, Introduction to Polymetis (1747) Since this is the first time an encyclopedia of the history of classical archaeology has been prepared, it is appropriate to begin by describing the scope and meth­ odology of the work. It is necessary to explain first what is understood by “ classical archaeology.” The expression is used here to mean basically the study of the visual remains of the ancient classical lands, Greece and Italy. Greek and Roman material is central; but also included here are the prehistoric or protohistorical cultures of the Bronze Age Aegean and of the Etruscans, which have a relationship of continuity and overlapping with the succeeding cultures in Greece and Italy, respectively, and the study of which is often inseparable from the historical Greek and Roman periods. Also included are manifestations of these cultures outside Italy and Greece proper; in France, for example, Roman arches, amphitheaters and aqueducts that were known, reused, admired and stud­ ied are of significance for the history of the study of classical remains. Greek temples and sites in Asia Minor were noted from the fifteenth century, and the story of their systematic recovery and study in the nineteenth century constitutes an important chapter in the history of archaeology. But other related archaeo­ logical spheres— Egyptian, Near Eastern, Phoenician, Celtic, Scythian, and New World— are referred to only in passing, for to treat these fully would have meant to write a very different book.

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PREFACE

As for the word “ archaeology,” some today apply the term only to the rig­ orously systematic and scientific aspects of the discipline that have grown up in connection with purposeful excavation in the field. A book like Glyn Daniel’s A Short History o f Archaeology (1981) is based on the idea that archaeology is properly the science of excavating and interpreting excavated evidence and that it reaches its greatest purity when the study is completely prehistoric; inscrip­ tions and literary traditions are considered far less relevant for the discipline. Advocates of this approach have given little attention to those who studied antiquities prior to the advent of scientific fieldwork. Bruce Trigger’s recent work, A History o f Archaeological Thought (1989), shows an awareness of scholarly study of classical remains prior to the nineteenth century but allots a quite small amount of space to early classical archaeologists. For a just survey, one must go back more than one hundred years to the work of C. B. Stark, Systematik und Geschichte der Archaologie der Kunst (1880), approximately half of which is devoted to archaeology of the fifteenth to eighteenth centuries. In this encyclopedia the Middle Ages, Renaissance and seventeenth and eigh­ teenth centuries are treated as periods to be taken seriously for their archaeo­ logical study of the visual remains of antiquity. This approach constitutes one of the principal ways in which the work differs from the studies of Daniel, Trigger and others who have, in recent years, written on the history of archae­ ology. Included here are the biographies of travelers, collectors, artists and schol­ ars whose activities made a difference in knowledge of the sites and monuments in their own day and in the history of archaeological scholarship. Scholars such as Peiresc and Bellori were on the cutting edge of research on antiquities in the seventeenth century and were passionately committed to the exchange of knowl­ edge; we still follow some of their basic methodology and even conclusions. Travelers of the fifteenth century such as Buondelmonti and Ciriaco of Ancona made valuable records of the status of sites and monuments in their day and thus enlarge our own view. Artists like Alberti and Vasari reported on antiquities excavated in their time (Alberti himself attempted an underwater excavation at Nemi), and their reports help us to recover the context of artifacts and monu­ ments under study today. In addition, here the reader will find entries on famous monuments as seen, changed and interpreted through time; obvious inclusions are the Parthenon, the Mausoleum of Halikarnassos, the Colosseum and the Pantheon, which were visited and studied during the Renaissance and later (for some monuments there are continuous records from the Middle Ages). There are entries on major works of art, such as the Laocoon group, the Farnese Herakles and the Aldobrandini Wedding, which were excavated during the Renaissance and seventeenth century (albeit with an intent and by techniques that are considered very limited today), as well as works that were known throughout the Middle Ages and later, such as the Capitoline Wolf Studying the “ biographies” of these works, we under­ stand how they came to be the way they are today and are better able to con­ jecture what they were like originally. The different restorations of the missing

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xi

parts of the Laocoon group, which make a critical difference in our interpretation of its style and subject matter, can be traced from the sixteenth century. The seventeenth-century report that the Portland Vase was discovered in a sarcoph­ agus is of great interest for our understanding of the usage and meaning of this unusual artifact. Besides such major monuments, many others are included; clearly, not every building or statue or artifact that has been studied through the centuries can have an entry of its own, though a quite large number of works are at least mentioned (the index may be consulted to locate those that do not have an entry). In selecting sites, monuments and statuary for individual entries, an attempt has been made to choose the items that have had a strong impact on classical studies and that have a rich historical past. These are often works that have, or have had, an important place also in the history of art or architecture; for this, perhaps the encyclopedia may be criticized, since New Archaeology in the twentieth century believes that the discipline should not be concerned with the beauty of excavated materials. To this the answer is that in reconstructing antiquity, the basic task of archaeology, it is appropriate to try to see with the eyes of the ancients, who cared a great deal about the beauty of their monuments. In this sense, those who practiced the Old Archaeology were much closer to understanding antiquity than are some scholars today. Other considerations in selection of materials and viewpoints are listed by the following categories. ARTISTS Art historians may consult this work for information about the study and imitation of antiquity by artists of the Renaissance and later periods. Since the number of artists who worked within the “ classical tradition” is vast (Michael Greenhalgh has surveyed them in The Classical Tradition in Art, 1978), it is impossible to include them all; an attempt has been made to determine which artists should have priority, with the operative criterion that the artist should demonstrate some concrete evidence of study of the visual remains of classical antiquity. Thus, artists who did sketchbooks and created a repertory of illustra­ tions of such material, even though they may be minor figures in the history of art, are certainly appropriate subjects for entries. For artists who simply show a style that has an “ antique” feeling, it is sometimes difficult, if not impossible, to determine how they contributed to archaeological knowledge in their time. With great reluctance the decision was made to eliminate certain key artists of the Renaissance who left no drawing or written record of the study of specific antiquities and whose painted or sculptured works reveal relatively little data about antiquities visible in this period. SCHOLARS The omission most regretted relates to humanist scholars and philologists who were powerfully influential in their time but whose scholarly output reveals little

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or no involvement with archaeological material. Those who collected manu­ scripts and studied and wrote ancient history are borderline cases and are nor­ mally excluded if there is little or no evidence of serious study of at least inscriptions and/or coins for their own sakes. The decision was made to omit paleography as well as papyrology, disciplines that are more properly the sphere of philologists. It is not that this encyclopedia intends to promote categorization, only that from a practical point of view, some things must be omitted, and since histories of classical scholarship have normally given heavy emphasis to re­ search on texts and literary criticism (e.g., J. E. Sandys, A History o f Classical Scholarship, 3rd ed., 1958; Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, A History o f Classical Scholarship, 1982), information may be sought there rather than in these pages. Scholars living today, however significant their place in the history of ar­ chaeological scholarship, have not been included. SITES It has been especially difficult to explain to potential readers and contributors what the encyclopedia would do in regard to sites. Those who were asked to write about sites thought immediately of the Princeton Encyclopedia o f Classical Sites and wanted to know what more needed to be done. The present reference work differs from the Princeton Encyclopedia, above all, in its attempt to give fuller coverage to the history of the study of sites. Dates when excavations took place, who directed the work, what results were obtained and what conclusions were drawn, what significance the finds had for the development of scholars’ understanding of the site and the culture represented— these are the matters that were recommended to the contributors. In a way, the sites have “ biographies” like those of artists, travelers and scholars, including information about what happened at the site in antiquity and what happened to it in later periods, as well as an evaluation of its contribution to our archaeological knowledge. The selection of sites has been extremely difficult. Again, the number of possibilities is enormous, as demonstrated by the Princeton Encyclopedia itself. Further, each site seems important to the person who digs it or studies it. Em­ phasis was given to those sites that have a longer or more prominent history of visitation and excavation and to those that seem to have generated important changes in archaeological thinking. Some attempt has been made to take into account geographical distribution and, by including sites in areas outside Greece and Italy, to give some idea of the development of classical archaeology in other countries. ABOUT THE BOOK A word is in order about the history of this encyclopedia of the history of archaeology. The idea to do the work was not my own; when first invited to be

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xiii

a coeditor, I replied that I would love to look up things in such a work but was unable to commit to such a large undertaking. When approached a second time, my resolve weakened, and my enthusiasm for the project was so strong that I agreed to serve as coeditor as well as coauthor of a certain percentage of the articles, especially those that had to do with my own area of Etruscan studies and with the development of classical archaeology in the seventeenth century, a subject that had been part of my dissertation. With the help of an advisory board (see Acknowledgments, later in Preface), a master list was drawn up (it had 748 entries), and a list of some fifty potential contributors was compiled. Editorial and authorial duties were divided and invitations sent out. Then the entries began to come in, and a remarkable phenomenon developed. Authors had been asked to supply suggestions for cross-references in the en­ cyclopedia, and almost every entry submitted listed one or more cross-references that did not appear on the master list. The master list thus began to expand, and more contributors were invited. At this point my coeditor withdrew, and I de­ termined to continue the work; on two occasions I sought a new coeditor, in­ viting colleagues whom I considered ideal for the job. They were not so rash as I had been, and no collaborator was secured. Today, some fifteen years later, the list of entries numbers 1,125, and the number of contributors 171. My editors at Greenwood, urging practicality, have nevertheless graciously acquiesced as the work expanded well beyond what they had envisioned. In the final months of completing the manuscript, I continued to discover entries that should be on the list, and no doubt reviewers will like­ wise note (I hope without being overly indignant) that omissions have occurred. A limit had to be drawn, however arbitrary it might seem, and thus some entries of potential importance have been omitted. Others that might seem in retrospect of lesser significance were contributed early and would have been excluded unfairly. Other matters became evident as entries were completed and compared. Each individual contributor had his or her own style of presenting the information requested. As editor, I recommended a rewrite if a contributor had not included enough of the appropriate historical material, and I requested condensation when too much purely descriptive material was given. But, on the whole, it seemed desirable to let each scholar have some latitude in self-expression and to avoid an excessively standardized or sterilized form for entries. Thus, normally each entry begins with a brief identifying phrase and ends with a bibliography of approximately four items. But there is considerable var­ iation among entries, depending, first of all, on whether the subject is a site or monument, scholar or traveler, or yet another kind of entry in which a topic is the focus (e.g., underwater archaeology), and depending further on the way in which the author organized the material. All entries have some kind of historical content, but this is often combined with descriptive material that helps to identify or explain the subject, with opinions of archaeologists of the past and present

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and with references to achievements in archaeological scholarship. These do not necessarily follow a standard order or predetermined balance from entry to entry. The bibliographies were intended to serve several purposes. They often show what sources an author used, though they are not meant to substitute for foot­ notes to an entry, and they also show which sources the author recommends for further study. Works that are especially rich in illustration are marked by a + mark before the listing of the author and title of the book. An attempt was made to keep these bibliographies short (about two to four items), but contributors were concerned lest they might prove insufficient, and in some cases, for longer entries on weighty topics, I have allowed an increase. In addition, as press time drew nearer, many authors kindly updated entries that had been written in the early years, and they were allowed to insert new and important bibliography. On the whole, whenever bibliographies were trimmed, I have been partial to listings that are recent, that themselves contain abundant, up-to-date bibliogra­ phy, that are well illustrated and that are in the English language. Within entries, an asterisk is used before a name or topic to indicate a crossreference to a separate entry. The asterisk would be redundant for “ Rome” and “ Athens” and is therefore omitted. Articles that are unsigned were written by the editor. No articles, signed or unsigned, were written after 1994, and many entries were completed consider­ ably before that date. In some articles the bibliographies do include items pub­ lished in 1995 or forthcoming. Under no circumstances are contributors of the articles to be held accountable for the timeliness of their scholarship; the editor alone is responsible in this matter. For whom was An Encyclopedia o f the History o f Classical Archaeology written? A broad spectrum of users of this reference tool is envisioned. Obvi­ ously, it is meant for readers of the English language; thus, quotations from other languages are regularly translated into English, and archaeological terms that are derived from other languages, especially Latin and Greek, have been replaced with equivalent English terms when possible or have been ‘ ‘translated’ ’ in the text. It is hoped that the encyclopedia will be of use to students and researchers in a variety of fields, especially archaeology, classics, history, topography, art history and architectural history. The history of archaeology is a discipline that is comparatively new; some of its results have only recently become more avail­ able and mostly remain to be integrated into various other areas of scholarship. A fine example of what may be accomplished lies in R. T. Ridley’s work The Eagle and the Spade: The Archaeology o f Rome During the Napoleonic Era, 1809-1814 (1992), a detailed study of Napoleon’s effect on the monuments of the city of Rome, a work of the utmost significance for those studying the programs of Napoleon and, more specifically, the political uses to which he put archaeological research. Equally fascinating is the analysis of exploitation of archaeological projects and Roman revival architecture by Mussolini and Hitler,

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published recently by A. Scobie, Hitler’s State Architecture, The Impact o f Clas­ sical Antiquity (1990). Another recent work on the history of archaeology in the city of Rome is the richly illustrated survey by Claude Moiatti, The Search for Ancient Rome (1993). For Greece, the companion volume in the same series is The Search fo r Ancient Greece by Roland and Frangoise Etienne (1990). Another area that has recently received attention is the history of the discov­ ery, collecting and study of Greek and Roman sculpture. The information is critical for art historians of the Renaissance and Baroque, and they are the ones who have made the most significant contributions in assembling the data and in integrating them into a context. The Census o f Works o f Antique Art Known in the Renaissance, conducted for many years by Phyllis Bober and Ruth Rubin­ stein at the Warburg Institute of the University of London and the Institute of Fine Arts at New York University, has reached fruition in their rich volume of Renaissance Artists and Antique Sculpture: A Handbook o f Sources (1986). Similar material, with a different interpretive approach, may be found in the now-classic catalog of F. Haskell and N. Penny, Taste and the Antique: The Lure o f Classical Sculpture, 1500-1900 (1981). Their aim is to reveal significant aspects of the history of taste over the span of some four centuries by cataloging the ancient sculptures that were most popular and most influential. In citing information about the find spots of famous sculptures and in quoting opinions of critics and scholars about these pieces, Haskell and Penny have created a fabric often interwoven with archaeological scholarship and immensely useful for those who wish to understand a piece of sculpture through its “ biography.” Not many scholars working on Greek and Roman sculpture today concern them­ selves with this kind of background. A rare exception is Brunilde Ridgway, who has published searching studies of Greek sculpture from the Archaic to the Hellenistic, in which she frequently takes into account the history of study of a particular work of art. Her review of this history, not only in the Renaissance but also, or especially, in nineteenth-century scholarship, has led to a healthy deconstruction of the edifice of attributions to Pheidias, Polykleitos, Skopas, Lysippos and others made by German scholars of the last century. Retracing their steps, she has made far-reaching conclusions. Curators and researchers in museums have been in position to contribute much to the history of archaeology in their study of object proveniences; it is hoped that entries in the encyclopedia can serve as ready reference for this kind of information and that the bibliographies will provide access to fuller detail than could be incorporated gracefully into the brief format adopted for the entries. It is hoped, above all, that the encyclopedia will be useful to teachers and students of classical archaeology. New textbooks in Greek and Roman art by John Pedley {Greek Art and Archaeology, 1992) and by Andrew and Nancy Ramage (Roman Art, 1995) include some discussion and illustrations that will give students a taste of the material that is waiting to be studied. But, on the whole, very little of the information on the history of archaeology found in this encyclopedia is regularly included in the classroom; students of classical ar­

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chaeology are given little exposure to the roots of the discipline. An exception is the case of Heinrich Schliemann, whose name is known to most students; unfortunately, what seems to continue to fascinate is the idea that he had a unique dream of proving the truth of the poems of Homer and that he fulfilled it with an uncanny ability to locate archaeological sites. He continues to be lionized as a great archaeologist, in spite of the books and articles by William Calder and David Traill that dispel the myths promoted by Schliemann about himself and his own importance. In these pages one may consult the entry on Frank Calvert, who actually ascertained the location of Troy and suggested it to Schliemann, and the entry on Troy itself, where it is noted that many travelers had believed in the truth of the Homeric poems long before Schliemann. In the eighteenth century Dawkins had visited the Troad, Homer in hand, and had even invented a form of ethnoarchaeology, studying the modern inhabitants of the area in order to understand Homeric society. It is hoped that such entries can help to sift out the facts of the history of archaeology. No doubt much that is reported in this encyclopedia will, and rightly should be, subject to scrutiny and revision, as more archaeologists join in the study of our fascinating past. Most of all it is hoped that the mere existence of this work will create awareness of the long tradition of this discipline and the richness of the perspective gained by reviewing the discovery and study of specific monuments and sites as well as general trends in the history of archaeological scholarship. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There are very many whom I wish to thank. First are the kind colleagues who consented to act as advisers in the earliest stage of the encyclopedia, in planning the master list and in suggesting the names of potential contributors for the various entries. Though they must certainly not be held responsible for the final shape of this volume, I wish to acknowledge the many wonderful suggestions made by Phyllis Pray Bober, Larissa Bonfante, William M. Calder III, Philipp Fehl, David Ridgway and Homer A. Thompson. My sincere thanks for similar advising at a later date goes to Elizabeth McGraw, Marjon van der Meulen and Ruth Rubinstein, who generously shared their rich knowledge of Renaissance and Baroque scholarship, and to Katherine Geffcken, who consulted on several crucial points. Brunilde S. Ridgway characteristically gave up her own time to help other authors, reading many entries and making valuable suggestions for entries on Greek sculpture. Larissa Bonfante, as usual, helped with every bib­ liographical question I asked her, as well as many that I did not. Francesca Ridgway (related to David but not Brunilde) gave much welcome advice on Etruscan entries. L. Richardson, jr, provided unfailing support, moral as well as scholarly, in regard to Roman archaeology, especially topography; Ronald Rid­ ley willingly shared the burden of entries on Rome and its archaeologists. Wil­ liam Calder III poured forth information from his fund of knowledge of German archaeological scholarship. Jack Davis and Philip Betancourt made helpful sug­

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gestions for Bronze Age Aegean archaeology, and so did Robert Koehl, who also advised generally on potential authors for other entries on Greek archae­ ology. No one helped me or cheered me more than Judith Binder, unless it was Norma and Bernard Goldman, faithful correspondents who kept me laughing and believing that the encyclopedia would surely be finished one day. Elfriede R. Knauer energized me with her own total commitment to quality in scholar­ ship. I was inspired by Phyllis Lehmann, with her rare ability to move skillfully and easily back and forth between antiquity and Renaissance. Many of these colleagues also wrote multiple entries for the encyclopedia. I am so very grateful to them for that and to others who valiantly wrote entry after entry in their special areas, sometimes in several areas. I will restrict my mention of names to those who wrote seven or more: James Anderson, Barbara Barletta, Clifford Brown, John Camp, Mortimer Chambers, Glenys Davies, W. W. de Grummond, Ann Gunter, A. Trevor Hodge, Peter Holliday, Fred S. and Diana E. E. Kleiner, Carol Mattusch, Emeline Hill Richardson, David Thomp­ son, David A. Traill, and Shellie Williams. Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to those who aided in the construction of this book, whether retyping manuscripts, filing, Xeroxing, editing, searching bibliography, confirming references, corresponding, indexing, or helping in some other way. I think of Deborah Halsted at the beginning and Melissa Moss, Dara Helser and Diane Kampert at the end, of Claudette Gatlin all along. I wish to thank Sharon Loucks Wichmann, who provided an enormous boost in the middle years of the project, with her varied talents as author, editor, secretary. I was delighted when Joann McDaniel agreed to prepare the Select Bibliography for the History of Classical Archaeology and wish to record now my warm appreciation for her work on this assignment. I thank Rochelle Marrinan, who transformed my working habits by providing computer support, and Elizabeth de Grummond, who did a wonderful job on the cross-references, thereby also getting training for the day when she will edit the second edition of the ency­ clopedia. I thank Patty Grandy for effective prayer for the completion of the work, and, I am grateful to Louise Thomson for the kind of support that only a mother can give. I reserve a special place to thank my editor at Greenwood, Cynthia Harris. In all the years she has been associated with the project, she has truly never said a discouraging word and always seemed to have an unquestioning faith that the book would be delivered. For this steadfast confidence and her genuine enthusiasm, which kept me going on, I wish to express my deep gratitude. The entire undertaking has provided a great lesson in humility for me. On the one hand, I have never learned so much on any other project I have at­ tempted; on the other, I have not failed so much in learning at any other time in my life. The scope of the subject is so large that even today I am not sure of its limits. For many years, I have kept the book from the hands of the pub­ lishers, haunted by the specters of reviewers, feeling ashamed to let it go with the many omissions I knew of or simply suspected, feeling the need to check

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and check again the hundreds of entries completed, and often noting with horror the errors that existed. In effect, I have spent much of my “ free” time for the last quarter of my life on this manuscript. I often felt deeply moved as I reviewed the history of archaeological scholarship and the lives of its practitioners. With Joseph Spence, I trembled over the reception of an untried publication; his fears turned out to be quite well founded, in light of the fury with which Lessing later attacked him. With John Leland, who was assigned in 1533 to do a survey of antiquities throughout the realm of England, I agonized that the enormous amount of material would never be gathered together and properly arranged for publication. His torment over the work was so intense that he was forced to give it up; it is reported that his antiquarian research overtaxed his brain and that the insane scholar had to be turned over to his brother for safekeeping. A fairly well-known case of scholarly overwork in modern times is that of Rostovtzeff, who suffered a mental collapse after the completion of The Social and Economic History o f the Hellenistic World (1941). Others were able to endure unimaginable deprivation and pressure as they devoted their lives to the tasks they had assumed. I was inspired by Tommaso Fazello (d. 1570), who, to further his studies of ancient Sicily, cut back on the amount of time he wasted eating, so that he had only one meal a day; by Janus Gruter (d. 1627), who always stood upright and vigilant while he worked; by Bernard Montfaucon (1741), who, for the last forty-six years of his life, normally spent thirteen hours a day studying or writing. Again and again I was reminded of the humanity of the archaeologists of the past, of their failures and successes, and was compelled to continue the quest to publish this work about their work. In the end it was for them— and, of course, for the contributors who have waited so patiently for their entries to appear— that I was able to finish the encyclopedia. — Nancy Thomson de Grummond

Bibliographical Abbreviations AA

Archaologischer Anzeiger

AAA

Athens Annals o f Archaeology

ActaArch

Acta Archaeologica [Copenhagen]

Aerial Atlas o f Crete

The Aerial Atlas o f Ancient Crete, ed. J. W. Myers— E. E. Myers— G. Cadogan (Berkeley, 1992)

Afrit

Africa Italiana

AIRF

Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae

AJA

American Journal o f Archaeology

AJP

American Journal o f Philology

AM

Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung

AnatSt

Anatolian Studies. Journal o f the British Institute o f Archaeology at Ankara.

ANRW

Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt

Annlnst

Annales Institutorum

AntK

Antike Kunst

AntP

Antike Plastik

Archaologenbildnisse

Archaologenbildnisse, Portrats und Kurzbiographien von klassischen Archaologen deutscher Sprache, ed. R. Lullies— W. Schiering (Mainz am Rhein, 1988)

ArchCl

Archeologia Classica

ArchDelt

Archaiologikon

ArchEph

Archaiologike Ephemeris

ArchEspArq

Archivo Espanol de Arqueologia

Deltion

XX

ArchEspArt

ABBREVIATIONS Archivo Espanol de Arte

ArchJ

Archaeological Journal

ArtB

Art Bulletin

ArchRep

Archaeological Reports

ASAtene

Annuario della Scuola Archeologica di Atene e delle Missioni italiane in Oriente

AttiMGrecia

Atti e Memorie della Societa Magna Grecia

BABesch

Bulletin Antieke Beschaving

BCH

Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique

BdA

Bollettino d A rte

Beazley— Ashmole

J. D. Beazley— B. Ashmole, Greek Sculpture and Painting to the End o f the Hellenistic Period (London, 1966)

Berve— Gruben

H. Berve— G. Gruben, Greek Temples, Theaters and Shrines (New York, 1963)

B1CS

Bulletin o f the Institute o f Classical Studies, Univer­ sity of London

Bieber

M. Bieber, The Sculpture o f the Hellenistic Age, rev. ed. (New York, 1961)

BIM

Boletin de Information Municipal, Valencia

BiogJahr

Biographisches Jahrbuch und Deutscher Nekrolog

Bober— Rubinstein

P. P. Bober— R. Rubinstein, Renaissance Artists and Antique Sculpture: A Handbook o f Sources (London, 1986)

BMon

Bulletin Monumental

BMMA

Bulletin o f the Metropolitan Museum o f Art

Briggs— Calder

Classical Scholarship: A Biographical Encyclopedia, ed. W. W. Briggs— W. M. Calder III (New York, 1990)

BSA

British School at Athens, Annual

BU

Biographie Universelle

BullCom

Bulletino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma

BurlMag

Burlington Magazine

CIG

Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum

CIL

Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum

Coarelli

F. Coarelli, Guida Archaeologica di Roma, 2nd ed. (Rome, 1975)

CR

Classical Review

ABBREVIATIONS

xxi

CRAI

Comptes Rendus de VAcademie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres

CVA

Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum

DAB

Dictionary o f American Biography

DBF

Dictionaire de Biographie Frangaise

DBI

Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani

DialAr

Dialoghi di Archeologia

DNB

Dictionary o f National Biography

D OP

Dumbarton Oaks Papers

EAA

Enciclopedia delVArte Antica, Classica e Orientale

EC

Enciclopedia Cattolica

El

Enciclopedia Italiana

EPRO

Etudes preliminaires aux religions orientates dans Vempire romain

EWA

Encyclopedia o f World Art

FGrHist

F. Jacoby, Fragmente der griechischen Historiker (Berlin, 1923- )

GBA

Gazette des Beaux-arts

GGA

Gottingische gelehrte Anzeiger

Gnomon

Gnomon

GRBS

Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies

Greenhalgh, Survival

M. Greenhalgh, The Survival o f Roman Antiquities in the Middle Ages (London, 1989)

Haskell— Penny

F. Haskell— N. Penny, Taste and the Antique: The Lure o f Classical Sculpture, 1500-1900 (New Haven, CT, 1981)

Helbig

W. Helbig, Fuhrer durch die ojfentlichen Sammlungen klassischer Altertumer in Rom, 4th ed., ed. H. Speier, 1-4 (Tubingen, 1963-72)

IJNA

International Journal o f Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration

ILN

Illustrated London News

IstForsch

Istanbuler Forschungen

IstMitt

Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archaologischen lnstituts, Abteilung Istanbul

Jdl

Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archaologischen lnstituts

JEA

Journal o f Egyptian Archaeology

JHS

Journal o f Hellenic Studies

JRS

The Journal o f Roman Studies

xxii

ABBREVIATIONS

JSAH

Journal o f the Society o f Architectural Historians

JWAG

Journal o f the Walters Art Gallery

JWarb

Journal o f the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes

Kleiner, Roman Sculpture

Diana E. E. Kleiner, Roman Sculpture (New Haven, CT, 1992)

Klio

Klio. Beitrage zur alten Geschichte

Lanciani, Destruction

R. Lanciani, The Destruction o f Ancient Rome (Lon­ don, 1899; repr. New York, 1980)

Lanciani, Storia degli scavi

R. Lanciani, Storia degli scavi di Roma e notizie intorno le collezioni romane di antichita, 1-4 (Rome, 1902-12; “ Edizione integrale,” ed. L. M. Campeggi, Rome, 1989-92).

LIMC

Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (Zur­ ich, 1974-)

Ling, Roman Painting

R. Ling, Roman Painting (Cambridge, 1991)

Lullies— Hirmer

R. Lullies— M. Hirmer, Greek Sculpture, rev. ed., tr. M. Bullock (New York, 1960)

MA

Le Moyen age

MAAR

Memoirs o f the American Academy in Rome

M eded

Mededeelingen van het Nederl. Historisch Instituut te Rome

MEFRA

Melanges de VEcole Frangaise de Rome, Antiquite

MelRome

Melanges d ’Archeologie et d ’Histoire de VEcole fran ­ gaise de Rome

MemLinc

Memorie. Atti della Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Classe di scienze morali, storiche e flologich e

MGH

Monumenta Germaniae Historica

Michaelis

A. Michaelis, A Century o f Archaeological Discovery, tr. B. Kahnweiler (London, 1908)

MittFlor

Mitteilungen des Kunsthistorischen Instituts in Florenz

MJb

Miinchener Jahrbuch der bildenden Kunst

MonAnt

Monumenti Antichi

MonPiot

Monuments et Memoires. Fondation E. Piot

MonPitt

Monumenti della pittura antica scoperti in Italia

MSNAF

Memoires de la Societe Nationale des Antiquaires de France

Nash

E. Nash, A Pictorial Dictionary o f Ancient Rome, rev. ed., 1-2 (London, 1968)

NBG

Nouvelle Biographie Generale

NCAB

National Cyclopaedia o f American Biography

ABBREVIATIONS

xxiii

NDB

Neue Deutsche Biographie

Pastor, History o f the Popes

L. von Pastor, History o f the Popes 1-40 (London, 1938-)

NSc

Notizie degli Scavi di Antichita

OpAth

Opuscula Atheniensia

OpRom

Opuscula Romana

PBSR

Papers o f the British School at Rome

PECS

Princeton Encyclopedia o f Classical Sites, ed. R. Still­ well (Princeton, NJ, 1976)

Pfeiffer

R. Pfeiffer, History o f Classical Scholarship from 1300 to 1850 (Oxford, 1976)

Platner— Ashby

S. B. Platner— T. Ashby, A Topographical Dictionary o f Ancient Rome (London, 1929)

Pliny, NH

Pliny the Elder, Natural History

Pollitt, Hellenistic Age

J. J. Pollitt, Art in the Hellenistic Age (Cambridge, 1986)

Portrdtarchiv

D er Archaologe: Graphische Bildnisse aus dem Por­ trdtarchiv Diepenbroick, catalog of exhibition (Mun­ ster, 1983)

PP

La Parola del Passato

ProcBrAc

Proceedings o f the British Academy

RA

Revue Archeologique

RACrist

Rivista di Archeologia Cristiana

RBN

Revue Beige de Numismatique

RE

Real-Encyclopadie der Altertumswissenschaft, ed. A Pauly— G. Wissowa

RendPontAcc

Atti della Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeolo­ gia, Rendiconti

RepKunstW

Repertorium fu r Kunstwissenschaft

RhM

Rheinisches Museum fiir Philogie

Richardson, New Topo­ graphical Dictionary

L. Richardson, jr, A New Topographical Dictionary o f Ancient Rome (Baltimore, 1992)

Richter, Sculpture and Sculptors

G.M. A. Richter, The Sculpture and Sculptors o f the Greeks, 4th ed. (New Haven, CT, 1984)

Ridgway, Hellenistic Sculpture I

B. S. Ridgway, Hellenistic Sculpture, 1, The Styles o f ca. 331-200 B.C. (Madison, WI, 1990)

Ridgway, Fifth Century Styles

B. Ridgway, Fifth Century Styles in Greek Sculpture (Princeton, NJ, 1981)

Ridley, Eagle and the Spade

R. T. Ridley, The Eagle and the Spade: The Archae­ ology o f Rome During the Napoleonic Era, 1809-1814 (Cambridge, 1992)

xxiv

ABBREVIATIONS

RM

Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archaologischen lnstituts, Romische Abteilung

RQ

Renaissance Quarterly

Sheard

W. S. Sheard, Antiquity in the Renaissance, catalog of exhibition (Northampton, MA, 1978-79)

StEtr

Studi Etruschi

Steingraber

S. Steingraber, Citta e necropoli dell'Etruria (Rome, 1981)

Stewart, Greek Sculpture

A. Stewart, Greek Sculpture: An Exploration (New Haven, CT, 1990)

Stoneman, Land o f Lost Gods

R. Stoneman, Land o f Lost Gods, The Search fo r Classical Greece (London, 1987)

StRom

Studi Romani

TAD

Turk Arkeoloji Dergisi

TAPS

Transactions o f the American Philosophical Society

Thieme-Becker

Allgemeines Kunstlerlexikon, ed. U. Thieme— F. Becker

Travlos

J. Travlos, Pictorial Dictionary o f Ancient Athens (New York, 1971)

Tsigakou, Rediscovery

F.-M. Tsigakou, The Rediscovery o f Greece: Travel­ lers and Painters o f the Romantic Era (New Rochelle, NY, 1981)

Valentini— Zucchetti

R. Valentini— G. Zucchetti, Codice topografico della citta di Roma, 1-4 (Rome, 1940-53)

Weiss, RDCA

R. Weiss, The Renaissance Discovery o f Classical An­ tiquity, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1988)

ZfK

Zeitschrift fu r Kunstgeschichte

An Encyclopedia of the History of Classical Archaeology

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A

ABYDOS. Greek city in Mysia (northwest Asia Minor) on the Hellespont, ca. 6km north of modern (Janakkale. Strabo (13.590-1) records its later history as a Milesian colony founded in the time of the Lydian Gyges, whose possessions included the Troad. During Xerxes’ invasion of Greece in 480 B.C., Abydos was at one end of the Persian bridge across the Hellespont. The city fell under Athenian rule, assessed at four talents by the Delian League in 454/3 B.C. In 411 B.C. Abydos went over to the Spartans, then remained under Persian rule until its liberation by Alexander in 334 B.C. The city surrendered to Philip V in 200 B.C. and became a free city under Rome. Until late Byzantine times it was the toll station of the Hellespont. The site of Abydos was first identified in 1675. R. *Wood visited the area in 1750 and observed that it was the location of the bridge of Xerxes; R. *Chandler (1764) romantically recalled the ancient tale of Leander’s swimming across the Hellespont to be with his beloved, Hero, and in 1810 Lord *Byron actually reenacted the chilly swim, starting at Sestos and coming ashore at a point at Abydos claimed as four miles distant. Abydos was visited and briefly described by other travelers through the nine­ teenth century. Since the early twentieth century the area has been a restricted military zone; there is now little to be seen aboveground of the ancient city. BIBLIOGRAPHY +M.G.F.A. Choiseul-Gouffier, Voyage pittoresque de la Grece 2 (Paris, 1822), 449; W. Leaf, Strabo on the Troad (Cambridge, 1923), 116-33; J. M. Cook, The Troad (Oxford, 1973), 55-57. ANN C. GUNTER

ACADEMIA HERCULANENSIS (REALE ACCADEMIA ERCOLANESE; ACCADEMIA DI ERCOLANO). Academy formed in 1755 by

2

ACCADEMIA DEI LINCEI (ACCADEMIA NAZIONALE DEI LINCEI)

Charles III, king of *Naples and later of Spain, for the purpose of publishing the finds excavated at *Herculaneum. The academy consisted of fifteen members (among the founders were A. Mazzocchi, J. Martorelli and B. Galieni) who met every two weeks to pass around and discuss three objects that had been excavated since the last com­ mittee meeting. All present then wrote about the objects, and the reports were collated by a secretary to produce a definitive description. These analyses were published in the series of volumes of Antichita di Ercolano, which began to appear in 1757, sumptuously illustrated and bound. A projected volume on the marble sculpture was never published. The publication of the finds from Her­ culaneum served to ignite the interest in classical motifs in architecture, painting, furniture and clothing that swept Europe and America during the period of Neoclassicism. Inactive from 1799 to 1816, the academy was revived in 1817 as part of the Societa Reale Borbonica. It was amalgamated with the Reale Accademia di Belle Arti in 1861. BIBLIOGRAPHY + Le Antichita di Ercolano esposte, 8 vols. (Naples, 1757-92); W. Leppmann, Winckelmann (New York, 1970), 175-76.

ACCADEMIA DEI LINCEI (ACCADEMIA NAZIONALE DEI LINCEI). Italian academy of letters and science; among its distinguished publications are many relevant to classical archaeology. The Accademia dei Lincei was founded in Rome on 17 August 1603 by four noblemen, three of them Italian and one Dutch: Prince Federico Cesi, Count Anastasio de Filiis, Francesco Stelluti (a nobleman from Fabriano) and the Dutch physician Jan Heck, from Deventer. The last was a Catholic who had fled Hol­ land because of Protestant persecutions. All were very young; Cesi, the initiator, was but eighteen years old. They dedicated themselves to the study of nature, letters and philosophy with the purpose of exalting the wonders of God’s cre­ ation. They were joined in 1610 by G. B. Della Porta and in 1611 by Galileo Galilei, who brought great renown to the academy. From this year Galileo always added Lynceus to his signature. (.Lynceus means “ pertaining to the lynx,” an animal noted for its keen sight.) The first publication of the academy was, in fact, Galileo’s pamphlet on sunspots, Istoria e dimostrazioni intorno alle macchie solari (1613). When Galileo provoked the wrath of the Church by defending the Copernican heliocentric doctrine, the Accademia supported him fully. With the death in 1630 of Cesi, the most active and influential member of the academy, the first period of the Accademia dei Lincei came to an end. After that, there were several attempts to revive it, but without success. It was finally reestablished in 1795 and was accorded a grant of 2,500 lire by Napoleon. It was suppressed by Pope Gregory XVII after the liberal uprising of 1830; tem­ porarily revived again in 1838, it was suppressed in 1840, to be reestablished

ACCADEMIA ETRUSCA

3

yet again under the liberal Pope Pius IX, with a new charter that excluded letters and philosophy for reasons of religious orthodoxy. In 1875 the prime minister of the new Italian State, Quintino Sella, founded the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, announcing by its title that the body was formally independent of the papacy, which sponsored its own Accademia Pontificia dei Nuovi Lincei. In 1939, the Accademia Nazionale was replaced by the Accademia d’Italia, but it was restored after the fall of Fascism in 1944. Since that date the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei has resumed and enlarged its activity, regularly issuing publications on classical archaeology and other subjects in its Rendiconti, Memorie, and Notizie degli Scavi. It has arranged many scholarly conventions and lectures by foreign and Italian scholars and counts among its members many prominent archaeologists. Included are P. *Orsi, G. *Lugli, G. Q. *Giglioli, R. *Bianchi Bandinelli, D. *Levi, P. Romanelli, P. Zancani-Montuoro, S. Moscati and M. Pallottino. The Accademia dei Lincei, originally founded over 390 years ago, is the oldest academy in Europe still operating today. BIBLIOGRAPHY B. Odescalchi, Memorie istorico-critiche d e ll’Accademia dei Lincei delprincipe Federico Cesi (Rome, 1806); S. Carutti, Breve storia delVAccademia dei Lincei (Rome, 1883); G. Gabrieli, “ II carteggio linceo della vecchia Accademia di F. Cesi,” MemLinc ser. VI, 7 (1930), fasc. 1-4; R. Morghen, The Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei in the Life and Culture o f United Italy in the 368th Anniversary o f Its Foundation (Rome, 1974). GIULIANO BONFANTE

ACCADEMIA DI ERCOLANO. See ACADEMIA HERCULANENSIS. ACCADEMIA ETRUSCA. Italian academy of arts and sciences, founded at Cortona, with a special emphasis on the Etruscan culture of the city’s past. The organization was preceded by the Societa degli Occulti (Society of the Occult), a small group formed approximately one year earlier. A donation to this society by Abbot Onofrio Baldelli, consisting of his collection of antiquities and his library, gave impetus to the founding of an academy with clearly defined interests, the Accademia etrusca delle antichita, ed inscrizioni (Etruscan Acad­ emy of Antiquities and Inscriptions). On 29 November 1727 the notary Barbi registered the group of seventeen learned men, among whom the leaders were the brothers Ridolfino, Filippo and Niccolo Marcello Venuti of Cortona and the Florentine senator Filippo *Buonarroti. They were joined by representatives of the ancient families of the city. The academy was created in an environment of long-standing artistic and cultural traditions, characteristic of the Tuscany of the last of the *Medici and in a context, on one hand, broader than that of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment and, on the other hand, more specialized, since it concerned Etruscan archaeology, the so-called *Etruscheria. The aims and the character of the academy were inspired by a truly scientific seriousness. If the name Etrusca and the title of the president, Lucumo (a word

4

ACCADEMIA ETRUSCA

of Etruscan derivation meaning “ prince” or “ leader” ), signify that the preferred field of activity was Etruscan, the academy did not, in fact, limit itself to this; its motto, taken from Lucretius, was obscura de re lucida pango (“ I reveal clear things about an obscure matter” ). The statutes admitted forty effective members in Cortona and one hundred corresponding members, both Italians and foreigners. Thanks to the relations that its more authoritative representatives had with the cultural world in general, the academy rapidly acquired a remarkable renown. Not only elevated figures of the Church and the diplomatic world were named among its Lucumones, who normally held office for one year, but also among its members were scholars and intellectuals like Anton Francesco *Gori, Ludovico Antonio Muratori, Scipione *Maffei, Bernardo Tanucci, Voltaire and *Winckelmann. The academicians gathered periodically in the rooms allotted to them by Gian Gastone de’ Medici in the Palazzo Casali, where their seat is located even today. Their meetings were referred to as Notti Coritane (Cortona Nights) and featured news reports, reading of letters from correspondents and discussion of various subjects. These were recorded and issued in a publication called Notti Coritane, of which thirteen volumes are preserved. From 1735 to 1791 the academy also published the Saggi di dissertazione in nine volumes— studies on a variety of antiquarian subjects going beyond the purely Etruscan. The donation by Baldelli, followed soon by other gifts, gave birth to the academy museum and library, which were, from the beginning, its two main institutions. By 1750 the museum had already attained such distinction as to merit publication in a large volume by Gori and others, Museum Cortonense. After the middle of the nineteenth century more gifts and purchases increased the prestige of the museum. Among other things there were the tomb called the Tanella di Pitagora; the famous Cortona Lamp, purchased in 1851, an outstand­ ing work in bronze of the fifth century B.C. (about which D’Annunzio wrote a splendid sonnet); and an encaustic painting on slate of the Muse Polyhymnia, which was considered at first an ancient classical work but is more likely an imitation of the eighteenth century. Other important acquisitions included a sig­ nificant collection of Egyptian antiquities, gathered by the apostolic delegate in Egypt, the Cortonese Guido Corbelli, and, in more recent times, the collection of antiquities and art objects of the family Tommasi Baldelli, as well as a series of works by the Futurist painter Guido Severini, which the artist’s family left to his native city. The original library of the academy was united in 1778 with the municipal one, into which flowed manuscripts, parchments and bound volumes that came, in part, from the convents suppressed in 1870 by the Italian State. The official organ of the Accademia Etrusca was at first the journal Polimnia (1927-33). Since 1934 this function has been served by the Annuario; it has been accompanied since 1970 by Note e Documenti for shorter writings. In 1985, the “ Year of the Etruscans,” a special exhibition on the academy was held at the Palazzo Casali.

ADAM FAMILY

5

BIBLIOGRAPHY P. Barocchi— D. Gallo, eds., UAccadem ia etrusca (Milan, 1985).

ACCADEMIA NAZIONALE DEI LINCEI. See ACCADEMIA DEI LINCEI. ACCADEMIA ROMANA. See ROMAN ACADEMY. ACQUAROSSA. Etruscan Archaic habitation site on the hill of S. Francesco, 6km north of *Viterbo. First developed in the later seventh century B.C., Acquarossa was destroyed before 500 B.C. and never inhabited again. The site was first reported by Luigi Rossi Danieli in 1908 but remained unexcavated until a team from the *Swedish Institute in Rome, under the direction of Carl Eric Ostenberg, began work there in 1966. The king of Sweden, *Gustavus VI Adolphus, was a regular participant in the project. Excavations continued annually until 1978, exploring a number of sectors on the hill (A-R). Zone F was found to be a center for the settlement, featuring monumental buildings with stone walls, colonnaded porticoes and architectural terracottas. As at Etruscan *Murlo, scholars have debated whether the center functioned as a palace or as a sacred area. Acquarossa is also important for yielding the remains of about fifty houses, providing an abundance of evidence about Etrus­ can domestic architecture, as well as local ceramics and utensils of daily life. Some of the finds are on display at the Rocca Albornoz, *Viterbo. BIBLIOGRAPHY +C. E. Ostenberg, Case etrusche di Acquarossa (Rome, 1975); +S. Stopponi, ed., Case e palazzi d ’Etruria (Milan, 1985), 41-58; + Architettura etrusca nel Viterbese, Ricerche svedesi a San Giovenale e Acquarossa, 1956-1986 (Rome, 1986).

ACRAGAS. See AKRAGAS. ADAM FAMILY. Scottish family of architects. ROBERT ADAM (1728-92)—one of the most prolific and versatile architects and designers in European Neoclassicism— was the creative driving force in promoting a stylistic revolution based on archaeological sources. As the leader of a family firm, he and his brothers JOHN ADAM (1721-92) and JAMES ADAM (1732-94) trained under their father WILLIAM ADAM (1689-1748), the leading architect of his time in Scotland. Their younger brother WILLIAM ADAM (1738-1822) later joined them to head the largest contracting business of the age. Robert was educated at Edinburgh University, where he was friends with several other brilliant young men, including David Hume and Adam Smith. His *Grand Tour, mainly in Italy, between 1754 and 1758 (he was followed by James in 1760-63), was to prove of crucial importance in the formation of the Adam Style, which was later to be disseminated by an efficient business as well

6

ADAM FAMILY

as the new processes and synthetic materials of the early Industrial Revolution. The ornamental vocabulary of classical antiquity was to be applied throughout an unprecedented range of media from fagades, interior decorative schemes in plasterwork and stucco (with a novel concern for color) and furniture to met­ alwork, textiles and ceramics, all with a particular influence on the American Federal Style. The sheer impact of Rome (described by Adam as his “ Holy See of pleas­ urable antiquity” ), together with the discoveries at *Herculaneum, was rein­ forced by the catalytic effects on his imagination of the teachings of *Piranesi. Countering the astringent theories of the early Greek Revival, Piranesi vigor­ ously advocated the need for a flexible system of modern design based on a wide-ranging use of antique sources that embraced not only Etruscan culture (*Etruscheria) and Late Imperial Rome, but also ancient Egypt and Greece. A lifelong friendship was signaled by Piranesi’s dedication to the Scot of his am­ bitious archaeological folio, II Campo Marzio delVantica Roma (1762). Living in the intellectually lively neighborhood of Piazza di Spagna, Adam also became acquainted with Robert *Wood, who had recently published his Ruins o f Pal­ myra (1753), as well as the quarrelsome French architect C. L. Clerisseau. *Winckelmann seems to have made less of an impression on him. Abandoning a projected book revising *Desgodetz, in 1757 Adam decided to survey and publish the remains of Diocletian’s marine palace at Spalato (*Split) in Dalmatia, before returning to Britain. Owing to local political difficulties, this had to be accomplished in five weeks, with the aid of Clerisseau and a team of draftsmen. The book, flawed by conflicting tensions between reasonably accurate recording and picturesque Piranesian images, was finally published in 1764 as The Ruins o f the Emperor Diocletian’s Palace at Spalatro [sic] in Dalmatia, dedicated to George III. Adam was to observe how important it was for him to study this well-preserved example of residential architecture, as opposed to the wide range of sacred and public buildings available in Rome. Starting his practice in London in 1758, Robert swiftly developed a fashion­ able reputation with a series of major country house commissions, applying his idiosyncratic style to largely interior schemes— represented by Keddleston Hall (1760-70), Syon House (1761-69), Osterley Park (1761-80), Kenwood House (1764-79) and Harewood House (1765-72). The 1770s saw a series of skillfully designed town houses in London, inspired by antique spatial planning and char­ acterized by an increasing refinement and delicacy of ornament. The monumen­ tal influence of Spalato was to recur in the immensely influential speculative housing scheme, the Adelphi, overlooking the Thames (1768-72). In reaction to rival designers such as Chambers and Wyatt, Adam later carried out a number of highly controversial ideas, notably demonstrated by his Etruscan Style, partly inspired by Sir William *Hamilton’s vases publications and Herculaneum (e.g., the Etruscan Dressing Room, Osterley Park, ca. 1775). An exceptional sequence of neomedieval castles, chiefly in Scotland (e.g., Culzean Castle, 1777-90), was to be distinguished by the play of abstract geometrical forms, thought to have

ADRIA (ADRIAS, ATRIA)

7

been indirectly inspired by the Roman military architecture of Hadrian’s Wall. Ultimately, the theoretical justification and illustration of the Adams’s achieve­ ment were to be effectively summed up in their own folio, Works in Architecture 1 (1773), 2 (1779) and 3 (1822). BIBLIOGRAPHY J. Fleming, Robert Adam and His Circle in Edinburgh and Rome (London, 1962); E. Harris, British Architectural Books and Writers: 1556-1785 (Cambridge, 1990); D. King, The Complete Works o f Robert and James Adam (Oxford, 1991); I. G. Brown, Monu­ mental Reputation: Robert Adam and the Emperor's Palace (Edinburgh, 1992); J. Wilton-Ely, Piranesi as Architect and Designer (New Haven, 1993). JOHN WILTON-ELY

AD GALLINAS ALBAS. See VILLA OF LIVIA. ADLER, JOHANN HEINRICH FRIEDRICH (1827-1908). German architect and archaeologist. Adler studied at the Berlin Bauakademie, where he remained as teacher (from 1859) and later as professor (1863-1903). From 1874 to 1881 he directed the German excavations at *01ympia with Ernst *Curtius and designed the original museum there (1883). Among his Berlin students was his future son-in-law, W. *Dorpfeld, whom he sent in 1876 to assist at Olympia. Besides his contributions to the volumes of Olympia (1892-97), he wrote a number of short architectural studies, including Das Pantheon in Rom (1971), Das Mausoleum zu Halikarnass (1900) and the remarkable introduction to Schliemann’s Tiryns (1886). He was among the first in Germany to see the importance of Schliemann’s excavations. BIBLIOGRAPHY H. Riemann, s.v. “ Adler, Johann,” NDB 1 (1953), 71; A. Kurzwelly, “ Adler, Friedrich,” in Thieme-Becker, 1 (1907), 84-85. DAVID A. TRAILL

ADRIA (ADRIAS, ATRIA). Pre-Roman town located on a lagoon on the coast of the Adriatic Sea in northeast Italy; flourishing port from the mid-sixth century to late fourth century B.C. Ancient sources disagree as to the foundation of Adria, attributing it variously to Greeks and Etruscans, although modern evidence suggests a probable Venetic origin. During the sixth century B.C. it became an Etruscan center for the im­ portation of Greek products into Northern Italy and thereby for the diffusion of Greek culture. According to Strabo (5.1.7), the harbor town was built entirely of timber, laid out on canals with ferries and bridges to accommodate traffic. In the second half of the fourth century B.C., Adria was occupied by the Gauls, and in Roman times it became a municipium. The harbor evidently had begun to silt up in the first century a . c . , and Adria was eventually superseded by *Aquileia. The site was first explored in the Renaissance, and a drawing of 1662 shows

8

AEGAE

a Roman theater and other buildings. Excavation was undertaken by three mem­ bers of a local family, Ottavio Bocchi (1697-1749), Francesco Girolamo Bocchi (1748-1810) and Francesco Antonio Bocchi (1821-88). Their collection of vases, jewelry, inscriptions and glass was housed in the Museo Bocchi, which in the early twentieth century was donated to the Italian government and became the Museo Civico di Adria. The entire area of the ancient city was covered over by the flooding of rivers. Beginning in 1938, systematic excavations have been conducted under very difficult conditions, resulting in the discovery of pilings of houses from the ancient city, disposed on a regular network of canals and insulae (blocks) similar to those found at nearby *Spina. From the town site came numerous significant specimens of red- and black-figure vase painting by Attic Greek masters (Lydos, Brygos Painter, Makron, Douris, Achilles Painter, Polygnotos). Cemeteries of the fourth century B.C. and later have also been found. BIBLIOGRAPHY G. Ghirardini, “ II Museo Civico di Adria,” Nuovo Archivio Veneto 9 (1905); G. Brusin, s.v. “ Adria,” EAA 1 (1958), 72-73; G. Fogolari— B. M. Scarfi, Adria Antica (Adria, 1970); S. Steingraber, Citta e necropoli d e ll’Etruria antica (Rome, 1983), 556-58.

AEGAE. See VERGINA. AEGINA. See AIGINA. AGORA, Athens. Greek civic center and marketplace located on the sloping ground northwest of the Athenian *Akropolis. Used as a cemetery and for habitation in the Bronze and Dark Ages, the area was given over for public use in the Archaic period. The earliest civic buildings, dating to the first half of the sixth century B.C., were built along the west side of the square, which thereafter remained the administrative and political center for centuries. By the late sixth century, the square itself was formally delineated by a series of marble boundary stones. Also in use by 500 B.C. were a fountainhouse and lawcourt (?) along the south side, an altar of the Twelve Gods within the square, a sanctuary of Aphrodite to the northwest and other admin­ istrative buildings along the west. These were all badly damaged or destroyed by the Persians in 480 B.C. and rebuilt or replaced thereafter. By the end of the fifth century, the west side consisted of a new Bouleuterion (Senate), the old Bouleuterion (used to house archives), the Tholos (Senate din­ ing chamber), the Royal Stoa (seat of the king archon) and the Stoa of Zeus Eleutherios, perhaps used by the lesser archons known as Thesmothetes. The south side still had the old fountainhouse and lawcourt (?), along with South Stoa I (a commercial building with dining rooms) and a building that served as one of the mints of Athens, for the striking of bronze coins. At the northwest corner there were the earliest elements of a complex that may have served as lawcourts. Along the north was the Stoa Poikile, the Painted Stoa famed for its

AGORA, Athens

9

philosophers and paintings. Above the square to the west was a handsome Doric temple of marble usually identified as the *Hephaisteion. To the southwest of the Agora lay a large residential and industrial district, in which was found a large building tentatively identified as the state prison. In the fourth century, a temple of Apollo Patroos and a new monument of the Eponymous Heroes were added to the west side, and a fountainhouse was built at the southwest corner. The third century B.C. was difficult for Athens; either at war or under Macedonian control, it had few resources for building activity. The only exception in the Agora is a large building just north of the Hephaisteion, identified as an arsenal. With the help of Hellenistic monarchs, a revival occurred in the second cen­ tury B.C., and the appearance of the old square was altered dramatically. It was now enclosed on all sides by monumental colonnades of the kind in fashion in the big cities of Asia Minor. In the Agora, the huge Middle Stoa (ca. 180 B.C.) was built across the square, effectively dividing it in two. A second South Stoa was built to replace South Stoa I, which further defined the southern square. Along the east, the *Stoa of Attalos II (159-138 B.C.) was constructed, a large market building with two stories and forty-two shops. Finally, a new Metroon (archives) was built and given a colonnaded fa$ade in an attempt to spruce up the appearance of the old building along the west side. The attack on Athens by Sulla in 86 B.C. left many Agora buildings damaged, and little was done until Augustan times, when there was a major building program. A new marketplace was constructed to the east (*Roman Agora), and the old Greek square was filled with buildings. Taking up the center was a huge odeion donated by Agrippa, son-in-law of Augustus. Several other buildings were erected in the square as well; old Classical temples at depopulated Attic sites (*Sounion, Thorikos, Acharnai) were dismantled, brought in and re­ erected— in whole or in part— in the old square. At least four such reuses can be detected. The city flourished in the second century a .c ., especially under Hadrian, and to the Agora were added a library, a nymphaion and a basilica. In addition, the old odeion was rebuilt as a lecture hall with a new fagade of sculpted giants and tritons. In a .d . 267 the city was destroyed in a raid by the Heruli, and the old Agora was demolished. In refortifying the city during the reign of Probus ( a .d . 27682), the Athenians enclosed a much smaller area that ran east of, and did not include, the Greek Agora. The fortification wall, which runs along the Panathenaic Way, is built almost entirely of pieces of Agora buildings destroyed in a .d . 267. The area of the square, insofar as it was refurbished, was damaged again during Alaric’s attack in a .d . 395. A revival in the early fifth century led to the construction of a large gymnasium complex on the site of the old square— perhaps one of the universities of Athens— and the houses of wealthy philoso­ phers were built on the slopes above. This new flourishing of philosophy was halted in a .d . 529, with the decree of Justinian forbidding any pagan to teach philosophy at Athens, effectively ending all significance of the city. The physical

10

AGOSTINI, LEONARDO (1593-ca. 1669)

decline was hastened in a .d . 582/3 by the arrival of the Slavs. There are slight signs of activity in the seventh century, then a total Dark Age in the eighth and ninth centuries, before the area of the Agora was used for houses once again in the tenth century, becoming a residential district in use until modern times. The excavations that have brought to light this long and complicated history of the heart of Athens continue today. The earliest work was carried out by the *Greek Archaeological Society in 1859, 1871, 1907-8, 1910 (under Kourouniotes) and 1912 (under Kastriotes). In 1890-91, less formal work was done during the extension of the Athens-Peiraeus railroad, which passes through the north part of the site. From 1891 to 1898 some excavation was conducted by the *German Archaeological Institute under the direction of W. *Dorpfeld. Since 1930 the excavation of the area has been undertaken by the *American School of Classical Studies at Athens under the direction of T. L. *Shear, Sr. (193045), H. A. Thompson (1945-68), T. L. Shear, Jr. (1968-1993) and J. McK. Camp (1994- ), the funds coming largely from J. D. Rockefeller and the Ford, Mellon, Rockefeller and Packard foundations. Also carried out were the recon­ struction of the Stoa of Attalos (1953-56) and the landscaping of the Agora park under R. Griswold (1954). BIBLIOGRAPHY R. E. Wycherley, The Athenian Agora, 3, Testimonia (Princeton, NJ, 1957); H. A. Thompson— R. E. Wycherley, The Agora o f Athens (Princeton, NJ, 1972); H. A. Thomp­ son, The Athenian Agora (Athens, 1976); J. Camp, The Athenian Agora (London, 1986); Idem, The Athenian Agora Guide, 4th ed. (Athens, 1990). JOHN McK. CAMP II

AGOSTINI, LEONARDO (1593-ca. 1669). Italian antiquarian, specializing in numismatics and glyptics. A native of Grosseto, Agostini established himself in Rome during the pon­ tificate of Urban VIII, serving as antiquarian to the *Barberini family under the recommendation of Cassiano dal *Pozzo. When the Barberini were in exile from Rome (1646-50), he corresponded with them, sending the latest archaeological news, in letters now preserved in the Vatican Library (Ms. Barb. Lat. 6455). Agostini resumed his work on the Barberini antiquities when they returned, continuing to acquire objects and arrange the collection so that it emerged as the best organized of all Roman museums. In 1655, he became commissioner of antiquities (*Commissario delle Antichita) in Rome and Latium for Pope Alexander VII and directed important excavations in the *Forum Romanum, the Forum of Trajan (im perial Fora) and baths near S. Lorenzo in Panisperna. His original specialty and early publication were in the field of numismatics, but he is remembered, above all, for his pioneering studies of carved gems. His Le Gemme antiche figurate, in two parts and with a separate volume of anno­ tations for each part, was issued at Rome in 1657 and 1669. The illustrations were done by G. B. Galestruzzi, and G. P. *Bellori assisted with the annotations. The gems are arranged by subject matter, and the scholarly commentary em-

AGOSTINI, LEONARDO (1593-ca. 1669)

11

Portrait of Leonardo Agostini, engraving from L. Agostini, Le Gemme antiche figurate (1685). (The Warburg Institute, University of London.)

phasizes the identification of themes and the resulting classification of the pieces. The work was much valued and was reprinted by P. S. *Bartoli in 1686 and again in 1702 and 1707-9 (edited by P. A. *Maffei). BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Furtwangler, Die Antiken Gemmen (Leipzig, 1900), III, 405-6; R. Barabesi, “ L’antiquario Leonardo Agostini e la sua terra di Bocchegiano,” Maremma 3 (1926-27), 14889; “ Agostini, Leonardo,” DBI 1 (1960), 464-65.

12

AGRIGENTO

AGRIGENTO. See AKRAGAS. AGRIGENTUM . See AKRAGAS. AGUSTIN (AGOSTIN, AUGUSTINO, AUGUSTINUS), ANTONIO (151786). Spanish scholar of canon and Roman law and Roman antiquities. A prodigy, entering the university of Alcala at nine, Agustin gained a doc­ torate in civil law at Salamanca in 1534, moving then to Bologna and graduation as jurisconsult in 1541. Converted to *Alciatus’s humanistic methods at Bolo­ gna, he went to Florence and Venice to investigate manuscripts of Justinian’s Corpus Iuris, of which he soon became a famous editor and commentator. He was appointed auditor of the Roman Rota in 1544, and there he pursued his interests in classical philology and antiquities, forming lasting friendships with *Panvinio, *Ligorio, Delfini, Pantagato, Sigonio and Fulvio *Orsini. He edited Varro’s De lingua latina in 1557 and Verrius Flaccus and Festus in 1559 and for the next three decades passionately collected evidence on Roman archae­ ology. His judicious Dialogues on Medals, Inscriptions, and Other Antiquities (Didlogos de medallas, inscriciones y otres antiguedadas), posthumously pub­ lished in 1587, bears eloquent testimony to his critical acumen, but his letters give the liveliest sense of his skeptical approach to problems of authenticity and Greek and Roman numismatics, epigraphy and history. Agustin had a profound knowledge of the ancient world and collected more than 830 important Greek and Latin manuscripts. He died as archbishop of Tarragona. BIBLIOGRAPHY F. de Zulueta, Don Antonio Agustin (Glasgow, 1939); C. Mitchell, “ Archaeology and Romance in Renaissance Italy,” in Italian Renaissance Studies, ed. E. F. Jacob (London 1960), 455-83; E. Mandowsky— C. Mitchell, Pirro Ligorio’s Roman Antiquities (Lon­ don, 1963); C. Flores Selles, Epistolario de Antonio Augustin (Salamanca, 1980); M. Crawford, ed., Antonio Agustin between Renaissance & Counter-Reform (London, 1993). ROBERT W. GASTON

AIGAI. See VERGINA. AIGINA (AEGINA). Greek island dominating the Saronic Gulf between Attika and the Peloponnese. At the modern harbor town on the northwest coast, a prehistoric settlement (Final Neolithic through Late Mycenaean) flourished on the Kolonna headland, later occupied by a sanctuary during the period of the prosperous city-state founded by Dorians from the Argolid. Aigina’s early activity in shipping and trade financed Greece’s first coinage and challenged the growth of Athens, its enemy through classical times. After the Persian Wars its power declined under Athens and Sparta but prospered under Pergamon and Rome. Aigina was a refuge during postantique raids by Goths, Herulians, Avars and Saracens until the population withdrew inland in the ninth century. After the Greek War of

AIGINA (AEGINA)

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Independence, the harbor town revived as the first capital of the new state (1827-29) and home to Greece’s first modern museum and coinage. Early European visitors, including *Chandler (1765) and *Dodwell (1805), drew the remains at Kolonna, the temple of Aphaia, and noted antiquities in the town. The most important modern exploration began in 1811 as an architectural study under *Cockerell, *Haller von Hallerstein, John Foster and Jacob Linckh, at the Doric temple of Aphaia in northeast Aigina, then misidentified as that of Zeus Panhellenius. In twenty days they cleared the temple and discovered un­ expected sculptural fragments of Parian marble. Two pediments of Greeks and Trojans revealed to modern eyes the preclassical style, polychrome statues and the quality of lost Aiginetan bronze sculpture. Casts were made by *Fauvel, and the fragments were moved to Athens, then to Zante and Malta; despite fierce competition from British and French national collections, the pediments were sold to J. Martin von *Wagner for *Ludwig of Bavaria in 1813. The fragments were shipped to Rome in 1815 for restoration in Carrara marble by *Thorvaldsen and reached the Munich *Glyptothek for display in a neoclassical room in 1828. After damage in 1944, the controversial neoclassical additions were removed for a modern restoration, exhibited since 1972. Exploration of Aigina increased after Greek independence, including a visit by the *Expedition scientifique de Moree in 1829 and an official survey of the rock-cut tombs by Ludwig *Ross in 1832. Greece’s first archaeologist, A. Mustoxydis, explored the Mount Oros sanctuary, identified as that of Zeus Panhel­ lenius by L. *Curtius’s finds in 1904. The *Greek Archaeological Service under Stais (1894) and Keramopoullos (1904) excavated in the town, Kolonna sanc­ tuary and necropolis of Aigina, as well as the Aphaia sanctuary. Necropolis plunder produced the prehistoric “ Aigina Treasure” acquired by the *British Museum in 1893 and a collection of Protoattic vases now in Berlin. In 1901, a Bavarian expedition led by A. *Furtwangler reopened excavations at the Aphaia sanctuary in search of new fragments of the Munich pediments; they found the remains of a third pediment, contemporary with the west pediment found in 1811 but never installed. An inscription identified Aphaia’s temple, elements from an earlier temple emerged and surrounding structures, as well as the is­ land’s two other sanctuaries, were explored. Interrupted by World War I, German investigations were renewed by Gabriel Welter from 1925 to 1940 and scantily published in brief reports. Since 1966, an Austrian expedition under Hans Walter at Kolonna publishes prehistoric through Byzantine material. A third Munich investigation at the Aphaia sanctuary, under Dieter Ohly (196679) and Klaus Vierneisel (1979- ), is producing new studies of the architecture and related finds. BIBLIOGRAPHY +R. Chandler, The Antiquities o f Ionia (London, 1797), II, 15-19; +A . Blouet, Expe­ dition scientifique de Moree (Paris, 1833), 21-33; +C. Cockerell, The Temples o f Jupiter Panhellenius at Aegina and o f Apollo near Phigaleia in Arcadia (London, 1860); + A. Furtwangler, Aegina: Das Heiligtum der Aphaia (Munich, 1906); +G . Welter, Aigina

14

AINSLEY, SAMUEL JAMES (ca. 1810-74)

(Berlin, 1938); +H . Walter, ed., Alt-Agina, \ - 4 (Munich, 1974-91); +D . Ohly, Die Aegineten (Munich, 1976); R. Higgins, The Aegina Treasure: An Archaeological Mystery (London, 1979); E.-L. Schwander, D er Altere Poros-tempel der Aphaia auf Agina (Ber­ lin, 1985). SARAH P. MORRIS

AINSLEY, SAMUEL JAMES (ca. 1810-74). British artist (draftsman, etcher, and lithographer). Ainsley made three tours (1842^44) of Etruria as the traveling companion and artistic collaborator of G. *Dennis and was in Etruria on several subsequent occasions until at least 1857. His pleasing and accurate sketches of several Etruscan sites are the ideal complement to the verbal descriptions in Dennis’s Cities and Cemeteries o f Etruria (1848); no mean draftsman himself, Dennis also acknowledges his debt to Ainsley’s notes. A projected work on the rockcut cemetery at Sovana, announced in an enthusiastic and informed article in the Gentleman's Magazine (1843), did not materialize. Ainsley bequeathed his Etruscan drawings and watercolors to the *British Museum; admirably cataloged by Binyon, they still constitute a valuable documentary resource of which mod­ ern Italian field-workers (notably, those concerned with the rock cemeteries of Middle Etruria) have made good use. BIBLIOGRAPHY L. Binyon, Catalogue o f Drawings by British Artists 1 (London: British Museum, 1898), 3-14; D. E. Rhodes, Dennis o f Etruria (London, 1973), 35-40; +E. Colonna di Paolo— G. Colonna, Norchia 1 (Rome, 1978), 441-43; + B . Origo Crea, ed., Etruria svelata: I Disegni di S.J. Ainsley nel British Museum (Rome, 1984). DAVID RIDGWAY

AKRAGAS (ACRAGAS; AGRIGENTO; AGRIGENTUM). Greek colony in *Sicily. Akragas was founded as part of the westward expansion of *Gela under the leadership of Aristonoos and Pystilos (Thucydides 6.4.4; Strabo 2.72). Although evidence exists for contact and perhaps occupation of this area by the seventh century B.C., the colony was not officially established until ca. 582 B.C. The power of Akragas grew under its tyrants, especially Theron, who, in conquering *Himera, provoked the war with *Carthage that ended in Greek victory in 480 B.C. In 406 the Carthaginians conquered Akragas and destroyed its buildings. Subsequently abandoned, Akragas was refounded under Timoleon (ca. 340 B.C.) but in the third century fell under the control of Carthage and then Rome. It continued to exist as a Roman city and later a Christian community until the Arab invasion of a .d . 825. By 1130 the name had become transformed to Girgenti, which it remained until 1927. At that time it took its current name, Agrigento. An early and important topographical description of Akragas is provided by T. *Fazello in De rebus siculis (1558). G. M. Pancrazi, in his Antichita siciliane

AKROPOLIS, Athens

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spiegate (1751-52), included illustrations and a report on archaeological explo­ ration of the Olympieion, the enormous temple of Zeus dating to the sixth century B.C., which features giant figures (Telamones) as structural supports on the exterior. Excavations were carried out in several parts of the city in 1835— 36 under D. LoFaso Pietrasanta, Duca di Serradifalco. During this same period (eighteenth and nineteenth centuries), clandestine operations in the cemeteries plundered numerous tombs, especially yielding coins and vases. Modern investigations of Akragas began in the cemeteries in 1899 and else­ where in 1916. The first extensive exploration of the site was undertaken by P. Marconi in 1925-32. His excavations provided information concerning occu­ pation of the site from the prehistoric through the Roman periods. The resulting monograph discussed topography, architecture, sculpture and minor arts, with special emphasis on the many religious buildings. Marconi’s researches were continued, although intermittently, by later excavators, including G. Cultrera, G. Ricci and I. Bovio Marconi. More extensive excavations were resumed in 195358 to the west and south of the Olympieion, in the sanctuary of the Chthonic Deities and in the Hellenistic and Roman quarter. The most recent work has been in the area of San Nicola. These researches are significant for the evidence they provide of civic and domestic life in Akragas. In 1967 the Museo Archeologico Nazionale (now Regionale) of Agrigento was established near the church of San Nicola, and in it were consolidated remains from Akragas that had been housed from 1864 in the Museo Civico and new finds that had been housed in the Antiquarium of Villa Aurea at Agri­ gento. The body of material provides evidence of life within the province of Agrigento from prehistoric through Roman times. Besides an excellent series of Greek vases— especially Attic and Italian fabrics— there are terracottas recov­ ered by Marconi in the sanctuary of Chthonic Deities that illustrate stylistic development from Archaic through Hellenistic times. Among the stone sculp­ tures are the “ Ephebe of Agrigento,” found near the temple of Demeter, parts of Telamones from the Olympieion, and carved sarcophagi. BIBLIOGRAPHY +P. Marconi, Agrigento (Florence, 1929); P. Griffo, “ Ultimi scavi e ultime scoperte in Agrigento,” Quaderni di Archeologia, Arte, Storia, Agrigento 3 (1946), 5-34; + Idem, Agrigento, nuovissima guida ai monumenti e agli scavi (Agrigento, 1961); J. A. deWaele, Acragas graeca (Nijmegen, 1971); +P. Griffo, II Museo archeologico regionale di A gri­ gento (Rome, 1987). BARBARA A. BARLETTA

AKROPOLIS, Athens. Rocky hill and citadel in the heart of ancient Athens (156m above sea level), site of the city’s most important temples—the *Parthenon and the *Erechtheion— as well as the smaller *Temple of Athena Nike and the monumental entranceway of the *Propylaia, all built in the fifth century B.C.

The Akropolis was inhabited by ca. 5000

B.C.

in the Neolithic period and

16

AKROPOLIS, Athens

shows continuous occupation in prehistoric times. It was first fortified in the Mycenaean age (thirteenth century B.C.). The building of temples on the site began in the sixth century B.C. with the Hekatompedon (570-566 B.C.) and the “ Old Temple” of Athena (529-520 b .c ) . A reworking of the hill in the early fifth century was halted by the razing of the Akropolis by the Persians in 480 B.C., succeeded, in turn, by a complete new scheme of rebuilding (beginning 448 B.C.), culminating in the construction of some of the most famous buildings in Greece. In Hellenistic and Roman times, only minor building activity occurred. The temples of the Akropolis survived the Middle Ages virtually intact, thanks to their conversion to Christian churches. The Akropolis again became important strategically at the time of the Crusades, and under the Venetians the hill was newly fortified in 1401. When *Ciriaco of Ancona visited Athens in the 1430s, he found the Propylaia converted into a palace for the ruling duke of Athens and even found private homes on the Akropolis (he stayed in one of these). Ciriaco copied inscriptions there and made his famous drawings of the Parthenon pediments at this time (known in copies by Giuliano da *Sangallo). Copies were also made at the bidding of the Marquis de *Nointel, upon his visit to the Akropolis in 1674. These were to prove immensely valuable records, after the notorious shelling of the Akropolis by the Venetian *Morosini in 1678. Numerous visitors came to the Athenian Akropolis in succeeding centuries, from the travelers *Spon and *Wheler to the architects *Stuart and *Revett and the avid collector Lord *Elgin and his agent *Lusieri. Not until Greece became an independent free state in 1830 were the first excavations conducted, west of the Propylaia. In 1833, Turkish troops holding the hill were withdrawn, and a garrison of Bavarian soldiers guarded the Akropolis. Ludwig *Ross began clear­ ing away debris and uncovered the inscribed architrave of the temple of Roma and Augustus (seen by Ciriaco in 1444). In the years 1834-36, between the southeast corner of the Parthenon and the south wall of the Akropolis, Ross found and identified Persian destruction fill of 480 B.C. and proclaimed its significance for dating black- and red-figure pottery. He also found graves with coins of Justin (a .d . 518-27) and Justinian ( a .d . 527-65), the earliest relevant evidence for determining the date of the conversion of the Erechtheion and Parthenon into churches. The area between the Erechtheion and Parthenon was excavated by K. S. Pittakis in 1837-39, and a Mycenean wall behind the southwest wing of the Propylaia was unearthed. In succeeding years the medieval and Turkish structures on the Akropolis were demolished (1842-45), and Pittakis built a high, long wall out of ancient and mainly Byzantine marbles as a display (1844^9; demolished in 1888). He ex­ cavated the interior and the south side of the Parthenon, the north porch of the Erechtheion, the Roman monumental stairway to the Akropolis and the area northeast of the Propylaia. In 1852-53, *Beule conducted extensive excavations west of the Propylaia. He discovered the prehistoric rock-cut footholds, the retaining wall of the Ar­

AKROPOLIS, Athens

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chaic ramp and the third century A.c. outwork with gate that bears his name. Intermittent investigations in the second half of the nineteenth century turned up various finds, such as the *Calfbearer and the *Kritios Boy, as well as a boat lamp dedicated to Athena in the Erechtheion, the only object found in situ inside an Akropolis temple. Truly systematic excavation of the Akropolis had to wait for the appointment of P. *Kavvadias as ephor-general in 1885. From that year until 1890, he and G. Kawerau worked feverishly, and all the surface soil was excavated to bedrock. *Dorpfeld served as architect to the project and left valuable plans of the whole area. The greatest discoveries were the “ Old Temple” of Athena just south of the Erechtheion; Archaic limestone pedimental sculpture, including the “ Bluebeard” ; the stele of the Mourning Athena; and the Persian destruction fill at the north wall of the Akropolis, containing Archaic sculpture, inscriptions and statue bases, which was at once understood to be fill brought in to raise the ground level in stages during construction of the wall. During this period, P. Wolters established a basis for dating vases by means of exact systematic observation of the finds and recording stratification. In 1898, the civil engineer N. Balanos began what was to be a far-reaching program of restoration of the monuments of the Akropolis; he worked on the Parthenon (1898-1902, 1923-33), the Erechtheion (1902-9) and the Propylaia (1909-17). Using techniques that ultimately had disastrous results, he employed iron clamps to hold together ancient fragments and to attach new marble repairs, and he employed long, thick iron beams to bring stability. In later years the rusting and swelling of the iron broke up the marbles and caused terrible dam­ age. Balanos was also criticized for rebuilding more of the various structures than was allowed by the evidence and for reusing in a random way blocks of marble that he found lying around on the Akropolis. During this period Bert Hodge *Hill did a pioneering investigation of the Older Parthenon (1910), followed by a study of the columns of the Older Par­ thenon— fifty-nine in all— by A. Tschira (1938). W. Kolbe excavated at the little stairway in the Older Parthenon retaining wall and at a nearby Mycenaean wall. A. *Orlandos succeeded Balanos in 1940 and applied his background in ar­ chitectural history as he directed work on the Akropolis over the next twenty years. In 1975 was founded the Committee for the Preservation of the Acropolis Monuments, to coordinate interdisciplinary work by architects, surveyors, drafts­ men, archaeologists, geologists, physicists, chemists, conservators and techni­ cians. Rapid progress has already been achieved on all fronts. In connection with the work of saving the four classical buildings and inventorying the thousands of fragments formerly heaped up in dumps, the various teams have made dramatic new discoveries about the monuments and the site, including two previously unknown classical temples. (See also *Akropolis Museum, Athens.) BIBLIOGRAPHY P. Kavvadias— G. Kawerau, Die Ausgrabung der Akropolis vorn Jahre 1885 bis zum Jahre 1890 (Athens, 1906); J. A. Bundgard, The Excavations o f the Athenian Akropolis,

18

AKROPOLIS MUSEUM, Athens

1882-1890 (Copenhagen, 1974); The Acropolis at Athens: Conservation, Restoration and Research, 1975-1983, tr. J. Binder (Athens, 1985). JUDITH BINDER AND NANCY THOMSON d e GRUMMOND

AKROPOLIS MUSEUM, Athens. Greek museum, containing finds from the *Akropolis, Athens, and other sites in the city. During the Greek War of Independence (1821-31) Chevalier Andreas Mustoxydis advised Colonel Leicester Stanhope, representative of the London Com­ mittee to aid the Greek cause, that a museum for antiquities should be founded in Greece. In 1824 Stanhope persuaded Odysseus Androutsos, commander of the Akropolis fortress, to convert the *Parthenon into a museum. By 1834, hundreds of sculptures and inscriptions were on display in the *Propylaia, which served as a gallery for over fifty years. In September 1834 Athens was made the capital of Greece, and antiquities from all over Greece were transferred to the Akropolis. In 1835 the mosque in the Parthenon became a storeroom for antiquities on the recommendation of Leo von *Klenze, who drew up plans for a National Archaeological Museum on the Akropolis. By 1835 a ramshackle wooden Turkish house, east of the *Erechtheion, was in use as a museum. In 1837 many antiquities were transferred from the first National Museum on the island of *Aigina to this museum. From 1842 onward the *Temple of Athena Nike and the Parthenon served as sculpture galleries. In 1844 K. S. Pittakis requested permission to build a museum on the Akropolis site chosen by von Klenze. In 1861 Breton noted antiquities on show in the Turkish House, such as finds from the Persian destruction layer excavated in 1836, antefixes, the Byzantine floor mosaic from the Parthenon, wooden plugs (CIC adifvaCf rn*iT nan^ i nprri c r y p t* ah a iy iU ^ a J a r tf u lu m

Paintings from an Etruscan tomb (Tomba Tartaglia) at Corneto (Tarquinia), discovered in 1699, engraving from T. Dempster, De Etruria regali (1724). (Deutsches Archaologisches Institut, Rome. Inst. Neg. 91.691.)

408

ETRUSCAN TOMBS

the underworld deity Aita (Hades). Michelangelo is one of many major Renais­ sance artists— *Donatello, *Brunelleschi, Leonardo, *Cellini, *Vasari— who seem to have had knowledge of Etruscan antiquities. *Alberti’s interest in Etrus­ can architecture led him to attempt a reconstruction of the (lost) tomb of Lars Porsenna of *Chiusi (described by Pliny the Elder, NH 26.91). In the early sixteenth century, *Annio of *Viterbo evidently excavated tombs in the area of his home city (although his treatment of the material was untrust­ worthy). About one hundred years later Athanasius *Kircher made a tour of Etruria and visited rock-cut chambers at *Bomarzo that must have been like the tombs at *Cerveteri, with beds, chairs and other furniture carved out of the living rock. Kircher reports (1659) the local belief that the chambers were built for habitation by cave-dwelling troglodytes like those of Malta. There is also evi­ dence from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that antiquities were being extracted from Etruscan burials and collected and studied. Cassiano dal *Pozzo ordered drawings recording Etruscan bronzes (Windsor Castle), and *Poussin has left a drawing of an Etruscan mirror as well as paintings that seem to show the influence of such objects. An explosion of interest in the Etruscans, the *Etruscheria of the eighteenth century, went hand in hand with the discovery of new tombs. Purposeful search­ ing in and around Volterra led to the discovery of many Hellenistic tombs and the collection of pottery and ash urns. Mario *Guarnacci carried out systematic excavation to secure finds for his Etruscan museum (later, the Museo Etrusco Guarnacci, Volterra), and Pietro Bucelli ardently collected such materials; his heirs later immured some one hundred urns into the fagade of Palazzo Bucelli at Montepulciano. The indefatigable *Gori, who toured northern Etruria to visit collectors and sites, in 1728 supervised excavations of a number of tombs on the property of P. Franceschini at Volterra and made a vivid record of the event. In his Museum Etruscum (1737) he published the plan and elevation of the Caecina Tomb, showing the locations of some forty ash urns. Later in the eighteenth century, Corneto (i.e., *Tarquinia) began to attract attention, and because of its painted decoration it became and has remained the single most exciting locale of Etruscan tombs. Thomas *Jenkins conducted ex­ cavation there (1761), and James *Byres gave guided tours and commissioned copies of some of the frescoes. Between 1828 and 1833, some ten new tombs were discovered in the Monterozzi necropolis at Tarquininia. The h y p erb o re­ ans, led by *Stackelberg, took a great interest and explored the newly discovered sepulchres, such as the Tomb of the Baron, Tomb of the Inscriptions and Tomb of the Chariot (Tomba delle Bighe), of which Stackelberg made beautiful watercolor copies. The painter Carlo *Ruspi soon arrived, commissioned first by E. *Gerhard for the *Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica (*German Ar­ chaeological Institute) to make copies of the Querciola Tomb. Ruspi conceived the idea of making tracings as preparatory drawings for actual-size facsimiles of Etruscan tomb paintings. His first facsimiles were made for the *Vatican and were displayed in the new Museo Gregoriano Etrusco; others were then made

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for *Ludwig I of Bavaria through commission from his agent Martin von *Wagner. These would adorn Ludwig’s Room of the Vases in his Pinacotheka at Munich. The copies made included the Querciola and the Tombs of the Triclin­ ium, of the Inscriptions, of the Chariots, of the Dead Man and of the Baron. In this same period the rock-cut tombs of *Cerveteri were under exploration; in 1836 was discovered the incomparable *Regolini-Galassi Tomb, an Orien­ talizing burial with spectacular grave goods (now in the Vatican). The Marchese *Campana excavated the Tomb of the Reliefs (1846-47) and the “ Sarcophagus of the Spouses,” now in the *Louvre, as well as the Campana Tomb at Veii (1842/43). At *Perugia, the Tomb of the Volumni was found in 1840; at *Vulci, *Francois discovered the remarkable Frangois Tomb (1857), and the *Campanari family excavated tombs for Pope *Gregory XVI (1834). Lucien Bonaparte, Prince of *Canino, removed a staggering number of Greek vases from his per­ sonal estate, setting the tone for the plundering of Etruscan tombs for vases that persists to the present (cf. *Metropolitan Museum of Art). An important event that brought Etruscan tombs to a wider public was the exhibition of the Cam­ panari in London, in which they created captivating reconstructions of Etruscan tombs. The great publications of Etruscan tombs began to appear. Mrs. Hamilton Gray’s T our to the S ep u lch res o f E tru ria in 1 8 3 9 was followed by Byres’s H yp o g a e i o r S ep u lch ra l C a vern s o f T arqu in ia, The C a p ita l o f A n cien t E tru ria (in 1842, long after his death). The masterpiece of George *Dennis, C ities a n d C em eteries o f E tru ria, first published in 1848, gathered together a vast amount of information about Etruscan tombs. In the twentieth century, Etruscan tombs have been excavated in untold num­ bers up and down the length and breadth of Etruria and contiguous regions, ranging in date from the Iron Age (ninth-eighth centuries B.C.) to the Hellenistic period (third-first centuries B.C.). Plundering and treasure hunting continued at the same time that improved techniques of excavation and ethical considerations promoted scientific research to secure more data for the understanding of the archaeological contexts. At *Populonia, A. Minto discovered numerous monu­ mental stone tombs of the Archaic period after the removal (begun in 1908) of heaps of incompletely processed iron slag that had been dumped over the ne­ cropolis in antiquity. At Tarquinia the *Lerici Foundation discovered some 6,000 tombs through geophysical prospection (1955-62), of which the most important painted ones are the Tomb of the Jugglers and the Tomb of the Hunter. Among most recent finds at the Tarquinian necropoleis are the Tomb of the Aninas Family in the Scataglini area and the Tomb of the Blue Demons, dis­ covered in 1985 during work on a highway next to the Monterozzi; it contains the earliest-known representations of the terrifying devils that populate late Etruscan tomb painting and sculpture. Investigations at Cortona, beginning in 1987, unearthed a funerary altar attached to the Tomba Melone del Sodo II (originally excavated by Minto, 1928-29), decorated with Archaic stone sculp­ tures of lionesses (or sphinxes) attacking humans.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY +F. Weege, Etruskische M alerei (Halle, 1921); +M . Moretti, New Monuments o f Etrus­ can Painting, tr. D. Kiang (University Park, PA, 1970); +Pittura etrusca, disegni e documenti del XIX secolo d e ll’Archivio delVInstituto Archeologico Germanico di Roma (Rome, 1986); + N . T. de Grummond, “ Rediscovery,” in Etruscan Life and Afterlife (Detroit, 1986), 18-46; +L es Etrusques et VEurope (Paris, 1992).

ETRUSCHERIA. Passion for Etruscan art and civilization that spread through Europe in the eighteenth century. Although Etruscan tombs, inscriptions and objects were identified and studied at least as early as the fifteenth century (cf. *Etruscan tombs), in the eighteenth century Etruscan antiquities became enormously popular. Both a symptom and a cause of Etruscheria was the publication in 1723-26 of Thomas *Dempster’s De Etruria regali, resurrected from a seventeenthcentury manuscript by Thomas Coke and published with notes by F. *Buonarroti and attractive copperplate illustration. The vogue for Etruscan things led to the founding of an academy, the *Accademia Etrusca at Cortona (1726); exploration and excavations at a number of old Etruscan cities— *Volterra, Siena, *Arezzo, *Cortona, *Tarquinia; and the formation of collections (e.g., the *Guarnacci antiquities at Volterra). A surge of interest in the language led to dramatic progress in its interpretation, especially by Luigi *Lanzi. The mania for the Etruscans led to the attribution of Greek vases (found in abundance in Etruscan tombs) to Etruscan artists, a development that explains why Josiah *Wedgwood could call “ Etruria” the factory where his magnificent classicizing vases were produced. Interiors were decorated in the “ Etruscan taste” by Robert Adam (e.g., the Etruscan Room at Osterley park, 1775-77), who drew inspiration from Greek vases and Pompeian painting (*Adam family). G. B. *Piranesi, with his engravings and publications, was perhaps the most visible of the Etruscan partisans, who were prone to attribute to the Etruscans the invention of a number of elements of civilization, including architecture, law, navigation, science. The Etruscan (or Tuscan) form of the Doric order, with the column sitting on its own base and with its narrow capital, became popular throughout Europe and today is more widespread in England and America than the Greek Doric. BIBLIOGRAPHY M. Cristofani, La Scoperta degli etruschi, Archeologia e antiquaria nel ’700 (Rome, 1983); F. Borsi, ed., Fortuna degli etruschi, catalog of exhibition (Milan, 1985); N. T. de Grummond, “ Rediscovery,” in Etruscan Life and Afterlife, ed. L. Bonfante (Detroit, 1986), 37-40; Les Etrusques et VEurope (Paris, 1992), esp. 275-321.

EVANS, SIR ARTHUR JOHN (1851-1941). English archaeologist, the ex­ cavator of *Knossos in *Crete and discoverer of Minoan civilization. The son of Sir John Evans (1823-1908), the eminent naturalist, authority on prehistoric remains and numismatist, Arthur grew up amid wealth and scientific

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Photograph of (/. to r.) Arthur Evans, Duncan Mackenzie, and Theodore Fyfe at Knossos. (The Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.)

study. As a small child he began his own collection of coins and ancient objects. He was always extraordinarily nearsighted but was gifted with a remarkably clear vision of exceedingly minute details. Neither at Harrow nor at Brasenose College, Oxford, did Evans distinguish himself. In 1871, however, he published his first paper on numismatics and began his peregrinations in the Balkans, which led to his book Through Bosnia and the Herzegovina on Foot (1877), his position as political writer for the Manchester Guardian and his residence and later (1882) his imprisonment at Ragusa (Dubrovnik). In 1878 he had married Margaret Freeman, daughter of the historian E. A. Freeman, whose four-volume History o f Sicily Evans com­ pleted after Freeman’s death in 1892; she died the year after her father. Evans, keeper of the *Ashmolean Museum since 1884, then turned his atten­ tion to the early systems of writing in Europe. Interest in engraved gems and seals led him to Crete in 1894, and Crete remained Evans’s scholarly focal point

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for the rest of his long life. In 1900 he began excavating at Knossos, a site that he had privately bought. Within five years the remains of the great palace were brought to light and provided the basis for a complete reevaluation of Aegean prehistory. Evans had continued publishing steadily: C retan P ic to g ra p h s a n d P re-P h o en icia n S c rip t (1896), M ycen a ea n Tree a n d P illa r C u lt (1901), P re h is­ to ric T om bs o f K n o sso s (1905) and the epochal S crip ta M in o a (1909), among others. In 1911 his great contribution to knowledge was recognized by the award of knighthood, but his crowning work, The P a la c e o f M inos, yet lay in the future. Volume I was published in 1921; volume II, parts 1 and 2, in 1928; volume III, in 1930; volume IV, parts 1 and 2, in 1935; and the index (in collaboration with his half-sister, the art historian Joan Evans) in 1936. The P a la c e o f M in os is a far broader synthesis of the Minoan world than its title implies, and it remains fundamental in Aegean Bronze Age studies. The restorations carried out in the palace and its dependencies by Evans, largely at his own expense, represent the style of an earlier age of archaeological technique than the present and were always controversial, but they have contributed immeasurably to public interest in and support of archaeology. As Carl W. *Blegen wrote of him at the time of his death: It is the great achievement o f Evans, founded on his observation of the stratification discovered at Knossos and on his knowledge o f the related material, to have created an orderly comprehensive synthesis from the scattered and uncoordinated evidence at hand, and to have drawn up the first systematic outline of early history in the Aegean. His division of the Cretan Bronze Age into three periods, Early, Middle and Late, proved to be applicable in general terms (though with minor differences in the subdivisions) to the whole of the Aegean area, and he thus laid an enduring foundation for all later work in this field. His recognition o f the creative role played by Minoan Crete in the origin and evolution of the earliest European civilization will stand unchallenged; while his recovery and brilliant reconstruction of a culture long buried and completely lost will remain a lasting memorial to his genius. (AJA 45 [1941], 612-13) BIBLIOGRAPHY J. Evans, Time and Chance, The Story o f Arthur Evans and His Forebears (London, 1943); S. L. Horowitz, The Find o f a Lifetime: Sir Arthur Evans and the Discovery o f Knossos (New York, 1981). W. W. d e GRUMMOND

EXCAVATIONS AND EXPEDITIONS. As early as the eleventh century monks of St. Albans excavated antiquities of Roman Britain during a search for building materials at ancient *Verulamium. A similar situation resulted in the discovery of ancient pottery and sarcophagi at Nogent in northern France in the early twelfth century. The abbot of Nogent, *Guibert, described the find in careful detail and was led to conclude that the materials were pre-Christian. Such excavation, attested numerous times in the history of sites rich in reusable marble or limestone, was not archaeological in purpose, but the modest schol­

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arship sometimes associated with it may be linked with the kind of salvaging and recording of information made during projects of clearing and excavation that attend urban renewal or construction. Purposeful travel to archaeological sites in order to make records begins in 1375 with Giovanni *Dondi, who left his native Padua to visit Rome, where he took abundant notes, copied inscriptions and made measurements of classical monuments. In 1415-16 *Buondelmonti traveled to *Crete, the Greek islands and Constantinople (*Byzantium) and on his travels made maps of the cities he visited, including indications of ancient ruins, with other topographical features. He was followed by *Ciriaco of Ancona, whose travels in the 1420s and 1430s ranged widely in Italy, Greece and the Levant. Ciriaco’s diaries contained de­ scriptions and drawings of antiquities and copies of over 1,000 inscriptions. A similar instinct to search out antiquities and inscriptions is seen in the survey around Lake Garda made by *Mantegna, *Felice Feliciano, *Marcanova and Samuele da Tradate (1464) and the trips of numerous artists and tourists who went underground to see the ruins of the *Domus Aurea (beginning around 1480). As the demand for antiquities burgeoned, entrepreneurs began to dig specif­ ically for the purpose of finding portable and marketable antiquities. In this case the finds were not accidental but extracted in accordance with a plan. Never­ theless, the plan was a quite simple one, involving what may only be called treasure hunting, a practice that has a very long and unfortunate history, espe­ cially in the city of Rome. *Alberti’s fascinating attempt to carry out U nder­ water excavation and raise the Roman ships at *Nemi (1446^48), though it featured systematic preparation and an interest in truly historical material, is not far removed from this kind of search for objects. The so-called excavation by *Annio of Viterbo, in which he salted a tomb and pretended to discover it for the first time in the presence of Pope Alexander VI (1493), is a shameful episode in the history of excavation. There must have been many attempts in the sixteenth century to clear ancient ruins so that they could be mapped. Numerous surviving drawings and engrav­ ings by a variety of architects reveal an impulse to measure and record the plans and elevations of ancient buildings. *Palladio has left plans and sections of such monuments, including baths in Rome and the *Temple of Fortuna at Praeneste. There is debate over his accuracy, but the basic methodology is rational and archaeological. Pirro *Ligorio is a more elusive, controversial figure, difficult to evaluate because of the sheer enormity of his writings and drawings and because he had a tendency to “ complete” imaginatively an artifact or building he was drawing. He did reconstructions of a number of buildings of Rome and excavated at *Hadrian’s Villa to locate ancient sculptures for his patron, Car­ dinal Ippolito d ’Este (*Este family). The mapping of sites, especially of Rome, was a significant archaeological pastime in the sixteenth century. Annio da Viterbo was a pioneer, but once again he brings embarrassment— this time because of his forgery of a map of the

Plan of excavated portions o f Pompeii, lithograph by J. D. Harding, from W. Light, Views o f Pompeii (1828). (Deutsches Archaologisches Institut, Rome. Inst. Neg. 92.878.)

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ancient city, which he attributed to the early Roman writer Fabius Pictor. Annio depicted the city as shaped like a bow, with the Tiber as its chord, and divided the city into four squared sections. A far more reputable project was that of ^Raphael, who was commissioned by Pope *Leo X to prepare a map of ancient Rome. Making a survey of the city with A. *Fulvio, he devised a way to place the monuments according to their listing in the Late Antique regionary catalogs of the city. Raphael died before he made his map, but there may be some reflection of it in the engraved plates made by Marco Fabio Calvo in 1532 (Antiquae urbis Romae cum regionibus simulacrum); the city of Rome is shown as round, with sixteen equal sectors (two are added to the ancient fourteen regions). In each of the slices of the pie are represented the major monuments of the region. A totally different approach was that of L. Bufalini (1551), who laboriously measured the entire circuit of the contemporary city and inserted the ancient monuments into the two-dimensional street plan. *Marliani created a map of the ancient city only, with fortifications, hills and plans of some of the key monuments, likewise two-dimensional. Ligorio also made maps of Rome, his masterpiece being a great, panoramic bird’s-eye view of the city in 1561. Antonio Tempesta created the most splendid map of this type, a panorama in twelve separate sheets (total size, 109 X 245cm), which was done with great accuracy and artistic sense (1593). In the seventeenth century began a new exploration of Greece, as agents for scholars and princes searched for appropriate antiquities in the 1620s. *Peiresc yearned for Greek inscriptions, and *Arundel had Petty and *Roe scouring Tur­ key and the Aegean for marbles, with considerable success. *Nointel visited the *Akropolis in Athens and had priceless drawings made, recording the *Parthenon sculptures before their removal (1674), and the faithful travelers *Spon and *Wheler visited and identified many sites in Greece (1675-76), making highly schematic bird’s-eye maps, plans and elevations and writing descriptions that would be immensely useful to later topographers. These were but a prelude to the numerous expeditions to follow in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. An organization now sponsored expeditions for the retrieval of archaeological knowledge in Greece, the *Society of Dilettanti in London. It sent *Stuart and *Revett to Athens (1751-53), where they produced an excellent plan and views of the city, as well as plans, elevations, details and views of numerous monu­ ments, all of remarkable beauty and accuracy. Also for the Dilettanti, an expe­ dition was dispatched to Asia Minor, led by *Chandler, with *Pars and *Revett as artists. *Elgin and his agents dismantled and carried away many of the mar­ bles of the *Parthenon and other monuments on the Athenian Akropolis (1801— 4); although the undertaking involved searching in the rubble of the Akropolis, it could scarcely be called an excavation. Nevertheless, Elgin is justified in his claim that the project was not looting but an attempt to save classical antiquities; thus, it counts as an attempt at archaeological preservation. Only slightly more purposeful were the excavations of C. R. *Cockerell and *Haller von Hallerstein, the leaders of an international group of young architects and scholars with a

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heart for adventure. They supervised the excavation of the temples at *Aigina (1811) and at *Bassai (1811-12; joined by *Stackelberg) and made exquisite architectural drawings. Their hauls of sculpture were sold to *Ludwig I of Ba­ varia and to the *British Museum. In Italy, excavations had begun at *Herculaneum (1709) and *Pompeii (1748) for the *Bourbon family. It is customary to vilify the early excavations at Pom­ peii, largely as a result of the scathing criticisms made by *Winckelmann (1762), who, having been snubbed by the royal court, had motivation for his bitter remarks. It is true that treasures were extracted, as in the past, with insufficient regard for the context and that the excavation strategy was haphazard. But ex­ cellent plans were made of the buildings that were excavated, and an interesting innovation was made in regard to publication. For the multi volume work on Herculaneum, an organized committee held regular meetings at which they pooled their knowledge, discussing the finds to reach a consensus (*Academia Herculanensis). The efforts of Etruscan scholars were less conspicuous, and their motives less suspect. They, too, formed a group to foster their research, the *Accademia Etrusca (1727), where they might deliver and receive news of the latest discov­ eries. Insufficiently recognized is the remarkable work of *Buonarroti and *Gori, who made surveys and undertook excavation for the increase of knowledge rather than for the acquisition of antiquities, which were, in general, an unglamorous lot. Buonarroti made a survey of tombs around Civita Castellani (*Falerii Veteres) in 1691 and systematically recorded the exterior of the tombs, the structure of the interiors, the inscriptions and the finds, which included some painted but modest ash urns. His discussion of his work, published in his notes to *Dempster’s De Etruria regali (1723), is comparable to modern excavation reports. Gori supervised the excavation of tombs at *Volterra (1728 and follow­ ing) and recorded in great and objective detail the finds, including urns and pottery, plans and elevations and even a top map showing the location of the urns. Measurements of some of the urns and tombs were included. The succes­ sors in Etruria of Gori and Buonarroti were the explorers at the painted tombs of *Tarquinia of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. *Byres se­ cured copies of some of the frescoes (1760s), followed by Stackelberg and his companions (1827), who opened and recorded the spectacular painted tombs there (*Etruscan tombs). Work continued at Pompeii in the nineteenth century, with the finest results achieved when Giuseppe *Fiorelli was put in charge in 1860. Fiorelli’s approach was scientific; he had a careful strategy for uncovering the city on a measured scheme, dividing it into regions and blocks (insulae) and giving each house a code number. One of Fiorelli’s most ingenious ideas was a system of taking plaster casts of organic materials, especially human, that had been encapsulated by the volcanic ash and had thus left a hollow cavity in the earth. By pumping wet plaster into the empty cavities, he created the casts of bodies that still may be seen around the site of Pompeii. The diametric opposite of the scrupulous,

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professional Fiorelli was the Marchese *Campana, an adventurer who discovered and excavated numerous sites and carried away many works of art for his col­ lection or for sale. His disastrous misuse of funds at his bank led to the sensa­ tional sale of his antiquities in 1861. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, British and American archaeolo­ gists made significant contributions to fieldwork. The *Society of Antiquaries of London, officially founded in 1707, provided a haven for those interested in the antiquities of Britain— whether prehistoric, Roman or medieval— and en­ couraged exploration in the field. William *Stukely (d. 1765) copied inscriptions and made plans of Roman and other sites; he was among the first to realize that the growth patterns of crops on the surface of the earth reflected monuments underneath. Thomas *Jefferson is credited with being the first to understand that strata of earth on an archaeological site could give clues to the sequence of activities. Though he was an avid student of classical architecture, his obser­ vations were, in fact, made in reference to native American mounds on his estate in Virginia (1784). The insights of this colonial archaeologist were without im­ mediate successors. Yet another figure who remains somewhat isolated is Rich­ ard Pullan, whose expedition to *Priene for the Society of Dilettanti (1868-69) included the earliest-known use of a two-dimensional grid of trenches and also one of the first attempts to record excavation through photography. Soon after­ ward, General *Pitt-Rivers developed his celebrated rigorous field methods, in excavations privately financed at his own estate of Cranborne Chase (1884-90). Including Romano-British sites in his investigations, he utilized gridding and careful stratigraphical excavation, noting the relationship of objects to their con­ text and recording the cross-sections of earth in the balks of his trenches. He was a pioneer in the observation of faunal remains in an archaeological context. Excavation in Greece had a totally different character after the liberation of the country from the Turks. The *Greek Archaeological Society, founded in 1837, undertook responsible excavations immediately in the *Theater of Dion­ ysos in Athens and soon afterward in the Odeion of Herodes Atticus, the *Tower of the Winds and the *Agora, as well as on the *Akropolis. The nineteenth century also saw the beginning of exploration under the aegis of foreign insti­ tutions that were able to secure the funding for increasingly expensive labors. The *Expedition scientifique de Moree sponsored by the French government was a multidisciplinary project, well in advance of its time, that investigated the ancient ruins of the Greek Peloponnese along with its geography and natural history (1829-31). The French were also the first to found a school in Athens as a base for archaeologists and their students (1846; *French School at Athens); their major excavations, continuing into the twentieth century, were at *Delos (begun 1877) and *Delphi (from 1892). They were followed by the *German Archaeological Institute at Athens (founded 1874), with ongoing missions at *01ympia (from 1876) and the *Kerameikos Excavations in Athens (from 1907). The *American School of Classical Studies opened its doors in 1882 and pro­ vided a base for American scholars doing research at *Corinth (from 1896) and

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in the *Agora at Athens (from 1930). The next school to be founded was the *British School at Athens (1886); it sponsored many excavations but is espe­ cially associated with the continuation of the work of Sir Arthur *Evans at Knossos (from 1900). The Italians were among the earliest to work on *Crete (at *Gortyn, 1884), though they did not create the *Italian School of Archae­ ology in Athens until 1909. From this base they excavated on the islands of Lemnos (from 1919) and *Rhodes (from 1929), as well as continuing work at Gortyn. The movement to found such archaeological institutes actually began in Italy, with the *Institute di Corrispondenza Archeologica, created in 1827. Originally an international body, with cooperation among scholars of Italy, France, Ger­ many and other nations, it gradually became the province of the Germans and ultimately was transformed into the *German Archaeological Institute (officially founded in 1871). The foreign schools in Italy did not focus so closely on one or two particular sites as did their Greek counterparts but became involved with a variety of projects. The *French School in Rome (founded in 1873) did not begin its well-known campaigns at *Bolsena until 1946. The *British School at Rome (founded 1899) developed its involvement with North Africa and southern Etruria especially under the direction of J. B. *Ward-Perkins (1946-74). The *American Academy in Rome, officially founded in 1905, sponsored excava­ tions at *Cosa (from 1948) and in the *Forum Romanum (from 1964). Italian excavators often working for the government made important strides in the ex­ cavation of the city of Rome, for example, Giacomo *Boni, who is noted for having employed stratigraphical analysis in the Forum Romanum (1898 and following), and Rodolfo *Lanciani, who worked in a number of places in the city. Lanciani’s greatest achievement lay in his fundamental archaeological map of Rome, the Forma Urbis Romae, issued in forty-six sheets. Italian archaeology in the twentieth century has come to be conducted under the umbrella of a national ministry (Ministero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali), with supervision by the appropriate superintendents and inspectors in each region of Italy. The period of the founding of the great archaeological schools was contem­ porary with that of the magnificent private archaeologists, Sir Arthur *Evans and Heinrich *Schliemann. (The plunderer of *Cyprus, General *Cesnola, did not make a significant contribution to the history of excavation.) With their own wealth they were able to sponsor the kind of large-scale excavations that were otherwise being carried out by institutes. Evans at Knossos (from 1900) and Schliemann at *Troy (from 1871), *Mycenae (from 1876), *Tiryns (from 1876) and other sites developed strategies for moving enormous amounts of earth. By means of excavation they revealed a culture that was almost totally unknown before, that of Bronze Age Aegean Greece. This was an area that would prove to be very fruitful in the twentieth century, with numerous new sites to occupy both foreign and Greek archaeologists. Like the schools, Evans and Schliemann began to use a more sophisticated division of tasks, so that an excavation would base itself oh the labor of local

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men and women, would have experts in architecture, restoration, mapping and photography and would have an individual to keep a daybook, often the director. Schliemann is credited with calling in outside experts for consultation and thus having a multidisciplinary approach to archaeological sites. The excavation of classical (and other) sites in the twentieth century has become a well-organized industry. Universities, museums and foundations have joined the national bureaus and schools in Greece, Italy and other nations with classical antiquities, in providing funding and staffing for excavations far too numerous to list. These projects normally adhere to excavation techniques and principles that have evolved steadily to the point that they have become part of standard procedure in the field. Among the regular features of a well-conceived excavation in the twentieth century are the preliminary survey and formulation of strategy, the establishment of an accurate grid, the use of good photography and recording in the field, appropriate techniques for cleaning, restoration and conservation, efficient cataloging, photography and drawing for retrieval and study of finds and timely dissemination of the results of excavation. Many be­ lieve in the multidisciplinary ideal, in which visiting specialists are consulted, though few plan an excavation from the beginning to have a balanced interdis­ ciplinary strategy (as did the *Minnesota Messenia Expedition). Compared with the total picture of excavations of previous centuries, it is clear that a significant evolution has taken place. Increasing reliance on the resources of modern science and the techniques of New World anthropologists now suggest that a revolution is at hand. To the familiar surveying instruments and microscopes are added computers, not only for organizing data but also for mapping and simulation of monuments (*computers in archaeology). Innovators debate the usage of new technology not only for excavation but also for the avoiding of excavation. Acutely aware that excavation means destruction of evidence, many advocate the employment of surveys and remote sensing that allow the accumulation of data without the time, expense and destruction involved in full-scale excavation, or at least they wish to supplement excavation with such nondestructive tech­ niques. One of the most successful applications of geophysical prospection was that of the *Lerici Foundation used in the 1960s to locate thousands of tombs in Etruria. Periscopic cameras allowed the investigators to determine which tombs should actually be excavated. Aerial photography became a method for locating sites as a result of reconaissance missions during World War II ^B rad­ ford) and has found its continuation in the balloon photography of Julian and Eunice Whittlesey utilized at numerous sites and of J. Wilson and Eleanor Myers on Bronze Age Aegean sites on Crete. Satellite photography can also assist in the locating of sites and the analysis of the use of farmlands and other resources. (See also *underwater archaeology.) BIBLIOGRAPHY Michaelis; G. E. Daniel, A Short History o f Archaeology (London, 1981); Stoneman, Land o f Lost Gods; Weiss, RDCA; B. Trigger, A History o f Archaeological Thought (Cambridge, 1989).

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Frontispiece, engraving from A. Blouet et al., Expedition scientifique de M oree (1831-38). (Deutsches Archaologisches Institut, Rome. Inst. Neg. 68.5323.)

EXPEDITION SCIENTIFIQUE DE M OREE (Scientific Expedition to the M orea). French research expedition to the Peloponnese (Morea) and the Cy­ clades led by the naturalist J.-B. Bory de Saint-Vincent. A French government resolution of 1828 founded the Expedition, whose

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motivation, “ to render homage to the glorious country that the armed might of France has set free,” was at once romantic and nationalistic. Its purpose, how­ ever, was scientific: to explore and describe the land, its geology, its natural history and to record its ancient monuments. Bory was further enjoined to extend his research beyond these subjects to include “ places and men” — what would today be called human geography. The Expedition consisted of two parts: Bory was charged with the supervision of the physical sciences, and the architect and antiquarian *Blouet (1795-1853) with the supervision of the recording of ancient monuments. From 1829 until 1831, Bory and his brigades of topographers, geologists, botanists, zoologists, entomologists, antiquarians, artists, draftsmen and epigraphers conducted an exhaustive survey of the Peloponnese and the Cyclades, collecting specimens, mapping, drawing and recording. Such a collaboration among scientists and antiquarians was unprecedented. The resulting publication, a finely illustrated and thorough study of the landscape, its monuments and natural history, continues to serve as a basic source for Peloponnesian research of all periods. BIBLIOGRAPHY M. Bory de Saint-Vincent et al., Expedition (Commission) Scientifique de Moree, Section des sciences physiques (Paris, 1832-36), 3 vols. in 5 and atlas; A. Blouet et al., Expe­ dition Scientifique de Moree, ordonee p a r le gouvernement frangais: Architecture, sculp­ tures, inscriptions et vues du Peloponnese, des Cyclades et de lA ttiqu e (Paris, 183138); A. Lecroix, “ Notice historique sur Bory de Saint-Vincent,” Memoires de VAcademie Nationale des Sciences 54 (1902), i-lxxv. S. L. PETRAKIS

F

FABRETTI, RAFFAELO (1619-1700). Italian archaeologist and epigrapher. Born at Urbino, Fabretti worked in Rome for popes and cardinals, including service on a diplomatic mission to Spain. Under Innocent XI he was made keeper of the archives at Castel Sant’Angelo, a post he held until his death. Fabretti spent much time in Rome and Latium investigating aqueducts and their sources. His results were published in a full account of Roman aqueducts, D e a q u is e t a q u a ed u ctib u s v e te ris R o m a e d isserta tio n es tres (Rome, 1680). As he pursued the courses of aqueducts, he indefatigably recorded Latin inscriptions in and around Rome. It is reported that he was aided in his discoveries by a unique assistant: his horse, named Marco Polo, had the remarkable habit of standing stock-still when he came near an antiquity and in some manner pointing toward the find. Fabretti published inscriptions he had personally collected in his In scription u m a n tiqu aru m qu ae in a e d ib u s p a te r n is a ss erv a n ta e d e sc rip tio (Rome, 1699). His collection of inscriptions and other antiquities became part of the holdings of the Palazzo Ducale, Urbino. Fabretti also produced a publication (a folio edition) on the *Column of Tra­ jan, D e colu m n a T rajan i syn ta g m a (Rome, 1683), which contained as well an early treatment of the *Tabula Iliaca, used to advantage by *Beger. Fabretti had a running quarrel with Jacob Gronovius (*Gronovius family) over the interpre­ tation of Livy, and he corresponded with *Spon, *Mabillon and other learned antiquarians of his time. BIBLIOGRAPHY S.v. “ Fabretti, Raphael,” NBG 16 (1858), cols. 942-43; Stark, 116, 142, 143, 258, 280; Sandys, II, 280.

FACELLUS. See FAZELLO.

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FAESULAE. See FIESOLE. FA LERII VETERES (CIVITA CASTELLANA; FALERIA). Faliscan/ Etruscan city. Falerii Veteres, 54km north of Rome, on a narrow ridge between the Filetto and the Maggiore rivers, considered itself Etruscan, though its inhabitants spoke and wrote an Italic language not unlike Latin. Its tombs line the cliffs below the city and along the rivers; the oldest are cremation burials of the seventh century, and the latest are chamber tombs of the third century. In 241 B.C. Rome conquered the Faliscans; the city was abandoned, but its temples were still vis­ ited. Investigations were made at Civita Castellana in the late seventeenth century by *Buonarroti. In the late nineteenth century four temple complexes were dis­ covered, the first, at Celle north of Falerii on the Maggiore, in 1886. Pasqui identified this, probably correctly, with Ovid’s temple of Juno Curritis (Amoves 3.13). Votive material dates from the Bronze Age; temple terracottas from the fifth to the second centuries. Cozza uncovered a second temple in 1887 at Lo Scasato within the city. Its beautiful terracottas may be as late as the second century. Inscriptions from two other temples, one found in 1894 at Sassi Caduti outside the city, and the other in 1896 at Vignale, on the arx, suggest that the first was dedicated to Mercury (mercui), and the second to Apollo (apolonos). The inhabitants of Falerii Veteres were transferred in 241 B.C. to a site 4.8km west of the old, on the left bank of the Rio Purgatorio. Falerii Novi (Santa Maria di Falleri) is in open country, quite unlike the earlier city, but it is defended by a magnificent towered wall (a novelty in Italy in the third century) with arched gateways. The city must have been more Roman than Etruscan in style; there are the remains of a theater, apparently Augustan, inside the walls, and the system of fortification is like, but more elaborate than, that of the Latin colony of *Cosa, founded in 273 B.C. BIBLIOGRAPHY G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries o f Etruria, 2nd ed. (London, 1878), I, 87-114; L. R. Taylor, Local Cults in Etruria, Papers and Monographs o f the American Academy in Rome (Rome, 1923), 60-96; L. Banti, II Mondo degli etruschi (Rome, 1960), 50-53; G. Colonna, ed., Santuari d'Etruria (Milan, 1985) 85-8, 110-13. EMELINE HILL RICHARDSON

FARNESE, ALESSANDRO I. See PAUL III. FARNESE BULL (PUNISHMENT OF DIRCE). Colossal, freestanding group (height 3.70m) showing a rocky landscape with a bull and a number of figures. The group has been massively restored as a scene of the Punishment o f Dirce, as she is being tied to a bull, an act performed by Zethus and Amphion. Pliny (NH 36.33-34) mentions such a group created by Apollonius and Tauriskos, adopted Rhodians of the first century B.C., which could be seen in Rome in his

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The Famese Bull, small bronze copy by A. Susini, Rome, Galleria Borghese, ca. 1625. (Deutsches Archaologisches Institut, Rome. Inst. Neg. 80.2869.)

day. T he Farnese B ull m ay be a cop y o f this work, created in the early third century a .c . for the *B aths o f Caracalla. The w ork w as d iscovered in the course o f excavation s for P ope *Paul III (see also *Farnese fam ily ) in the Baths o f C aracalla in 1545. It m ay have been d iscovered at the sam e tim e as the *Farnese H ercu les. T he restoration, m ade w ith ad vice from * M ich elan gelo, w as evid en tly a slo w process. W hen *A ldrovandi saw the w ork in 1550 in the Palazzo Farnese (secon d courtyard), it had only the bull and on e o f the m ale figures (w hich A ldrovandi identified as H er­ cu les). B y 1585 the restoration w as com p lete, as m ay be seen in the engraving o f the group published that year by G. B. d e ’ *C avalieri. B y this tim e the subject had been identified as the P u n ish m en t o f D irce. The influence o f the group w as great. It has been recogn ized in the R a p e o f E u ropa (1 5 5 9 -1 6 6 2 ) by *Titian and the R a p e o f the D a u g h ters o f L eu cip p u s (ca. 1618) by P. P. *R ubens. T he painter F ederico Zuccaro described the Farnese B ull as a ‘ ‘m arvellous m ountain o f m arble’ ’ and ranked it as the greatest ancient sculpture surviving, along w ith the *L aocoon. T his opinion is astonishing in the light o f the near obscurity o f the work today, but, in fact, until the nineteenth

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century, many who saw it had a similar evaluation. Louis XIV was among those who admired the Bull; he tried, unsuccessfully, to buy it in 1665. In the eighteenth century, *Ficoroni deduced that the Farnese Bull was a Roman copy, an astute observation for the time, but *Winckelmann denied this, declaring, instead, that it was Greek, of the period after Alexander the Great. There was much debate over the degree of restoration of the sculpture, with a corresponding vacillation in critical reaction. Eventually, by the ninteenth cen­ tury, the Farnese Bull had suffered a serious devaluation. Recently F. Heger has voiced the remarkable opinion that the Farnese sculpture is the very work men­ tioned by Pliny. The statue was moved to Naples in 1786 and stands today in the *Museo Nazionale in Naples, facing the Farnese Hercules. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bieber, 134; Haskell— Penny, 165-67; M. Marvin, “ Freestanding Sculptures from the Baths of Caracalla,” AJA 87 (1983), 367-68; LIMC III, 635-36, 641-44 (F. Heger); + // Toro Farnese: la “montagna di m arm o” tra Roma e Napoli (Naples, 1991).

FARNESE CAPTIVES (THE KING OF ARMENIA AND THE KING OF PARTHIA; DACIAN PRISONERS). Two over-lifesize Roman marble figures, believed to have adorned originally the Forum of Trajan ( a .d . 107-16; cf. *Imperial Fora); they are dressed as barbarians, with long tunic, trousers and cloak, bearded countenances and soft peaked cap, and assuming poses of sub­ mission. The statues originally belonged to the *Colonna family, whose house they adorned as architectural supporting figures, probably through the inspiration of a passage in Vitruvius (De archit. 1.1.6) telling how statues of captive Persians had been used by the Spartans to support an entablature in place of columns. The statues were later seized from the Colonna family by Pope *Paul III (*Farnese family) and eventually installed (by 1594) at the top of the main staircase of the Palazzo Farnese. In 1790 the two statues were transferred to Naples and are today in the *Museo Nazionale. A number of other specimens of similar captives were known during the Renaissance, including the eight on the attic of the *Arch of Constantine. (These were, unfortunately, “ decapitated” in the six­ teenth century; new heads were attached in the eighteenth century.) Flaminio *Vacca first suggested that the statues had come from Trajan’s Fo­ rum, and later scholars identified them as Dacians. (Some called them the King of Parthia and the King of Armenia.) There is extensive evidence now to confirm this hypothesis. M. Waelkens reviewed the known specimens of Dacian captives (some of which were clearly recorded as excavated in the Forum of Trajan) and cataloged forty-five of them, made of varying stones and in varying sizes. Two main poses of captives have been recognized, with hands crossed below the waist and with arms across the chest; the Farnese captives represent these two known types. Waelkens hypothesizes that the Dacians were part of the facades

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facing onto the forum but probably did not actually support any architectural elements. BIBLIOGRAPHY Haskell— Penny, 169-72; M. Waelkens, “ From a Phrygian Quarry: The Provenance o f the Dacian Prisoners in Trajan’s Forum at Rome,” AJA 89 (1985), 641-53; Bober— Rubinstein, 197-98.

FARNESE CUP (TAZZA FARNESE). Large, honey-brown Indian sardonyx (diameter 20cm) belonging to the Hellenistic period (second or first century B.C.), carved in the shape of a cup. The exterior has a representation of the head of Medusa, while the interior is carved with a fertility theme that seems to have originated in Ptolemaic Egypt. The identity of the principal figures, a mythological triad, is hotly disputed. The cup first appears in recorded history in the early part of the fifteenth century, when it was seen at Herat or Samarkand and drawn by the artist Mo­ hammed al-Khayyam. Soon afterward the stone went to Italy; it has been spec­ ulated that it was taken as a tribute piece by the Byzantine emperor John VIII Palaiologos to the Ecumenical Council at Ferrara in 1438 or that it was brought in after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. It has been suggested that it passed into the collection of Pope *Paul II, and then Lorenzo de’ Medici (*Medici family) acquired it from *Sixtus IV; the stone was assessed as worth the grand sum of 10,000 florins. The cup passed in 1538 to the *Farnese family, from whom it takes its name, and then in the eighteenth century it went, along with the other family treasures, to Naples and eventually into the *Museo Nazionale di Napoli. The Tazza Farnese suffered from a sad and shocking assault in 1925, when a guard at the Museo Nazionale, in a fit of madness, used an umbrella to strike the case in which it was displayed, breaking it into a number of pieces. The cup has been restored twice (1925 and 1951) and has, on the whole, its original appearance. At some unknown date, a hole was bored crudely in the center of the cup. Scipione *Maffei was the first to publish the Farnese Cup, but modern study of the iconography begins with E. Q. *Visconti, who saw the three principal figures as the Nile, Isis and Horus. Others have substituted Graeco-Roman de­ ities (e.g., Hades, or Dionysos, and Demeter and Triptolemos) and argued, in addition, that the figures are allegorical portraits of Ptolemaic rulers. The Isis figure, for example, has been identified as Cleopatra I, II, III or VII; the Trip­ tolemos as Ptolemy VI or X and so on. Recently, E. J. Dwyer, developing an idea of R. Merkelbach, has argued that the scene is a Ptolemaic work of the earlier part of the first century B.C., showing an archetypal depiction of creation, including representations of constellations and planets. J. Pollini dates the cup to the reign of Augustus (31 b .c . - a .d . 14) and sees the scene as a representation of Saturnus and Gallus with allusions to Augustus’s victory at Actium and the inauguration of a Golden Age.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY H. Blanck, “ Eine persische Pinselzeichnung nach der Tazza Farnese,” AA 79 (1964), 307-12; D. B. Thompson, “ The Tazza Farnese Reconsidered,” Das Ptolemaische Agypten, ed. H. Maehler— V. M. Strocka (Mainz, 1977), 113-22; +U . Pannuti et al., II Tesoro di Lorenzo il Magnifico, Repertorio delle gemme e dei vasi (Florence, 1980), I, 69-72; +E. J. Dwyer, “ The Temporal Allegory o f the Tazza Farnese,” AJA 96 (1992), 2 5 5 82; J. Pollini, “ The Tazza Farnese: Augusto Imperatore “Redeunt Saturnia Regna!” AJA 96 (1992), 283-300. BABETTE E. ARTHUR

FARNESE FAMILY. Italian family, long established in Lazio, which rose rap­ idly to the ranks of the great European families, becoming rulers of the duchy of Parma and Piacenza under the Farnese pope, *Paul III (ALESSANDRO FAR­ NESE). The family amassed a veritable museum of classical antiquities that was with­ out equal among the private collections of Rome during the sixteenth century. Most of the contents were housed in Palazzo Farnese, but antiquities belonging to the family were also to be seen in the Farnesina, in the Orti Farnesiani on the Palatine and in the Villa Madama. The fine collection begun by Paul III was considerably enlarged by his grand­ son, Cardinal ALESSANDRO FARNESE (1520-89). A most important patron of contemporary art, Alessandro avidly acquired classical works, too. He ac­ tively promoted excavations in Rome in the *Forum Romanum and in the *Baths of Caracalla, where the *Farnese Bull and the *Farnese Hercules were found, and at *Hadrian’s Villa in Tivoli, of which he was made governor in 1535. After Paul’s death, throughout the reigns of *Julius III (1550-55) and Pius IV (1555-59), Alessandro was frequently absent from Rome for political reasons, and his collecting was therefore temporarily halted, but once he had returned permanently to Rome, he resumed the purchase of classical sculpture, coins and gems on a grand scale. In 1562, for example, he paid Paolo del Bufalo (*Bufalo family) 1,575 scudi for ten antique pieces, including the Atlas now at Naples. The cardinal’s influence enabled him to obtain important, newly dis­ covered works: thus, when, sometime before 1568, a large group of portrait busts of Roman emperors was unearthed, he acquired many of them to display in the Gallery of the Palazzo Farnese; on another occasion, when a great number of statues of ancient philosophers and emperors were excavated, Alessandro apparently selected the best for his collection. Alessandro and his brother, Cardinal RANUCCIO (1530-65), assembled around them an important circle of antiquarians and were generous in supporting their studies. The group included the eccentric Pirro *Ligorio, Onofrio *Panvinio, who published the Consular and Triumphal Fasti, the fragments of which Alessandro had rescued from the Forum, Annibal *Caro, a particular authority on ancient coins, and Fulvio *Orsini. The latter spent almost his entire life in Farnese service and acquired many classical antiquities for his patrons. These

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Marble bust o f Homer, in the Farnese collec­ tion; engraving from J. Gronovius, Thesaurus antiquitatum graeco­ rum, 2 (1694—1703). (The Warburg Institute, University of London.)

he arranged in a studio next to the library of the Palazzo Farnese, since Ales­ sandro wished to make the collection available to scholars. The family’s collections had been substantially augmented in 1538, when another of Paul IH’s grandsons, OTTAVIO (1525-86), later Duke of Parma, married Margaret of Austria. She was the widow of Alessandro de’ Medici. Included in her dowry were a number of important *Medici family antiquities, among them the Naples copies of the Pergamene group that comprises a Dying Warrior, a Persian, an Amazon and a Giant, as well as the Dionysos and Eros, now also at Naples. In addition she brought many classical gems and cameos, including the celebrated Tazza Farnese (*Farnese Cup). Ottavio Farnese himself collected antique sculpture: in 1546 he purchased from the *Sassi family col-

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lection a bust of Pompey, a Roma Triumphans, a Hermaphrodite and several other works. The Farnese “ Museum” received its last major addition in 1600, when Fulvio Orsini left his collection to his current patron, Cardinal ODOARDO FARNESE (1573-1626), Alessandro’s nephew. Besides contemporary paintings and draw­ ings, this comprised many classical coins, engraved gems, inscriptions, portrait busts and herms with portraits. The majority of these antiquities remained in Rome throughout the seven­ teenth and eighteenth centuries, although the Farnese, who came increasingly to live in Parma and rarely to use the palace in Rome, removed the pictures in 1649. The ducal line eventually died out with ANTONIO FARNESE in 1731. The entire Farnese property then passed to Don Carlos of Bourbon (*Bourbon family), who was the son of Philip V of Spain and ELISABETTA FARNESE (1692-1766), Antonio’s niece, and who later became king of Naples. His son Ferdinand started to move the Farnese sculptures from Rome around 1786-87. Cardinal Alessandro’s will of 1589 had decreed that the antiquities should re­ main intact in Palazzo Farnese in perpetuity, and there was, in any case, con­ siderable opposition to the export of such a large portion of Rome’s heritage, but eventually *Pius VI was persuaded to license the removal. The painter Philip Hackert and Domenico Venuti were put in charge of the transfer, and the statues were extensively restored by Carlo *Albacini before being shipped to Naples. There they were at first divided mainly between the royal villas at Capodimonte and Caserta, but in 1816 Ferdinand decided to establish the Museo Borbonico, now the *Museo Nazionale, Naples, where the Farnese collection was given its final home, together with the antiquities excavated from *Pompeii and H e r ­ culaneum. BIBLIOGRAPHY R. Lanciani, Storia degli scavi, 2 (1903), 149 ff.; F. de Navenne, Rome, le Palais Farnese et les Farnese (Paris, 1914), 431-86; A. de Franciscis, “ Per la storia del Museo Na­ zionale di Napoli,” Archivio storico p e r le provincie napoletane n.s. 30 (1944-46), 169— 200; + A . de Franciscis, II Museo Nazionale di Napoli (Naples, 1963), 32-40; +R . Ajello— F. Haskell— C. Gaspari, Classicismo d ’eta romana; la Collezione Farnese (Naples, 1988). CLARE ROBERTSON

FARNESE FLORA. Colossal marble sculpture (3.42m) considered a classiciz­ ing creation of Roman art, or a Roman copy of a Greek sculpture, perhaps of Aphrodite, created during the fourth century B.C. The standing female figure is dressed in a form-revealing, clinging chiton with a belt at the hips added by the copyist. The figure shows major restorations, including the head and the proper left hand. The sculpture was not discovered in the Baths of Caracalla, as is sometimes stated, but became a part of the *Farnese family collections before excavations were undertaken there for *Paul III in 1545-46. It was drawn by van *Heems-

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kerck between 1532 and 1536 and was noted by *Aldrovandi in 1550 in the Palazzo Farnese, still in an unrestored condition. It was displayed along with another female statue identified as a F lora , which perhaps inspired the restora­ tion of this work as F lora. The work as restored was engraved by *Cavalieri in 1561 (who labeled it, however, as Spes, or H ope). Philip *Rubens included it in his E lectoru m lib ri II (1608), along with an engraved illustration by his brother, Peter Paul (*Rubens). The latter imitated the pose and clinging garment in an allegorical figure in his painting of the C aptu re o f Jiilich in the Maria de’ Medici series (1620s). In the eighteenth century the restoration of the statue as F lora was criticized, and other identifications were suggested: a M u se or a H o ra (*Winckelmann), H ope (E. Q. *Visconti). In 1787 the sculpture was removed from the Palazzo Farnese and sent for new restoration to the studio of C. *Albacini, where the identity as F lo ra , however, was reaffirmed. The sculpture was then sent to Na­ ples and may be seen today in the *Museo Nazionale. Among the replicas of the Farnese F lo ra may be noted a fine small bronze of the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries (Florence, private collection), which omits the attributes of Flora, and a number of marble copies of lifesize scale created in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (e.g., one by M. Rysbrack for the Pantheon at Stourhead). BIBLIOGRAPHY +M . Bieber, Ancient Copies, Contributions to the History o f Greek and Roman A rt (New York, 1977), 47; Sheard, no. 24; Haskell— Penny, 217-19; M. Marvin, “ Freestanding Sculptures from the Baths of Caracalla,” AJA 87 (1983), 376-77.

FARNESE HERCULES (HERAKLES). Colossal marble statue (3.17m high) of Hercules, resting after the Labor of the Golden Apples. The sculpture, signed on the rocky base by Glykon of Athens, is a work of the late second or early third centuries A.c. that probably reflects an original created by Lysippos in the fourth century B.C. The piece once stood in the central hall of the *Baths of Caracalla, between a column and a wall, with only its front and back clearly visible. It was recorded as standing in that spot in 1545 by Antonio Sangallo the Younger, during the course of excavations ordered by Pope *Paul III (see *Farnese family); the director of the work was possibly Mario Maccarone. After the discovery, the H ercu les was restored by Guglielmo della Porta, who was rec­ ommended for the job by *Michelangelo. He supplied a left hand and two legs for the figure, as well as many patches where there were minor damages. Fifteen years later, the original legs of the H ercu les were found in a well three miles from the original site, but they were not to replace the della Porta legs until the end of the eighteenth century. The sculpture was installed in the first courtyard of the Palazzo Farnese, where it was seen by *Aldrovandi in 1550. It was much admired and considered one

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of the greatest of all sculptures surviving from antiquity. Among the artists influenced by it were Perino del Vaga, Annibale *Carracci, who imitated it in the decorations for the Farnese Gallery, and P. P. *Rubens. Hendrick *Goltzius made a beautiful engraving of the back view of the statue (published 1617), bringing out the impressive size of the Hercules by showing a view with only the heads of two small spectators looking up at the statue. In 1787, the Hercules was removed from the Palazzo Farnese and restored again, then taken to Naples along with the other Farnese treasures. *Napoleon coveted the piece but failed to secure it; it remained in Naples and may be seen today in the *Museo Nazionale. Many replicas were made through the centuries, including small Renaissance bronzes, full-scale copies in stone and a remarkable copper copy over 9m high, by the Augsburg goldsmith J. J. Anthoni (between 1713 and 1717). An aston­ ishing and powerful modern version of the Farnese Hercules was created out of soldered Volkswagen bumpers by Jason Seley of Cornell University (now in the Cornell University Museum). BIBLIOGRAPHY J. R. Martin, The Farnese Gallery (Princeton, NJ, 1965); S. Boorsch in Sheard, no. 100; Haskell— Penny, 229-32; M. Marvin, “ Freestanding Sculptures from the Baths o f Car­ acalla,” AJA 87 (1983), 347-84; Ridgway, Roman Copies, 82; D. Krull, D er Herakles vom Typ Farnese, Kopienkritische Untersuchung eines Schopjung des Lysipp (Frankfurt, 1985).

FARNESE VENUS (CALLIPYGIAN VENUS; APHRODITE KALLIPY­ GOS). Lifesize marble statue (1.52m) of a female found in the *Domus Aurea in Rome, part of the *Farnese family collection by 1594. The statue has been identified as the type of the Hellenistic Aphrodite Kallipygos whose temple stood in *Syracuse. According to Athenaios (12.554c-d), the statue was the dedication of two daughters who had a contest to determine which had a more shapely derriere. The contest resulted in marriage for both and led to their making this offering to Aphrodite. The sculpture depicts a female wearing a chiton tied under her breasts and slipping off her right shoulder so that her right breast is revealed. With her left hand she lifts the back of the garment above her shoulder, baring her buttocks and legs as she looks backward at the result. The gesture, that of a dancer, would be appropriate for the beauty contests that were part of the cult. The Farnese Venus was restored by C. *Albacini before 1792, at which time it was moved to Naples with the rest of the Farnese collection (today in the *Museo Nazionale, Naples). Copies of the statue in various media exist from antiquity, and the type became immensely popular in the seventeenth and eigh­ teenth centuries, when it was widely copied, particularly in bronze. The story of Athenaios was often cited with approbation, although some critics registered moral disapproval.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Giuliano, “ L’Afrodite Callipyge di Siracusa,” ArchCl 5 (1953), 210-4; G. Saflund, Aphrodite Kallipygos (Stockholm, 1963); Haskell— Penny, 316-18; LIMC, II, 85-86. MARY ELLEN SOLES

FASCISM, ARCHAEOLOGY UNDER. Fascism and the Fascist Party were the opportunistic invention of Benito Mussolini after he left the Socialist Party over the issue of Italian intervention in World War I. Fascism, named for the fasces, the ancient Roman bundle of rods that sym­ bolized political power, achieved its classic formulation in Mussolini’s contri­ bution to the article, “ Fascismo: dottrina,” in the Enciclopedia Italiana 14 (1932), 847-51. The product of an inspired journalist, Fascism offered the state, informed by the Fascist Party, as a substitute for family and church, holding out meaning and community to the individual. It appealed to artists, such as Mari­ netti and Pound, but it also had a use for scholarship. As founder of the Second Roman Empire, Mussolini sponsored many signif­ icant archaeological excavations and other research, especially during the 1930s. Roman pleasure barges from the time of Caligula, known since the Renaissance, were rescued through a spectacular engineering feat from Lake *Nemi and re­ stored. (Vengeful soldiers burned them while retreating in 1944.) The *Forum Romanum was regularized and excavated down to a consistent Late Republican level. From 1938 to 1942 most of *Ostia was laid bare in an impressive, if hurried, series of campaigns. The imperial cities of *Sabratha and *Leptis Magna in Libya were excavated and, in part, restored. The building of a major thoroughfare from the *Colosseum to the Piazza Venezia in 1932 permitted excavation and investigation of the im perial Fora. In the path of the Via dellTmpero (today, Via dei Fori Imperiali) lay the Flavian Forum of Peace. (Unfortunately, the official schedule gave scholars all too short a time to conduct their research before it was covered over.) A tour de force of archaeology and engineering was the recovery and resto­ ration of the *Ara Pacis Augustae, which lay buried beneath the Palazzo Fiano off Rome’s busy Via del Corso. The whole was reconstructed near the *Mausoleum of Augustus on the Tiber, with the text of the Res Gestae of Augustus (*Monumentum Ancyranum) as a final touch. The unity of ideology and ar­ chaeology made a statement about both ancient and modern Rome. The positive side of the Fascist devotion to Italy’s imperial past lay in the large amounts of money and attention given to scholarship, especially archae­ ology. But this attention was aimed at propaganda, and from this flowed the negative side. Haste and publicity were often more important than scholarly precision. It has been lamented that Ostia was uncovered too rapidly and that the Forum of Peace was covered over with too little time for proper study. The reconstructed theater at Sabratha is more suited to tourist admiration than schol­ arly research.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY R. de Felice, Mussolini il fascista: V Organizzazione dello stato fascista (Turin, 1968); Idem, Mussolini il duce: Gli Anni di Consenso (Turin, 1974); M. Cagnetta, Antichisti e impero fascista (Bari, 1979); R. T. Ridley, “Augusti manes volitant p e r auras: The Archaeology o f Rome under the Fascists,” Xenia 11 (1986), 19-46. E. C. KOPFF

FAUN W ITH KID (QUEEN OF SWEDEN’S FAUN). Under lifesize (1.36m) marble statue of a youthful faun or Satyr, looking up at a goat he carries on his shoulders; Roman copy of a Greek bronze original, perhaps of the early third century B.C. The statue is heavily restored, including both arms and one foot. It was dis­ covered in Rome ca. 1674 near the Chiesa Nuova and was soon afterward re­ stored by Ercole Ferrata. Acquired by Queen *Christina of Sweden, it went the route of many of her other antiquities after her death— to Cardinal Azzolini, then to the *Odescalchi family and finally, in 1724, to Philip V of Spain. It remains in the *Prado today. The statue, almost totally ignored in modern scholarship, was amazingly pop­ ular in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It was copied for Versailles and for Peter the Great, for the *French Academy in Rome and for the Royal Academy in London, as well as for many less influential displays. Besides mar­ ble, bronze and plaster, it was copied in lead (full-scale, at Chatsworth), in gilded bronze and in biscuit de Sevres. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Blanco, Museo del Prado: Catalogo de la Scultura 1 Esculturas clasicas (Madrid, 1957), 33; Christina, Queen o f Sweden: A Personality o f European Civilization (Stock­ holm, 1966), 433-34, 438; Haskell— Penny, 211-12.

FAUVEL, LOUIS-FRANgOIS-SEBASTIEN (1753-1838). French artist, scholar, excavator, collector and diplomat. Trained as an artist, Fauvel traveled from Paris to Greece in 1780, hired by Comte de *Choiseul-Gouffier to gather illustrative material for the second vol­ ume of Voyage pittoresque de la Grece. In 1784 he was rehired by the count as one of the ambassador’s retinue in Constantinople. For eight years he jour­ neyed throughout Greece taking casts and acquiring antiquities, and, among other ventures, he discovered *Bassai and excavated at *Marathon and on the *Akropolis at Athens. He made two trips to Egypt (1789 and 1792), giving special attention to the antiquities of *Alexandria. In 1792 Choiseul-Gouffier lost his post, and Fauvel lost his patron. Settling in Athens, Fauvel found support by lending money and selling antiquities. He also engaged in research, partic­ ularly of Athens and its environs. *Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt, however, led to his house arrest (1799) and return to France (1801). In 1803 Fauvel returned to Athens as vice-consul and devoted himself to the study of antiquities, with frequent excavations of tombs, keeping savants in­

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formed of major discoveries through his writings. Shortly after the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence, Fauvel proceeded to *Smyrna, where, largely forgotten, he died in poverty on 12 March, 1838. Today he is remembered as the urbane host and cicerone in whose steps *Byron and other travelers to Ath­ ens followed. BIBLIOGRAPHY P. E. Legrand, “ Biographie de Louis-Fransois-Sebastien Fauvel,” RA 30 (1897), 41-66, 185-201, 385-404, and 31 (1897), 94-103, 185-223; DBF fasc. 76 (1973), cols. 8 0 5 6; H. Tregaskis, Beyond the Grand Tour (London, 1979), 12-20; L. Beschi, “ L. S. Fauvel ed Alessandria,” Alessandria e il mondo ellenistico-romano, studi in onore di Achille Adriani, ed. N. Bonacasa— A. Di Vita, 4 (Rome, 1983), 3-12. C.W.J. ELIOT

FA YUM PORTRAITS. Paintings of the face, bust or full-length body, buried with the mummified dead in cemeteries located mainly in the Fayum oasis region of Roman Egypt. Usually, Fayum portraits are painted on wood panels and show a facial or bust-length image. Prior to burial, the panel was wrapped into the mummy with the portrait left exposed to view. Less frequently, the paintings were executed on cloth, sometimes on large shrouds showing the deceased at full length and wrapped around the mummy. Whether on wood or cloth, at first the portraits were painted in the wax-based encaustic medium; later, they were done mainly in egg-based tempera. They seem to have been produced from the first half of the first century into the mid-fourth century a .c . Beyond technical aspects of these paintings evident from visual inspection, details of their production remain mysterious, for we have not a single artist’s signature nor an excavated work­ shop nor any reference to this art form in the writings of ancient Roman authors. Although many of the paintings show a high level of technical excellence, es­ pecially the early examples in encaustic, the majority of them are more properly considered the products of craftsmen than great artists. The portraits as a whole, more than 800 of which survive in museums and private collections the world over, constitute a precious survival of an art form that is otherwise virtually lost: ancient panel painting. Less than two dozen Fayum portraits are known to have been recovered prior to 1887, the earliest of these being painted shrouds covering two mummies acquired at Sakkara in 1615 by Pietro della Valle and now in Dresden. In 1887, however, a large number of portraits began to be acquired at the Er-Rubayat necropolis in the Fayum oasis by agents of Theodor Graf, a Viennese antiquities dealer. Numbering in the hundreds, these subsequently were sold, either by Graf himself during his lifetime or by his heirs, at auction, after his death. More portraits, numbering 146 in all, were recovered by Sir W. M. Flinders Petrie in excavations at the Hawara necropolis, also in the Fayum region, during 1888 and 1911. The largest group of mummy paintings found outside the Fayum oasis was excavated between 1896 and 1911 at Antinoopolis, in Middle Egypt, by Albert Gayet.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY K. Parlasca, Mumienportrats und verwandte Denkmaler (Wiesbaden, 1966); A. F. Shore, Portrait Painting from Roman Egypt, rev. ed. (London, 1972); D. L. Thompson, Mummy Portraits in the J. Paul Getty Museum (Malibu, 1982). DAVID L. THOMPSON

FAZELLO (FAZELLI; FACELLUS), TOMMASO (1498-1570). Historian from *Sicily. Fazello, born at Sciacca in Sicily, studied at Palermo and entered the Domin­ ican order. He next studied at Rome and at Padua, where he received his doc­ torate. At Rome, he became friends with the humanist scholar Paolo Giovio, who encouraged him to write a history of Sicily. Returning to Palermo, Fazello undertook to teach philosophy and at the same time kept up his religious exercises. He so devoted himself to his studies that eventually he gave up all but one meal a day and reduced the number of hours he slept each night. His history of Sicily, De rebus siculis decades duae (Pa­ lermo, 1558), which was his only publication, included material on the ancient history and antiquities of Sicily, showing an immense personal knowledge of topography that allowed him to identify, on the basis of ancient authors, many of the major sites of Sicily. His work is still considered fundamental for the study of ancient Sicily. BIBLIOGRAPHY Weiss, “ Fazelli, Thomas,” BU 14 (1815), 239-41; B. Pace, Studi e ricerche archeologiche di Sicilia, RendAcLinc, cl. sc. morali 25 (1917); E. Librino— B. Pace, “ Fazello, Tommaso,” E l 14 (1932), 919.

FEA, CARLO (1753-1836). Italian archaeologist. Fea was a law graduate of the University of Rome who attained fame and turned to antiquities with his edition of *Winckelmannn’s Storia delle Arti ( 1 7 8 3 -8 4 ), which contained his own “ Dissertation on the Ruins of Rome.” He edited two volumes of invaluable archival documents, Miscellanea filologica (1 7 9 0 , 1836) and began his excavating career at Ardea (1 7 9 1 ). In the upheavals of the time of *Napoleon, he was exiled and imprisoned a number of times but was finally triumphantly vindicated by his appointment as commissioner of an­ tiquities (*Commissario delle Antichita) in 1800, which post he held until his death; he was the longest incumbent. In 1801 he was appointed president of the *Capitoline Museum (until 1 809) and prefect of the Chigiana Library. As commissioner he had to authorize all excavations and art exports. He was responsible for the antiquities regulations of 1802 and stimulated the new wave of archaeological clearings in Rome (*Arch of Constantine, *Arch of Septimius Severus and the *Colosseum), carrying out his own investigations of the *Pantheon with *Valadier (1 8 0 4 ). During the French occupation (1 8 0 9 -1 4 ) he worked with Valadier on the *Domus Aurea and the *Temple of Vesta. He suggested that this temple belonged to Hercules.

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Portrait of Carlo Fea, Rome, Deutsches Archaologisches Institut (German Archaeological Institute). (Deutsches Archaologisches Insti­ tut, Rome. Inst. Neg. 76.1820.)

The uncovering of the *Colosseum arena in 1812 provoked him to many bitter debates. With the Due de *Blacas, he cleared and identified the *Temple of Castor (1816) and, with the Count of Funchal, discovered the Clivus Capitolinus and the Temple of Concord (1817). He published a guide to Rome (Nuova descrizione d e’ monumenti antichi, 1819) and was a major drafter of the Pacca edict on antiquities (1820), as well as the leading expert on the history and law of aqueducts. Fea was the only Italian among the founding members of the *Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica (1829). He was the dominant figure in Roman archaeology for nearly forty years and an indefatigable protector of the monu­ ments.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Notizie della vita e delle opere degli scrittori romani (Rome, 1880), I, 115-24, (with bibl.); E. Re, “ Brumaio dell’abate Fea,” Nuova antologia (16 September 1928), 2 1 6 31; G. d’Angelis d’Ossat, “ Carlo Fea e lo studio di monumenti romani,” Bolletino della Deputazione di Storia Patria p er la Liguria 2 (1936), 315-28; R. Ridley, “ Carlo Fea,” DBI (forthcoming). R. T. RIDLEY

FELICIANO, FELICE (1433-79). Italian Renaissance scribe, antiquary (selfstyled Felix antiquarius), amateur humanist, poet, printer, alchemist; notorious in his day as a down-at-the-heels eccentric. Feliciano was born in Verona and died probably in or near Rome. He mod­ estly collected antique coins and drawings by his artist friends and is famous for an amusing trip round Lake Garda in 1464 to inspect antique inscriptions in company with *Mantegna, Samuele da Tradate and Giovanni *Marcanova, a rich doctor, bibliophile, antiquarian writer and epigraphist. For Marcanova in Bologna, in 1465, he transcribed classical, medieval and humanistic texts and almost single-handedly executed the most gorgeously written, illuminated and illustrated fifteenth-century corpus of classical inscriptions that exists (Modena, Bibl. Estense a.L.5.15). He composed (1459 or 1460) a pattern-book of the Latin alphabet based on Pythagorean geometric principles and Roman lapidary models (Vat. Lat. 6852; ed. Mardersteig, 1960). Since before 1457 he was a passionate disciple of *Ciriaco of Ancona, the much-traveled father of scientific classical epigraphy, and probably met Mar­ canova ca. 1457-60 when the latter was getting his first Ciriacesque epigraphic sylloge transcribed (Bern, Stadtbibl, B.42). Feliciano is cardinally important in archaeology because so many of Ciriaco’s fugitive papers, which he copiously copied, passed through his hands. When antique epigraphs and Ciriaco’s records of them are lost, Feliciano is sometimes the earliest, occasionally the sole, wit­ ness to their original wording. But though he journeyed about Italy— never in Greek lands— his independent finds were relatively few: his essential epigraph­ ical work was done in his scriptorium. The fullest (Verona, Bibl. Capit. 269: a copy) of his five identified epigraphic manuscripts is dedicated to Mantegna and dated 1463; depending on Ciriaco, it combines predominantly Italian inscriptions with others from elsewhere in the Mediterranean world. Concerning his fidelity, his characteristic style (e.g., Modena, cod. cit.) was fancifully to enliven monuments and to enframe prominent inscriptions in brightly colored sham-antique settings of his own devising with scant regard to line divisions and so on. Occasionally, however (e.g., Faenza, Bibl.Com.7: his autograph copy of Ciriaco’s typically accurate lost record, rich in Veronensia, of inscriptions he surveyed in North Italy in 1433), he would faithfully stick to his exemplar in imagery, letter forms and line divisions. Like Ciriaco, he pos­ itively relished occasional, innocently amusing or evocative modern fake-antique inscriptions.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY G. B. de Rossi, Inscriptiones christianae urbis Romae 2 (Rome, 1888), 391-93; L. Pratilli, “ Felice Feliciano alia luce dei suoi codici,” Atti del Reale Istituto Veneto 99 (1939— 40), 33-105; +F. Feliciano, Alphabetum romanum, ed. G. Mardersteig (Verona, 1960); +C . Mitchell, “ Felice Feliciano Antiquarius,” P rocB rA cA l (1961), 197-221, with biog. and checklist o f manuscripts. CHARLES MITCHELL

FELIX GEM. Sard intaglio gem, 2.7cm X 3.5cm, carved in the late first century B.C. or early first century A.c. Greek inscriptions on the gem name the artist, Felix, and the owner (probab­ ly), Calpurnius Severus. The scene depicted is The Theft o f the Palladium by Diomedes and Odysseus. The gem was recorded in 1457 in the collection of Cardinal Pietro Barbo (*Paul II) and in 1483 in that of Cardinal Francesco Gonzaga (*Gonzaga fam­ ily). It was known to *Mantegna, serving as a source of inspiration for motifs in his engraving of the Battle o f the Sea Gods and his paintings of Parnassus and the Triumph o f Caesar. It was subsequently in the *Arundel and Marlbor­ ough collections, among others, and today is in the *Ashmolean Museum, Ox­ ford. BIBLIOGRAPHY Sheard, nos. 7-8; M. Vickers, “ The Felix Gem in Oxford and Mantegna’s Triumphal Programme,” GBA, ser. 6, 101 (1983), 97-102; C. M. Brown, “ Cardinal Francesco Gonzaga’s Collection o f Antique Intaglios and Cameos,” GBA, ser. 6, 101 (1983), 1023.

FELLOWS, CHARLES (1799-1860). English traveler, explorer and archae­ ologist. A Nottingham worthy, Fellows spent much of his life in travel. Arriving at *Smyrna in 1838, he proceeded to Turkey’s southwest corner and was the first European to explore Lycia and to write of the ruins and antiquities of *Xanthos and of neighboring cities such as *Side. These discoveries, extended by further journeys in 1839, provoked such interest in England that in 1841-42 and 1844 he led expeditions that secured for the *British Museum over a hundred cases of architecture and sculpture. Of the several monumental tombs so collected (e.g., the Archaic Lion Tomb and the fourth-century Tomb of Payava), the Nereid Monument (ca. 380 B.C.) is not only the largest but also the richest in the quality, variety and importance of its sculpture. In 1845 Fellows was knighted, rightly so, because his published travels and researchers mark him as a scholar, no less than an explorer, of rare distinction. BIBLIOGRAPHY “ Fellows, Charles,” DNB 6 (repr. 1937-38), 1166-67. C.W.J. ELIOT

FIANO, FRANCESCO DA (ca. 1355-ca. 1425). Roman humanist and curial official.

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Francesco da Fiano held a variety of curial appointments in Rome, including papal s c r ip to r (1379 and 1381), papal co m p u ta to r (1387), Vatican registrar of documents (1389). Sometime between 1399 and 1404 he was appointed cancella riu s of Rome by Pope Boniface IX. With the return of the Curia to Rome from Viterbo in 1406, he came to be regarded as a fount of knowledge on the city of Rome and led most of the early fifteenth-century humanists around the ruins of the classical city. These tours are described by Bartolomeo Bayguera in his poem Itinerarium . So closely did Francesco become associated with the ruins of ancient Rome in the minds of curial officials that it was to him that Cencio Rustici appealed, from the Council of Constance in 1416, for an invec­ tive against those who were destroying the ancient remains. He died in Rome, on or before 1425. BIBLIOGRAPHY F. Novati, La Giovinezza di Coluccio Salutati (Turin, 1888), 91-5; L. Bertalot, “ Cincius Romanus und seine Briefe,” Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken 21 (1929-30), 222-25; H. Baron, The Crisis o f the Early Renaissance 2 (Princeton, NJ, 1955), 401-8. JAMES C. ANDERSON, j r .

FICORONI, FRANCESCO DE’ (1664-1747). Italian collector, dedicated stu­ dent of antiquity and its artifacts. Ficoroni’s main interest was the acquisition of Roman and Etruscan objects— almost exclusively small, personal items. His impressive collection of inscribed mirrors, coins, tesserae, seals and bullae provided the subjects for a series of publications, including L e B o lle d e y o ro (Rome, 1732); D e i ta li e d a ltri stru m en ti lu sori d e g li a n tich i (Rome, 1734); and I P io m b i an tich i (Rome, 1740). In 1736, Ficoroni published L e M a sch ere scen ich e e le fig u re com ich e d e g li a n tich i r o ­ m an i , a lavishly illustrated, selective overview of ancient mask motifs that is still of value today. His interests were not tied solely to the collectible, as is shown by his study of Roman topography, L e V estigia e ra rita d i R om a ric e rc a te e sp ie g a te (1744). It is interesting that in this work he included his birthplace, Lugnano Valmontone, identified as the ancient Labico, near *Praeneste. The much-honored Ficoroni was a member of the Royal Academy in both London and Paris and the Accademia Peloritana of Messina. Furthermore, he served as both founder and general promoter of the society known as the Colonia Esquilina degli Inculti. His name is most frequently mentioned in connection with the exquisite Praenestine cista, which he acquired in 1738 (the *Ficoroni Cista, now in the *Villa Giulia, Rome). Ficoroni refused an Englishman’s gen­ erous bid for the bronze cista and, instead, presented it to the Museum Kircherianum in Rome in order that it might be always studied and admired by connoisseurs of the antique. With it Ficoroni included an inscribed mirror (er­ roneously identified as a patera). At his death on 1 February 1747 in Rome, the massive collection was widely

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dispersed. Major pieces are now in the Villa Giulia and the *Museo Nazionale, Naples. Through his dedication to the collection and publication of ancient ob­ jects categorized by subject (e.g., comic masks) and use (e.g., game pieces), Ficoroni was a pioneer in using the approach of the systematic corpus pursued later by Eduard Gerhard and others. BIBLIOGRAPHY G. Q. Giglioli, “ Francesco de’ Ficoroni,” E l 15 (1932), 225. L. Guerrini, “ Ficoroni, Francesco de’,” EAA 3 (1960), 647-48; T. Dohm, Die Ficoronische Ciste in der Villa Giulia in Rom (Berlin, 1972). JOHN A. ELLIOTT

FICORONI CISTA. Bronze cylindrical toilet box of Praenestine type—the largest and most beautiful example known— dating to the second half of the fourth century B.C. (Late Classical period). The body of the cylinder is engraved with a mythological scene of the Ar­ gonauts visiting the land of the Bebryces, where Polydeukes defeated their king Amykos in boxing and bound him to a tree. Though the myth is Greek, recent scholarship has seen the version here as Italic. The handle features three bronze statuettes (Bacchus and two Satyrs), and the feet of the cista show a bronze relief applique with Herakles, Eros and perhaps Iolaus. An inscription on the lid relates that the cista was made at Rome by a certain Novios Plautios and was given by Dindia Macolnia to her daughter. It was probably placed in the daughter’s grave. The cista was excavated somewhere between *Praeneste and Labico (Lugnano) before 14 May 1738, when it was reported in the collection of Francesco de’ *Ficoroni. Ficoroni later related that along with the vessel he bought a mirror showing Polydeukes and Amykos in the presence of Luna; it is usually assumed that the mirror was found in the cista. By 1745 Ficorini had donated the piece to the Museum Kircherianum (Athanasius *Kircher) so that it might be studied with other antiquities there. In 1913 the Ficoroni Cista was transferred to the *Villa Giulia Museum. It has undergone at least two restorations (unrecorded but later than 1848), involving the attachment of the ancient bronze cylinder to a modern body and floor for the cista; one of the three feet is modern, and the bronze cylinder, with its incised representation, has been cleaned and patched. The Danish archaeologist P. O. *Br0ndsted published a study of the Ficoroni Cista in 1834. Tobias Dohrn has issued the authoritative modern monograph on it. BIBLIOGRAPHY C. J. Contucci, Musei Kircheriani in Romano Societatis Jesu Collegio aerea 1 (Rome, 1863); T. Dohm, Die Ficoronische Ciste in der Villa Giulia in Rom (Berlin, 1972); H. A. Weis, “ The Motif o f the Adligatus and Tree,” AJA 86 (1982), 21-38.

FIESOLE (FAESULAE; VIPSUL?). Etruscan and Roman city of northern Etruria, located on a hilltop with a spectacular view of modern Florence and the valleys of the Arno and Mugnone.

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Only scattered fragments suggest occupation of Fiesole in the Archaic period. In the third century B.C., the town faced the Gallic invasion (225 B.C.; Polybius 2.25) and the passage of Hannibal (217 B.C.; Polybius 3.80.82; Livy 22.3), who devastated the fertile fields of the region. The major part of the town’s wellpreserved fortification wall seems to date from this period. Several monumental stone tombs and an Etruscan temple (in the “ Archaeological Zone” ) belong to this time; the latter provides a rare example of an Etruscan temple with preserved stone cella walls. The city was sacked in 90 B.C. during the Social War and was subsequently resettled by the veterans of Sulla. A large part of the visible re­ mains at Fiesole belongs to the time of Augustus (31 b .c . - a .d . 14), including baths, a theater and a second version of the temple. In a . d . 539 Fiesole was occupied by Belisarius. The presence of a Lombard cemetery overlying the temples likewise testifies to medieval activity. In 1792 remains of the stairway of the Roman temple were discovered but, upon examination by Luigi *Lanzi, were declared of little importance. Baron von Sherlerstein undertook excavation of the theater in 1809; he soon decided to cover the site to prevent looting of building stone. The excavations were finally resumed with government protection in 1870, and finds were stored in an embryonic civic collection, today, the splendid local Museo Archeologico. Excavation of the temples has been irregular, with campaigns in 1899-1900, 1910-12, 1954, 1958 and 1960. The baths were first investigated in 1891. In the twentieth century the buildings of the Archaeological Zone have been care­ fully restored, and the site has been well maintained. The stratigraphy and ce­ ramics of the Hellenistic, Roman and medieval periods have been illuminated recently in excavations in urban Fiesole under G. De Marinis (1986-89). BIBLIOGRAPHY P. Bocci Pacini, s.v. “ Faesulae,” PECS, 322-23; +M . De Marco, Comune di Fiesole, Museo Archeologico, Scavi: Guida (Fiesole, 1981); S. Steingraber, Citta e necropoli dell'Etruria (Rome, 1983), 45-52; Archeologia urbana a Fiesole, lo scavo di Via MariniVia Portigiani (Firenze, 1990).

FIO R ELLI, GIUSEPPE (1823-96). Italian archaeologist. Fiorelli was born at Naples 8 June 1823 and died there 28 January 1896. He began his career with publications on numismatics (1843, 1844, 1848, 1851) and was employed until 1848 in the administration of the excavations of *Pompeii. Imprisoned in 1848 on charges of political conspiracy, he prepared for publication the daybooks of the excavations of Pompeii from their beginning to his own time (P om p eia n a ru m an tiq u ita tu m h isto ria 1 7 4 8 -1 8 6 0 , Naples, 186064). Absolved of the charges against him, he became secretary to the Count of *Syracuse, brother of the king, and conducted excavations in the necropolis of *Cumae, published as N o tizia d e i va si d ip in ti rinvenuti a C um a n el M D C C C L V I (Naples, 1856). About the same time he published M onum enta e p ig ra p h ic a p o m p eia n a : in scription u m o sca ru m a p o g ra p h a (Naples, 1858) and, in collaboration with Carlo Sorgente, a large plan of Pompeii (Naples, 1858-60).

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Fiorelli became professor of archaeology at the University of Naples in 1860 and remained there three years, when he was appointed director (isp e tto re ) of the excavations of Pompeii. In this position, for the next decade he distinguished himself by the introduction of strict scientific method and regular publication of the progress of work (G io rn a le d e g li scavi, 1861-65; G li S ca vi d i P o m p e i d a l 1861 a l 1 8 7 2 , Naples, 1873; and D esc rizio n e d i P o m p e i , Naples, 1875, the last still a basic work). He also founded a school of archaeology in Pompeii that eventually became the Scuola Italiana di Archeologia. Late in 1863 he became director of the *Museo Nazionale in Naples and superintendent of excavations and began reorganization of the collections and publication of catalogs. He also founded the museum of the Certosa di S. Martino. In 1865 he was made a senator of Italy and in 1875 general director of Antichita e Belle Arti; as such he founded the N o tizie d e g li sc a v i d i a n tich ita in 1876. BIBLIOGRAPHY G. Spano, “ Fiorelli, Giuseppe,” E l 15 (1932), 427; G. Fiorelli, Appunti autobiografici (Rome, 1939). L. RICHARDSON, jr

FITZW ILLIAM MUSEUM, Cambridge. English museum with a wideranging collection of works of art and artifacts, owned by the University of Cambridge; the classical antiquities form a significant component. The museum was founded in 1816, when Richard, seventh Viscount Fitzwilliam of Merrion (1745-1816), made a bequest to the University of Cambridge to promote “ the Increase of Learning and other great Objects of that Noble Foundation.” Viscount Fitzwilliam’s collection itself contained no antiquities, and for the first half of the century very few were acquired for the museum. An exception was the important Pashley Sarcophagus (Roman, ca. 140 a . d .), show­ ing the triumphant return of Dionysos from the East, donated by Admiral Sir Pulteney Malcolm in 1835. In 1850, the Fitzwilliam received a major donation of Greek and Roman marbles from John Disney, a collection that had been assembled in Italy between 1748 and 1753 by Thomas Hollis and his friend and heir Thomas Brand Hollis; noteworthy pieces were a young P an and a head of S erapis. In 1864 came another major acquisition in the purchase of the entire collection of Colonel William Martin *Leake for £5,000 (valued at twice the sum), amassed during his extensive travels in Italy and, especially, Greece. Besides a superb collection of Greek coins, there were engraved Greek and Roman gems (including a fine sapphirine chalcedony of a L a d y a n d H e r M a id signed by Dexamenos), Greek vases, terracottas and bronzes. Other antiquities were transferred to the Fitzwil­ liam during this period, such as the cabinet of coins and seals formed by Andrew Perne, master of Peterhouse, and bequeathed to the university in 1589, and the University Collection, given by Edward Daniel *Clarke and J. M. Cripps, of which the most notable piece was the caryatid excavated by Clarke at *Eleusis, believed by him to represent Ceres (i.e., Demeter).

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During the period when a classical archaeologist, Sir Charles *Walston, served as director of the museum (1883-89), it acquired a number of antiquities, including an antefix from the *Parthenon. The Fitzwilliam also received during this period objects discovered during British excavations at *Naukratis and on *Cyprus. Donations of glass and Cypriote antiquities were made by Sir Henry Bulwer (1892), and in the early twentieth century various objects were given by Winifred *Lamb, honorary keeper of Greek and Roman antiquities. In 1926 the Fitzwilliam acquired the marble statuette of a “ Minoan goddess,” now no­ torious as a forgery that deceived Lamb (who paid part of the purchase price), Sir Arthur *Evans and A.J.B. *Wace. The most significant body of Greek and Roman sculpture came to the museum in 1937, as a bequest of C. S. Ricketts and C. H. Shannon. Exceptional pieces were a copy of the torso of the Apollo Sauroktonos of Praxiteles and a colossal head of Antinous from *Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli. Between 1981 and 1983, the Fitzwilliam received an enormous allocation of objects from the collection of Sir Henry Solomon Wellcome (1853-1936), well known for his contributions to medical research but also a pioneer in the ar­ chaeological use of aerial photography. The collection includes a study archive of more than 15,000 impressions of engraved gems made mostly in the eigh­ teenth and nineteenth centuries, as well as ancient and modern original gems. BIBLIOGRAPHY +W . Lamb, CVA Fitzwilliam Museum, fasc. 1-2 (Oxford, 1930-36); +L . Budde— R. Nicholls, A Catalogue o f the Greek and Roman Sculpture in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge (Cambridge, 1964); +D.W .J. Gill, “ The Director, the Dealer, the Goddess and Her Champions: The Acquisition o f the Fitzwilliam Goddess,” AJA 97 (1993), 3 8 3 401; M. Henig, Classical Gems: Ancient and M odem Intaglios and Cameos in the Fitz­ william Museum, Cambridge (Cambridge, 1994).

FIUMI, ENRICO (1908-76). Italian historian and archaeologist, specializing in medieval and Etruscan studies. Born at *Volterra, Fiumi became the outstanding historian of the city and its territory. His training as an economist led him to the study of the social and economic history of Volterra and other Tuscan cities, from modern times to antiquity. He found his material in the archives of these cities, and his publications are pioneers of their kind. His archaeological publications include articles on Volterra’s Etruscan forti­ fications, its cemeteries, excavations, collections and the creation of its venerable museum, the Guarnacci (Mario *Guarnacci). An important article assembles the archaeological evidence for the city’s earliest period, the Iron Age, and its Ar­ chaic continuation. Others describe the Hellenistic tombs and their alabaster urns. Fiumi was director of the Guarnacci Museum and Library for over thirty years and an honorary inspector of antiquities and the fine arts. In 1950 he began to excavate the Roman theater, revealed as one of the finest Imperial building

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complexes in Tuscany. His last book, published posthumously, Volterra etrusca e romana, is at once history, guide and catalog, an outstanding survey of the life of the ancient city. BIBLIOGRAPHY G. Maetzke, “ Commemorazione del Professor Enrico Fiumi,” in Storia e sviluppo del Museo Guarnacci di Volterra (Florence, 1977), 5-10; Studi p e r Enrico Fiumi (Pisa, 1979), 11-15, with bib. EMELINE HILL RICHARDSON

FLAXMAN, JOHN (1755-1826). English sculptor, leading exponent of the neoclassical style. Born in York, Flaxman showed precocious talent as a child in spite of fragile health, in a happy, caring family. He won modeling prizes from the age of twelve and exhibited waxes regularly from 1770 onward at the Royal Academy. Inspired by reading the classics and blessed with a vivid imagination, he was employed at twenty by *Wedgwood and Bentley to sketch portraits and cameos on classical themes. By 1780 Flaxman was engaged in designing memorial sculptures, which became his principal livelihood. Examples of his work are found in Westminster Abbey, St. Paul’s Cathedral and elsewhere throughout England. From 1787 to 1794 Flaxman and his wife resided in Rome, where he contin­ ued research while providing models as well as supervising other local artists for Wedgwood. At the time the theories of *Winckelmann had a profound in­ fluence on the shaping of taste, and Flaxman was among his disciples, drawing great inspiration from the monuments of antiquity, especially Greek vase paint­ ing. He was inspired by literary sources as well, and he produced excellent book illustrations for Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, for Aischylos, Hesiod and Ovid, as well as for Dante. Flaxman was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1797 and member in 1800. Mild mannered, he nonetheless raised hackles on a visit to Paris in 1802, criticizing *Napoleon for publicly flaunting the artistic spoils he had brought back from Italian campaigns. In 1810 Flaxman was named professor of sculpture at the Royal Academy, meanwhile continuing to produce important memorial statuary. The spirit of his works is calm and sedate, approaching the classical ideal of noble perfection, but somewhat lacking in vigor. Flaxman Hall, at University College, London, has a substantial collection of his works along with documentation of his life. BIBLIOGRAPHY S. Colvin, The Drawings o f Flaxman in 32 Plates with Descriptions (London, 1876); Thieme— Becker, “ Flaxman, John,” 12 (1916), 79-83; S. Stephen— S. Lee, “ Flaxman, John,” DNB 1 (1973), 254-60. J. S. TASSIE

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FLORENCE, ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM (MUSEO ARCHEOLO­ GICO DI FIRENZE). Principal collection of antiquities in Florence, containing Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek and Roman objects and monuments. The Florence Archaeological Museum was inaugurated in 1881, but the core of its holdings comes from collections amassed by the *Medici family (from the fifteenth century to 1737) and by the dukes of Lorraine (Lorena), who sub­ sequently ruled Tuscany into the nineteenth century. Acquired in the time of Lorenzo il Magnifico was the fine bronze Head o f a Horse, and from the sixteenth-century collection of Cosimo I came the museum’s most famous pieces, a pair of monumental Etruscan bronzes: the *Chimaera, found at Arezzo (1553), and the *Arringatore, said to have been found near Perugia (acquired 1566). A large bronze figure of Minerva was also found at Arezzo, in a well (1541). In 1633 was added yet another impressive bronze, the *“Idolino” (found at Pesaro, 1530). The latter four bronzes were subsequently placed side by side in the *Uffizi Gallery (1789), along with other antiquities collected through the cen­ turies. With the unification of Italy, King Victor Emmanuel II decreed that an Etrus­ can Museum should be founded in Florence, the capital of the new nation (1870), to display this important facet of the Italian heritage. It was combined with an Egyptian Museum founded earlier by Duke Leopold II (1832), and the collections were housed in the Cenacolo di Foligno in Via Faenza; also shown was the *Fran£ois Vase, which had been acquired by Leopold in 1845. As a result of the efforts of the royal commissario, Luigi *Pigorini, the collection was moved in 1881 into new quarters, in the Palazzo della Crocetta (Via della Colonna), the present home of the Florence Archaeological Museum. A debate ensued regarding the appropriate arrangement of the material and whether the criteria should be historical, topographical or aesthetic. Under the leadership of Luigi A. Milani (d. 1914), the topographical concept triumphed. Milani created a Museo Topografico Centrale dell’Etruria, to which he added an archaeological garden, featuring stone grave markers and even entire tombs that he had moved from *Volterra, *Vetulonia, *Orvieto and Casal Marittimo. An Antiquarium was created to hold special works of art such as the two Greek marble kouroi Milani had secured for the museum (known since the eighteenth century, from the collection of the Canonico Bellini of Osimo). The splendid new display was ready for the public in 1897. After Milani’s death, the museum experienced a difficult period in which it continued to acquire excavated materials, but the available space and arrange­ ment of the displays remained unchanged. When A. Minto became superinten­ dent of antiquities (1923-51), the museum complexes underwent a restructuring and for some time presented an organic and balanced exhibit. But the calamitous flood in Florence of 1966 did untold damage to the antiquities and the displays, occasioning yet another renovation of the collection. Under superintendent Guglielmo Maetzke, enormous restoration efforts were undertaken, continuing to the

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present under Francesco Nicosia. The work has been carried out in the Centro di Restauro founded by Maetzke in 1967. Among the antiquities restored and/ or provided new displays in recent years are the Francois Vase and almost all the objects of the topographical museum. Numerous special exhibitions have spotlighted portions of the collection (e.g., Roman portraits, Greek and Roman gems, Greek vases). BIBLIOGRAPHY F. Nicosia, “ I Musei Archeologici,” La Citta degli Uffizi (Florence, 1982), 33-35, with bib., 33-35; + “ Luigi Adriano Milani: Origine e sviluppo del Complesso Museale Archeologico di Firenze,” Studi e Materiali, n.s. 5 (1982), 33-175; A. Romualdi— G. De Marinis, Itinerario Laurenziano nel Museo Archeologico di Firenze (Florence, 1992).

FLORIS, FRANS (DE VRIENDT; ca. 1519-70). Flemish painter from An­ twerp; a pupil of Lambert *Lombard. In the sketchbook in the Basel Offentliche Kunstsammlung (Kupferstichkabinett) is what remains of the drawings after ancient sculptures that Frans Floris made during his stay in Italy (1541-ca. 46), including some autograph drawings and some copies by some of his pupils. Floris’s free approach in copying his models reveals that his admiration for the ancient artists was less absolute than Lambert Lombard’s. He belongs to a generation for which the cult of Greek and Roman works, the study of which was by then part of all artists’ back­ ground, is replaced by admiration for contemporary Italian painters, especially, *Michelangelo. Floris treats mythological and historical subjects, which he en­ countered in Lombard’s workshop, with a personal style more inspired by Mi­ chelangelo and Venetian painting than by the ancients. His art, widely disseminated through engravings, marks a decisive turning point in the evolution of Flemish painting due to its new iconography and forms. BIBLIOGRAPHY N. Dacos, Les Peintres beiges a Rome au XVIe siecle (Brussels, 1964); +C . Van de Velde, “ A Roman Sketchbook o f Frans Floris,” Master Drawings, 7 (1969), 255-86; Idem, Frans Floris (1519/20-1570), Leven en Werken (Brussels, 1975). G. DENHAENE

FONTANA, DOMENICO (1543-1607). Italian architect. Born in Melida on Lake Lugano, Domenico Fontana went to Rome ca. 1563, finding employment with Cardinal Felice Peretti, who later became Pope *Sixtus V (1585-90). Fontana aided Sixtus in his radical urban transformation of the city of Rome and in the process was involved in the clearing, movement and destruction of Roman antiquities. Fontana is most remembered for his dramatic success (1586) in moving the great Vatican obelisk (*obelisks) from its position beside St. Peter’s to the spot in front of the basilica, before an admiring crowd. As a result Fontana was ennobled; he wrote a triumphant book describing this engineering feat and other works he had undertaken for the pope. Unfortunately, he had placed the obelisk

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a few degrees out of the axis of *Michelangelo’s St. Peter’s, a problem that had to be taken into account by *Maderno in his completion of the nave. For Sixtus V, Fontana reerected four obelisks in all, including the ones at S. Maria Mag­ giore (1587), the Lateran (1588) and Piazza del Popolo (1589). The artist de­ scribes how Sixtus ordered the restoration of the *Column of Marcus Aurelius and the placement of a bronze statue of St. Paul on top; a corresponding image of St. Peter was placed on the *Column of Trajan. In addition, Fontana saw to the transportation and restoration of the *Quirinal Horse Tamers. The pope and his architect are also known for the destruction of the *Septizodium on the Palatine Hill (1589) and for pulling down parts of the *Baths of Diocletian. An amazing scheme to transform the *Colosseum into workshops and apartments for workers in a wool-spinning industry was interrupted by Sixtus’s death. Fontana’s architecture in Rome for the pope and others (e.g., the Lateran palace and the Moses Fountain of the Aqua Felice) is regarded as monotonous and unimaginative, displaying a weak classicism in the Late Mannerist style. BIBLIOGRAPHY + Della trasportatione delV obelisco vaticano et delle fabriche di nostro signore papa Sisto V (Rome, 1590); S. Giedion, Space, Time and Architecture, 3rd ed. (London, 1954), 75-106; T. Magnuson, Rome in the Age o f Bernini 1 (Uppsala, 1982), 20-29.

FONZIO, BARTOLOMMEO (BARTHOLOMAEUS FONTIUS; 14451513). Italian Renaissance humanist, scholar and teacher; specialist in epigraphy. Sponsored by Lorenzo de’ Medici (cf. *Medici family), Francesco Sassetti and Bernardo *Rucellai, Fonzio was on good terms with the leading humanists of his day in his native Florence and elsewhere. By 1472 he had visited Rome and in an eloquent letter lamented the ruinous condition of the monuments, while naming his favorites. On this trip and others he assembled a significant manuscript (Codex Ashmolensis; Oxford, Bodleian) with a sylloge or collection of inscriptions that he had seen personally or that he had read about in other scholars’ manuscripts. The collection included epitaphs, historical notices and a few inscriptions of sacred significance. Fonzio did not arrange these, as did some other epigraphers, in topographical or chronological schemes nor even according to subject matter, but merely placed them in a random order. His manuscript is also important because of its rich illustration with drawings in pen and wash done by an anon­ ymous artist in a style influenced by *Botticelli. These drawings include many copied from the manuscripts of *Ciriaco of Ancona, such as those of a bust of Aristotle, the Muses (from *Samothrace), Medusa and the colossal temple of Hadrian at Kyzikos (now lost). There is also a drawing of the corpse of *“ Tulliola,” discovered in Rome in 1485. Fonzio was evidently much consulted for his knowledge of epigraphy. He almost certainly composed the inscription on the tomb of Francesco Sassetti and his wife in Sta. Trinita, Florence, and probably also devised the Latin phrases

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carved on the sarcophagus and triumphal arch represented in the Adoration o f the Magi by *Ghirlandaio in the same chapel. BIBLIOGRAPHY F. Saxl, “ The Classical Inscription in Renaissance Art and Politics,” JWarb 4 (194041), 9-45; Weiss, RDCA 77-78, 146, 164.

FORGERY. The production of false works of art or artifacts in imitation of genuine ones, with the specific purpose of deceiving. The words “ forgery” (a corruption of fortis, “ strong” ) and “ fake” (from the wonder-working religious Fakir) reveal an ambivalence toward practices condemned outright as “ false” and “ counterfeit.” All works are, of course, unique, and many antiquarian ones have been misinterpreted as well as misrep­ resented after their manufacture. Intent to deceive (which is often difficult to prove), usually for motives of monetary gain or esteem, traditionally defines objects as forgeries. Something like forgery was practiced in classical antiquity when craftsmen signed their works as by Myron, Praxiteles and other great artists to satisfy ambitious and unlettered buyers (Martial 4.35; 9.56; Phaedrus, Fabulae Aesopiae, 5 Prologue). Blatant examples of this shallow ruse were noted by *Winckelmann and his predecessors (e.g., *Quirinal Horse Tamers by “ Phidias” ); misleading inscription had a long history in antiquity. The first collectors of classical art, the Attalid kings of Hellenistic Pergamon, after acquiring old pieces through conquest and purchase (Aigina, sculpture by Polykleitos), commissioned copies of, and improvisations upon, renowned works (*Athena Parthenos). They also fostered eclectic and conservative archaisms— a kind of deception, too. Kindred examples of maintaining old styles and images associated with vener­ ated traditions were already legion in the ancient Near East (Pharaonic appro­ priations and stylistic revivals by Rameses II or cylinder seals, generally). In classical Greece and afterward, earlier modes continued to be reproduced, es­ pecially in honorific and decorative works (Panathenaic amphorae, architectural orders and profiles, Kritios’s Tyrannicides, Alkamenes’ Hermes, Praxiteles’ Dionysos). Pottery and other minor arts were also copied, because of rivalry, admiration and tradition, sometimes provincially as well as for profit (EtruscoCorinthian and later Italic ware); coins especially were counterfeited, often with baser metals (Celtic and, eventually, Carolingian money). In a parallel vein, damaged original works and commercial copies were commonly restored to make them appear whole again (Olympia west pediment corners, *Laocoon, Lansdowne Artemis). Like the manufacture of reproductions and casts, most of these activities are not considered forgery, but fakes were surely made for Ro­ man collectors. The modern premium awarded originality follows naturally upon the ideals of immaculate conception, the sanctity of personal property and expression and the romance of objective scholarship. During the Middle Ages and the rule of its iconic imagery, classical representation had little appeal, and ancient work

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was preserved largely for its value as raw material and for its use in illustrating Christian narratives. With few exceptions, even in expanded ensembles, little effort was made to simulate the detailed appearance of classical antiquities (gem reliquaries, *Regisole of Pavia, Campo Santo Antinous). This essentially material and didactic exploitation has persisted along with later attitudes. With the rebirth of classical norms of illusion and individualism in Italy around the fourteenth century, ancient naturalism in art was increasingly prized and emulated. Classical works were avidly studied and collected for their ca­ pacity to enhance self-knowing; the self-imposed models were, however, also partially viewed as tyrants and inspired “ quarrels” and competition. *Vasari records that lesser studios and great masters (*Ghiberti, *Michelangelo) simu­ lated ancient minor arts and statuary to demonstrate their skill and for income. Much evidence exists for a budding Renaissance industry in antico productions, then or later peddled as ancient works. This manufacture included coins, medals, gems, jewelry, plate, plaques, statuettes, manuscripts and inscriptions (e.g., by Marmita of Parma, Cavino of Padua, Bertoldo, *Antico, Briosco; the Venetian Este relief, *Cellini silver vase and parts of the *Ciriaco of Ancona, *Medici family, *Fulvio and *Ligorio collections). Comparable objects were already hoarded for their material value and portability in medieval cabinets and treas­ uries. Vasari also records the practice of fancifully restoring excavated fragments for the decoration of villas and palaces—first in Florence (*Donatello and V e r ­ rocchio for the Medici) and then in Rome for wealthy ecclesiastical houses and papal and royal collections (Lorenzetto for della *Valle; Montorsoli at the Bel­ vedere, *Primaticcio for Fontainebleau). These inventive restorations, innova­ tions and copies (twelve Caesars, philosophers and so on) were an important source of income, activity and learning for young sculptors until modern times (e.g., the della Portas, *Bernini, *Algardi, Duquesnoy, *Girardon, L. S. Adam, Roubilliac, Nollekens). Some minor sculptors worked largely in making repro­ ductions, pastiches and new or reworked antico pieces, as well as fakes, for an industry that quickly extended beyond Italy to supply foreign monarchs and other wealthy patrons investing in the growing art market and antiquarian craze. By the mid-eighteenth century, this tradition resulted in the almost exclusively antiquarian activities of *Cavaceppi and his circle (*Pichler, *Jenkins, *Franzoni, Gavin *Hamilton, Sibilla, *Albacini and others), who supplied their clients with massively reworked and fabricated “ antiquities” that helped usher in the first modern style, neo-classicism. Beginning with the sensational and jealously guarded discoveries at *Pompeii in the late eighteenth century, modern excavations have stimulated attempts to assimilate the exciting, new unearthed images by imitation and forgery. Pom­ peian murals encouraged the revival and forgery of encaustic painting (*Caylus, *Mengs, G. B. Casanova, Guerra), a genre once imitated by *Poussin. Pompeian mosaics, small bronzes and household goods spawned an industry in fakes, facsimilies and imitations of a sort that commonly develops around archaeolog­

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ical sites. Collections of *Greek vases (especially W. *Hamilton’s), then called Etruscan (*Etruscheria), inspired patriotic and historically minded artists to ape their fabric and linear mode with imitations and antico production (*Piranesi, *Ingres, *Wedgwood’s Etrurian, Jaspar, and Basalt ware). New imports from Greece prompted reinterpretations, especially of the *Parthenon and *Aigina sculptures, for many years (*Thorvaldsen’s restorations and archaistic Hope are watersheds). More clandestine antiquarian manufacture followed midcentury discoveries in the Crimea (Roushomowsky’s *Tiara of Saitaphernes) and Sardinia (SardoPhoenician bronzes); there also was a significant modern production of Tanagra figurines and larger Etruscan terracottas, as well as small bronzes (Pennelli brothers’ British Museum sarcophagus, Metropolitan Warriors and so on). The Minoan discoveries of *Evans resulted not only in local and international fakes but in wholesale reconstructions based upon minute fragments. These and sim­ plified Cycladic idols and artifacts (with other esoteric and Stone Age produc­ tions) both inspired numerous forgeries and influenced the primitivism of many modern artists (Matisse, Brancusi, Modigliani and others). Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic discoveries at the *Akropolis in Athens, *01ympia and other sites also prompted fashionable forgery and reinterpretation (Grueneisen, Moutaffof, and *Campana collections; Hildebrand, Rodin, Bourdelle, Picasso, Boccioni fragments and improvisations). Works by the specialist forger Alceo *Dossena and his ilk, who made gauche and artificially battered variations upon newly discovered and marginally understood antiquities (as well as Renaissance works), typify recent fakery in the popular imagination. Works by them and more accomplished followers figure heavily in a lucrative antiquities market. This situation, coupled with restrictions on export and suspicions concerning provenance (even archaeological sites have been salted with fakes) have signif­ icantly affected recent opinion about works with unusual pedigrees or mixed claims to authenticity (*Fayum portraits; Boston “ counterpart” to the *Ludovisi Throne; Berlin Seated Goddess; Metropolitan Kouros\ *Dama de Elche). Dealers and craftspeople have been quick to respond to discoveries and shifts in taste by manufacturing enticing tales of origin and attractive subjects as well as by adopting ever more sophisticated studio practices— with the aid of spe­ cialists, publications, reproductions and gallery studies. They also make the new seem old and consistent with their models by carefully treating surfaces with breaks, burial, baking, immersions in acid, alkali or colored stain and the like to induce an appropriate antique appearance and patina. The amateur’s and col­ lector’s affection, connoisseurship and investment have, in turn, supported a growing class of agents and scholars who know ways of the studio and market and are expert in matters of style and context prerequisite for responsible de­ cision making. Developments in science and technology, ranging from biological classification by minutiae to computerized atomic analysis, have also been em­ ployed in authenticating objects: ultraviolet, infrared and X-ray examinations now provide evidence invisible in ordinary light; carbon-14 deterioration, ther­

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moluminescence and dendrite deposits help to determine age; and reconstruc­ tions of ancient manufacture and spectrographic, isotopic and neutron accelerator analyses can identify fabric and provenance. BIBLIOGRAPHY +H . Ladendorf, Antikenstudium und Antikenkopie (Berlin, 1958), with bib.; + D . Mustilli, s.v. “ Falsificazione,” EAA 2 (1960), 576-89, with bib.; + 0 . Kurz, Fakes, 2nd ed. (New York, 1967); + S . Howard, “ A Dossenesque ‘Double Herm’ in California,” Cal­ ifornia Studies in Classical Antiquity 4 (1971), 181-98, with bib. S. HOWARD

FORMA URBIS ROMAE (MARBLE PLAN, SEVERAN MARBLE PLAN). A map of Rome carved on slabs of marble in a .d . 203-11 under Sep­ timius Severus and Caracalla, probably on the basis of an earlier plan made under Vespasian or Domitian and, less probably, another made for Agrippa. It is a fundamental tool for the study of the topography of ancient Rome, even in its very fragmentary state. Of 712 catalogued fragments, many composed of several pieces, less than fifty have been positively identified and located. The first fragments were rediscovered in the spring of 1562 behind the church of SS. Cosma and Damiano outside the hall in the south corner of the Templum Pacis in an excavation made by Torquato Conti for Cardinal Alessandro Farnese (*Farnese family). The map had covered the southwest wall of this area, and some plates may still have been attached to it. *Panvinio, curator of the Farnese collections, or Cardinal Farnese may have commissioned the careful drawings of the important fragments that appear in Cod.Vat.Lat. 3439, fol. 13-23, be­ lieved to be by Antonio *Dosio; the codex later belonged to Panvinio’s succes­ sor, Fulvio *Orsini, and is known as the Codex Orsinianus. The fragments were apparently kept in a ground-floor storeroom of Palazzo Farnese, where they were subsequently neglected until, at an uncertain date, workmen broke a number of them up to use as building material in walls in the “ giardino segreto” on the Tiber. Much later, in 1673, Giovanni Pietro *Bellori undertook to publish the frag­ ments, working from both the actual fragments and the drawings in the Codex Orsinianus, occasionally correcting the latter. Presumably at this time what re­ mained were still in the same storage place. Following this call of the plan to the attention of the learned world, in 1727 Duke Antonio Farnese was petitioned by the Senate of Rome to donate the fragments to the Campidoglio or to create for them a ‘‘campidoglio’’ in Palazzo Farnese. Although this initiative was slow in bearing fruit, eventually Charles III of Naples, heir of the Farnese, presented the fragments in December 1741. It was decided to exhibit them on the stair of the Museo Capitolino, using Bellori’s plates as pattern and authority, and miss­ ing and mutilated fragments were restored according to this, despite problems of scale, and marked with a six-pointed star. The work was entrusted to G.-B. Nolli, the cartographer, whose men did not hesitate to trim away uninscribed portions. Twenty panels of fragments following Bellori were installed on the museum stairs, plus six of other fragments.

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FORUM BOARIUM, Rome

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In the nineteenth century the fragments were repeatedly studied by various scholars, notably *Canina, Jordan and Trendelenburg. More fragments came to light in excavations near the Column of Phocas, behind SS. Cosma e Damiano, and near the *Temple of Castor. Then in June 1888, in connection with work on the Tiber embankment, a wall surrounding the “ giardino segreto” of Palazzo Farnese was demolished, and 186 fragments were discovered used in it. Sub­ sequently, 451 more were extracted from masonry in various points here. In 1903, after much debate and many difficulties, it was decided to remove the panels from the stair of Museo Capitolino and to reconstruct such parts of the plan as were known, on the garden wall of Palazzo dei Conservatori, within a schematic plan of the ancient city, while the unidentified fragments were con­ signed to storage. Unfortunately, exposure to the weather proved deleterious, and in 1928 a thorough reconsideration of the monument was undertaken. The fragments were removed to the Antiquarium Comunale on the Caelian and dis­ played in a room dedicated to them, and a new publication was planned. When the Antiquarium Comunale was dismantled in 1939, the Forma Urbis was sent first to Palazzo Caffarelli and then to Palazzo Farnesino dei Baullari. Finally, in 1955, the fragments were moved to Palazzo Braschi, where they were studied, cataloged, described and published by a commission of four scholars who were the heirs of a commission first formed in 1924. New joins and discoveries con­ tinue to be made, and the Forma Urbis continues to be housed in Palazzo Bras­ chi. BIBLIOGRAPHY G. Carettoni et al., La Pianta marmorea di Roma, 1-2 (Rome, 1960); E. Rodriguez Almeida, Forma urbis marmorea: aggiomamento generate, 1-2. (Rome, 1981); J. C. Anderson, jr., “ Post-Mortem Adventures of the Marble Plan of Rome,” The Classical Outlook (March-April 1982), 69-72. L. RICHARDSON, jr

FORUM BOARIUM, Rome. Roman public square, an ill-defined area along the Tiber River from the Aventine to the *Capitoline Hill, eventually running to the crest of the ridge between the *Forum Romanum and the river. The name has been thought to indicate that the site was a cattle market, but, in fact, the area was unsuited for such use, and the name may derive, instead, from the Aiginetan bronze sculpture of a bull that marked the starting point of the city boundary (pomerium) of Romulus. It was the site of the head of the Sublician bridge and, earlier, probably the point from which a ferry across the river departed. It was throughout history a scene of intense traffic, for all traffic along and across the Tiber tended to concentrate there. It was the site of im­ portant shrines, notably, the early altar of Hercules (Ara Maxima Herculis), the temple of Portunus and the shrine of Pudicitia Patricia. Although it was subject to flooding, the Forum Boarium was heavily built up from an early date, and remains of numerous apartment houses and warehouses have been found. A round temple, presumably that of Hercules Victor in Foro Boario, exca-

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THEATER OF POMPEY, Rome

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seum, the architecture of the stage building and its adjacencies is not at all clear. The most visible part of the monument lies in the two remaining exterior stories of travertine arcading, with a Tuscan Doric engaged order on the ground floor and Ionic on the second floor. The third story was probably without arcading but was furnished with windows and Corinthian pilasters. The ruins of the theater are mentioned in the *Einsiedeln Itinerary in the eighth century. Since its mass made an ideal base for a fortress, it was occupied and fortified by the Fabi (or Faffi) in the middle of the twelfth century, perhaps taken over by them from the Pierleoni, who dominated the area a half century earlier. In the thirteenth century it passed to the Savelli and acquired the name Monte Savello, by which it is still sometimes known. It was for the Savelli that Baldassare *Peruzzi in 1523-27 constructed the elegant palace that now crowns it. During the Renaissance, the arcading was an influential model for architects. In 1713, the palace went to the Orsini and then for two centuries was known as Palazzo Orsini. The lower arcades of the Theater of Marcellus had been used as early as the Middle Ages for shops and common dwellings, but these were finally cleared out in restorations of the monument by A. Calza Bini (1926-29). The exterior of the theater has recently been cleaned (1980s). BIBLIOGRAPHY +P. Fidenzoni, II Teatro di Marcello (Rome, 1970); P. Ciancio Rossetto, “ Le maschere del teatro di Marcello,” BullCom 88 (1982-83), 7^4-9; Richardson, New Topographical Dictionary, 382-83. L. RICHARDSON, jr

THEATER OF POMPEY, Rome. The oldest permanent theater in Rome and always the most admired and most important; the curia attached to it was the site of the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 B.C. Begun by Pompey as the central element of a vast complex that included porticoes, gardens and a curia, the theater was dedicated in 55 B.C. with lavish games. The stone theater stood entirely free in the southern Campus Martius, almost isolated. It was evidently dedicated unfinished, and the stage building and temple of Venus Victrix were dedicated three years later. It included shrines to five divinities: Venus Victrix, Honos, Virtus, Felicitas and Victoria?), prob­ ably small affairs arranged at the top of the cavea. There were also fourteen figures by Coponius representing the fourteen nations conquered by Pompey, probably set up around the exterior of the cavea. The theater was restored by Augustus at great expense. It burned in a .d . 21, and restoration was begun by Tiberius and completed by Caligula, but Claudius dedicated it. In a .d . 66 Nero had the whole interior gilded and purple awnings installed for the reception of Tiridates of Armenia. The scene building burned in the fire of 80, and Domitian must have restored it. It was restored again by Septimius Severus and in 243 burned again. Other restorations are recorded in the fourth and fifth centuries under Diocletian and Maximian, Honorius and Arcadius, and Symmachus.

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The original diameter of the Theater of Pompey is estimated at 150-160m, the capacity at 11,000. In the cellars of various later buildings in the area (e.g., the restaurant Pancrazio) are extensive remains of the vaulted substructures of the theater, made of concrete faced with quasi-reticulate work. The exterior of the cavea was arcaded with forty-four arches of peperino; these are no longer visible, but the curvature of the theater is strikingly repeated in the disposition of the modern houses facing on the Via di Grotta Pinta. The scene building has never been explored, and the buildings built over its ruins, especially the sev­ enteenth-century Palazzo Pio-Righetti, have prevented exposure of any remains above the substructures, except for a tantalizing strip much rebuilt in later pe­ riods along the edge of the Area Sacra of the *Largo Argentina. BIBLIOGRAPHY F. Coarelli, ‘ ‘II complesso pompeiano di Campo Marzio e la sua decorazione scultorea,’’ RendPontAcc 44 (1971-72), 99-122; L. Richardson, “ A Note on the Architecture of the Theatrum Pompei in Rome,” AJA 91 (1987), 123-26, G. Sauron, in L'Urbs, espace urbain et histoire (Ier siecle av. 7. C.—Hie siecle ap. J. C.), Collection de VEcole Frangaise de Rome 98 (Rome, 1987), 457-73. L. RICHARDSON, jr

THEBES (THEVAI). Major city of ancient Greece, located in Boiotia north­ west of Athens; its principal topographical feature is the Kadmeia, the great plateau of the acropolis, some 700m long. Thebes is rich in mythology, from the story of its founding and the introduc­ tion of writing by the Phoenician Kadmos to the tales of King Oedipus and his successors, who carried on the war of the Seven Against Thebes. The earlier history of the city reveals its warlike character and its tendency to covet or rival neighboring states. Theban power reached an acme with Epaminondas com­ manding its army (370-362 B.C.), but his death left the city to a rapid decline. Thebes then became best known for its misfortunes, including the sacks by Alexander the Great (335 B.C.), the Roman L. Mummius (146 B.C.) and Sulla (80 B.C.). Sieges and raids of the Middle Ages and earthquakes of the nineteenth century left little to interfere with the building of modem Thebes over the Kadmeia and neighboring areas. The ancient remains of the city are scanty, and it is possible to construct only a general chronology of the city. A. Keramopoullos excavated the most important site of Thebes, the Mycenaean palace known as the “ House of Kadmos,” in eight campaigns between 1906 and 1929. In 1917, he produced a study of the Topography o f Thebes, based largely on the analysis of ancient texts, particularly works by Pindar— a native of Thebes (sixth century B.C.)— and Pausanias, who wrote an extensive description of Thebes in the second century a .c . Many of the excavations carried out in the twentieth century have been sal­ vage operations. The most dramatic of these was the work done by the *Greek Archaeological Service (N. Platon, E. Touloupa) in the winter of 1963-64 on

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the Kadmeia, where the walls of another Mycenaean palace were found. Nu­ merous fragments of frescoes were recovered, and in a “ treasury” area were found hoards of precious stones (onyx and lapis lazuli) and gold; thirty-eight Mesopotamian cylinder seals were found— all but two of lapis— of varying date and origin. Though clearly brought in as the commodity of lapis lazuli, their presence at Thebes was quickly taken as evidence of the eastern connections and innovations of Kadmos. S. Symeonoglou produced a modern catalog of some 270 archaeological sites in and around Thebes (1985), most of them known through salvage operations. He described finds ranging over a period of 4,500 years, embracing the Bronze Age, Hellenic period and the Christian era. The location of most of the monu­ ments mentioned by Pausanias can only be conjectured; a notable exception is the oracular temple of Apollo Ismenios discovered southeast of the Kadmeia, poorly preserved but firmly identified on the basis of inscriptions found in ex­ cavations by Keramopoullos (1910). BIBLIOGRAPHY P. Roesch, s.v. “Thebes,” PECS, 904-6; S. Symeonoglou, The Topography of Thebes, From the Bronze Age to Modem Times (Princeton, NJ, 1985).

THERA (SANTORINI). Island in the South Cyclades, Aegean Sea, Greece. In prehistoric times Thera was of circular form with a volcano in its center; the present, crescent-shaped island and the neighboring islets Therasia and Aspronisi are the remnants of a cataclysmic eruption, perhaps around 1500 B.C., in which the caving in of the volcano formed a large gulf (caldera). Several prehistoric habitation sites are well preserved under the ash and pumice layers formed by this eruption. The exploration of the island’s early history began in the nineteenth century. In 1866-67 excavations conducted in the south part of Therasia by local people together with the French geologist F. Fouque brought to light Bronze Age build­ ings with quantities of pottery. Two members of the *French School in Athens, Mamet and Gorceix, dug in 1870 in the neighborhood of the Akrotiri village in the southwest part of Thera and found similar habitation remains, including frescoed walls. Other Bronze Age buildings were excavated in 1899 by the German archaeologist R. Zahn at Potamos near Kamara, east of Akrotiri (finds in the museum at Phira). The first large-scale work was done by F. *Hiller von Gaertringen’s interdis­ ciplinary expedition in 1895-1902; besides exploring the island’s history and climate, it excavated the Doric city on the Mesavouno hill and its cemeteries on the Sellada saddle. The city, which flourished especially as a Ptolemaic gar­ rison town in the third century B.C., had a temple of Apollo Kameios, a theater, a stoa of unusual type and barracks. The cemetery yielded important information about the burial customs, especially of the Archaic period. The most spectacular results have been achieved by the new excavations at Akrotiri, started in 1967 by S. *Marinatos, who had the aim to prove his theory

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of “ the volcanic destruction of Minoan Crete.” The well-preserved buildings of palatial quality (although no palace has been identified as yet), as well as the decorated pottery and the numerous wall paintings, show that Thera had a strongly Minoanized culture, contemporary with the Late Minoan IA period, immediately before the catastrophe. The frescoes, which all seem to have had a religious or ideological/political function, are similar to the Knossian ones, but since they are better preserved, they help our understanding also of the Cretan repertory. Since Marinatos’s death in 1974, the excavations have continued un­ der the direction of C. Doumas. BIBLIOGRAPHY +F. Fouque, Santorin et ses eruptions (Paris, 1879); +F. Hiller von Gaertringen et al., Thera, Untersuchungen, Vermessungen und Ausgrabungen in den Jahren 1895-1902, 14. (Berlin, 1899-1909); +S. Marinatos, Excavations at Thera 1-7 (Athens, 1967-76); +Thera and the Aegean World 1-2 (London, 1978-80); +C. Doumas, Thera, the Pom­ peii of the Prehistoric Aegean (London, 1983); +N. Marinatos, Art and Religion in Thera (Athens, 1984); C. Doumas, The Wall Paintings of Thera (Athens, 1992). NANNO MARINATOS

THESSALONIKI. City of Greek Macedonia. Founded ca. 316 B.C. by Cassander as a synoecism of towns on the Thermaic Gulf, the city became an important port. Under Roman rule Thessaloniki flour­ ished as the capital of a Roman province (146 B.C.). It was made a colony by Decius ca. a .d . 250 and in the mid-fifth century became the seat of the prefects of Illyricum. During the Byzantine Empire it was second only to Constantinople. Captured by Saracens in a .d . 904, Thessaloniki fell to Turkey in 1430, and returned to Greece in 1912. Such eighteenth- and nineteenth-century European travelers as J. *Stuart and N. *Revett, L.-F.-S. *Fauvel, E. D. *Clarke, C. *Cockerell, E. M. Cousinery, W. M. *Leake, E. *Lear, L. Heuzey and H. Daumet drew and described prom­ inent monuments: the “ Incantadas” (whose carved piers were removed to the *Louvre in 1864), the Vardar Gate, the Rotunda and the Arch of Galerius as well as assorted stelai and inscriptions. Remains of an Ionic temple of 500 B.C. document an earlier, Archaic settle­ ment, probably Therme. Roman remains cover much of the Hellenistic city, which is known from an important Serapeion, a few scattered reliefs and in­ scriptions and tombs with finds. There was considerable building activity in Antonine and Severan times, including construction of gates, sanctuaries, for­ tification walls and a remodeling of the agora. A large complex consisting of the tetrarchic palace, the arch of Galerius, the Rotunda and a hippodrome can be dated to around a .d . 300. The Archaeological Museum houses selected Macedonian and Thracian finds dating from Neolithic through later Roman times. Early Christian through Byz­ antine remains are in the White Tower and the Museum of Byzantine Civili­ zation. Of special interest in the Archaeological Museum are remains of Archaic

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through Roman Thessaloniki (architectural members, sculptures and reliefs, mo­ saics and grave finds) as well as discoveries from important sites like *Vergina. BIBLIOGRAPHY + M. Andronikos— M. Chatzidakis— V. Karageorghis, “Thessalonike Archaeological Museum,” in The Greek Museums (Athens, 1977), 267-90; +M. B. Sakellariou, ed., Macedonia. 4000 Years of Greek History and Civilization (Athens, 1983); Thessalonikin Philippou Basilissan, Meletes gia tin Archaia Thessaloniki (Thessaloniki, 1985); I. Touratsoglou, Macedonia: History, Monuments, Museums (Athens, 1995). STELLA G. MILLER

THEVAI. See THEBES. THOMPSON, MARGARET (1911-92). American archaeologist; administra­ tor and numismatist. Born in Trenton, New Jersey, Margaret Thompson took her B.A. in English from Radcliffe in 1931. After five years of teaching junior high English at the height of the Depression, she became secretary to T. Leslie *Shear en route to employment at the *Agora in Athens as an assistant in the numismatic finds from the site. Eventually she was to publish a catalog of some 37,000 coins excavated there, dating from the Roman to the Venetian period (1954), as well as a resulting monumental study of The New Style Silver Coinage o f Athens (1961). In 1949 Thompson became assistant curator of Greek coins at the *American Numismatic Society (ANS) and eventually curator, a post she held until 1976. She was chief curator of the ANS from 1969 to 1979, and her dedication to administrative tasks extended to the *Archaeological Institute of America, which she served as its first woman president (1964-68) and from which she received the Gold Medal for Distinguished Archaeological Achievement (1984). Not hav­ ing attended graduate school and obtained a conventional Ph.D., Margaret Thompson received an honorary doctorate from Columbia University in 1985. Among her many services to the discipline of numismatics were her actions as organizer of the International Numismatic Congress at New York/Washington in 1973 and her collaboration with C. Kraay and O. M0rkheim in the publication of the magisterial work An Inventory o f Greek Coin Hoards, first distributed at the congress of 1973. BIBLIOGRAPHY W. E. Metcalf, “ Margaret Thompson, 1911-1992,” AJA 96 (1992), 547-49.

THOMSEN, CHRISTIAN JURGENSEN (1788-1865). Danish archaeologist; formulator of the concept of prehistory in the Three Ages of Stone, Bronze and Iron. Born into a merchant family in Copenhagen, Thomsen showed an early in­ terest in organizing artifacts with his collection of Roman and Scandinavian coins (1804 and following). In 1816, he became secretary of the new Danish

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royal commission on antiquities and was put in charge of various collections of Danish material, especially at the University of Copenhagen. In arranging the antiquities for the opening of a national museum, Thomsen utilized a system of three phases in the development of human technology. The idea that humans first used weapons of stone, proceeded to bronze and then to iron, already found in Lucretius (De rerum natura 5.1280-94) and other ancient authors and dis­ seminated in Danish scholarship in the later eighteenth century (e.g., by L. S. Vedel Simonsen), was articulated by Thomsen as a systematic principle for arranging artifacts. He described his system in a guidebook to the museum, Ledetraad til Nordisk Oldkyndighed (Copenhagen, 1836), a work that was im­ mensely influential, as it was translated into other languages (e.g., A Guide to Northern Antiquities, tr. Lord Ellesmere, 1848). His concept is a key one in the disciplines of Bronze Age and Iron Age prehistoric archaeology in Greece and Italy, as elsewhere, though his contribution is seldom recognized by classicists. In later life, Thomsen served in various government posts and continued to dedicate himself to the creation of displays of antiquities. After his death in 1865, his numismatic collection went to the royal coin cabinet in Copenhagen. BIBLIOGRAPHY Daniel, Short History of Archaeology, 53-59; B. Graslund, “The Background to Thom­ sen’s Three Age System,” and J. Rodden, “The Development of the Three Age System: Archaeology’s First Paradigm,” in Towards a History of Archaeology, ed. G. Daniel (London, 1981), 45-50, 51-68; Portratarchiv, no. 174; Trigger, History o f Archaeolog­ ical Thought, 73-79.

THORN-PULLER. See SPINARIO. THORVALDSEN, BERTEL (ALBERT; 1770-1844). Danish sculptor. Educated at the Academy of Arts in Copenhagen, after winning several awards for his reliefs, mainly in plaster, Thorvaldsen left Denmark in 1796 to go to Rome. Here he lived and worked until 1838, when he returned to Copen­ hagen. At that time, an arrangement had been made so that he bequeathed his works and collections of art to the city, which, in return, promised to build a museum for him (*Thorvaldsens Museum, Copenhagen). In Rome Thorvaldsen studied ancient art and learned to sculpture in marble, partly by copying statues from antiquity. (For most of his sculptures, however, Thorvaldsen made a model on a small scale and had his assistants transfer it to a full-scale marble piece, often taking part in the finishing of the stone work.) Thorvaldsen’s first large sculpture, Jason with the Golden Fleece, 1803, was an immediate success and was considered an embodiment of *Winckelmann’s “ no­ ble simplicity and quiet grandeur.” In time, Thorvaldsen was to be called the “ Pheidias of the north.” He became one of the leading artists in Rome, and his fame and works spread to most of Europe. Like other classicistic sculptures, Thorvaldsen’s reliefs, portraits and statues may seem cold and remote today, but his sense of composition and his work-

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Portrait of Bertel Thor­ valdsen,, Rome, Deut­ sches Archaologisches Institut (German Ar­ chaeological Institute), 1833. (Deutsches Ar­ chaologisches Institut, Rome. Inst. Neg. 76.653.)

manship are exquisite. Up to ca. 1820 his main inspiration was classical liter­ ature and myths; from then on, Christian motifs became equally important. His statues of Christ and the Twelve Apostles for the cathedral of Copenhagen and his monument for Pope Pius VII in St. Peter’s are famous. Thorvaldsen’s main contribution to archaeology— apart from his acquisitions of ancient art— was his restoration of the then newly found pediments from the temple of Aphaia on *Aigina in 1816-17. Though his work was much admired by his contemporaries, his reconstruction was wrong, and it was most unfortu­ nate that he reworked the fractured surfaces of broken parts in order to add the missing pieces in marble.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY J. M. Thiele, The Life of Thorvaldsen, collated from the Danish by M. R. Barnard (London, 1865); + Bertel Thorvaldsen, 1, Skulpturen, Modelle, Bozzetti, Handzeichnungen, Gemalde aus Thorvaldsens Sammlungen; 2, Untersuchungen zu seiner Werk und zur Kunst seiner Zeit (Cologne, 1977); + J. B. Hartmann, Antike Motive bei Thorvaldsen, Studien zur Antikrezeption des Klassicismus (Tubingen, 1979); +Kunstlerleben in Rom, Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770-1844), Der danische Bildhauer und seine deutschen Freunde (Nuremberg, 1991). J. MEJER

THORVALDSENS MUSEUM, COPENHAGEN. Danish collection of works of art by or once belonging to, the sculptor Bertel *Thorvaldsen. Located in the center of Copenhagen, the museum is a remarkable piece of architecture, designed by the Danish architect M. G. Bindesboll and built be­ tween 1839 and 1848. It was designed to house all the sculptures Thorvaldsen had bequeathed to the city of Copenhagen, as well as his collections of paintings by other artists (some 300) and antiquities. Later, more works by the sculptor and items of importance for the study of Thorvaldsen have been added. The museum has about 1,000 pieces by Thorvaldsen, whether his original models in plaster or his own and others’ final representations in marble; there are also casts of those sculptures that are not in the museum. From an archaeological point of view, Thorvaldsen’s collection of Egyptian (mainly late), Greek, Etruscan and Roman antiquities (almost 10,000 items) is especially interesting because it gives an impression of a private collection in the first half of the nineteenth century (including many fakes). The original exhibition cases have been preserved. In the exhibition rooms are also books on archaeology from the library of Thorvaldsen and of the Danish archaeologist P. O. *Br0ndsted. In the classical collection, the main items are bronze objects, Etruscan mirrors, gems, coins from the seventh century B.C. to the Byzantine period and more than one hundred Greek (and a few Etruscan *bucchero) vases, in particular, Attic from the sixth and fifth centuries. They have been cleaned recently, and modern additions have been removed. Among the artists are Oltos, Onesimos, the Altamura Painter, Antimenes Painter, Brygos Painter, Foundry Painter, Geras Painter, Harrow Painter, Penthesilea Painter, the Leagros group and the Thorvaldsen group. BIBLIOGRAPHY P. Fossing, The Thorvaldsen Museum, Catalogue of the Antique Engraved Gems and Cameos (Copenhagen, 1929); +Thorvaldsens Museum, Katalog (Copenhagen, 1975); +T. Melander, Thorvaldsens Graeske Vaser (Copenhagen, 1984); +idem, Thorvaldsens antikker (Copenhagen, 1993). J. MEJER

THUGGA (DOUGGA). Ancient city in Tunisia, 100km west of Tunis. Thugga was founded as a Numidian settlement but came under Carthaginian influence. Following the fall of Carthage to Rome (146 B.C.) and the subsequent

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colonization of Roman Africa, Dougga continued to be administered locally, although a pagus of Roman citizens was governed from Rome. Romanization was successful despite the fact that the city did not attain municipal status until a .d . 205. In 261 it became the Colonia Licinia Septima Aurelia Alexandriana Thuggenses. Spread out on a plateau and steep hillside, Thugga is considered the best preserved of Roman cities in Tunisia. The site is rich in temples, most notable of which is a Corinthian edifice dedicated to the Capitoline Triad in a .d . 166— 67 on behalf of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Also dating to the second century A.c. are large parts of the forum area and a well-preserved theater cut into a hillside. The Licinian baths (third century a .c .) are quite complete, and a number of fine houses of Imperial date have yielded mosaics (now chiefly at the Bardo Museum, Tunis). The site was first described for the European audience by Thomas d’Arcos in 1631. The eighteenth century saw an expanded interest in the site, with visits to it by such luminaries as James Bruce, the consul to Algeria, in 1765. In 1882-83 scientific study of the site was undertaken by J. Schmidt, J. Poinssot, H. Saladin and R. Cagnat. Excavation was soon begun under Dr. Carton and continued by L. Poinssot from 1903 until 1938. The outbreak of World War II and its economic aftermath precluded the resumption of excavation until 1954. Work at Thugga in the last half of the twentieth century has been concentrated on the restoration of the principal monuments of the site; the Tunisian govern­ ment had begun a campaign to preserve Thugga as early as 1883 and had pro­ hibited encroachment on the site in 1913. Inhabitants living in the ancient city were relocated to a new town, southeast of the site. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Ennabli, s.vT “ Thugga,” PECS, 917-19; C. Poinssot, Les Ruines de Dougga (Tunis, 1983). JOANN McDANIEL

TIARA OF SAITAPHERNES. Solid gold crown 18cm high, a notorious for­ gery purchased by the *Louvre in 1896 for the great sum of 260,000 francs as a major work of the Hellenistic period. The tiara had been brought to the attention of French experts when it was exhibited in Vienna as part of the collection of a Russian art dealer, Schapselle Hochmann, who claimed that all his antique gold work had been turned up in the site of a former Greek colony, *01bia, near Odessa on the Black Sea. The mysterious tiara— Persian in function and form but Greek in epigraphy— had two large historiated friezes, containing genre scenes of Scythian life and an­ ecdotes from the Iliad. Between the two registers was an identifying inscription in Greek: “ The Senate and People of Olbia to the Great Invincible Saitapher­ nes.” The reference to the Scythian chief Saitaphernes suggested a date in the third century B.C. Hochmann’s treasure was first offered to the Imperial Museum in Vienna, whose director, Bruno Buchner, noticed the two hallmarks of a mod­

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ern forgery: anachronistic eclecticism and damage affecting only the irrelevant or nonpictorial parts. For the same reasons, the piece was turned down for purchase by the *British Museum. The Louvre, however, purchased the questionable object, just as it was to do a year later with the now-suspect *Dama de Elche. As soon as the tiara entered the Louvre, it came under sharp attack. *Furtwangler was among those who condemned it. The forgery was soon acknowledged by its clever creator, Israel Rouchomovski, a Jewish master goldsmith resident in Odessa, who had drawn his inspiration from sources as diverse as a Bilderatlas zur Weltsgeschicte (1882) and the Antiquites de la Russie Meridionale (1891). The story was first revealed in Le Figaro in March 1903; further details emerged when Rouchomovski him­ self came to Paris a month later to tell all to a fascinated public. An intriguing footnote to the affair is provided by the report that P. T. Barnum later offered to buy the tiara, asking the Louvre to sell him the “ real” forgery. BIBLIOGRAPHY +A. Furtwangler, Neuere Falschungen van Antiken (Berlin, 1899), 29-32; “Roucho­ movski (Rachoumowski), Israel,” in Thieme—Becker, 29 (1935), 109; O. Kurz, Fakes, 2nd ed. (New York, 1967), 210-11. JOHN F. MOFFITT

TIBERIS. See MARFORIO. TIMGAD (THAMUGADI). Roman colony in North Africa, located in presentday Algeria; one of the best preserved of all Roman cities. The city of Timgad was founded by the emperor Trajan in a .d . 100 as a colony for veterans of the army, with the name of Colonia Marciana Trajana Thamugadi. Because of its military connection, it was laid out much like a Roman castrum with a grid of north-south and east-west streets intersecting, creating city blocks measuring 20m on a side. The original town was surrounded by a wall in a nearly square pattern, 1,076 feet X 1,171 feet. The whole is regarded as the most perfect specimen of the Roman grid plan. The wellpreserved site includes a forum, theater and some fourteen bath establishments, as well as numerous blocks of houses, many of them decorated with mosaics. In the late second century a .c ., new areas outside the grid were developed, breaking free from the checkerboard pattern of the original colony. A municipal public library, housing an estimated 23,000 books, was built in the heart of town in the second half of the third century. Christianity was introduced at Thamugadi by the fourth century, and the town was the seat of the heretical Donatist bishop Optatus. Associated with the Donatists is a great Christian basilica located in the newer part of the town. Thamugadi was occupied in the sixth century by the Byzantines, who reused earlier building materials to erect an enormous cit­ adel, the best example of Byzantine architecture in North Africa. The town fell to the Arabs in the eighth century, and, with its irrigation system no longer functioning, it was abandoned.

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Thamugadi was brought to the attention of modern Europeans by the Scottish diplomat and artist James Bruce (1730-94), who served as British consul in Algiers from 1763. After the French conquest of Algeria in the 1830s, French scholars took an interest in the remains, with full-scale excavation beginning in 1880. E. Boeswillwald, R. Cagnat and A. Ballu collaborated to publish the early results in Timgad, une cite africaine sous I’empire romain (1891-1905). Con­ tinued exploration in the twentieth century by the French has uncovered most of the city. BIBLIOGRAPHY H. Pfeiffer, “The Roman Library at Timgad,” MAAR 9 (1931), 157-65; J. Lassus, Visite a Timgad (Algiers, 1969); P. Grimal, Roman Cities, tr. and ed. G. M. Woloch (Madison, WI, 1983), 261-64.

TIRYNS. Major Bronze Age stronghold situated on a low, oval mound between Argos and Nauplion, in Greece. Mythology tells us that it was for an early king of Tiryns, Eurystheus, that Herakles performed his twelve labors. The citadel walls, which have always been visible, are built of massive stones and have often been considered the finest specimens of Bronze Age fortification architecture on the Greek mainland. The citadel is normally divided into the upper (southern), middle and lower (northern) sections. The first to excavate at Tiryns were A. Rangabe and F. Thiersch, who dug there for one day in 1831. *Schliemann made more extensive exploratory ex­ cavations for a week in 1876 with fifty workers. Full-scale excavations were conducted by Schliemann and *Dorpfeld in April and May 1884. Dorpfeld re­ turned the following spring to conclude the work. These excavations revealed the plan of the impressive Late Helladic III palace complex in the upper citadel, the importance of the megaron as an architectural unit and the existence of Mycenaean wall paintings. Skeptics, notably W. J. Stillman and F. C. *Penrose, argued that the structure revealed by these excavations was, in fact, Byzantine but were soon refuted. Since 1905 excavations have been conducted by the *German Archaeological Institute, Athens, under the leadership of Dorpfeld, G. *Karo and others. These have clarified the various building periods of the dif­ ferent parts of the citadel. More recently, research has focused on the lower citadel and the settlement outside the walls. The upper citadel was inhabited from the Early Helladic period, and signs of earlier Mycenaean palaces have been found below the Late Helladic (LH) III remains. The imposing gateway in the eastern citadel walls leads through a succession of interior gates and courts to the main hall of the palace with its central hearth and throne. A bathroom is located nearby. Toward the end of the LH IIIB period the fortification walls were extended to enclose the lower citadel, and tunnels were constructed to an underground reservoir. These developments suggest an external threat. The citadel was destroyed by fire at the close of LH

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TISCHBEIN, JOHANN HEINRICH WILHELM (1751-1829)

IIIB. The site continued to be inhabited, however, till it was destroyed by Argos in 470 B.C. BIBLIOGRAPHY H. Schliemann, Mycenae (London, 1878), 1-19; +idem, Tiryns (London, 1886); Deutsches Archaologisches Institut, Athens, Tiryns 1-9 (Athens, 1912; Mainz, 1980); +U. Jantzen, Fiihrer durch Tiryns (Athens, 1975). DAVID A. TRAILL

TISCHBEIN, JOHANN HEINRICH WILHELM (1751-1829). German neo classical painter, engraver and connoisseur of antiquities; close friend to *Goethe. Wilhelm Tischbein began his artistic career as a portrait painter in Berlin. He traveled to Rome in 1779 and again in 1783, when he met Goethe. Soon after­ ward he created his famous portrait of the poet in the Roman Campagna (1786— 87; Stadelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt am Main). In 1789 he proceeded to Naples, where he became director of the Royal Academy of Painting under King Ferdinand; the position lasted until the seizure of Naples by the French in 1799. During this period Tischbein made the important engravings recording the “ sec­ ond collection” of Greek vases belonging to Sir William *Hamilton (sunk at sea in HMS Colossus in 1798; many of the vases have been recovered since 1975). The portrait of Goethe in the Campagna, perhaps conceived largely by the poet, remains Tischbein’s most significant creation. It shows Goethe in a land-

Portrait of J.H. W. Tischbein, lithograph by W. Unger, 1824. (Westfalisches Landesmuseum fur Kunst und Kulturgeschichte, Mun­ ster, Portratarchiv Diepenbroick. Photo: R. Wakonigg.)

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scape of the Tusculum plain, Monte Albano, the lakes of Albano and Nemi and the Appian Way. He is seated upon the “ Obelisk of Psammetichos” (cf. *obelisk) broken and obliterated, and at his feet is depicted a sculptured relief with the Recognition o f Orestes by Iphigenia, the climactic moment in the play Goe­ the was composing, Iphigenia auf Tauris. The sculpture may be based on a sarcophagus relief published by *Winckelmann and imitated by Benjamin *West. The painting provides a moving statement about the attitudes of artists and scholars of early neoclassicism, who approached classical antiquity in search of spiritual renewal and cultural rebirth. BIBLIOGRAPHY [H.] Vollmer, “ Tischbein, Wilhelm,” in Thieme— Becker, 33 (1939), 213-15; A. Birchall, “ The Story of C o lo ssu s IL N 266 (September 1978), 71-77; J. F. Moffitt, “The Poet and the Painter: J.H.W. Tischbein’s ‘Perfect Portrait’ of Goethe in the Campagna ArtB 65 (1983), 440-55. JOHN F. MOFFITT

TITIAN (TIZIANO VECELLI; ca. 1488/90-1576). Italian Renaissance painter. Born at Cadore in the Veneto, Titian went to Venice as a child and soon was employed in the workshops of Gentile and Giovanni Bellini (*Bellini family) and associated with the innovative painter Giorgione in various projects. His own first independent commission was in Padua (legends of St. Anthony in the Scuola di San Antonio, 1510). With Venice as his base, Titian received com­ missions of ever-increasing importance, from Alfonso d’Este at Ferrara (*Este family) and Duke Federico II of Mantua (*Gonzaga family) and then from the Emperor Charles V, Pope Paul III and King Philip II of Spain. His many travels in connection with this patronage included a stay in Rome in 1645^6. Inter­ nationally famed and influential for his portraits as well as mythological and religious paintings, Titian lived a long and immensely productive life. The relationship of Titian to classical antiquity has been much discussed and not totally settled. It is clear that he and others made the comparison of the Venetian artist with antiquity’s greatest painter Apelles and of his patron Charles V with Alexander the Great, Apelles’s sponsor. In addition, Titian’s knowledge of ancient literature on art and his desire to emulate it are evident in his paintings based on descriptions made by the rhetorician Philostratos the Elder, whose Imagines describe paintings that were in a picture gallery in the third century a .c .; for Alfonso d’Este he painted the famous scenes of the Andrians and the Worship o f Venus (by 1523; both in the Prado, Madrid), works of immense charm that show an attentive reading of Philostratos’s text but are by no means archaeological in tone. In the total oeuvre of Titian, both paintings and drawings, copies of antiquities are quite rare. In his early fresco of St. Anthony’s Miracle o f the Speaking Infant is depicted a statue of a Roman emperor in armor that is almost identical to a figure in a relief in Ravenna of the period of Claudius (Apotheosis o f

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Augustus; Museo di San Vitale, Ravenna). A drawing in the *Uffizi, probably done soon after his return from Rome, appears to be a fairly close copy of the sleeping male figure in the relief known in the Renaissance as the Bed o f Polykleitos (present location unknown). For the rest, many references to classical monuments (especially sarcophagi) may be found in his paintings, but these are far more important for understanding the art of Titian than for securing infor­ mation about actual antiquities. Indeed, Titian was known to create his own fictitious ancient sculptures, such as the sarcophagus depicted in his “ Sacred and Profane Love” (ca. 1515; Borghese Gallery, Rome). Among the many “ borrowings” (or, perhaps a better term is “ creative responses” to ancient sculpture), perhaps most compelling is his reference to the well-known statue of the Falling Gaul, which could be seen in the *Grimani family collection in Venice from 1523. Titian’s Martyrdom o f St. Lawrence (1548-57; church of the Gesuiti, Venice) shows an ingenious adaptation of the pose for the dying saint, adding limbs that were missing from the statue at the time. His paintings for a series of Twelve Caesars (destroyed by fire; known only in copies), created after 1536 for Federico Gonzaga, must have borne a close relation to emperor por­ traits in ancient marbles, coins and gems, which he could have studied in the Grimani collections or the ducal holdings at Mantua. Titian’s trip to Rome in 1545^6 naturally stimulated his interest in antiquity (not only for the monuments that he saw in Rome but for those visible in and around Venice upon his return). *Vasari reports that the pope gave the artist magnificent quarters in the Belvedere palace at the *Vatican, and he thus would have had ample opportunity to study the important sculptures in the papal col­ lection. No report in Titian’s words survives, but he surely would have seen the *Laocoon at this time. (It is possible that he already knew the work in a cast; but the often-repeated remark that Titian owned such a cast was first made in the eighteenth century.) His reaction to the great masterpiece may have been ironic; Titian is thought to have invented the design of an amusing woodcut, attributed to N. Boldrini, that shows a landscape with three apes in the pose of Laocoon and his two sons. BIBLIOGRAPHY + 0 . J. Brendel, “ Borrowings from Ancient Art by Titian,” ArtBull 37 (1955), 113-25; H. Wethey, The Paintings of Titian 1 (London, 1969), 18-19, 23-24, 28-30; M. Perry, “ On Titian’s ‘Borrowings’ from Ancient Art: A Cautionary Case,” Tiziano e Venezia 1976 (Vicenza, 1980), 187-91; Bober—Rubinstein, esp. 468; D. Rosand, “ An Arc of Flame, On the Transmission of Pictorial Knowledge,” Bacchanals of Titian and Rubens (Stockholm, 1987), 81-92.

TIVOLI (TIBUR), Italy. Italian town, site of an early Latin settlement and later Roman resort area, located on the Anio River, ca. 27km east of Rome; locality of famed quarries producing travertine limestone. The site of Tivoli was already inhabited in the Bronze Age and has furnished evidence of both habitation and a necropolis (the Rocca Pia cemetery) from the

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Iron Age. As a Latin town independent of Rome, Tivoli prospered for centuries, eventually coming under Roman domination in 90 B.C. To the second or first century B.C. belong several important temples of Tivoli, associated with Her­ cules, Vesta and the Tiburtine Sibyl, Albunea. The picturesque location in the foothills of the Sabine mountains overlooking Rome provided a pleasant retreat area for wealthy Romans to build their villas. In addition to *Hadrian’s Villa (the most famous of these), Tivoli also held the villas of Marius, Julius Caesar, Sallust, Cassius, Catullus, Horace, Maecenas, Quintilius Varus and Trajan. In Renaissance times the height of Tivoli was fortified by Pope *Pius II with a magnificent castle, the Rocca Pia (ca. 1459); following this, Pope *Julius III made Cardinal Ippolito II d’Este governor of Tivoli (*Este family), and in 1550 the architect Pirro *Ligorio was commis­ sioned to build the splendid Villa d’Este, rivaling— and also stealing from— the richly appointed ancient Roman villas. Tivoli was a magnetic attraction for travelers, tourists and students of antiquity for centuries. *Alberti, Flavio *Biondo and *Bramante were there, and *Raphael led an archaeological excursion to Tivoli for *Bembo, Castiglione and others. Giuliano da *Sangallo has left an early study (Vatican Library) of the ground plan and elevation of the popular round temple, sometimes said to be dedicated to Vesta, sometimes to the Sibyl. Situated on a spectacular height overlooking the cascading waters of the Anio, the travertine temple was encircled by eighteen Corinthian columns, of which only ten remain. It survived as a result of con­ version to a church in the Middle Ages, known by 978 as Santa Maria Rotonda. Adjoining the round shrine on the heights is a small rectangular Ionic temple, which may have been dedicated to the Sibyl Albunea (if the round temple was not). It, too, served as a church, dedicated to St. George. *Palladio did a reconstruction of the great sanctuary of Hercules (ca. 120m X 180m) located on the southwest slope of Tivoli on a terrace supported by vaulted concrete arcades. Long covered over with later buildings that obscured the plan, the site has never been as popular as the two temples overlooking the Anio. Frequently, visitors toured the Villa d’Este. Building materials from Hadrian’s Villa were reused here, and on view was a magnificent collection of ancient statuary gathered from Hadrian’s Villa and elsewhere. Further, there were the numerous Renaissance pavilions of the gardens designed by Ligorio that fea­ tured antique themes, such as the remarkable “ Fountain of Rome,” with its miniature *Pantheon, *Colosseum, *Column of Trajan, *Column of Marcus Au­ relius, *Arch of Titus and *Arch of Constantine. The *Artemis of Ephesos was the centerpiece of the “ Organ Fountain,” where she was described as the god­ dess of nature. The visit to Tivoli became de riguer for tourists of the eighteenth and nine­ teenth centuries, and we have the ecstatic descriptions of the place by John Evelyn, Chateaubriand, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Florence Nightingale. By the eighteenth century, however, the Villa d’Este had fallen into decline, and the

Temple of the Sibyl Tivoli, engraving by G. B. Mercati (1600-ca. 1637), Veroli, Biblioteca Giovardiana. (Deutsches Archaologisches Institut, Rome. Inst. Neg. 80.794.)

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marbles were sold off to other collections: to the *Capitoline went the Satyr by Praxiteles, Meleager, Pallas, Diana and Pandora; to Henry *Blundell went Jupiter, Juno, Mercury, Mars and others. Further, the temples were less pro­ tected in this period, as they ceased to be used for churches— the round temple by 1828 and the rectangular one by 1884. The series of villas dotting the hills both north and south of Tivoli, higher up than Hadrian’s Villa, the better to receive the waters of the Anio, have evocative names. But there is little proof for the ownership of the “ Villa of Catullus,” “ Villa of Quintilus Varus,” “ Villa of Brutus” or “ Villa of Cas­ sius.” Marbles were plundered from these, too, and sent to Rome and elsewhere. From a villa perhaps belonging to the Pisones were taken, in 1779, sixteen herms of Greek philosophers and poets (now in the *Prado) as well as the famous head of the *Alexander Azara (now in the Louvre). In the *Vatican is the group of Apollo with the Muses, found at the “ Villa of Cassius” in 1775 by Domenico de Angelis. BIBLIOGRAPHY +N. Neuerburg, “The Other Villas of Tivoli,” Archaeology 21 (1968), 288-97; W. L. MacDonald, s.v: “Tibur (Tivoli),” PECS 921-22; +L. B. Dal Maso, The Villa oflppolito II d ’Este at Tivoli (Florence, 1978); R. Keaveney, Views of Rome, catalog of exhibition (London, 1988), 249-59.

TIZIO, SIGISMONDO (1458-1528). Italian chronicler, priest and amateur ar­ chaeologist. After taking a degree in civil and canon law from the University of Perugia, Tizio moved to Siena in 1487. Employed as tutor to the sons of Andrea Todeschini Piccolomini, a member of Siena’s most prominent family, he was even­ tually fired for his propensity to gossip. Shortly thereafter, he entered the priesthood and was appointed a canon of Siena Cathedral; in this position he remained for the rest of his long life. Apart from his priestly duties, Tizio seems to have been a virtual grapho­ maniac, composing two long chronicles and several shorter works, none of them ever published. Only a book of notes survives from his Historia barbarica. His most ambitious project, the Historia senensium, or History o f the Sienese, rep­ resents an entire adult lifetime of work. Thousands of folio pages long, the sixvolume autograph text, rebound, is now preserved in the Vatican Library. The History's first volume begins with a long account of the Etruscans, tracing not only the Etruscan history of Siena but also that of each of the twelve cities of the Etruscan League. Here Tizio has compiled the first systematic collection of Etruscan inscriptions and the first-known attempt at an Etruscan lexicon. The latter is no more than a curiosity; the former contains information about early collectors and early knowledge of Etruria that is of enduring value. Initially a follower of *Annio da Viterbo, Tizio came to regard the Dominican forger with contempt. He reserved unmitigated scorn for another early Etruscological for­ gery, the Gesta Porsemnae regis, composed ca. 1460 by the Florentine cleric

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TOMB OF CAECILIA METELLA (“ CAPO DI BOVE” )

Leonardo Dati. Despite his idiosyncratic Latin and occasional credulity, Tizio has many admirable qualities as an early antiquarian. His faithful record of archaeological discoveries in his own day provides a useful chronological an­ chor, and his own trips to *Chiusi and elsewhere provide credible eyewitness reports. BIBLIOGRAPHY P. Piccolomini, La Vita e Vopera di Sigismondo Tizio (1458-1528) (Rome, 1903); O. A. Danielsson, Etruskische Inschriften in Handschriftlicher Uberlieferung (Uppsala, 1928); M. Martelli Cristofani, “ MS Sloane 3524,” in Siena: Le Origini: Testimonianze e miti archeologici, ed. M. Cristofani (Florence, 1979), 136-43; M. Cristofani, “ Le iscrizioni etrusche,” in Siena: Le Origini: Testimonianze e miti archeologici, ed. M. Cristofani (Florence, 1979), 125-26. INGRID ROWLAND

TOMB OF CAECILIA M ETELLA (“ CAPO DI BOVE” ). Large Roman tomb on the *Via Appia, just before the third milestone from Rome. The identity of the people mentioned in the inscription on the tomb (CIL VI 1274) has produced a considerable volume of literature, but it is now generally agreed that Caecilia Metella was the daughter of Q. Caecilius Metellus Creticus (consul in 69 B.C.) and was married to a son of Crassus the triumvir, M. Licinius Crassus, who died in 49 B.C. The tomb consists of a circular drum 29.50m in diameter, 11m high, on a square base 7m high. Near the top of the drum is a marble frieze decorated with garlands slung between bucrania, hence the tomb’s popular name of “ Capo di Bove.” The tomb stands on a rise and commands a good view of the road. It became part of a fortress of the Caetani family in ca. 1300, and it was then that the upper part of the drum was repaired and replaced by medieval merlons. The original conical roof or tumulus of the tomb is last recorded in the eleventh century. The base was plundered of its travertine facing, already gone by the time *Lafrery published a drawing of the tomb in 1549. *Lanciani records that a stonecutter involved in this spoliation, in the pontificate of *Paul III (153449), found the entrance to a burial chamber containing a large sarcophagus. It is of much later date than the tomb and cannot have been used for Caecilia Metella herself. The tomb was threatened with destruction by *Sixtus V in 1589 but was saved by popular demand. It seems that in the sixteenth century it was celebrated for its echo as much as for its antiquity. Careful drawings of the tomb, including a plan and section, were published by *Bartoli in 1697, and *Piranesi produced both a view of the tomb and a speculative illustration of how it was constructed. *Byron described the tomb at some length in Canto IV of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812), “ a stern round tower of other days,” and he speculates about its owner, “ the wealthiest Roman’s wife; Behold his love or pride!”

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Lanciani, Destruction of Ancient Rome, 96, 236-37; A. E. Gordon—J. S. Gordon, Album of Dated Latin inscriptions, Pt. 1 (Berkeley, 1958), 30-32; F. Coarelli, Dintomi di Roma (Rome, 1981), 47-48. GLENYS DAVIES

TOMB OF EURYSACES, Rome. Roman tomb of the baker Marcus Vergilius Eurysaces and his wife, Atistia, erected in the late first century B.C. in a prom­ inent position between the Viae Labicana and Praenestina near the later *Porta Maggiore. Portraits of the deceased in relief appear on the fagade, and a frieze depicting baking operations runs around the three other sides of the monument. Under Honorius ( a .d . 403), the facade of the tomb was destroyed, and the structure was incorporated into a round defensive tower of the rebuilt Porta Praenestina of Aurelian. Part of the tomb remained visible, however, and one of the inscrip­ tions on the monument was noted already in the mid-fifteenth century, and the exposed part of the edifice was sketched by Sallustio Peruzzi. In 1838, under Pope *Gregory XVI, the later accretions to the Porta Maggiore were removed, and the newly exposed monument was studied and drawn by *Canina and oth­ ers. Further excavations took place in 1955-57. The portrait relief is now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori (*Capitoline Museums). The tomb and its frieze figure prominently in modern studies of Roman “ popular” or “ plebeian” art. BIBLIOGRAPHY L. Grifi, Brevi cenni di un monumento scoperto a Porta Maggiore (Rome, 1838); L. Canina, “ Descrizione . . . del sepolcro di Marco Virgilio Eurisace,” Annlnst 12 (1838), 226-29; +P. Ciancio Rossetto, II Sepolcro del fom aio Marco Virgilio Eurisace a Porta Maggiore (Rome, 1973); D.E.E. Kleiner, Roman Group Portraiture, The Funerary Re­ liefs o f the Late Republic and Early Empire (New York, 1977), 11-13, 202-3. FRED S. KLEINER

TOMB OF OVID. Burial place, much disputed, of the Roman poet Ovid (43 B.C.—A.D. 17). Ovid is presumed to have died at Tomis (modern Constanta, Romania). His tomb is not extant, though Ovidian tombs have been imagined at Tomis and elsewhere in the Black Sea area, at Szombathely (Hungary) and at Rome; and one ancient sepulchral chamber near Rome was misidentified as Ovid’s (cf. *Tomb of Vergil). Eusebius’s Chronica says that Ovid was buried at Tomis; Caecilius Minutianus Apuleius (apud L. Coelius Rhodiginus, Antiquae lectiones, 1516, XIII. 1) says that the barbarians put up a tomb before his former house. According to a story told to G. G. Pontano by George of Trebizond (13951484), the citizens of Tomis erected, by public subscription, a splendid sepulchre before the city gate. This account succeeded various medieval legends in pop­ ularity during the Italian Renaissance. The story most current in the German Renaissance, recorded by Wolfgang Lazius (1551) and by Caspar Brusch (1553),

View of the “ Tomb of Ovid,” attributed to E. F. Burney. (The Warburg Institute, University of London.)

“ TOMB OF PHILIP II,” Vergina

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has Ovid’s tomb discovered at Szombathely (ancient Savaria) in 1508. To this story was later added a new epitaph, published by Tobias Fendt in 1574 and included in Lorenz Muller’s romance (1585) of the finding and carrying off of Ovid’s tomb near the Black Sea about Easter 1581. The tomb was subsequently reported as in Poland and in Russia. A fancy tomb at Rome is engraved in Richard de St. Non, Voyage pittoresque . . . , 1781-6, 1.160. The painted tomb chamber of the Nasonii in the suburbs of Rome was, for two centuries after its discovery in 1674, identified as Ovid’s. Its paintings were described by G. P. *Bellori and engraved by P. S. *Bartoli (1680ff.); Bartoli, his sons and others made watercolors. Six panels from the tomb are in the *British Museum. BIBLIOGRAPHY +J. B. Trapp, “ Ovid’s Tomb” , JWarb, 36 (1973), 35-76, repr. w. additions and cor­ rections in idem, Essays on the Renaissance and the Classical Tradition (Aldershot, 1990), no. 4; C. Pace, “ Pietro Sante Bartoli: Drawings in Glasgow University Library after Roman Paintings and Mosaics,” PBSR, 47 (1979), 118-38; J. B. Trapp, “ Portraits of Ovid in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance,’ ’ Die Rezeption der ‘Metamorphosen * des Ovid in der Neuzeit: Der Antike Mythos in Text und Bild, ed. H. Walter— H.-J. Horn— G. Huber-Rebenich (Berlin, 1995). J. B. TRAPP

“ TOMB OF PHILIP II,” Vergina. Unplundered Macedonian royal tomb, dis­ covered in 1977 by Manolis *Andronikos. The tomb is one of three in the Great Tumulus at *Vergina, where the Mac­ edonians are thought to have had their royal burial grounds. The largest known Macedonian tomb, it featured a limestone barrel vault and contained the cre­ mated remains of a male in the main chamber and of a female in the antecham­ ber, each having a wealthy array of associated grave gifts. In the main chamber were a gold larnax (ash chest), gold wreath with oak leaves and acorns, minia­ ture ivory portrait heads, gilded silver diadem and many other items; in the antechamber were a smaller gold larnax, gilded bronze greaves (shin guards), Scythian gold gorytus (bow and arrow case) and numerous other finds. Andronikos identified the owners of the tomb as Philip II (d. 336 B.C.), father of Alexander the Great, and his wife, Kleopatra (in the antechamber), and recog­ nized the images of Philip II and Alexander the Great in the ivory portrait heads. Considerable dispute ensued, with an opposing school of thought arguing that there were features of the tomb or grave goods that belonged to the fourth quarter of the fourth century B.C., too late for Philip II. P. W. Lehmann and others, arguing that the barrel vault did not develop in the area of mainland Greece until after the conquests of Alexander, countered that the tomb was actually that of Philip III Arrhidaios, half-brother of Alexander, and his warrior wife, Eurydike, both of whom died in 317 B.C. S. Rotroff pointed out that the black-gloss saltcellars found in the tomb are of a type first attested in the last quarter of the fourth century B.C. Supporting Andronikos’s claim is the anthro­

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pological reconstruction by A.J.N.W. Prag of remains of the male head from the main chamber, which is interpreted to show Philip II with the results of a wound that left him blind in one eye. The discovery of the tomb and the resulting controversy stimulated great interest in the archaeology of Macedonia. BIBLIOGRAPHY P. Lehmann, “The So-Called Tomb of Philip II: A Different Interpretation,” AJA 84 (1980), 527-31; B. Barr-Sharrar— E. N. Borza, eds., Macedonia and Greece in Late Classical and Early Hellenistic Times, Studies in the History of Art 10 (Washington, DC, 1982); M. Andronikos, Vergina, The Royal Tombs and the Ancient City (Athens, 1984); A.J.N.W. Prag, “Reconstructing King Philip II: The ‘Nice’ Version,” AJA 94 (1990), 237-47; articles by J. H. Musgrave, E. D. Carney, et al. in The Ancient World 22.2 (1991).

TOMB OF REMUS. See PYRAMID OF CESTIUS. TOMB OF THE HORATII AND CURIATII. Late Republican Roman tomb located on the Via Appia in Albano, outside Rome. The unusual form of the tomb consists of five conical elements that rise from the center and corners of a square base. Pope *Pius II recorded (1463) the local tradition associating it with the Roman and Alban triplet brothers (Livy 1.25), of whom only one survived in hand-to-hand combat. Pirro *Ligorio thought it was the tomb Hadrian built for Pompey. A number of artists represented it, including A. da *Sangallo, B. *Peruzzi and *Piranesi, who depicted it four times and recognized its similarity to the tomb of Porsena at *Chiusi described by Pliny the Elder (.NH 36.91-93). Others suggested it was the tomb of Porsena’s son, Arruns, who fell in battle near Albano. At the request of Antonio *Canova, the tomb was extensively restored by Giuseppe *Valadier (1825-37). The base of the tomb as restored measures fifty feet on each side, with a height of twentythree feet. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Nibby, Del Monumento sepolcrale detto volgarmente degli Orazii e Curiazii (Rome, 1854); L. C. Gabel, ed., Memoirs of a Renaissance Pope: The Commentaries o f Pius II, tr. F. A. Gragg (New York, 1959), 316; L. Corbi et al., “ II sepolcro degli Orazi e Curiazi,” Ricerche di Storia delVArte 31 (1987), 13-14; R. Keaveney, Views o f Rome, catalog of exhibition (London, 1988), 274-76. JACK FREIBERG

TOMB OF THE SCIPIOS, Rome. Mausoleum, south of Rome between the Via Appia and Via Latina, belonging to the Cornelii Scipiones, a Roman family prominent especially in the years of the Middle Republic. The approximate placement of the family’s tomb was known from comments by several ancient authors, but its location was pinpointed only in 1614, when there came to light a sarcophagus bearing an inscription (thereafter broken off and sold) identifying its occupant as L. Cornelius Scipio, consul in 259 B.C. The significance of this discovery was not realized, however, until May 1780, when

“Tomb of the Horatii and Curiatii” at Albano, engraving from B. de Montfaucon, L ’Antiquite expliquee et representee en figures 5 (1719-24). (The Warburg Institute, University of London.)

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the Sassi family— in excavating a section of their vineyard to enlarge a wine cellar— dug anew into the tomb. After an initial discovery of two inscribed sarcophagi, the monument was identified, and a three-year exploration (or better, plundering) was begun. Subterranean galleries were cleared, resulting in the discovery of more inscribed sarcophagi and three sculptured portrait heads, one of which, laureate, has sometimes been thought to represent the early Latin poet Ennius, who evidently was buried in the Scipios’ tomb and a statue of whom was located, according to Livy (38.56.4), “ in Scipionum monumento.” The tomb’s contents entered the *Vatican Museums, where they are now displayed together. The fagade was partially cleared in this excavation. Coarelli has reconstructed it in two levels, on the pattern of a Hellenistic stage set, the upper story with engaged half-columns framing three niches for statuary. The lower level, with the central arched entrance to the tomb chambers, today retains poorly preserved traces of wall painting, apparently historical in nature. On Lanciani’s suggestion, the city of Rome bought the land in 1880; the whole complex was restored in 1926. Lanciani surmised that the tomb was built into a tufa quarry, on land owned by the Scipios, at about the time the Via Appia was opened in 312 B.C. Burials here commenced with the interment of L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, consul in 298 B.C. (father of the consul of 259 B.C. and more illustrious than the younger man), and continued well into the second century. The monument evidently was regarded by later ages as historically important, for it was maintained and re­ paired into the fourth century a .c . BIBLIOGRAPHY +F. Piranesi—E. Q. Visconti, Monumento degli Scipioni (Rome, 1785); R. Lanciani, The Ruins and Excavations o f Ancient Rome (Boston, 1897), 321-27; +Nash, II, 35256; +F. Coarelli, II Sepolcro degli Scipioni a Roma (Rome, 1988); Richardson, New Topographical Dictionary, 359-60. DAVID L. THOMPSON

TOMB OF VERGIL, Naples. Legendary burial place of the Roman poet Vergil (70-19 B.C.). According to ancient authorities (Suetonius, Donatus), Vergil was buried near *Naples, on the Via Puteolana “ before the second milestone.” His tomb, no longer extant, was acquired by Silius Italicus (d. ca. 101 a .d .), who kept it as a shrine, and, according to later legend, St. Paul visited it. *Petrarch (1304-74) and *Boccaccio (1313-75) had seen a tomb said to be Vergil’s. This was pre­ sumably the ancient Roman columbarium (cf. *columbaria) still standing near the Piedigrotta entrance to the so-called Grotta di Virgilio (Grotta Vecchia), the tunnel constructed in Roman Imperial times through the hill of Posilipo to con­ nect Naples and Pozzuoli. In 1453 Flavio *Biondo reported that he could not find Vergil’s tomb. By 1543 at the latest, the columbarium at Posilipo was being shown to tourists as

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“ Vergil’s tomb” ; by 1560 it was said to contain a marble urn and an epitaph. This epitaph was said to have been composed by the poet himself. From 1554, other epitaphs were composed and set up near the tomb. In 1591, S. Mazzella refers to a bay tree growing from the tomb’s top; later legend said it had been planted by Petrarch. “ Vergil’s tomb” and the Grotta were on the itinerary of tourists in Southern Italy from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. In Na­ poleonic times a monument to Vergil was projected nearby. The columbarium is now in the Parco Virgiliano of the Comune of Naples (1930). The first extant picture of an imaginary tomb of Vergil is a woodcut in S. Brant’s Vergil (1502). The columbarium was engraved by Tobias Fendt (1574) and drawn by Jean-Jacques *Boissard at the end of the century. It was often drawn, painted and engraved from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries. BIBLIOGRAPHY E. Cocchia, La Tomba di Virgilio (Turin, 1889 [cf. idem, Saggi filologici, 3 (Turin, 1902), 135-249], repr. Rome, 1980); M. Capasso, II Sepolcro di Virgilio (Naples, 1983); +J. B. Trapp, “ The Grave of Vergil,” JWarb, 47 (1984), 1-31; idem, “ Virgil and the Mon­ uments,” Transactions of the Virgil Society 18 (1986), 1-17, both repr. with additions and corrections in idem, Essays on the Renaissance and the Classical Tradition (Aidershot, 1990), nos. 5-6. J. B. TRAPP

TORLONIA FAMILY. Noble Italian family, known for its banking wealth, used to purchase antiquities. The Torlonia family arrived in Rome from France in the mid-eighteenth cen­ tury. The head of the family was GIOVANNI (1754-1829), who founded the Banca Torlonia and accumulated a fortune, which was quickly spent on the acquisition of property. In his vertiginous ascent Giovanni— all in one year, 1797— purchased the land for the Villa Torlonia on the Via Nomentana and the Torlonia Palace in Piazza Venezia (later destroyed) and acquired the title of marchese. *Valadier designed the enormous palace of the villa, bringing in cart­ loads of travertine limestone from the *Baths of Titus on the Esquiline for the construction. Soon it could be said that the Torlonia holdings eclipsed those of the *Borghese family and *Ludovisi family in their best days. Upon the death of Giovanni, his son ALESSANDRO (1800-86) assumed leadership of the family and the task of promoting its image and prestige. He made many additions to the Villa Torlonia, ever competing with the Borghese, so that it was adorned with false ruins and invented temples, sphinxes and mosaics. In 1842 he erected there two modern obelisks in honor of his parents, before an audience that included Pope *Gregory XVI and *Ludwig I of Bavaria. Inside the palace the adornments included a sculptured frieze by *Thorvaldsen, recalling the *Parthenon and having the flattering theme of the Triumph o f Al­ exander. In the second half of his life Alessandro changed radically and decided to liquidate the bank, turning to the surprising combination of religion and ar­

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chaeology. In 1856 he purchased *Portus, the site of Trajan’s harbor, and had excavations carried out there as well as at *Cerveteri and *Vulci. He also ac­ quired many antiquities through purchase; in 1866 he bought the Villa Albani (*Albani family) with its rich collection. His later years were sad, as he suffered from many tragic personal problems, including the insanity of his wife. The family was in decline, and the villa was neglected until Alessandro’s grandson, GIOVANNI (1873-1938) sought to recover prestige for the Torlonia name. A friend of Mussolini, Giovanni offered him the use of his villa when he wanted, a privilege the Italian leader retained well after Torlonia’s death in 1938. Giovanni was praised for his work in draining the swamps around Portus; for the occasion, he allowed the archaeologist G. *Lugli to study and publish the Torlonia property. At the death of Giovanni, his descendants disputed the inheritance, and the villa was once again left to sink into disrepair. The collections of art in the Villa Albani have been kept closed to the general public, and for many years Portus was not open to visitors. Over 600 sculptures were placed in the Museo Torlonia on the Via della Lungara, likewise of limited access; they include items from Portus and from various old collections of the city of Rome (*Giustiniani family, *Cesarini family). BIBLIOGRAPHY +C. L. Visconti, Indicazione delle sculture del Museo Torlonia (Rome, 1884-85); s.v. “Collezioni archeologiche,” EAA, suppl. (1973), 250; C. Gasparri, “ Materiali perservire alio studio del Museo Torlonia di scultura antica,” MemLinc 311 (1980), ser. 8, 24.2; A. Campitelli, Villa Torlonia, Storia ed architettura (Rome, 1989).

TORRENTIUS, LAEVINUS (LIEVEN VAN DER BEKE; 1525-95). Flem­ ish humanist, poet, antiquarian and ecclesiastic. Born in Ghent, van der Beke went to Louvain to study law and literature (1540-45). He continued his studies in Paris, Padua and Bologna, where he obtained his doctorate in law in 1552. He subsequently resided in Rome; there he became acquainted with Fulvio *Orsini, with whom he remained in contact after his return to Liege in 1557. After a second trip to Rome in 1570, he returned to Belgium for good, settling in Liege, where he helped found the Collegium. He lived in a magnificent residence designed by Lambert *Lombard on the Place St. Pierre, frequently entertaining other humanists. Abraham Ortelius and Jan Vivianus were among those who admired his library and collec­ tion. Van der Beke was appointed bishop of Antwerp in 1585 and elected archbishop of Malines in 1594 but did not live to be confirmed. He owned a large collection of antiquities, including bronze sculpture, gems and vases inscribed with hieroglyphics. His coin cabinet held 556 Roman Re­ publican coins, 1,700 Imperial specimens and 136 Greek coins. But he preferred epigraphy to numismatics; a manuscript in Brussels contains inscriptions he transcribed. In 1573 he purchased the library and coin collection of his friend Carolus de Lange (Langius) when the latter died. The collection was bequeathed to the Jesuit college at Liege. An early sev­

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enteenth-century catalog of van der Beke’s coins and gems is preserved. The library was confiscated by Maria Theresa in 1773, and the numismatic collection was surreptitiously acquired by J. H. Ghesquiere in Ghent. It was sold off in 1812. *Peiresc apparently visited the collection and made notes on some of van der Beke’s coins and gems, but none of the gems have been identified. A silver cup with Bacchic symbols formerly in his possession is drawn in the Codex Pighianus (fol.223; *Pighius). BIBLIOGRAPHY V. Tourneur, “La Collection Laevinus Torrentius,” RBN (1914), 281-332; A. Roersch, L ’Humanisme beige a Liege a Vepoque de la Renaissance (Louvain, 1933), 117-39. MARJON VAN DER MEULEN

TOTALITATSIDEAL. The conviction that literary sources alone cannot pro­ vide a comprehensive reconstruction of antiquity but that all material remains (archaeological, architectural, epigraphical, numismatic) must be exploited. F. A. *Wolf partially anticipated this ideal. Influenced by *Goethe, F. G. *Welcker proposed the view (1824) while reconstructing lost tragedies. K. O. *Miiller exemplified its practice. *Wilamowitz, like *Jahn and his *monumental philology, repeatedly urged it, adding, “ [0]ne must see the forest and the trees,” master generalization based on detail. Growing conviction by philologists that archaeology was indispensable ensured university approval of the new disci­ pline. Decline of classical education since 1914 and the vast accumulation of imperfectly published finds have split archaeology and philology and substituted isolated specialization. BIBLIOGRAPHY R. Kekule, Das Leben Friedrich Gottlieb Welckefs nach seinen eignen Aufzeichungen und Briefen (Leipzig, 1880), 359; U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Geschichte der Philologie, 3rd ed. (Leipzig, 1959), 57; H. Patzer, “ Wilamowitz und die Klassische Philologie,” Festschrift Franz Domseiff zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. Horst Kusch (Leipzig, 1953), 244-57. WILLIAM M. CALDER III

TOVAR, ANTONIO (1911-85). Spanish linguist and philologist. Though he was not an archaeologist, Tovar’s work (well over 300 books and articles) on the languages, toponymy and ethnography of ancient Iberia is fun­ damental to the interpretation and identification of archaeological sites and inscriptional finds throughout Spain and Portugal. Born in Valladolid, educated in Spain, France and Germany, Tovar had an illustrious career as a scholar, educator and administrator, holding important posts at the universities of Madrid, Buenos Aires, Illinois, Tubingen and Sala­ manca, where he was rector from 1951 to 1956. He also held doctorates honoris causa from the universities of Munich, Buenos Aires and Dublin and was a member of the Real Academia Espanola. At the personal request of Adolf *Schulten, Tovar continued the German’s

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work on the geography and ethnography of ancient Iberia, Iberische Landeskunde. His three volumes (1, Baetica, and 2, Lusitania, in German, 3, Tarraconensis, in Spanish) complement Schulten’s book of the same name and provide the only comprehensive correlation of the literary and epigraphical ev­ idence to the archaeological record of ancient cities, towns and tribes throughout the peninsula. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Tovar, The Ancient Languages of Spain and Portugal (New York, 1961); idem, Iber­ ische Landeskunde, 1-2 (Baden-Baden, 1974-76); idem, “ Las inscripciones de Botorrita y de Penalba de Villastar y los lfmites orientales de los celtiberos,” Hispania Antigua 3 (1973), 367-405; Geograffa de Iberia, 3 (Baden-Baden, 1989). PHILIP O. SPANN

TOWER OF THE WINDS (HOROLOGION OF ANDRONIKOS), Athens. Greek clock tower. The Tower of the Winds was designed by Andronikos of Kyrrhos, a Mace­ donian. It is an octagonal tower, built of Pentelic marble, measuring 3.20m on a side and standing with its roof intact to a height of ca. 15.30 m; two distyle porches gave access from the northeast and northwest sides. The building takes its popular name from the sculpted male figures with wings, representing the winds, that adorn the top of each of the eight faces. According to Vitruvius, there was a bronze triton on top of the roof that served as a weathervane, turning to point at the appropriate wind. On each face below the wind there are the incised lines of a sundial; the present gnomons were installed in 1845. The interior of the building housed a large water clock or klepsydra. The actual mechanism of the clock has long since disappeared, though cuttings in the floor indicate its position, and a large cylindrical chamber attached to the south face apparently held the water tanks. The structure is first mentioned and called a horologium by Varro in his De re rustica (3.5.17) and is described in some detail by Vitruvius (1.6.4). Tradi­ tionally dated in the first century B.C., the building has recently been more plausibly assigned to the middle of the second century B.C. (von Freeden). Since its construction, it has survived, virtually intact, the siege of Sulla (86 B.C.), the Herulian sack (267 a .d .), the attack of Alaric (395), the Slavic invasion (582/ 3), the Frankish siege (1205) and the siege of the *Akropolis (1826). Standing in the heart of the old city, it was used in the Turkish period as a teckeh, associated with the nearby mosque (Fethiye Cami). A mihrab was cut in the inner wall toward Mecca, and an early print by *Dodwell (1805) shows Nevlana dervishes at their devotions inside the building. BIBLIOGRAPHY +J. Stuart— N. Revett, The Antiquities of Athens (London, 1762) I, ch. 2, 13-25; D. J. de Solla Price, “ The Tower of the Winds,” National Geographic Magazine (April 1967), 586-96; J. Noble— D. Price, “ The Water Clock in the Tower of the Winds,” AJA 72 (1968), 345-55; Travlos 281-88; J. von Freeden, OIKIA KURRESTOU (Rome, 1983). JOHN McK. CAMP II

View of the Tower of the Winds, Athens, from J. Stuart-N. Revett, The Antiquities o f Athens, 1 (1762).

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TOWNLEY, CHARLES (1737-1805). English collector. As a member of an old Lancashire Catholic family, Charles Townley had to seek his education abroad, at Douai, after which he entered Parisian society under the tutelage of his grandfather’s brother. His father having died in 1742, he returned home in 1758 to enter his inheritance. In 1767 he went to Rome and there in 1768 began his collection of marble sculptures with a fragmentary group of two knucklebone-players (so identified by *Winckelmann), formerly in the Palazzo Barberini. Old Roman collections were a major source of sculptures for young Englishmen on the *Grand Tour, and over the years Townley was also to make acquisitions from the Maccarani, *Giustiniani, *Odescalchi and Burioni collections, from the Villa *Mattei and the Villa Montalto and from Cardinals *Albani and Passionei. Many purchases were made through the banker and dealer Thomas *Jenkins, who, together with Gavin *Hamilton and James *Byres, was also involved in the speculative ex­ cavations that were the other main source of ancient sculptures. Townley’s col­ lection was enriched by Hamilton’s excavations at *Hadrian’s Villa, at “ Monte Cagnolo” near Lanuvium, at *Ostia and elsewhere. For much of 1772 and 1773 Townley was again in Italy, chiefly in Rome and Naples, also traveling as far as Taranto and *Syracuse. After returning to England, he bought sculptures from many English collec­ tions, including those of Topham Beauclerck, Lyde Brown, Thomas Beaumont, Matthew Duane, the Duchess of Portland, the Earl of Bessborough and Lord Cawdor. In 1781 he commissioned Johan Zoffany to paint him with d’*Hancarville and his friends Charles Greville and Thomas Astle in the library of his house in Park Street, surrounded by an imaginary arrangement of sculp­ tures. He published little but encouraged others to write about his collection, and himself compiled a series of manuscript catalogs for the use of visitors. Together with notebooks of purchases and other documents, they provide a wealth of information about how the collection was acquired and exhibited. He was elected fellow of the *Society of Antiquaries in 1786 and appointed trustee of the *British Museum in 1791. His last major purchase was a marble copy of Myron’s Diskobolos, found in Hadrian’s Villa in 1791. Following his death in 1805, his marble sculptures were purchased by Act of Parliament for £20,000 and deposited in the British Museum. The rest of his collection, chiefly bronzes, terracottas, coins and sealstones, was purchased from his heirs in 1814. His papers were acquired by the museum in 1992. BIBLIOGRAPHY E. Edwards, Lives o f the Founders of the British Museum (London, 1870); B. F. Cook, “The Townley Marbles in Westminster and Bloomsbury,” British Museum Yearbook 2 (1977), 34-78; idem, The Townley Marbles (London, 1985). B. F. COOK

Charles Toxvnley in his Gallery, by J. Zoffany, 1781-83. Burnley, Towneley Hall Art Gallery and Museums. (Towneley Hall Art Gallery and Museums, Burnley Borough Council.)

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TRADESCANT, JOHN (THE ELDER; d. 1638) and TRADESCANT, JOHN (THE YOUNGER; 1608-62). English gardeners and collectors. By profession the Tradescants were both gardeners. The elder Tradescant worked successively for the earls of Salisbury, Lord Wotton and the Duke of Buckingham, before being appointed “ Keeper of His Majesty’s Gardens, Vines and Silkworms” at Oatlands Palace in Surrey, a position inherited by the son on the death of the father. Between them the Tradescants were responsible for the introduction of many exotic plant species to England, notably through visits by the elder to Muscovy, the Low Countries, France and the Mediterranean and by the younger to Virginia. As much as for their contributions to gardening, however, the Tradescants are remembered for the museum— “ the Ark” — that they established at their home in Lambeth, then on the outer fringes of London. The Ark was the best-known and most extensive museum in Britain in its day and can also claim the distinction of being the first to open its doors to the public at large: entrance was gained by payment of a small charge instead of by the letters of introduction that were essential for admittance to private col­ lections elsewhere. In composition the Tradescants’ collection was very diverse: it was, indeed, a veritable “ cabinet of curiosities.” Side by side with hundreds of “ natural rarities” — zoological, mineral and botanical specimens— were “ artificial rari­ ties,” including antiquities. Some of these were no doubt acquired by the Tradescants themselves on their travels; others were given as gifts or may have been purchased. Roman coins and Renaissance medals formed the most numer­ ous category of antiquities, but the catalog of the collection—prepared with help from Elias *Ashmole and Dr. Thomas Wharton and published in 1656—men­ tions also cameos and intaglios, ‘‘Effigies of divers Personages of honor, note and quality,” “Phaeton with His Chariot and Horses, excellent waxworks,” Egyptian idols of Osiris and Anubis and Roman vessels. Visiting the Ark in 1657, John Evelyn particularly admired “ the antient Roman, Indian and other Nations Armour, shilds and weapons.” In 1675 the Tradescant collection passed by deed of gift to Elias Ashmole and through him to the University of Oxford. The *Ashmolean Museum was built at Oxford to house the collection, some parts of which may still be seen there. BIBLIOGRAPHY J. Tradescant, Musceum Tradescantianum (London, 1656); M. Allan, The Tradescants, Their Plants Gardens and Museum 1570-1662 (London, 1964); A. MacGregor, ed., Tradescant's Rarities, Essays on the Foundation of the Ashmolean Museum, 1683, with a Catalogue of the Surviving Early Collections (Oxford, 1983); P. Leith-Ross, The John Tradescants, Gardeners to the Rose and Lily Queen (London, 1984). ARTHUR MacGREGOR

TREASURY OF ATREUS (TOMB OF AGAMEMNON), Mycenae. Myce­ naean “ beehive” tholos tomb, dating to the thirteenth century B.C., the best preserved of all such tombs.

Portrait of John Tradescant the Younger (I) with his friend Zythepsa of Lambeth, attributed to Emanuel de Critz. Oxford, The Ashmolean Museum. (Museum.)

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Built of conglomerate ashlar blocks, the tomb is approached by a 36m-long dromos. Its 5.40m-high doorway broadens at the base. The chamber’s diameter is 14.60m, and height, 13.30m. A doorway inside leads to a rock-cut rectangular chamber. The fagade was ornamented with two tiers of columns carved in relief flanking the doorway and the decorated slabs that covered the relieving triangle over the lintel. The capitals may have inspired the Doric order. Pausanias believed the tomb was the underground treasure house of Atreus (2.16.6). In medieval times, its capstone was removed, and the chamber was used by shepherds, whose fires blackened its walls. The doorway was cleared in 1802 by the Voivode of Nauplia, enabling Lord and Lady *Elgin to enter the chamber that year. The fragments of carved slabs from the facade and pieces of engaged columns they found form part of the Elgin collection in the *British Museum. Pouqueville, *Clarke, Gordon, Mure and E. *Curtius described the tomb; *Leake, *Dodwell and *Gell described and drew its exterior and interior. Veli Pasha excavated the tomb’s facade in 1810 and presented column fragments to Lord Sligo; the fragments were later given to the British Museum. *Schliemann dug two test trenches in the side chamber in 1873 and 1876. Stamatakis cleared the dromos and both chambers for the *Greek Archaeological Society in 1878. In hopes of clarifying the date of the tomb’s construction, *Wace conducted a series of soundings whose results spurred an acrimonious debate between Wace and Sir Arthur *Evans. BIBLIOGRAPHY A.J.B. Wace, “ Excavations at Mycenae,” BSA 25 (1921-23), 283-87, 338-57; idem, “The Date of the Treasury of Atreus,” JHS 46 (1926), 110-20; idem, Mycenae, An Archaeological History and Guide (Princeton, NJ, 1949); G. E. Mylonas, Mycenae Rich in Gold (Athens, 1983). ROBERT B. KOEHL

TR IER (AUGUSTA TREVERORUM). Roman town (founded ca. 15 B.C.); raised to the status of a colony by Claudius; imperial residence (after a . d . 293). Trier boasts the most extensive aboveground Roman architectural remains in Germany, including the Porta Nigra (a city gate of controversial date), the im­ perial baths (fourth century a .c .), the St. Barbara baths (mid-second century), an amphitheater (ca. a .d . 100) and the Aula Palatina (the imperial audience hall, fourth century). The history of the Porta Nigra provides a colorful example of the changing circumstances of the city’s Roman remains. In the early eleventh century, a Greek hermit established his cell in the eastern tower. Upon his death, he was venerated as a saint, and the city gate was converted into a monastery church. This occasioned the dismantling of some of the existing structure, var­ ious alterations and, eventually, the addition of a Romanesque choir (1160). Thus the building stood until 1804, when Napoleon visited the city. He ordered the municipal government to return it to the state in which it stood “ under the Gauls,” thereby attempting to accomplish both the secularization of the church and the glorification of a Gallic past. That restoration was continued under the

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Prussians but was not completed until after it had been decided to save the Romanesque choir. The beginning of the modern history of the city’s archaeology is marked by the founding of the Societe des recherches utiles du departement de la Sarre (later, the Gesellschaft fiir niitzliche Forschungen) in 1801. The society spon­ sored excavations (e.g., at the St. Barbara baths in 1822) and publications. Dur­ ing the Prussian period, government excavations were conducted at the amphitheater and at the imperial baths under the supervision of the imperial architect Carl Friedrich Quednow (d. 1836). He refused to have the government finds housed with those of the Gesellschaft, and not until the foundation of the Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier in 1877 were the two collections united under one roof. The most spectacular archaeological event of the twentieth century was the discovery in 1946 of fragments of a painted ceiling under the cathedral. The paintings, reassembled and on display in the Bischofliches Museum, date from the early fourth century and are believed to be portraits of the imperial family. Their discovery seems to provide confirmation of a medieval legend that St. Helena, mother of Constantine, donated her palace at the site to be converted into a church. BIBLIOGRAPHY W. Reusch, s7v. “ Augusta Treverorum,” PECS 119-21; J. von Elbe, s.v. “Trier,” Ro­ man Germany, 2nd ed. (Mainz, 1977), 388-438; E. Zenz, Geschichte der Stadt Trier im 19. Jahrhundert, 1 (Trier, 1979). ELIZABETH C. TEVIOTDALE

TRINAKRIA. See SICILY. “ TRIUM PHAL” ARCHES. Triumphal— or, more accurately, honorary— arches were erected throughout the Roman Empire to commemorate victories in battle and other public acts and occasionally to serve as private, funerary monuments (*Arch of the Sergii, Pola). As impressive public monuments, arches were already represented in antiquity on coin reverses and in relief sculptures. Originally crowned by statuary groups in most cases, the arches were usually freestanding structures but sometimes served as gates in the walls of a city (*Arch of Augustus, Rimini). The format of the Roman arches ranged from rather austere, relatively unadorned single­ bay arches (*Arch of Augustus, Susa) to richly ornamented triple-bay arches (*Arch of Constantine, Rome) or quadrifrons arches (i.e., having four similar sides; *Arch of Septimius Severus, Leptis Magna). In the most elaborate ex­ amples, the relief decoration could incorporate depictions of triumphal processions, battles, submissions of conquered enemies, distributions of largesse, sacrifices to state gods and important entries into, and exits from, Rome. Most of the arches that have survived from antiquity have continuously stood above ground, if only in part (*Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome). Always imposing, the Roman arch was often the chief surviving monument of the clas­

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sical world in a provincial town. Einhard must have been inspired by such examples in creating his remarkable reliquary in the shape of a single-bay arch (*Charlemagne). Otto of Freising included a careful description of an honorary arch in Northern Italy (1158), seen when he participated in a campaign there with his nephew Frederick Barbarossa. The arches inspired later architects and sculptors (Arch of Augustus, Rimini; *Arch of the Gavii, Verona; *Arch of Trajan, Benevento) and were a very popular subject for artists and antiquarians. Hundreds of sketches, prints and paintings of these monuments were made dur­ ing the Renaissance and later by Giuliano da *Sangallo, *Dosio, van *Heemskerck, *Ligorio, *Serlio, *Bartoli, *Panini, *Piranesi and Hubert *Robert. In some cases these representations are the only pictorial records we possess of monuments that were later torn down (*Arco di Portogallo, Rome). Restorations and excavations of preserved arches are recorded as early as the Renaissance; in some instances the monuments were completely rebuilt in new locations (Arch of the Gavii, Verona). Modern systematic study of the Roman arches began with the publication of Luigi Rossini’s Gli Antichi archi trionfali onorarii e funebri degli antichi romani (Rome, 1836), which featured folio-size prints, descriptions and measurements of standing arches (in Italy alone) and even reconstructions of lost monuments known only from coins or earlier draw­ ings. More comprehensive collections and studies of Roman arches were made subsequently by Paul Graef in 1888 for Baumeister’s Denkmaler des Klassischens Altertums; by A. L. *Frothingham in AJA 8 (1904); by C. D. Curtis in the Supplemental Papers o f the American School o f Classical Studies at Rome 2 (1908); and by F. Noack for the 1925-26 volume of the Vortrage der Bibliothek Warburg. The compilation made by H. *Kahler in 1939 remains indispensable today. BIBLIOGRAPHY H. Kahler, s.v. “ Triumphbogen (Ehrenbogen),” RE, ser. 2, VII, 1 (1939), 373-493; +G. A. Mansuelli, “ El arco honorifico en el desarrollo de la arquitectura romana,” ArchEspArq 27 (1954), 93-178; M. Pallottino, s.v. “ Arco onorario e trionfale,” EAA 1 (1958), 588-99; S. De Maria, Gli Archi onorari di Roma e dell’Italia romana (Rome, 1988); F. S. Kleiner, “The Study of Roman Triumphal Arches and Honorary Arches 50 Years after Kahler,” JRA 2 (1989), 195-206. FRED S. KLEINER

“ TROPHIES OF MARIUS.” Pair of colossal Roman military trophies, sculp­ tured from marble and featuring armor, helmets, shields and other spoils from a conquered German enemy. Now usually dated to the first century a .c . and thought to be from a military monument of Domitian, the “ Trophies of Marius” were evidently moved in the third century a .c . from an unknown location to the niches of a huge fountainhouse (nymphaeum) for the aqueduct of the Aqua Julia, on the Esquiline Hill in Rome. The nymphaeum, which dates from the time of Alexander Severus (222-35 a .d .), was identified in the Middle Ages as a temple of Marius, and

One of the “ Trophies of Marius,” etchings by G. B. Piranesi, from Opere varie di architettura (1750). (Deutsches Archaologisches Institut, Rome. Inst. Neg. 86.1375.)

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the trophies were thought to be the ones mentioned by Plutarch (Caesar 6) and Suetonius (Caesar 11) as set up by Marius to commemorate his victories over the Cimbri and others. An alternate theory espoused in the fifteenth century was that the battered and somewhat misshapen trophies represented geese in armor (!) and that they stood for the geese that had cackled and saved the Capitoline from Gallic in­ vaders (Livy 5.47). The trophies were drawn or engraved in the nymphaeum by numerous artists (*Aspertini, *Lafrery, *Francisco d’ Ollanda, *Du Perac) before they were re­ moved in 1587 by *Sixtus V and transferred to the balustrade of the *Capitoline Hill by Giacomo della Porta in 1590. Other proposals were made for the identity of the trophies in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and they were as­ sociated with Trajan, Octavian and Domitian, but they continued to be called, and are today, the “ Trophies of Marius.” BIBLIOGRAPHY +Nash, II, 125-26; G. Tedeschi Grisanti, I “Trofei di M a rio /’ II ninfeo dell’acqua Giulia sull’Esquilino (Rome, 1977); Haskell—Penny, 46, 88; 4-Bober—Rubenstein, 205-6.

TROY (ILION). Ancient city located in northwestern Asia Minor, identified with the site of Hissarlik close to the entrance to the Dardanelles near modern £anakkale. Visited occasionally by Europeans during the Middle Ages, the region of northwestern Turkey known in antiquity as the Troad was the focus of in­ creasingly intensive exploration by British and European travelers and scholars beginning in the sixteenth century. Attempts to match topography and archae­ ological ruins with descriptions preserved in classical authors, chiefly Homer and Strabo, resulted in several suggestions for the location of Troy, or Ilion. The site known today as Hissarlik was identified as Ilion in 1801 by Edward Daniel *Clarke, a British scientist. Frank *Calvert, American consul at the Dar­ danelles, explored the Troad extensively during the 1850s and 1860s. Convinced that the ruins at Hissarlik were those of Troy, Calvert began limited investiga­ tions there in 1865 and subsequently encouraged H. *Schliemann to undertake large-scale excavations. The site has generally been recognized as the location of Priam’s citadel and scene of the Trojan War described in Homer’s Iliad, ever since the archaeological investigations conducted there by Schliemann in 1871— 73 and 1878-79. These excavations, continued in 1882 and 1890 with W. *Dorpfeld and, following Schliemann’s death, from 1893 to 1894 by Dorpfeld alone, recovered evidence for nine major periods of occupation. Further exca­ vation from 1932 to 1938 by an American team led by Carl W. *Blegen has expanded and refined these stratigraphic conclusions. A joint German-American expedition resumed work at the site in 1988. Levels I through VII, with their subdivisions, represent Bronze Age occupa­ tion to ca. 1100 B.C. Some 400 years appear to separate Troy Vllb from Troy

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VIII, a settlement founded ca. 700 B.C., perhaps by Aeolic Greeks, which lasted until Hellenistic times. Troy IX represents Hellenistic and Roman occupation. From its foundation ca. 2600 B.C., Troy was a citadel fortified with impressive stone walls. During the Early Bronze Age (ca. 2600-1900 B.C., Troy I-V), the citadel housed a group of parallel megaron structures, probably the residential and administrative complex of the local rulers. The most striking architecture and finds are from level II, which Schliemann initially identified with Homeric Troy. After the end of Troy V in ca. 1900 B.C., new cultural elements appear in period VI, representing Middle and Late Bronze Age occupation to ca. 1300 B.C. Again the citadel is protected by massive fortifications. Pottery of Gray Minyan and Mycenaean categories as well as other finds indicate connections with the Middle and Late Helladic cultures of mainland Greece. Troy VI ends in an earthquake, following which the citadel is reoccupied, then violently de­ stroyed (Troy Vila). The Blegen expedition suggested that the Trojan War known from Homer’s epic account, if historical reality, should be correlated archaeologically with the end of Vila. Troy V llbl and b2 represent the final Late Bronze Age occupation of the site. To Troy VIII and IX belong remains of the Greek and Roman city of Ilion. In classical times it was renowned for its sanctuary of Athena Ilias, where Xer­ xes made a sacrifice in 480 B.C. The sanctuary also benefited from the visit of Alexander and patronage of Lysimachos. Troy passed from Seleucid to Perga­ mene control, then, along with the other Pergamene possessions, came under Roman domination in 133 B.C. The city was besieged and destroyed in 86-85 B.C. by G. Flavius Fimbria. Sulla began the process of restoration, which was continued by Caesar and Augustus. The importance of Troy continued in Roman times, when it was celebrated as the home of Aeneas, legendary founder of Rome. Remains of period VIII are few; these include houses and two altar precincts. The outstanding structure of Hellenistic and Roman Troy is the sanctuary of Athena Ilias. This is preserved archaeologically in the remains of a Doric temple, together with mostly fragmentary carved metopes depicting Helios and his quad­ riga and scenes from a Gigantomachy, Centauromachy and battle between Greeks and Persians. An early Hellenistic date for the temple is likely, with renovations carried out in Augustan times. BIBLIOGRAPHY +H. Schliemann, Troja (London, 1884); +W. Dorpfeld, Troja und Ilion (Athens, 1904); +C. W. Blegen et al., Troy, 1-4 (Princeton, NJ, 1950-58), suppl. monographs 1-4 (Princeton, NJ, 1951-82); +F. W. Goethert— H. Schleif, Der Athenatempel von Ilion (Berlin, 1962); +W. Hoepfner, “ Zum Entwurf des Athena-Tempels in Ilion,” AM 84 (1969), 165-81; J. M. Cook, The Troad (Oxford, 1973), 14-44, 92-103; M. J. Mellink, ed., Troy and the Trojan War (Bryn Mawr, 1986); W. M. Calder III—J. Cobet, eds., Heinrich Schliemann nach hundert Jahren (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1990). ANN C. GUNTER

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TRYSA (GOLBA§I). Lycian hillside city, located in present-day Turkey, site of a great funerary monument covered with sculptures. The lofty site (866m above sea level) was discovered by a German school­ master, August Schonborn, wandering in the remote region in 1841-42. He described a large monument carved with relief sculptures of “ scenes from the Trojan War” ; it turned out to be the spectacular Heroon of Trysa, a funerary monument with a rectangular temenos wall (20m X 24m) surrounding it. Relief sculptures covered the upper two courses of the interior wall on all sides and of one exterior wall as well. Included in the Greek mythological scenes are Amazonomachies, Centauromachies, the Seven Against Thebes and the deeds of Theseus, Bellerophon, Meleager, Perseus and others. There are also local Anatolian themes of the hunt, banquet and city siege. Though found in Lycia, the sculptures very probably were created by Greek artists. The monument has been dated to the fourth century B.C. Schonborn tried to interest the Prussian government in sending an expedition to retrieve the sculptures, but to no avail. Not until 1880 was Otto *Benndorf able to mount an Austrian campaign to search for the site. After the dramatic rediscovery of the place, Benndorf and his colleague G. *Niemann systemati­ cally removed some 211m of frieze with about 600 figures. It was necessary to build a road from the site to the coast (an hour and a half’s journey) to transport the pieces to the ship. They were then transferred to Vienna, to be set up in the *Kunsthistorisches Museum for viewing in 1883. Among other finds at Trysa are the citadel proper and a number of funerary monuments— sarcophagi, grave stones and mausoleums, found on terraces ad­ joining the citadel. During the cutting of the road for the transport of the reliefs, the remains of a temple were discovered southwest of the citadel. BIBLIOGRAPHY O. Benndorf—G. Niemann, Das Heroon von Gjdlbaschi-Trysa (Vienna, 1889); J. Borchhardt, s.v. “Trysa,” PECS 937-38; Stoneman, Land of Lost Gods, 291-96; W.A.P. Childs, The City Reliefs of Lycia (Princeton, NJ, 1978), 13-14, 18-21.

TSOUNTAS, CHRISTOS (1857-1934). Greek archaeologist. Tsountas, born in Stenimachos, Thrace, pioneered research on the Neolithic period and Bronze Age in Greece. He wrote five books and eighty-one articles on excavations and investigations at *Mycenae, *Vapheio, Kampos, the sanc­ tuary of Apollo at Amyklai, Dimini and Sesklo, Syros, Siphnos, Amorgos, Naxos and *Eretria and also on many different aspects of later periods such as literature, inscriptions, pottery and even modern Greek orthography. Tsountas is the finder of the gold repousse *Vapheio cups, and he found the wonderfully modeled, brilliantly painted plaster head of a goddess or sphinx at Mycenae. According to the opening sentence of Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age (1966) by G. E. Mylonas, “ In 1893 Tsountas published a book that gave for the first time a clear picture of what came to be known as Mycenaean civilization.. . .

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The work became a classic” ; Mylonas was referring to the work by Tsountas and J. Irving Manatt, The Mycenaean Age (London, 1897). BIBLIOGRAPHY E. P. Photiades, Epitymbion Christou Tsounta (Athens, 1941), 684-87. JUDITH BINDER

TULLIOLA. The name assigned to the body of a girl, found preserved intact inside a Roman sarcophagus on the Via Appia in 1485. The body, alleged to be that of Tulliola, daughter of Cicero, was a sensation, and crowds flocked to see it at the Palazzo dei Conservatori, until Pope Innocent VIII secretly removed it by night. The discovery was described in detail by *Fonzio; in his manuscript (Codex Ashmolensis; Oxford, Bodleian) is also a contemporary drawing of the corpse and the very plain sarcophagus in which it was found. BIBLIOGRAPHY F. Saxl, “The Classical Inscription in Renaissance Art and Politics,” JWarb 4 (1941), 26-27, 44-45; Weiss, RDCA, 102.

TZIA. See KEOS.

u UDINE, GIOVANNI DA (GIOVANNI NANNI; GIOVANNI RECAMADOR; 1487-1564). Italian painter, architect and master of stucco decoration. Born in Udine in the Veneto, Giovanni was in Rome by 1516, employed in the workshop of *Raphael. A visit in the company of Raphael to the “ Palace of Titus” (i.e., the *Domus Aurea; Giovanni’s signature may be found on the walls) was critical for his development and achievement. *Vasari relates how he was “ stupified” by the decoration of the Domus Aurea, especially the stucco reliefs, and how he experimented to find a recipe for stucco that would have the same white color and molding quality of the ancient examples. Giovanni was to have many commissions to do paintings and stuccos featur­ ing the *grottesche he had seen, for various patrons and their palaces. Best known are his decorations in the Logge of the Vatican palace for Pope *Leo X (completed 1519). Raphael delegated to Giovanni the stucco decoration of the vaults, which was inspired, in a general way, by the ancient stucco schemes in the Domus Aurea and in the *Colosseum but which drew on many ancient sources for particular motifs. He adopted figures from sarcophagi—especially with Bacchic themes and battle scenes— and from “ minor objects” such as *Arretine ware, *Campana reliefs, gems and coins. The predilection for ancient erotic art is remarkable in the context. As Vasari noted, the influence of the inventions of Giovanni da Udine in the Vatican Logge on painted and stuccoed grottesche created in Renaissance Rome and elsewhere in following generations was immense. BIBLIOGRAPHY +N. Dacos, La Decouverte de la Domus Aurea et la formation des grotesques a la Renaissance (London, 1969); T. Yuen, “ Giulio Romano, Giovanni da Udine and Rapha­ el,” JWarb 42 (1979), 268; Bober—Rubinstein, esp. 458; +N. Dacos, Le Logge di Raffaello, Maestro e bottega difronte alVantico, 2nd ed. (Rome, 1986).

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UFFIZI GALLERY (GALLERIA DEGLI UFFIZI), Florence. Major Euro­ pean gallery of painting and sculpture; the ancient sculptures were collected by the *Medici family and their successors, the dukes of Lorraine (Lorena). The Uffizi building, begun in 1560 by *Vasari on commission from Cosimo I de’ Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, was constructed to be used for admin­ istrative offices (uffizi)- In 1581, Cosimo’s son Francesco I decided to convert the top floor of the building to galleries for the display of Medici art treasures; at this time he had Buontalenti create an octagonal room, the Tribuna (1584), which was originally used as a repository of paintings, small sculptures and a large, jeweled walnut cabinet that enhanced the exquisite decor of the room. From 1588, the adjacent “ Gallerie delle Statue” displayed Medici sculptures, ancient and modern, such as the famed marble Porcellino (Wild Boar; on display from 1591) and the *Arringatore, as well as the splendid frieze from the *Ara Pacis of a goddess in a landscape, called Air, Water and Earth (now referred to as Tellus or Pax Augusta; it had been unearthed in Rome and sold to the Medici in 1569. It remained in the Uffizi until taken to Rome in 1938 for Mussolini). The gallery also included some fifty portrait busts and twenty-nine statues of marble, many of which are still in the Uffizi. Other Medici antiquities were exhibited at this time in the family palaces of Palazzo Vecchio and Palazzo Pitti. Approximately one hundred years later the Tribuna received the great sculp­ tures for which it is famous—the *Medici Venus, the *Arrotino and the Wres­ tlers— all transferred by Duke Cosimo III in 1677 from the Villa Medici in Rome, surreptitiously but still not without outrage on the part of the Romans. These were joined by the Dancing Faun, which was already in the Florentine collections, and by two other Venus figures, the whole ensemble being in place by 1688. With the Venus de’ Medici as its centerpiece, the Tribuna was com­ pared with the Belvedere court in the *Vatican; with its velvet walls and motherof-pearl cupola and its sumptuous paintings by *Titian, *Raphael and *Rubens on the walls, it qualified as “ the most famous room in the world” (Haskell— Penny). The atmosphere of the room is well captured in the painting created by Zoffany for George III in the 1770s, showing a number of gentlemen of the *Grand Tour delighting in the various attractions of the room (Royal Collection of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II). In the eighteenth century, the Uffizi was, for all practical purposes, a major public museum. G. Bianchi published a guide to the antiquities in 1759 (Raguaglio delle antichita e rarita che si conservano in Galleria), and a series of detailed inventories record the museum’s holdings through the century (1704, 1753, 1769, 1784); a group of drawings made for the Lorena Duke Leopold I records the disposition of the statues in the corridors of the Uffizi. Under Duke Peter Leopold and with Luigi *Lanzi as antiquario of the Uffizi, the collection was considerably enlarged, as many more treasures were trans­ ferred from the Villa Medici in Rome, including the *Medici Vase and antiq­ uities that had once belonged to the della *Valle family. The *Niobe Group of

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some fifteen statues (discovered in 1583, along with the Wrestlers) was brought and installed in its own room. The southern corridor overlooking the Arno housed the great bronzes (the *Chimaera, transferred from Palazzo Vecchio and newly restored in 1784; the Minerva from Arezzo, the *Arringatore and the *Idolino; cf. *Florence, Archaeological Museum). As a result of the Napoleonic invasion of Italy, many of the sculptures of the Uffizi were removed to Palermo in 1779, to be returned in 1802-3, upon which occasion many pieces were in need of restoration. The only important sculpture to be seized by *Napoleon was the Medici Venus, taken in 1802 and returned in 1816. With the unification of Italy and the selection of Florence as its capital, a number of changes were made that resulted in the dispersion of the grandducal collection. Etruscan objects, a source of patriotic pride, were removed to be set up in an archaeological museum (1870), and soon afterward, other antiquities followed (the Idolino and Graeco-Roman bronzes in 1890, the coin collection in 1897, the gems in 1898). The loss of the context of the great collection was lamented, and the Greek and Roman marbles that did remain in the Uffizi created a related controversy. Luigi Milani, director of the Florence Archaeological Mu­ seum, complained that these pieces were arranged to enhance a Renaissance palace and with an outmoded aesthetic approach fostered by *Winckelmann. He favored a chronological, scientific arrangement of the pieces so that they could be studied properly. In fact, the corridors of the Uffizi are today lined with busts, sarcophagi, altars and mythological statuary that are unrelated in an or­ ganic way. Frequently ignored by tourists, they nevertheless preserve something of the decor and flavor of the original Uffizi of the Medici. The Uffizi also houses a large number of drawings after the monuments and antiquities of Rome, collected by the Medici beginning in the sixteenth century, cataloged by A. Bartoli, I Monumenti antichi di Roma nei disegni degli Uffizi di Firenze (5 vols., 1914-22). BIBLIOGRAPHY +G. A. Mansuelli, Galleria degli Uffizi, Le Sculture 1-2 (Rome, 1958-61); M. Cristofani, “ La Collezione di sculture classiche,” in Gli Uffizi, Catalogo generate (Florence, 1979), 1087-90; Firenze e la Toscana dei Medici nelVEuropa del Cinquecento: Committenza e collezionismo medicei (Florence, 1980), 19-42.

UNDERW ATER ARCHAEOLOGY. The technique of excavating and recov­ ering material from submerged sites; the principal foci for underwater research include ships and shipping, harbors and fisheries and associated commerce and artifacts and works of art recovered (often providing information not normally secured at sites on land). The history of underwater archaeology is directly linked to the development of marine technology. Ever since Alexander the Great’s descent into the sea in 325 B.C. in a submersible device, man’s curiosity has led him ever forward to invent new technology to take him onto the seafloor. Leonardo da Vinci made

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drawings for underwater breathing mechanisms in the fifteenth century; diving bells followed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, enclosed barrels in the eighteenth, submarines and hard-hat diving suits in the nineteenth. The first archaeological exploration with a diving suit, with a wooden and crystal helmet, occurred in 1535, when Francesco Demarchi descended to observe the two Early Roman Imperial pleasure barges lying at the bottom of Lake *Nemi. *Alberti had tried unsuccessfully, in 1446, to raise one of the ships; Mussolini succeeded in raising both in the 1930s. The first recovery of archaeological artifacts from the sea took place in 1900 off the island of Antikythera at the southern tip of Greece (cf. *Antikythera Youth). Greek sponge divers, wearing hard-hat diving suits, bravely recovered art treasures dating from 80 to 50 B.C. from depths of 60m. Another shipment of Hellenistic artworks was recovered by sponge divers in 1907 off *Mahdia on the Tunisian coast. The great technological breakthrough came in 1942 with the invention of the “ self-contained underwater breathing apparatus” (SCUBA) by Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Emile Gagnan. Researchers could now move freely, work and see under the water. The underwater dig was born. But one is limited to shallow working depths with SCUBA. The U.S. Navy’s limit for safe working depths with air is no deeper than 130 feet. The first wreck site (now recognized as two superimposed wrecks) to be excavated with SCUBA, carried out by Cousteau and his team, was off the Grand Congloue Island near *Marseilles in 1952. They developed the airlift and some of the other tools still used for underwater excavation. Scientific method was first brought to the underwater field by Nina Lamboglia. Directing professional divers from a diving bell, in 1958 Lamboglia laid out a system of grid squares over an ancient Roman wreck of the first century B.C. found off the island of Spargi (Sardinia). Since the Spargi wreck, the grid system has been used for all excavations of ancient shipwreck sites by archae­ ologists. The archaeologist diver first appeared on the scene in 1960, when George Bass excavated a Late Bronze Age ship at Cape Gelidonya off the southwest coast of Turkey. Since that time, diving archaeologists have excavated over one hundred ships, and many more have been surveyed. In a recent listing of known ancient wrecks in the Mediterranean and Roman provinces, A. J. Parker cites 1,259 (BAR International series 580 [1992]). From excavations we know that ancient ships were built in a mortise and tenoning construction, first summarized by Fernand Benoit in L ’Epave du Grand Congloue a Marseille (1961). That this shell-first technique goes back to at least the early fourteenth century B.C. is now proved by the wreck at Ulu Barun, a project of Bass and his group off the southwest coast of Turkey. That ancient ships could go at a speed of up to twelve knots is known from the reconstruction of the Greek merchant ship dating about 300 B.C. found off Kyrenia, Cyprus, by Michael and Susan Katzev. That ancient ships could carry over 7,000 am-

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phoras and weigh 500 tons has been proved by the Roman wreck (first century B.C.) at La Madrague de Giens excavated by Andre Tchernia and Patrice Pomey. But the study of ancient ships is only part of the story of underwater archae­ ology. Excavations in ancient harbors are revealing a wealth of knowledge about past technology, trade and economic history. Such investigations usually begin with aerial photography, as pioneered in the 1910s by the Jesuit priest A. Poidebard in his studies of the ports of Tyre and Sidon on the coast of Lebanon. In 1965, by combining such coverage with underwater and land excavation, the port of *Cosa (*Portus Cosanus), the earliest Roman harbor thus far known, was uncovered by A. M. McCann along Italy’s Tuscan coast. Dating from 273 B.C., the Portus Cosanus served as a center for the export of wine and fish products for more than 200 years. Some of the other major Mediterranean harbor sites that have profited from excavation are Apollonia in *Cyrenaica, Caesarea Maritima, *Carthage, *Kenchreai, *Leptis Magna and the silted ports of Frejus (Forum Julii), *Marseilles (Massalia) and *Ostia (*Portus). The most important technical devices now used by underwater archaeologists for locating ships or harbor features that cannot be seen are the side-scan and subbottom profiling sonars developed by Harold Edgerton in the 1960s. Com­ puters also enable underwater archaeologists to map and plot artifacts. The most recent breakthrough is the computer-controlled “ sonic high accuracy ranging and positioning system,” or SHARPS, developed in 1984 by Martin and Peter Wilcox. With SHARPS, the archaeologist can have instant visual verification on the computer screen of the coordinates of any point. Deep-sea research has recently become a reality with the emergence of un­ manned submersibles or “ remotely operated vehicles” (ROVs), such as Jason, built by Robert D. Ballard and his team of engineers at the Woods Hole Ocean­ ographic Institution. Tethered to a submersible platform by a cable, the 2m-long Jason can cruise as fast as one knot and as deep as 6,000m with precise manueverability. It can carry sonar devices, three high-resolution color video cameras, a 35mm still camera and an electronic still camera that transmits digital images to a topside computer. Equipped with a manipulator arm, Jason can also lift amphoras and other objects off the seafloor. What used to take cameracarrying SCUBA divers months to accomplish can now be done in safety with much greater accuracy in a matter of days. The first ancient shipwreck to be found in the deep sea with this new robotic technology is the Isis, a late Roman ship dating to about a .d . 400. The Isis was discovered by Ballard in 1989 off the coast of Sicily at a depth of ca. 800m. As the archaeologist aboard, A. M. McCann was also able to trace with ROV Jason an ancient trade route between Rome and Carthage. Robotic technology opens up the potential for rapid exploration of vast areas of the seafloor never before accessible. The archaeologist can record and learn without excavation and in safety. More than 98% of the world’s ocean floors remain unexplored. The future augurs further collaborative efforts among the archaeologist, explorer and engineer; much of the history of underwater archaeology lies ahead.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY G. F. Bass, Archaeology Under Water (New York, 1966); D. J. Blackman, “ Ancient Harbors in the Mediterranean,” pts. 1-2, IJNA 11 (1982), 79-104, 185-211; +L. Casson, Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World, rev. ed. (Princeton, NJ, 1986); +A. M. McCann et al., The Roman Port and Fishery ofCosa: A Center of Ancient Trade (Prince­ ton, NJ, 1987); +P. Throckmorton, ed., The Sea Remembers (New York, 1987); A.M. McCann—J. Freed, Deep Water Archaeology: A Late-Roman Ship from Carthage and an Ancient Trade Route near Skerki Bank off Northwest Sicily (JRA, Suppl. Ser. no. 13, 1994). ANNA MARGUERITE McCANN

URSINUS, FULVIUS. See ORSINI, FULVIO.

V VACCA, FLAMINIO (ca. 1538-1605). Italian sculptor, restorer and antiquar­ ian. Flaminio Vacca was a favorite of Pope *Sixtus V, who employed him to create sculptures (Saint Francis o f Assisi in the Sistine Chapel of S. M. Maggiore in Rome, 1587-89), make restorations and procure marbles. For the Villa Me­ dici, Vacca made a marble Lion (before 1594), as a pendant to an antique lion dating to the second century a .c . found outside Rome on the Via Prenestina. The pair graced the steps of the garden fagade of the villa until 1787, when they were moved to Florence, to be displayed in the Loggia dei Lanzi. Most viewers regarded the lion of Vacca as superior to the antique version. Throughout his career, Vacca recorded the provenance of the ancient marbles he procured, a rare service, and he left at his death an unpublished manuscript that gives much useful information on antiquities found in Rome during his lifetime. The “ Memorie di varie antichita trovate in diverse luoghi della citta di Roma,” written in 1594, circulated in manuscript form but was not published until 1704 by Falconieri. Various editions were issued in Latin by *Montfaucon (Diarium italicurri), and in reprint by *Nardini in his Roma Antica. It provides clues to the dis­ covery and early study of the *Quirinal Horse Tamers, the black marble statue of “ Seneca” (*Pseudo-Seneca), the *Borghese Faun, the *Pasquino, the *Portland Vase and the *Borghese Vase, as well as many other antiquities. Vacca lies buried in the *Pantheon. BIBLIOGRAPHY E. Breton, “ Vacca (Flaminio),” NBG 45 (1866), 825; Stark, 100; W. Granberg, “Vacca, Flaminio,” Thieme—Becker 34 (1940), 22-23; Haskell—Penny, esp. 247-50, 296-99.

VALADIER, GIUSEPPE (1762-1839). Italian architect and restorer of mon­ uments, the leading neoclassical architect of his time in Rome.

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During the French occupation of Rome (1809-14), along with *Camporese, Valadier was architect-director for the Commission of Monuments (1810) and the Commission of Embellishments (1811). He was especially connected with the Jardin du Grand Cesar, the planned park from the Milvian Bridge to the Pincian Hill. His two most famous archaeological undertakings, however, were the restoration of the *Arch of Titus (1820-24), requiring its complete disman­ tling and rebuilding, and the construction of the second *Colosseum buttress (1824-26). In both of these he showed remarkable sensitivity and pioneered restoration in materials other than the original stone. BIBLIOGRAPHY G. Valadier, “ Narrazione artistica sull’arco di Tito,” Dissertazioni dell’Accademia de Archeologia 1 (1821-23), 275-86; idem, +Opere di architettura e di omamento ideate e eseguite da Giuseppe Valadier (Rome, 1833); +E. Debenedetti, Valadier, segno e architettura (Rome, 1985); + Ridley, Eagle and the Spade. R. T. RIDLEY

VALERIANUS BOLZANIUS, PIERIUS (GIOVANNI PIETRO DALLE FOSSE; GIOVANNI PIERIO VALERIANO BOLZANI; 1477-1558). Re­ naissance humanist, poet and early student of Egyptian hieroglyphics. The nephew of Fra Urbano Valeriano Bolzanio, Valerianus studied at his native Belluno and Venice in his youth and was writing Latin poetry by the age of fifteen. Later, he was *Vasari’s Latin teacher and tutor to Giovanni de’ Medici (the future Pope *Leo X; *Medici family). In 1509, as the private secretary of Cardinal Giulio de’Medici, he traveled to Rome, where he studied the city’s antiquities. He is most remembered for three literary works. The Antiquitatum Bellunensium sermones quattuor (1522) is an investigation into the origins of Belluno from the literary and epigraphical sources; De literatorum infelicitate (1534) was written after the Sack of Rome in 1527 and lamented the sad condition not only of the city but also of the men of letters who survived. His most famous and influential work, the Hieroglyphica sive de sacris aegyptiorum aliarumque gentium literis (1556), published in Basel and dedicated to Cosimo I de’ Medici, was a vast compilation of all the hieroglyphic knowledge of his time; it drew on Horapollo, the Physiologus, the *obelisks he saw in Rome, the Cabala and the Bible as sources. It was so popular that eleven editions were published in the first seventy years. At the time it was believed that hieroglyphs were a purely ideographical form of writing used by ancient Egyptian priests to foreshadow divine ideas and that the Greek philosophers had tapped into “ hieroglyphic wisdom.” In the dedication of his Hieroglyphica, Valeriano writes, “ [T]o speak hieroglyphically is nothing else but to disclose the true nature of things divine and human.” He contributed no revolutionary ideas to the field, but his com­ pilation was instrumental in changing the study of hieroglyphic symbols from a philosophical to a philological pursuit. The Hieroglyphica provided a fountain of emblematic imagery for artists such as Pinturicchio, Leonardo, *Mantegna,

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Giovanni Bellini (*Bellini family), *Vasari and others, while the inscriptions in his historical material were used as sources by humanist historians. BIBLIOGRAPHY G. Toffanin, “ Valeriano Bolzani, Giampietro,” EC 12 (1954), cols. 986-87; M. Praz, Studies in Seventeenth Century Imagery, 2nd ed. (Rome, 1964), 24; R. Wittkower, Al­ legory and the Migration of Symbols (Boulder, CO, 1977), 127-28. DAVID FUNK

VALLE, DELLA, FAMILY. Distinguished family in Renaissance Rome, ar­ dent collectors of classical antiquities; the della Valle collection was one of the most important of the sixteenth century. From the fourteenth century, the della Valle family— originally of merchant class, then ennobled— lived in Rome in the Rione S. Eustachio, in several houses built close together. Fra *Giocondo (ca. 1480) noted antiquities, mostly inscrip­ tions, in three collections belonging to different members of the family. In 1484, *Sixtus IV had the houses destroyed, including that of his physician FILIPPO (d. 1494), when the della Valle sided with the imperial party. Filippo’s sons ANDREA (1463-1534) and BARTOLOMEO (1468-1526) decided to rebuild the house. Andrea played a key role in the family, both in building and in collecting. A humanist and lover of antiquities, he was appointed cardinal in 1517 by *Leo X. He constructed the new family palace (later, Palazzo della Valle-Rustici, Palazzo del Bufalo), a three-story building on the Via di Teatro Valle with an inner courtyard designed as a showplace for statuary, with twelve niches con­ taining statues of Venus, Bacchus, Child Riding a Seamonster and others. *A1drovandi described the court in detail, and various artists— *Aspertini, van *Heemskerck, *Francisco d’Ollanda and Pierre *Jacques— made drawings of the statuary. The palazzo, attributed to the architect Lorenzo Lotti (Lorenzetto), also extended over an older house on the Via Papale (Corso Vittorio Emanuele) owned by Andrea’s cousin Renzo Stefano. It had a small courtyard with sar­ cophagi and two famous statues of Pan, known as the della Valle Satyrs. Now in the *Capitoline and probably dating to the second century a .c ., the mirroring images of Pan are in the form of architectural supporting figures. Their immense popularity in the sixteenth century is attested by the large number of drawings made of them. (They occur in numerous sketchbooks: Holkham, Ashburnham, Destailleur, Peruzzi, Codex Pighianus; cf. *Pighius.) The Satyrs were displayed in 1513, along with other della Valle antiquities, on a triumphal arch erected by Andrea on the Via Papale, upon the occasion of the solemn elevation of Leo X to the papacy. After Andrea became cardinal, he started on the construction of another palace with a statue garden, designed by Lorenzetto, on the other side of Via di Teatro Valle. Unfinished at the time of his death (1534), the palazzo was bequeathed to FAUSTINA, the daughter of Bartolomeo, who was married to Camillo Capranica; in 1539 they moved into it. An engraving by Hieronymus *Cock (dated

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1553, but possibly made from an earlier drawing by van *Heemskerck), illus­ trates the statue garden, handsomely decked out with antique sculptures and portrait busts, placed in niches and alternating with reliefs. Enea *Vico engraved several of the draped female statues (1541). Pierre Jacques drew the Seated Bacchus with Panther, a cuirassed statue and a number of reliefs, while a dozen reliefs occur in the Codex Pighianus. Engravings by G. B. de *Cavalleriis in­ clude a Marsyas, a Bacchant and the captive barbarian woman, of Trajanic date, known as “ Thusnelda.” Andrea’s estate was divided between Faustina and QUINZIO, the son of his sister SIGISMONDA, who was married to Francesco de Rustici. The Palazzo della Valle-Rustici was rebuilt in the eighteenth century, when it was owned by the del *Bufalo family. The antiquities in the Palazzo della Valle-Capranica were sold in 1584 by the Capranica sons to Ferdinand de’ Medici (*Medici family). An inventory listing all the statues and reliefs with their location was drawn up for the sale. BIBLIOGRAPHY Lanciani, Storia degli scavi I (1902), 121-24; + (rev. ed., 1989), 165-68; +C. L. Frommel, Der Romische Palastbau der Hochrenaissance (Tubingen, 1973), II, 336-53; C. Hlilsen— H. Egger, Die Romischen Skizzenbucher von Marten van Heemskerck I (Soest, 1975), 56-67; Haskell—Penny, 301-3; + Bober—Rubinstein, 479-80. MARJON VAN DER MEULEN

VAN DEMAN, ESTHER BOISE (1862-1937). American field archaeologist, specialist in Roman construction techniques. A native of South Salem, Ohio, Esther Van Deman went to Rome in 1901 as a scholar at the *American Academy after completing graduate study at the University of Chicago and a decade of teaching at Wellesley and Goucher col­ leges. A participant in major excavations of that period in the *Forum Romanum, she received permission from Giacomo *Boni to study the Atrium Vestae, work that led to what is still the standard publication of the monument (The Atrium Vestae, Washington, DC, 1909), as well as other articles on the Forum excavations. As Carnegie Fellow from 1906 to 1910 at the American Academy, where she spent the rest of her life, she studied Roman construction techniques, particularly those of brick-faced concrete, and Roman aqueduct con­ struction. Her work on aqueducts with Thomas *Ashby resulted in The Building o f the Roman Aqueducts (Washington, DC, 1934), but the fruit of her lifelong research, Ancient Roman Construction in Italy from the Prehistoric Era to Au­ gustus, was published only posthumously by her colleague Marion E. Blake (Washington, DC, 1947). Her excavations and travels are documented by an extensive collection of photographs now at the American Academy. BIBLIOGRAPHY L. S. Meritt, “ Esther Boise van Deman,” Notable American Women (Cambridge, MA, 1971), III, 205-17; +K. Einaudi, Fotografia archeologica 1865-1914 (Rome, 1978). HARRY B. EVANS

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VAN DER BEKE, LIEVEN. See TORRENTIUS, LAEVINUS. VANVITELLI, GASPARE. See WITTEL, GASPAR VAN. VAPHEIO. Mycenaean Greek Bronze Age site in Laconia. The tholos tomb at Vapheio, unlike those at Mycenae (which are built into hillsides), is upon the crest of an eminence that, conical by nature, was regu­ larized by piling up the earth removed when the tomb was first dug. Known as early as 1805, when it was found by Gropius and mentioned by *Leake in his travels, the tomb was not excavated until 1888. The remarkable gold cups from the tomb, even before they were published by *Tsountas, their excavator (1889), attracted notice, and W. J. Stillman had already described them in print as “ ev­ idently intended as a pair,” one “ all action and combat,” the other “ tranquil and peaceful.” Even their position in the tomb indicates that they were thought of as pendants. The tomb is that of the so-called Vapheio Prince, who seems to have con­ trolled the region; grave robbers, when they rifled the contents of the large inner chamber (10.35m in diameter, approached from the east by a dromos 29.80m long), failed to notice the burial proper of the prince, who lay in a pit beneath floor level, surrounded by a heap of finery (rings, jewels, beads, aryballoi and a mirror) and weapons (knives, daggers, spears, axes and a sword). At his right hand lay one cup of gold and one of silver, balanced by a like cup of gold and one of silver at his left hand. The silver cups are ribbed but otherwise undec­ orated. The gold cups bear the celebrated scenes of bull catching exquisitely wrought in the repousse technique. Though very similar in size, they are not identical (the “ Violent” Cup is 8.4cm high and ca. 10.3cm in diameter; the “ Quiet” Cup is about .5cm lower and .4cm wider), and small discrepancies in technique exist. Although George Perrot in 1894 argued convincingly that the two cups were the work of different hands (giving in the course of his discussion what is still the finest extended description of the cups), scholarly opinion, in general, attributed them to a single source. Their excavator considered them the work of a mainland artist; more often they have been looked upon as Cretan imports. In 1974 Ellen N. Davis brought together compelling evidence that whereas the Quiet Cup is of Minoan manufacture, the Violent Cup, while obviously inspired by the other and intended to balance it, is Mycenaean work. Both cups are usually dated soon after (or shortly before) 1500 B.C. BIBLIOGRAPHY C. Tsountas, in ArchEph (1889), 129-71; G. Perrot—C. Chipiez, Histoire de Vart dans Vantiquite: La Grece primitive: Vart mycenien (Paris, 1894), 784-93; Ellen N. Davis, “The Vapheio Cups: One Minoan and One Mycenaean?” ArtB (1974), 472-87. W. W. d e GRUMMOND

VASARI, G IO RG IO (1511-74). Italian Renaissance architect, painter, scholar and author.

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Born at Arezzo, Vasari traveled to Florence in the 1520s and spent much of his life there working for the *Medici family. A practitioner of the Late Re­ naissance style known as Mannerism, Vasari designed the *Uffizi for Cosimo I (begun 1560) and did a number of paintings for the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence, but on the whole he is not highly regarded for his art. Vasari’s importance is acknowledged to lie in his publication, in chronological order, of the lives of the most eminent Italian architects, painters and sculptors— Le Vite d e’ piu eccellenti architetti, pittori et scultori italiani (1550; 2nd ed., 1568). Though he chose to omit classical artists from his biographies, it is clear that Vasari had read the relevant ancient texts of Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, Vitruvius and other authors and that he was sufficiently familiar with the ancient painters and sculptors to devise a chronological scheme of devel­ opment. His ideas emerge in the three prefaces he wrote to divide up the bi­ ographies. His perception of a cycle in antiquity was probably influenced by his theory on the art of the Renaissance, which he saw as emerging from primitive beginnings and proceeding through three styles, with periodic improvements in quality and in the imitation of nature, until it reached its climax in *Michelangelo. Similarly, Vasari could cite the hard and lifeless early statues by Kanachos, as opposed to the perfection of the sculptures of Polykleitos, or the primitive monochrome paintings of earliest times, as opposed to the richly colored works of Protogenes, Apelles and others. Vasari also articulated a theory about the decline of art in the Middle Ages that had been expressed in other writers (e.g., *Ghiberti). Dividing history itself into three phases— the ancient (antico, i.e., classical antiquity), the old (vecchio, i.e., the Middle Ages) and the modern (moderno, i.e., the Renaissance)—Vasari argued that there had been a severe decline in art around the time of Constantine. The change of quality in sculpture could be seen in the *Arch of Constantine, with its naturalistic reliefs borrowed from earlier monuments (e.g., of Trajan), contrasting sharply with the sculptural decoration evidently commissioned by Constantine. Like Ghiberti, he believed that the decline was hastened by the combined destructive forces of Christianity and barbarian invasions. Apart from using the Arch of Constantine to demonstrate his theories, Vasari indicated his intimate familiarity with the great antiquities to be seen in Rome in his day when he proposed that the third style in Renaissance art was strongly influenced by the display of the sculptures in the Belvedere court at the *Vat­ ican— the *Laocoon, the *Belvedere Apollo, the *Belvedere Torso, the * Venus Felix, the *“ Cleopatra” He argued that the study of the vigor and lifelike flesh of these figures helped artists turn from the harsh, dry style of stage 2 (seen in *Mantegna and others) into the third style, marked by perfection in proportion, design and grace. He also stressed the role of the classical orders— Doric, Tus­ can, Ionic and Corinthian— in helping the architect achieve perfection. Vasari’s writings (the Vite as well as other treatises, e.g., the Ragionamenti) are useful for the information they supply about works discovered in his native Arezzo, such as the many fine examples of *Arretine ware and the famed *Chi-

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maera, discovered in 1554 and acquired by the Medici. Vasari was able to identify it as Etruscan on the basis of the inscription and the style. His anecdotes about artists also help to give information about antiquities known at the time, as in the case of the repair of a statue of Marsyas by Verrocchio (14357-88) upon the request of Cosimo de’ Medici. The statue, made of red stone, lacked legs and arms, and these were skillfully supplied in the correct proportions by Verrocchio. BIBLIOGRAPHY G. Milanesi, ed., Le Opere di Giorgio Vasari, 1-9 (1875-85; repr. 1906); P. Barocchi, “II valore dell’antico nella storiografia vasariana,” in Atti del V Convegno Intemazionale di Studi sul Rinascimento (Florence, 1956), 217-36; G. Vasari, The Lives of the Painters, Sculptors and Architects, tr. A. B. Hinds (London, 1963); T.S.R. Boase, Giorgio Vasari, The Man and the Book (Princeton, NJ, 1971); G. Zander, “ II Vasari, gli studiosi del suo tempo e l’architettura antica,” II Vasari, storiografo e artista, Atti del Convegno Internazionale nel IV Centenario della Morte (Florence, 1976), 333-50.

VATICAN MUSEUMS. One of the world’s oldest and greatest museums, with a collection of Greek, Roman and Etruscan antiquities of surpassing significance. The Vatican Museums began with the desire of Pope *Julius II (1503-13) to display classical sculptures as evidence of the prestige of the papacy. His own sculpture of the *Belvedere Apollo was the key piece around which he built the first collection, displaying the antiquities in the Palazzetto of Innocent VIII known as the Belvedere. He had *Bramante create a walled garden adjoining the palace, planted with orange trees and embellished with fountains, and build long corridors connecting the papal apartments of the Vatican with the open cortile in which he displayed the antiquities. Thirteen gigantic marble masks, said to come from the *Pantheon, were set into the walls, and in niches were disposed the Apollo, *Laocoon (discovered and acquired in 1506), * Venus Felix and *Commodus as Hercules, as well as the Hercules and Antaeus and the Tiber river god (*Nile and Tiber); in addition, the *“ Cleopatra” was displayed as a fountain. *Leo X (1513-21) added the Nile, and Clement VII (1523-34), the *Belvedere Torso and a third river god (Tigris or Arno); the Venus ex balneo (*Knidian Aphrodite) was a gift to Paul III (1543-49), who also then purchased the *Belvedere “Antinous.” This “ Antiquario delle Statue,” as it was called, quickly became famous and attracted artists, scholars and visitors to Rome. It was described in its earliest state by Francesco *Albertini in his Opusculum de mirabilibus novae et veteris urbis Romae (1510), dedicated to Julius II. Numerous early and well-known drawings and engravings— by Marcantonio *Raimondi, Marten van *Heemskerck, *Francisco d’Ollanda and others— provide evidence of the appearance of these antiquities. *Primaticcio and *Vignola made casts of many of the pieces for Francis I to display at Versailles. The influence of this Antiquario was enor­ mous, affecting the attitudes and ideals of collectors and museums for centuries. The Belvedere Antiquario was fundamentally altered under Pius IV (1559-

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65), when Pirro *Ligorio destroyed the old informal garden and reorganized the other sections to hold a great deal more statuary. At this time Pius gave Duke Cosimo I (*Medici family) the fragmentary group of Hercules and Antaeus today at the Palazzo Pitti, Florence; earlier, *Julius III had given him a statue of Mercury (1550). These were losses for the Belvedere, but the gravest event was the election of Pope Pius V (1566-72), who regarded the statues—many of them nude— as pagan idols that might distract the faithful from their medi­ tations. With Counter-Reformation zeal, he had the great sculptures of the cortile hidden behind wooden shutters, while many other statues were simply given away— to the *Capitoline Museum, to Emperor Maximilian II (*Hapsburg fam­ ily) and to Grand Duke Francesco I de’ Medici. For approximately a century, the Vatican collections were closed or emptied. Not until the eighteenth century did collecting of antiquities resume in a signif­ icant way, when d e m e n t XIV (1769-74) became alarmed over the accelerated pace at which antiquities were leaving the city of Rome and even Italy. Advised by his treasurer Giovanni Angelo Braschi (the future *Pius VI), he purchased antiquities that were in imminent danger of export (e.g., the *Meleager attributed to Skopas, the *Mattei family collection) and sought space for all the new an­ tiquities in the old Belvedere palace. It was now completely transformed, ac­ cording to designs by the architect Alessandro Dori, so that long galleries were created inside the Belvedere, and an entirely new octagonal portico was erected for the Laocoon, the Apollo and the other traditional favorites. Pius VI (177599) continued the expansion and the policies he had himself initiated under Clement XIV to create the magnificent new Museo Pio-Clementino. The various rooms were named after their contents— the Room of the Animal Sculptures (Sala degli Animali), the Room of the Portrait Busts (Sala dei Busti), the Room of the Muses (Sala delle Muse)— or else after the shape of the room— the Round Room (Sala Rotonda), the Greek Cross Room (Sala a Croce Greca), the Octag­ onal Court (Cortile Ottagonale). The acquisition of new material through purchase and excavation was a top priority. With the aid of G. B. *Visconti, commissioner of antiquities (1768— 84), the popes surveyed Rome’s antiquarian market and patronized such dealer/ restorers as B. *Cavaceppi, J. Nollekens and G. *Hamilton. Under Pius VI, nearly 600 new marbles were added to the Vatican; many came from excavations (some 130) initiated by the pope. Among the new acquisitions were the eight statues of the Muses with Apollo discovered near *Tivoli in 1775, the Boy with Goose (1789) and numerous animal sculptures. Pius delighted in showing im­ portant visitors through the galleries, such as the Swedish king *Gustavus III, whose visit in 1784 was recorded by B. Gagneraux. Visconti began the great catalog of the Pio-Clementino, the bulk of which would be prepared by his more famous son, Ennio Quirino *Visconti, II Museo Pio-Clementino, 1-7 (Rome, 1782-1807). With the French invasion of Italy and the Treaty of Tolentino (1797), the masterpieces of the Vatican were carried away to Paris for *Napoleon’s mu­

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seum, and Pius himself was put in prison, where he died in 1799. His successor, *Pius VII Chiaramonti (1800-23), with the help of his commissioner of antiq­ uities Carlo *Fea and the new inspector general of the fine arts Antonio *Canova, brought the collection back to life, acquiring new sculptures and building a new section, the Museo Chiaramonti (begun 1805). With the fall of Napoleon, Canova negotiated the return of the majority of the Vatican sculptures (the Tiber stayed in Paris), and further expansion was ordered by the pope. The New Wing (Braccio Nuovo) of the Museo Chiaramonti was inaugurated in 1822. In the ensuing decades major examples of Greek and Roman art were brought into the museum: the *Aldobrandini Wedding (discovered 1604/5; acquired 1838), the *Apoxyomenos attributed to Lysippos, found in Trastevere (1849), the *Odyssey Landscapes (1851) and the *Augustus of Primaporta (1863). The Vatican experienced dynamic growth in the pontificate of *Gregory XVI (183146), with the opening of the Museo Etrusco Gregoriano in 1837. The immediate impetus was the acquisition of the fine bronze warrior known as “M ars” found at Todi (1835) and the discovery of the incomparable *Regolini-Galassi Tomb, an unplundered Etruscan Orientalizing burial from *Cerveteri (1836). Also im­ portant were the results of the excavations of Vincenzo *Campanari at *Vulci, undertaken jointly with the pontifical government (from 1834). With the an­ tiquities from these and other excavations in papal territories in Etruria were displayed the Gualtieri collection of vases from *Chiusi and other antiquities that had been acquired in the eighteenth century. Gregory also created the Museo Gregoriano Egizio (inaugurated 1839), which was to include some Roman an­ tiquities, such as the remarkable Antinous in Egyptian kilt and headdress found at *Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli (acquired 1742). In the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, numerous catalogs, guides and other publications have made the Vatican holdings available to scholars of the world. In 1891 W. *Helbig first published the standard guide to the antiquities as volume 2 of Fiihrer durch die offentlichen Sammlungen klassischer Altertiimer in Rom; it was later modernized in its authoritative fourth edition under the editorship of Hermine Speier (1965). W. *Amelung cataloged the sculptures in detail in two volumes of Die Skulpturen des Vaticanischen Museums (1903, 1908), with a third volume added by G. *Lippold in 1956. The fortunes of the Vatican collections in the twentieth century have been guided by several strong directors, Bartolomeo Nogara (1920-54), Filippo Magi (1954-61), and Carlo Pietrangeli, who became director in 1978. All have contributed distinguished publications on the collections; those of Pietrangeli on the history of the Vatican Museums are of great utility for the history of archaeology. Under Nogara was received the Benedetto Guglielmi Collection from Vulci (1935); the Giacinto Gulgielmi Collection, a second portion of the antiquities assembled by this noble family of the nineteenth century, was reunited with the first through the efforts of F. Buranelli, and put on display at the Vatican in 1989. Sensational exchanges of antiquities were effected between the Vatican and entities of the Italian state and the city of Rome, including the donation to

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the state of a slab of the *Ara Pacis by Pope Pius XII (1954), which was reciprocated by the gift in 1956 of a panel of the reliefs found at the palace of the *Cancelleria. These had been discovered in 1937-39, and the portions found on papal land were already in the Vatican. The donation of the relief found on property of the Comune of Rome made it possible to display all of the remains together in the Vatican. But perhaps the most dramatic event of the era was the long-awaited restoration of the Laocoon (1957-60), in which Magi removed the Renaissance restoration of the right arm of Laocoon and replaced it with the “ Poliak arm,” found in 1905 and long agreed to be the real arm of the figure. In the twentieth century the Vatican has faced the chronic problem of making the vast collections accessible to an enormous public. Entry to the museums was greatly facilitated by the opening in 1932 of a new double-spiral ramp to accommodate traffic going up and coming down. Under Pietrangeli a program of unprecedented exhibitions outside the Vatican included the show sent in 1983 to the United States (New York, Chicago and San Francisco; the Belvedere Apollo and the Augustus of Prima Porta crossed the ocean) and an Etruscan exhibit, including finds from the Regolini-Galassi Tomb, at Memphis and other venues in 1992 and following. BIBLIOGRAPHY Haskell— Penny, 7-15; +The Vatican Collections, The Papacy and Art, catalog of ex­ hibition (New York, 1982); +C. Pietrangeli, I Musei Vaticani, cinque secoli di storia (Rome, 1985); C. Springer, The Marble Wilderness, Ruins and Representations in Italian Romanticism, 1775-1850 (Cambridge, 1987); P. Liverani, Museo Chiaramonti, Sculture (Rome, 1989); S. Howard, “ An Antiquarian Handlist and the Beginnings of the Museo Pio-Clementino,” Antiquity Restored, Essays on the Afterlife of the Antique (Vienna, 1990), 142-53.

VATICAN VERGIL (VERGILIUS VATICANUS). Ancient illustrated manu­ script of the poems of Vergil. The Vatican Vergil (cod. Vat. lat. 3225) is one of just two illustrated manu­ scripts of Vergil from late antiquity: it and the Vergilius Romanus (cod. Vat. lat. 3867) are both dated to the fifth century A.c., but parallels with mosaics suggest the Vaticanus be dated earlier, to the first quarter of the century. The text of the Vaticanus, written in rustic capitals of the fourth or fifth centuries (which cannot be more accurately dated), provides no further help with problems of chronology. The manuscript consists of seventy-six parchment leaves (21.9cm X 19.6cm) and includes some fifty pictures, representing one-fifth of the original codex. The text is badly damaged: we have, with some lacunae, books 3 and 4 of the Georgies (ten leaves), illustrated by nine miniatures, whose pastoral scenes are considered the best of the series; and the first nine books of the Aeneid (sixtyfive leaves), illustrated by forty-one miniatures. The pictures depict scenes from Vergil’s poems, such as Dido's Suicide (folio 26) or Aeneas Landing in Car­ thage (folio 11), but are not an exact translation of the text. The illustrations

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show the work of at least two different artists, whose individual stylistic idioms are set within one consistent style, generally thought to be that of a scriptorium in Rome. Although there is evidence to suggest that the Vatican Vergil reflects earlier illustrated cycles, J. de Wit has demonstrated that its artists did not me­ chanically copy an earlier cycle. More likely, as H. Buchthal has argued, “ they presented traditional pictorial material in more or less original compositions and combinations,” drawing from a wide range of classical art and including, as well, elements of Late Antique iconography and style. In the Renaissance, the Vatican Vergil belonged to two famous collectors, Pietro *Bembo and Fulvio *Orsini. The latter bequeathed it to the Vatican Li­ brary in 1600, where it remains today. Scholarly interest in the Vatican Vergil began in 1686. Jean Mabillon, *Bellori and the prefect van Schelstrate examined the manuscript. The opinion of the three scholars was reported in the preface to the influential 1741 edition of the manuscript with engraved plates by *Bartoli. The views of these scholars and the refinements of Bartoli’s plates apparently set the scholarly tradition for viewing the miniatures as copies from an earlier manuscript. This view, advanced by de Nolhac, Seroux d’Agincourt and others, was not definitely refuted until the work by de Wit (1964). BIBLIOGRAPHY +Fragmenta et picturae vergiliana cod. Vat. lat. 3225, 3rd ed., Codices e Vaticanis selecti (Rome, 1945); +J. de Wit, Die Miniaturen des Vergilius Vaticanus (Amsterdam, 1959); H. Buchthal, “ A Note on the Miniatures of the Vatican Vergil Manuscript,” Melanges Eugene Tisserant, 6, Studi e testi, 236 (Vatican City, 1964), 167-71; T. Ste­ venson, Miniature Decoration in the Vatican Vergil: A Study in Late Antique Iconog­ raphy (Tubingen, 1983); D. Wright, The Vatican Vergil, A Masterpiece of Late Antique Art (Berkeley, 1993). MICHELE R. SALZMAN

VATLUNA. See VETULONIA. VEII. The most southerly of the great Etruscan cities, situated between Caere, Faliscan territory and Rome. Veii’s control of the lower Tiber valley ensured both prosperity in the Ori­ entalizing and Archaic periods and the fatal contest with Republican Rome. The final clash, with Camillus’s ten-year siege (396 B.C.; Livy 5.Iff.), was for cen­ turies a central element in the national consciousness of Rome, where, too, the cult statue in the Capitoline temple was attributed to the Veientine artist Vulca (Pliny N H 35.157). Reduced to a modest municipium (Propertius 4.10.27), the site of Veii was abandoned from the Late Empire; no structural remains are visible today. From the ruins of the forum, described and drawn by Sir William *Gell (1831) and L. *Canina, came marble columns for churches (S. Paolo) and palaces (Piazza Colonna) in Rome and the Julio-Claudian statues in the *Vatican Museums (1812-17). At this stage, Veii’s Etruscan past was represented only by isolated

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pieces such as the *Chigi Vase (a Corinthian olpe; *Villa Giulia) and the Ori­ entalizing painted Campana tomb (cf. *Campana, Giovanni Pietro), already drawn in 1825 but not officially discovered until 1843, with contents exposed by F. Roncalli (1980) as artificially assembled from various sites. Scientific excavations (G. Q. *Giglioli, 1916) in the extra urban sanctuary of Portonaccio yielded a group of Archaic terracotta statues, including the famous Apollo, probably the work of Vulca (in the Villa Giulia, Rome), which revo­ lutionized critical approaches to Etruscan art. In spite of exceptionally favorable conditions, official exploration of the city and cemeteries has since been limited and sporadic, save for topographical surveys conducted by the *British School at Rome in the city and in the Ager to the north and east. The Italo-British excavation and prompt publication in Notizie degli Scavi (1961-75) of the Quattro Fontanili Villanovan cemetery provided crucial information for Iron Age chronology. BIBLIOGRAPHY +L. Canina, Descrizione delVantica citta di Veii (Rome, 1847); G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, rev. ed. (London, 1883), I, 1-42; +L. Vagnetti, La Stipe votiva di Campetti a Veio: Scavi 1937-39 (Florence, 1971); M. Pallottino, “ Officina veiente,” in Saggi di antichita (Rome, 1979), III, 1001-91; F. Delpino, Cronache veientane 1 (Rome, 1985). F. R. SERRA RIDGWAY

VELATHRI. See VOLTERRA. VELAZQUEZ (VELASQUEZ), DIEGO RODRfGUEZ DE SILVA (15991660). Spanish painter. Born and trained in Seville, Velazquez became established at the court in Madrid in 1623 and spent the rest of his life in the service of Philip IV. His interest in antiques was stimulated, if not inspired, by a visit to Italy in 162931. In Rome, according to his master, father-in-law and biographer, Francisco Pacheco, he wanted to stay in the Villa Medici because there were antique statues for him to copy. No copies of antiques by him are known. But the statue of *“ Cleopatra,” now called Ariadne, is the centerpiece of one of Velazquez’s views of the Villa Medici Gardens (Prado) painted during his second visit to Italy. Furthermore, his study and appreciation of classical sculpture is evident in several paintings of mythological subjects, notably, the Venus (National Gal­ lery, London), Mars, and Mercury and Argus (Prado). Velazquez’s second visit to Italy in 1649-51 was made for the purpose of acquiring antique sculpture as well as paintings for the decoration of the Alcazar, allegedly at his suggestion. Because of the difficulty of finding good originals, he followed the example of earlier collectors and had molds or casts made of some of the celebrated statues in Rome. His later biographer, Antonio Palomino, lists twenty-nine statues and a number of portrait busts acquired by Velazquez in Rome. Only a few bronze copies and casts can be identified today, some in the royal palace, others in the *Prado. A few plaster casts are recorded in the

Bronze cast of the Borghese Hermaphrodite, by M. Bonarelli, ordered by Velazquez in Rome, 1650-51. Madrid, Prado. (E. Harris.)

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inventory of Velazquez’s apartments at his death; some twenty volumes of clas­ sical literature in his library are further testimony of his interest in antiquity. BIBLIOGRAPHY E. Harris, “ La Mision de Velazquez en Italia,” ArchEspArt 33 (1960), 109-36; F. J. Sanchez Canton, Velazquez y *lo Clasico’ (Madrid, 1961); E. Harris, Velazquez (Oxford, 1982), 17, 24-29, 85, 132-38, 144, 155-58; M. L. Tdrraga Bald6, “ Contribucion de Velazquez a la ensenanza academica,” Velazquez y el arte de su tiempo, Jomadas de Arte 5 (1991), 61-79; M. Mordn Turina, “Felipe IV, Velazquez y las antiguedades,” Academia, Boletm de la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando 74 (1992), 234-57. ENRIQUETA HARRIS FRANKFORT

VENTRIS, M ICHAEL GEORGE FRANCIS (1922-56). British architect and cryptographer, credited with decipherment of Linear B (*Linear A and B), a script used on *Crete and the Greek mainland during the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1500 to ca. 1200 B.C.). As a boy, Ventris was fascinated with antiquity and became proficient in Greek and Latin. In 1936, he heard Sir Arthur *Evans lecture on Linear B in London and became determined to decipher the script. Trained as a cryptogra­ pher in World War II, Ventris began a full investigation of Linear B in 1949. He set up a cryptographic grid of values for the Linear B signs, aided by the work of Alice Kober, who demonstrated that Linear B was inflected, and by the publication of the Cypriot script, which had many characters in common with Linear B and was used to write Greek as late as the Hellenistic Age. In 1952, he concluded that Linear B was an archaic form of Greek. Confirmation of the decipherment came when C. *Blegen successfully used Ventris’s grid to determine the meaning of a newly excavated tablet from *Pylos with an inventory of tripods. Ventris was joined later by John Chadwick, who had been working on Linear B at Cambridge; together they produced a detailed account of the decipherment, Documents in Mycenaean Greek (Cambridge, 1956). For his achievement Ventris was awarded an honorary doctorate from Uppsala University. He died tragically in an auto accident in 1956, shortly be­ fore Documents went to press. BIBLIOGRAPHY London Times, 8 September 1956, 10; J. Chadwick, The Decipherment of Linear B (Cambridge, 1967). MICHAEL L. ROBERTSON

VENUS DE M ILO (APHRODITE OF MELOS). Over-lifesize statue (2.03m) of the goddess Venus or Aphrodite, dating to the later second century B.C. In popular culture the Venus de Milo is often regarded as the incarnation of fem­ inine beauty, though its reputation has suffered in recent years. The statue and its base were discovered in 1820 by Colonel Olivier Voutier, and the Venus was soon hailed as a great masterpiece. Its instant fame was undoubtedly due to the fact that it was recognized as a Greek original at a time

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when scholars had become keenly sensitive to the shortcomings of Roman cop­ ies and that the statue was known to be without potentially misleading resto­ ration such as had been made on famous statues from the Renaissance on. One reason the statue remained largely unrestored (it was found in two blocks that joined together; only the tip of the nose was added) was that there was considerable disagreement over exactly how the missing arms should be posi­ tioned. Various suggestions had her holding an apple (a fragmentary hand with apple was also found near her), a lyre or a shield. Among modern scholars, *Bieber noted that the left arm may have rested on a pillar, the existence of which was implied by a cutting in the statue base, and Robertson observed that the right hand may have been positioned as if to support the dangerously low drapery. The absence of the arms in this supposed paragon of beauty has both intrigued and repelled viewers. The Comte de Marcellus, an attache at the French Embassy in Constantinople, negotiated the purchase of the piece, which was spirited away for the Marquis de Riviere, French ambassador to the Sublime Porte, who gave the sculpture as a gift to Louis XVIII. He, in turn, presented it to the *Louvre, where it remains today. A statue base found with the statue (now lost) had an inscription with the name of the artist (Ages)andros or (Alex)andros, son of Henidos, from Antioch-on-the-Maeander. The base disappeared after a drawing had been made of it for Jacques *David; German scholars of the later nineteenth century accused the French of deliberately losing it because the inscription contradicted the at­ tribution of the statue to a famous master, rather than to the unknown son of Henidos. BIBLIOGRAPHY J. P. Alaux, La Venus de Milo et Olivier Voutier (Paris, 1939); Bieber, 159; Robertson, I, 553-54; Haskell—Penny, 328-30; +A. Pasquier, Venus de Milo (Paris, 1985).

VENUS FELIX. Over-lifesize marble Roman statue (2.14 m) of a Roman lady in the guise of Venus. The body, with its nude torso and drapery falling around the hips, reflects the *Knidian Aphrodite of Praxiteles (mid fourth century) and some of its Helle­ nistic imitations (e.g., the *Venus de Milo), but the head is a portrait of a Roman lady with a coiffure of the Antonine period. It may be Faustina Minor (d. a .d . 176), wife of Marcus Aurelius. The statue is labeled Venus Felix (i.e., “ fruitful” or “ happy” Venus) by an inscription on its base, which also identifies the donor as a certain Sallustia. A Cupid with (lost) upraised arms shares the base with her. The statue was in the papal collection of *Julius II by 1509 and was installed in the Belvedere court at the ^Vatican immediately. There is no solid evidence to back up the assertion made in the eighteenth century by *Ficoroni that it was found near S. Croce in Gerusalemme. During the sixteenth century the piece was highly regarded and was drawn by *Aspertini, *Dosio, Girolamo da *Carpi and Hendrik *Goltzius, and a fine

Venus Felix, from the Belvedere court of the Vatican, drawing by. G. A. Dosio, Berlin, Kupferstichkabinett. (© Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin, 1994. Photo: J. P. Anders, 79 D 1.)

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small bronze was made by *Antico, imitating its pose but idealizing the head. In the seventeenth century it was still admired by many (a plaster copy was made for Philip IV of Spain), though there is evidence that it began to lose its appeal. *Louis XIV did not ask to have it copied, and, later, *Napoleon spurned it as war booty. *Winckelmann showed no enthusiasm for the sculpture, and in the nineteenth century it passed into oblivion. Today the Venus Felix, ignored by all but specialists, remains in the Belvedere court. BIBLIOGRAPHY +H. Brummer, The Statue Court in the Vatican Belvedere (Stockholm, 1970), 122-29; Sheard, no. 37; Haskell—Penny, 323-25; Bober—Rubinstein, 61-62.

V ERGERIO, PIETR O PAOLO (1370-1444). Italian humanist. Born at Capodistria, Vergerio studied there and at Padua. In 1386 he was hired to teach dialectic in Florence, and there he became associated with Col­ uccio *Salutati. From 1388 to 1390 he was lecturer in logic at Bologna, returning to Padua from 1390 to 1397. During those years he edited and published *Petrarch’s Africa and later composed a biography of Petrarch. He returned to Flor­ ence in 1398 to study Greek with Manuel Chrysoloras (1398-99) but otherwise remained in Padua, studying art, medicine and law, until 1405. In 1402 his treatise on pedagogy, De ingenuis moribus et liberalibus studiis, appeared. From 1405 to 1409, as part of Salutati’s circle, he was at the Curia in Rome. Ver­ gerio’s interest in Roman antiquities, aroused by his study of Petrarch, had led him to write of the ruins of Rome in a letter of 1398, and while in Rome he searched for knowledgeable guides to the city’s antiquities. Such guides were few, and their competence minimal. In his letters he expressed astonishment at the vast sea of ruins that surrounded the city, and he was one of the first to deplore the destruction of ancient remains, along with Francesco da *Fiano. He became increasingly involved in Church politics, playing a notable role in the Council of Constance (1414-18), and then entered the service of the emperor Sigismund, with whom he left Italy in 1418. He died in Budapest in 1444. His call for preservation of Rome’s ruins and his admirable work on Petrarch were widely influential on later humanists. BIBLIOGRAPHY K. A. Kopp, Vergerio der erste humanistische Padagoge (Lucerne, 1893); L. Smith, “Note cronologiche vergeriane,” Archivio Veneto, ser. 5a, 4 (1928), 82-141; L. Smith, ed., UEpistolario di Pietro Paolo Vergerio, with bib. as preface (Rome, 1934); Weiss, RDCA, 54-57. JAMES C. ANDERSON, j r .

VERGINA (AEGAE, AIGAI). Site of the early Macedonian Greek capital known as Aigai, before Archelaus moved to *Pella (ca. 400 B.C.); also royal burial grounds; activity ranges from Iron Age through post-Byzantine times. Early explorations of 1855 and 1861 by French archaeologist Leon Heuzey revealed a Macedonian chamber tomb and part of the palace. Selected architec­

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tural members went to the *Louvre. Since 1938, ongoing excavations have been conducted by Greek archaeologists, notably K. Rhomaios and M. *Andronikos. The “ Cemetery of the Tumuli” revealed more than 300 small mounds con­ taining multiple burials ranging from 1000 B.C. to the second century B.C. Mon­ umental chamber tombs of the fourth and third centuries, presumably royal, have been found in the area. Many have fine paintings and/or spectacular grave goods. Plutarch (Pyrrhus 26.6) relates that the royal tombs were sacked in 274 B.C. by Gauls in service to Pyrrhus. One that escaped looting is designated by its dis­ coverer, Andronikos, as the *“ Tomb of Philip II.” A late fourth-century palace lies on a plateau below the walled acropolis. Its two-storied facade leads to a colonnaded courtyard surrounded by various cham­ bers. Close by is a theater where the excavator believes Philip to have been assassinated; farther off is a shrine of Eukleia with a dedication by Philip’s mother Eurydike. BIBLIOGRAPHY +L. Heuzey— H. Daumet, Mission archeologique in Macedoine (Paris, 1876); +K. Rho­ maios, O makedonikos Taphos tis Verginas (Athens, 1951); +M. Andronikos, Vergina, 1, To Nekrotapheion ton Tymbon (Athens, 1969); +idem, Vergina, The Royal Tombs and the Ancient City (Athens, 1984); idem, Vergina, 2, The “Tomb of Persephone” (Athens, 1994); R. Ginouves, ed., Macedonia from Philip II to the Roman Conquest (Athens, 1993), 82-88, 117-19, 145-77, 183-87; S. Drougou, C. Saatsoglou-Paliadeli, et al., Vergina, The Great Tumulus, Archaeological Guide (Thessaloniki, 1994); I. Touratsoglou, Macedonia: History, Monuments, Museums (Athens, 1995), 210-49. STELLA G. MILLER

VERONA. Roman city located on the Adige River in the Veneto of Italy. Called a Latin colony by a native, Catullus (17.1; died 54 B.C.), Verona probably did not have municipium status before 49 B.C., but it became one of the most important Roman cities of Venetia. Constantine defeated Maxentius at Verona before their final encounter at the Milvian Bridge in a .d . 312. The city was a vacation haunt of emperors in later antiquity. The Ostrogothic king The­ odoric (493-526), who stayed in the city for extended periods, renovated Ve­ rona’s aqueducts and improved the fortification. “ Theodoric of Verona” became Dietrich von Bern in German legend and literature. The city later came under Lombard control. An anonymous description of the ancient city written between 799 and 805 survives (Veronae rhythmica descriptio), transcribed and supplied with a draw­ ing of the city by Raterius, bishop of Verona, made some time before 968 (copy in the Biblioteca Capitolare, Verona). In the Middle Ages, Verona continued to use the ancient Roman grid plan, which survives in the city to this day. Traces of Roman paving remained, and, in the ninth century at least, the theater seems to have been inhabited. In the fourteenth century, Verona became an early humanist center under Cangrande della Scala, nurturing such scholars as *Mansionario and *Benzo d’Alessandria.

Amphitheater, Verona, etching by G. B. Piranesi, from Opere varie di architettura (1750). (Deutsches Archaologisches Institut, Rome. Inst. Neg. 86.1428.)

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During this period, in 1368, the “ Madonna Verona” was erected atop a fountain in the Piazza Erbe; this antique figure, lacking a head, was appropriately supplied with one. Among the monuments of Verona, the *Arch of the Gavii was always known. Equally familiar is the great amphitheater, with its exterior arcading of seventyfour entrances; it was investigated in the early fourteenth century by Benzo, who noted that the exterior walls of the Laberinthum (or Harena) had been damaged by earthquakes, and the stones had been used to build part of the city walls. The traditional story is told that Dante, looking down from the top of the seating area with its concentric arrangement, conceived the plan for the circles of Hell in the Divine Comedy. *Ciriaco of Ancona viewed it and assigned it to Augustus with a dating of 3 B.C. Numerous restorations, both medieval and later (the stairways were reconstructed in the sixteenth century; the amphitheater is main­ tained today for opera and other events), make it difficult to confirm a precise date. Among the city gates that have survived are the Porta Borsari and the Porta dei Leoni, dating to the mid-first century a .c . Their elegant fa$ades were copied by *Palladio, Antonio da *Sangallo and other Renaissance architects. Inscrip­ tions were studied at Verona from a very early date, with many already discov­ ered in the later Middle Ages. The Veronese architect Fra *Giocondo and Felice *Feliciano noted them in their fifteenth-century sylloges, and in the eighteenth century an epigraphical museum was founded at Verona— the oldest in Italy— by the Veronese scholar F. S. *Maffei. The Museo Lapidario Maffeiano still maintains its original arrangement of Greek and Roman antiquities according to their typology. BIBLIOGRAPHY +G. Marchini, Verona illustrata: Le Antichita (Verona, 1974); B. Forlati Tamaro, s.v. “ Verona,” PECS, 969; Weiss, RDCA, esp. 21-24, 117-18; M. Greenhalgh, The Survival of Roman Antiquities in the Middle Ages (London, 1989), esp. 69-70; R. Brigo, Verona romana (Verona, 1991).

VERULAMIUM. Pre-Roman and Romano-British town, located near St. Al­ bans, Hertfordshire, England. The name Verlamio appears on coins of the pre-Roman settlement, which was the chief center of the Catuvellauni. Roman occupation began in a . d . 43-44 and continued into the fifth century. The martyrdom of St. Alban took place at Verulamium, possibly in the early third century. The town had a rectangular street grid, and excavations have revealed shops, a forum, a theater, fortifications and houses (some quite large). The finds from the site are housed in the Veru­ lamium Museum, opened in 1939 near the site. The chronicle of the abbey of St. Albans reveals that excavations were un­ dertaken at the site in the eleventh century during a search for building materials by the abbot Ealred and his successor, Eadmer. They reported finding streets and subterranean vaults (which subsequently had to be closed, because they were

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being frequented by thieves and women of ill repute), temples, altars, tiles, columns, statues, coins, amphoras and glass ash urns. In modern times, excavation was begun in 1930 by R.E.M. (later, Sir Mor­ timer) *Wheeler and Mrs. T. V. Wheeler, with Kathleen Kenyon directing work at the theater. K. M. Richardson excavated a shopping precinct in 1938. The building of a wide, modern highway in the 1950s was the occasion for the rigorous campaigns directed by S. S. Frere (1955-61), impeccably published so as to provide a clear chronology for the stratification of the site. BIBLIOGRAPHY J. Adhemar, Influences antiques dans Vart du Moyen Age frangais (London, 1939), 7576; S. S. Frere, s.v. “ Verulamium,,, PECS, 971-72; idem, Verulamium Excavations, 13 (Oxford, 1972-84).

VETULONIA (VATLUNA; VETALU). Major Etruscan city, believed by many to have been one of the “ Twelve Peoples” of Etruria. Vetulonia’s greatest period was from the late eighth century B.C. to the end of the sixth century B.C., represented by Villanovan ash urns and the spectacular tombs of the Orientalizing period, including the monumental Tomba della Pietrera and Tomba del Diavolino II, which lie in the necropolis below the town. The city experienced decline in the fifth and fourth centuries, perhaps due to the increased power of *Rusellae, which stood across Lake Prile from Vetulonia. During the Hellenistic period a revival occurred, evidenced by roads and build­ ings in the zones called Costa Murata and Costia dei Lippi. Especially accessible is the Hellenistic part of Vetulonia known as Scavi Citta, northeast of the summit of the hill occupied by the modern town. It provides a rare opportunity to study Etruscan town layout and construction methods of this late phase of Etruscan culture. The remains of a Roman villa and other buildings show occupation at Vetulonia into the second century A .c. Two medieval documents of 1181 and 1204 refer to Vetulonia, but soon afterward the ancient name was replaced by the designation Colonna di Buriano. The location of the ancient city was forgotten until the nineteenth century, when Isidoro Falchi declared that Colonna was actually Vetulonia. He was supported by King Umberto I and by the authority of Theodor *Mommsen. In 1887 the name was officially changed back to Vetulonia. During these same years, Falchi explored the necropolis and discovered the great Orientalizing tombs, as well as the zone called Scavi Citta. In the twentieth century, excavations have been conducted for the Soprintendenza Archeologica della Toscana by A. Talocchini and others. Most of the finds are in the Archaeological Museum in *Florence, including the reconstructed Tomba del Diavolino I, moved stone by stone from Vetulonia to the “ Garden” at the museum. BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Falchi, Vetulonia e la sua necropoli antichissima (Florence, 1891); A. Talocchini, “La citta e la necropoli di Vetulonia secondo i nuovi scavi, 1959-62,” StEtr 31 (1963), 43551; idem, s.v. “ Vetulonia,” PECS, 973-74; V. Cecconi, Profilo di una citta etrusca, Vetulonia (Pistoia, 1978).

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VIA APPIA (APPIAN WAY). The oldest and greatest of the roads linking Rome with the rest of Italy, begun in 312 B.C. by Appius Claudius Caecus and going as far south as Capua in Campania. The road was extended to Venusia in 291, Tarentum in 281 and Brundisium in 264. It began at Porta Capena of the * “ Servian Wall” in Rome and issued from the *Aurelian Wall by the Porta Appia, always one of the main gates of Rome. At first, it was mainly graveled, with the first stretch to the temple of Mars cobbled; ultimately it was paved with stone blocks for its whole length. The Via Appia was regarded as the “ queen of the long roads” (Statius, Silvae 2.2.12), and its neighborhood was densely inhabited from an early period, while its borders were soon lined with tombs, including the *Tomb of the Scipios and early imperial *columbaria of the family of Augustus. With the fashion for showy and fanciful tombs following the lead of Augustus, the Appia beyond the temple of Mars soon came to be lined with a rich variety of architectural inventions, of which the *Tomb of Caecilia Metella is only the most familiar. Altar tombs, aedicular tombs, pyramids, tumuli and towers vied with more fan­ tastic forms. Behind this margin stretched suburban villas such as that of the Quintilii, so rich and suggestive in its ruin that it received the name Roma Vecchia, and the summer palace of Maxentius, complete with a circus and pan­ theon dedicated to his dead son Romulus. The Via Appia was in use for burials by Christians and Jews from the first century a .c . to as late as the sixth century; the well-known rock-cut underground galleries of the catacombs were created during this period. Churches such as San Sebastiano (originally dedicated to Peter and Paul) were built as centers for pilgrims coming to visit venerated tombs. Medieval watchtowers were often built on the foundations provided by ruined tombs. The highway itself eventually fell into disuse. The catacombs were rediscovered in the sixteenth century and were studied with great interest by *Bosio and later by G. B. *De Rossi. Portions of the highway were cleared and reopened under a massive program of public works initiated by Pope *Pius VI (1775-99). Although the tombs and villas have been repeatedly plundered for treasure, beginning in antiquity, and individual build­ ings and complexes have been studied, books dealing with the road itself are appreciative, rather than scientific. A proper study of the geography and engi­ neering has yet to be written. BIBLIOGRAPHY +L. Cozza et al., La Residenza imperiale di Massenzio, catalog of exhibition (Rome, 1980); F. Coarelli, Dintorni di Roma (Rome, 1981), 9-110; +J. J. Rasch, Das Maxentius Mausoleum an der Via Appia in Rom (Mainz, 1984). L. RICHARDSON, j r

VICO, ENEA (ca. 1520-ca. 1570). Italian engraver and numismatist. Born in Parma, Enea Vico was active in Rome from 1541 to 1567 but is also known to have sought a copyright on his engravings in Venice in 1546. He was

Reconstruction of the Via Appia Antica and the Via Ardeatina, Rome, etching by G. B. Piranesi, from Opere varie di architettura (1750). (Deutsches Archaologisches Institut, Rome. Inst. Neg. 86.7362.)

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commissioned by Cosimo I (*Medici family) to engrave works of *Michelangelo, and from 1563 he worked for the *Este family in Ferrara. Strongly influ­ enced by Marcantonio *Raimondi and the school of engravers active in Rome in the earlier sixteenth century, he originally worked in a bold style, which later became mannered and calligraphic. Some 500 prints have been assigned to Enea Vico. His prolific output includes engravings after antiquities and monuments in and around Rome (*Nile river god, the “ Thusnelda” of the della *Valle family collection, the *Colosseum, the *Column of Marcus Aurelius, various sarcophagi). His efforts in numismatic reproduction were quite significant, from his Le Imagini de gli imperatori (1548; medals of the first twelve Caesars) to Le Imagini delle donne auguste (1557). The volume on emperors was notable for its inclusion of physical descriptions of the emperors based on Suetonius. The later work presented sixty-three plates of portraits of Roman imperial ladies, many of them convincingly authentic in their derivation from ancient models. The frontispiece to his work was a design closely modeled on the funerary altar of the freedman Amemptus (Paris, *Louvre). BIBLIOGRAPHY L. Servolini, “ Vico, Enea,” Thieme— Becker 34 (1940), 328-29; +The Illustrated Bartsch 30 Italian Masters of the Sixteenth Century, Enea Vico, ed. J. Spike (New York, 1985); Bober—Rubinstein, esp. 469.

VICTORY OF SAMOTHRACE (WINGED VICTORY; NIKE OF SA­ M OTHRACE). Over-lifesize marble statue of a goddess of Victory (preserved height 2.45m), key monument of Hellenistic art. The winged figure of Victory (in Greek, Nike) was discovered on the island of *Samothrace in 1863 by Charles Champoiseau, within the fifteenth-century citadel of the Gattilusi, in an area that later was identified as the ancient sanc­ tuary of the Great Gods. Champoiseau, the French vice-consul at Adrianople, gathered some 200 Parian marble fragments from the work and shipped them off to the *Louvre, where they were pieced together. The resulting figure, arm­ less and headless, depicts the goddess with wings spread out and drapery swirl­ ing as if she were in flight. Strangely, at first it was thought of as a mediocre decorative piece of a late period, until Wilhelm Frohner called attention to its real merit in 1869. Parts of the setting for the Victory were found by the Austrian expedition to Samothrace directed by A. *Conze and O. *Benndorf, including blocks of Rho­ dian marble used to form the prow of a warship upon which the goddess once stood. Champoiseau, informed of the find, arranged for the new pieces to be shipped to Paris. The base was restored, and in 1884 the whole ensemble was dramatically displayed on the landing of the Escalier Daru in the Louvre. It remains there today, conveying something of the triumphant and uplifting effect it must have had at Samothrace. Excavations conducted on Samothrace by Karl *Lehmann (1948-60) revealed

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more of the original setting of the Victory. The impression was romantically Baroque, with the ship’s prow set amid pools of water and boulders; in addition, parts of the Victory's hands were excavated (1950, 1967), and other fragments were rediscovered in the reserve collection of the *Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, where they had been sent by Conze. First attempts to date the statue compared it with coins of Demetrios Poliorketes showing a Nike on a ship’s prow, struck to commemorate his victory at Cyprian Salamis in 306 B.C. Such a dating is inconsistent with the style of the work, however, which is now recognized as very close to the Baroque manner practiced at *Pergamon and *Rhodes in the second century B.C. (first noted by A. S. Murray, 1890). Inscriptional evidence of a complicated nature points in the same direction and suggests that the artist may be Pythokritos, active on Rhodes in the early second century B.C. The victory at sea that is commemorated may be the battle off the coast of *Side in 190 B.C., in which the Rhodians and their allies defeated Antiochos III. The winged Victory has enjoyed enormous popularity (“ the most familiar and most reproduced of all Greek statues” — C. M. Havelock, 1971). Its dynamic representation of a figure in motion seems to have been seminal for the Futurist sculpture of Umberto Boccioni, Unique Forms o f Continuity in Space (1913). BIBLIOGRAPHY Michaelis, 118-20; Bieber, 125-26; K. Lehmann, “ Samothrace: Fifth Preliminary Re­ port,” Hesperia 21 (1952), 19-43; Haskell—Penny, 333-335.

VIGNOLA, GIACOMO (JACOPO) BAROZZI, DA (1507-73). Italian ar­ chitect of the Late Renaissance. Born at Vignola, near Modena, Giacomo Barozzi began as a painter in Bo­ logna. Arriving in Rome in 1530, he worked for two years as an assistant at the Vatican under *Peruzzi and Antonio da *Sangallo the Younger; he learned ar­ chitecture from his masters and also became thoroughly familiar with ancient Roman monuments. His fellow Bolognese *Primaticcio engaged Vignola to work for Francis I, King of France, in preparing molds in plaster and casts in bronze of some of the most famous statuary in Rome. Included were the *Vatican sculptures of the *Laocoon, the *“ Cleopatra” the *Commodus as Hercules, the *Belvedere Apollo, the *Knidian Aphrodite and the *Nile and Tiber river gods. Vignola accompanied Primaticcio to France (1541-43) to supervise the making of casts and to assist in an unspecified way with architectural plans. Returning to Rome, Vignola became a member of the Vitruvian Academy, a group that had as a major objective the translation of the ancient Latin text of Vitruvius’s Ten Books on Architecture. Though the manuscript had been redis­ covered in Montecassino in 1414 and had been translated from time to time, the academy felt a need to give greater attention to the actual monuments that might clarify the text, and to this end Vignola was employed in measuring various ancient buildings, as reported by *Vasari. His own architectural treatise,

VILLA GIULIA (MUSEO NAZIONALE DI VILLA GIULIA), Rome

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Regola delle cinque ordini darchitettura, was first published in 1562 and was an immediate success. It appeared in a long series of editions, including trans­ lations into French and English, that were influential for many years in Europe and in America. In an explication noted for its brevity, he advocates rather rigid rules for the creation of the five classical orders—Doric, Tuscan, Ionic, Corin­ thian and Composite. Around the middle of the century, Vignola concentrated increasingly on his many architectural commissions. He was much esteemed as the supervising ar­ chitect of the *Villa Giulia of Pope *Julius III (1551 and following) and as chief architect for the *Farnese family, for whom he finished the Palazzo Farnese in Rome (1549) and designed the Farnese palace at Caprarola (1558). He also supervised the laying out of the Farnese gardens on the *Palatine Hill (1565 and following). His study of ancient buildings has been seen as fundamentally important for several of his designs, for example, that of the internal curved fagade of the Villa Giulia, recalling the hemicycle of the markets of Trajan, and the ramped approach to the fagade at Caprarola, inspired by the *Sanctuary of Fortuna at Praeneste. BIBLIOGRAPHY +M. W. Casotti, II Vignola 1-2 (Trieste, 1960), esp. I, 25-30; S. Pressouyre, “ Les Fontes de Primatice a Fontainebleau,” Bulletin Monumental (1969), 223-39; H. W. Wurm, s.v: “ Vignola, Giacomo [Barozzi] da,” EWA 14 (1967), cols. 791-99.

VILLA DEI BRONZI. See VILLA OF THE PAPYRI. VILLA DEI PISONI. See VILLA OF THE PAPYRI. VILLA GIULIA (MUSEO NAZIONALE DI VILLA GIULIA), Rome. To­ gether with the *Florence Archeological Museum, the Museo Nazionale di Villa Giulia in Rome is the most important collection of Etrusco-Italic material in the world both for quantity and quality; its holdings come mainly from official (as distinct from casual or clandestine) excavations. Thanks to the efforts of F. Bernabei, the museum was instituted by decree on 7 February 1889 to house antiquities from Lazio; contemporary provision was made in the Museo delle *Terme for material from Rome itself. The actual “ villa” was built (1551-55) for Pope *Julius III outside the Porta Flaminia; among Late Renaissance artists engaged were *Michelangelo, *Vasari, Ammanati and *Vignola. Two wings were added in 1909-11; the present internal arrangements date from 1955-60. After initial difficulties, the museum began to function effectively in 1908 under the direction of G. A. Colini; his successors include G. Q. *Giglioli, A. Della Seta, R. Bartoccini and P. Pelagatti. The mu­ seum’s affairs have been administered since 1939 by the Soprintendenza Archeologica per l’Etruria Meridionale. With the exception of Tarquinia, all the Etruscan centers in the museum’s territory are represented in the collection: *Veii (Villanovan cemeteries; temple

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of the Apollo), Caere (*Cerveteri: Eastern imports, impasto, *bucchero, painted pottery and the Sarcofago degli Sposi from the cemeteries; Manganello votive deposit; inscribed gold tablets and architectural terracottas from *Pyrgi), Bisenzio, *Bolsena and *Vulci (Villanovan and Archaic cemeteries: bronzes, pot­ tery and stone statuary); and also Umbria (Terni, Todi), the Ager Faliscus (early cemeteries at Narce and Capena; cemeteries and sanctuaries at *Falerii) and Latium vetus (Orientalizing “ princely” tombs, *Praeneste; *Nemi votive de­ posit; cemetery, habitation and sanctuary, *Satricum; Alatri temple). Other im­ portant features are the antiquarian section (*Chigi Vase, Veii; the *Ficoroni cista, Praeneste; other bronzes— figurines, mirrors and repousse plaques); the *Castellani collection (donated 1919: jewelry, impasto, bucchero, Greek and Etruscan vases); and the Pesciotti collection (acquired 1972: Villanovan bronze ossuaries, incised bucchero, Greek pottery). BIBLIOGRAPHY +A. Della Seta, Museo di Villa Giulia (Rome, 1918); +P. Mingazzini, Vasi della Collezione Castellani (Rome, 1929, 1979); +Nuove scoperte e acquisizioni nelVEtruria meridionale (Rome, 1975); L. Proietti, ed., II Museo Nazionale etrusco di Villa Giulia, (Rome, 1980). F. R. SERRA RIDGWAY

VILLA ITEM . See VILLA OF THE MYSTERIES. VILLANOVAN CULTURE. Italian Iron Age culture (ninth-eighth centuries B.C.) first discovered at Villanova, near *Bologna, in 1853. Known especially from cemeteries, Villanovan culture is characterized by the use of the biconical ash urn for cremated remains and by the presence of iron and a rich repertory of artifacts of bronze. *Gozzadini first discovered such material in the vicinity of his personal estate of Villanova; from the beginning he identified Villanovan as early Etruscan— an opinion much disputed in the nineteenth century (cf. *Brizio) but widely held today. Subsequently, extensive Villanovan remains were found in the area of Bologna in general and at a number of other sites, especially in Etruria, but also in Romagna, the Marche and Campania. Many cemeteries were excavated in­ differently and poorly published (at Bologna, *Tarquinia, *Cerveteri), but in recent years several dedicated scholars (R. Pincelli and C. Morigi Govi, H. Hencken, I. Pohl, F. Delpino) have partly remedied the problem by producing definitive publications of material excavated earlier. Modern excavations at the cemetery of Quattro Fontanili at *Veii (1963-76) have been especially useful because of prompt and accurate publication. Much recent discussion on Villanovan archaeology has been devoted to the problems associated with the term “ Proto-Villanovan,” often applied to a period of transition from the Italian Bronze Age to the Iron Age. BIBLIOGRAPHY M. Zuffa, “ La civile villanoviana,” in Popoli e civilta delV Italia antica 5 (1976), 197— 363; M. A. Fuggazola Delpino, La Cultura villanoviana (Rome, 1984); C. Morigi Govi—

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G. Sassatelli, eds., Dalla Stanza delle Antichita al Museo Civico (Bologna, 1984), passim; D. Ridgway, in Cambridge Ancient History 4 (new ed., 1988), 628-33, 640-53.

VILLA OF LIVIA (VILLA OF PRIMA PORTA; AD GALLINAS ALBAS). A Roman villa famous for its breed of white chickens and its laurel grove (Pliny, NH 15.136) on the right bank of the Tiber at the ninth mile of the Via Flaminia; owned by the wife of Augustus, Livia Drusilla (d. a .d . 29). The villa occupied a height with a splendid view down the Tiber valley to Rome, and its lands and pavilions may have eventually extended across the river valley to Fidenae. Remaining today are massive works of terracing and three vaulted subterranean rooms, from the largest of which was removed (1951-52) the famous illusionistic garden painting now in the Museo Nazionale delle *Terme in Rome. There are poor remains of stucco reliefs on the ceiling. Ex­ cavations were conducted in various parts of the villa between 1863 and 1894, and various antiquities were recovered, among them the heroic cuirass statue known as the *Augustus of Prima Porta now in the *Vatican, Braccio Nuovo. The villa, under investigation now by G. Messineo, apparently continued to be an imperial property down to the time of Theodoric. BIBLIOGRAPHY + M. M. Gabriel, Livia's Garden Room at Prima Porta (New York, 1955); +C. Calci— G. Messineo, La Villa di Livia a Prima Porta (Rome, 1984). L. RICHARDSON, jr

VILLA OF PRIMA PORTA. See VILLA OF LIVIA. VILLA OF THE MYSTERIES (VILLA ITEM). A suburban Roman villa northwest of *Pompeii on a road branching north off the Via dei Sepolcri. The villa was excavated first by private initiative of Aurelio Item between 29 April and 16 May 1909, at which time the famous room with megalographic painting came to light. Digging was resumed in October of the same year and continued to January 1910, by which time the west half of the villa had been largely unearthed. The area of the villa was then expropriated by the govern­ ment, and measures to preserve and protect the excavated parts were carried out. Further excavation was not undertaken until April 1929; it was then con­ tinued until June 1930, when the general outline of the building was exposed. Outlying parts, however, still remain buried, notably the fermentation yard for the wine that was the base of the villa’s economy, with its dependencies, which may be extensive, and whatever the great south porticus may have led to. The latter is a late addition to the villa but very grand, with the suggestion that it might have led to a second villa or at least a large new wing. The decorations of the staterooms are the finest sequence of Second Style paintings ever discovered and are justly famous. Less attention has been paid the architecture, due to *Maiuri’s early misconception that the villa fell on evil days after the earthquake of a .d . 62 and was being remodeled to serve humble

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agricultural use. The evidence is, rather, that the remodeling was to be on a sumptuous scale and very elegant. The interpretation of the megalography of the triclinium at the southwest corner of the house has excited more controversy than any other painting from antiquity, controversy that continues strong today. Maiuri’s notion that it rep­ resents a ritual of the mystery cult of Bacchus and was a room used especially for weddings is certainly mistaken, but there is no consensus on most other points. The subject is Bacchic, with strong allusion to the mystery cult, but nothing secret or ritual is shown. A portrait statue of a woman found in the peristyle was identified by Maiuri as Livia, wife of Augustus. In recent years this identification has been ques­ tioned. BIBLIOGRAPHY 4-A. Maiuri, La Villa dei Misteri, 1-2 (Rome, 1931); A.M.G. Little, A Roman Bridal Drama at the Villa of the Mysteries (Kennebunk, ME, 1972); Ling, Roman Painting, 101-5, 229, with bib. L. RICHARDSON, j r

VILLA OF THE PAPYRI (VILLA DEI PISONI, VILLA DEI BRONZI). A large suburban villa at Portici, across the western gully from *Herculaneum, in a position commanding a magnificent view of the Bay of Naples and Capri. The villa was discovered in June 1750 as a well was driven by a farmer named Ciceri into the circular belvedere at the northwestern extremity of the villa, where a fine marble pavement excited much interest. Regular excavations were begun in August of that year and continued by tunneling until February 1761, when work had to be suspended because of fumes in the tunnels. It was reopened again in February 1764 but abandoned at the end of June without significant discoveries. Much probably still remains buried, since the northeast­ ern quarter of the house close to the library remains to be explored. The house is a splendid country house entered through a peristyle with the atrium complex beyond opening to a colonnaded front overlooking the sea. The main reception rooms were around this atrium and between the two peristyles. The wing extending northeast of the atrium contained an elaborate bath suite and a library. An enormous colonnaded garden extended to the northwest and was the setting for a collection of statuary of marble and bronze around a long pool. More gardens and pavilions continued beyond. Throughout, the house was sumptuously appointed and furnished with a wealth of fountains and a magnificent collection of bronze and marble sculp­ tures, both large and small, preponderantly Hellenistic in type but including an Archaic head and several Classical ones and also a number of Roman portraits. Some of the pieces are extremely fine. All these enrich the *Museo Nazionale at Naples. There were also discovered great numbers of carbonized papyri, mostly rolls, and a few waxed tablets. These were found at various points around the atrium,

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and their study and deciphering are work that continues today. Very few seem to be Latin; the majority have turned out to be multiple copies of works of Philodemos, the Epicurean philosopher of the first century B.C. Since he is known to have enjoyed the patronage of the Calpurnii Pisones, it has been presumed that this villa must have belonged to them. BIBLIOGRAPHY +D. Comparetti—G. De Petra, La Villa ercolanese dei Pisones, i suoi monumenti e la sua biblioteca (Turin, 1883, repr. 1972); M. R. Wojcik, La Villa dei Papiri ad Ercolano (Rome, 1986). L. RICHARDSON, j r

VILLARD DE HONNECOURT (WILARS DE HONECORT; ca. 1175-ca. 1233). French Gothic architect. Villard is the only thirteenth century architect whose sketchbook is preserved (Paris, B.N. ms. fr. 19093, 66 pp., 240mm X 160mm). In his didactic treatise composed between ca. 1215 and 1233, he discussed surveying, proportions, machines, gadgets, seminal examples of Gothic architecture, sculpture past and present, animals and medicine. Educated by the Benedictines in the northern French town of Honnecourt, he was well versed in the rudiments of Pythagorean and Euclidean geometry and wrote faultless French. Like other builders he was an avid traveler. He visited Laon, Chartres, Lausanne and even Hungary. In­ cessantly, he noted architectural innovations and objects of antiquity. Because of the fundamental nature of his sketches, covering a wide range of fields, he has been compared with Vitruvius, whose books were well known from the ninth century onward. Villard loved mechanical and hydraulic automata, which were manufactured in the nearby foundry centers of Liege and Dinant (pp. 13, 17, 34, 44). On page 17 he shows and describes a “ cantepleure,” a chalice from whose cup emerges a bird seated on a turret. The gadget is a gravity syphon. Wine disappears into the hollow foot, and the displaced air escapes through a whistle. The bird, seeing the liquid vanish from its grasp, utters a plaintive cry. The toy corresponds to similar centerpieces described in Heron of Alexandria’s Pneumatica. The enor­ mous catapult on page 54, with its counterpoise weighing ca. twenty tons, du­ plicates Vitruvius’s interest in military machinery. Villard drew more directly from classical sources in cityscapes based on Car­ ol ingian manuscripts (p. 7) or an ivory representing a circus battle with lions (pp. 52-53). As a humanist architect, he was intensely interested in classical sculpture. He repeatedly stayed at Reims, where he witnessed the work of a neoclassical group of carvers responsible for a series of figures, most notably, the Visitation group with its Flavian overtones (pp. 6, 8, 10, 11, 21-24, 43, 4950, 54-55). Page 11 shows a “ Pagan Tomb” with two seminude male Victories holding a wreath above an enthroned emperor or consul. It was inspired by a Gallo-Roman stele or a late classical diptych such as that of Probianus of ca. a . d . 400. The most interesting pseudoclassical figure shows a full-page nude

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male (p. 22). The figure points heavenward with his left hand and holds a vase with flowers in his right. He has turned away from an altar with an image of a seated medieval king. Washes indicate the musculature and an awkward attempt at a rigid contrapposto. Clearly, Villard had difficulties capturing the classical mode. The figure is probably based on an astronomical manuscript such as the Leiden Aratus (Voss lat. 79) or a Carolingian prototype showing the seasons. More successful body images are seen on page 43, with a seated and a standing nude male, the latter in a stiff contrapposto. The bodies are not seen as single entities but remain a collection of parts. Hahnloser compared the figures with small Roman bronzes that may have surfaced in Reims. Pages 10 and 43 display “ testes de fuelles,” frontal heads from which leaves have sprouted. This motif is found in Roman decorative sculpture and the fifth-century mosaic floor of the imperial palace in Constantinople. In a later drawing (p. 58) showing a gestic­ ulating man in chlamys and skull cap, body motion is resolved with the fluid ease that had already characterized the early twelfth-century work of Renier de Huy. The same curve of the contrapposto was transferred to fully clothed figures based on the sculptures of Reims cathedral of the 1220s (pp. 50, 54-55). A large number of geometric schemata inscribed in figures prove Villard’s attempt at a canon of human proportions that would 4‘facilitate work’’ (pp. 3538). His triangles, pentagrams, rectangles and rotational squares provide guide­ lines for quick sketching. His schema for drawing a face consists of sixteen squares (p. 38). The eyelids bisect the face; the bottom of the nose meets with the third line from the top. The width of the face measures two units, and with the hair it fills four units. Villard’s architectural geometry is based on the quadrature, the principle of rotation of successively inscribed squares at forty-five-degree angles. This method was used in Rome, Asia Minor and North Africa and lies within the general survival of Greek, Roman and Byzantine design theory. The same pro­ cedure was used by Villard to halve the volume of two cylindrical vessels. Many other images such as a labyrinth, a nude viola player and “ realistic” animals corroborate the general enthusiasm for classical prototypes that characterized the thirteenth-century Renaissance and especially the school of sculptors that spread from Reims to Metz, Strasbourg, Bamberg and, finally, Naumburg. The ideal realism present in Villard’s sketchbook surely made a later owner, Andre Felibien, author of the Dissertation touchant Varchitecture antique et gothique (Paris, 1707) more receptive to the inventive and classicizing vigor of Gothic art, which had been despised for so long. BIBLIOGRAPHY T. Bowie, ed., The Sketchbook of Villard de Honnecourt (Bloomington, IN, 1959); +H. R. Hahnloser, Villard de Honnecourt (Graz, 1972); +F. Bucher, Architector, The Lodge Books and Sketch Books of Medieval Architects, 1 (New York, 1979). F. BUCHER

VIOLLET-LE-DUC, EUGENE EMMANUEL (1814-79). French architect, scholar and restorer of buildings of the Middle Ages.

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Viollet-le-Duc was also a designer of stained glass and furniture and a writer. His reputation as a scholar is based on his theoretical writings, the Dictionnaire raisonne de Varchitecture frangaise du Xle au XVIe siecle and his Entretiens sur Varchitecture. These works demonstrated his belief in a rational and prac­ tical basis for architecture. His preferred style was the Gothic, which he believed was purely functional and had been developed to answer specific needs. In 1836 and 1837 Viollet-le-Duc spent eighteen months traveling in *Sicily and Italy visiting all the important archaeological sites, including *Pompeii, *Paestum and *Herculaneum and Florence, Venice and Rome. He kept a dayby-day journal, wrote extensive and very interesting letters and made 450 draw­ ings that are fine and detailed. These record both general views and details of classical buildings as well as architectural ornaments and sculpture that he found interesting from museum collections. He admired Greek temples for their fine proportions and for their simplicity and truth and found Roman architecture grand and noble but lacking in character. Just halfway through his Italian jour­ ney, le-Duc admitted that buildings of the Middle Ages impressed him more deeply than antique ones because they were more passionate and expressive; from the moment of his return from Italy, he steadfastly adhered to medieval sources for inspiration and Romanesque and Gothic buildings for restoration. BIBLIOGRAPHY Viollet-le-Duc, Lettres d ’ltalie 1836-1837, adressees a sa famille, annotees par Gene­ vieve Viollet-le-Duc (Paris, 1971); + Viollet-le-Duc, exhibition catalog (Paris, 1980). ELEANOR A. ROBBINS

VIPSUL. See FIESOLE. VISCONTI, ENNIO QUIRINO (1751-1818). Italian archaeologist and mu­ seum administrator, important for his systematic and thorough approach to an­ tiquities. Though he cannot be associated with any single innovation comparable to *Winckelmann’s “ invention” of a new history of Greek art, Visconti deservedly enjoyed almost as wide an international reputation in his day as his illustrious predecessor. Almost all his work took the form of commentary on specific an­ tiquities; here he brought to bear new criteria of relevance and critical rigor that mark his work as the first clear departure from the luxuriant displays of erudition engaged in by previous antiquarians to a modem style of cataloging and ana­ lyzing works of ancient art. Son of the antiquarian Giovanni Battista Antonio *Visconti, who was Winckelmann’s successor as commissioner of antiquities to the pope, Visconti was a child prodigy who, at the age of thirteen, had translated Euripides’ Hecuba into Italian. Though he acquired a doctorate in canonical and Roman law by the age of twenty, he did not accede to his father’s wish that he embark on a career at the papal court; instead, he took up a post as librarian to the Chigi family, where he devoted himself to literary and antiquarian pursuits. He collaborated with his father on a monumental catalog of the ancient sculptures in the new *Vatican

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Portrait of E. Q. Vis­ conti, Rome, Deutsches Archaologisches Institut (German Archaeological Institute). (Deutsches Archaologisches Insti­ tut, Rome. Inst. Neg. 76.1845.)

museum set up under d e m e n t XIV (1769-74) and *Pius VI (1775-99). II Museo Pio-Clementino became his best-known contribution to classical archae­ ology (7 vols., 1782-1807; even the initial volume published before his father’s death was almost entirely Visconti’s own work.) In 1784, he was appointed conservator of the *Capitoline Museum, but real public prominence came later, in 1797, after the French had occupied Rome, and he was invited to help form a provisional government in which he served as minister of the interior. When the French were finally driven out of Rome in 1799 by the Neapolitans, Visconti was forced to flee Italy. On his arrival in France that year, he was appointed administrator and pro­ fessor of archaeology at the new museum in the *Louvre. Further official rec­ ognition from the government of *Napoleon soon followed— in 1803 he was chosen a founding member of the Institut’s Classe des beaux-arts, and a year later he also became a member of the Classe d’histoire et de la litterature ancienne. The first of his guides to the antique sculptures on display in the Louvre appeared in 1801, and he subsequently collaborated with Emeric-David on the antiquities section of the luxuriously produced catalog, Le Musee frangais, pub­ lished in parts between 1803 and 1809. In the introductory “ Discours historique

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sur la sculpture antique” (1805-6), the two authors attacked Winckelmann’s highly speculative, but by then fashionable, theory that Greek art had gone into irreparable decline after the so-called Classic period, and they argued that the work of later artists producing free imitations of earlier Greek prototypes need not have been inferior, but, on the contrary, might even have been better for being more perfectly refined. At a time when archaeological opinion was coming round to the view that the best-known antiques were likely to be relatively late Graeco-Roman pro­ ductions, this new theory served to rescue the reputation of Napoleon’s prize booty from Italy— famous statues such as the *Medici Venus and the *Belvedere Apollo— from any suspicion that they might not be the unsurpassable exemplars of classic excellence they were, until recently, assumed to have been. In the earlier volumes of II Museo Pio-Clementino, Visconti had already taken issue with *Mengs’s doubts about the famous Vatican antiques; and in the 1797 vol­ ume he commented, with pointed reference to Winckelmann, that the very high quality of the sculptures known to have been produced under the emperor Ha­ drian destroyed “ the vain systems and periods that have been determined only by the phantasy of those who up until now have written about antiquities.” Visconti’s reflections on the history of Greek sculpture were given a further impulse when, in 1814, he was brought to London by Lord *Elgin in the hope that he might lend his professional authority to certifying the somewhat con­ tested authenticity and artistic quality of the *Parthenon marbles. Visconti had already published an extended commentary on the Parthenon bas-reliefs to ac­ company the engravings of them in the Museum Worsleyanum (vol. 2, probably 1804), where he anticipated some recent speculation that the frieze of the Panatheniac procession might have commemorated the heroes of a particular his­ torical occasion that had special significance for the Athenians. In his Deux memoires . . . sur les ouvrages de sculpture dans la collection de My lord d ’Elgin (1816), which became the standard scholarly text on the subject, he argued that the “ transcendent merit” of the Parthenon Marbles, equaled by only a very few of the finest traditional masterpieces, demonstrated how Winckelmann was wrong to have supposed that sculpture of the age of Pheidias had been char­ acterized by a residual stiffness of form; Greek sculpture at this point had already “ reached its limits,” and later artists would not have been able to introduce any significant refinements. While he reaffirmed that careful imitation had kept Greek art at “ almost the same high level” for six centuries after Pheidias, his suggestion that the “ Ilissos” showed a “ supple and living” quality that sur­ passed anything previously known from antiquity hinted at a more Romantic view of early Greek art. Among his numerous other publications, the most important were the catalog of the *Borghese family collection, published posthumously in 1821, and a vast iconographical compendium of portraits of famous Greeks and Romans under­ taken in 1804 under the auspices of the Napoleonic government (three volumes of the Iconographie grecque appeared in 1808, but only one volume of the

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Iconographie romaine came out, in 1817, the year before his death). The basis of Visconti’s reputation among his contemporaries was explained succinctly by the French antiquarian Millin de Grandmaison: “ [F]rom a conjectural science, he made an almost exact science.” In addition to the recognizably modern way in which he set out his evidence, with full critical apparatus of citations and comparative illustrations, what mainly distinguishes Visconti’s approach is his “ method” of systematic comparison between images that are demonstrably rep­ licas of the same motif. Any surviving evidence— an inscription, an extra at­ tribute or the context—relating to one version could then be used to help make sense of the others (the method was one Visconti himself traced back to the seventeenth-century antiquarian Raphael *Fabretti). Visconti, an expert numis­ matist and palaeographer, made extensive use of coins, recognizing that these often reproduced famous statues; in this way, for example, he identified the copy of the Tyche o f Antioch in the Vatican. Moreover he (rather than Winckelmann, who had pioneered the chronological classification of antiquities) was the first to bring to bear in a systematic way modern “ art-historical” concerns about such matters as date, state of preservation, quality as compared with other known replicas and the identification of the original prototype; earlier antiquar­ ians saw their expertise as confined to seeking out subject matter from ancient texts that might tally convincingly with the image they were discussing. BIBLIOGRAPHY T.-B. Emeric-David, “ Visconti, Ennio Quirino,” BU 43 (1854-65), 626-35; +H. Omont, “ Inventaire de la Collection Visconti conservee a la Bibliotheque Nationale,” RA, 3rd. ser. (January-June 1891), 174 ff.; +G. Sforza, Ennio Quirino Visconti e la suafamiglia (Genoa, 1923). ALEX POTTS

VISCONTI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1722-84). Roman antiquarian and ad­ ministrator. Visconti was born at Vernazza, near La Spezia, on 26 December 1722, son of Marc Antonio, a doctor. His father died early, and he was educated by two uncles; he came to Rome ca. 1736. At the university of the Sapienza he studied botany and medicine but discovered antiquity through numismatics and deep­ ened his understanding while overseeing the education of his sons. He married Orsola de’ Filonardi in 1750, by whom he had Ennio Quirino (*'Visconti), Fi­ lippo Aurelio and Alessandro. Visconti was the student and assistant of *Winckelmann (commissioner of antiquities, 1763-68) and succeeded him upon his murder; he was appointed commissioner to Clement XIII by Cardinal Rezzonico (papal chamberlain) on 30 June 1768. During his office, Visconti opposed the export of the Barberini candelabra (found at *Hadrian’s Villa) and the Verospi Jupiter (which went to the *Vatican). The Museo Clementino was founded in 1771, but this was the age of the exploitation of Rome by, in particular, Gavin *Hamilton (digging on the Palatine, at Hadrian’s Villa and at *Ostia) and the formation of the major

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English collections by Lansdowne, *Townley, *Blundell and Hope. The mas­ terpieces of the *Medici family collection were exported to Florence, the *Mattei family collection was broken up (the best pieces went to the Vatican, but the rest were exported) and Francesco Piranesi was working to build the Swedish royal collection. Among the most important finds during Visconti’s commissariate were Mirri’s discovery of painted rooms in the *Domus Aurea (1774), the excavation of the Villa Peretti (1777; the paintings were sold to the Earl of Bristol), the discovery of the Ustrinum Augustorum in the same year, the vandalizing of the *Tomb of the Scipios (1780) and the discovery of the Lancellotti *Diskobolos on the Esquiline (1781; now in the *Terme Museum, Rome). Visconti published little, mostly “ letters,” such as one on the Diskobolos (repr. by F. Cancellieri, Dissertazioni epistolari sopra la statua del Discobolo, 1806) and another on the Tomb of the Scipios (in Antologia Romana, 1779). His most important work was the first volume of II Museo Pio-Clementino illustrato e descritto da Giovanni Battista e Ennio Quirino Visconti (reissue, 1818-22), written with his son. He was also a poet, whose La Susanna (1754) and II Tobia (1757) were set to music. He was a member of many academies: S. Luca (1774), the Arcadi, Vari (president, 1741), Infecondi, Forti, Aborigini. From 1782 he began to suffer eye trouble, and his son Filippo Aurelio was appointed to assist him (and became his successor). Visconti died on 11 Sep­ tember 1784 and was buried in S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini. BIBLIOGRAPHY E. Tipaldo, Biografia degli italiani illustri 2 (1835), 478-81; L. Grillo, Elogi di liguri illustri 3 (1846), 54-58. R. T. RIDLEY

VITERBO. Italian city, site of a small Etruscan settlement and cemeteries (dat­ ing especially to the fourth-second centuries B.C.) and a Roman municipium. The locale became famous in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, when it was patriotically proclaimed a cradle of civilization and wrongly identified with the ancient *Vetulonia by *Annio da Viterbo. In 1494, before the eyes of the papal court of Alexander VI, Annio opened an Etruscan tomb and proclaimed the four “ triumphal statues” in it to represent Cybele, Iasius, Armonia and Electra, all “ smeared with red” paint. The sculptures, evidently sarcophagi, are now lost. Their nature may have been similar to nine others discovered in a tomb in the same cemetery (Cipollara) 200 years later. These sarcophagi, made of tufa with reclining figures and funerary inscriptions, date to the third century B.C. or later. Finds from the tomb were well described and illustrated by Feli­ ciano Bussi, along with many other antiquities discovered in Viterbo in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in his Veterum etruscorum monumenta in viterbiensi territorio reperta (Rome, 1737-38). The present Museo Civico di Viterbo contains many of these items, as well as the large collection of antiq­

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uities amassed by the local archaeologist Luigi Rossi Danieli (d. 1909). Finds from the site of *Acquarossa are on display at the Rocca Albornoz. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Emiliozzi, La Collezione Rossi Danieli nel Museo Civico di Viterbo (Rome, 1974); idem, II Museo Civico di Viterbo, Storia delle raccolte archeologiche (Rome, 1986).

VIX KRATER. Huge bronze mixing bowl found in a tumulus burial of a Celtic princess, dating ca. 500 B.C., at Vix (Mont Lassois), near Chatillon-sur-Seine, France; discovered in 1953 by R. Joffroy and deposited at the Musee Municipal at Chatillon-sur-Seine. Of finest workmanship and firmly dated to the late sixth century B.C., the krater was perhaps made at Sparta (or a colony in Magna Graecia—Taras?) and is the largest vessel known from antiquity (height 1.64m, diameter 1.27m, weight 208kg, capacity 1,100 liters); the bronze is eggshell-thin (1mm). Parts are detachable for transport, but how (or why) it got to Vix at this early date raises problems. BIBLIOGRAPHY R. Joffroy, “ La Tombe de Vix,” MonPiot 48 (1954), 1-68. A. TREVOR HODGE

VOLATERRAE. See VOLTERRA. VOLSINII. One of the twelve major city-states of Etruria, dominating the mid­ dle Tiber valley and considered in antiquity to be the very heart of the Etruscan nation because of the vicinity of the revered federal sanctuary of Fanum Voltumnae (as yet unidentified); renowned for its temple to the goddess Nortia, where nails were ceremonially fixed to mark the passage of years (Livy 7.3.7). After long controversy, modern research has recognized in the rich remains at *Orvieto the Etruscan city of Velzna (Latin Volsinii Veteres\ virtually de­ serted by the mid-third century B.C., when, according to ancient authors, the Romans, summoned to assist in quashing a plebeian revolt, moved all the in­ habitants to Volsinii Novi (265 B.C.); this can be identified in the extensive remains of Late Republican date excavated by the French near *Bolsena on the shores of the lake of the same name in northern Lazio. BIBLIOGRAPHY R. Bloch, Recherches archeologiques en territoire volsinien (Paris, 1972); G. Colonna, “Considerazioni suH’Etruria interna volsiniese,” StEtr 41 (1973), 45-72. F. R. SERRA RIDGWAY

VOLTERRA (VELATHRI; VOLATERRAE). Etruscan and Roman city. An austere site in the hills of northwestern Tuscany, Volterra is distinguished by the extent (more than 7k) of its fortifications and an arched gate ornamented with three large stone heads, but it is best known today for the hundreds of ash urns found in the ancient city’s cemeteries.

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These urns were already known in the Middle Ages; one was reused to house the bones of a local saint. In 1466, the humanist Antonio Ivano of Sarzana described the finds of a tomb discovered near Volterra, including ash urns and pottery. Serious exploration of the cemeteries began in 1731 with the discovery of a rock-cut tomb containing “ more than 40 urns, some with carved reliefs and inscriptions.” Scholars and dilettanti began to dig and to collect; Anton Francesco *Gori published twenty-one of the first tomb’s urns and later cata­ loged the collection of the distinguished Volterran prelate Mario *Guarnacci, who willed his “ museum” and library to his city in 1761. This, with earlier donations, became the nucleus of the Museo Etrusco Guarnacci, the first mu­ seum of purely Etruscan material. Excavations continued through the nineteenth century; in 1883 the first Villanovan burial was found, raising interest in the earlier phases of the city. In 1926 Doro *Levi began to excavate the acropolis, the Pian di Castello; exca­ vation was continued there in 1967. Above earlier material were found remains of two Hellenistic temples and, near them, a reservoir of the Augustan period. In 1950 Enrico *Fiumi, director of the Guarnacci Museum and library, began to excavate the Roman theater in Vallebuona, the largest and handsomest ar­ chitectural complex of the Imperial period in all Tuscany. The fine statuary that ornamented it is among the later additions to the Museo Guarnacci. BIBLIOGRAPHY G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, 2nd ed. (London, 1878), II, 136-93; +E. Fiumi, Volterra etrusca e romana (Pisa, 1976); +M. Cristofani, Urne volterrane 2, II Museo Guarnacci (Florence, 1977); +S. Haynes, Etruscan Bronzes (London, 1985), 118-22. EMELINE HILL RICHARDSON

VOS, MARTIN DE (MARTEN; 1532-1603). Flemish painter. Martin de Vos was educated in Antwerp and traveled to Rome, Florence and Venice, where he worked in Tintoretto’s workshop, remaining until 1558. A sketchbook in the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inscribed on the cover page as “ by the great master M. De Vos,” contains some 200 drawings of antique and modern subjects in pen and brown ink. Included are statues (e.g., the *Quirinal Horse Tamers, the Farnese Atlas, the *Farnese Captives), relief sculpture (Augustus and Livia from the Altar of the Lares Augusti in the Uffizi) and architecture (*Theater of Marcellus). Netto-Bol argued (1976) that some are copies of drawings made by Marten van *Heemskerck in the 1530s and that the sketchbook was not by Marten de Vos but by an unknown artist in the circle of Frans *Floris. If the sketchbook is not by Vos, then we have no drawings by him after Greek and Roman statuary. It seems that the study af ancient art, for Vos as for many of his Flemish contemporaries, formed a relatively small part of his Italian studies and that far more important was the influence of *Michelangelo, *Raphael, *Titian and Tintoretto. In early compositions, his uses of draperies, gestures,

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architecture and decorative elements such as statues or ruins are taken from the antique repertoire (e.g., Rebecca and Eleazer at the Well, Mousty, Brussels, Charles van Hove’s collection), but the effects of inspiration provided by ancient art disappear in his following works, which are clearly influenced by Tintoretto’s painting and Counter-Reformation trends. The Venetian’s influence can be seen in Vos’s abundant production, meant, in large part, for churches in the Low Countries. BIBLIOGRAPHY S. Sulzberger, Essai de monographie sur Martin de Vos (Brussels, 1938); M.M.L. NettoBol, The So-Called Marten de Vos Sketchbook of Drawings After the Antique (The Hague, 1976); +A. Zweite, Marten de Vose als Maler (Berlin, 1980). G. DENHAENE

VULCI. One of the great Etruscan centers, situated on the river Fiora north of *Tarquinia. Vulci was the home of the brothers Aulus and Caelius Vibenna, active par­ ticipants in Roman history of the regal period. Already flourishing in the first Villanovan period, Vulci attained a prosperous level in artistic and industrial commerce and production by Late Orientalizing times which increased in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.; its decline began ca. 450 and (apart from a brief rally in the fourth century) continued after the Roman conquest and the conse­ quent foundation of *Cosa (273 B.C.). Vulci was deserted after the eighth century a .c .; the ruins on the Pian de’ Volci, noted in the fourteenth century, were correctly identified by *Annio da Viterbo (followed by L. Holstenius, F. A. Turiozzi, L. *Canina). Predatory ex­ cavations in the cemeteries were conducted by Cardinal Pallotta (1783; *Vatican Museums), F. Prada (1787), Feoli and Candelori (1825) and, especially, L. Bon­ aparte, prince of *Canino (1828-40: Prospettiva 21, 1980, 6-24); European collections were inundated with jewelry, bronzes, ivories, and painted pottery, both Etruscan and— especially— Attic, first recognized as such (and not as Etrus­ can) thanks to the Vulci material included by E. *Gerhard in his “ Rapporto vulcente” (1831). More scientific methods were employed on behalf of the *Torlonia family by A. *Fran$ois, who discovered in 1857 the painted tomb named after him, and by S. Gsell, who issued the only proper excavation report on Vulci ever published, Fouilles dans la necropole de Vulci, 1892. Two Guglielmi collections later found their way to the *Vatican Museums. The official excavations of the present century (R. Mengarelli, G. Bendinelli, U. Ferraguti), including those in the city (R. Bartoccini), are largely unpublished. Accordingly, in spite of studies of single monuments (Cuccumella; Tombe di Iside, della Panatenaica) and categories (bronzes, stone sculpture, EtruscoCorinthian and “ Pontic” vases), it is not yet possible to write the history of one of the largest and most affluent centers of the ancient Mediterranean. BIBLIOGRAPHY +L. Canina, LAntica Etruria marittima (Rome, 1849), II, 73-108; F. Messerschmidt, Nekropolen von Vulci (Berlin, 1930); G. Riccioni, “ Vulci: A Topographical and

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Historical Survey,” in Italy Before the Romans, ed. D. Ridgway—F. R. Ridgway (Lon­ don, 1979), 241-76, with historical bib.; F. Buranelli, ed., La Tomba Francois di Vulci (Rome, 1987); idem, Gli Scavi della Societa Vincenzo Campanari—Govemo Pontifico (1835-1837) (Rome, 1991). F. R. SERRA RIDGWAY

w WACE, ALAN JOHN BAYARD (1879-1957). English archaeologist best known for his excavation at Mycenae and his study of the Late Bronze Age civilization of the site; a specialist also in Near Eastern and Mediterranean em­ broideries, in particular, those of the Greek Islands. Wace was educated at Shrewsbury School and at Pembroke College, Cam­ bridge. He excavated widely, in Thessaly, at *Sparta and *Corinth, at *Troy and at *Alexandria, besides *Mycenae, where he began digging in the 1920s and continued at intervals until 1955. In the interim he served as librarian of the *British School at Rome (1905-6), lecturer in ancient history and archae­ ology, St. Andrews University (1912-14), director of the *British School at Athens (1914-23), deputy keeper in the Department of Textiles, Victoria and Albert Museum (1924-34), Laurence Professor of classical archaeology at Cam­ bridge (1934-44) and, after retirement from Cambridge, professor of classics and archaeology at Farouk I University, Alexandria (until 1952). Wace’s publications were extensive and varied: with M. N. Tod, A Catalogue o f the Sparta Museum; with M. S. Thompson, Prehistoric Thessaly; Nomads o f the Balkans; Mediterranean and Near Eastern Embroideries in the Collection o f Mrs. F. H. Cook; Approach to Greek Sculpture; with Frank H. Stubbings, A Companion to Homer. His writings include even poetry and ghost stories; but his most important work centered on Mycenae: Excavations at Mycenae, 19391955; Chamber Tombs at Mycenae (1932); Mycenae, An Archaeological History and Guide (1949). He championed the role of mainland Greece in the Bronze Age, against Sir Arthur *Evans’s view, and was vindicated in his belief that Linear B (*Linear A and B) represented an early stage of the Greek language by *Ventris’s decipherment of the script in 1952. In collaboration with Carl *Blegen, Wace developed the systematic chronology for mainland Greece in the Bronze Age that is still in use.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Times, 11-16 November 1957; H. A. Thompson, “ Alan John Bayard Wace,” AJA 62 (1958), 229. W. W. d e GRUMMOND

WAGNER, JOHANN MARTIN VON (1777-1858). German painter, sculptor, restorer and art dealer. Born in Wurzburg, Wagner studied at the academy of art at Vienna (1797). Upon his return to Wurzburg, he was made professor of drawing at the univer­ sity. He began to travel abroad—to Paris and Rome— and soon was hired (1810) to procure antiquities for (prince and then king) *Ludwig I of Bavaria. In spite of his rather strange personal appearance, he was generally successful in his mission. In Rome, Wagner purchased numerous statues from princes, dukes and cardinals. Traveling to Greece, he underwent hardship and deprivation as he became involved in the delicate negotiations that resulted in the purchase for Ludwig of the impressive sculptures from the temple at *Aigina excavated by *Cockerell and *Haller von Hallerstein. Restored by Wagner and *Thorvaldsen in Rome, the statues were delivered to Munich in 1820.

Portrait of Johann Mar­ tin von Wagner, etching by C. Kuchler, 1836. (Westfalisches Landesmuseum fur Kunst und Kulturgeschichte, Mun­ ster, Portratarchiv Diepenbroick. Photo: R. Wakonigg.)

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As the years went by, Wagner acquired various antiquities for himself— pieces of sculpture, including a head of a centaur from a metope of the *Parthenon, and minor antiquities. At his death he bequeathed these to the university in his home city; they became the core of the Martin von Wagner Museum in Wurzburg. A highly significant addition to the Wagner museum was made in 1872, when the university bought the Feoli collection, some 480 Greek and Etruscan vases, mostly from *Vulci. These have made the Martin von Wagner Museum famous. BIBLIOGRAPHY E. Simon, ed., Fiihrer durch die Antikenabteilung des Martin von Wagner Museums der Universitat Wurzburg (Mainz, 1975); Stoneman, 192-95; Portratarchiv, no. 137.

WALDSTEIN (changed to WALSTON in 1918), Sir CHARLES (18561927). American archaeologist, art historian and political philosopher. Born in New York, Waldstein studied at Columbia for two years and grad­ uated from Heidelberg University in 1875 with a doctoral degree. In 1880 he accepted a teaching position in classical archaeology at Cambridge University and held various appointments there, including the directorship of the *Fitzwilliam Museum (Cambridge), until 1911. From 1888 to 1892 he was also director of the *American School of Classical Studies in Athens and subsequently pro­ fessor of ancient art there (1892-97). He directed the American excavations at Plataia, *Eretria and the *Argive Heraion. Energetic, enthusiastic and well liked, Waldstein did much to stimulate interest in ancient art in the English-speaking world. His Essays on the Art o f Pheidias (1885) was influential in its day. His most lasting work has been The Argive Heraeum (1902-5), though his exca­ vation techniques were criticized by G. *Karo as falling below the standards established earlier at *Samothrace and *01ympia. He identified the head of Iris on the *Parthenon frieze. Some idea of the wide range of his interests can be gathered from a selection of his numerous books: The Work o f John Ruskin (1893); The Jewish Question (1899); Herculaneum, Past Present and Future (1908); The Next War: Wilsonism and Anti-Wilsonism (1918); Truth (1919). BIBLIOGRAPHY The Times, 23 March 1927, 14, 19; Who Was Who 1916-28; L. E. Lord, A History of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens (Cambridge, MA, 1947), 88 and passim. DAVID A. TRAILL

WALSTON, CHARLES. See WALDSTEIN, CHARLES. WALTERS, HENRY (1848-1931). American railroad magnate and art collec­ tor. In the course of his studies at Georgetown and Harvard, Henry Walters spent two years in Paris, and there he developed a passion, like that of his father,

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William T. Walters, for collecting works of art. On his return from Europe, Walters joined his father in the railroad business, later to become, it was said, “ the richest man in the South.” On his annual trips abroad, he had the oppor­ tunity to renew contacts with artists and sculptors and to develop generally his tastes in art. His interests were wide-ranging; gradually he assembled a remark­ able collection of paintings, sculpture, textiles, ceramics, illuminated manu­ scripts and jewelry from every period of Eastern and Western art. Often he acquired whole collections. One of these, the Massarenti collection, purchased in 1902, included seven Roman sarcophagi with scenes of Dionysos and one of Persephone and a number of bronze portrait heads of Augustus. Later Walters made single purchases, some Greek and Etruscan bronzes, a very fine Roman copy of a Praxiteles Satyr figure as well as a group of cameo and intaglio rings of the third century B.C. and two small gold Etruscan bullae. Walters’s single acquisitions show a keen awareness of quality, something not always true in the larger group purchases. The collection was housed in 1909 at his home in Baltimore, along with the material inherited from his father. On Walters’s death, the entire collection was bequeathed to the city of Baltimore as a public museum, the Walters Art Gallery. BIBLIOGRAPHY DAB 21 (1936), 399-400; D. Miner, “ The Founders of the Collection,” JWalt 1 (1938), 9-12; D. K. Hill, “The Spectacular in the Classical,” Apollo 84 (1966), 32-37, and “ The Classical Collection and Its Growth,” Apollo 100 (1974), 6-13; R. H. Randall, Jr., “ Jewellery Through the Ages,” Apollo 84 (1966), 75-79. ELEANOR A. ROBBINS

WARD-PERKINS, JOHN BRYAN (1912-81). English archaeologist; spe­ cialist in Roman architecture. Qualified by academic achievement (at the London Museum) and war service (in North Africa and Italy), both under the command of Mortimer *Wheeler, John Ward-Perkins was director of the *British School at Rome from 1946 to 1974. The Libyan interests he brought to Rome were joined in the mid-1950s by the school’s systematic field survey of South Etruria; these and other pro­ grams fueled major studies of architecture, town planning and the marble trade in the Roman world. Ward-Perkins was instrumental in founding the Interna­ tional Association for Classical Archaeology (and its annual bibliographical bul­ letin, Fasti Archaeologici) and the Tabula Imperii Romani project. BIBLIOGRAPHY D. E. Strong, review of A. Boethius—J. B. Ward-Perkins, Etruscan and Roman Archi­ tecture (Harmondsworth, 1970), AntJ 51 (1971), 347^-9; T. W. Potter, The Changing Landscape of South Etruria (London, 1979); J. Reynolds— M. Pallottino, “John Bryan Ward-Perkins, CMG, CBE, FBA 1912-1981,” BSR 48 (1980), xiii-xviii; J. B. WardPerkins, Roman Imperial Architecture (Harmondsworth, 1981); H. Dodge— B. WardPerkins, eds., Marble in Antiquity, Collected Papers of J. B. Ward-Perkins, (London, 1992). DAVID RIDGWAY

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WARREN, EDWARD PERRY (1860-1928). American art collector and con­ noisseur. Born in Boston, son of a wealthy paper manufacturer, graduate of Harvard College (1883), Warren early moved to England (Oxford M.A., 1888), where he settled in 1890 at Lewes House, “ a monkish establishment where women were not welcomed” (Rothenstein). Platonic homosexuality attracted him to Greece, as it did earlier *Winckelmann. Aided by private income, impeccable taste and his scholarly secretary, John Marshall, he collected Greek vases, mar­ bles, bronzes, terracottas and gems at Lewes. He resold at no profit the great pieces, for example, the Bartlett Head, the Chios Head, the Marotti Herakles, to the *Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and later, others to the *Metropolitan and the Rhode Island School of Design. He donated lavishly to Boston, the *Ashmolean, Bowdoin College and, because of friendship with *Studniczka, Leipzig University. Boston owes the cream of its collection to Warren. *Beazley was a member of his circle. In retrospect, his trust of *Helbig was ill advised. From him he bought for £70,000 the Boston Throne, challenged by some as a forgery (cf. *Ludovisi Throne). BIBLIOGRAPHY E. Burnett—E. H. Goddard, Edward Perry Warren: The Biography of a Connoisseur (London, 1941); J. D. Beazley, “ Warren as Collector,” in Burdett-Goddard, 331-63; A. L. Rowse, Homosexuals in History: A Study of Ambivalence in Society, Literature and the Arts (London, 1977), 309-13; D. Sox, Bachelors of Art, Edward Perry Warren and the Lewes House Brotherhood (London, 1991). WILLIAM M. CALDER III

WEBSTER, THOMAS BERTRAM LONSDALE (1905-74). British profes­ sor of Greek; specialist in Greek art, drama and dramatic monuments. Influenced at Oxford by J. D. *Beazley and J. L. *Myres, Webster was suc­ cessively professor at Manchester (1931-48), University College, London (1948-68) and Stanford (1968-70). Between 1939 and 1959, he conducted a brilliant parallel survey of Greek art and literature from Homer to Menander, extending this (after the decipherment of Linear B [*Linear A and Linear B] by his friend M. *Ventris) in a pioneer investigation of the period From Mycenae to Homer (1958). The two inseparable elements of his oeuvre were likewise combined in notable studies of Greek dramatists and theater production. An inspiring teacher, Webster was the moving spirit in the development of the unique Institute of Classical Studies in the University of London. BIBLIOGRAPHY T.B.L. Webster, Greek Art and Literature, 700-530 B.C. (Otago, 1959), xv-xviii; A. D. Trendall, T.B.L. Webster Memorial Lecture (summary), BICS 21 (1974), 1-2. DAVID RIDGWAY

WEDGWOOD, JOSIAH (1730-95). Famous English potter, following family tradition.

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Portrait of Josiah Wedgwood, engraving by S. W. Reynolds after Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1841. (Westfalisches Landesmuseum fur Kunst und Kulturgeschichte, Munster, Portratarchiv Diepenbroick. Photo: R. Wakonigg.)

Wedgwood’s youth coincided with the exploitation of the newly discovered ancient cities of *Herculaneum and *Pompeii; his pottery belongs with the art­ works derived from these sources that formed a fountainhead for the whole neoclassical movement. Born in Burslem, as a child Wedgwood was apprenticed to his older brother Thomas and acquired a consummate skill at the potter’s wheel. Unfortunately he was forced by illness to turn to modeling as less strenuous; nevertheless, his fertile imagination then allowed him to expand his capacities endlessly. Over the years he so improved the art and manufacture of pottery that it became a major British industry. His crowning artistic achievement was the invention of the deep-blue jasperware that strikingly sets off his decorative white classic figures in bas-relief. Starting from modest beginnings, Wedgwood developed substantial potting facilities in his native Staffordshire, finally opening, in 1769, his extensive ce­ ramic works at Etruria, named after the homeland of the Etruscans (*Etruscheria), since they were thought at the time to have created the *Greek vases found in *Etruscan tombs. At that time Wedgwood threw the famous “ First Day’s Vases” depicting Hercules in the Garden o f the Hesperides. Showrooms were opened in London as of 1768, and he maintained a studio of modelers in Rome from 1787 to 1795. His first portrait medallions date from 1771 with

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subjects drawn from antiquity and modem times. During his career, he employed prominent artists as modelers, portraitists and decorators, including John *Flaxman, William Hackwood and George Stubbs, among the best known. He also bought classical casts from other sources such as James *Tassie, and Hoskins & Grant. On presentation of two sets of cream ware vases to Queen Charlotte in 1765, Wedgwood was named Potter to the Queen. In 1774 Catherine the Great of Russia ordered from him a second dinner service, the famous 952-piece “ frog service.” Thanks to his practical research and public-spirited activities, Wedg­ wood was named fellow of the Royal Society in 1783 and member of the *So­ ciety of Antiquaries in 1786. His practical turn of mind had long since led to the production of a wide range of so-called useful wares, as well as unique decorative creations of classical inspiration. His first catalog of “ ornamental wares” was issued in 1773, mainly composed of replicas of antique medals, cameos, intaglios, tablets, statues and so on. A historic achievement took place with the creation in 1790 (and in limited editions since then) of replicas of the famous *Portland (or Barberini) Vase, the original with its enigmatic bas-relief dating from the first century B.C. Wedgwood died at Etruria in 1795. After his death the firm was taken over by his son and then by successive generations until present times. It still enjoys worldwide respect for the classical elegance of its pottery. Wedgwood Societies in Britain, the United States, Australia and elsewhere pursue active research and publication on the subject of Wedgwood’s art. BIBLIOGRAPHY F. Rathbone, Old Wedgwood (London, 1898); E. Meteyand, Life of Josiah Wedgwood (London, 1970); S. Stephen— S. Lee, “ Wedgwood, Josiah,” DNB 20 (1973), 1051-57. J. S. TASSIE

WEEGE, FRITZ (1880-1945). German philologist, archaeologist and art his­ torian, known for his work on the *Domus Aurea (Golden House) and Etruscan painting. Born in Frankfort am Main, Fritz Weege studied at Bonn and Berlin with the leading classicists of the turn of the nineteenth century (Usener, *Wilamowitz, *Loeschke, *Kekule et al.). From 1920 he was professor (Ordinarius) of clas­ sical archaeology at Breslau, a post he held until his death. Weege published early on the Oscan language and inscriptions and on Oscan tomb painting. Receiving a state travel stipend (1907-8), he was off to Greece to take part in excavations at *01ympia with *Dorpfeld. In Rome he undertook a study of the Golden House of Nero, analyzing the paintings and stucco dec­ oration and recording the signatures of numerous early visitors to the Domus Aurea. Contracting typhus, he refused to give up his studies and, much against the wishes of his nurses, would leave the hospital for excursions to the damp, unhealthy underground site. The ground plans he drew of the rooms became the basis of much subsequent work. At the same time Weege was studying the

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influence of the *grottesche of the Domus Aurea in Renaissance art and pub­ lished a study of their use in the Loggia of *Raphael (1911). From Weege’s pen came the guide to the *Villa Giulia in the third edition of W. Helbig’s Fiihrer durch die Antikensammlungen Roms. His most influential publication was his book on Etruscan tomb painting, Etruskische Malerei (1921), with rich illustrations and commentary on the context of the paintings, as well as a section on the history of the study of *Etruscan tombs and their influence. BIBLIOGRAPHY E. von Mercklin, “ Fritz Weege,” Gnomon 23 (1951), 117-18; Archaologenbildnisse, 331.

WELCKER, FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB (1784-1868). German archaeologist and classical philologist. A clergyman’s son, friend of Wilhelm von *Humboldt and correspondent of *Goethe, Welcker was long (1819-68) professor of classical philology at Bonn, where he taught ancient art history along with philology and founded an early museum of casts. He traveled widely in classical lands and was deeply influ­ enced by *Zoega at Rome (1806-8), whose life he later wrote. He discovered the *Totalitatsideal, the requirement to command all evidence, philological and archaeological, in order to understand antiquity. This conception molded *Jahn, the *Mommsens, *Wilamowitz and Carl *Robert. His extensive publications stress Greek religion, poetry and art. BIBLIOGRAPHY R. Kekule, Das Leben Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker’s nach seinen eignen Aufzeichnungen und Briefen (Leipzig, 1880); Sandys, III, 216-17; E. Langlotz, “ Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker 1784-1868,” 150 Jahre Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitat zu Bonn 1818-1968: Bonner Gelehrte Beitrage zur Geschichte der Wissenschaften in Bonn: Phi­ losophic und Altertumswissenschaften (Bonn, 1968), 215-20; W. M. Calder III, “ Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff to Kekule yon Stradonitz on Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker,’ ’ Studi Italiani di Filologia Classica, n.s. 3,2 (1984), 116-33; idem et al., eds., Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker, Werk und Wirkung, Hermes Einzelschriften 49 (Stuttgart, 1986). WILLIAM M. CALDER III

WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820). American expatriate artist; president of the Royal Academy in London and court painter to England’s King George III. In the summer of 1760, West arrived in Italy, where he was to stay until 1763. His first stop was Rome, at the time in the midst of a great revival of interest in Roman antiquity and excavation. There West, while gazing at the *Belvedere Apollo, is said to have remarked that the statue reminded him of a Mohawk warrior in its proportion and form. In the late summer of 1763, West settled in London, at the time second only to Rome in its passionate interest in, and collecting of, Greek and Roman art. The influence on West can be seen in his The Choice o f Hercules (1764; Victoria and Albert Museum), where the central figure is modeled after the Vatican

The Temporary Elgin Room at the British Museum, 1819, with Sir Benjamin West in the foreground on the left, by A Archer, London, British Museum. (The Warburg Institute, University of London.)

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*Meleager. The *Farnese Hercules may also have been influential. Perhaps the best-known borrowing by West from a classical source is in his 1768 painting, Agrippina Landing at Brundisium with the Ashes o f Germanicus (Yale Univer­ sity Art Gallery). The central group in this work is derived from the processional reliefs of the *Ara Pacis Augustae; West could have seen the reliefs while in Rome or could have been familiar with the engravings of the Ara Pacis in P. S. *Bartoli’s Admiranda romanorum antiquitatum (Rome, 1693). In 1809, West copied the Elgin marbles (Lord *Elgin) and was a keen supporter of their being brought to England. Save for a brief retirement in 1805, West was the president of the Royal Academy in London from 1792 until his death in 1820. Throughout his career, he was a strong advocate of classical proportion as found in Greek and Roman art. In his Discourse of 1811, he wrote about the use of the classical ideal in painting and praised such works as the Elgin marbles, the Belvedere Apollo, the *Medici Venus, the *Laocoon and the Dying Gaul (*Dying Trumpeter) for ex­ hibiting purity of form and proportion. BIBLIOGRAPHY +G. Evans, Benjamin West and the Taste of His Times (Carbondale, IL, 1959); +The World of Benjamin West (Allentown, PA, 1962); +H. Von Erffa— A. Staley, The Paint­ ings of Benjamin West (New Haven, CT, 1986). ROBERT E. JACKSON

W H EELER, Sir (ROBERT ERIC) M ORTIM ER (1890-1976). English ar­ chaeologist. Born in the year of *Schliemann’s death, Wheeler began his archaeological career in 1913, when he embarked on graduate research into the Roman pottery of the Rhineland with the financial assistance of Sir Arthur *Evans. Ceramic typology and European topics were soon abandoned in favor of a more urgent need at home: the extension and employment of the excavation techniques evolved privately by General *Pitt-Rivers in the last decades of the nineteenth century— and subsequently ignored. The essence of the “ Wheeler method” (Ar­ chaeology from the Earth, 1954) resides in its practical application of PittRivers’s fundamental precept of exact, three-dimensional, stratigraphical recording. On arrival successively in Wales (1920-26), England (1926-44) and India (1944^18), Wheeler identified a number of specific objectives and designed an integrated series of campaigns to attain them as economically as possible by selective excavation. These startlingly innovative procedures were characterized in the field by military discipline and afterward by extensively illustrated and promptly published monographic reports (from Segontium, 1923—excavated 1921-22, to Verulamium, 1936— excavated 1930-34, and Charsada, 1962— excavated 1958) and crisp syntheses (e.g., Prehistoric and Roman Wales, 1925; The Indus Civilization, 1953; 3rd ed., 1968; Rome Beyond the Imperial Fron­ tiers, 1954). Wheeler’s additional and deep commitment to haute vulgarisation

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was recognized by his nomination as British Television Personality of the Year in 1954. Wheeler’s achievements as an excavator were matched by his remarkable administrative ability to revive, if only temporarily, the moribund institutions he was summoned to inherit: the National Museum of Wales; the London Museum, from which in 1937 he secured the foundation of the Institute of Archaeology in the University of London to provide professional training in archaeological retrieval; and the Archaeological Survey of India. Finally, as secretary of the British Academy, Wheeler breathed new life into the British schools of archae­ ology abroad until 1968. BIBLIOGRAPHY R.E.M. Wheeler, Still Digging (London, 1955); Idem, The British Academy 1949-1968 (London, 1970); S. Piggott, “ R.E.M. Wheeler, 10 September 1890-22 July 1976,” Bio­ graphical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 23 (1977), 623-42, with select bib.; +J. Hawkes, Mortimer Wheeler: Adventurer in Archaeology (London, 1982). DAVID RIDGWAY

WHELER, GEORGE (1650-1724). English naturalist, early traveler to Greece. Unexpectedly enriched, Wheler, from Charing in Kent, studied at Lincoln College, Oxford, then traveled abroad. In 1675 and 1676 he and Dr. *Spon of Lyons explored parts of Greece and Turkey. Later each published a memoir, Spon in 1678, Wheler in 1682. The latter’s volume owes much to Spon’s, yet it is quite different, for Wheler was an amateur botanist and a determined An­ glican. Though interested in antiquities, he shed no tears for enslaved Greeks, so unlike his successors in the genre of Greek travel literature. The adventure over, Wheler took Holy Orders and devoted his life and wealth to the ministry. BIBLIOGRAPHY R. W. Ramsay, “ Sir George Wheler and His Travels in Greece, 1650-1724,” Essays by Diverse Hands, n.s. 19 (1942), 1-38; D. J. Constantine, “A Journey into Greece, by George Wheler Esq. In company with Dr. Spon of Lyons,” Durham University Journal 72 (1979), 39-45; D. Constantine, Early Greek Travellers and the Hellenic Ideal (Cam­ bridge, 1984), 7-33. C.W.J. ELIOT

WICKHOFF, FRANZ (1853-1909). Viennese art historian, known for his reevaluation of Roman art and identification of its positive characteristics. Born in Steyr in upper Austria, Wickhoff studied with A. *Conze at Vienna. He served as inspector at the Kunstgewerbe-Museum in Vienna (1879-95) and as professor of art history at the University of Vienna from 1882 on. With W. Ritter von Hartel, he studied the Late Antique/Early Christian illu­ minated manuscript of the book of Genesis in the library at Vienna. They issued a joint publication, Die Wiener Genesis (Vienna, 1895), with a lengthy intro­ duction by Wickhoff in which he discussed the evolution of Roman art from Augustus to Constantine and its invaluable contributions to subsequent gener­ ations. He emphasized the development of illusionistic techniques in painting

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Schooling Schooling Schooling Schooling

and sculpture; achievements in portraiture; and the usage of “ continuous nar­ rative.” This introductory section of the book, translated into English by Eu­ genie *Strong as Roman Art (London, 1900), has been immensely influential. Like his colleague at Vienna, A. *Riegl, Wickhoff was instrumental in reestab­ lishing the validity of Roman art, originally revered during the Renaissance but regarded as debased by *Winckelmann and his followers. Unlike many of his contemporaries, Wickhoff did not view Roman art as a decadent imitation of Greek art but rather as a manifestation of native genius. Wickhoff died in 1909 in Venice and was buried on the cemetery island of San Michele. BIBLIOGRAPHY R. Bianchi Bandinelli, “ Wickhoff, Franz,” EAA 1 (1966), 1218-19; O. Brendel, Pro­ legomena to the Study of Roman Art (New Haven, CT 1979), esp. 25-41. SHELLIE WILLIAMS

WIEGAND, THEODOR (1864-1936). German archaeologist, excavator and administrator. A wealthy doctor’s son, Wiegand studied at Munich under Riehl and von

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*Brunn, in Athens under *Dorpfeld, to whom he owed lifelong preference for field archaeology and architecture, and at Berlin under Diels, *Robert, *Kekule and *Kiepert. He completed his dissertation on a Puteoli building inscription under *Studniczka at Freiburg in 1894. In 1900 he made a brilliant marriage with the wealthy heiress Marie Siemens. Financial independence freed him from a confining academic cursus honorum. His career became that of excavator, administrator and museum director. He possessed enviable administrative talent, contacts and the ability to get things published. As director of the Royal Prussian Museum in Constantinople (1899-1911), he undertook excavations at *Miletos, *Didyma and *Samos. He was director (1911-31) of the Antiquities Department of the Berlin Museum, where, against great odds, he created the *Pergamon Museum and arranged remarkable acqui­ sitions. He was inspector general of antiquities for Syria, Palestine and West Arabia (1916-18). He served as president of the *German Archaeological In­ stitute (1932-36), now located in his former Dahlem residence. Among his publications are Priene (1904); Milet (1906-35); Sinai (1920); Baalbek (1921— 25); Petra (1921); Pergamon V 1 (1930); Palmyra (1932); *Didyma 1, three volumes (1941). Wiegand combined the restless energy and unscrupulousness of *Schliemann with the scholarly conscience of *Studniczka and so typified the most remarkable of his generation. BIBLIOGRAPHY M. Schede, Gnomon 13 (1937), 109-11; C. Watzinger, Theodor Wiegand: Ein deutscher Archaologe 1864-1936 (Munich, 1944); H. A. Stoll, Gotter und Giganten: Der Roman des Pergamons-Altars (Berlin, 1964), 315-416; T. Wiegand, Halbmond im Letzen Viertel, Briefe und Reiseberichte, ed. G. Wiegand (Mainz, 1985); S. Wenk, Aufden Spuren der Antike: Theodor Wiegand, ein deutscher Archaologe (Benndorf, 1985). WILLIAM M. CALDER III

WIGHTM AN, EDITH MARY (1938-83). British historian of the Roman provinces. After a brilliant undergraduate career in her native Scotland, Edith Wightman studied in Oxford under I. A. *Richmond; in 1969, she emigrated to McMaster University, Canada, becoming a full professor there in 1978. Roman Trier (1970), her doctoral thesis, remains fundamental for students of Christian Europe no less than for Romanists; her skillful historical interpretation of archaeological evidence led to penetrating studies of imperial frontier policies; and her post­ humously published Gallia Belgica (1985), breaks new ground for Celtic spe­ cialists. Equally informed and versatile approaches to teaching, excavation at *Carthage and field survey in the Liri valley, Italy, were cut short by her tragic death. BIBLIOGRAPHY E. T. Salmon, Words of Tribute, Edith Mary Wightman Memorial Service, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario (January 1984). DAVID RIDGWAY

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W ILAM OW ITZ-M OELLENDORFF, ULRICH VON (1848-1931). German classicist, considered the greatest Hellenist of modern times. Born at Markowitz (Posen) of Junker parents, Wilamowitz studied at Schulpforte; Bonn under Otto *Jahn and Reinhard *Kekule; and Berlin. He was pro­ fessor of classical philology at Greifswald (1876-83), Gottingen (1883-97) and Berlin (1897-1931). His over seventy volumes, dealing with all aspects of Greek literature and philology from Homer through the empire, have exerted incalcu­ lable influence on subsequent scholarship. Among his students were E. Fraenkel, Paul Friedlander, Felix Jacoby, Werner Jaeger, Paul Maas and Wolfgang Schadewaldt. His importance for archaeology is far more than the single volume of his Kleine Schriften (5.1) devoted to the subject might suggest. From *Welcker he derived the *Totalitatsideal, the conviction that literary sources alone were insufficient to understand antiquity. This he imbibed through Jahn in the form of *monumental philology, the use of archaeological evidence to elucidate the written word. While in Italy and Greece (1872-74), he first worked with his future father-in-law, Theodor *Mommsen. His lifelong interest in epigraphy and topography dates from this time. Architecture he never learned. Although he recognized *Kekule’s rejection of monumental philology for art history with the assumption that the beauty of an object justifies its study, he never abandoned the view that archaeology, though indispensable, remains the ancilla of philology and that an archaeologist ignorant of the ancient languages was contemptible. He directed Inscriptiones Graecae from 1902 to 1931. He did much to reform the Central Committee of the *German Archaeological In­ stitute (1899-1931). He corresponded with the great archaeologists of his time. His creation of a “ complex institute” to include archaeology with history and philology realized the dream of F. A. *Wolf. Aged eighty, he wrote: “ ab archaeologis discere semper eram cupidus” (From archaeologists I was ever eager to learn). BIBLIOGRAPHY W. Schindler, “ Die Archaologie im Rahmen von Wilamowitz’ Konzeption der Altertumswissenschaft,” Wilamowitz nach 50 Jahren, ed. W. M. Calder III— H. Flashar—T. Lindken (Darmstadt, 1985), 241-62; M. Armstrong—W. Buchwald—W. M. Calder III, Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Bibliography 1867-1990, Revised and Expanded After Friedrich Freiherr Hiller von Gaertringen and Gunther Klaffenbach (Hildesheim, 1991); R. Fowler, “ U. von Wilamowitz-Moelendorff,” in Briggs—Calder, 489-522. WILLIAM M. CALDER III

W ILLIAM OF MALMESBURY (W ILLELM I M ALM ESBIRIENSIS; ca. 1090-ca. 1143). Anglo-Norman historian, monk and librarian of Malmesbury Abbey. William showed a great interest in classical literature and defended the study of Roman authors against those who argued that classical learning was not appropriate for the religious man. He collected and compiled manuscripts of Roman historians, including a large number of the philosophical works of Cic­

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ero. William took Suetonius as a model for his portraits of the English kings in his Gesta regum (ca. 1125). There are several references to classical remains in William of Malmesbury’s writings. The Gesta pontificum (ca. 1126), a history of English bishops, includes descriptions of the treasures of English monasteries and cathedrals that William had personally observed. Among these descriptions of church treasures, William recorded an inscription found on a Roman vaulted hall in Carlisle (Gesta pon­ tificum 3.99). Although William never left England, he included a topography of Rome in his Gesta regum (4.351.), naming all the gates and the church relics found near each. He also copied a poem, which he attributed to *Hildebert of Tours, contrasting the modern city with the glorious ancient Rome, and noted the remarkable “ excavation” in Rome (1045) of a gigantic corpse that was identified as Pallas, the friend of Aeneas. An ancient lamp was reported still burning in the tomb. William records legends that may recall contact with ancient remains in his account of Gerbert of Aurillac (Pope Sylvester II). He portrays the pope as a master of the occult arts and asserts that by following the pointing finger of a statue in the Campus Martius and by magically opening the earth, Gerbert dis­ covered vast golden treasures, including golden soldiers, a king and queen and vessels of high quality (Gesta regum 2.169). In order to increase the plausibility of this story, William tells of a similar adventure recounted to him by an Aquitanian monk of his own abbey (Gesta regum 2.170). The monk had journeyed into a dark mountain chamber in Italy that was reputed to house the treasures of Octavian and found golden objects similar to those seen by Gerbert. It is possible that underneath the superstition and magic, this story deals with the discovery of an Etruscan tomb. BIBLIOGRAPHY W. Stubbs, introd., Willelmi Malmesbiriensis Monachi, De gestis regum anglorum, Rolls Series 90 (London, 1889); H. Farmer, “ William of Malmesbury’s Life and Works,” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 13 (1962), 39-54; Antonia Gransden, “ Realistic Ob­ servation in Twelfth-Century England,” Speculum 47 (1972), 29-51; Weiss, RDCA 10. JOANNE E. SOWELL

W ILLIAM S, HUGH W ILLIAM (1773-1829). Scottish painter, sometimes called “ Grecian” Williams, known for his watercolor views of Greek land­ scapes. Born at sea on a voyage to the West Indies, Williams was raised in Edinburgh, where he was encouraged by his grandfather to take up painting. He specialized in views of the Highlands landscape, but after an extensive tour to Italy and Greece, he became famous for his views of these countries. He published Travels in Italy, Greece and the Ionian Islands, in a Series o f Letters, in two volumes (Edinburgh, 1820), with emphasis on descriptions of the countries and peoples rather than on history or archaeology. In 1822, he held an exhibition in Edin­ burgh— a great success for the artist— of his watercolors of splendid Greek ruins

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and famous scenes of Greek history. Scenes of the *Propylaia and of the temple at *Aigina show his typical mellow, golden Grecian landscape. Apart from views of the *Parthenon and of the *Erechtheion in a private collection in Ath­ ens, most of Williams’s Greek pictures are in the National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh. BIBLIOGRAPHY J. L. Caw, “ Williams, Hugh William,” DNB 21 (1921), 407-8; +Tsigakou, Rediscovery, 23, 30, 108, 116, 122-23, 128, 200.

WILTHEIM, JEAN-GUILLAUME (1594-1636) and ALEXANDRE (160484). Members of a family noted for antiquarian and historical studies of the region around Luxembourg. Having joined the Jesuit Order in 1626, Alexandre became a professor of rhetoric at their college in Luxembourg, following his elder brother, Guillaume, in pursuit of the history and archaeology of the ancient Roman province of Gallia Belgica. His masterwork, Luciliburgensia, sive Luxemburgum romanum .. ., did not see publication, however, until edited by Neyen in 1842 from the manuscript in the Bibliotheque de 1’Institut Grand-ducal (copy in Bibliotheque Royale, Brussels). Illustrations of this volume reproduce those in Alexandre’s separate Atlas, Delineamenta, and serve as the record of lost sculptures in vol­ ume 5 of Esperandieu’s Recueil. Unhappily, they are less engaging ricordi than those that punctuate the text of Guillaume in his manuscript preserved in the Bibliotheque Royale, Brussels (inv. 7146, cf. also 6745), or in J.-J. *Boissard’s Antiquarum inscriptionum. . . (Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, Ms Res. J 468 bis). This entire family of learned antiquarians, including a historian, Eustache, contributed to regional scholarship in an exemplary way, inspired by relics of Orolaunum Vicus (Arlon), Luxembourg and other Roman sites, including *Trier and Metz. A prosperous region in antiquity, Gallia Belgica was dotted with conspicuous family tomb structures, many of them veritable mausoleums, dec­ orated by reliefs that document daily life and manners. The studies of Guillaume and Alexandre Wiltheim, preserved both in autograph manuscripts and in copies, record vanished monuments of the type, as well as those severely eroded by time (e.g., the *Igel Monument). They also serve to document an outstanding collection of ancient works of art and modern paintings of the Renaissance in the Netherlands, the Palace of Count P. E. *Mansfeld at Clausen. BIBLIOGRAPHY C.-A. Neyen, Luciliburgensia, sive Luxemburgum romanum illustrata a R. P. Alexandro Wilthemio (Luxembourg, 1842); J.-P. Waltzing, Orolaunum vicus (Louvain, 1904-5); E. Esperandieu, Recueil general des bas-reliefs, statues et bustes de la Gaule romaine (Paris, 1913), 212-14; M. E. Marien, Les Monuments funeraires de VArlon romain (1945). PHYLLIS PRAY BOBER

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WINCKELMANN, JOHANN JOACHIM (1717-68)

Portrait of J. J. Winck­ elmann, Rome, Capito­ line Museums. (Deut­ sches Archaologisches Institut, Rome. Inst. Neg. 1938. 718.)

W INCKELMANN, JOHANN JOACHIM (1717-68). German antiquarian, of­ ten, and with some justification, called the father of modern archaeology. Winckelmann came to the study of ancient art very much as an outsider. Born in the small Prussian town of Stendal, the son of a cobbler, he studied theology, mathematics and medicine, as well as ancient Greek and Latin, at the universities of Halle and Jena. After five years working as a schoolmaster in Prussia, he took up a job in Nothnitz, just outside Dresden, as librarian to Count Heinrich von Biinau. Access to Biinau’s famous library, where he was helping with the compilation of a history of the early German Reich, gave Winckelmann an opportunity to read widely in the most recent Enlightenment literature, including works on history, politics, natural science, classical antiquity and, quite late on, it seems, the visual arts. His entry into the eighteenth-century art world came when he settled in Dresden in 1754. The next year he finally launched his career as a writer with a highly successful polemical essay, Gedanken iiber die Nach-

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ahmung der Griechischen Werke in der Malerei und Bildhauerkunst, where he extolled the “ noble simplicity and calm grandeur” of celebrated masterpieces of ancient sculpture he had never seen, with all the ardor of a recent convert. Only after he moved to Rome in 1755 did he embark on the scholarly study of ancient art, which his own work was ultimately to transform. His first important antiquarian publication, the Description des pierres gravees du feu Baron de Stosch (1760), was a catalog of antique engraved gems and pastes, miniature antiquities that enjoyed a particular vogue at the time and had been the subject of numerous learned dissertations by such connoisseurs and antiquarians as P.-J. *Mariette and Philipp von *Stosch himself. Winckelmann’s major work, the Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums (“ History of Ancient Art,” 1764), was put together at incredible speed in the space of six years (the manu­ script was already delivered to the publisher late in 1761). The most compre­ hensive compendium of information to date on the art of ancient Greece and Rome (the shorter sections on Egyptian, Near Eastern and Etruscan art were not nearly so important) and the first systematic attempt at a chronological classi­ fication of antique sculpture, it remained the basic handbook on the subject well into the nineteenth century. K. O. *Muller’s thorough recasting of the history of ancient Greek art using the newly excavated finds in Greece and Asia Minor in his Handbuch der Archaologie der Kunst (1835) is perhaps the earliest that clearly supersedes Winckelmann’s more speculative history derived from the study of Graeco-Roman antiquities. Winckelmann was putting the finishing touches to a new revised edition (integrating material from his 1767 Anmerkungen iiber die Geschichte . . . ) at the time of his dramatic murder in Trieste in 1768. A less than satisfactory version of this publication, prepared from Winck­ elmann’s notes (subsequently lost) by a friend, J. F. Riedel, and published in Vienna in 1776, formed the basis for the spate of new editions that appeared over the next few decades in French, German and Italian (but not in English: that came only after the event, with an incomplete American translation pub­ lished in 1849-56). Winckelmann’s novel idea of trying to classify ancient sculpture according to period, as well as by subject matter, made little impact even in his own illus­ trated catalog of unpublished monuments, the Monumenti antichi inediti (1767), which he produced at his own expense and dedicated to his patron, Cardinal Alessandro Albani (*Albani family). While the introductory discourse made available a summary of his history of Greek art in Italian, the individual catalog entries remained within the bounds of conventional inconographical analysis. Clearly, in this context Winckelmann wished to demonstrate his mastery of traditional antiquarian erudition. He did, however, develop an important general principle already adumbrated in the Geschichte, that the subjects depicted in ancient art, with the exception of a few on outdoor Roman public monuments, were almost always mythological rather than historical in content. Previously, it had been common practice to try to identify any slightly mysterious repre­ sentations with scenes from Roman history. His other antiquarian publications

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included two short treatises on ancient architecture (1757 and 1762), one on allegory in ancient art (1766), partly designed to encourage the use of antique allegories by modern artists, and two reports on the excavations at H ercula­ neum (1762 and 1764). By his death in 1768, Winckelmann was widely recognized as having had a major impact on antiquarian studies. There were the official rewards, his post as commissioner of antiquities (*Commissario delle Antichita) to the pope, which he had occupied since 1763, and honorary membership of various pres­ tigious learned societies, including the *Society of Antiquaries in London; but more significant was the way in which he was constantly cited as the standard authority in both learned and popular publications on ancient Greek and Roman art. His lyrical descriptions of famous antique sculptures— the *Belvedere Apollo, the *Laocoon, the *Belvedere Torso and the so-called *Belvedere Antinous— became instant anthology pieces, widely reproduced in guidebooks as aids for the visitor to Rome to experience the high beauties of the antique ideal. While he was greatly admired by contemporaries, above all for his ability to combine erudition with a genuine feeling for art (the erudition, though, was often criticized for its inaccuracies), his radically new conception of the history of ancient Greek and Roman art began to be properly assimilated only in the last decade or so of the eighteenth century. Winckelmann had quite literally invented a history of art where little other than vague generalizations about rise and decline had existed before, one that, whatever its limitations, succeeded in integrating the available literary and visual evidence in a convincing way. Drawing on the standard compendia of ancient texts on art, most notably, Franciscus *Junius’s De pictura veterum (1694), and exploiting the new methods of stylistic analysis and classification of antiquities pioneered by the French antiquarian the Comte de *Caylus, he devised a sche­ matic picture of development through a few broadly defined phases—Archaic, austere Early Classic, graceful Late Classic, then Imitation and Decline— whose closest precedent is to be found in the history of modern Italian art set out some 200 years earlier in *Vasari’s Lives. The model of a rise and decline through a logical sequence of clearly defined period styles, with chronological limits de­ signed to match the main phases in the political history of ancient Greece, provided a paradigm for describing the evolution of an artistic tradition that has proved very influential in archaeological studies ever since. BIBLIOGRAPHY K. Justi, Winckelmann und seine Zeitgenossen, 2nd ed., 1-3 (Leipzig, 1898); +A. Tibal, Inventaire des manuscrits de Winckelmann deposes a la Bibliotheque Nationale (Paris, 1911); +J. J. Winckelmann, Briefe (Berlin, 1952-57), ed. W. Rehm; idem, Kleine Schriften, Vorreden, Entwiirfe (Berlin, 1968); A. D. Potts, “ Winckelmann’s Construction of History,” Art History 5 (1982), 377-407, and correction, Art History 6 (June 1983); E. Pommier, ed., Winckelmann: La Naissance de Thistoire de Tart a Vepoque des lumieres (Paris, 1991); A. Potts, Flesh and the Ideal, Winckelmann and the Origins of Art History (New Haven, CT, 1994). ALEX POTTS

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WITTEL, GASPAR VAN (GASPARE VANVITELLI; 1652/3-1736). Dutch painter and draftsman, specialist in landscape and topography of Italy. Born at Amersfoort, near Utrecht, Gaspar Van Wittel arrived in Rome around 1674 and never again returned to his homeland. Active in Venice, Naples and Rome, he was known, above all, as a painter of views, vedute, of Italian land­ scapes and cities. He was accepted into the painter’s association of the Academy of St. Luke in 1711. His painted views of Rome often contain or emphasize classical landmarks, as in his View o f the *Colosseum (1715), View o f the *Arch o f Titus (1685) and his Piazza del Quirinale, with the familiar *Quirinal Horse Tamers. He has left exquisite drawings of antiquities in Rome such as the colossal head of * Con­ stantine, the *Pasquino and the Demosthenes of Polyeuktos (probably seen at the Villa Aldobrandini at Frascati). Of special interest is his drawing recording the raising of the *Column of Antoninus Pius, excavated near the Palazzo di Montecitorio under the supervision of Carlo Fontana in 1705. Gaspar Van Wittel was surpassed in fame by his son, Luigi Vanvitelli, ar­ chitect of the *Bourbon royal palace at Caserta. His son designed his tomb, in Sta. Maria in Vallicella in Rome. BIBLIOGRAPHY +G. Briganti, Gaspar Van Wittel e Vorigine della veduta settecentesca (Rome, 1966); + W. Vitzthum, Drawings by Gaspar Van Wittel (1652/53-1736) from Neapolitan Col­ lections (Ottawa, 1977).

WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824). German classical scholar; a founding father of the great German tradition of scholarship in the nineteenth century; discoverer of the philological seminary, the Homeric Question and the unified “ science of antiquity,” Altertumswissenschaft. Friedrich August Wolf, born near Nordhausen, Brandenburg, learned Latin, Greek and French as a child. In 1777 he was admitted to the University of Gottingen. There he studied with the philologist Christian Gottlieb Heyne, with whom he never got along. His 1782 edition of Plato’s Symposium with German notes and careful flattery of the Prussian king won him the professorship at Halle. In his influential seminary there, he presented to students his ideal of a unified science of all antiquity, based on knowledge of the texts, works of art and other physical remains. The vision of uniting philology, art history and archaeology still remains, exemplified by rare scholars such as *Bockh, *Wilamowitz or *Rostovtzeff. Wolf’s Prolegomena ad Homerum (1795) posed the Homeric Question, ex­ amining the illiteracy of Homer and the history of his text and challenging the idea of the unity of authorship of Iliad and Odyssey. In 1806 the French victory against Prussia dismantled the university at Halle and sent Wolf to Berlin, where he never again knew the same success. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Grafton, “Prolegomena to Frederick August Wolf,” JWarb 44 (1981), 101-29; F. A. Wolf, Prolegomena to Homer, 1795, tr. with introd. and notes A. Grafton— G. W.

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WOLFF, REINIER VAN DER (d. 1679)

Most—J. E. G. Zetzel (Princeton, NJ, 1985); H. Funke, “ F. A. Wolf,” in Briggs— Calder, 523-28. E. C. KOPFF

WOLFF, REINIER VAN DER (d. 1679). Wealthy Dutch brewer, collector of Italian Renaissance paintings and Roman antiquities. Reinier van der Wolff was the master of the Black Lion brewery in Rotterdam and served as a city councilman. His art collection was visited in 1663 by Balthasar de Monconys, who noted that the busts and marbles had been pur­ chased from the Duke of ^Buckingham’s collection (sold at auction in Antwerp in 1648). Joachim Oudaan (1628-92) drew and transcribed the inscriptions of eight of van der W olffs marbles during the years 1656-64: a Greek grave stele of Dexandrides and burial urns of Acilia Hygia and P. Aelius Hierax, as well as a large Christian sarcophagus depicting the Miracles o f Christ, all of which are now in Leiden; the whereabouts of his urns of Aciliae Tertullae Fil. and Claudius Successae are unknown. These antiquities once belonged to P. P. *Rubens, who sold them to the Duke of Buckingham in 1626. Van der W olffs collection was dispersed at the sales of 8 April 1677 and 4 April 1693. BIBLIOGRAPHY +J. H. Jongkees, “ De verzameling oudheden van Reinier van der Wolff,” Mededelingen Nederlands Instituut te Rome, 31 (1961), 125—45; +J. M. Muller, Rubens: The Artist as Collector (Princeton, NJ, 1989), 150-52; +P.P.V. van Moorsel, “ De oudchristlijke sarcophag in het Rijksmuseum van Oudheden te Leiden,” Oudheidkundige Mededelingen 65 (1964-65), 37-46. MARJON VAN DER MEULEN

WOOD, ROBERT (1717-71). Irish traveler, statesman and lover of classical literature. Little is known of the youth of Robert Wood. Born near Trim in County Meath, he was probably educated at Oxford; he then made his living as a trav­ eling tutor. Having been in Greece (1742-43) and France and Italy, he was invited in 1749 by two Oxford graduates, John Bouverie and James Dawkins, to explore the eastern Mediterranean. With the latter he was to enjoy an espe­ cially fruitful association, for Dawkins was able to provide generous financial backing to help realize their goals. After a winter in Rome studying the history and geography of their targeted countries, the well-prepared crew set sail from Naples with an Italian artist, Borra, and with a full research library of Greek authors and the best books on archaeology and travel. Their journey was to include many Greek islands, the Hellespont and Bosporus, Asia Minor, Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine and Egypt. They investigated the Troad (1750; *Troy) and went on to *Magnesia-on-theMaeander, where Bouverie died; then they proceeded to *Palmyra and *Baalbek, to encounter the spectacular ruins there, largely unknown in the West. They

Robert Wood and James Dawkins Enter into Palmyra, engraving, 1774, after a painting by G. Ham­ ilton. (The Warburg Institute, University of London.)

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continued to Athens, where the party encountered *Stuart and *Revett (whom they had earlier met in Rome) and immediately lent their support (including Dawkins’s funds) to their project to publish the antiquities of Athens. The four then banded together to tour *Marathon, Thermopylai, *Delphi, *Thebes and *Corinth, before Wood and Dawkins departed for England. Back in London, Dawkins was elected to the *Society of Dilettanti (1755) and was a staunch supporter of the project to publish The Antiquities o f Athens. Unfortunately, he did not live to see even the first volume appear; but at his death in 1758, he left behind £500 for the continued work of the society. Wood published quickly his sensational account of The Ruins o f Palmyra (1753) and The Ruins o f Balbec (1757), and the beautifully produced volumes were an international success. Though his later years were largely devoted to public life (he became undersecretary of state to Pitt in 1756), and he was never able to return to Greece, Wood continued to support the investigation of Greek antiquities. Elected to the Dilettanti in 1763, he became its director of archae­ ological expeditions and played a key supporting role in Richard *Chandler’s voyage to Asia Minor and the subsequent publication of Chandler’s Ionian An­ tiquities, volume 1 (1769). Wood also had a profound influence on the study of Greek literature, because of his novel approach to the poems of Homer. He argued that one could un­ derstand and evaluate Homer only by a careful examination of the places and times he described, that is, by a topographical, archaeological approach. He, like many others in the eighteenth century and earlier (pace, *Schliemann), believed that Troy was historical and not mythological; but he was the first to make a thorough investigation of the terrain with a view toward showing that Homer had been truthful. Wood was also a pioneer in the use of ethnoarchaeology, examining contemporary Mediterranean and Middle Eastern customs in an at­ tempt to prove that the Homeric code of behavior survived (and thus was real). His ideas were put forth in a work with a complicated publication history, ap­ pearing first in English in A Comparative View o f the Antient and Present State o f the Troade, to Which Is Prefixed an Essay on the Original Genius o f Homer (1767) and later in an immensely influential posthumous German translation, Robert Woods Versuch iiber das Originalgenie des Homers (Frankfurt am Main, 1773). BIBLIOGRAPHY D. Constantine, Early Greek Travelers and the Hellenic Ideal (Cambridge, 1984), 6684; R. Eisner, Travelers to an Antique Land, The History and Literature of Travel to Greece (Ann Arbor, 1991), 72-73.

X XANTHOS. City in Lycia (southwest Asia Minor) on the river Xanthos near modern Kinik. Homer records that a contingent from Xanthos fought as Trojan allies. Most important of the Lycian cities, Xanthos was besieged by the Persians under Harpagus in 545 B.C. (Herodotos 1.176), surrendered to Alexander and subse­ quently came under Roman domination. The Lycian acropolis preserves building remains that include the foundations of a temple and probably a palace. A number of Lycian tombs also survive, mostly of the native pillar-type. Two of the best-known Xanthian funerary mon­ uments, the Harpy Tomb and the Nereid Monument, were studied and excavated by Charles *Fellows, the discoverer of Lycia. In 1838 he made a description of the Harpy Tomb and sketches, which he exhibited in London with great success. Returning in 1840, he took along the draftsman George Scharf, who made fine drawings that were published by Fellows in his landmark book, An Account o f Discoveries in Lycia (1841) and were presented to the *British Museum. The museum sponsored an expedition to recover the sculptures and bring them to England, an affair that was badly organized but succeeded because Fellows took control of it. With sailors from the British navy, he managed to remove the reliefs from the Harpy Tomb without damaging them and discovered a second tomb, the Nereid Monument (1842). He shipped some eighty-six cases of mar­ bles off to the British Museum, followed by another twenty-seven with material from two additional tombs, the Payava (Horse Tomb) and the Merehi (Chimera Tomb). The Harpy Tomb, a pillar-type tomb decorated with reliefs of Sirens (origi­ nally interpreted as Harpies) dates to 480-470 B.C. The Nereid Monument, a tomb in the form of an Ionic Greek temple with freestanding sculptures of

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draped females ( “ Nereids” ) and relief scenes of battles, the hunt and ceremonial scenes, dates to ca. 380 B.C. North and east of the Lycian acropolis at Xanthos are remains of the Helle­ nistic and Roman city, with an agora and a theater. A Byzantine monastery occupies much of the northeast part of the site. Remains of the Letoon, the federal sanctuary of the Lycian League, sacred to Leto, lie 4km to the southwest. Since 1950 a French expedition has conducted excavations, study and resto­ ration at Xanthos and from 1962 has uncovered at the Letoon Hellenistic temples with Lycian predecessors. BIBLIOGRAPHY Michaelis, 93-97; +Fouilles de Xanthos 1-8 (Paris, 1958-89); +E. Hansen—C. LeRoy, “ Au Letoon de Xanthos: Les deux temples de Leto,” RA (1976), 317-36; WA.P. Childs, “Lycian Relations with Persians and Greeks in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries ReExamined,” AnatSt 31 (1981), 55-80. ANN C. GUNTER

XANTHOUDIDES, STEPHANOS (1864-1928). Philologist and archaeologist from *Crete, specializing in Bronze Age Minoan culture. Born in central Crete, Xanthoudides studied philology at the University of Athens. In 1900 he was named ephor of antiquities on the island of Crete, first at Chania and then at Herakleion, where he became director of the *Herakleion Museum. An extremely versatile scholar, Xanthoudides was interested in the languages, literature and history of Crete from many different periods. He is known as one of the pioneers of Cretan archaeology and of the conservation of its monuments. His principal fieldwork concerned the prepalatial circular or tholos tombs of the Mesara Plain (published in English as The Vaulted Tombs ofMesara, 1924); an oval house at Chamaizi of the Middle Minoan IA period; and the large Minoan villa at Nirou. He also explored the Early Minoan burial cave at Pyrgos, which yielded, for the first time, pottery in the style named after that site, and Late Minoan tholos tombs at Mouliana, Damania and Artsa. BIBLIOGRAPHY S. Marinatos, “ Stephanos Xanthudidis,” Gnomon 4 (1928), 406-8. COSTIS DAVARAS

Y YOUNG, RODNEY STUART (1907-74). American archaeologist, professor and chairman of classical archaeology at the University of Pennsylvania and curator of the Mediterranean section at the University Museum. Young was director of the museum’s excavations at *Gordion in Turkey, beginning in 1950. In the Phrygian capital, he uncovered a sumptuous palace and royal tombs of the eighth and seventh centuries B.C. Young had a lifelong interest in Greece and the Near East. His earliest ex­ cavations were in the *Agora, Athens, and took place in two campaigns (1933— 41; 1946-49). Excavations were halted by World War II, but Young remained in Greece, volunteering as an ambulance driver on the Epiros front. In recog­ nition for wounds received in combat, he was awarded both the Bronze Star of his native country and the Greek Croix de la Guerre. He served as a very popular president of the *Archaeological Institute of America (1968-72) and was vice president of the American Research Institute in Turkey, as well as an honorary member of the *German Archaeological In­ stitute. Young was killed in an automobile accident in Chester Springs, Penn­ sylvania, on 25 October 1974. BIBLIOGRAPHY R. S. Young, Late Geometric Graves and a Seventh Century Well in the Agora (Athens, 1939); “ Rodney Stuart Young,” AJA 79 (1975), 113; From Athens to Gordion , The Papers of a Memorial Symposium for R. S. Young (Philadelphia, 1980); R. S. Young, Three Great Early Tumuli, the Gordion Excavations Final Reports I (Philadelphia, 1981). SHELLIE WILLIAMS

2 ZAKROS. Minoan settlement on *Crete. Zakros is the modern name for a small, now largely deserted valley and bay on the east shore of Crete, known for its extensive Minoan settlement (Neolithic through Late Minoan [LM] I), first excavated in 1901 by David *Hogarth, who exposed Middle Minoan (MM)/LM I houses but not the palace he sought. The center or palace, chiefly of MM III-LM I date, was to be identified in 1962-63 by Nicolas Platon, who, in a series of ongoing campaigns financed by the Ar­ chaeological Society of Athens and the philanthropist Leon Pomerance, revealed the palace as well as many of the surrounding houses. While the MM prede­ cessor of the LM I palace remains to be more clearly defined, the latter has been completely excavated and consists of the usual rectangular central court sur­ rounded by groups of rooms, normally referred to as “ wings.” Like so many other Minoan sites, the palace was burned and deserted at the end of the LM I period. The southern and eastern wings were much disturbed by later agricultural work, but the general plan has been recovered, with the residential area on the east with smaller and larger living spaces, a light well and an adyton (“ lustral basin” ) with religious iconography. The better-preserved west wing featured larger ritual rooms, from which much of the cult material, especially vessels, was recovered in a treasury (e.g., rhyta, double axes). Saws and other bronze tools suggested ongoing renovation; copper ingots, trade and manufacture; Linear A tablets, the recording of agricultural and other goods. BIBLIOGRAPHY N. Platon, Zakros (New York, 1971); idem, in Praktika (1961-78). JOSEPH W. SHAW

ZANNONI, ANTONIO (1883-1910). Italian architect, engineer and archaeol­ ogist. Zannoni first became involved with archaeology in *Bologna when he

ZEUS OF OLYMPIA

1209

was assigned to trace the city’s ancient Roman aqueduct and restore it for mod­ ern use, a task that lasted for twenty years (1862-81). During this same period, Zannoni undertook a number of other projects in Bologna. He was the director of the renovation of the Palazzo Galvani, chosen to be the new seat for the Museo Civico, which opened in 1881. He undertook the excavation of the cemetery of the Certosa, which yielded 421 tombs and included the famous Certosa Situla, a bronze bucket decorated in relief. He subsequently explored five other cemeteries (1871-74) near the Certosa—the existence of which he had predicted from the pattern of tombs in the Certosa itself—excavating thousands of burials of the Villanovan, Etruscan, Gallic and Roman phases of Bologna. He also unearthed a number of Villanovan huts, and in 1877 came his spectacular discovery in one of these of a huge dolio or jar containing a hoard of 14,838 pieces of bronze and three pieces of iron, dating to the late Bronze Age and the early Iron Age (“ the San Francesco hoard” ). Zannoni was known for his rigorous excavation techniques and exceptionally careful recording of the plan of each cemetery and individual tomb. In some cases he transported entire burials to the museum intact. He was criticized by *Helbig especially for his overly romantic and patriotic assertions about the ethnic identity of the inhabitants of the cemeteries. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Zannoni, Gli Scavi della Certosa di Bologna (Bologna, 1876-84); idem, La Fonderia di Bologna (Bologna, 1888); C. Morigi Govi, “ Antonio Zannoni, dagli scavi della Cer­ tosa alle ‘archaiche abitazioni,’ ” Dalla Stanza delle Antichita al Museo Civico (Bologna, 1984), 243-54.

ZEUS OF OLYMPIA. Colossal gold and ivory statue made by the Greek sculptor Pheidias, probably in the third quarter of the fifth century B.C., for the cella of the *Temple of Zeus, Olympia. The enthroned god, supporting a Nike figure on one hand and grasping a scepter in the other, filled the entire height of the cella of the temple. Strabo (8. 353-^4) observed that if it could have risen, the colossus would have taken the roof off. Of great renown in antiquity, the chryselephantine Zeus was counted among the wonders of the ancient world. It was particularly praised for its size, splendor and majesty. Pausanias (5.11.1-9) gave a detailed eyewitness descrip­ tion of the statue in the second century a .c . In the first century a .c ., the Roman emperor Caligula tried to remove the famous Zeus from Olympia, but the statue is said to have laughed loudly, mak­ ing the scaffolding collapse (Suetonius, Caligula 57). After Theodosius I banned the practice of pagan cults in 391, the statue was removed to Constantinople (*Byzantium); there it was evidently destroyed in a fire in 462. Its appearance is known, however, from numerous copies in other media and from coins of Elis of the first and second centuries a .c . Pheidias’s workshop for the production of the chryselephantine Zeus was built to the same dimensions as the cella of the temple. Within the workshop,

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German excavators made the unique discovery of ivory, glass, obsidian, sheet bronze, lead templates, bone tools, a bronze hammerhead and hundreds of clay molds for glass ornaments and glass drapery details. Once thought to be from the production of Zeus’s drapery, the molds have now been assigned to the production of a much smaller cult statue for the nearby Metroon (W. Schiering). BIBLIOGRAPHY J. Overbeck, Die Antiken Schriftquellen zur Geschichte der bildenden Kunste bei den Griechen (Leipzig, 1868), nos. 692-754; A. Mallwitz, Die Werkstatt des Zeus in Olym­ pia, Olympische Forschungen 5 (Berlin, 1964); Ridgway, Fifth Century Styles in Greek Sculpture, 167-68; W. Schiering, Die Werkstatt des Pheidias in Olympia, Olympische Forschungen 18 (Berlin, 1991). CAROL MATTUSCH

Portrait of Georg Zoega, by C. Stark. Rome, Deutsches Archaologisches Institut (German Archaeological Institute). (Deutsches Archaologisches Institut, Rome. Inst. Neg. 76.663.)

ZOEGA, GEORG (JORGEN; 1755-1809)

1211

ZOEGA, GEORG (JORGEN; 1755-1809). Danish archaeologist. Born in Denmark and educated in Germany, mainly in Gottingen under Chris­ tian Gottlob Heyne, Zoega lived in Rome from 1783 to his death. He knew the city better than most and acted as guide to many Danish visitors, for example, *Thorvaldsen. At first sight, Zoega’s publications— one book on Roman impe­ rial coins from Alexandria, one on obelisks in Rome, one on ancient Roman bas-reliefs and a catalog of the Coptic manuscripts in the collection of Cardinal Borgia— seem disparate; in fact, his main concern was to make archaeology a discipline as precise and methodical as philology. In his view both disciplines should cooperate to supply information about antiquity as a whole, hence, the copious information in all his books. His exact descriptions and learned inter­ pretations in Li Bassirelievi antichi di Roma (1808; in 2 vols., though only a part of a larger project) are considered by some to be the first specimen of real archaeological scholarship. BIBLIOGRAPHY F. G. Welcker, Zoega's Leben, with Zoega’s Kleine Schriften 1-2 (Stuttgart, 1819); K. Friis Johansen, “ Georg Zoega og Rom,” Rom og Danmark gennem Tideme, ed. L. Bobe, 1 (Copenhagen, 1935), 223-67; G. Zoega, Briefe und Dokumente, 1, 1755-1785; 2, 1785-1790, ed. O. Andreasen— K. Ascani (Copenhagen, 1967, 1993); J. Mejer, “ Welcker and Zoega,” Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker, Werk und Wirkung, ed. W. M. Calder III et al., Hermes Einzelschriften 49 (1986), 53-78. J. MEJER

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Chronology of the History of Classical Archaeology In the timeline presented below, emphasis is given to landmark discoveries and publications in classical archaeology, and an attempt has also been made to include events that affected the condition of the sites and monuments and thus the archaeological study of them. Various natural disasters and episodes of hu­ man destruction such as wars and invasions have been listed, along with infor­ mation, when practical, about the removal, conservation and restoration of antiquities. The timeline is of necessity schematic and perhaps gives undue em­ phasis to easily identifiable moments of discovery, publication and disaster, without fully conveying the processes of excavation, interpretation and conser­ vation that may have taken place at a given site over a number of years. Ref­ erences to the articles of the Encyclopedia, indicated by an asterisk, will help the reader to gain a fuller idea of the historical background for each selected entry in the timeline. 480 390 227/6 86

B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. A.D. 79

267 324 379-395 410 435

Sack of *Athens by the Persians Sack of *Rome by the Gauls Earthquake at *Rhodes topples the *Colossus Sack of *Athens, *Peiraeus and *Delphi by Sulla Eruption of Vesuvius, covering *Pompeii, *Herculaneum, *Oplontis, *Stabiae Sack of *Athens, *Corinth, *Sparta and *Argos by the Herulians Founding of Constantinople; Constantine moves many antiquities to the new city Reign of Theodosius I; orders for the destruction of pagan buildings, shrines, statues and books Sack of *Rome by Alaric Decrees of Theodosius II that all pagan shrines and temples should be closed or converted to Christian churches

CHRONOLOGY ca. 500? 609 ca. 800 966 1001

1082 l century l century

00-1101 1139-43 ca. 1140 ca. 1155 1166 1188 ca. 1200 1204 1231 1246 1335 1337 1341 ca. 1347 1349 1360 1375 1412 1417 1420 or 1430s 1440s 1444 1444-46 1446-48 1448 ca. 1450 1452 1453 1458-64 1462 1464 1465 1466 1468

Conversion of the *Parthenon to a church Conversion of the *Pantheon to a church *Einsiedeln Itinerary Reference to the Caballus Constantini, the earliest notice of the ^Mar­ cus Aurelius Equestrian statue Journey to Rome of *Bemward of Hildesheim Sack of Rome by Guiscard Monks excavate antiquities at St. Albans (*Verulamium) *Guibert of Nogent records antiquities excavated by monks at Nogent in southern France Journey to Rome of *Hildebert of Lavardin Journeys to Rome of *Henry of Blois Mirabilia urbis Romae Graphia aureae urbis Romae Earliest mention of the *Spinario, at the *Lateran in Rome Travels through Wales of *Gerald of Wales; recording of Roman ruins Magister *Gregorius in Rome Sack of Constantinople (*Byzantium) by Crusaders Striking of the Augustalis by *Frederick II of Hohenstaufen First record of the *Gemma Augustea, at St. Semin, Toulouse Memo of O. *Forzetta on the purchase of antiquities First journey to Rome of *Petrarch First record of the *Gemma Tiberiana, at the Sainte Chapelle, Paris *Cola di Rienzo interprets the bronze tablet of the Lex de imperio Vespasiani in St. John *Lateran, Rome Major earthquake in Rome First record of the *Rubens Vase, in the collection of the Duke of Anjou Journey to Rome of G. *Dondi Beginning of the travels of *Ciriaco of Ancona C. *Buondelmonti, Descriptio insulae Candiae C. *Buondelmonti, Liber insularum archipelagi Earliest notice regarding the *Belvedere Torso L.B. *Alberti, Descriptio urbis Romae Discovery at *Gubbio of the Eugubine Tables F. *Biondo, Roma instaurata Attempts by L. B. *Alberti to excavate ships at Lake *Nemi G.F. *Poggio Bracciolini, De varietate fortunae John *Capgrave in Rome; writing of Ye Solace of Pilgrimes Journey to Rome of Nicolaus *Muffel Fall of Constantinople (*Byzantium) to the Turks Papacy of *Pius II; plundering of marbles by the pope from *Tivoli, the *Colosseum and the *Portico of Octavia Papal Bull of *Pius II excommunicates plunderers of marble from Ro­ man ruins Expedition to Lake Garda by *Mantegna, *Marcanova, *Felice Feli­ ciano and Samuele da Tradate G. *Marcanova, Antiquitates Opening of an *Etruscan Tomb at *Vol terra Arrest of Pomponio *Leto and the members of the *Roman Academy

CHRONOLOGY 1471 1471 ca. 1480 1485 1490s 1494 1495 1499 1502 ca. 1503 1503-13 1506 1507 1510 1512 1515 1517 1519 1523 1527 1527 1530 1532 1532 1533 1534 1534 1538 1538 1540 ca. 1540 1545 1549-50 1550 1550ff. 1553 1553 1554 1555 1556 1556

1215 Lorenzo de’ Medici acquires the *Famese Cup (*Sixtus IV; *Medici family) Pope *Sixtus IV donates bronzes to the *Capitoline Museum in Rome First descents into the “Terme di Tito” (*Domus Aurea) Discovery of the body of *“Tulliola” on the Via Appia, Rome Discovery of the ^Belvedere Apollo Discovery of the *Tabula Peutingeriana by C. *Celtis B. *Rucellai, De urbe Roma F. *Colonna, Hypnerotomachia Poliphili Discovery of the Magdalensberg Youth (*Kunsthistorisches Museum) Arrival in Venice of the * “Praying Boy” Papacy of *Julius II; founding of the Belvedere sculpture court at the *Vatican Discovery of the *Laocoon Discovery of *Hercules and Telephus (Commodus) F. *Albertini, Opusculum de mirabilibus novae et veteris urbis Romae Discovery of the *Nile River God in Rome, and, one year later, the Tiber *Raphael assigned as overseer of antiquities by *Leo X A. *Fulvio, Illustrium imagines C. *Ripa, Iconologia *Grimani collection of antiquities bequeathed to the state of Venice A. *Fulvio, Antiquitates urbis Sack of Rome by Charles V Discovery of the *“ Idolino” Journey to Rome of M. van *Heemskerck Marco Fabio Calvo, Antiquae urbis Romae cum regionibus simulacrum (*Leo X) J. *Leland named King’s Antiquary by Henry VIII, King of England Establishment of the permanent position of *Commissario delle Anti­ chita by Pope *Paul III B. *Marliani, Antiquae urbis Romae topographia Transfer of the *Marcus Aurelius Equestrian Statue from the *Lateran to the *Capitoline Hill, Rome Visit to Rome by *Francisco d’Ollanda S. *Serlio, Delle antichita *Primaticcio orders casts of famous sculptures for Francis I Discovery of the *Famese Bull and the *Famese Hercules Writing of Delle statue antiche che per tutta Roma in diversi luoghi . . . si veggano by U. *Aldrovandi (published 1556) L. *Alberti, Descrittione di tutta Italia Work of P. *Ligorio at Tivoli, including excavation at *Hadrian’s Villa Discovery of the *Chimaera of *Arezzo P. *Ligorio, Delle antichita di Roma A. *Palladio, L ’Antichita di Roma Discovery of the *Monumentum Ancyranum V. *Cartari, Imagini dei Dei degli antichi P. *Valerianus, Hieroglyphica sive de sacris Aegyptiorum aliarumque gentium litteris

CHRONOLOGY

1216 1557 1557 1558 1559 1559 1560-65 ;a. 1561-94 1562 1562 1566 1568 1569 1570 1570 1570 1575 1580-1583 1581 1582 1586 1587 1588 1588-89 1588-89 1593 1594 1597-1602 1600 1603 1603 ca. 1604 1606 1611 1614 1619 1619 ca. 1620 1621 1627 1627 1628

E. *Vico, Le Imagini delle donne auguste H. *Goltzius, Vitae omnium fere imperatorum a C. Iulio Caesare usque ad Carolum V T. *Fazello, De rebus siculis S. *Erizzo, Discorso sopra le medaglie degli antichi J. *Strada, Imperatorum romanorum ... imagines “ Libro delle antichita” by G.A. *Dosio G. B. de’ *Cavalieri, Antiquae statuae urbis Romae First discoveries of fragments of the *Forma urbis Romae G. *Vignola, Regola delle cinque ordini d ’architettura The *Arringatore placed in the collection of the *Medici family Discovery of the Pax (“Tellus” ) frieze and processional friezes from the *Ara Pacis Augustae in Rome G. B. de’ *Cavalieri, Le Antichita di Roma A. *Palladio, Quattro libri dell'architettura Rebuilding of the ancient Aqua Virgo to deliver water to the Fountain of Trevi, Rome (*Aqueducts) F. *Orsini, Illustrium imagines E. *Du Perac, Vestigi dell'antichita di Roma Discovery of the *Niobe Group in Rome Beginning of the usage of the *Uffizi, Florence, as an art gallery Probable date of discovery of the *Portland Vase Erection of the Vatican *obelisk by D. *Fontana for Pope *Sixtus V Placement of the * ‘‘Trophies of Marius’’ on the *Capitoline Hill, Rome M. *Smetius, Inscriptionum antiquarum Restoration of the *Column of Trajan and the *Column of Marcus Aurelius by D. *Fontana for Pope *Sixtus V Demolition of the *Septizodium by *Sixtus V Map of Rome by A. Tempesta (*Excavations and expeditions) F. *Vacca, “ Memorie di varie antichita trovate in diverse luoghi della citta di Roma” J. J. *Boissard, Romanae urbis topographia et antiquitates *Vatican Vergil bequeathed to the Vatican by F. *Orsini J. *Gruter, Inscriptiones antiquae totius orbis romani Founding of the *Accademia dei Lincei Discovery of the *Aldobrandini Wedding in Rome F. *Orsini, Illustrium imagines, 2nd ed., issued by J. Faber Discovery of the *Borghese Gladiator near Anzio First serious investigation of the *Barberini Mosaic, by F. *Cesi P. *Cluverius, Sicilia antiqua Rediscovery of the *Gemma Tiberiana in the Sainte Chapelle Paris by *Peiresc Cassiano dal *Pozzo begins his Museo Cartaceo Discovery of the *Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus Acquisition of the *Marmor Parium (part A) for *Arundel Transfer of the *Barberini Faun, found at *Castel Sant’Angelo, Rome, to the Palazzo Barberini John Selden, Marmora Arundelliana (*Arundel)

CHRONOLOGY 1631 1634 1637 1649-51 1655 1656 1665 1665 1665 1666 1671 1673 1674 1674 1675-76 1675-79 1678 1680 1683 1683 1685 1687 1688 1690 1694-99 1694-1703 1696-1701 1700 1702 1703 1704 1707 1709 1709 1718-24 1719-24 1722 1723-26 1724

1217 J. von *Sandrart, Galleria Giustiniani A. *Bosio, Roma sotteranea F. *Junius, De pictura veterum *Velazquez journeys to Rome to acquire antique sculptures Arrival in Rome of *Christina of Sweden J. *Tradescant, Musaeum Tradescantianum G.P. *Bellori and P.S. *Bartoli, Colonna Traiana F. *Nardini, Roma antica A. *Rubens, De re vestiaria veterum Founding of the *French Academy in Rome A. *Kircher, Latium, id est nova et parallela Latii turn veteris turn novi descriptio J. *Spon, Recherche des antiquites et curiosites de la ville de Lyon Drawings made of the *Parthenon for *Nointel Discovery of the Tomb of the Nasonii (*“Tomb of Ovid” ) in Rome *Spon and *Wheler visit Greece J. von *Sandrart, Teutsche Academie der Edlen Bau-Bild und Mahlerley Kunste J. *Spon, Voyage d ’ltalie, de Dalmatie, de Grece et de Levant R. *Fabretti, De aquis et aquaeductibus veteris Romae Discovery of the *Tabula Iliaca at Bovillae Opening of the *Ashmolean Museum, Oxford G. P. *Bellori, Veterum illustrium philosophorum, poetarum, rhetorum ac oratorum imagines Bombing of the *Parthenon by the Venetians under F. *Morosini Completion of the Tribuna gallery at the *Uffizi, Florence M.-A. de la Chausse, Museum Romanum J. G. *Graevius, Thesaurus antiquitatum romanarum J. *Gronovius, Thesaurus antiquitatum graecarum L. *Beger, Thesaurus Brandenburgicus Selectus M.-A. de la *Chausse, Le Gemme antiche figurate, with illustrations by P. S. *Bartoli Investigations and identification of the Temple of Hera at *Samos by J. Pitton de Tournefort Major earthquake in Rome P. A. *Maffei, Raccolta di statue antiche e modeme, published by D. de Rossi Founding of the *Society of Antiquaries Beginning of excavations at *Herculaneum E. S. Cheron, Pierres antiques gravees tirees des principaux cabinets de la France Survey of British antiquities by W. *Stukeley B. de *Montfaucon, LAntiquite expliquee et representee en figures J. *Richardson (Senior and Junior), An Account of the Statues and BasReliefs, Drawings and Pictures in Italy, France &c T. *Dempster, De Etruria regali, with annotations by F. *Buonarroti Purchase of the *Odescalchi family collection (*Christina of Sweden) for the *Prado, Madrid

CHRONOLOGY 1727 1728 173 Iff. 1732 1732 1733 1733 1738 1738 1740 1747 1747-61 1748 1749 1750 1750 1751-53 1752-67 1753 1753 1755 1755 1756 1757 1757-96 1758-66 1762 1762 1764 1764 1765 1765 1766 5[67]—76 1769 1769 1769-71 1776-88 1777 1778-87

Founding of the *Accademia Etrusca Excavations by F. *Gori of *Etruscan Tombs at *Volterra F. *Gori, Museum florentinum Discovery of the *Corsini Throne in Rome *Fourmont at *Sparta F. S. *Maffei, Galliae antiquitates selectae Founding of the *Society of Dilettanti Renewal of excavations at *Herculaneum Discovery of the *Ficoroni Cista at Palestrina (*Praeneste) Founding of the *Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia J. *Spence, Polymetis G. Vasi, Delle magnificenze di Roma, antica e modema Beginning of excavations at *Pompeii Discovery of *Stabiae P. J. *Mariette, Traite des pierres gravees Discovery of the *Villa of the Papyri at *HercuIaneum *Stuart and *Revett in *Athens for the *Society of Dilettanti Comte de *Caylus, Recueil d ’antiquites egyptiennes, etrusques, grecques, romaines et gauloises R. *Wood, The Ruins of Palmyra Founding of the ^British Museum, London Founding of the *Academia Herculanensis J. J. Winckelmann, Gedanken Uber die Nachahmung der griechischen Werke G. B. *Piranesi, Le Antichita romane R. *Wood, The Ruins of Balbec Le Antichita di Ercolano (*Herculaneum) J. J. *Winckelmann visits *Pompeii A. R. *Mengs, Gedanken Uber die Schonheit J. *Stuart and N. *Revett, first volume of The Antiquities of Athens R. Adam, The Ruins of the Emperor Diocletian’s Palace at Spalatro in Dalmatia (*Adam family; *Split) J. J. *Winckelmann, Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums Discovery of the temple of Apollo Epikourios at *Bassai by J. Bocher R. *Chandler and W. *Pars in Asia Minor for the *Society of Dilettanti G. E. *Lessing, Laokoon: oder Uber die Grenzen derMalerei undPoesie P. F. d’*Hancarville, Collection of Etruscan, Greek and Roman An­ tiquities from the Cabinet of the Hon. W. Hamilton Opening by J. *Wedgwood of his ceramics works, “ Etruria” R. *Chandler, first volume of Antiquities of Ionia Excavations at *Hadrian’s Villa by G. *Hamilton E. *Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire R. Payne *Knight in Sicily Marbles moved from the Villa Medici in Rome to Florence (*Medici family) A. *Desgodets, Les Edifices antiques de Rome dessines et mesures tres exactement Discovery and vandalizing of the *Tomb of the Scipios, Rome

CHRONOLOGY

1219

1782-1807 E. Q. *Visconti, II Museo Pio-Clementino 1787 *Goethe at *Pompeii 1787 ff. Transfer of *Famese collections of antiquities toNaples; restoration of many pieces 1787 [1789] J. *Stuart and N. *Revett, second volume of The Antiquities of Athens 1789 L. *Lanzi, Saggio di lingua etrusca e di altre antiche d ’Italia 1791 R. E. *Raspe, Descriptive Catalogue of a General Collection of Ancient and Modern Engraved Gems. . . by James Tassie Modeller (J. *Tassie) 1791-95. W. *Hamilton, Collection of Engravings from Ancient Vases. .. Pub­ lished by W. Tischbein 1792-99 J. H. *Eckhel, Doctrina nummorum veterum 1793 Opening of the *Louvre as a public museum 1794 Opening of *Gustaf Ill’s Museum of Antiquities, Stockholm 1795 J. *Stuart and N. *Revett, third volume of The Antiquities o f Athens 1796 Destruction of the *“ Regisole” 1797 Peace treaty of Tolentino; beginning of transport of famous sculptures from Italy to Paris for *Napoleon 1801 Beginning of Russian excavations at *01bia 1801-4 Removal of marbles from the *Parthenon by G.B. *Lusieri for Lord *Elgin 1802 Lord and Lady *Elgin enter the *Treasury of Atreus at *Mycenae 1803 First excavation of the *Pnyx, Athens, by George, Earl of Aberdeen 1805 Purchase of the *Townley collection by the *British Museum 1807 Purchase by *Napoleon of the *Borghese family collection 1808 E. Q. *Visconti, Iconographie grecque 1809-14 French occupation of Rome; excavation and restoration of many mon­ uments (*Napoleon) 1809-10 First journey of Lord *Byron to Greece, with J.C. *Hobhouse 1810 G. *Micali, VItalia avanti il dominio d e ’ romani 1811 Discovery of sculptures from the sanctuary of Aphaia at *Aigina by C.R. *Cockerell and C. *Haller von Hallerstein 1811-12 Excavations at *Bassai by C. *Haller von Hallerstein 1812 Earthquake in Rome 1815 Acquisition by *Ludwig I of sculptures from *Aigina; restorations by *Thorvaldsen (1816-17) 1816 Acquisition by the ^British Museum of the *Parthenon marbles of Lord *Elgin 1816 Founding of the *Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge 1816 Return to Italy of famous sculptures taken to Paris by*Napoleon 1817-19 W. *Gell, Pompeiana: The Topography, Edifices and Ornaments of Pompeii 1818 E. Q. *Visconti, first volume of Iconographie romaine 1818 Founding of the *Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leyden 1818-22 P. B. *Shelley in Italy 1819 C. *Fea, Nuova descrizione de ’ monumenti antichi 1819 J. *Keats, “ Ode on a Grecian Urn” 1820 Discovery of the *Venus de Milo 1821 E. *Dodwell, Views in Greece

CHRONOLOGY W. M. *Leake, The Topography of Athens Greek War of Independence Antiquities of Ionia published by the *Society of Dilettanti Formation of the *Hyperboreans’ society Death of Lord *Byron at Missolonghi Publication of the first volume of Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum (A. *Bockh) 1828 Discovery of tombs with *Greek vases at *Vulci 1829 Founding of the *Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica 1829-31 Expedition scientifique de Moree 1830 Opening of the Munich *Glyptothek 1830 Opening of a public museum with antiquities in *Berlin 1830 K. O. *Muller, Handbuch der Archaologie der Kunst 1830-44 L. *Canina, LArchitettura antica descritta e dimostrata con i monumenti 1830-31 Discovery of the *Dancing Faun and *Alexander Mosaic in the House of the Faun, *Pompeii 1832-42 D. LoFaso Pietrasanta (Duca di Serradifalco), Le antichita di Sicilia 1833 Founding of the *Greek Archaeological Service 1834 Founding of the *National Archaeological Museum in Athens 1834 E. G. *Bulwer-Lytton, The Last Days of Pompeii 1834 P.O. *Br0ndsted, De cista aenea Praeneste reperta (*Ficoroni Cista) 1834 Purchase of the *Piombino Apollo for the *Louvre 1835ff. Demolition of postclassical structures on the *Akropolis, Athens, under L. *Ross 1836 Discovery of the *Regolini-Galassi Tomb at *Cerveteri 1836 C. J. *Thomsen, Ledetraad til Nordisk Oldkyndighed 1837 Traveling Etruscan exhibition of the *Campanari in Pall Mall, London 1837 Founding of the *Greek Archaeological Society 1837 Founding of the Museo Gregoriano Etrusco by Pope *Gregory XVI 1838 A. *Nibby, Roma nelTanno 1838 1839 First displays of antiquities at the *Prado Museum, Madrid 1840 Mrs. Hamilton Gray, Tour to the Sepulchres of Etruria in 1839 (^Etrus­ can Tombs) 1840-67 E. *Gerhard, Etruskische Spiegel (first four volumes) 1841 L. *Ross, Reisen und Reiserouten durch Griechenland 1841^6 H. *Kiepert, Topographisch-historische Atlas von Hellas und der hellenischen Kolonien 1841-42 Discovery of the Heroon at *Trysa 1842—4-4 Demolition of the mosque in the *Parthenon 1842 J. *Byres, Hypogaei, or Sepulchral Caverns of Tarquinia, the Capital of Antient Etruria 1844-45 Discovery of the *Fran9ois Vase at *Chiusi 1844 Acquisition of the Nereid Monument at *Xanthos by C. *Fellows for the *British Museum 1846 Founding of the *French School in Athens 1846 Movement of sculptures from the *Mausoleum of Halikarnassos to the *British Museum 1848 First edition of G. *Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria 1821 1821-32 182 Iff. 1823 1824 1828

CHRONOLOGY 1848 1849 1851 1851 1851 1853 1853-59 1856 1857 1857 1858 1860 1860 1860 1862 1862-63 1862-63 1863 1863 1863-74 1865-77 1867 1868 1869 1869 1870 1870 1870 187Iff. 1871 1872 1873 1874 1874-76 ca. 1875 1875ff. 1875 1876 1876

1221

Discovery of the *Odyssey Landscapes Discovery in Rome of the statue of the *Apoxyomenos,attributed to Lysippos F. C. *Penrose, Principles of Athenian Architecture E. W. *Lear, Journal of a Landscape Painter in Greece and Albania J. I. *Hittorff, L'Architecture polychrome chez les grecs Discovery of *Villanovan culture by G. *Gozzadini H. von *Brunn, Geschichte der griechische Kunstler Purchase of *Portus by the *Torlonia family Discovery of the *Beule Gate at the *Akropolis, Athens Discovery of the *Francois Tomb at Vulci by A. *Frangois Catalog hi del Museo Campana and sale of antiquities from the collec­ tion of G. P. *Campana T. *Mommsen, Geschichte des romischen Munzwesens G. *Fiorelli becomes director at *Pompeii N. Hawthorne, The Marble Faun Publication of the first volume of the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (T. *Mommsen) Excavations at *Marzabotto by *Gozzadini C. T. *Newton, History of Discoveries at Halicarnassus, Cnidus and Branchidae Discovery of the *Augustus from the *Villa of Livia at PrimaPorta Discovery of the *Victory of *Samothrace Uncovering of the *Kerameikos cemetery in the area of the Dipylon Gate, Athens, by the *Greek Archaeological Society Excavations by General *Cesnola on *Cyprus Founding of the *Museo Arque61ogico Nacional, Madrid J. *Overbeck, Die Antiken Schriftquellen zur Geschichte der bildenden Kunste bei den Griechen Discovery of the *House of Livia, Rome Discovery of the *Temple of Artemis at *Ephesos by J. T. Wood Founding of the *Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Founding of the *Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Discovery of a major segment of the * “ Servian” Wall in Rome Excavations by *Schliemann at *Troy, with the help of W.*Dorpfeld from 1882 Alleged appearance of the *Praenestine Fibula at Palestrina Purchase of the Feoli collection of Greek and Etruscan vases from *Vulci for the Martin von *Wagner Museum Founding of the *French School in Rome Founding of the *German Archaeological Institute at Athens Excavations by *Schliemann at *Mycenae; discovery of Grave Circle A Discovery of the *Hera of Cheramyes on *Samos Excavations by the Germans at *01ympia Discovery of the *Nike of Paionios at *01ympia Discovery of the *Bernardini Tomb, Palestrina (*Praeneste) Excavations by *Schliemann at *Tiryns, with the help of W. Dorpfeld, 1884-85

CHRONOLOGY

1222

1877 1878-79 1878 1879 1880 1880 1880 1881 1882 1882 1882 1882-94 1883 1884 1884 1885 1886 1886 1886-88 1887 1887 1887 1888 1888 1889 1889 1890 189Iff. 1892ff. 1892 1892-95 1893-1901 1894 1895 1895 1895-1910 1896 1896 1896 1896 1896

Discovery of the *Hermes of Praxiteles and identification of the *Temple of Hera at *01ympia Transport of the frieze from the *Great Altar of *Pergamon to Berlin by C. *Humann H. *Schliemann, Mycenae Founding of the *Archaeological Institute of America K. B. *Stark, Systematik und Geschichte der Archaologie der Kunst Systematic excavation of the *Propylaia, Athens, by R. Bohn H. *Schliemann, Ilios: The City and Country of the Trojans Inauguration of the *Florence Archaeological Museum Founding of the *American School of Classical Studies in Athens A. *Michaelis, Ancient Marbles in Great Britain Donation to Oxford of the collections of General *Pitt-Rivers, to create the Pitt-Rivers Museum J. J. Bernoulli, Romische Ikonographie (*Portrait Iconography) Transport of the monument from *Trysa to the *Kunsthistorisches Mu­ seum, Vienna Excavations by General *Pitt-Rivers at Cranbome Chase Discovery of the Law Code of *Gortyn by F. *Halbherr Discovery of the *Hellenistic ‘ ‘Ruler’’ and Bronze Boxer in Rome Founding of the ^British School at Athens Beginning of excavations at the *Temple of Apollo at *Corinth, by W. *Dorpfeld Excavation of the palace at *Mycenae by C. *Tsountas Discovery of the *Ludovisi Throne Acquisition of *Fayum portraits by T. Graf Discovery of the *Calfbearer H. *Brunn, Denkmaler griechischer und romischer Skulptur Discovery of the *Vapheio Cups J. *Martha, L A rt etrusque Founding of the *Villa Giulia and *Terme museums First volume of Die Antiken Sarkophagreliefs by C. *Robert Excavations by P. *Orsi at *Syracuse “La Grande Fouille,” excavations of the*French School at *Delphi under T. *Homolle Formation of the Danish National Museum in *Copenhagen Excavation of the *Argive Heraion by C. *Waldstein R. *Lanciani, Forma urbis Romae Appearance in Rome of the Boston Counterpart to the *Ludovisi Throne Discovery of the *Boscoreale Treasure Founding of the *American Academy in Rome O. *Montelius, La Civilisation primitive en Italy Purchase of the forged *Tiara of Saitaphernes by the *Louvre Beginning of American excavations at *Corinth Discovery of the *Charioteer of *Delphi Discovery of the temple of Mater Matuta at *Satricum The Elder Pliny's Chapters on the History of Art, tr., K. Jex-Blake, with commentary by E. Sellers (*Strong)

CHRONOLOGY 1896-1900 1897 1897 1897 1897 1898 1898ff. 1899 1899 1899 1900 1900 1900 1900 1900 1900 1901 1901 1901 1902 1902 1902 1902 1902-9 1905 1906 1906ff. 1907 1907 1909 1909 1910 1910-11 1910 1910 1910-23 1912 1914-17

1223

C. Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Trajanssaule (*Column of Trajan) Discovery of the *Dama de Elche R. *Lanciani, The Ruins and Excavations o f Ancient Rome E. *Babelon, Catalogue des camees antiques et modemes de la Biblio­ theque Nationale Opening of the *Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen Commentary on Pausanias by Sir James G. *Frazer Restoration of the *Parthenon under N. *Balanos Founding of the *British School at Rome Discovery of the *Lapis Niger in Rome A. *Mau, Pompeii—Its Life and Art, a translation by F. W. *Kelsey of Pompeji in Leben und Kunst, published in 1900 F. *Wickhoff, Roman Art, tr. by E. S. *Strong Beginning of excavations at *Phaistos by L. *Pemier Beginning of excavations at Kavousi and *Goumia (1901) by Harriet Boyd (*Hawes) Beginning of excavations at *Knossos by Sir Arthur *Evans Discovery of the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at *Boscoreale A. *Furtwangler, Die Antiken Gemmen A. *Riegl, Spatrdmische Kunstindustrie J. J. Bernoulli, Griechische Ikonographie (*Portrait Iconography) J. *Strzygowski, Orient oder Rom Discovery of the Archaic cemetery in the *Forum Romanum, Rome, by G. *Boni Beginning of excavation at *Hagia Triadha by F. *Halbherr Beginning of excavation at Lindos under the auspices of the National Museum, *Copenhagen (*Rhodes) W. J. Anderson and R. P. Spiers, Architecture of Greece and Rome Restoration of the *Erechtheion under N. *Balanos Founding of the *British School in Rome Founding of the *Budapest Museum of Fine Arts Reports by the Austrian Archaeological Institute, Forschungen in Ephesos (*Ephesos) Discovery of the shipwreck at *Mahdia Beginning of German excavations at the *Kerameikos in Athens Founding of the *Italian School of Archaeology in Athens Discovery of the Mysteries frescoes in the *Villa of the Mysteries, *Pompeii Discovery of the pedimental sculptures from the temple of Artemis at *Korkyra H. F. De Cou, assistant at the excavations at *Cyrene, shot to death by Arab assassins H. A. *Grueber, Coins of the Roman Republic in the British Museum Beginning of excavations at *Leptis Magna by F. *Halbherr “ Nuovi Scavi” at *Pompeii, by V. Spinazzola Founding of the *Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto World War I

1224

CHRONOLOGY 1914-29 1916 1920 1922 1922 1922-36 1922-25 1923 1923 1923-50 1924ff. 1925ff. 1926 1926 1926 1926 1927 1927 1927-31 1928 1928-32 1928-37 1929 1929 1930 1931 1932ff. 1933 1934 1937 1937-38 1937-39 1938ff. 1939 1939-45 1940 1940ff. 1941 1942

A. *Schulten, Numantia Discovery of the Apollo of *Veii Discovery of Roman silver cups at Hoby (“ Hoby Cups” ) in southern Denmark Discovery of a necropolis at *Spina M. I. *Rostovtzeff, Iranians and Greeks in South Russia Sir Arthur *Evans, The Palace of Minos Founding of the *Gennadius Library E. *Pfuhl, Malerei und Zeichnung der Griechen G. *Lippold, Kopien und umbildungen griechischer Statuen H. *Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum Excavations by A. *Maiuri at *Pompeii Italian excavations and restorations at *Sabratha Discovery of the *Artemision God, in an ancient shipwreck off the coast of Cape Artemision Founding of the *Swedish Institute in Rome Discovery of the Area Sacra of the *Largo Argentina in Rome M. I. ^Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History o f the Roman Empire Reopening of excavations at *Herculaneum by A. *Maiuri P. *Ducati, Storia dell’arte etrusca *Swedish Cyprus Expedition directed by E. *Gjerstad L. *Curtius, Die Wandmalerei Pompejis Recovery of the Ships of *Nemi Excavations at *Dura-Europos by M. *Rostovtzeff and others for Yale University S. B. *Platner and T. *Ashby, A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome M. H. *Swindler, Ancient Painting Beginning of excavations by the *American School of Classical Stud­ ies in the *Agora, Athens G. Devoto, Gli Antichi italici Final reports on *Corinth, by R. *Stillwell and others J.D.S. *Pendlebury, A Handbook to the Palace of Minos at Knossos Discovery of the sanctuary of Hera at the Foce del Sele, near *Paestum Mostra Augustea della Romania (*Museo della Civilta Romana) Excavation and reconstruction of the *Ara Pacis Augustae under *Fascism Discovery of the *Cancelleria Reliefs Excavations at *Samothrace by K. *Lehmann Beginning of excavations at *Pylos, by C. *Blegen World War II P.F.S. Poulsen, Katalog over antike Skulpturer der Ny Carlsberg Glyp­ totek Restoration of the *Parthenon under A. K. *Orlandos A. *Furumark, The Mycenaean Pottery, Analysis and Classification and The Chronology of Mycenaean Pottery F. *Cumont, Recherches sur le symbolism funerarire des romains

CHRONOLOGY 1942 1942 1944 1945 1946 1946 1947 1948 1948 1948 1950 1950-73 195Iff. 1952 1952 1952 1952-55 1952-58 1953 1953-56 1954 1955 1956 1957 1957 1958ff. 1959 1960s 1960 1961 1963 1963-72 1964 1964 1965 1965ff. 1966 1966 1966ff. 1967 1968 1968

1225 G.M.A. *Richter, Kouroi, Archaic Greek Youths, 1st ed. Edith H. *Dohan, Italic Tomb Groups in the University Museum Destruction of the Ships of *Nemi Discovery of the “ Bee Pendant” at *Malia Discovery of the *Cartoceto Bronzes Founding of the *Swedish Institute at Athens M. E. Blake, Ancient Roman Construction in Italy from the Prehistoric Era to Augustus A. *Garcia y Bellido, Hispania graeca T. J. *Dunbabin, The Western Greeks Beginning of excavations at *Cosa by Frank *Brown W. B. *Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient Greece Excavations at *Gordion, directed by R. *Young, for the University Museum, Philadelphia Construction of the *Herakleion Museum Decipherment of Linear B as Greek by M. *Ventris (*Linear A and Linear B; *Myceneans) Beginning of excavations at *Pithekoussai by G. Buchner Use of SCUBA by J. Cousteau, to investigate a shipwreck at Grand Congloue (*Underwater Archaeology) Excavation by G. *Mylonas and J. Papademetriou of Grave Circle B at *Mycenae Excavations at *Lema by J.L. *Caskey Discovery of the *Vix Krater Rebuilding of the *Stoa of Attalos, Athens M. *Wheeler, Archaeology from the Earth Beginning of excavations at *Lavinium by F. Castagnoli and L. Cozza J. D. *Beazley, Attic Black-Figure Vase-Painting G. *Lugli, La Tecnica edilizia romana Discovery of sculptures in the cave at *Sperlonga Excavations at *Sardis by G.M.A. *Hanfmann Discovery of the *Peiraeus Bronzes Geophysical prospection in Etruria by the *Lerici Foundation Discovery of Bronze Age shrine and statuary at *Keos by J. L. *Caskey M. *Bieber, The Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age, rev. ed. J. D. *Beazley, Attic Red-Figure Vase-Painting, 2nd ed. Fourth edition of W. *Helbig, Fiirher durch die djfentlichen Sammlungen klassischer Altertiimer in Rom, ed. H. Speier Corpus der minoischen und mykenischen Siegel initiated by F. *Matz Discovery of the *Pyrgi tablets *Underwater excavations at *Portus Cosanus (port of *Cosa) Excavations by A. Bammer at the *Temple of Artemis at *Ephesos Flood in Florence, Italy (^Florence, Archaeological Museum) L. *Bemabo Brea, Sicily before the Greeks Excavations at *Murlo Discovery of the Bronze Age settlement at *Thera by S. *Marinatos E. *Nash, Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Rome, rev. ed. G.M.A. *Richter, Komi, Archaic Greek Maidens

CHRONOLOGY 1968 1968 1969 1970 1972 1972 1972 1977 1977ff. 1977ff. 1981 1981 1982ff. 1989

Discovery of the Tomb of the Diver, *Paestum Excavations in the Palace of Diocletian at *Split by a joint AmericanYugoslav team A. K. *Orlandos, Les Materiaux et la technique architecturale des anciens grecs J. B. *Ward-Perkins and A. *Boethius, Etruscan and Roman Architec­ ture Purchase by the *Metropolitan Museum of Art of a vase painted by Euphronios for $1 million W. A. McDonald and G. R. Rapp, Jr., The *Minnesota Messenia Ex­ pedition, Reconstructing a Bronze Age Regional Environment Discovery of the *Riace Warriors Discovery of the *“Tomb of Philip II” at Vergina by M. *Andronikos Excavations by the Dutch Institute in Rome at *Satricum Restoration of monuments of the *Akropolis, Athens (*Erechtheion, *Parthenon), under the supervision of M. Korres Excavation of monumental building and burials at *Lefkandi by M. Popham, L. Sackett and E. Touloupa Removal of the *Marcus Aurelius Equestrian Statue from the center of the *Capitoline Hill, Rome Excavations in the city of *Tarquinia by M. Bonghi Jovino Discovery of a shipwreck off Sicily by means of a “ remotely operated vehicle” (*Underwater Archaeology)

Select Bibliography Joann McDaniel

[Editor’s Note—This bibliography was researched and compiled by Joann McDaniel, with general recommendations from the editor of the volume. As in the bibliographies for each entry, the needs and preparation of students and general readers were an im­ portant concern, and thus high priority has been given to works that are in English and readily available. A balance between recent scholarship and older publications has been sought, as well as between general studies and particular ones that have become classics in their own category. The number of sources was limited to one hundred, in an attempt to prepare a concise listing of a starting library for someone who wishes to pursue the history of classical archaeology. Exhaustive and invaluable bibliographies covering the critical period from ca. 1400 to 1900 may be found in Greenhalgh (section 2), Bober— Rubinstein (sec. 4) and Haskell—Penny (sec. 4); the latter two studies deal especially with the rediscovery and evaluation of ancient sculpture, but many of the items in their bibliographies have a wider application. In recent years, various important handbooks on Greek and Roman art have appeared, for example, two on sculpture from Yale University Press: A. Stewart, Greek Sculpture, An Exploration 1-2 (New Haven, CT, 1990) and D.E.E. Kleiner, Roman Sculpture (New Haven, CT, 1992). These excellent, well-illustrated handbooks are concerned with the present state of research and were not intended to cover the history of the study of their subject. Stewart stated that the recovery of Greek sculpture was “ unfortunately too large a subject for inclusion here” (p. 334). Thus, such handbooks, though important and upto-date, are not listed in this bibliography, nor are they as frequently cited in this volume as certain older studies that make frequent reference to the history of discovery and scholarship, for example, the works that take account of the long tradition of German scholarship by M. Bieber, O. Brendel and G.M.A. Richter.]

1228

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GENERAL TOPICS 1. History of Archaeology Bracco, V. L ’Archaeologia classica nella cultura occidentale. Rome, 1979. Dacos, N. “ Sopravvivenza dell’antico.” EAA Suppl. (1973): 725^-6. Daniel, G. E. A Hundred and Fifty Years of Archaeology, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA, 1976. --------- . A Short History of Archaeology. London, 1981. Michaelis, A. A Century of Archaeological Discoveries, tr. B. Kahnweiler. London, 1908. Pallottino, M. The Meaning of Archaeology. New York, 1968. Stark, C. B. Handbuch der Archaologie der Kunst. 1: Systematik und Geschichte der Archaologie der Kunst. Leipzig, 1880; repr. 1969. Trigger, B. A History of Archaeological Thought. Cambridge, 1989. Weiss, R. The Renaissance Discovery of Classical Antiquity, 2nd ed. Oxford, 1988. See also Brendel (sec. 4).

2. The Classical Tradition Fehl, P. The Classical Monument: Reflections on the Connection Between Morality and Art in Greek and Roman Sculpture. New York, 1972. Greenhalgh, M. The Classical Tradition in Art. London, 1978. Howard, S. Antiquity Restored, Essays on the Afterlife of the Antique, with preface by E. H. Gombrich. Vienna, 1990. Panofsky, E. Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art, 2nd rev. ed. Stockholm, 1964. Rowland, B. The Classical Tradition in Western Art. Cambridge, MA, 1963. Vermeule, C. C. European Art and the Classical Past. Cambridge, MA, 1964.

3. Biography and History of Scholarship Briggs, W. W.— Calder, W. M., Ill, eds. Classical Scholarship: A Biographical Ency­ clopedia. New York, 1990. Calder, W. M., Ill— Kramer, D. J. An Introductory Bibliography to the History of Clas­ sical Scholarship in the XlXth and XXth Centuries. Hildesheim, 1992. Der Archaologe: Graphische Bildnisse aus dem Portratarchiv Diepenbroick. Catalog of Exhibition. Munster, 1983. Lullies, R.— Schiering, W., eds., Archaologenbildnisse, Portrdts und Kurzbiographen von klassischen Archaologen deutscher Sprache. Mainz am Rhein, 1988. Sandys, J. E. A History of Classical Scholarship, 3rd ed., 1-3. Cambridge, 1958. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, U. A History of Classical Scholarship, tr. A. Harris, ed. with introd. and notes by H. Lloyd-Jones. Baltimore, 1982.

SPECIAL TOPICS 4. Ancient Sculpture, Painting and Architecture Bergstr0m, I. The Revival of Antique Illusionistic Wall-Painting in Renaissance Art. Goteborg, 1957.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

1229

Bieber, M. The Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age, rev. ed. New York, 1961. Bober, P.— Rubinstein, R. Renaissance Artists and Antique Sculpture: A Handbook of Sources. London, 1986. Brendel, O. J. Prolegomena to the Study of Roman Art. New Haven, CT, 1979. Dacos, N. La Decouverte de la Domus Aurea et la formation des grotesques a la Re­ naissance. London, 1969. Fehl, P. Franciscus Junius, The Literature of Classical Art. 1: The Painting o f the An­ cients, De pictura veterum; 2: A Lexicon of Artists and Their Works. Berkeley, 1991. Haskell, F.— Penny, N. Taste and the Antique: The Lure of Classical Sculpture, 15001900. New Haven, CT, 1981. Michaelis, A. Ancient Marbles in Great Britain. Cambridge, 1882. Richter, G.M.A. Portraits of the Greeks, 1-3. London, 1965; Supplement, London, 1972, Revised edition, Ithaca, NY, 1984. Ridgway, B. Hellenistic Sculpture. 1: The Styles ofca. 331-100 B.C. Madison, WI, 1990. --------- . Roman Copies of Greek Sculpture: The Problem of the Originals. Ann Arbor, MI, 1984. Summerson, J. The Classical Language of Architecture, rev. ed. London, 1980. Swift, E. H. Roman Sources of Christian Art. New York, 1951. See also Nash (sec. 7), Platner—Ashby (sec. 7), Richardson (sec. 7), Travlos (sec. 6).

5. Ancient Glyptics and Numismatics Clain-Stefanelli, E. E. Numismatics: An Ancient Science, A Survey of Its History. Con­ tributions from the Museum of History and Technology, Bull. 229. Washington, DC, 1940. Furtwangler, A. Die Antiken Gemmen, 1-3. Berlin, 1900. Giuliano, A. I Cammei della Collezione Medicea nel Museo Archeologico di Firenze. Rome, 1989. Meulen, M. van der. Petrus Paulus Rubens Antiquarius: Collector and Copyist of Antique Gems. Alphen aan den Rijn, 1975. Richter, G.M.A. Engraved Gems of the Greeks, Etruscans and Romans, 1-2. London, 1968-71. Zazoff, P. H. Gemmensammler und Gemmenforscher, Von einer noblen Passion zur Wissenschaft. Munich, 1983.

6. Greek Topography and Travel Eisner, R. Travelers to an Antique Land: The History and Literature of Travel to Greece. Ann Arbor, MI, 1991. Stillwell, R., ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites. Princeton, NJ, 1976. Stoneman, R. Land of Lost Gods: The Search for Classical Greece. London, 1987. Travlos, J. Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Athens. New York, 1971. Tsigakou, F.-M. The Rediscovery of Greece: Travellers and Painters of the Romantic Era. New Rochelle, NY, 1981.

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7. Roman Topography and Travel Castagnoli, F. Topografia di Roma Antica. Turin, 1980. Lanciani, R. The Destruction of Ancient Rome. London, 1899; repr. 1980. Nash, E. A Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Rome, rev. ed., 1-2. London, 1968. Platner, S.— Ashby, T. A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. London, 1929. Richardson, L., jr. A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. Baltimore, 1992. Valentini, R.—Zucchetti, G. Codice topografico della citta di Roma, 1-4. Rome, 19401953. See also Stillwell (sec. 6), Lanciani (sec. 9).

8. Drawings After the Antique Ashby, T. “ Antiquae statuae urbis Romae.” PBSR 9 (1920): 107-58. Bartoli, A. I Monumenti antichi di Roma nei disegni degli Uffizi di Firenze, 1-5. Rome, 1914-22. Bober, P. P. Amico Aspertini, Drawings After the Antique, Sketchbooks in the British Museum. London, 1957. Harprath, R.— Wrede, H., eds. Antikenzeichnung und Antikenstudium in Renaissance und Friihbarock, Akten des intemationalen Symposions 1986 in Coburg. Mainz, 1989. Hiibner, P. G. Le Statue di Roma: Grundlagen fur eine Geschichte der antiken Monumente in der Renaissance. Leipzig, 1912. Mandowsky, E.— Mitchell, C. Pirro Ligorio’s Roman Antiquities. London, 1963. Nesselrath, A. “ I libri di disegni di antichita: tentative di una tipologia.” In Memoria dell’antico nell’arte italiana, ed. S. Settis, vol. 3. Turin, 1986, 87-147. Piggott, S. Antiquity Depicted: Aspects of Archaeological Illustration. New York, 1978. Vermeule, C. C. “The Dal Pozzo-Albani Drawings of Classical Antiquities in the Royal Library at Windsor Castle.” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 56.2 (1966).

9. Collecting and Restoring Bracken, C. P. Antiquities Acquired: The Spoliation of Greece. Newton Abbey, 1975. de Azevedo, M. Cagiano. II Gusto nel restauro delle opere d ’arte antiche. Rome, 1948. Helbig, W. Fiihrer durch die djfentlichen Sammlungen klassischer Altertiimer in Rom, 4th ed., ed. H. Speier, 1-4. Tubingen, 1963-72. Jackson, V., ed. Art Museums of the World, 1-2. New York, 1987. Lanciani, R. Storia degli scavi di Roma e notizie intorno le collezioni romane di antichita, 1-4. Rome, 1902-12; “edizione integrale,” ed. L. M. Campeggi. Rome, 198992. Michaelis, A. Ancient Marbles in Great Britain. Cambridge, 1882. Pietrangeli, C. Le Collezione private romane attraverso i tempi. Rome, 1985. Salerno, L. s.v. “ Collezioni archeologiche (Collezioni dal Rinascimento al sec. XVIII).” EAA suppl. (1973): 242-59. See also Bober— Rubinstein (sec. 4), Haskell—Penny (sec. 4), Weiss (sec. 1), Michaelis (sec. 1), Howard (sec. 2).

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1231

10. Etruscan Archaeology Borsi, F., ed. Fortuna degli etruschi. Catalog of Exhibition. Florence, 1985. Cristofani, M. La Scoperta degli etruschi: Archeologia e antiquaria nel settecento. Rome, 1983. de Grummond, N. T. “ Rediscovery.” In Etruscan Life and Afterlife, ed. L. Bonfante. Detroit, 1986, 18-46. Les Etrusques e VEurope: Galeries intemationales du Grand Palais. Catalog of Exhi­ bition. Paris, 1992.

11. Bronze Age Archaeology Calder, W. M., Ill—Traill, D. A., eds. Myth, Scandal and History: The Heinrich Schlie­ mann Controversy and a First Edition of the Mycenaean Diary. Detroit, 1986. McDonald, W. A. Progress into the Past: The Rediscovery of Mycenaean Civilization, 2nd ed. Bloomington, IN, 1990. Myers, J. W.— Myers, E. E.— Cadogan, G., eds. The Aerial Atlas o f Ancient Crete. Berkeley, 1992.

PERIODS OF HISTORY 12. Middle Ages Adhemar, J. Influences antiques dans Vart du moyen age frangais: Recherches sur les sources et les themes d ’inspiration. London, 1939. Benson, R. L.—Constable, G. Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century. Cam­ bridge, 1982. Bolgar, R. R., ed. Classical Influences on European Culture, a d . 500-1500. Cambridge, 1971. Greenhalgh, M. The Survival of Roman Antiquities in the Middle Ages. London, 1989. Heckscher, W. S. “ Relics of Pagan Antiquity in Mediaeval Settings.” JWarb 1 (1937— 38): 204-20. Oakeshott, W. Classical Inspiration in Medieval Art. London, 1959. Ross, J. B. “ A Study of Twelfth-Century Interest in the Antiquities of Rome.” In Me­ dieval and Historiographical Essays in Honour of James Westfall Thompson, ed. J. L. Cate— E. N. Anderson. Chicago, 1938; repr. New York, 1966, 302-21. Schnitzler, H. Mittelalter und Antike, Uber die Wiedergeburt der Antike in der Kunst des Mittelalters. Munich, 1949.

13. Renaissance and Baroque Bolgar, R. R., ed. Classical Influences on European Culture, a . d . 1500-1700. Cam­ bridge, 1976. Brummer, H. H. The Statue Court in the Vatican Belvedere. Stockholm, 1970. Lehmann, P. W.—Lehmann, K. Samothracian Reflections, Aspects of the Revival of the Antique. Princeton, NJ, 1973.

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Mitchell, C. “ Archaeology and Romance in Renaissance Italy.” In Italian Renaissance Studies, A Tribute to the Late Cecilia M. Ady. London, 1960. The Paper Museum of Cassiano dal Pozzo. [Milan], 1993. Salis, A. von. Antike und Renaissance: Uber Nachleben und Weitenwirken der alten in der neueren Kunst. Erlenbach, 1947. Saxl, F. “The Classical Inscription in Renaissance Art and Politics.” JWarb 4 (1941): 19-46. Settis, S. Memoria delVantico nelVarte italiana, 1-3. Turin, 1984-86. Sheard, W. S. Antiquity in the Renaissance. Catalog of Exhibition. Northampton, MA, 1979. See also Weiss (sec. 1), Bober—Rubinstein (sec. 4), Haskell—Penny (sec. 4), Panofsky (sec. 2).

14. Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries Black, J. The Grand Tour in the 18th Century. New York, 1992. Crook, J. M. The Greek Revival: Neo-Classical Attitudes in British Architecture, 17601870. London, 1972. Davies, G., ed. Plaster and Marble, The Classical and Neo-Classical Portrait Bust (The Edinburgh Albacini Colloquium), Journal of the History of Collections 3.2 (1991). Jenkyns, R. The Victorians and Ancient Greece. Cambridge, 1980. Pompeii as Source and Inspiration, Reflections in Eighteenth-and Nineteenth-Century Art. Catalog of Exhibition. Ann Arbor, MI, 1977. Ridley, R. T. The Eagle and the Spade: The Archaeology of Rome During the Napoleonic Era, 1809-1814. Cambridge, 1992. Skinner, B. C. Scots in Italy in the Eighteenth Century. Catalog of Exhibition. Edinburgh, 1966. Springer, C. The Marble Wilderness, Ruins and Representation in Italian Romanticism, 1775-1850. Cambridge, 1987. See also Greenhalgh (sec. 2), Haskell—Penny (sec. 4).

Index Page numbers in bold indicate main entries. Aachen, 146, 273 Abbate, N. dell’, 870 Aberdeen, George, Earl of, 543, 906 “Absalom,” 1045 Abydos, 1, 213 Academia Herculanensis, 1-2, 186, 416, 586, 804, 911, 973 Academie des beaux-arts, 158, 164, 942 Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, 158, 261, 271, 459, 468, 706, 942 Academie royale de peinture et sculpture. See Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture Academy of Saint Luke. See Accademia di San Luca Accademia d’Italia, 3 Accademia dei Lincei, 2-3, 36, 120, 256, 361, 600, 657, 929, 968 Accademia della Crusca, 751 Accademia di San Luca (Academy of St. Luke), 19, 142, 231, 233, 631, 793, 804, 845, 885, 1086, 1177, 1201 Accademia Ercolano. See Academia Herculanensis Accademia Ellenica, 803 Accademia Etrusca, 3-5, 330, 410, 416, 459, 462, 511-512, 527, 706 Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. See Accademia dei Lincei Accademia Pontificia dei Nuovi Lincei, 3 Accademia Romana. See Roman Academy Accursio, M., 348 Acharnai, 9 Achilles, 700, 920; portrayals of, 174, 496, 695 Achilles Among the Daughters of Lycomedes, by N. Poussin, 928

Achilles and the Centaur Chiron, 186 Achilles Painter, 8 Achilles Sacrificing Trojan Prisoners, 462 Acilia Hygia, 1202 Aciliae Tertullae Fil., 1202 Acquarossa, 5, 556, 1065, 1177 Acragas. See Akragas Acrobat (Knossos), 583 Acta Triumphorum, 398 Ad Gallinas Albas. See Villa of Livia Adam, 31 Adam, James, 5, 20 Adam, John, 5 Adam, L. S., 449 Adam, R., 5-7, 20, 28, 410, 487, 532, 911, 1047 Adam, S., 588 Adam, by Michelangelo, 755 Adam, W., 5 Adam and Eve, by A. Diirer, 145, 381 Adam family, 5, 28, 410, 630, 974 Adam Style, 5-6 Adamesteanu, D., 748 Adamklissi, 475 Adler, Johann Heinrich Friedrich, 7,372,685,825 Adonis, 264, 695, 1083 Adoration of the Magi: by Botticelli, 185; by Ghirlandaio, 448; by Panini, 845; by Pisano, 899 Adoration of the Shepherds, by Ghirlandaio, 499 Adrastus, 316 Adria, 7-8, 166, 1044 Adrian VI, Pope, 574 Adriani, A., 35, 612, 1029 Adventus of Marcus Aurelius, 723 Aegae. See Vergina

1234 Aegina. See Aigina Aelst, N. van, 724 Aemilius Paullus, 628, 871 Aemilius Scaurus, 758 Aeneas, 156, 665, 1133 Aeneas, cycle by the Carracci, 248 Aeneas, Anchises and Ascanius, by Bernini, 156 Aeneas Landing in Carthage, 1151 aerial survey in archaeology. See photography, aerial Aerschot, Duke of, 965 Aesculapius, 731, 1083 Aesop, 939 Aetion, 870 Agache, R., 482 Agamemnon, 685, 785, 787 Agasias, 178 Agathokles, 1021 Age of Gold; Silver; Copper; Iron, by Pietro da Cortona, 887 (Ages)andros, 1156 Aghiorghitika, 790 Aghios Theodoros, 1020 Agon, 710 Agora, 8- 10, 44, 104, 396, 417, 418, 494, 537, 664, 688, 784, 855, 1026, 1040, 1055, 1099, 1207 Agorakritos, 953 Agostin. See Agustfn Agostini, Leonardo, 10- 11, 87, 140, 141, 319, 511, 709, 740 Agricola, R., 263 Agrigento, Antiquarium of Villa Aurea, 15; Museo Nazionale Archeologico, 15. See also Akragas Agrigentum. See Akragas Agrileza, 665 Agrippa, 181, 339, 824, 847, 850, 914, 940, 1051, 1071, 1090; portrayals of, 9, 60, 298, 472, 541, 578, 607, 738 Agrippa Postumus, 181, 750 Agrippina Landing at Brundisium with the Ashes of Germanicus, by B. West, 1191; by G. Hamilton, 564 Agrippina Major, 240, 251; portrayals of, 691, 881 Agrippina Minor, 114, 305; portrayals of, 881 Agucchi, G. B., 248, 366 Agustin, 12, 373, 531, 540, 832, 961 Aigai. See Vergina Aigina, 12- 13, 18, 295, 303, 415, 416, 448, 450, 459, 464, 514, 517, 536, 543, 562, 639, 701, 771, 773, 783, 796, 854, 1101, 1183, 1197 Aigina Treasure, 13, 713 Aigos, 459 Ainos, 288

INDEX Ainsley, Samuel James, 14, 359 Ainslie, 1037 Air, Water and Earth (Ara Pacis), 1137 Aischines, 924 Aischylos, 444 Aita (Hades), 408, 1072 Aizani, 1092 Ajax, son of Oileus, 179; son of Telamon, 179 Ajax and Patroklos, 863 Ajia Irini, 1065 Ajios Iakovos, 1065 Ake, 801 Akerstrom, A., 1065 Akragas, 14- 15, 517, 592, 594, 884, 1028, 1029. See also Agrigento Akrai, 1029, 1067 Akrokorinthos, 326, 327, 328 Akropolis, Athens, 8, 15- 18, 104, 200, 213, 215, 220, 372,388, 390, 399, 415, 417, 433, 450, 469,495, 537, 541, 581, 631, 639, 649, 652,655, 693, 775, 796, 810, 854-862, 866,985, 987, 1016, 1062, 1078, 1122 Akropolis Museum, Athens, 18- 19, 106, 784, 797, 829, 861. See also Blond Boy; Calfbearer; Caryatids; Korai and Kouroi; Krittos Boy; Rampin Horseman Akrotiri. See Thera Akurgal, E., 394, 1035 Al Mina, 38- 39, 97 Alaas, 345 Alaca Hiiyiik, 46, 48 Alari-Bonacolsi, Pier Jacopo. See Antico Alaric, 58, 124, 125, 327, 840, 1041, 1122 Alatri, 1168 Albacini, Carlo, 19, 165, 186, 429, 430, 431, 449, 1012 Albacini, F., 19, 924 Albani, Cardinal Alessandro, 20, 240, 257, 303, 509, 514, 692, 818, 1036, 1124, 1199 Albani, G. F., 21 Albani family and collection, 19- 21, 117, 169, 267, 303, 693, 694, 709, 980 Albano, 162, 893, 902; Tomb of the Horatii and Curiatii, 902, 1116 Albenas, J. P. d \ 711 Alberic, 252 Alberti, Leandro, 21- 22, 403, 729 Alberti, Leon Battista, 22- 24, 65, 125, 142, 184, 188, 307, 312, 408, 413, 552, 715, 716, 801, 901, 902, 916, 970, 984, 991, 1008, 1023, 1109, 1139 Albertini, Francisco, 24, 398, 472, 473, 552, 673, 1148 Albrecht V, Duke of Bavaria, 24- 25, 51, 479, 569, 701, 782, 1058 Albunea, 1109 Alcestis, 138

INDEX

1235

Alchester, 987 Alfoldi, Andreas, 35-36 Alciatus (Alciati), A., 12 25- 27, 398, 766, 770 Alfoldi, M., 323 Alcimus, 183 Alfoldi-Rosenbaum, E., 36 Alcubierre, R. J. de, 187, 584, 911 Alfonso, Duke of Aragon, 523 Alcuin, 272 Alfonso II, King of Naples, 502 Aldobrandini, Cardinal Pietro, 27 Algardi, Alessandro, 36- 37, 449, 698, 740; A Aldobrandini, I., 140 Triumph of an Emperor, 37; Battle of Aldobrandini-Lancelotti, E., 515 Romans and Dacians, 37; Sleep, 37; Aldobrandini Wedding, 27- 28, 140, 518, 630, Torchbearer, 37 822, 870, 887, 931, 973, 975, 1150; by Ali Pasha, 666 Poussin, 928 Ali§ar Hiiyiik, 46 Aldrovandi, Ulisse, 28- 31, 32, 33, 87, 138, Alkamenes, 581, 956; Hermes, 448 143, 169, 207, 235,236, 240, 246, 247, Alkibiades, 1039, 1091 266, 301, 338, 424,430, 463, 479, 682, Allegories, by Giovanni Bellini, 140 708, 781, 782, 868,917, 931, 1012, 1013,Allen, H. A., 771 1144 Allen, Major G. W. G., 97 Aldus Manutius. See Manutius, A. Alma-Tadema, Sir Lawrence, 37- 38, 208; Alea. See Tegea Pheidias and the Parthenon, 38 Aleandro, Girolamo, 31-32, 117, 219, 497, Altamura Painter, 1102 531 “ Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus,” Rome, Aleksova, B., 1056 39 Alessandria, B. d \ See Benzo d’Alessandria Altar of the Lares Augusti, 1179 Alessandro di Mariano Filipepi. See Botticelli, Altieri collection, 619 Sandro Alyattes, 1035 Alessi, M. A., 85 Alypius, 310 Alexander, Apelles and Kampaspe, by A. Amaduzzi, 731 Kauffmann, 630 Amalia, Queen of Greece, 68 Alexander and Bucephalus. See Quirinal Horse Amandry, P., 79, 356, 470 Tamers Amantius, B., 398, 654, 882 Alexander Azara, 32, 1111 Amarna. See Tell el-Amama Alexander Dying, 32- 33, 246, 247, 863 Amasis, Pharaoh, 798 Alexander Mosaic, 33- 34, 187, 111 Amathus, 193, 267, 1067 Alexander Sarcophagus, 216 Amazon, 101, 428, 693, 738; of Pheidias, 731; Alexander Severus, 311, 1051, 1130 of Polykleitos, 693 Alexander the Great, 1, 33, 34, 85, 98, 374, Amazon(s), 88, 103 473, 801, 824, 875, 924, 935, 1001, 1096, Amazonomachy, 102, 127, 184, 224, 562, 710, 1107, 1115, 1133, 1138, 1205; portrayals of, 737 32, 33, 205, 504, 505, 668, 936 Amelung, Walther Oskar Ernst, 33, 40- 41, Alexander I, Emperor of Russia, 590 492, 686, 741, 1150 Alexander IV, King of Macedon, 1001 Amemptus, 1165 Alexander VI, Pope, 48, 49, 255, 311, 413, American Academy in Rome, 41- 43 , 63, 93, 622, 881, 978, 1177 201, 330, 418, 471, 795, 812, 958, 983, Alexander VII, Pope, 10, 77, 122, 140, 281, 1054, 1145 940, 979 American Association of University Women, Alexander VIII, Pope, 159 1066 Alexander the Molossian, 836 American Council of Learned Societies, 1066 Alexander Visiting the Tomb of Achilles, 845 American Exploration Society of Philadelphia, Alexandria, 34- 35, 53, 139, 287, 288, 433, 572 548, 822, 834, 954, 1019, 1182; GraecoAmerican Geographical Society, 946 Roman Museum, 35; Lighthouse, 35, 139; American Numismatic Society, 43- 44, 652, “ Pillar of Pompey,” 35, 139 801, 814, 1099 Alexandria, 181 American Philological Association, 964 Alexandria Troas, 854, 1047 American Research Institute in Turkey, 1207 (Alex)andros, 1156 American School of Architecture in Rome, 42 Alexeyeva, E. M., 184 American School of Classical Studies at Alexiou, S., 337, 583 Athens, 10, 44^15, 63, 79, 106, 107, 162, Alfano, F., 314 199, 246, 253, 328, 355, 364, 365, 396, Alfieri, N., 1044

1236 401, 417, 469, 487, 519, 529, 531, 572, 590, 591, 611, 621, 633, 647, 676, 687, 710, 761, 789, 799, 963, 1027, 1054, 1055, 1066, 1077, 1184 American School of Classical Studies in Rome, 42 American Schools of Oriental Research, 488 Ammanati, B., 623, 739, 818, 1167 Amnisos (Karteros), 45, 335, 336, 726 Amorgos, 1134 Amphiaraos, 953 Amphilochos, 38 Amphion and Zethus, 423 Amphipolis, 200 Ampurias. See Emporion Amy, R., 64 Amyklai, 459, 537, 1134 Amykos, 440, 578 Anakreon, 282, 816 Anapa. See Gorgippia Anastasius IV, Pope, 533 Anatolia, 45-47, 657 Anavysos, 648 Anchirroe, 601 Anchises, 156 Ancona, 461; Arch of Trajan, 76, 287, 1005 Ancyra. See Ankara Anderson, M. L., 750 Anderson, W. J., 1054 Andokides, 194 Andokides Painter, 206 Andrae, W., 112 Andrea, Z., 544 Andrea da Milano. See Bregno, A. Andrea da Pontadera. See Pisano, Andrea Andrea de Vicentia. See Mantegna, Andrea Andreae, B., 109, 487 Andrians, by Titian, 1107 Andronikos, Manolis, 47-48, 537, 1115, 1159 Andronikos of Kyrrhos, 1122 Andros, 288, 343, 966 Androutsos, O., 18 Anemospilia, 64 Anemurium, 47 Angel, J. L., 676 Angel and Annunciate, by Donatello, 370 Angel with the Superscription, by Bernini, 156 Angelicoussis, E., 723 Angelis, D. de, 1111 Angell, 1022 Angeloni, F., 140 Angiola, E., 899 Anguillara, 682 Ankara, 48, 205; Monumentum Ancyranum, 397, 432, 600, 770-771, 1092; Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, 48 Ann Arbor, Francis W. Kelsey Museum, 633

INDEX Annio (Annius) da Viterbo, 22, 48-49, 398, 408, 413, 1072, 1111, 1177 Annona, 507 Anonimo Magliabechiano. See Anonymous Maliabechianus “ Anonimo Morreliano.” See Midriel, Marcantonio Anonymous Destailleur, 132 Anonymous Maliabechianus, 49-50 Ansedonia. See Cosa Antakya, 52; Museum, 38 Anthoni, J. J., 431 Antico, 50-51, 404, 449, 524; Belvedere Apollo, 50; Cupid, 50; Gonzaga Vase, 50; Hercules, 50; Hercules and Antaeus, 404; Marcus Aurelius Equestrian Statue, 50; Quirinal Horse Tamers, 50; Spinario, 50; Venus Felix, 1158 Antigonos Gonatas, 1002 Antikensammlungen, Munich, 51-52, 701. See also Ship of Dionysos, by Exekias Antikythera, 52, 1139 Antikythera Youth (Ballplayer), 52 Antimenes Painter, 1102 Antinous, 20, 21, 143, 176, 443, 449, 464, 564, 933, 1036, 1083, 1150. See also Belvedere ‘‘Antinous’ ’; Capitoline Antinous Antioch-on-the Maeander, 1156 Antioch-on-the-Orontes, 52-53, 215, 679, 694, 773, 801 Antioch (Pisidian), 633, 964 Antiochos III, 1029, 1166 Antiochos IV Epiphanes, 1083 Antiochos IV of Commagene, 769 Antiquario Forense, Rome, 53-54, 124, 1085 Antiquario Palatino, Rome, 54, 1052 Antiquarium of Albrecht V of Bavaria, 24, 51 Anton, M. C., 348 Antonia Minor, 267 Antoninus, 395 Antoninus Pius, 254, 316, 1075, 1085; portrayals of, 148, 864, 951 Antony, Mark, 39, 169 Antony, Mark (the Elder), 39 Anubis, 1126 Anzio, 173 Apelles, 184, 1107 Aphaia, 13, 1101 Aphrodisias, 47, 54-55, 401, 621 Aphrodite, 54, 55, 852, 867; portrayals of, 216, 700. See also Venus Aphrodite Kallipygos, 431 Aphrodite of Melos. See Venus de Milo Apianus, P., 398, 603, 654, 882 Apicius, 30 Apis, 49

INDEX Apollo, 352-353, 354, 423, 757, 853, 890891, 920, 1134 Apollo, 143-146, 555, 1089; by Dtirer, 380; by Giambologna, 500; by J. Gossaert, 529; from Tenea, 514; of Mantua, 163, 505; of Veii, 502, 1153 Apollo Agyeus, 685 Apollo and Daphne, 698; by Bernini, 156 Apollo and Herakles, 1030 Apollo and Marsyas, 205; attributed to B. Peruzzi, 878; “ Seal of Nero,” 524, 737, 739 Apollo and the Nine Muses, 556, 820, 1111, 1149 Apollo Attended by Nymphs, by F. Girardon, 505 Apollo Citharoedus, 295, 878, 903, 1012 Apollo Delphinios, 757, 823 Apollo Epikourios, 127 Apollo Erethimios, 955 Apollo Hylates, 652 Apollo Ismenios, 1097 Apollo Karneios, 641, 1097 Apollo Pythias (Pythaios, Pythios, Pythian), 80, 106, 876, 955 Apollo Sauroktonos, by Praxiteles, 55, 176, 443, 718 Apollodorus of Damascus, 134 Apollonia (in Cyrenaica), 345-346, 1140 Apollonios, Punishment of Dirce, 423 Apollonios (gem-engraver), 832 Apollonios of Athens, 146 Apollonios of Rhodes, 938 Apollonios of Tyana, 216 Apotheosis of Augustus, Ravenna relief, 1107; Gemma Augustea, 486, 870 Apotheosis of Claudius, 932 Apotheosis of Homer, by Archelaos, 341, 637 Apotheosis of the Living Augustus, Gemma Tiberiana, 870 Apoxyomenos ( “Scraper”), by Lysippos, 56, 981, 1150 Aqua Virgo, 988 Aquae Sulis. See Bath Aqueducts, 56-57, 93, 704, 993, 1021 Aquileia, 7, 57-58; Museo Archeologico Nazionale, 58 Aquincum, 36, 58-59 Ara Grimani. See Grimani Altar Ara Lunae, 714 Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome, 59-61, 228, 301, 432, 593, 694, 822, 879, 928, 931, 979, 982, 1090, 1137, 1151, 1191 Ara Pietatis Augustae, Rome, 61 Arabs, 14, 53, 643, 651, 674, 847, 996, 997, 1028, 1104 Aratos of Soloi, 938

1237 Arausio. See Orange Area of St. Dominic, by Arnolfo di Cambio, 83 Arcadius, 317, 869, 1095 Arch at Orange, 23, 64-65, 481, 618, 827 Arch at St-Remy, 65, 481, 510, 770 Arch of Argentarii. See Rome, Arch of Argentarii Arch of Augustus, Rimini, 23, 65, 804, 1129, 1130 Arch of Augustus, Susa, 65-66, 1129 Arch of Claudius, 66, 616 Arch of Constantine, 23, 27, 66-68, 82, 185, 290, 297, 322, 371, 373,386, 425, 435, 461, 506, 593, 628, 723,845, 878, 887, 945, 948, 961, 980, 981,989, 1007, 1109, 1129, 1147 Arch of Hadrian, 44, 68-70, 104 Arch of Septimius Severus, 70, 675, 1129 Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome, 23, 70-71, 74, 172, 226, 297, 371, 373, 386, 435, 456, 457, 795, 845, 865, 981, 1129 Arch of Servii. See Pola, Arch of the Sergii Arch of the Argentarii, Rome, 71-72, 461, 927, 1092 Arch of the Gavii, Verona, 72, 73, 1130, 1161 Arch of the Sergii, Pola, Croatia, 72-74, 139, 1025, 1129 Arch of Titus, Rome, 74-76, 82, 297, 367, 386, 461, 463, 838, 840, 864, 865, 928, 977, 981, 1091, 1109, 1143, 1201 Arch of Trajan, Ancona, 76, 287, 1005 Arch of Trajan, Benevento, 74, 76-77, 150, 367, 879, 1005, 1130 Archaeological Institute of America, 42, 6163, 100, 160, 328, 346, 355, 364, 471, 477, 531, 591, 621, 633, 645, 687, 710, 779, 790, 812, 964, 1066, 1099, 1207. See also Gold Medal for Distinguished Archaeological Achievement Archaeological Society. See Greek Archaeological Society Archaiologike Hetaircia. See Greek Archaeological Society Archanes, 64, 337 Archelaos of Priene, 637 Archelaos, King of Macedon, 871, 1158 Archer, A., 1190 Archilochos of Paros, 939 Arcimboldo, 545 “ Arco di Portagallo,” Rome, 77, 979, 1130 Arconio, M., 319 Arcos, T. d’, 1103 Ardea, 435, 1065 Arditi collection, 111 Arelate. See Arles Aretino, P., 277, 934

1238 Arezzo (Arretium), 77-78, 84, 169, 277, 410, 527; Museo Archeologico Mecenate, 78 Arezzo, C. M„ 1067 Argive Heraion, 44, 78-79, 1184 Argonauts, 569 Argos, 78, 79-80, 797, 954 Ariadne. See “ Cleopatra” Arias, P. E., 730, 1044 Ariosto, C., 406 Aristeides, Battle with Persians, 34 ‘‘Aristides, 186 Aristogeiton, 888 Aristonoos, 14 Aristonothos krater, 265 Aristophanes, 939 Aristophron, P., 107 Aristotle, 28; portrayals of, 138, 447, 816 Ark (of the Tradescants), 782, 1126 Arkades, 679 Arkalochori, 336, 726 Arles (Arelate), 80-82, 481, 504, 692, 809, 1007; Musee Lapidaire, 82 Arlon, 714 Armenini, Giovan Battista, 82-83 Armonia, 1177 Arndt, Paul Julius, 41, 52, 83, 206, 475, 686, 835 Arno, 1148 Arnolfo di Cambio, 83-84; Area of Saint Dominic, 83; bronze statue of St. Peter, 84; marble statue of St. Peter, 84; tomb of Cardinal Guillaume de Braye, 84 Arretine ware, 78, 84-86, 507, 738, 1136, 1147 Arretium. See Arezzo Arria, 699 Arringatore (Aule Meteli), 86, 262, 527, 739, 1137, 1138 Arrotino (Scythian Slave; “ Grinder"), 86-87, 301, 332, 619, 740, 1137 Arruns, 1116 Arse. See Saguntum Arsinoe II, Queen of Egypt, 1001 Arsinoe (city), 345 Artemis, 203, 649, 789, 1011 Artemis, 867 Artemis Brauronia, 189 Artemis Leukophryene, 709, 1092 Artemis Munychia, 867 Artemis of Ephesos, 88-90, 1109 Artemis of Versailles (Diane Chasseresse), 90, 692 Artemis Orthia, 1041 Artemisia, 561, 736; portrayal of, 737 Artemision God, 87-88, 797 Artsa, 1206 Arundel, Lady, 626 Arundel, Thomas Howard, Earl of, 90-93, 95,

INDEX 205, 216, 302, 396, 415, 438, 532, 595, 626, 728, 743, 966, 1036 Asea, 1065 Ashbumham sketchbook, 1144 Ashby, Thomas, 57, 93-94, 196, 197, 377, 554, 795, 906, 957, 1026, 1075, 1083, 1145 Ashmole, B., 165, 196-197, 700, 745, 862, 922 Ashmole, Elias, 94-95, 1036, 1126 Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, 93, 95-97, 295, 411, 523, 595, 652, 782, 1126, 1182. See also Felix Gem; Marmor Parium Asine, Argolis, Greece, 97-98, 509, 556, 877, 1065 Asklepios, 327, 394, 631, 651, 853, 867, 874 Aspalathos. See Split Aspendos, 57, 98-99 Aspertini, Amico, 99-100, 190, 283, 541, 544, 1012, 1132, 1144, 1156; Burial of Sts. Valerian and Tiburtius, 708 Assisi, 516 Assos, 46, 62, 100-101, 646, 779, 1092 Astarte, 638 Astle, T., 1124 Astor, Viscount, 800 Astronomy, by Giambologna, 500 Atalanta, 691 Athena, 579, 757, 789, 836, 837, 854-862, 867, 874, 890, 935, 936, 955, 1035, 1040 Athena, 130, 858, 867 Athena Alea, 1074 Athena and Marsyas, by Myron, 775 Athena Archegetis, 968 Athena Chalkioikos, 1041 Athena Ilias, 1133 Athena Lemma, 101-102, 169, 215 Athena Nike, 15, 18, 105, 390, 829, 937, 983, 1078 Athena of Lindos, 954; by Dipoinos and Skyllis, 215 Athena Oxyderkes, 80 Athena Parthenos, by Pheidias, 18, 101, 102103, 183, 448, 672, 815, 854, 857, 858, 907; model, Toronto, Royal Ontario Museum, 987; replica, Nashville, Parthenon, 102 Athena Polias, 100, 399 Athena Polias, 399 Athena Promachos. See Bronze Athena Athena Pronaia (Pronoia), 354 Athenaios, 431 Athenian Treasury, Delphi, 103, 354, 356, 469, 1030-1031 Atheniu, 267 Athenodoros, 352 Athenodoros (sculptor), 660, 1043. See also Laocoon Athens, Greece, 103-108; Academy, 107, 635;

INDEX Agora, 8-10, 44, 104, 396, 417, 418, 494, 537, 664, 688, 784, 855, 1026, 1040, 1055, 1099, 1207; Akropolis, 8, 15-18, 104, 200, 213, 215, 220, 372, 388, 390, 399, 415, 417, 433, 450, 469, 495, 537, 541, 581, 631, 639, 649, 652, 653, 693, 775, 796, 810, 854-862, 866, 983, 987,1016, 1062, 1078, 1122; Akropolis Museum, 18-19, 106, 784, 797, 829, 861 (see also Blond Boy; Calfbearer; caryatids; Korai and Kouroi; Kritios Boy; Rampin Horseman); Altar of Twelve Gods, 8; aqueduct of Hadrian, 106; Arch of Hadrian, 44, 68- 70, 104; Areopagus, 105; Asklepieion, 18, 537; Benaki Museum, 149; Beule Gate, 158; Bouleuterion (new), 8; Bouleuterion (old), 8; Center for Akropolis Studies, 107; Central Archaeological Museum, 796; Dipylon Gate, 106, 592, 635; Epikouros’ garden, 107; Erechtheion, 15, 17, 18, 105, 193, 290, 390, 399-400 , 639, 649, 806, 1016, 1036, 1062, 1197; Gate of Athena Archegetis, 105; Gennadius Library, 210; Hekatompedon, 16; Hephaisteion, 9, 105, 562, 579- 581, 796, 797; “ House of Hekademos,” 107; House of Proklos, 107; Kerameikos, 106, 417, 494, 495, 537, 635- 636, 876; “Lamp (Lantern) of Demosthenes (Diogenes)” (see Athens, Monument of Lysikrates); Library of Hadrian, 797; Lykeion (Lycaeum), 104; Metroon, 9; Middle Stoa, 9; Monument of Eponymous Heroes, 9; Monument of Lysikrates ( “ Lamp of Demosthenes” ), 104, 213, 549, 767- 769, 1048; Monument of Philopappos, 105, 702, 769- 770, 1008; National Archaeological Museum, 18, 79, 106, 143, 496, 631, 648, 783, 796- 798, 858 (see also National Archaeological Museum); Odeion of Herodes Atticus, 105, 417, 536; Odeion of Perikles, 107; Old Temple of Athena, 16, 17; Older Parthenon, 17; Panathenaic Way, 9; Pankrates Sanctuary, 107; Parthenon, 15, 17, 18, 38, 102, 104, 145, 192, 234, 279, 280,289, 295, 303, 325, 388-390, 400, 415,443, 450, 517, 549, 593, 632, 653, 692, 693,702, 771, 772, 783, 806, 810, 854- 862,873, 879, 1008, 1062, 1175, 1184, 1197; Peripatos, 104; Pnyx, 45, 106, 906- 907; Propylaia, 15, 16, 17, 18, 105, 387, 390, 399, 639, 829, 936937, 1062, 1197; Roman Agora, 9, 105, 537, 968-969; Royal Stoa, 8; Sacred Gate, 106, 635; Sacred Way, 635; Santuary of Aphrodite Pandemos, 107; Sanctuary of Apollo Pythios, 106; Sanctuary of Artemis Aristobule, 107; Sanctuary of Nymphe, 107; South Stoa I, 8, 9; Stoa of Attalos, 9, 10, 107, 1055-1056; Stoa of Eumenes, 105;

1239 Stoa of Zeus Eleutherios, 8; Stoa Poikile, 104; Street of Tombs, 635; Syntagma Square, 18; Temple of Apollo Patroos, 9; Temple of Ares, 174; Temple of Artemis Agrotera, 104; Temple of Athena Nike, 15, 18, 105, 390, 829, 937, 983, 1078- 1079; Temple of Olympian Zeus, 18, 70, 104, 106, 594, 1083- 1084; Temple of Roma and Augustus, 16; Theater of Dionysos, 18, 106, 372, 417, 494, 536, 744, 1015, 1092- 1093; “ Theseum” (see Athens, Hephaisteion); Tower of the Winds, 105, 417, 536, 549, 797, 1008, 1122-1123 Atia, 920 Atistia, 1113 Atlantic City, N.J., Caesar’s Casino, 109 Atlas. See Farnese Atlas Atreus, 1126 Atria. See Adria Attalos I, 381, 541, 698 Attalos II, 298, 541, 1055 Attalos III, 874 Attila, 84 Attus Navius, 87 “Atys A m o r i n o by Donatello, 370 Aubry, J., 1036 Aufrecht, T., 547 Augsburg (Augusta Vindelicum), 108; Antiquarium Romanum (Maximilianmuseum), 108; Romisches Museum, 108 Augusta, 465 Augusta Ceres, 675 Augusta Emerita. See Merida Augusta Treverorum. See Trier Augusta Virdelicum. See Augsburg Augustalis, 465 Augustinus. See Agustm Augustus, 27, 34, 54, 58, 60, 61, 65, 72, 84, 108-109, 125, 169, 181, 243, 244, 250, 273, 284, 293, 315, 330, 355, 402, 426, 457, 598, 603, 605, 733, 808, 809, 811, 817, 824, 827, 839, 841, 874, 878, 908, 968, 1071, 1083, 1095, 1132, 1133, 1196; portrayals of, 215, 252, 484, 486, 510, 607, 675, 731, 738, 779, 816, 920, 1090, 1179, 1186 Augustus and Livia, 404, 820, 1179 Augustus and Roma, 747 Augustus of Prima Porta, 108- 109, 628, 1150, 1151, 1169 Augustus III, King of Poland, 140 Aule Meteli. See Arringatore Aulos, 832 Aumale, Duke of, 377 Aurelian, 34, 110, 130, 478, 844, 917, 1113; portrayal of, 951 Aurelian Wall, Rome, 110, 940, 1163

1240 Aurelius, 731 Aurigemma, S., 559, 675, 1044, 1090 Austrian Archaeological Institute, 151, 394, 1078 Autum, 481 Auxerre, Dame d’ {Lady from Auxerre), 110111, 649 Avars, 12 Avebury, 1064 Avidius Cassius, 722 Avvolta, C., 1072 Axieros, Axiokersa, and Axiokersos, 1000 Axos, 335, 560, 679 Ayia Irini, 634 Ayia Marina, 634 Ayia Triada. See Hagia Triadha Ayios Ermoyenis, 652 Aylesford, Earl of, 532 Azara, J. N., 32, 932 Azzolini, Cardinal Decio, 257, 282, 433, 820 Azzolini, P., 820

Baal, 844 Baalbek (Heliopolis), 112-113, 549, 1202 Babelon, Ernest, 113, 512, 813 Babelon, J., 113, 535 Babylon, 647 Baccelli, G., 313 Bacchanal, by N. Poussin, 929 Bacchus, 205, 1089, 1144; of Versailles, 692 Bacchus and Satyr, 753 Bachofen, J. J., 474 Bacon, F. H., 62, 646 Baedeker guidebooks, 549 Bagarris, R. de, 869 Bahrfeldt, Max von, 113-114 Baiae, 114-115, 712, 827, 1007 Bailey, C., 135 Baker, W. C., 750 Baker Dancer, 750 Bakhuizen, S. C., 269 Balanos, N., 17, 400, 769, 937, 1079 Balbinus, 715 Balbo, I., 996 Balbus equestrian statues, 186, 585 Baldelli, O., 3 Baldelli, T., 4 Baldwin II, 486 Ballard, R. D., 1140 Ballestreri, G., 160 Balli Dagh, 220 Ballplayer. See Antikythera Youth Ballu, A., 1105 Baltimore, Walters Art Gallery, 745, 784, 1185. See also Rubens Vase Bamboula, 652 Bammer, A., 394, 1078

INDEX Bandinelli, Baccio, 115-116, 689; Dead Christ, 116; Hercules and Cacus, 116; Laocoon, 116, 661; Orpheus, 115 Bandini, D., 371, 998 Bandini, O., 32 Banquet in the House of Nicolaas Rockox, by F. Francken, II, 965 Band, Luisa, 116, 265 Baptism of Christ, by Ghirlandaio, 87; by Pisano, 897 Baptism of Constantine, by Giulio Romano, 505 Barbari, J. de’, 597 Barbaro, D., 842 Barbaro, E., 993 Barbaro, F., 804 Barbaro family, 160 Barber, R., 550 Barberini, A., 11 Barberini, C., 37, 117 Barberini, Cardinal Francesco, 32, 117, 121, 122, 247, 868, 886, 887, 927, 930 Barberini, M. See Urban VIII, Pope Barberini, T., 117 Barberini candelabra, 1176 Barberini-Colonna, Donna Cornelia, 920 Barberini family and collection, 10, 116-118, 119, 120, 121, 247, 564, 619, 637, 920, 933, 980, 1080 Barberini Faun, 118-120, 292, 349, 514, 746, 979 Barberini Landscape, 1092 Barberini Mosaic (Palestrina Mosaic), 117, 120-121, 928, 931, 933 Barberini Tomb, 117, 121, 155, 933 Barberini Vase. See Portland Vase Barbet, A., 975 Barbo, Pietro. See Paul II Barcelona, Archaeological Museum, 392 Barker, G. W. W., 197 Barletta, 314, 461 Barlow, C., 565 Bamabei, F., 1013 Barnum, P. T., 1104 Baronio (Baronius), Cardinal Cesare, 268, 862 Barozzi, G., See Vignola, G. Barracco, G., 775 Barry, J., 20 Barth, H., 345, 346 Bartholdy collection, 153 Bartlett, F., 779 Bartlett Z/ead, 1186 Bartoccini, R., 675, 996, 1167, 1180 Bartoli, A., 125, 982, 1138 Bartoli, F. S., 123, 274, 319, 474 Bartoli, Pietro Santi, 11, 27, 67, 71, 122-124, 141, 208, 241, 261, 274, 315, 318, 319, 474, 511, 545, 691, 695, 736, 820, 821,

INDEX 920, 940, 961, 971, 973, 980, 1112, 1115, 1130, 1152, 1191 Bartolo, T. di, 944 Bartolommeo, Fra, 338 Barzizza, G., 22, 655 Basilica Aemilia (Basilica Paulli), Rome, 23, 53, 124- 125, 458, 727, 795, 803, 978, 982 Basilica Julia, Rome, 125, 457, 795, 978, 980, 981 Basilica of Maxentius, Rome, 23, 126- 127, 188, 197, 240, 322, 323, 506, 554, 705, 727, 793, 803, 849, 977, 978, 979, 980, 981 Bass, G., 1139 Bassai (Bassae), 127- 129, 192, 198, 295, 416, 433, 517, 537, 543, 562, 1050 Bastet, F. L., 975 Bastianini, G., 374 Bateman collection, 986 Bath (Aquae Sulis), 129, 1037; Holburne of Minstrie Museum, 90 Baths of Caracalla (Thermae Antonianae), Rome, 129- 131, 132, 163, 377, 424, 427, 429, 430, 460, 593, 865, 756, 977, 978, 982, 1027 Baths of Constantine (Thermae Constantinianae), Rome, 131, 386, 578, 887, 943, 977, 979, 982, 1089 Baths of Diocletian (Thermae Diocletiani), Rome, 132- 134, 138, 176, 179, 266, 373, 386, 447, 680, 956, 977, 978, 982, 1007, 1033, 1089 Baths of Titus (Thermae Titi), Rome, 134, 135, 369, 709, 968, 1119 Baths of Trajan (Thermae Traiani), Rome, 130, 134- 135, 369, 386, 660, 727, 977 Batoni, P., 696 Battle of Actium, 206 Battle of Alexander against the Indians, 862 Battle of Cascina, by Michelangelo, 755 Battle of Centaurs, by Michelangelo, 755 Battle of Gods and Giants, 215 Battle of Issos, by Helen, daughter of Timon, 34 Battle of Lapiths and Centaurs, 1088 Battle of Milvian Bridge (Battle of Constantine), by Giulio Romano, 33, 506 Battle of Ostia, by Giulio Romano, 506 Battle of Romans and Dacians, by A. Algardi, 37 Battle of Sea Gods, by Mantegna, 380 Battle with Persians, by Aristeides, 34 Bavarian Society of Friends of Art, 52, 514 Bayardi, O., 186, 187, 586, 730, 911 Bayguera, B., 439 Bean, G., 641 Beatrice, Countess of Tuscany, 898 Beatrizet, 725 Beauclerck, T., 1124

1241 Beaufort, F., 1030 Beaumont, T., 1124 Beaunant, 702 Beazley, Sir John Davidson, 47, 135- 136, 475, 538, 615, 807, 866, 883, 1186 Becatti, Giovanni, 136 Beck, A. A., 291 Becker, H. J., 233 Becker, Wilholm Adolf, 136, 554, 616 Beckford, W., 991 “Bed of Polykleitosr 115, 498, 570, 877, 1108 “ Bee Pendant,” 713 Beechey, F. W. and H. W., 345, 346 Beger, Lorenz, 136- 138, 422, 766 Belgrade, National Museum, 1056 Belisarius, 57, 110, 441,996 Bell, M., 771, 1029 Bellante, E., 1043 Bellay, Jean du, 138 Bellerophon, 277, 1134 Bellerophon and Pegasus, 216 Belli, O., 527 Bellievre, C., 88, 266 Bellinger, A., 162 Bellini, Gentile, 138-139, 299, 597, 1107; St. Mark Preaching at Alexandria, 139 Bellini, Giovanni, 138-140, 716, 1107, 1144; Allegories, 140; Continence of Scipio, 140; Feast of the Gods, 140; St. Mark Preaching at Alexandria, 139 Bellini, J., 149, 715, 716 Bellini family, 138-140 Bellios, K., 537 Bellori, Giovanni Pietro, 10, 37, 67, 71, 122123, 137, 140- 142, 143, 153,207, 318, 319, 451, 452, 473, 511,531, 924, 927, 961, 971, 973, 980, 1115, 1152 Beloch, Karl Julius Alwin, 142- 143, 751 Belon, P., 112, 655 Beltrami, L., 172 Belvedere “Antinous” (Hermes), 37, 122, 143, 155, 179, 186, 234, 520, 668, 866, 1004, 1012, 1091, 1148, 1200 Belvedere Apollo, 82, 90, 115, 122, 143- 146, 155, 156, 178, 234,247, 292, 297, 381, 390, 461, 505, 516, 517, 520,619, 622, 642, 689, 693, 746, 753, 781,903, 936, 945, 981, 1004, 1009, 1147, 1148, 1149, 1151, 1166, 1175, 1189, 1191, 1200; by Antico, 50 Belvedere Hermes. See Belvedere Antinous Belvedere Mercury, 624, 739 Belvedere Pigna, Vatican, 146, 255, 273, 350, 772 Belvedere Torso, 82, 122, 146- 148, 155, 190, 234, 288, 307, 520, 630, 642, 746, 755, 781, 863, 945, 989, 1147, 1148, 1200

248,27

1242 Belzoni, G. B., 1036 Bembo, Pietro, 148- 149, 405, 523, 541, 756, 830, 934, 968, 1109, 1152 Bembo, T., 149, 673 Benaki, A., 149 Benaki Museum, Athens, 149 Bencius Alexandrinus. See Benzo d’Alessandria Bendinelli, G., 1180 Bendis, 867 Benedict, Canon of St. Peter’s, 551, 759 Benedict XIV, Pope, 237, 240, 241, 291, 312, 903, 915 Benefiale, 952 Benevento (Beneventum), 149- 150; Arch of Trajan, 74, 76- 77, 150, 367, 879, 1005, 1130 Benghazi, 193 Benjamin of Tudela, 112, 323, 844, 1045 Benndorf, Otto, 150- 151, 393, 394, 805, 879, 985, 1063, 1134, 1165 Benoit, F., 1139 Bent, J. T., 343, 744, 853 Bentley, R., 543 Benzo d’Alessandria (Bencius Alexandrinus), 151- 152, 715, 950, 1159, 1161 Beranger, A., 792 Berard, Jean, 152 Berbati, 877 Berenice, 345, 346 Berenson, B., 68 Berger, E., 862 Bergson, H., 221, 571 Berlin, 169, 189, 341, 475, 490, 491, 632, 710, 811, 876, 1194; Academy, 166; Altes Museum, 153, 154; Antikensammlung, 152155, 204, 783, 874 (see also Neptune and Amphitrite; Praying Boy; Pseudo-Seneca; Kupferstichkabinett); Neues Museum, 153, 154; Pergamon Museum, 152-155, 600, 628, 647, 757, 783, 874- 875, 1194 “ Berlin G o d d e s s 153 Berlin Painter, 153 Bernabei, F., 1167 Bernabo Brea, L., 612, 829, 1029 Bernardakis, D., 797 Bernardini brothers, 155 Bernardini Tomb, 155, 576, 637, 933 Bernini, Gian Lorenzo, 37, 117, 118, 155- 157, 179, 282, 307, 312, 449, 500, 661, 691, 695, 698, 703, 818, 820, 849, 863, 979, 1004, 1051; Aeneas, Anchises and Ascanius, 156; Angel with the Superscription, 156; Apollo and Daphne, 156; Cathedra Petri, 157; Constantine, 156, 722; Daniel, 33, 156; Faun Teased by Cupids, 156; Goat Amalthea Nursing the Infant Jupiter and a Young Satyr, 155; St. Longinus, 156

INDEX Bernoulli, J. J., 925 Bern ward of Hildesheim, Saint, 157- 158, 317 Berretini, Pietro. See Pietro da Cortona Berry, Jean, Duke of, 299 Berthier, General, 792 Bertius, P., 524 Bertoldo, 449 Bertoli, G. D., 58 Bescape, R., 723, 724, 725 Bessborough, Earl of, 1124 Betancourt, P., 337, 937 Beule, Charles Ernest, 16, 158, 468, 672 Bevilacqua, M., 708, 935 Beyen, H. G., 975, 976 Bianchi, D., 25 Bianchi, G., 1137 Bianchi Bandinelli, Ranuccio, 3, 136, 144, 158, 236, 278, 593, 630, 770 Bianchini, Francesco, 158- 159, 315, 316, 840, 973, 980 Bickel, C. See Celtis, C. Biduino, 227 Bie, J. de, 965 Bieber, Margarete, 52, 159- 160, 179, 241, 495, 588, 688, 742, 1015, 1156 Biers, J., 328 Biers, W., 328 Biliotti, E., 193, 955 Bin Tepe, 1011 Bindesboll, M. F., 1102 Binyon, L., 14 Biondo, Flavio (Blondus Flavius Forliviensis), 21, 24, 50, 160- 161, 307, 473, 552, 716, 901, 902, 1088, 1109, 1118 Birth of Athena, 775 Birth of Venus, by Botticelli, 184, 185 Birth of the Virgin, by Ghirlandaio, 499 Bischoffsheim, 113 Bisenzio, 1168 Bismarck, 164 Bisticci, V. da, 299 Biton. See Kleobis and Biton Bjornstahl, Jacob Jonas, 161-162 Blacas, d’Aulps, Due de, and collection, 162, 193, 608, 610, 803, 811, 846 Bladud, 129 Blagg, T., 548 Blake, M. E., 1145 Blakeway, A., 377, 866 Blanchet, A., 113 Blanckenhagen, P. H. von, 662, 750 Blau, 1002 Blavatsky, V. D., 183 Blegen, Carl William, 79, 162- 163, 253, 328, 412, 676, 683, 788, 789, 799, 939, 1132, 1133, 1155, 1182 Bleschamps, A. de, 232 Bletterie, Abbe de la, 501

INDEX Blinkenberg, C. S., 640, 954 Bloch, H., 533 Bloch, R., 170, 470, 533 Bloemaert, C., 637 Bloesch, H. J., 1029 Blond Boy, 19, 163 Blondus Flavius. See Biondo, F. Blouet, Guillaume Abel, 130, 163- 164, 352, 420, 421, 580 Blue Guides, 550 Blue Vase, 778 “B l u e b e a r d 17 Blumel, C., 588 Bliimner, Hugo, 164 Blundell, Henry, and collection, 19, 164- 165, 302, 732, 845, 980, 1111, 1177 Boardman, J., 277, 278, 513, 744 Boario, O., 319 Boccaccio, Giovanni, 165- 166, 249, 306, 371, 881, 1118 Bocchi, A., 818 Bocchi, F. A., 8 Bocchi, F. G., 8 Bocchi, O., 8 Bocci, P., 994 Boccioni, U., 450, 1166 Bocher, J., 127 Bockh (Boeckh), August, 166- 167, 341, 374, 396, 489, 616, 632, 636, 752, 773, 1053, 1201 Bode, Arnold Wilhelm von, 167 Boedas, 934 Boehlau, J., 576 Boehm, Sir John, 802 Boeswillwald, E., 1105 Boethius, Axel, 167- 168, 197, 1065 Boethos, Agon or Eros, 710 Boettiger, K. A., 28, 136 Bogazkoy-Hattusa, 48 Bohn, R., 937 Boissard, Jean Jacques, 138, 168, 247, 284, 373, 587, 624, 766, 1119 Boldrini, J., 993, 1108 Boll, F., 340 Bologna (Felsina, Bononia), 168- 170, 198, 375, 530, 592, 729, 1168, 1208; Museo Civico, 169-170, 198, 530, 1209. See also Athena Lemnia Bologna, Giovanni. See Giambologna Bolsena (Volsinii Novi), 85, 170- 171, 418, 470, 471, 833, 1168, 1178 Bomarzo (Polimartium), 171, 224, 408, 637 Bonacasa, N., 1029 Bonafede, L., 1007 Bonaparte, Lucien, Prince of Canino. See Canino, L. Bonaparte, Prince of Bonaparte, Napoleon. See Napoleon Bonaparte, P., 176

1243 Bonarelli, M., 1154 Bonasone, G., 724, 973 Bonci-Casuccini collection, 278, 841 Bondalmonti. See Buondelmonti, C. Bonghi Jovino, M., 1072 Boni, Giacomo, 53, 54, 125, 171- 172, 418, 458, 606, 662, 840, 956, 982, 1145 Boniface IV, Pope, 847 Boniface IX, Pope, 439 Bonn, Akademisches Kunstmuseums, 658 Bonomi, J., 532 Bononia. See Bologna Borcht, H. van, 595 Bordeaux, 618 Borgatti, M., 255 Borgese Ares (Mars), 174, 176 Borghese, C., 174, 176 Borghese, G. B., 173, 175 Borghese, G. G., 176 Borghese, Marcantonio II, 173, 175, 564 Borghese, Marcantonio IV, 563 Borghese, Scipione, 131, 156, 172- 173, 178, 179, 180, 264, 302 Borghese Dancers, 174- 175, 505, 717 Borghese family and collection, 28, 55, 171, 172-174, 175- 177, 178, 230, 247, 301, 362, 464, 693, 694, 709, 803, 981, 1119, 1175 Borghese Faun (Silenos with the Infant Bacchus), 172, 176, 177, 1142 Borghese Fishertnan (Dying Seneca), 156, 173, 176, 177- 178, 989, 1142 Borghese Gladiator (Warrior), 173, 176, 178179, 642, 668, 693, 746 Borghese Hermaphrodite, 156, 172, 173, 176, 179- 180, 292, 570, 698, 932, 989, 1154 Borghese Vase, 173, 176, 177, 180, 632, 711, 741, 896, 928, 1142 Borghesi, Bartolomeo, 180- 181, 361, 399 Borghi, E., 800, 801 Borgia, Camillo, 777 Borgia, Cesare, 49, 404 Borgia family, 763, 1211 Borignano, A., 602 Bormann, E., 985 Borra, 1202 Borromeo, San Carlo, 318, 521 Borromini, F., 559, 1051 Bosanquet, R. C., 335, 683, 744, 838 Boscoli, A., 264 Boscoreale, Boscotrecase, 181- 182, 694, 749, 777, 778, 783, 913 Boscotrecase, 181- 182, 749, 750 Bosio (Bosius, Bossius), A., 182, 269, 361, 1163 Bosio, Antonio, 182, 531 Bosporus Cimmerius (Cimmerian Bosporus),

182-184 Boston “ Counterpart,” 450, 780, 1186

1244 Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, 62, 100, 591, 779- 781, 783, 1186. See also Apollo; Assos; Augustus; Boston “ Counterpart” ; Mantiklos; Menande; Nike Driving a Chariot; Sokrates Bothmer, D. von, 750 Botticelli, Sandro (Filipepe, A.), 67, 184-185, 738, 1031; Adoration of the Magi, 185; Bacchus and Ariadne, 185; Birth of Venus, 184, 185; Calumny, 184; Mars and Venus, 185; Pallas, 185; Portrait of a Lady, 185; Primavera, 185; Punishment of Korah, Dathan and Abiram, 185 Botticher, K., 324, 860 Bottiger, K. A. See Boettiger, K. A. Boucher, F., 350 Boudicca, 689 Boulogne, Jean. See Bologna, Giovanni Boulter, C., 162 Bourbon family and collection, 185- 187, 248, 302, 416, 429, 598, 776, 777, 783, 826, 1201

Bourdelle, E. A., 450 Bourdon, S., 281, 282 Bourgoin, 110 Bousquet, J., 356, 470 Bouverie, J., 1202 Boville (Bovillae), 231, 341, 637, 1070 Bovio Marconi, I., 15, 1022 Boxer Vase, 583 Boy Strangling a Goose, 514, 698, 1006, 1090, 1149 Bracci, P., 67 Bradford, John Spencer Purvis, 187- 188, 1072 Bradshaw, H. C., 197 Bramante, Donato, 124, 125, 127, 146, 188189, 255, 502, 680, 849, 948, 1009, 1080, 1109, 1148 Branchidae. See Didyma Brancusi, 450 Brandis, C. A., 341 Brandolini, C., 941 Brant, S., 1119 Braschi, Giannangelo. See Pius VI Braschi family and collection, 514, 905, 933 Braun, Emil August, 56, 189, 203, 222, 608, 610, 616, 696 Braunschweig (Brunswick), Herzog Anton Ulrich-Museum, 203, 204, 404 Brauron, 189-190, 362 Brazen Serpent, by M. van Heemskerck, 575 Breasted, J. H., 378 Bregno, Andrea (Andrea da Milano), 147, 190 Brendel, Otto J., 190-191, 342 Brescia, G. A. da, 224 Bresnier, M., 470 Breteuil collection, 589

INDEX Breton, 18 Briguet, M. F., 265 Brindisi (Brundisium), 76, 515, 1163 Briosco, A., 449 Bristol, Earl of, 1177 British Academy, 652 British Museum, London, 13, 14, 18, 27, 38, 46, 99, 162, 191- 194, 223, 225, 252, 280, 295, 303, 344, 346, 388, 390, 392, 393, 416, 438, 478, 507, 512, 532, 545, 565, 566, 620, 641, 690, 730, 732, 738, 784, 800, 802, 811, 813, 854, 911, 972, 985, 1034, 1038, 1077, 1104, 1115, 1124, 1128, 1190, 1205 British School at Athens, 37, 44, 106, 167, 193, 194- 196, 253, 277, 376, 418, 469, 595, 611, 668, 803, 838, 866, 872, 873, 958, 1035, 1041, 1182 British School at Rome, 70, 92, 93, 196- 197, 418, 467, 621, 675, 957, 997, 1060, 1153, 1182, 1185 British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem, 488 Brizio, Edoardo, 170, 198, 375, 729, 1168 Brommer, F., 495, 862 Br0ndsted, Peter Oluf, 127, 198- 199, 440, 562, 634, 1050, 1102 Broneer, Oscar Theodore, 107, 162, 199- 200, 327, 328, 611 Bronze Athena by Pheidias ( “Athena Promachos” ), 200, 215 Bronze Boxer, 131, 578, 1089 Brosse, C. de, 911 Broughton de Gyfford. See Hobhouse, John Cam Brown, D., 144 Brown, D. F., 1067 Brown, Frank Edward, 43, 200- 201, 330, 378, 379, 983 Brown, L., collection, 589. See also Lyde Brown collection Browning, R., 812 Brucciani, D., 109 Bruce, J., 345, 1103, 1105 Bruckmann, F., 203, 974 Bruckner, A., 635 Bruegel (Brueghel), J., 71, 1023 Bruegel (Brueghel), P., 545 Brundisium. See Brindisi Brunelleschi, Filippo, 22, 201- 202, 312, 408, 498, 984, 1083; Sacrifice of Isaac, 1045 Bruni, L., 804, 908, 984 Brunn, Heinrich von, 33, 41, 83, 198, 202203, 223, 342, 382, 475, 513, 534, 610, 631, 632, 686, 1194 Bruno, V., 43 Bruns, Gerda, 203- 204, 535 Brusch, C., 1113

INDEX Bruschi family and collection, 1072 Brussels, Musee Cinquetenaire, 223 Brutus, 148, 205; by Michelangelo, 755 Brutus, Lucius Junius. See Capitoline Brutus Brutus, M., 236, 1111 Bry, T. de, 168, 624 Bryaxis, 736 Brygos Painter, 8, 1102 Bryson, N., 976 bucchero, 204, 811, 1168 Bucelli, P., 408 Bucheler, F., 376 Buchelius, A., 525 Bucherius, A., 219 Buchner, B., 1103 Buchner, E., 60, 229 Buchner, G., 899 Buchthal, H., 1152 Buckingham, George Villiers, First Duke of, 93, 204- 205, 966, 989, 1202 Bucklersbury Mosaic, 690 Budapest, 58; Fine Arts Museum (Szepmiiveszeti Muzeum), 206; Hungarian National Museum, 36 Buddensieg, T., 127 Bude, Guillaume, 206- 207, 670 Bufalini, L., 415, 478, 736 Bufalo, Angelo, 207 Bufalo, Antonio, 207 Bufalo, del family and collection, 207, 616, 1145 Bufalo, P. del, 207, 427, 480 Bufalo, S. del, 207 Buffon, G.-L., 30 Bufidis, N., 495 Buitron, D., 652 Bull’s Head Rhyton, 583 Bulle, H., 650, 828, 1093 Bulwer, Sir Henry, 443 Bulwer-Lytton, Edward George Earle, 207208, 483, 912 Bunau, H. von, 1198 Bundgaard, J. A., 1078 Bunsen, C. J., 489, 554, 601, 608, 610 Buonarroti, Filippo, 3, 208- 209, 410, 416, 423, 474, 526, 547, 706, 1057 Buoncompagni, G., 377 Buoncompagno, Cardinal, 862 Buondelmonti (Bondalmonti), Cristofero, 209210, 216, 334, 343, 352, 413, 487, 548, 648, 651, 655, 1002 Buontalenti, B., 740 Buonvicini, N., 180 Bupalos, Hera of Samos, 215 Burain, C., 337 Buranelli, F., 1150 Burgaz, 641 Burgon, T., 193

1245 Burial of Saints Valerian and Tiburtius, by Aspertini, 708 Burioni collection, 1124 Burlington, Lord, 532, 843 Burney, E. F., 1114 Burnouf, E., 468 Bursian, C., 79 Burton, R., 358 Busbee, A. G., 770 Buschor, Ernst, 210, 475, 495, 496, 538, 628, 635, 658, 939, 999 Busolt, Georg, 142, 210- 211, 751 Bussi, F., 1177 Bustrone, F., 344 Butler, H. C., 1011 Buttmann, P. K., 773 Buttrey, T. V., 771 Buzzi, I., 382, 698 Byres, James, 211- 213, 225, 408, 409, 416, 501, 567, 589, 619, 920, 1072, 1074, 1124 Byron, George Gordon, Sixth Baron, 1, 213214, 312, 382, 434, 487, 581, 594, 595, 597, 717, 742, 769, 1038, 1040, 1112 Byzantium (Constantinople; Istanbul) Turkey, 102, 139, 146, 161, 200, 205, 209, 214- 217, 218, 287, 288, 317, 334, 353, 413, 597, 966, 1008, 1047, 1098, 1172, 1194, 1209; Museum of Antiquities, 216-217, 1003; Ottoman Museum, 1003

Caballus Constantini. See Marcus Aurelius Equestrian Statue CAD, 320 Cades, J., 892 Cadmus, 31 Cadogan, G., 336 Caecilia Metella, 1112 Caecilia Metella, Tomb of. See Rome, Tomb of Caecilia Metella Caecilius Iucundus, L., 733 Caere. See Cerveteri Caeretan hydriai, 222 Caerleon, 488 Caermardyn, 488 Caesar, Gaius and Lucius, 60, 125, 227, 711, 809 Caesar, Julius, 80, 87, 114, 125, 205, 262, 284, 286, 298, 327, 329, 382, 457, 478, 505, 523, 603, 605, 689, 699, 842, 968, 1093, 1095, 1109, 1133 Caesar (Julius), 252, 265, 731 Caesarea, 57, 215, 1140 Caetani family and collection, 1112 Caffarelli family and collection, 266 Caffi, Ippolito, 70, 218, 400 Cagli, 371 Cagnat, R., 1103, 1105

1246 Caius, Julius, 770 Calandra, G. B., 121 Calceolari, F., 782 Calendar of 354 (Calendar of Filocalus), 32, 218-219 Calfbearer (Moschophoros), 17, 19, 220 Caligula, 114, 801, 839, 1095, 1209; portrayals of, 276, 731, 816, 864 Callipygian Venus. See Farnese Venus Callot, J., 545 Calpumius Severus, 438 Calvert, Frank, 220, 646, 1018, 1132 Calvo, M. F., 305, 415, 673 Calza, Guido, 135, 221, 834 Calza Bini, A., 1095 Camarina, 684, 1029 Cambitoglou, A., 343 Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum, 290, 442443, 657, 1184. See also Antinous; Apollo Sauroktonos; Lady and Her Maid; Pan; Serapis Cambridge, Fogg Museum, 964 Cambridge Ritualists, 221, 325, 571 Camelford, Lord, 1035 Camillus, 239, 1152 Camp, J. McK., 10 Campagnolo, G., 149 Campana, Giovanni Pietro, and collection, 222-223, 265, 303, 409, 417, 450, 589, 694, 783, 1153 Campana Reliefs, 223-224, 507, 931, 1136 Campanari, C., 224 Campanari, D., 224 Campanari, S., 224 Campanari, V., 171, 224, 1150 Campanari family, 193, 212, 224-225, 232, 409 Campanian Tomb Painting, 225-226 Campbell, W. A., 53 Campeggi, L. M., 658 Campo Santo, Pisa, 227, 896, 898, 899 Camporeale, G., 204 Camporese, Giuseppe, 226, 793, 794, 981, 1086, 1143 Campus Martius, Rome, 39, 59, 138, 146, 227-229, 238, 316, 366, 377, 553, 663, 806, 817, 850, 978, 1051, 1093, 1196 Canaletto, 218, 377, 597 Cancelleria Reliefs, 229-230, 1151 Candelori brothers, 701, 1180 Cangrande della Scala, 1159 Canina, Luigi, 77, 125, 176, 230-231, 313, 453, 554, 821, 981, 1080, 1085, 1086, 1113, 1152, 1180 Canini, 140 Canino, 231-232, 111 Canino, Lucien Bonaparte, Prince of, and col­ lection, 51, 193, 231-232, 409, 490, 509, 538, 701, 960, 1180

INDEX Canistris, Opicino de, 232-233, 950 Canning, S., 736 Cannon, J., 42 Canosa, 515 Canossa collection, 523 Canova, Antonio, 19, 28, 165, 233-235, 260, 390, 565, 597, 631, 793, 794, 903, 905, 915, 942, 1075, 1116, 1150; Creugas, 905; Daedalus and Icarus, 233; Damoxenus, 905; Eurydice, 233; George Washington, 234; Napoleon, 234; Orpheus, 233; Pauline Borghese, 234; Perseus, 233, 234, 905; Pu­ gilists, 233; Sleeping Nymph, 180; Theseus and the Minotaur, 234 Cape Gelidonya, 1139 Capena, 1168 Capgrave, John, 235, 773 Capitelli, B., 545, 887, 931 Capitoline Antinous, 240 Capitoline Brutus, 235-236, 240, 246, 781, 957 Capitoline Camillus, 236-237, 239, 246, 323, 664, 781, 1032 Capitoline Faun, 237-238, 240 Capitoline Hill, Rome, 74, 131, 176, 238-239, 242, 297, 458, 468, 492, 553, 554, 609, 720, 865, 881, 977, 979, 981, 1091, 1132. See also Capitoline Museums Capitoline Jupiter, 84 Capitoline Museums, Rome, 20, 223, 231, 233, 239-241, 256, 299, 300, 303, 398, 435, 467, 509, 593, 621, 709, 753, 781, 878, 897, 1032, 1037, 1111, 1113, 1149, 1174. See also Artemis of Ephesos; Cancelleria Reliefs; Capitoline Brutus; Capitoline Cam­ illus; Capitoline Wolf; Constantine; Constantine II; Dying Trumpeter; Eros, at­ tributed to Lysippos; Lex de imperio Vespasiani; Marcus Aurelius Equestrian Statue; Marforio; Rome, Palazzo dei Conservaton; Sarcophagus of Alexander Servus; Satyrs (della Valle); “Seated Agrippina” ; Sokra­ tes; Spinario; Tabula Iliaca Capitoline Triad, 1103 Capitoline Venus, 240, 241-242, 741 Capitoline Wolf 239, 242-243, 323, 539, 593, 656, 664, 781, 989, 1032 “ Capo di Bove.” See Tomb of Caecilia Me­ tella Capodimonti, 186, 778 Capodistria, I., 536 Capone, A., 807 Cappelari della Colomba, Mauro. See Gregory XVI Capranica, D., 160 Capranica collection, 260, 698, 740, 1144, 1145 Capri, 141, 243-244, 712 Capua, 141, 225, 111

INDEX Caputo, G., 346, 612, 675, 996 Caracal la, 70, 71, 130, 254, 451, 488, 874; portrayals of, 276, 505, 731, 755 Caractacus before the Emperor Claudius, by W. Pars, 854 Carafa, D., 738 Caraffa, Cardinal Carlo, 168 Caraffa, Cardinal Oliviero, 863 Carandini, A., 884, 1060 Carchemish, 48, 595 Carcopino, J., 470 Carducci, G., 375 Carettoni, G., 125, 224, 839 Caristie, A., 64 Carl Emanuel (Carlo Emanuele) I, Duke of Sa­ voy, 149, 706 Carleton, Sir Dudley, 205, 989 Carli, G., 73 Carlisle, 1196 Carlyle, T., 812 Carnegie Foundation, 44 Carnival of the Etruscans, 169 Carnuntum, 244-245 Caro, Annibal, 245, 249, 373, 427 Caro, R., 613 Caroline of Brunswick-Luneburg, 483 Caroto, G., 72 Carpegna, Vice Cardinal Gaspare, 208 Carpenter, Rhys, 148, 163, 245- 246, 578, 588, 745 Carpi, Girolamo da, 246, 247, 267, 544, 624, 917, 1012, 1156 Carpi, Rodolfo Pio da, 31, 32, 168, 172, 236, 240, 246- 247, 296, 302, 406, 615, 714, 888, 1034 Carracci, Agostino, 29, 247-248 Carracci, Annibale, 141, 156, 247-248, 366, 431, 832, 879; Hercules Bearing the Globe for Atlas, 248 Carracci, L., 247-248; Romulus and Remus with the She-Wolf 248 Carradori, F., 277 Carracci family, 148, 247- 249, 366; Aeneas cycle, 248; Hercules cycle, 248; Jason cy­ cle, 248; Romulus and Remus cycle, 248 Carrara, F. da, 881 Carrey, J., 104, 810 Cartari, Vincenzo, 245, 249- 250, 766, 960 Carter, E., 42 Carter, J. B., 42, 1054 Carter, J. C., 935 Carthage, 14, 56, 113, 158, 250- 251, 264, 290, 493, 592, 633, 834, 996, 1022, 1028, 1140, 1194 Cartoceto Bronzes, 251-252 cartography, 22, 210, 415, 418, 451-453, 656657, 658, 673, 680 caryatids, 400, 509, 640 Casa dei Crescentii, Rome, 252-253

1247 Casa di Livia. See House of Livia Casal Marittimo, 445 Casanova, G. B., 449 Caserta, 186 Caskey, John Langdon, 79, 97, 162, 253, 634, 676 Caskey, L. D., 780 Cassander, 1098 Cassibile, 829 Cassiodorus, 976 Cassius, 954, 1109, 1111 Casson, Stanley, 217, 253, 376 Castagno, A. del: David, 810; Niccolo da To­ lentino, 720, 738 Castagnoli, F., 665, 1026 Castel Sant’Angelo, Rome, 49, 118, 143, 253255, 593, 597, 664, 678, 705, 794, 881, 977, 978, 979 Castell, R., 532 Castellani family and collection, 193, 241, 255- 256, 803, 1168 Castellani, Alessandro, 256 Castellani, Alfredo, 256 Castellani, Augusto, 256 Castellani, F. P., 255 Castellani, G., 256 Castellani, O., 484 Castellani, T., 256 Castello, Cardinal Guido de, 759 Castiglione, B., 293, 505, 673, 947, 968, 1109 Castiglione, Sabba da, 256- 257, 404, 736, 935 Castle Ashby, 194 Castor and Pollux, 516, 578, 1079 Castor and Pollux, San Ildefonso Group, 186, 257- 258, 332, 571, 820, 928, 932 casts, 13, 18, 41, 61, 77, 82, 109, 120, 141, 153, 203, 237, 257, 467, 516, 569, 570, 601, 607, 628, 654, 776, 924, 932, 936, 965, 1049, 1057, 1102, 1108, 1148, 1153, 1158, 1188 catacombs, 182, 268 £atal Hiiyiik, 48 Cathedra Petri, by Bernini, 157 Catherine II (the Great), Empress of Russia, 19, 589, 590, 963, 1074, 1188 Catiline, 87 Catling, H., 336 Cato, 266 Catullus, 1109, 1111, 1159 Causeus, Michael Angelus. See Chausse, Michel-Ange de la Cavaceppi, Bartolomeo, 19, 165, 258- 260, 302, 449, 1149 Cavalieri, Giovanni Battista de’ (Cavalleriis), 143, 146, 260, 267, 317, 373, 424, 430, 479, 807, 1012, 1076, 1145 Cavalieri, T. dei, 24, 480 Cavallari, F., 1022, 1029, 1067, 1068 Cave of Eileithyia, 583

1248 Cavino of Padua, 449 Cawdor, Lord, 1124 Caylus, Anne Claude Phillippe, 123, 257, 261262, 449, 725, 870, 942, 1072, 1200 Ceccheli, H., 323 Cedrenus, G., 655 Celestial Venus, 740 Cellini, Benvenuto, 237, 262- 263, 277, 312, 408, 449, 544, 685, 1045; Nymph o f Fon­ tainebleau, 262; Perseus, 262; Salt Cellar of Francis I, 262, 570 Celtis, Conradus, 263- 264, 882, 895, 1071 Centaur Suckling Her Young, by A. Diirer, 380 Centaur with Cupid, 173, 989 Centauromachy, 102, 127, 295, 562, 864, 1133, 1134 Centuripae, 1069 Ceoli, Tiberio, 173, 174, 264, 302, 544 Cere, 231 Ceres, 507 Ceres, 442, 741 Cerro de los Santos, 348, 775 Certosa Situla, 329 Cerveteri, 222, 264- 265, 269, 354, 408, 409, 676, 684, 694, 750, 816, 941, 1120, 1168; Museo Nazionale Cerite, 265; RegoliniGalassi Tomb, 155, 264-265, 409, 540, 890, 951- 952, 1150, 1151 Cervini, Cardinal Marcello, 296, 888 Cesarini, A., 265 Cesarini, Giangiorgio, 265 Cesarini, Giuliano II, 264, 265 Cesarini family and collection, 265- 266, 698, 1120 Cesi, Cardinal Paolo Emilio, 266, 714 Cesi, F., 2, 266, 929, 930 Cesi, G. F., 120, 267 Cesi family and collection, 260, 266- 267, 461, 522, 615, 698, 740, 1039, 1090 Cesi Juno, 20, 267 Cesi Roma, 246, 989, 990 Cesi Togatus, 989, 990 Cesnola, General Luigi Palma di, and collec­ tion, 267- 268, 344, 418, 638, 651, 748, 779, 783, 790, 852 Cestius, C., 940 Chacon, Alonso, 182, 268- 269, 318, 961 Chadwick, J., 789, 1155 Chalkis, 269, 400 Chamaizi, 336, 1206 Chambre, Abbe de la, 157 Championnet, Jean-Etienne, 269-270 Champoiseau, C., 1002, 1003, 1165 Champollion, J.-F., 818 Chandler, Richard, 1, 13, 270, 328, 355, 363, 415, 487, 549, 684, 799, 825, 854, 935, 953, 1037, 1077, 1089, 1093, 1204

INDEX Chania, 337, 1065 Chantelou, 928 Chaponost, 704 Chapouthier, F., 270, 336, 469, 683, 713, 1003 Charbonneaux, Jean, 270- 271, 469, 694, 713 Chares of Lindos, 314 Charioteer of Delphi, Delphi, 271- 272, 354, 356, 469 Charlemagne, 146, 272- 273, 457, 970; Por­ trayal of, 273 Charlemont, Earl of, 952 Charles I, King of England, 93, 204, 302, 404, 524, 626, 935, 1045 Charles II, King of England, 94, 524 Charles III, King of Naples and Spain, 1-2, 185, 429, 451, 517, 584, 774, 837, 911 Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, 297 Charles IV, King of Spain, 932 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, 71, 255, 318, 486, 569, 713, 865, 978, 1075, 1107 Charles V, King of France, 692 Charles V on Horseback, by Titian, 569 Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, 318, 1071 Charles VIII, King of France, 502 Charles IX, King of France, 377, 570 Charles X, King of France, 693 Charles the Bald, Emperor, 273 Charlotte, Queen of England, 1188 Charpentier, R., 504 Chase, G. H., 780 Chateaubriand, 1041, 1109 Chatsworth, 193 Chaucer, G., 104 Chausse, Michel-Ange de la, 123, 273- 274, 511, 766, 920, 924 Chedanne, G., 982 Chehab, M., 113 Cheirosophos, 326 Chemtou, 493 Cheramyes, 581 Cherchell, 57 Cheron, Elisabeth Sophia, 274- 275, 511 Chevallier, H., 337 Chevallier, R., 482 Chiaia, 186 Chiaramonti, Barnabu Gregorio. See Pius VII Chicago, Field Museum, 181 Chieftain Cup, 583 Chierici, G., 889 Chifflet, Jean Jacques, 276, 988 Chigi, A., 276, 878, 949, 968 Chigi, Cardinal Fabio, 743 Chigi, M., 276 Chigi, M. F. O., 464 Chigi family and collection, 101, 266, 276, 989 Chigi Vase, 276, 1153, 1168 Child Riding a Seamonster, 1144

INDEX Child with Duck, 173 Childe, G., 790 Chilone, V., 597 Chimaera of Arezzo, 77-78, 86, 263, 276277, 301, 527, 739, 1138, 1148 Chini, P., 1023 Chios, 195, 215, 277- 278, 289, 459 Chios Head, 1186 Chiusi, 209, 278- 279, 408, 461, 463, 527, 708, 774, 777, 816, 841, 1112, 1116, 1150 Choice of Hercules, by B. West, 1189 Choiseul, Duke of, 845, 962 Choiseul-Gouffier, Marie Gabriel Florent Au­ gust, 216, 279- 280, 433, 487, 693, 999 Choiseul-Gouffier Apollo, 279 Choniates, M., 104 Choniates, N., 215 Chosroes II, 53 Choul, G. du, 704 Christ, J. F., 677 Christ, W., 629 Christ and the Adulteress, by Lorenzetto, 175 Christian archaeology, 182, 218-219, 268-269, 287, 361-362 Christian VIII, King of Denmark, 325 Christina, 122, 141, 257, 280- 282, 302, 433, 524, 556, 570, 571, 698, 740, 820, 932, 965, 980 Chrysippos, 989 Chrysoloras, M., 216, 970, 1158 Chryssoulaki, S., 337 Ciampolini, Giovanni, 282-283, 506 Ciano, G., 593 Ciceri, 1170 Cicero, 114, 910 Cicero, 989 Cichorius, Conrad, 283, 318-319 Cimiez, 1007 Ciminius family, 71 Cimmerian Bosporus. See Bosporus Cimmerius Cimmerians (Kimmerians), 525, 709 “ C in c in n a tu s 467, 564, 691, 693 Cincius, 146 Cineraria, 283-284 Circus Flaminius, Rome. See Rome, Circus Flaminius Circus Maximus, 284- 287, 478, 664, 680, 817, 818, 839, 977, 982, 1023, 1052 Ciriaco (Cyriacus) of Ancona, 16, 35, 68, 73, 76, 104, 117, 139, 147, 216, 255, 269, 287289, 299, 314, 327, 352, 355, 363, 393, 396, 398, 401, 413, 437, 447, 449, 487, 548, 597, 684, 716, 718, 769, 810, 858, 874, 1004, 1008, 1011, 1041,1046, 1077, 1161 Citta di Castello, 998 Ciuli, E., 822 Civita Castellana. See Falerii Veteres

1249 Clarac, J. B., 174 Clark, E., 559 Clarke, Edward Daniel, 289- 290, 355, 387, 442, 684, 828, 1077, 1098, 1132 Clarke, J. T., 62, 100, 1128 Classis, 109 Claude Lorraine, 290, 1004; Landscape with the Temple of the Sibyl at Tivoli, 290; Pas­ toral Caprice with the Arch o f Constantine, 290; Port of Ostia with the Embarkation of Saint Paula, 290; Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi, 290; View of Carthage with Dido and Aeneas, 290 Claudius, 66, 305, 704, 834, 910, 917, 925, 926, 1095; portrayals of, 520, 731 Claudius and Messalina, 535 Claudius Caecus, Appius, 1163 Claudius Gothicus, 696 Claudius Pulcher, Appius, 387 Claudius Successae, 1202 Cleef, H. van, 266 Clement, P. A., 611 Clement VI, Pope, 297, 486 Clement VII, Pope, 116, 255, 473, 484, 606, 1005, 1148 Clement VIII, Pope, 664 Clement IX, Pope, 303, 312 Clement X, Pope, 140, 241 Clement XI, Pope, 19, 20, 67, 117, 146, 147, 159, 589 Clement XII, Pope, 20, 240, 382 Clement XIII, Pope, 893, 895, 980, 1070, 1176 Clement XIV, Pope, 257, 290- 292, 564, 731, 743, 782, 807, 841, 885, 903, 980, 1174 Clementia (Submission of the Germans), 723 Cleopatra, 181, 1012; by J. van Scorel, 574 “ C l e o p a t r a 82, 99, 246, 292- 293, 461, 505, 520, 569, 571, 619, 623, 624, 708, 781, 936, 957, 1147, 1148, 1153, 1166; by Pous­ sin, 928 Cleopatra VII, 34, 426 “ Cleopatra’s Needles,” 820 Clerc, M., 482 Clerisseau, C. L., 6, 1047 Clermont-Ganneau, C., 346 Clitumnus, 293 Cluny Museum, 293- 294, 481 Clusium. See Chiusi Cluverius, Philippe, 294, 501, 833, 916, 1028 Cnidos. See Knidos Coarelli, F., 251, 555, 662, 699, 1118 Cocchi, E., 384 Cock, Hieronymus, 74, 295, 877, 979, 1144 Cockerell, Charles Robert, 13, 95, 96, 127, 231, 295- 296, 352, 363, 415, 543, 562, 810, 1030, 1050, 1063, 1098, 1183 Codex Coburgensis, 296, 888, 971

1250 Codex Einsidlensis. See Einsideln Itinerary Codex Escurialensis, 24, 67, 71, 175, 254, 255, 283, 296-297, 368, 456, 499, 1082, 1085 Codex Pighianus, 207, 247, 296, 888, 971, 1121, 1144 Cohen, H., 813, 814 Coke, T., 209, 532 Cola di Rienzo, 255, 297-298, 397, 664, 881 Colbert, 361, 467 Colchester, 1037 Coldstream, J., 336 Colini, A. M., 982, 1010, 1051 Colini, G. A., 1167 Collart, P., 844 Colleone, by Verrocchio, 597, 722 Collignon, Leon-Maxime, 110, 304 Collingwood, R. G., 957 Colocci, Angelo, 304-305, 673, 830, 947, 968, 1039 Colocci family and collection, 266 Cologne, 305-306; Romisch-Germanisches Museum, 306 Colonia Esquilina degli Inculti, 439 Colonna, A., 307 Colonna, C., 640 Colonna, Cardinal Ascanio, 990 Colonna, Francisco, 171, 306-307 Colonna di Buriano. See Vetulonia Colonna family, 117, 147, 307-308, 425, 733, 977 Colonna, G., 881 Colonna, P., 190, 307 Colonus, 773 Colosseum, 134, 226, 230,234, 262, 295, 308-314, 323, 366, 367,368, 371, 386, 432, 435, 436, 447, 516, 529,544, 565, 593, 619, 632, 656, 761, 772,793, 794, 845, 887, 902, 906, 948, 949,976, 977, 978, 979, 980, 981, 984, 1005, 1006, 1007, 1027, 1033, 1051, 1091, 1093, 1109, 1136, 1143, 1165, 1201 Colossus of Barletta, 314 Colossus of Rhodes, 314-315, 954 columbaria, 159, 222, 315, 1118, 1163 Column of Antonius Pius, Rome, 316, 1201 Column of Marcus Aurelius, Rome, 82, 141, 157, 297, 316-317, 373, 386, 447, 506, 879, 898, 977, 979, 1032, 1109, 1165 Column of Trajan, Rome, 76, 82, 99, 141, 157, 268, 283, 297, 317-319,371, 386, 422, 447, 461, 481, 499, 506, 507,606, 616, 794, 878, 879, 881, 886, 887,930, 961, 977, 989, 1006, 1007, 1009, 1032, 1036, 1109 Comacchio, 1044 Comedy, 903 Comfort, H., 85

INDEX Commenali, O., 465 Commissario delle Antichita, 10, 140, 291, 319-320, 435, 673, 903, 979, 982, 1200 Commodus. See Hercules and Telephus Commodus as Hercules, 587, 936, 1148, 1166 Compagno, L., 319 Comparetti, D., 560, 611 computers in classical archaeology, 320-322, 419 Conca. See Satricum Condivi, A., 753 Conestabile, G., 833 Conophagos, C., 665 Constans, 130, 131, 976 Constantina, 864 Constantine Paleologus, 289 Constantine I, 67, 117, 126, 131, 214, 215, 310, 355, 758, 781, 887, 1032, 1159, 1201; portrayal of, 215, 240, 322-323, 535, 664; by Bernini, 156, 722 Constantinople. See Byzantium Constantius II, 219, 286, 317, 323-324, 781, 818, 1051; portrayal of, 239, 664, 323-324, 1032 Constanz, 137 Consus, 839 Conte, J. del, 575 Conti, T., 451 Continence of Scipio, by G. Bellini, 140 Conversion of Saint Paul, by B. West, 391 Conyers, J., 690 Conze, Alexander Christian Leopold, 150, 174, 223, 324, 476, 492, 534, 600, 744, 752, 805, 874, 1002, 1003, 1165, 1166, 1192 Cook, Arthur Bernard, 221, 324-325, 571 Cook, F., 991 Cook, J. M., 641, 1035 Cook, T., 533 Cools, J., 524 Cooper, F. A., 127, 800 Copenhagen, Danish National Museum, 325326, 576; Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, 83, 800, 815-816, 926-927, 938 (see also Sokrates); Royal Coin Cabinet, 1100; Thorvaldsens Museum, 1100, 1102 Copia, 1066, 1067 Coponius, 1095 Coquart, E., 1002 Corbelli, G., 4 Corbos, Conde de los, 747 Corcyra. See Korkyra Cordingly, R. A., 197 Corfu. See Korkyra Cori, 893, 1005 Corinth, 44, 199, 200, 288, 289, 326-328, 417, 459, 591, 610, 633, 784, 788, 789, 854, 964, 966, 1026, 1048, 1055, 1182, 1204; Temple of Apollo, 326, 328, 1077

INDEX

1251

Cornacchini, A., 661 Croesus (Kroisos), 1011, 1077, 1078 Cornaro, A., 842 Crome, J. F., 745, 939 Cornelia, Mother of the Gracchi, by A. KauffCroton, 676, 684, 1066 mann, 630 Crouching Venus (Aphrodite), 176, 338, 366, 380, 500, 698, 738, 755; by A. Coysevox, Cornelius, P., 85 332, 333 Cornelius, P. von, 514 Crous, J. W., 493 Corneto. See Tarquinia Croy, C. de, 988 Cornford, F. M., 221, 571 Crozat, P., 261, 725 Correggio, lo and Jupiter, 540 Crucifixion, by M. van Heemskerck, 575 Corsini Throne, 328-329 Crusades, 16, 200, 334, 344 Corssen, W., 659 Cujas, J., 1014 Cortesi, 968 Cultrera, G., 15, 884, 1072 Cortona, 4, 329- 330, 409, 410, 461, 527 Cumae, 338- 340, 441, 518, 589, 712, 776, Cortona Lamp, 4 791, 899, 1067 Cos. See Kos Cumont, Franz Valry Marie, 340, 378, 474 Cosa, 43, 201, 330- 331, 418, 461, 926, 1180 Cuomo di Caprio, N., 771 Cosma, 331 Cuper, Gisbert, 340- 341, 535 Cosmati, 331-332 Cupid, 37, 565, 1156; by Antico, 50; by Mi­ Cospi, F., 169 chelangelo, 404. See also Eros Cossutius, 1083 Cupid and Psyche, 570, 877 Coste Messeliere, P. de la, 343, 356, 469 Cupid Seller, by Yien, 468 Cottius, 66 Currelly, C. T., 986 Cotton, Mary Aylwin, 332 Curtis, C. D., 1130 Cotton, Sir Robert, 1036 Curtius, Ernst, 7, 97, 106, 166, 341- 342, 475, Coudray, C. W., 518 494, 592, 598, 752, 773, 825, 906, 1128 Coulson, W. D. E., 337, 798 Curtius, E. R., 341 Coulten, J. J., 873 Curtius, G., 341 Courbin, P., 80 Curtius, Ludwig, 13, 83, 191, 342, 475, 492, Courten, W., 1034 493, 974, 987 Courtois, J.-C., 393 Curzon, N., 562-563 Cousinery, E. M., 1098 Cuspianus, I., 219 Cousteau, J. Y., 1139 Cutu family, 878 Coustou, G., 944 Cuypers, G. See Cuper, Gisbert Cow, by Myron, 518 Cybele, 759, 1088 Coysevox, Antoine, 332-334, 338; Fame, 332; Cybele, 49, 1177 Mercury, 332 Cyclades, 253, 288, 343- 344, 559, 591, 634, Cozza, A., 423, 1013 789, 796, 853 Cozza, L., 665 Cycladic idols, 450 Cozzo Pantano, 829 Cyprus, 193, 195, 267-268, 344- 345, 392, Cranborne Chase, 417, 900, 901 418, 443, 476, 509, 556, 591, 595, 638, Crassus, M. Licinius, 114, 1112 651-652, 748, 780, 783, 789, 790, 852, 954, Creation, by A. Pisano, 897 1064 Crescens, 252 Cyprus Department of Antiquities, 345, 652 Crescentius Caballi Marmorei, 944 Cyprus Exploration Fund, 344, 852 Crete, 64, 116, 195, 209, 288, 334- 337, 345, Cyprus Museum, 344, 1065 358, 410, 411, 412, 413, 418, 419,527-528, Cyrenaica, 345- 347, 803, 1140 529-530, 559, 572, 595, 611, 612,642, 655, Cyrene, 62, 193, 345-346 676, 683, 712, 726, 761, 772, 788,789, Cyrus, 1011 829, 838, 872, 1020, 1155, 1208; by A. Ca­ Cyriacus of Ancona. See Ciriaco of Ancona nova, 905 Creuzer, F., 617 Crinas, 870 D’Annunzio, 4 Cripps, J. M., 442 d’Escamps, H., 223 Crispina, 243 d’Estampes, R., 299 Cristofani, M., 278, 463, 916 d’Estampes, Duchess of, 936 Critz, E. de, 1127 Dacia Weeping, 267 Crivelli, C., 1049 Dacian Captives. See Farnese Captives Croce, B., 41 Dacian Prisoners. See Farnese Captives

1252 Daedalus, 897 Daedalus and Icarus, by A. Canova, 233 Dali, 267 Dallaway, J., 999 Dama de Baja, 775 Dama de Elche, 348-349, 450, 775, 1104 Damania, 1206 Damascus, 287, 844; National Museum, 379 Damasus I, Pope, 218 Dame d ’Auxerre. See Auxerre Lady Damoxenus, by A. Canova, 905 Dampierre, 704 Danae, by J. Gossaert, 529 Dance, G., 1035 “Dancers” from the Villa of the Papyri, 778 Dancing Faun (Florence), 507, 516, 1137 Dancing Faun (Pompeii), 187, 349, 111 Dancing Satyr, 692 Dandolo, E., 597 Daniel, by Bernini, 33, by N. Pisano, 899 Dante, Alighieri, 160, 349-350, 1161 Daphne, 156 Daphnis and Pan, 276 Darcque, P., 337 Dardalhion, G., 711 Darius III, King of Persia, 33, 34 Daru, Martial, 793 Darwin, C., 30, 465, 764, 900 Dasti, L., 902, 1072 Dati, C., 930 Dati, L., 1112 Daumet, H., 1098 Daux, G., 356, 469, 470 Davaras, C., 337, 559, 761, 838, 937 Daveluy, A., 468 David, by A. del Castagno, 810; by Donatello, 369, 370; by Michelangelo, 755, 944 David, Jacques-Louis, 236, 350-352, 468, 607, 903, 942, 1156; Death of Sokrates, 351, 1039, 1040; Grief of Andromache over the Body of Hector, 351; Lictors Bringing Back the Bodies of the Sons o f Brutus, 351; Oath of the Horatii, 350; Rape of the Sabine Women, 351 David, L., 110 Davis, C., 129 Davis, E. N., 1146 Dawkins, H., 562 Dawkins, J., 112, 355, 952, 1202, 1203, 1204 Dawkins, R. M., 335, 336, 1041 Dawson, C. M., 976 Day, by Michelangelo, 755 Day, L. P., 337 DBMS, 320 De Angelis, D., 903 De Cou, H. F., 346 De Fabris, G., 316 De Franciscis, A., 778, 975

INDEX de Grummond, N. T., 60 de Jong, P., 645 De Meem, 596, 622 De Petra, G., 585, 111 de Ridder, G., 828 De Romanis, 369 De Rossi, Giovanni Battista, 182, 247, 269, 361-362, 387, 1163 De’Rossi family, 553 De Siano, F., 899 de Thou, 868 De Tolnay, C., 753 De Vriendt. See Floris, Frans De Waele, F. J., 328 Dead Christ, by Bandinelli, 116 Dead Gaul, 541 Dead Giant, 366 Dead Niobid, 708, 810 Death of Adonis, 173 Death of Germanicus, by N. Poussin, 929 Death of Lucretia, by G. Hamilton, 564 Death of Patroklos, 406 Death of Sarpedon, by Euphronios, 750 Death of Seneca, by P. P. Rubens. See Dying Seneca by P. P. Rubens Death of Sokrates, by J.-L. David, 351, 1039, 1040 Debacq, F. J., 702 Debbas, A., 748 Debrecen, Deri Muzeum, 206 Decius, 257, 1098 Dehnig, R., 930 Deichmann, F., 493 Deidamia, 920 Deinokrates, 34 Dejeuner sur Vherbe, by Manet, 946 Del Monte, Cardinal Francesco, 920 Del Monte Vase. See Portland Vase Del Rosso, R., 926 Delafontaine, A., 487 Delaune, E., 544 Delbrueck, R., 323, 492, 578, 883 Delfini, G., 12, 830 Delfini, M., 888 della Bella, S., 741 Della Cella, P., 345, 346 Della Corte, M., 181 della Porta, Giacomo, 240, 705, 724 della Porta, Giovanni B., 2 della Porta, Guglielmo, 430 Della Seta, A., 1167 della Valle. See Valle, della Delos, 256, 288, 298, 352-353, 417, 469, 582, 596, 648, 1047 Delphi, Greece, 215, 261, 264, 270, 288, 290, 304, 328, 341, 353-357, 417, 469, 549, 596, 628, 773, 784, 797, 926, 956, 1031, 1044,

INDEX 1204; Athenian Treasury, 103, 354, 356, 469; Charioteer, 271- 272, 354, 356, 469; Siphnian Treasury, 343, 353, 356, 469, 1030-1031; Temple of Apollo, 298, 354 Delphinion, 278 Delpino, F., 1168 Demakopoulou, K., 873 Demangel, R., 470 Demanhur, 801 Demaratos, 1072 Demarchi, F., 1139 Demargne, P., 336, 337, 469, 713 Demeter, 387-388, 641, 874, 1000, 1074 Demeter, 426, 442, 641 “Demeter” of Eleusis, 289 Demetrios Poliorketes, 314, 801, 954, 1164; portrayals of, 862, 965; by Polyeuktos, 816,

1253

Dieussart, F., 92 Dikaios, G., 536 Dikaios, P., 345, 393, 536 Dillis, G., 513 Dilthey, K., 164 Dilthey, W., 166 Dimini, 787, 1134 Dindia Macolnia, 440 Dinsmoor, William Bell, 159, 363- 364, 588, 858, 861, 937 Dinsmoor, W. B., Jr., 937 Diocletian, 34, 125, 132, 457, 844, 1046, 1089, 1095 Diogenes, 504, 698, 862 Diomedes, 79; portrayal of, 21 Diomedes and the Palladium, 498, 564, 804, 864 1201 Dionysos, 757, 874, 1012 Demosthenes, 871 Dionysos, 426, 1185; by Praxiteles, 448 Demoulin, 343 Dionysios I of Syracuse, 799, 1067 Dempster, Sir Thomas, 209, 357- 358, 407, Dionysos and Eros, 428 410, 416, 532, 547, 706, 833, 1072 Dioscuri (Dioskouroi), 665, 1000 Dendra, 877 Dioscuri (Capitoline), 239, 943; (Quirinal). See Dennis, George, 14, 171, 193, 204, 212, 225, Quirinal Horse Tamers 232, 409, 278, 358- 360, 462, 530, 803, 833, Dioskourides, 832, 924 878, 916, 926, 993 Dipoinos, Athena of Lindos, 215 Dente, Marco (Marco da Ravenna), 360, 945 Diskobolos 192, 364- 365, 515, 565, 593, 1124, 1177 Deonna, W., 648 Deri, F., 206 Disney, J., 442 Des Morceaux, 80 Disputa del Sacramento, by Raphael, 947 Dittenberger, W., 638 Descartes, 281 Dobrowolski, W., 212 Design, by M. Kauffmann, 630 Desgodetz, Antoine, 6, 67, 312, 361 Dodd collection, 986 Despuig, Cardinal, 800, 815 Dodwell, Edward, 13, 51, 70, 127, 269, 328, Dessau, H., 73, 795, 934 355, 365, 684, 769, 1074, 1084, 1122, 1128 Destailleur sketchbook, 1144 Dog and Bitch, 565 Deve Hiiyiik, 97 Dogali Obelisk, 818 Dohan, Edith Hayward Hall, 335, 365-366 Deville, G., 1002 Devoto, Giacomo, 361- 362, 547 Dohan, J., 366 Dexamenos, Lady and Her Maid, 442 Dohan, K., 588 Dexandrides, 1202 Dohm, T., 236, 440 Dexileos, 635 Doidalsas of Bithynia, 338 Dolgorukov, V. S., 184 Di Vita, A., 336, 1022 Diana, 772, 1111; of Gabii, 176, 362. See also Doll, C., 645 Domenichino (Domenico Zampieri), 20, 140, Artemis Diana a la Biche. See Artemis of Versailles 141, 366- 367, 696, 1004, 1091; Diana with Diana with Nymphs, by Domenichino, 366 Nymphs, 366; Martyrdom of St. Agnes, 366; Diane Chasseresse. See Artemis of Versailles Original Sin, 366; Temptation of St. Jerome, Dickens, C., 812 366; Triumphal Arch, 366 Dickins, G., 163, 649 Domitian, 58-59, 134, 150, 229, 238, 309, Diderot, D., 261 451, 605, 606, 839, 919, 1081, 1086, 1095, Didius, T., 584 1130, 1132; portrayals of, 229, 731 “ Domitius Ahenobarbus, Altar of.” See Rome, Dido's Suicide, 1151 Didyma (Branchidae), 46, 289, 363, 491, 694, “ Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus” 757, 806, 854, 1092, 1194 Domitius Ahenobarbus, family of, 251 Diels, H., 807, 1194 Domus Aurea, Rome, 27, 123, 126, 134, 135, Dietrich von Bern, 1159 226, 296, 297, 308, 367- 369, 413, 431, 435, Dietz, S., 98 461, 499, 544, 545, 685, 756, 793, 794,

1254

INDEX

878, 949, 961, 968, 973, 978, 980, 981, Duenos Vase, 399 1136, 1177,1188 Dufresnoy, 140 Donatello, 22, 299, 369- 371 , 408, 449, 715, Duhn, Friedrich Carl von, 60, 375- 376, 494, 965 716, 753, 984; Angel and Annunciate, 370, 1006; “A ty s -A m o r in o 370; David, 369, Duketios, 1028 370; Dovizia (Abundance), 370; GattaDumas Pere, Alexandre, 376, 712, 777, 912 Dummler, F., 343, 399 melata, 370, 597, 722; Saint George, 370; Dumont, A., 468, 469, 470 Saint John the Baptist, 369, 370 Dunbabin, Thomas James, 376- 377, 873, 1029 Donati, A., 553 Dupuy, C., 497 Dondi, Giovanni, 71, 371, 397, 413, 552 Dupuy, P., 497, 830, 868 Doni, A. F., 1045 Duquesnoy, 140, 449 Donovan, W. P., 163 Dura-Europos, 201, 378- 380, 985 Dontas, G., 650, 868 Durer, Albrecht, 264, 293, 380- 381, 545, 654, Doppelfeld, O., 306 716, 717, 895, 1053; Adam and Eve, 145, Dorat, J., 1014 381; Apollo, 380; Centaur Suckling Her Don, A., 1149 Young, 380; Death and the Devil, 597; Her­ Doria-Pamphili family and collection, 917 cules Killing the Stymphalian Birds, 381; Dorians, 12 The Knight, 597; Rape o f Europa, 380; Sea Dorow-Magnus collection, 153 Monster, 380; Triumphal Arch for Maximil­ Dorpfeld, Wilhelm, 7,10, 17, 106, 324, 328, ian I, 381, 569 372, 399, 491, 494, 495, 549, 571, 583, Durkheim, E., 221, 571 600, 614, 629, 645, 646, 649, 650, 672, Durm, J., 860 787, 825, 828, 874, 935, 939, 1015, 1018, Dutch Institute in Rome, 1013 1060, 1077, 1081, 1089, 1093, 1105, 1132, Dvorak, M., 629 1188, 1194 Dwyer, E. J., 426 Doryphoros, by Polykleitos, 602, 879 Dyer, T. H., 554 Dosio, Giovanni Antonio, 71, 77, 130, 132, 146, 247, 267, 373- 374, 451, 553, 600, 917, Dyggve, E., 954 Dying Ajax, 739 1014, 1076, 1130, 1156, 1157 “Dying Seneca.” See Borghese Fisherman Dossena, Alceo, 374, 450 Dying Seneca, by P. P. Rubens, 178, 938 Doubleday, J., 922 Dying Trumpeter (Dying Gaul; Dying Gladia­ Doumas, C., 853, 1098 tor; Myrmillo), 240, 381- 383, 516, 619, Douris, 8 642, 696, 699, 820, 1191 Dovizia (Abundance), by Donatello, 370 Dying Warrior, 428 Dow, S., 396 Downey, G., 773 Dragatsis, I., 537 Dragendorff, H., 85, 628, 688 Dreros, 648, 726 Dresden, Antikensaal, 584 Drosinos, V., 785 Droysen, Johann Gustav, 374- 375, 598, 632 Drummond, 352 Drunken Faun, 186 Drunken Hercules, 731; by P. P. Rubens, 731 Drusus, 20 Drusus Caesar, 251 Drusus Major, 205 Du Bellay, Jean. See Bellay, Jean Du Du Jon. See Junius, Franciscus the Younger Du Mesnil du Buisson, Count, 379 Du Perac, Etienne, 132, 133, 317, 377- 378, 656, 735, 918, 940, 979, 1082, 1132 Duane, M., 192, 1124 Ducati, Peride, 170, 329, 375 Duchesne, L., 304, 470, 759 Duchet, C., 656 Duchet, E., 656

Eadmer, 1161 Eagle Killing a Serpent, 216 Ealred, 1161 Eccles, E., 277 Echinus. See Erizzo Eckhel, Joseph Hilarius, 384- 386, 512, 521, 813, 916 Ecole Fran?aise d’Athenes. See French School at Athens Ecole Frangaise de Rome. See French School at Rome Edinburgh: National Gallery of Scotland, 18; Scottish National Portrait Gallery, 1074 Edward VII, King of England, 194 Effenterre, H. van, 337 Egger, H., 296 Egio, B., 1034 Egnatia. See Gnathia Ehrhardt, W., 975 Eichler, F., 394

INDEX Eileithyia, 45, 823 Einhard, 272, 1130 Einsiedeln Itinerary (Anonymous Einsidlensis; Codex Einsidlensis), 71, 255, 317, 386-387, 397, 551, 606, 723, 724, 817, 944, 977, 1086, 1095 Eiteljorg, H., 937 El Greco, 541 El Hibba, 646 Elagabalus, 130, 311 Elche, 348 Electra, 49, 1177 Eleftherna, 337 Eleonora of Toledo, 739 Eleusis, 289, 372, 387-388, 442, 459, 537, 672, 789, 1050 Elgin, Lady, 1128 Elgin, Lord, 16, 105, 145, 192, 213, 218, 234, 260, 279-280, 303, 324, 388-391, 400, 415, 532, 642, 702, 746, 783, 828, 854, 859, 860, 942, 1038, 1079, 1128, 1175, 1191 Elgin Kore, 496 Eliot, C. W., 812 Elis, 88 Elizabeth I, Queen of England, 1036 Elmali, 47, 391-392 Emeric-David, T. B., 55, 661, 1174 Emerson, R. W., 1109 Emiliozzi, A., 750 Empedokles, 862, 939 Emperor Heraclius on Horseback, 868 Emporion (Emporiae; Ampurias), 392, 481 Endymion, 555, 556, 749, 810, 966 Enkomi, 345, 392-393, 1065 Ennius, 938 Envoys to Achilles from Agamemnon, by J. In­ gres, 607 Epaminondas, 1096 Ephebe of Agrigento, 15 Ephesos, 46, 88, 151, 178, 193, 261, 289, 393-394, 576, 600, 654, 854, 1048; Temple of Artemis, 193, 215, 393, 595, 814, 1048, 1077-1078 Epicharmos of Kos, 939 Epidauros, 289, 372, 394-395, 459, 537, 591, 631; museum, 631 Epigonos, Trumpeter, 381 epigraphy, 12, 25, 36, 166, 180, 279, 361, 447, 681, 714, 773, 869, 882, 915, 917, 1049, 1120; Greek, 325, 395-397, 459, 591, 596, 638, 641, 642, 728, 964, 1048, 1195; Latin, 108, 168, 297, 397-399, 472, 473, 502-503, 546, 598, 718, 731, 762, 770, 1005, 1014-1015, 1034 Epikouros, 504, 698 Episkopi, 1020 Epitynchanos, 832

1255 Eratosthenes of Kyrene, 938 Erba, B. d \ 820 Erdemgil, S., 394 Erechtheion, Athens, 15, 17, 18, 105, 193, 290, 390, 399-400, 639, 649, 806, 1016, 1036, 1062, 1197 Eretria, 44, 269, 400-401, 900, 1134, 1184 Erichius. See Erizzo Erichthonius, 102 Erim, Kenan Terfik, 54, 401-402, 771 Erimi, 345 Erizzo, Sebastiano (Erichius; Echinus), 402403, 813, 951 Erman, A., 342 Ernesti, J. A., 677 Eros, 440, 695, 710; attributed to Lysippos, 380. See also Cupid Errard, C., 467 Esperandieu, E., 914 Esposizione Universale di Roma, 776 Esquiline Hill, Rome. See Rome, Esquiline Hill Este, Alfonso I d \ 405, 1107 Este, Alfonso II d \ 405, 406, 480, 681 Este, Cesare d’, 406 Este, Ercole I d \ 404, 405 Este, Ercole II d’, 405 Este, Guglielmo d’, 403 Este, Ippolito II d’, 262, 276, 406, 413, 680, 714 Este, Isabella d \ 50, 139, 256, 299, 301, 403405, 522, 715, 716, 736, 934 Este, Leonello d’, 299, 405 Este family and collection, 165, 260, 300, 301, 405-406, 810, 1165 Et in Arcadia Ego, by N. Poussin, 929 Etruscan tombs, 208, 211, 212, 359, 406-410, 416, 540, 546, 601, 637, 950-951, 994-995, 1051, 1072, 1187, 1189 Etruscheria, 3, 6, 209, 278, 408, 410, 527, 538, 660, 752, 893 Eugene, Prince of Savoy, 725, 935, 1071 Eugenius IV, Pope, 22, 160, 287, 288, 605, 864 Eugubine Tables, 547 Eukleia, 1159 Eumenes II, 534 Eupalinos of Megara, 999 Euphranor, 868 Euphronios, Death of Sarpedon, 750 Eupolemos, 79 Euripides, 871; portrayals of, 247, 504, 939 Eurydice, by A. Canova, 233 Eurydike, 1115, 1159 Eurysaces, 1113 Eurystheus, 1105 Euthydikos, Kore, 163 Eutresis, 519

1256 Euzennat, M., 482 Evans, Joan, 412 Evans, Sir Arthur, 64, 95, 195, 335, 410-412 , 418, 443, 450, 572, 645-646, 647, 683, 788, 790, 872, 1060, 1128, 1155, 1182, 1191 Evans, Sir John, 410 Evelyn, J., 312, 1109, 1126 Evstratiades, P., 1093 excavations and expeditions, 412-419 Exekias, 107, 206, 779; Ship of Dionysos, 232 Exeter, Lord, 192 Expedition Cientifica della Fragata “ Arapiles,” 774 Expedition Scientifique de Moree, 13, 80, 163-164, 417, 420- 421, 487, 580, 693, 744, 758, 785, 825, 1077, 1089 Faber, J., 510, 832, 924, 1033 Fabi family, 1095 Fabius Pictor, 48 Fabre, F. X., 232 Fabre, P., 759 Fabretti, Raffaelo, 57, 208, 422, 795, 1176 Fabri, 315 Fabricius, E., 396, 528, 999 Fabroni, A., 746 Facellus. See Fazello Faesulae. See Fiesole Fagan, R., 884 Faina, E., 833 Fairbanks, A., 780 Falchi, I., 1162 Falconet, 661; Peter the Great, 722 Falconetto, G. M., 73, 842 Falconieri, O., 740, 941 Falerii, Novi, 423; Veteres (Civita Castellana), 208, 416, 423, 1168 Fall of Phaethon, 523 Fallen Gaul, 541. See also Gaul Falling Back­ wards Fame, by A. Coysevox, 332, 333 Famulus, 544 Fanum Voltumnae, 833, 1178 Faraglia, 67 Farmakovsky (Farmakovskii), B. V., 183, 823 Farnese, Alessandro I. See Paul III Farnese, Antonio, 429, 451 Farnese, Cardinal Alessandro, 207, 245, 300, 377, 427, 451, 480, 523, 714, 830, 840, 865, 888, 978, 1072 Farnese, Cardinal Odoardo, 248, 429, 831 Farnese, Cardinal Ranuccio, 427, 830 Farnese, Ottavio, 300, 428 Farnese, P. L., 245 Farnese Antinous, 755 Farnese Athena, 866 Farnese Atlas, 207, 248, 427, 657, 111, 1179 Farnese Bull (Punishment of Dirce), 130, 186,

INDEX 300, 423-425 , 427, 500, 111, 865, 957, 979, 989 Farnese Captives (Dacian Prisoners), 267, 307, 425- 426, 866, 1179 Farnese Cup, 185, 186, 300, 426-42 7 , 428, 738, 739, 111, 864 Farnese family and collection, 19, 48, 130, 159, 185-186, 248, 260, 266, 276, 300, 301, 302-303, 366, 423-426, 427-429 , 467, 616, 630, 680, 709, 739, 776, 803, 830, 832, 865, 973, 980, 1011, 1012, 1039, 1058, 1167 Farnese Flora, 186, 429- 430, 570, 111, 865, 928, 990 Farnese Hera, 203 Farnese Hercules (Herakles), 130, 178, 179, 186, 248, 300, 307, 424, 425, 427, 430-431 , 500, 520, 570, 619, 642, 777, 832, 845, 865, 866, 979, 989, 1004, 1191 Farnese Hermes, 143, 1012 Farnese Venus, 431-432 Fascism, archaeology under, 3, 60, 172, 176, 313, 432-433 , 593, 605, 663, 801, 834, 982 Fasolo, F., 1043, 1079, 1080 Fasti Anni Iuliani, 398 Fasti Capitolini, 201, 398, 727, 888 Fasti Consulares, 398, 427 Fasti Maffeiani, 398 Fasti Praenestini, 933 Faun, 37, 240 Faun, by Michelangelo, 753 Faun Teased by Cupids, by Bernini, 156 Faun with Kid (Queen of Sweden's Faun), 433, 571, 820, 932 Faun with the Stain, 169 Fauno, L., 979 Faunus, 1083 Faure, P., 656 Faustina, 757, 965, 1075; portrayal of, 299, 404, 715. See also Faustina Major; Faustina Minor Faustina Major, 316; portrayal of, 881, 903 Faustina Minor, 316; portrayal of, 881, 1156 Faustulus, 838 Fauvel, Louis-Fran9ois-Sebastien, 13, 35, 105, 213, 279, 355, 389, 396, 433-434 , 487, 581, 635, 702, 1035, 1098 Favoriti, A., 293 Fayum Portraits, 154, 434- 435, 450 Fazello (Facellus; Fazelli), T., 14, 435, 592, 743, 799, 841, 1021, 1022, 1028, 1067 Fea, Carlo, 71, 179, 237, 319, 365, 435-437 , 489, 554, 601, 608, 792, 803, 905, 980, 981, 1079, 1088, 1150 Feast of the Gods, by Giovanni Bellini, 140 Fehl, P., 140 Felibien, A., 691 Felici, V., 316

INDEX Feliciano, Felice, 398, 413, 437^ 38, 503, 718, 1161 Felicitas, 1095 Felix Gem, 438, 523, 716 Fellows, Charles, 46, 100, 192, 438, 874, 1030, 1205 Felsina. See Bologna Feltre, V. da, 763 Fendt, T., 1115, 1119 Fentress, E., 43 Feoli, V., and collection, 903, 1180, 1184 Ferdinand I, King of the Two Sicilies (Ferdi­ nand IV, King of Naples), 185-187, 429, 776, 777, 974 Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria, 569, 964 Ferdinand II, King of the Two Sicilies, 187, 777 Ferraguti, U., 1180 Ferrara, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, 1044 Ferrata, E., 742 Festival at the Teatro Argentina for the Wed­ ding of the Dauphin, by G. Panini, 845 Fethi Ahmed Pasha, 216 Feuardent, G., 268 Fiandra, E., 883 Fiano, Francesco da, 438- 439, 1158 Ficino, M., 738 Ficoroni, Francesco de’, 425, 439-440, 511, 1156 Ficoroni, Cista, 198, 439, 440, 637, 933, 1168 Fidenzoni, P., 982 Fiechter, E., 1093 Fiesole (Faesulae), 166, 440- 441, 461, 916 Filarete, A., 188, 299, 300, 484, 737 Filiis, Count Anastasio de, 2 Filocalus, 218 Filonardi, O. de’, 1176 Fimbria, G. Flavius, 1133 Finlay, G., 194, 717 Finocchito, 829 Finogenova, S. I., 184 Fioravanti, A., 750 Fiorelli, Giuseppe, 416, 417, 441- 442, 777, 912 Fiorentini, G., 1029 Fire in the Borgo, by Giulio Romano, 505, 708 Fischer von Erlach, J. B., 318, 1047 Fitch, C., 43 Fitch, Marc and Ismene, 195 Fittschen, K., 925 Fitzwilliam, Richard, Viscount, 442 Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 290, 442443, 657, 1184 Fiumi, Enrico, 443- 444, 1179 Flaceliere, R., 356

1257 Flagellation, by M. van Heemskerck, 575 Flakland, Colonel G., 987 Flandrin, H., 704 Flaxman, John, 390, 444, 607, 1188; Mrs. Siddons, 391 Flettner, 544 Flora, 863 Florence, 782 (see also David, by Michelan­ gelo); Archaeological Museum, 223, 263, 278, 292, 445- 446, 660, 737, 738, 783, 833, 993, 1072, 1162, 1167 (see also Arringatore; Borghese Faun; Chimaera of Arezzo; Francois Vase; Head of a Horse; Idolino; Minerva); Biblioteca Medicea-Laurenziana, 209; Palazzo Medici, 737; Palazzo Pitti, 739; Palazzo Vecchio, 277, 301, 739; Platonic Academy, 738; Uffizi Gallery, 32, 301, 737, 739, 740, 782, 784, 1137- 1138, 1147, 1179. See also Uffizzi Gallery Floris, Frans, 446, 544, 689, 807, 1179 Flying Fish fresco, 744 Fodor’s Modem Guides, 550 Fogelberg collection, 51 Fogliani d’Aragona, G., 911 Folchi, L., 313 Fontana, C., 77, 312, 1201 Fontana, Domenico, 282, 317, 446- 447, 623, 705, 817, 818, 819, 979, 1032 Fontana, P., 623 Fonzio, Bartolommeo, 398, 447- 448, 1135 Forcella collection, 777 Forcinelli, 171 Ford Foundation, 10 Forge of Vulcan, 878 forgery, 304, 374, 448- 451, 565, 619, 672, 749-750 Forlati Tamaro, B., 73, 541 Forlivesi da Cervia, G., 1072 Forma Urbis Romae, 135, 229, 286, 373, 418, 451-453 , 605, 658, 893, 919, 1082 Forman collection, 986 Formello, 276 Formige, J., 827 Fortuna, 373, 454, 455, 663, 794, 981, 983, 1010, 1088 Fortnum, C. D., 95 Forum Boarium, Rome, 71, 188, 239, 453455, 793, 794, 795, 978, 981, 982, 1007, 1010, 1033 Forum Romanum, Rome, 10, 23, 43, 53, 70, 74, 124, 171-172, 198, 221, 238, 240, 242, 290, 367, 373, 377, 398, 418, 427, 432, 455-458 , 468, 473, 490, 632, 724, 793, 794, 795, 803, 838, 865, 893, 956, 977, 1027, 1075, 1079, 1084, 1145 Forzetta, Oliviera, 458 Foscarini, A., 756, 891

INDEX

1258 Fosse, Giovanni Pietro della. See Valerianus Bolzanius Fossombrone sketchbook, 174 Foster, J., 13 Fototeca Unione, 795 Foucart, P., 355, 631 Fougeres, G., 1022 Foundry Painter, 1102 Fouque, F., 1097 Fouquet, N., 935 Four Philosophers, by P. P. Rubens, 989 Fourment, D., 991 Fourmont, C., 459, 1041 Fourmont, Michel, 80, 396, 458-459, 642 Fourviere, 704 Fowler, H. N., 611 Fox, A. H. L. See Pitt-Rivers, A. H. L. F. Fraenkel, E., 1195 Fragonard, J.-H., 65, 770 Fraiapane. See Frangipani France, J. de, 653 Francesca, P. della, 763 Franceschi, G. G., 463 Franceschini, P., 408 Francesco di Giorgio Martini, 130, 459-461, 504 Francesco di Savona. See Sixtus IV Francesco Giamberti, Giulion di. See Sangallo, Giulliano da Franchthi Cave, 45, 343 Francis I, King of France, 206, 262, 293, 318, 484, 692, 885, 1024, 1045, 1148, 1166 Francis I, King of the Two Sicilies, 187 Francisco d’Ollanda, 146, 267, 292, 461, 1132, 1144, 1148 Francken, F., II, Banquet in the House of Ni­ colaas Rockox, 965 Franco, F., 348 Franco, G. B., 624 Frangois, Alessandro, 278, 329, 409, 461- 462, 463, 916, 993, 1180 Francis Tomb, Vulci, 409, 461, 462-463 Francois Vase, 218, 445, 446, 461, 463 Francucci, S., 173 Frangipani, C., 463 Frangipani, M., 319 Frangipani family, 67, 74, 311, 463-464, 977, 1023 Frank, T., 42, 1025 Frankaert, J., the Elder, 1083 Frankfort, H., 872 Franks, 392, 1073, 1122 Franks, A. W., 193 Frantz, A., 581, 862 Franzini, A., 553 Franzini, G., 264, 267, 553, 731, 1014

Franzoni, Francesco Antonio, 449, 464 Franzoni, G., 464 Frascati, 698 Fraser, P. M., 773 Frazer, Sir James George, 97, 164, 221, 464465, 571 Freddi, F. de’, 660 Fredenheim, Baron K. F. von, 980 Frederick Augustus, King of Poland, 20 Frederick Barbarossa, 311, 1130 Frederick (Friedrich) I, King of Prussia, 137, 140 Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, Holy Roman Emperor, 465^466, 743, 898 Frederick (Friedrich) II, “the Great,” King of Prussia, 153, 260, 935, 1057 Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, 263, 772 Frederick (Friedrich) III, King of Prussia, 341 Frederick William (Friedrich Wilhelm) III, King of Prussia, 1016 Frederick William (Friedrich Wilhelm) IV, King of Prussia, 610 Frederiksen, Martin William, 467 Freeden, J. von, 1122 Frejus, 481, 1092 French, E., 786 French Academy in Rome, 42, 148, 257, 361, 382, 433, 467-4 6 8 , 482, 607, 667, 677, 691, 692, 803, 962, 1075, 1080 French Academy of Painting and Sculpture. See Royal Academy of Painting and Sculp­ ture (Paris) French School at Athens, 80, 97, 106, 158, 270, 271, 328, 352, 355, 417, 468^ 70, 596, 649, 713, 729, 770, 799, 926, 1002, 1097 French School at Rome, 170, 418, 469, 470-

471 Frere, S. S., 1162 Friedlander, P., 1195 Friedrich I, II and III, Kings of Prussia. See Frederick I, II, III Frodin, O., 97, 877 Froehner, G., 318 Froehner, W., 55, 1165 Frontinus, 56, 57 Frothingham, Arthur Lincoln, Jr., 76, 471, 1130 Fuchs, W., 710 Fugger, M., 25 Fuhrmann, H., 493 Fufluna. See Popolunia Fulvio, Andrea, 237, 305, 373, 398, 415, 449, 471-473 , 553, 673, 724, 813, 922 Fulvius Flaccus, M., 1010 Funchal, Count of, 436 Fundilius, 816 Funeral of Phocion, by N. Poussin, 929

INDEX funerary iconography, 473-475 Furietti Centaurs, 240 Furtwangler, Adolf, 13, 39, 41, 83, 101, 135, 163, 203, 210, 342, 475-476 , 494, 512, 514, 535, 602, 653, 686, 688, 825, 835, 926, 1060, 1081, 1104 Furumark, Arne, 97, 345, 476 Fuseli, H., 630 Fustel de Coulanges, N. D., 277, 468 Fyfe, T., 411, 645

Gabii, 176, 564 Gabrici, E., 340, 1022, 1029 Gagini, A., 1045 Gagnan, E., 1139 Gagneraux, B., 904, 1149 Gaidukevich, V. F., 183 Galassi, Vincenzo, 477, 951-952 Galatas, 337 Galatea, 147, 944 Galatea, by Raphael, 944 Galba, 282 Galeotti, N., 511, 512 Galera, 775 Galerius, 1098 Galestruzzi, G. B., 10 Galieni, B., 2 Galileo, 2, 929, 930 Galinsky, K., 60 Galle, P., 574 Galle (Gallaeus), T., 236, 510, 731, 744, 832, 924, 989, 1039 Gallet de Santerre, H., 352 Galli, E., 1067 Galli, J., 754 Gallia. See Gaul Gallienus, 1082 Gallus, 219, 429 Gamberelli, Bernardo di Matteo del Borra. See Rossel-Lino, Bernardo Gamucci, B., 317, 373, 553 Gandy, J., 387, 912 Gans, F. L., 154 Gantz, T., 662 Ganymede, 263, 607, 934 Garcia y Bellido, Antonio, 477-478 Gardens of Sallust, 177, 382, 478, 696, 700, 980 Gardner, E. A., 645, 798 Gardner, Percy, 372, 478-479 Garibaldi, G., 110, 187, 376, 777, 905 Garimberto, Gerolamo, 25, 31, 260, 479- 480, 522, 523, 524 Garrick, D., 630 Gassendi, P., 870 Gattamelata, by Donatello, 370, 597, 722 Gatti, 229

1259 Gattilusi, 1002, 1165 Gaudin, P., 54, 694 Gaugamela, 34 Gaul, 480-482 Gaul, 738 Gaul Falling Backwards, 541, 542, 1102 Gauls, 7, 355, 381-382, 480^181, 525, 534, 699, 729, 1025, 1077 Gautier, T., 912 Gavii family, 72 Gayet, A., 434 Gazzola, F., 837 Ge, 823 Gebhard, E., 611 Geffroy, A., 470 Gejvall, N.-G., 676 Gela, 14, 482^ 83, 674, 824, 1028, 1029, 1067, 1069 Gell, Sir William, 176, 207, 213, 355, 363, 387, 483- 484, 803, 912, 935, 999, 1128, 1152 Gelon, 743, 1067 Gemisthos Pletho, 1041 Gemma Augustea, 32, 301, 484- 486, 497, 507, 511, 570, 628, 653, 870, 930, 988, 989; painting by N. dell’Abbate, 870 Gemma Tiberiana, 32, 215, 486-487 , 497, 511, 693, 870, 930, 988, 989; painting by P. P. Rubens, 870 Gempeler, R. D., 278 Geneleos, 582 Gennadius, G., 536 Gennadius, Joannes, 44, 487 Genoa, Genoese, 954 Genseric, 840 Gentile da Fabriano, 138 Gentili, G. V., 730, 799, 884, 1029 Geoffrey of Monmouth, 129 geography, study of, 165, 294, 896 George I, King of Greece, 106, 796 George II, King of England, 1036 George III, King of England, 6, 20, 1137, 1189 George IV, King of England, 483 George of Trebizond, 1113 George Washington, by A. Canova, 234 Gerald of Wales, 488 Gerando, J.-M. di, 915 Geras Painter, 1102 Gerasa, 488 Gerbier, B., 205 Geremia, C., 522 Gerhard, Friedrich Wilhelm Eduard, 189, 223, 231, 324, 341, 408, 440, 489- 491, 601, 608, 617, 632, 650, 702, 752, 767, 846, 994, 1050, 1180 Gerkan, Armin von, 67, 491, 493, 935, 1026

1260 German Archaeological Institute, Athens, 10, 106, 200, 210, 328, 342, 372, 417, 468, 494- 496, 549, 629, 635, 650, 688, 710, 876, 999, 1084 German Archaeological Institute, Berlin, 138, 159, 324, 341, 362, 363, 372, 491-492, 591, 592, 598, 610, 628, 646, 688, 935, 965, 1063, 1194, 1195 German Archaeological Institute, Istanbul, 204, 492 German Archaeological Institute, Madrid, 492 German Archaeological Institute, Rome and Athens, 40, 198, 203, 241, 342, 399, 418, 465, 478, 491- 494, 576, 577, 629, 650, 670, 733, 752, 879, 934, 972, 981, 985, 995, 1019, 1105, 1207 Germanicus, 382, 699; portrayals of, 484, 486, 487, 691, 693 “ G e r m a n ic u s 467, 691 Germanicus and Agrippina, 535 Germany, 139 Gesell, G., 337 Geta, 70, 71 Getae, 823 Getty, J. Paul, 303, 496-497 Getty Athlete, 496 Gevaerts, Jan-Caspar, 497, 988 Gherardini, G., 170 Ghesquiere, J. H., 1121 Ghezzi, P. L., 511 Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 179, 299, 369, 449, 497498, 737, 877, 984 Ghirlandaio, Domenico, 24, 71, 296, 499, 544, 738, 753; Adoration of the Magi, 448; Ado­ ration of the Shepherds, 499; Baptism of Christ, 87; Birth of the Virgin, 499; Vision of Augustus on the Capitoline Hill, 499 Ghislanzoni, E., 346 Giachetti, R., 463 Giamalakis collection, 583 Giambologna (Giovanni Bologna; Jean Bou­ logne), 247, 499- 500; Apennine, 500; Apollo, 500; Astronomy, 500; Hercules Slay­ ing a Centaur, 500; Lion Attacking a Bull, 500; Mercury, 500; Peasant Resting on a Staff, 500; Psyche, 500; Rape of a Sabine, 33, 500 Giant, 428 Gibbon, Edward, 211, 213, 500- 502, 532 Gibbs, J., 618 Giganti, A., 782 Gigantomachy, 102, 293, 534, 1030, 1133 Giglioli, Giulio Quirino, 3, 329, 502, 593, 982, 1153, 1167 Gillieron, Eduoard, 645 Gillieron, Emile, 645 Gilly, F., 639

INDEX Giocondo, Fra Giovanni, 130, 283, 285, 398, 502- 504, 673, 731, 808, 978, 993, 1144, 1161 Giordano, L., 742 Giorgetti, G., 118, 119 Giorgi, 121 Giorgione, 293, 307, 381, 1107 Giotto, 753 Giovanni delle Bande Nere, by F. da Sangallo, 1006 Giovannoli, A., 74 Giovio, B., 25, 26 Giovio, P., 405, 435, 673, 968 Giraldi, L. G., 249 Girard, P., 581 Girardon, Franfois, 332, 449, 504- 505, 692; Apollo attended by Nymphs, 505 Giraud, J., 104 Girgenti. See Akragas GIS, 320-321 Gismondi, I., 135, 593, 605, 776 Giuliano, A., 1090 Giulio Romano (Giulio Pippi), 85, 88, 155, 224, 246, 255, 283, 404, 505- 508, 523, 605, 661, 922, 936, 945; Baptism of Constantine, 505; Battle of Ostia, 505; Battle of the Milvian Bridge, 34, 506; Fire in the Borgo, 505, 708; Madonna o f the Oak, 505; Ma­ donna della Perla, 523; Marriage Feast of Cupid and Psyche, 506; Stoning of St. Ste­ phen, 505; Vision of the True Cross, 506 Giustiniani, Vincenzo, and collection, 92, 508509, 980, 1091 Giustiniani family and collection, 247, 284, 508-509, 1004, 1120, 1124 Giustiniani Hestia, 509 Giustiniani Minerva, 509, 517, 957, 1004, 1082, 1091 Gjerstad, Einar, 345, 509, 556, 807, 1026, 1065, 1066 Gjolbaschi. See Trysa Gla, 787 Gladstone, W., 786, 1018 Glanon (Glanum), 65, 509- 510, 770. See also Saint-Remy Glotz, G., 788 Glykon of Athens, 430 Glyptics, 10-11, 113, 135, 140, 203, 384, 411, 443, 510- 513, 653, 686, 725-726, 732, 733, 737, 739, 766, 870, 1049, 1120, 1121, 1199 Glyptothek, Munich, 13, 21, 39, 51, 118, 169, 203, 513- 515, 639, 701, 783 Gnaios, 832 Gnathia (Egnatia), 515-516 Goat Amalthea Nursing the Infant Jupiter and a Young Satyr, by Bernini, 155

INDEX Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 19, 28, 33, 34, 257, 312, 342, 391, 516- 519, 567, 603, 630, 661, 818, 903, 911, 1028, 1038, 1106, 1121, 1189 Goethe in the Campagna, by W. Tischbein, 517, 1106 Golbasi. See Trysa Gold Medal for Distinguished Archaeological Achievement, Archaeological Institute of America, 63, 160, 163, 200, 246, 253, 364, 519, 568, 1099 Golden House of Nero. See Rome, Domus Au­ rea Goldman, Hetty, 62, 519 Goldman, N., 43 Goldschmidt, A., 965 Golgoi, 344 Goltzius, Hendrik, 143, 431, 519- 520, 807, 1156 Goltzius, Hubert, 473, 520- 521, 689, 813, 924, 965 Goltzius, R., 520 Gomperz, T., 1063 Gonelli, A., 118 Gonzaga, Cesare, 405, 479, 480, 506, 521522, 524, 935, 1059 Gonzaga, Fernando, Cardinal, 36, 523 Gonzaga, Cardinal Ercole, 507 Gonzaga, Federico I, 23, 405, 523 Gonzaga, Federico II, 505, 523, 660, 1107, 1108 Gonzaga, Francesco, Cardinal, 438, 522 Gonzaga, Francesco I, 522 Gonzaga, Francesco II, 403, 523 Gonzaga, Gian Francesco of Gazzuolo, 523 Gonzaga, Gian Francesco of Mantua, 50, 522 Gonzaga, Guglielmo, 480, 523 Gonzaga, Ludovico, of Gazzuolo, 523 Gonzaga, Ludovico, of Mantua, 50, 522, 716 Gonzaga, Luigi, 522 Gonzaga, Vespasiano, 524, 782 Gonzaga, Vincenzo I, Duke of Mantua, 523, 964 Gonzaga Cameo, 523, 570, 590, 653, 989 Gonzaga family and collection, 50, 88, 301, 302, 338, 510, 522-524 Gooch, G. P., 342 Goodchild, R. G., 346 Goorle Abraham van (Goirle; Gorlaeus), 524-

525 Gorceix, 1097 Gordian III, 311, 816 Gordion, 47, 48, 525- 526, 650, 1207 Gordon, A. E., 399 Gordon, General T., 79, 1128

1261 Gore, C., 1028 Gorgippia, 183, 184 Gori, Antonio Francesco, 4, 85, 86, 121, 329, 408, 416, 511, 512, 526- 527, 546, 602, 706, 730, 740, 878, 924, 971, 1072, 1179 Goritz, J., 968 Gorlaeus, A., 510 Gortyn, 62, 335, 396, 418, 527- 529, 560, 583, 612, 712, 876; “Labyrinth,” 334, 655-656 Gossaert (Mabuse), J., 519, 529, 689, 1012; Danae, 529; Neptune and Amp hi trite, 529 Goths, 12, 118, 130, 254, 811, 865 Goudineau, C., 85 Gournia, 335, 529- 530, 572, 683, 1020 Government of the Queen, by P. P. Rubens, 145 Gozzadini, Giovanni, 169, 198, 530, 729, 1168 Gozzadini, M. T., 530 Graces, 207 Graef, P., 1130 Graevius, Johannes Georgius, 274, 473, 497, 530- 531, 627, 767, 795, 918, 988 Graf, T., 434 Gragnano. See Stabiae Graham, J. W., 986 Graillot, H., 1013 Graindor, P., 343 Grand Camee de France. See Gemma Tiberiana Grand Congloue, 1139 Grand Galerie du Louvre in Ruins, by H. Robert, 963 Grand Tour, 5, 212, 258, 295, 302, 312, 501, 531- 533, 544, 558, 594, 845, 891, 1028, 1037, 1124, 1137 Grande Erculanese, 584 Grande medaille d’emulation, 164 Grandi, A. de, 406 Grandjouan, Clairere, 531 Grangent, 711 Graphia aureae urbis Romae, 71, 533, 551, 760, 881 Gravisca, 533- 534, 1072 Gray, E. C. (Mrs. Hamilton), 212, 225, 409 Great Altar, Pergamon, 46, 152, 154, 204, 324, 534- 535, 600, 628, 783, 874 Great Cameo of the Hague, 511, 535, 622, 989 Greco, E., 837 Greek Archaeological Service, 13, 105, 195, 401, 529, 535- 536, 634, 650, 665, 668, 761, 783, 796, 805, 853, 939, 955, 969, 1096 Greek Archaeological Society, 10, 105, 107, 387, 395, 401, 417, 536- 537, 631, 635, 729, 790, 796, 797, 860, 953, 999, 1040, 1055, 1084, 1128 Greek Revival, 6 Greek vases, 15, 16, 41, 51, 83, 107, 153, 186,

1262 222, 223, 231-232, 302, 324, 409, 410, 444, 446, 450, 475, 490, 498, 537-538, 540, 556, 567, 589, 635, 650, 659, 694, 701, 730, 738, 749, 750, 770, 778, 783, 846, 1044, 1186 Greenewalt, C., 1011 Gregorius, Magister, 323, 538-540, 548, 551, 590, 760, 1045, 1082 Gregory I (the Great), Pope, 254 Gregory IV, Pope, 834 Gregory XIII, Pope, 318, 664, 978 Gregory XV, Pope, 696 Gregory XVI, Pope, 28, 225, 313, 409, 540, 918, 1113, 1119 Gregory XVII, Pope, 2 Grenier, A., 468, 470 Greville, C., 567, 1124 Grief of Andromache over the Body of Hector, by J.-L. David, 351 Griffo, 674 Grimaldi, 124 Grimani, Cardinal Domenico, 540, 541, 542 Grimani, Cardinal Marino, 541 Grimani, G., 541 Grimani, M., 1025 Grimani Altar (Ara Grimani), 505, 540-541 Grimani family and collection, 58, 540, 541542, 1108 Grimes, W., 690 Grinder. See Arrotino Griswold, R., 10 Gritti, A., 1024 Gronovius, A., 543 Gronovius, Jacob, 422, 428, 525, 530, 542543, 767, 924 Gronovius, Johann Friedrich, 340, 497, 530, 542, 988 Gronovius (Gronov) family, 542-543 Gropius, Georg Christian, 543, 593, 1146 Grosseto, Archaeological Museum, 993 Grote, G., 1018, 1038 Grotius, H., 626, 1014 Grottaferrata, 466 grottesche, 30, 88, 123, 255, 369, 499, 544545, 673, 681, 685, 878, 949, 973, 1136, 1189 Gruben, G., 343 Grueber, Herbert Appold, 113, 545 Grueneisen collection, 450 Gruter (Gruytere), Janus, 398, 545-546, 1014, 1034 Gruttner, R., 806 Gsell, S., 1180 Gualdo, P., 868 Gualtieri collection, 1150 Guardi, 597 Guarducci, M., 396, 397, 399, 528, 700, 934 Guarino of Verona, 804

INDEX Guamacci, G., 546 Guarnacci, Mario, 284, 408, 546 Guamacci, P., 546 Guattani, Giuseppe Antonio, 546-547, 980 Gubbio (Iguvium), 547-548, 708 Guercino, 696 Guerin, V., 999 Guerra, C., 449 Guglielmi, B., collection, 1150, 1180 Guglielmi, G., collection, 1150, 1180 Gui, E., 775 Guibert of Nogent, 412, 548 Guicciardini, 673 guidebooks to Greece, 548-550 guidebooks to Rome, 386-387, 533, 538-539, 550-555, 842, 889 Guidi, Giacomo, 675, 996 Guidobaldo of Urbino, 306 Guillaud, J., 975 Guillaud, M., 975 Guillaume de Braye, 84 Guisa, N., 87 Guiscard, 977 Gullini, G., 1079, 1080 Guralnick, E., 649 Gustav Ill’s Museum of Antiquities, Stock­ holm, 555 Gustavus III (Gustaf III), King of Sweden, 161, 281, 555-556, 903, 904, 1149 Gustavus VI Adolphus (Gustaf VI Adolf), 5, 97, 167, 556-557 Gutschmid, A. von, 591 Guzman, M. de, 366 Gyges, 1, 709 Gyllius, P., 216 Gypsy. See Capitoline Camillus Habsburg family and collection. See Hapsburg family and collection Hachette guides, 550 Hacilar, 48 Hackert, J. P., 186, 187, 429, 1021, 1028 Hackwood, W., 1188 Hades, 1000 Hades, 426 Hadrian, 9, 32, 67, 68, 114, 120, 143, 245, 253-254, 355, 368, 390, 447, 606, 613, 661, 824, 850, 874, 965, 1083, 1085, 1175 Hadrian I, Pope, 57, 110, 146 Hadrian VI, Pope, 404 Hadrian’s Villa, near Tivoli, 20, 23, 37, 118, 188, 192, 202, 288, 291, 298, 338, 413, 427, 443, 496, 544, 556, 558-559, 564, 567, 619, 628, 680, 681, 806, 864, 895, 903, 905, 949, 1124, 1176 Hadrian’s Wall, 7, 1064 Hagesandros, 660, 1043. See also Laocoon Hagg, I., 98

INDEX Hagg, R., 98 Hagia Photia, 559 Hagia Triadha (Ayia Triada; Haghia Triada), 116, 335, 559- 560, 679, 683 Hague, The, 535, 622, 738, 960 Hahn, J. G. von, 1056 Hahnloser, H. R., 1172 Halai, 45, 519 Halbherr, F., 62, 335, 346, 396, 528, 560- 561, 583, 611, 645, 675, 683, 829, 876 Hale, W. G., 42 Haley, J. B., 676 Halieis, 45 Halikarnassos, 47, 561, 641; Mausoleum, 192, 257, 261, 324, 561, 736- 737, 802, 1006 Hallager, E., 337 Haller von Hallerstein, Carl Christoph, Baron, 13, 127, 198, 295, 415, 543, 561- 562, 581, 639, 1050, 1183 Hal tern, 85 Hambi-Bey, Osman, 216 Hamilton, Duke of, 991 Hamilton, Gavin, 176, 233, 302, 362, 449, 558, 562- 565, 619, 834, 933, 980, 1124, 1149, 1176, 1203; Agrippina Landing with the Ashes of Germanicus, 564; Dawkins and Wood Discovering Palmyra, 562, 1203; Death of Lucretia, 564; Hebe, 564; Juno, 564; Muses, 564; Paris and Helen, 562-563 Hamilton, J., 345 Hamilton, Lady (Emma Hart), 566, 567 Hamilton, Sir William, 6, 118, 176, 191, 211, 302, 346, 450, 487, 532, 538, 555, 556, 564, 565- 567, 568, 607, 702, 730, 783, 911, 920, 1037, 1106 Hamilton, W., 562 Hampe, R., 495 Hanai Tepe, 220 Hancarville, Pierre-Frangois Hugues, Comte d’, 315, 566, 567-568 Hanfmann, George Maxim Anossov, 109, 568- 569, 972, 1011 Hannibal, 791, 997, 1029 Hannibal, 505 Hansen, 983, 1079 Hapsburg (Habsburg) family and collection, 302, 512, 569- 571, 653 Harcum, C., 986 Hardie, C. G., 197 Hardie, W. R., 886 Harding, J. D., 414 Hare, Augustus John Cuthbert, 571 Hare, Augustus, 571 Hare, Julius, 571 Harlot's Progress, by W. Hogarth, 88 Harmodios and Aristogeiton. See Kritios, Tyr­ annicides Harpagus, 1205 Harpist, 496

1263 Harpy Tomb. See Xanthos, Harpy Tomb Harpocrates, 341 Harris, E., 1060 Harrison, E. B., 110, 163, 862 Harrison, Jane Ellen, 151, 221, 571-572 Harrow Painter, 1102 Hart, Emma. See Hamilton, Lady Hartel, W. R. von, 806, 1061, 1063, 1192 Hartswick, K., 101, 174 Hartwig, P., 135 Harvester Vase, 583 Hauser, A., 1003 Hauser, F., 135 Haussoullier, B., 550 Havelock, C. M., 1166 Haverfield, F. J., 957 Hawes, C., 335, 572 Hawes, Harriet Boyd, 335, 365, 529, 572, 573, 645, 683, 1020 Hawksmoor, N., 295 Hawthorne, N., 238, 313 Haydon, B. R., 632 Hayes, J., 987 Hazzidakis, J., 45, 335, 336, 528, 683, 712 Head, B., 813 Head of a Horse (Medici), 738 Hearst, P., 328 Hebe, by G. Hamilton, 564 Heberdey, R., 394 Hebrard, E., 1047 Heck, J., 2 Hecuba, 920 Heemskerck, Maerten van, 71, 75, 87, 132, 147, 235, 266, 295, 307, 322, 323, 338, 429-430, 519, 544, 572- 576, 600, 604-605, 606, 708, 720, 721, 724, 753, 944, 962, 979, 1012, 1023, 1082, 1086, 1144, 1145, 1148, 1179; Brazen Serpent, 575; Cleopatra, 574; Crucifixion, 575; Flagellation, 575; Lu­ cretia, 574; St. Luke Painting the Virgin, 575; Triumph of Bacchus, 575 Heermance, T. W., 328 Hegel, G. W. F., 374, 375 Hegias, 163 Heinsius, D., 497, 1014 Heintze, H. von, 578, 628, 696, 939 Helbig, Wolfgang, 155, 198, 399, 492, 576578, 610, 629, 700, 723, 775, 815, 879, 890, 913, 934, 974, 1019, 1072, 1150, 1186, 1189, 1209 Helen, 1040 Helen, 216, 338 Helen, daughter of Timon, Battle of Issos, 34 Heliopolis, 284. See also Baalbek Hellenistic “Ruler,” 131, 578- 579, 1089 Hellespont, 1 Hellmann, M.-C., 355 Hemans, F., 611

1264 Hemelaers, J., 988 Hemskeric, Martinus. See Heemskerck, Maerten van Hencken, H., 1168 Hennessy, J. B., 345 Henry I, King of England, 579 Henry III, King of France, 377 Henry IV, 692 Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor, 311 Henry VIII, King of England, 670 Henry, Bishop of Bayeaux, 510 Henry, Prince of Wales, 524 Henry of Blois, 539, 579 Henschenius, 219 Henzen, W., 109, 492, 934, 982, 1019 Hephaisteion, Athens, 9, 105, 562, 579-581, 796, 797 Hephaistia, 612 Hephaistos, 399, 579 Hera, 79, 823, 836, 837, 866, 1080, 1081 Hera, by Bupalos, 215; by Lysippos, 215; by Polykleitos, 79; of Cheramyes, 581-582, 649, 693, 999 Heraclius, 840 Heraclius on Horseback, 868 Heraion. See Temple of Hera Herakleia Minoa, 1022, 1029 Herakleion, 334, 337, 643, 726, 772; Herakleion Museum, 528, 582-583, 713, 1206. See also Acrobat; “Bee Pendant” ; Bull's Head Rhyton; Boxer Vase; Chieftain Cup; Harvester Vase; Octopus Flask; Phaistos Disk; Poppy Goddess; Snake Goddess; Town Mosaic Herakleitos, 888 Herakles, 103, 152; portrayals of, 164, 440. See also Hercules Herakles-Melkarth, 638 Herbanum, 833 Herbig, G., 583 Herbig, Reinhard, 493, 583-584 Herculaneum, 1-2, 6, 28, 185-187, 233, 234, 302, 416, 468, 501, 517, 532, 565, 584-586, 587, 607, 712, 747, 774, 776, 778, 826, 891, 910, 911, 915, 973, 1027, 1173, 1187; Villa of the Papyri, 186, 298, 496, 585, 778, 1170-1171 Hercules, 138, 146, 453, 863, 1088, 1109; por­ trayals of, 49, 143, 147, 207, 815, 936, 1032; by Antico, 50; by Onesas, 870; by A. Pisano, 897; Campana Relief, 224; from the Forum Boarium, 239; Piccolomini, 173. See also Farnese Hercules; Herakles Hercules and Antaeus, 623, 1148, 1149 Hercules and Cacus, by B. Bandinelli, 116 Hercules and Getyon, 863 Hercules and Telephus, 21, 243, 505, 520, 587, 623, 722, 723 Hercules and the Cretan Bull, 224

INDEX Hercules and the Harpies, by P. da Cortona, 117 Hercules Bearing the Globe for Atlas, by A. Carracci, 248 Hercules Binding Cerberus, 262 Hercules Gaditanus, 965 Hercules in the Garden of the Hesperides, by J. Wedgwood, 1187 Hercules Killing the Stymphalean Birds, by Diirer, 381 Hercules Latinus, 866 Hercules Slaying a Centaur, by Giambologna, 500 Hercules Strangling the Serpents, 480 Hercules Victor, 453 Herder, J. G. von, 661 Hermann, G., 166, 518, 616, 983 Hermaphrodite, 179-180, 429, 498, 685, 698, 740, 1012, 1089 Hermaphrodite in a Lionskin, 205 Hermaphrodite Supported by Silenus and Pan, 862 Hermes, 583, 1000; portrayals of, 143, 564, 693; by Alkamenes, 448; of Praxiteles, 342, 588, 592, 825, 1081; of Andros, 797. See also Mercury Hermes Sassi-Farnese. See Farnese Hermes Hermes Seated, 587-588, 778 Hermes Tying His Sandal, 815 Hermione, 459 Hermitage, St. Petersburg, 183, 541, 588-590, 639, 738, 823, 1074 Hermogenes, 709 Hermonassa, 183, 184 Hero, 1 Herodes Atticus, 327, 827 Herodotos, 396, 1066 Herodotos, 267 Heron of Alexandria, 1171 Herrmann, P., 974 Herulians, 9, 12, 327, 824, 999, 1041, 1122 Herzfeld, E., 378 Herzog, R., 651 Hescanas family, 833 Hesiod, 444, 939 Heurtley, W. A., 872 Heuzey, L., 1056, 1098, 1158 Hever Castle, 66 Hey land, C. J., 42 Heyne, C. G., 1201, 1211 Hierakonpolis, 97 Hierapolis, 47 Hierax, P. Aelius, 1202 Hieron I, 1067 Hieron II, 771, 1028, 1068 Hilaire, J. B., 279 Hildebert of Lavardin (of Tours), 539, 548, 590, 1196 Hildebrand, 450

1265

INDEX Hildesheim, 876 Hill, Bert Hodge, 17, 328, 591, 652, 799 Hiller von Gaertringen, 343, 495, 591, 728, 883, 1097 Himera, 14, 592, 1028, 1029, 1067 Hipparchos, 1083 Hippias, 1083 Hippodameia, 823 Hippodamos of Miletos, 757, 867, 1066 Hippokrates of Gela, 674, 798 Hippokrates of Kos, 651 Hippolytus, Cardinal, 207 Hipponax, 939 Hirmer, M., 659 Hirschfeld, Gustav, 588, 592-593, 825 Hirschfeld, O., 1063 Hirschfeld Krater, 592 Hirschfeld Painter, 592 Hirt, A., 518, 661 Hispanic Society of New York, 477 Hissarlik. See Troy Hitler, Adolf, 159, 365, 593-594, 686 Hittorff, Jacques Ignace, 102, 594, 1022 Hitzig, H., 164 HMS Colossus, 567 Hobhouse, John Cam, 213, 355, 549, 594-595, 769 Hoby Cups, 326 Hochmann, S., 1103 Hodge, A. T., 110 Hodges, R., 197 Hoffmann, E. T. A., 545 Hoffmann, L., 875 Hogarth, David George, 193, 335, 336, 393, 572, 576, 595, 683, 798, 1078, 1208 Hogarth, W., 88, 143, 345 Holford, W. G., 197 Holkham sketchbook, 1144 Holland, H., 549, 1035 Hollanda, F. de. See Francisco d’Ollanda Hollar, Wenzel, 595 Holleaux, M., 352, 469 Hollis, Thomas, 442 Hollis, Thomas Brand, 442 Holm, A., 1029 Holmberg, E. J., 1065 Holstenius, L., 681, 1180 Holy Family in Egypt, by N. Poussin, 928 Holy Women at the Sepulcher, by P. P. Ru­ bens, 731 Homan-Wedeking, E., 495, 496 Homer, 444, 807, 1070; portrayal of, 247, 428, 516, 816, 939 Homolle, Theophile, 271, 352, 356, 469, 596 Honorius, 110, 254, 311, 690, 917, 918, 976, 1095 Honorius I, Pope, 551, 1085 Honos, 1095 Hood, M. S. F., 336, 646

Hooker, J. T., 789 Hoorn, Gerard van, 596, 622 Hope, 430; by Thorvaldsen, 450 Hope, T., and collection, 538, 567, 980, 1177 Hopf, M., 676 Hopkins, C., 378 Hoppin family, 365-366, 572 Hora, 185, 430 Horace, 803, 1109 Horapollo, 1143 Horatii and Curiatii, 673, 738 Horned God, 393 Horologion of Andronikos. See Tower of the Winds Horologium of Augustus, Rome. See Rome, Horologium of Augustus Horsemanship, by A. Pisano, 897 Horses of San Marco, 215, 251, 461, 596-598, 882 Hortensius, 839 Horti Sallustiani. See Gardens of Sallust Horus, 426 Hoskins & Grant, 1188 Hostetter, E., 43 Hostilianus, 696 House of Augustus, Rome. See Rome, House of Augustus House of Livia, Rome, 598, 840, 973, 982 House of the Faun, Pompeii. See, Pompeii, House of the Faun Houser, C., 868 Hoving, T., 750 Howard, F., 211 Hroswitha, 263 Hubner, E., 598, 1019 Hudson, T., 619 Hulot, J., 1022 HUlsen, Christian Karl Friedrich, 130, 492, 598-600, 982 Humann, Carl, 151, 153, 324, 494, 534, 600, 710, 874 Humbert, Colonel, 960 Humboldt, A. von, 600 Humboldt, Karl Wilhelm von, 543, 600-601, 1189 Huns, 59 Hunt, 1014 Hunt, P., 388 Hurwit, J., 653 Hus, A., 278 Hutchinson, R. W., 646 Huttlich, J., 398 Hyblon, 743 Hyllos, 832 Hyperboreans (Roman Hyperboreans), 408, 490, 601, 608, 846, 1050 Ialysos, 193, 612, 641, 712, 954, 955 Iasius, 1177

1266 Iasos, 612 IBM, 320 Ibrahim Pasha, 80 Ibycus, 321 Idaean Cave, 335, 337, 560, 583 Idalion (Idalium), 344, 1065 Idolino (Apollo; Bacchus; Ganymede), 527, 602-603, 740, 1138 Igel Monument, 517, 603, 714, 1197 Iguvine Tables. See Eugubine Tables Iguvium. See Gubbio Ikarios, 708, 1012 Iktinos, 127, 388, 855 Iliac Tablet. See Tabula Iliaca Iliffe, J., 987 “I l i s s o s 1175 Imbros, 288 Imperato, F., 782 Imperial Academy of Science (Russian), 589 Imperial Archaeological Commission (Rus­ sian), 183 Imperial Fora, Rome, 603-607 Inan, J., 875, 1030 Incoronata, 748 Indiges, 665 Infancy of Bacchus, 224 Infant Bacchus, 37 Inghirami, F., 85, 1072 Inghirami, T., 587 Ingot God, 393 Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique, 450, 468, 607-608, 704; Envoys to Achilles from Aga­ memnon, 607; Jupiter and Thetis, 607; Romulus, Conqueror of Acron, 607; Vergil Reading the Aeneid to Augustus, 607 Innocent II, Pope, 664 Innocent III, Pope, 70 Innocent VI, Pope, 297 Innocent VIII, Pope, 144, 291, 322, 716, 1135 Innocent XI, Pope, 282, 742 inscriptions, study of. See epigraphy Institut de correspondance hellenique, 468 Institut de France, 164 Institute of Archaeology, Moscow. See Mos­ cow, Institute of Archaeology Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica, 109, 162, 189, 222, 231, 241, 408, 418, 436, 462, 470, 489, 491, 601, 608-610, 702, 804, 846, 879, 942, 981 Interior of the Pantheon, by G. Panini, 845 Inventor o f the Arts, by A. Pisano, 897 Io, 79 Io and Argos, 598 Io and Jupiter, by Correggio, 540 Iolaus, 440 Ioulis, 634 Iphigenia, 190 Ippel, A., 975

INDEX Iris, 1184 Irvine, J. T., 129 Isabella II, Queen of Spain, 774 Isabella of Parma (Elisabetta Farnese), Queen of Spain, 185, 429, 932 Isambert, E., 550 Isaurians, 954 Ischia. See Pithekoussai Ischia di Castro, 224 Isidore of Seville, 533 Isis, 150, 633, 806, 867, 911 Isis, 49, 426 Isis (Roman Ship), 1140 Isler, H. P., 1029 Ismail Pasha, 820 Isokrates, 888, 924 Issos, 34 Istanbul. See Byzantium Isthmia, 45, 199, 610-611; museum, 634 Istituto di Studi Etruschi, 509 Istituto Nazionale di Archeologia, 658 Italia, 60 Italian School of Archaeology, Athens, 107, 335, 418, 469, 528, 560, 611-613, 651, 679, 883, 969 Italica (Santiponce), 613 Item, A., 1169 Ithaka (Ithaki), 195, 613-614, 787 Itinerarium Antonini, 1071 Ivano, A., 406, 1179 Ivanoff, S. A., 130 Ivanovitch, F., 388 Ixion, 138 Jacobsen, C., 576, 800, 815, 927 Jacobsthal, Paul, 615, 688, 744 Jacoby, F., 728, 1195 Jacopi, G., 54, 955, 1043 Jacques, Pierre, 66, 207, 247, 267, 615-616, 1014, 1144, 1145 Jaeger, W., 1195 Jahn, Otto, 150, 164, 223, 538, 576, 610, 616618, 752, 767, 879, 962, 971, 983, 1015, 1121, 1189, 1195 Jakovidis, S., 789 James I, King of England, 91, 204, 1036 James, H., 313 James Stuart, Prince, 1057 Jansen, L. J. F., 960 Jantzen, U., 495, 496 Janus, 433, 533, 863 Jason, 564 Jason and Medea, 523 Jason (ROV), 1140 Jason with the Golden Fleece, by B. Thorvald­ sen, 1100 Jeanti, G. A., 583 Jebb, R. C., 194

INDEX Jefferson, Thomas, 417, 618- 619, 712, 1059 Jenkins, R. J. H., 611 Jenkins, Thomas, 19, 20, 165, 211, 302, 408, 449, 565, 619- 620, 1124 Jeppeson, K., 737 Jerash. See Gerara Jericho, 97 Jerome, T. S. (Jerome Lectures), 42, 167, 201 Jerusalem, 488 Joanne, A. L., 550 Joanne, P. B., 550 Joffroy, R., 1178 Johanna, Popess, 772 John III, King of Portugal, 461 John VII, Pope, 840 John VIII Palaiologos (Johannes VIII Palaeologus), 426, 1002 John XXIII, antipope, 49 John Chrysostom, 1077 John of Salisbury, 579 John the Baptist, by Donatello, 369, 370 Johnson, F. P., 695 Johnson, Jotham, 621 Johnston, J. T., 749 Joller, A., 492 Jones, A. H. M., 73 Jones, I., 92, 532 Jones, Sir Henry Stuart-, 196, 197, 323, 621 Jongkees, Jan Hendrik, 622 Jordan, H., 453, 554, 599, 982, 1088 Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, 885, 911 “Joshua,” 216 Joukowsky, M., 401 Jowett, B., 802 Judgment of Paris, 276, 464, 749, 920, 946 Julia, 205 Julia, daughter of Augustus, 60 Julia, daughter of Titus, 273 Julia Augusta. See Livia Julia Augusta Felix Heliopolitanus. See Baal­ bek Julia Domna, 71 Julian, 294, 501 Julius II, Pope, 144, 188, 255, 292, 552, 587, 622- 623, 660, 673, 708, 753, 806, 834, 947, 968, 1005, 1148, 1156 Julius III, Pope, 31, 427, 499, 623- 625, 888, 924, 1083, 1109, 1149, 1167 Junius, F., the Elder, 625 Junius, Franciscus, the Younger, 92, 142, 531, 625- 627, 973, 1036, 1200 Juno, 1111; by G. Hamilton, 564 Juno Moneta, 238-239, 1084 Juno Regina, 919 Jupiter, 1046; portrayals of, 224, 262, 692, 731, 738, 1111 Jupiter Ammon, 965 Jupiter and Ganymede, by A. Mengs, 747

1267 Jupiter and Thetis, by J.-A.-D. Ingres, 607 Jupiter Heliopolitanus, 112 Jupiter Serapis, 965 Jupiter Tonans, 1086 Justinian, 9, 488, 674; portrayal of, 951 Jutuma, 665 Kabbadias, Panaghiotis. See Kavvadias, Panayiotis Kabeiroi, 1000 Kadmilos, 1000 Kadmos, 1096 Kahler, Heinz, 109, 323, 486, 628, 723, 1130 Kahn, L., 559 Kait Bey, Sultan, 35 Kakovatos, 939 Kakovoyannis, 665 Kalamis, 88, 271 Kalliades, 728 Kalligas, P., 650 Kallikrates, 855, 1078 Kallimachos of Kyrene, 938 Kallipolitis, B., 649 Kalokarinos, M., 334, 643 Kaloriziki, 652 Kamares Cave, 334, 335, 336 Kamarina, 1067, 1069 Kameiros (Kamiros), 193, 641, 954, 955 Kaminia, 612 Kampos, 787, 1134 Kanachos, 1147 Kanoni, 649, 650 Kanta, A., 337 Kapodistrias, I., 796 Karageorghis, V., 345, 638, 639 Karanis, 633 Karapanos, 649 Kardaki, 649, 650 Karetsou, A., 337 Karl Theodor, 51 Karneades, 888, 924, 938 Karo, Georg(e), 495, 629, 688, 1184 Karouzos, C., 496, 797 Karphi, 336 Karpion, 855 Karteros. See Amnisos Karthaia (Kartheia), 198, 634 Kaschnitz, M.-L., 629 Kaschnitz-Weinberg, Guido von, 160, 236, 493, 629-630 Kasfiki, 650 Kasmenai, 1067 Kassel, Landesmuseum, 160, 204 Kassopi, 650 Kastriotis (Kastriotes), P., 10, 107, 969 Kato Phana, 277 Kato Syme, 337 Katsambas, 337

1268 Katzev, M., 1139 Katzev, S., 1139 Kaufmann, Maria Anna Catherina Angelica, 186, 601, 630- 631, 974; Alexander, Apelles and Kampaspe, 630; Cornelia, Mother of the Gracchi, 630; Design, 630; Pliny the Younger and His Mother at Misenum, 630; Praxiteles Showing Phryne the Statue of Cu­ pid, 630; Zeuxis Choosing the Models for the Painting of Helen of Troy, 630 Kaupert, J. A., 106, 494 Kavousi, 45, 335, 337, 572 Kavvadias, Panayiotis, 17, 18, 127, 163, 220, 395, 537, 583, 631, 860 Kawerau, G., 17, 18, 631, 825, 860 Kea. See Keos Keats, John, 391, 631- 632, 818, 1027 Keil, J., 394 Kekrops, 728 Kekule von Stradonitz, Reinhard, 376, 476, 632- 633, 688, 876, 883, 962, 965, 1188, 1194, 1195 Keller, Baron von, 811 Kelsey, Francis Willey, 633, 733, 913 Kenchreai, 326, 328, 633- 634, 1140 Kenrick, P. M., 997 Kenyon, K., 997, 1060, 1162 Keos (Kea, Tzia), 45, 198, 253, 343, 344,

634-635 Kephala, 634 Kephisodotos, portait of Menander, 744 Kerameikos excavations, Athens, 106, 417, 494, 495, 537, 635- 636, 876 Keramopoullos, A., 13, 683, 1096, 1097 Kerch, 183, 589 Kestner, A., 489, 601, 608, 846, 1050, 1051, 1072 Key, W., 689 Khania, 683 Khirokitia, 345 Kiepert, Heinrich, 294, 600, 636, 1194 Kilian, K., 789 Kimon, 98 King of Armenia. See Farnese Captives King of Parthia. See Farnese Captives Kinnaird, Lord, 1072 Kircher, Athanasius, 121, 171, 341, 408, 636638, 830, 1089 Kirchoff, A., 547, 962 Kirchner, Johannes, 638 Kirsten, E., 550 Kish, 97 Kition (Larnaca), 344, 345, 638-639 Kleanthis, S., 639 Klein, W., 578 Kleiner, D.E.E., 769, 925 Kleiner, G., 629 Klemi-Bonati, D., 385

INDEX Klenze, Leo von, 18, 105, 230, 514, 561, 639640, 860 Kleobis and Biton, 79, 356 Kleoboulos, 954 Kleomenes, 742 Kleopatra, Queen of Macedon, 1115 Klotz, C. A., 677, 678 Kliigmann, A., 490 Kneeling Persian, 673 Kneller, G., 1033 Knidian Aphrodite (Cnidian Aphrodite; Cnidia; Knidia), by Praxiteles, 90, 215, 241, 381, 640- 641, 742, 936, 957, 1148, 1156, 1166 Knidos, 46, 192, 640, 641 Kniep, C. H., 566 Knigge, U., 496 Knight, C., 690 Knight, Death and the Devil, by A. Diirer, 597 Knight, Richard Payne, 192, 290, 390, 641642, 1021, 1028, 1036, 1038 Knossos, 45, 62, 97, 195, 334, 335, 410, 411, 412, 528, 572, 583, 642- 646, 683, 713, 788, 872, 883, 1019 Kober, A., 1155 Koch, G., 972 Koes, G., 198, 562 Kofiniotis, I. K., 97 Kohler, U., 343, 494 Kolbe, W., 17 Koldewey, Robert, 112, 646- 647, 1022, 1029 Koller collection, 153 Kolophon (Colophon), 519 Kommos, Crete, 45, 337, 647-648 Kondakov, P. N., 985 Konon, 867 Kontoleon, N., 343 Korais, A., 536 Korai and Kouroi, 19, 110, 353, 445, 450, 514, 552, 648- 649, 659, 749, 867, 890, 1040 Korakou, 45 Kore, 874 Koressos, 634 Korinthos. See Corinth Korkyra (Korfu), 372, 649- 650, 667 Koroibos, 388 Korovina, A. K., 184 Korres, G., 940 Korres, M., 861, 1093 Korte, A., 650 Korte, Gustav, 490, 492, 494, 650 Kos, 612, 641, 651, 679 Kouklia, 852 Koumanoudes, K. D., 969, 1055 Koumanidis, A., 537 Koumanidis, S., 537 Kourion, 267, 345, 591, 651-652 Kouroi. See Korai and Kouroi

INDEX Kourouniotis (Kourouniotes), K., 10, 107, 277, 387, 536, 907, 939, 940, 969 Kourtes, 560 Kraay, Colin, 652, 1099 Kraiker, W., 550 Krasnodar, Archaeological Museum, 184 Kraus, T., 493, 975 Krauss, F., 837 Kresilas, 775; Wounded Amazon, 749 Kritios, 271, 652-653; Tyrannicides, 448, 653, 738 Kritios Boy, 17, 19, 648, 652-653 Kroisos. See Croesus Kroll, W., 340 Kronos, 823 Kubitscheck, W., 1071 Kuchler, C., 1183 Kul Oba, 183, 589 Kultepe, 48 Kunst- und Wunderkammer, 299, 301, 569, 589, 781 Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, 150-151, 653-654, 783, 1003, 1134, 1166 Kunze, E., 496, 825, 828 Kusura, 657 Kuttner, A., 39 Kyrenia, 1139 Kyrileis, H., 496 Kythera, 1047 Kyzikos, 288, 447 l’Heureux Royal, 182 L’Orange, H. P., 67, 323 La Malga, 250 La Regina, A., 1090 La Rosa, V., 336, 560 La Turbie, 481 La Vega, F., 911 Labico, 439 Labors of Herakles (Hercules), 216, 580, 837, 1006, 1014 Labors of Man, by A. Pisano, 898 Labors of Theseus, 580 Labraunda, 877 “ Labyrinth” of Gortyn, 344, 655-656 Lachares, 102, 857 Lachmann, K., 616 Lady and her Maid, by Dexamenos, 442 Laeta, N., 679 Lafrery (Lafreri), A., 115, 317, 377, 656-657, 680, 725, 735, 924, 944, 979, 1112, 1132 Laidlaw, A., 975 Lamb, Winifred, 277, 657 Lambaesis, 493 Lamberg, F. A., 653 Lambin, D., 1014 Lamboglia, N., 1139 Lambrinoudakis, B., 395

1269 Lampsonius, D., 689 Lancellotti collection, 365, 1177 Lanciani, Rodolfo, 57, 93, 132, 135, 276, 375, 418, 502, 554, 657-658, 665, 702, 726, 977, 982, 1112 Lanckoronski, K., 98, 875, 879, 1030 Landi, C., 27 Landscape with the Temple of the Sibyl at Ti­ voli, by Cjlaude Lorraine, 290 Lang, M. L.| 163 Langbehn, Jl, 203 Lange, L., 797 Langius, C., 831, 1120 Langlotz, Ernst, 632, 649, 658-659 Langmann, G., 394 Lansdowne, Marquess of (Earl of Shelburne), and collection, 564, 980 Lansdowne Artemis, 448 Lansdowne Herakles, 496 Lante collection, 619 “ Lantern of Demosthenes,” “ of Diogenes.” See Athens, Monument of Lysikrates Lanuvium, 237, 1124 Lanzi, Luigi, 277, 357, 410, 441, 490, 538, 659-660, 1072, 1137 Laocoon, by Athenodoros, Hagesandros and Polydoros, 82, 122, 135,155, 234, 248, 292, 300, 360, 366, 369, 390,424, 448, 461, 505, 516, 520, 569, 575,623, 642, 656, 660-662, 685, 689, 693,708, 755, 781, 832, 854, 903, 936, 978, 981, 1004, 1006, 1008, 1009, 1108, 1147, 1148, 1149, 1151, 1166, 1191, 1200; by B. Bandinelli, 116 Lapethos (Lapithos), 591, 1065 Lapis Niger, 53, 171, 172, 242, 399, 455, 662-663, 982 Lapiths and Centaurs, 580 Largilliere, N. de, 143, 668 Largo Argentina, Area Sacra, Rome, 663, 982, 1096 Larmessin, N. de, 831 Lamaca. See Kition Lars Porsenna. See Porsenna, Lars Laskaris, J., 1002 Last Judgment, by Michelangelo, 755, 899 Lateran, Rome, 239, 242, 286, 297, 323, 397, 447, 460, 663-664, 705, 719, 720, 721, 865, 893, 979, 1032, 1045 Latomia, 111 Laugier, M. A., 893 Laurana, L., 763 Laureion, 664-665 Laurentius, 331 Laurenzi, L.j 170, 612, 651 Laurinus, M„ 1034 Lausus, 215 Laval collection, 589 Lavater, J. K., 516

1270 Lavinia, 665 Lavinium (Pratica di Mare), 665-666 Laviosa, C., 994 Lawrence, D. H., 358 Lawrence, G., 987 Lawrence, T. E., 595 Layard, A. H., 358, 359, 530 Lazius, W., 1113 Le Bas, P., 344, 873 Le Brun, Charles, 143, 504, 667-668 Le Galluzze. See “ Temple of Minerva Medica” Le Pois, A., 510 Le Roy, Bishop Thomas, 775 Leach, E. W., 976 Leagros Group, 1102 Leake, William Martin, 105, 127, 213, 269, 328, 442, 549, 614, 666, 684, 709, 717, 744, 785, 799, 825, 828, 873, 1077, 1098, 1128, 1146 Leander, 1 Leanti, A., 884 Lear, A., 666 Lear, Edward, 127, 128, 269, 666- 667, 1041, 1098 Lebegue, J. A., 352 Lebena, 335, 560 Lebessi, A., 64, 337 Leblon, 965 Lebond, M., 205 Lecarpentier, C., 963 Lechaion, 326, 328 Lechat, H., 649 Leclerc, 361 Le Corbusier, 559 Lectistemium, 870 Leda, by Leonardo da Vinci, 338 Lefkandi, 195, 668- 669, 900 Lehmann (-Hartleben), Karl, 669- 670, 1003, 1165 Lehmann, G. A., 789 Lehmann, P. W., 750, 1115 Leiden, Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, 231, 535, 959- 960; Royal Coin Cabinet, 960 Leland, John, 129, 670-671 Lemaire, C., 345, 675 Lemnos, 418, 679 Lenormant, Charles, 387, 608, 671- 672, 907 Lenormant, Francois, 672, 1066 Leo I, Pope, 84 Leo III, Pope, 272 Leo IV, Pope, 110 Leo X, Pope, 68, 71, 88, 115, 148, 240, 277, 305, 415, 473, 502, 672- 674, 723, 738, 807, 863, 945, 947, 948, 949, 968, 979, 1005, 1136, 1143 Leo XII, Pope, 176, 313, 981

INDEX Leo XIII, Pope, 915 Leo the Isaurian, 352 Leochares, 90, 144, 736 Leonard, A., 798 Leonard, R. W., 987 Leonardo da Vinci, 142, 292, 408, 753, 755, 1006, 1138, 1143; Leda, 338; Mona Lisa, 596 Leonardos, V. I., 648 Leoni, F., 78 Leonidas of Sparta, 179 Leontinoi, 674, 799 Leopardi, G., 912 Leopold I, Grand Duke of Tuscany, 384, 746, 1137 Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany, 445, 463 Lepautre, 361 Lepidus, Aemilius, 919 Lepidus Sulpicianus, 528 Leporeo, L., 173 Lepsius, R., 610 Leptis Magna, 432, 674- 675, 692, 1140; Arch of Septimius Severus, 70, 675, 1129 Lerat, L., 356 Lerici, Carlo Maurilio, 675- 676, 1067 Lerici Foundation, 265, 409, 419, 675-676, 684, 1067, 1072 Lerna, 45, 97, 253, 676-677 Leroy (Le Roy), Julien-David, 677, 893 Lesbos, 195, 289, 646, 829 Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, 516, 661, 677678, 1042 Leto, Giulio Pomponio, 24, 263, 304, 305, 472, 552, 553, 554, 678- 679, 864, 865, 882, 967, 993, 1088 Letoon, 1206 Leukas (Leucas), 372, 614 Levi, A., 1071 Levi, Doro, 3, 53, 336, 346, 528, 612, 679680, 883, 1179 Levi, M., 1071 Levi-Strauss, C., 630 Lewis, D. M„ 397 Lex de imperio Vespasiani, 297, 397, 664 Lex Malicitana, 775 Leyland, John. See Leland, John Libertini, G., 612 Libon of Elis, 1088 Licinio, B., 148 Licinius, 67, 214 Lictors Bringing Back the Bodies of the Sons of Brutus, by J.-L. David, 351 Lieven, van der Beke. See Torrentius, Laevinus Life of Constantine, by Pietro da Cortona and P. P. Rubens, 887 Light, W., 414 Ligorio, Pirro, 12, 66, 77, 138, 315, 373, 398,

INDEX 406, 413, 415, 427, 449, 478, 480, 544, 553, 558, 559, 656, 661, 665, 680-682, 708, 888, 923, 924, 931, 970, 978, 1080, 1083, 1109, 1116, 1130, 1149 Ligozzi, J., 30 Lilli, A., 76 Lindos, 807, 954-955 Lindros, J., 1065 Linckh, J., 13, 193, 562 Lindos, 641 Linear A and B, 396, 476, 560, 643, 645, 682-684, 780, 787, 788, 883, 939, 1155, 1182, 1186 Ling, R., 167 Linington, Richard Edgar, 684, 941 Linnaeus, 30 Lion, by F. Vacca, 1144 Lion and Horse, 240 Lion Attacking a Bull, by Giambologna, 500 Lion Gate, 684-685, 785 Lion Hunt, 946 Liontrainer, 1014 Lipari, 829 Lipona collection, 51, 701 Lippert, D., 512 Lippi, Filippino, 685-686, 720, 738, 973; Saint Philip Exorcising the Demon, 544 Lippi, Fra Filippo, 1031 Lippold, Georg, 475, 686, 1038, 1150 Lipsius, Justus, 398, 531, 547, 686-687, 831, 877, 888, 990, 1015, 1034 Lisca, F., 479 Lithgow, W., 655 Livia, 60, 598, 607, 1169, 1170; portrayals of, 251, 252, 486, 535, 675, 731, 816, 820, 1179 Llano de la Consolation, 348-349 Lloyd, W., 922 Loccella, Baron, 385 Loch, Lord and Lady, 987 Locke, J., 922 Loeb, James, 52, 83, 687-688 Loeschcke, G., 494, 629, 835, 1027 Loeschcke, Georg, 85, 475, 688, 1188 Lokroi, 956 Lolling, H. G., 494, 549 Lombard, Lambert, 446, 521, 688-689, 1014,

1120 London, 689-691; British Museum, 13, 14, 18, 27, 38, 46, 99, 162, 191-194, 223, 225, 232, 280, 295, 303, 344, 346, 388, 390, 392, 393, 416, 438, 478, 507, 512, 532, 545, 565, 566, 620, 641, 690, 730, 732, 738, 784, 800, 802, 811, 813, 854, 911, 972, 985, 1034, 1038, 1077, 1104, 1115, 1124, 1128, 1190, 1205; Library, 209 Mu­ seum of, 690, 691, 1185, 1192; South Ken­ sington Museum, 900. See also Aigina Treasure; Apotheosis of Homer; As-

1271 pertini, A.; Athens, Erechtheion; Athens, Parthenon; Bassai; Bellini, J.; Blacas; Diskobolos; Farnese Hermes; Halikamassos, Mausoleum; Knidean Aphrodite; Lyde Browne Collection; Portland Vase; Townley collection; Townley Vase Loredano collection, 25 Lorena (Lorraine), Dukes of, 445, 740, 1137 Lorenzetto, 449, 1144; Christ and the Adulter­ ess, 175 Lorichs, M., 216 Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor, 273, 510 Lotto, L., 756 Louis Auguste de Bourbon, 274 Louis-Philippe, 468, 589 Louis the Bavarian, Golden Bull of, 317, 318 Louis IX, King of France, 486 Louis XIII, King of France, 175 Louis XIV, King of France, 141, 156, 256, 274, 302, 425, 467, 504, 667, 691-692, 711, 742, 743, 810, 827, 828, 1158 Louis XV, King of France, 90, 999 Louis XVI, King of France, 279 Louis XVIII, King of France, 64, 594, 1154 Louvre Museum, Paris, 21, 32, 39, 66, 223, 224, 265, 271, 303, 346, 409, 564, 581, 596, 692-695, 704, 710, 783, 810, 825, 859, 972, 1159, 1174. See also Albani collection; Alexander Azara; Amazon of Polykleitos; Antinous; Aphrodite of Melos; Apollo Sauroktonos; Artemis of Versailles; Athens Parthenon; Auxerre Lady; Bacchus of Versailles; Borghese Ares; Borghese Dancers; Borghese Faun; Borghese Fisherman; Borghese Gladiator; Borghese Hermaphrodite; Borghese Vase; Boscoreale; Campana Reliefs; “Cincinnatus"; Crouch­ ing Venus; Dama de Elche, Dancing Satyr; Diana of Gabii; Deskobolos; Emperor Hera­ clius on Horseback; “Germanicus”; Hera of Cheramyes; Homer; Jupiter of Versailles; Lucius Verus; Marcus Aerelius; Mona Lisa; Niobid Krater; Piombino Apollo; Rampin Horseman; Rome, ‘‘Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus” and Ara Pacis Augustae; Sa­ bina and Hadrian; Silenos; Sosibos Vase; Spinario; Synistor, P. Fannius; Tiara of Saitaphemes, liber; Venus de Milo; Venus of Arles; Victory of Samothrace Love, I. C., 641 Loviot, B., 102 Lowy, E., 375, 502 Lubke, W., 876 Lucchesi, 891 Lucera, 466 Lucilla, 243 Lucius Caesar, 231

1272 Lucius Versus, 1103; portrayal of, 21, 951 Lucretia, by J. van Scorel, 574 Lucretius, 1100; portrayal of, 939 Lucullus, 172, 792; portrayal of, 578 Luders, O., 494 Ludington collection, 143 Ludius, 822 Ludovisi, Cardinal Ludovico, 37, 382, 695, 696 Ludovisi, Giambattista, Prince of Piombino, 698 Ludovisi, I., 698 Ludovisi, Lavinia, 698 Ludovisi, Luigi Boncompagni, 601 Ludovisi, O., 698 Ludovisi, Rodolfo Boncompagni, 1090 Ludovisi Ares (Mars), 156, 601, 695, 698, 1090 Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus, 695- 696, 698, 1090 Ludovisi family and collection, 240, 257, 266, 267, 301, 381-382, 478, 695, 696-698, 699, 700, 709, 740, 820, 863, 928, 979, 1019, 1090, 1119 Ludovisi Gaul Killing Himself and His Wife, 156, 382, 478, 601, 696, 698- 699, 928, 1090 Ludovisi Juno, 267, 461, 516, 601, 698 Ludovisi Mars. See Ludovisi Ares Ludovisi Mercury, 37 Ludovisi Minerva, 37 Ludovisi “ Throne,” 478, 698, 700, 1090 Ludwig I, King of Bavaria, 13, 21, 51, 118, 119, 231, 303, 409, 416, 513, 543, 562, 617, 639, 700- 701, 744, 783, 994, 1072, 1119, 1183 Ludwig X, Duke of Bavaria, 24 Lugli, Giuseppe, 3, 555, 701- 702, 925, 1026, 1120 Lumley, Sir Savile, 800 Luna, 440, 988 Luni, 116, 1065 Lupa. See Capitoline Wolf Luschan, F., 647 Lusetti, W., 374 Lusieri, Giovanni Battista, 388, 389, 390, 702, 769 Lusignan, E. de, 344 Lusinier, C., 138 Lutatius Catulus, 663 Lutyens, Sir Edwin, 196 Luynes, Due de, 601, 608, 703-704 Lyde Brown collection, 620, 1124 Lydos, 8 Lyell, C., 1059 Lykourgos, 504 Lyons (Lyon; Lugdunum), 56, 481, 704, 1047; Musee de la civilisation gallo-romaine, 704 Lysikrates, 767

INDEX Lysimachos, 1133 Lysippos, 32, 52, 177, 178, 215, 496, 587, 597, 695, 957; Apoxyomenos, 56; Bronze Athena, 200; Eros (attributed), 380; Farnese Herakles, 430-431; Hera of Samos, 215; Hermes Tying His Sandal (attributed), 815; Opportunity, 215; Seated Herakles, 216; Sokrates, 1038 Lyttos, 528 Maa-Palaekastro, 345 Maas, P., 1195 Mabillon, J., 422, 501, 1152 Mabuse. See Gossaert, Jan Maccarani collection, 1124 Maccarone, M., 430 MacGillivray, J. A., 337, 838 Mackenzie, D., 411, 645, 744 Mackenzie, F., 96 Maclaren, C., 220, 1018 Macstma, 462 Macworth Young, 343 Maderno (Madema), Carlo, 447, 705- 706, 731, 840, 849 Madonna and Child, by J. Sansovino, 1012 Madonna del Parto, by J. Sansovino, 1009 Madonna della Perla, by Giulio Romano, 523 Madonna o f the Oak, by Giulio Romano, 505 Madrague de Giens, 1140 Madrid, Aecazar Palace, 714 Madrid, Museo Arqueologico Nacional, 747, 774- 775, 783. See also Birth of Athena; Dama de Baja; Dama de Elche; Madrid Puteal Madrid, Pardo, 714 Madrid, Prado, Museum, 282, 783, 931- 932, 1153. See also Prado Museum Madrid Puteal, 775 Maecenas, 1109 Maetzke, G., 445, 446 Maffei, Achille, 708 Maffei, Achille II, 708 Maffei, Angelo, 708 Maffei, Benedetto, 708 Maffei, Cardinal Bernardino, 708, 938 Maffei, Francesco Scipione, 4, 398, 426, 527, 706- 708, 766, 1072, 1161 Maffei, M., 398 Maffei, Palo Alessandro, 11, 119, 120, 179, 237, 709 Maffei family and collection, 292, 708-709 Magalotti, Cardinal Lorenzo, 121 Magdalensberg Youth, 654 Magi, F., 68, 612, 661, 1150 Magius, Minatius, 584 Magna Mater, 284 Magnesia-on-the-Maeander, 153, 289, 591, 600, 709- 710, 1092, 1202 Magni, C., 810

INDEX Magoffin, Ralph van Deman, 710 Mahdia, 180, 710- 711, 1139 Maidens with Candelabrum (Borghese), 174, 175 Maier, F. G., 852 Maillol, 271 Maison Carree, Nimes, 481, 618, 711- 712, 809, 850 Maiuri, Amedeo, 114, 339, 585, 586, 612, 712, 777, 778, 837, 913, 955, 974, 1169, 1170 Major, T., 837 Makron, 8 Malatesta, S., 23 Malatya, 48 Malcolm, Sir Pulteney, 442 Male, E., 470 Malherbe, 868 Malia (Mallia), 270, 336, 469, 683, 712-713 Malibu, J. Paul Getty Museum, 496-497, 745 Mallwitz, A., 650, 825, 1081 Malthi, 1065 Malton, Earl of, 952 Malventum. See Benevento Mamboury, E., 216 Mamet, 1097 Manacorda, D., 1060 Manatt, J. G., 1135 Mancinelli, F., 471 Mancini, R., 833 Mancioli, D., 1023 Mander, C. van, 544, 572 Manet, Dejeuner sur Vherbe, 946 Manetti, L. G., 319, 865 Mann, R., 129 Mannheim, Electoral Collection, 516 Manilli, J., 173 Mano-Zissi, D., 1056 Mansel, A. M., 875, 1030 Mansell-Talbot, T., 564 Mansfeld, E., 713 Mansfeld (Mansfeldt), Peter Ernest von, 603, 713- 714, 1197 Mansionario, Giovanni (Matociis, G. de), 714715, 1159 Mansuelli, G., 730 Mantegna, Andrea, 140, 149, 299, 302, 404, 413, 437, 503, 522, 715- 717, 718, 922, 1049, 1143; Battle of the Sea Gods, 380, 438, 716; Parnassus, 174, 438, 716; Tri­ umph of Caesar, 438, 716 Mantiklos Apollo, 119 Mantuan Apollo, 163, 505 Manutius, A., 149, 306, 804 Manutius, P., 398 Marasovic, J., 1047 Marathon, 213, 433, 459, 717, 726, 1048, 1204 Marathon Boy, 717- 718, 797

1273 Maratta, C., 20, 141 Marble Faun. See Capitoline Faun Marble Plan. See Forma Urbis Romea Marcanova, Giovanni, 323, 398, 413, 437, 716, 718-720 Marcellus, Comte de, 1156 Marcellus, M. Claudius, 298, 771 Marcellus (nephew of Augustus), 1093; por­ trayal of, 504, 693 Marchenko, I. D., 183 Marchetti-Longhi, G., 663 Marck, E. de la, 689 Marco da Ravenna. See Dente, Marco Marco Polo (horse), 422 Marconi, I. B., 15, 1022 Marconi, P., 15, 592, 1029 Marcucci, 260 Marcus Aurelius, 58, 245, 316, 1103; portrayal of, 497, 564, 951 Marcus Aurelius: Equestrian Statue, 50, 82, 239, 240, 241, 242, 297, 300, 360, 370, 461, 539, 569, 664, 685, 719, 720- 722,756, 781, 845, 864, 865, 928, 945, 951, 979, 1032; Panels, 240, 722-723 Matforio (Tiberis; Mars; Nar Fluvius; Oceanus), 240, 246, 322, 656, 724- 725, 863 Margotta II. See Sangallo, Francesco da Margaret of Austria, 300, 738 Maria Amalia, Queen of Naples, 584 Maria Carolina, Queen of Naples, 185, 974 Mariette, Pierre-Jean, 123, 261, 274, 512, 725726, 1199 Marinatos, Spyridon, 45, 336, 337, 343, 726, 940, 1097, 1098 Marinetti, F., 432 Marini, 399 Marino, 927 Marius, 932, 1109, 1130, 1132 Marius, Sextus, 699 Mark, I., 1078 Marlborough collection, 438 Marliani, Bartolomeo, 373, 415, 531, 552, 553, 681, 682, 726- 727, 979, 1032, 1086 Marly, 692 Marmita of Parma, 449 Marmor Parium, 387, 396, 727-728 Maron, A. von, 212, 612 Maroneia, 288 Marotti Herakles, 1186 Marquand, H., 749 Marriage Feast of Cupid and Psyche, by Giulio Romano, 506 Marriage of Thetis and Peleus, 224 Mars, 747, 756, 863 Mars, 60, 350, 724, 1111; by Velazquez, 1153; of Todi, 540 Mars and Venus, 224, 989; by Botticelli, 185. See also Venus and Mars Marsden, P., 690

1274 Marseilles (Massalia; Massilia), 80, 88, 392, 481, 728- 729, 914, 1139, 1140; Musee des docks romains, 728 Marshall, J., 749, 1186 Marsili, L. F., 169 Marsyas, 87, 295, 525, 1145, 1148; and Apollo, 185; by Myron, 775, 879; restored by Verrochio, 737 Martelli, M., 916 Martha, Jules, 729 Martin, J., 306 Martin V, Pope, 834, 1075 Martinelli, F., 553 Martinetti, F., 432, 576, 934 Martini, A. di, 934 Martino Pollainolo, Francesco Maurizio di. See Francesco di Giorgio Martini Martius. See Spinario Martoni, N. da, 104 Martorelli, J., 2, 187 Martyrdom of Saint Agnes, by Domenichino, 366 Martyrdom of Saint Bibiana, by P. da Cortona, 887 Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence, by Titian, 1108 Marx, K., 166 Mary, Queen of Hungary, 569 Marzi, Bishop Angelo, 1007 Marzabotto (Misano), 169, 198, 530, 592, 729- 730; museum, 729, 730 Marzullo, A., 837 Masaccio, 753 Masada, 958 Masinissa, 996 “ Mask of Agamemnon,” 797 Massacre of Innocents, by N. Poussin, 928 Massalia. See Marseilles Massarenti collection, 1185 Massimi, Cardinal Camillo, 122, 123, 257, 973 Massimi family, 980 Masson, Georgina, 571 Mastai-Ferretti, Giovanni Maria. See Pius IX Mastrilli, Felice Maria, 730, 811 Mastrokostas, E., 867 Mater Matuta, 983, 1010, 1013, 1088 Matisse, 450 Matociis, Giovanni. See Mansionario, Giovanni Matt, L. von, 975 Mattei, A., 698, 706, 731, 732, 840 Mattei, B. J., 731 Mattei, C., 731 Mattei, F., 731 Mattei, Girolamo, 841 Mattei, Giuseppe, 732 Mattei, G. B., 284, 731 Mattei, M., 698 Mattei Eagle, 731

INDEX Mattei family and collection, 165, 291, 619, 706, 731- 732, 840, 841, 980, 1177 Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor, 484 Mattingly, Harold, 732, 813 Matz, F. the Elder, 733, 971 Matz, Friedrich, the Younger, 513, 630, 732733, 972 Mau, August, 492, 633, 733, 734, 822, 835, 913, 974, 975 Mauceri, 592 Maurer, G. L., 105 Maurice, Prince d’Elboeuf, 584 Maurice of Nassau, 828 Mauro, L., 31 Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome, 60, 228, 240, 397, 432, 502, 615, 727, 733- 736, 739, 770, 944, 977, 978, 980, 982 Mausoleum of Hadrian. See Rome, Castel Sant’Angelo Mausoleum of Halikamassos, 192, 257, 261, 324, 561, 736- 737, 802, 1006 Mausolos, 561, 736, 737 Mavias, 315 Maxentius, 242, 322, 758, 839, 1085, 1159, 1163 Maximian, 110, 132, 1089, 1095 Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, 381, 569, 654, 882, 1071 Maximilian I, King of Bavaria, 639 Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor, 1058, 1149 Maximinus Thrax, 816 Mazarin, Cardinal, 691, 692 Mazois, F., 909, 912 Mazzini, 905 Mazzocchi, J., 2, 305, 398, 473, 673 McCann, A. M., 926, 972, 1140 McCredie, J. R., 1003 McDonald, W., 758, 805 McFadden, G., 652 McKim, C. F. (McKim, Mead and White), 42, 1054 McNally, S., 1047 Mead, R., 123 Medici, A. de’, 738-739 Medici, Cardinal Giovanni de’. See Leo X, Pope Medici, Cardinal Giulio de’, 1143 Medici, Cardinal Leopoldo de’, 740 Medici, Cosimo (II Vecchio) de’, 288, 299, 300, 737, 805, 1148 Medici, Cosimo I, de’, 86, 262, 277, 301, 373, 443, 480, 500, 624, 739, 782, 864, 1137, 1147, 1149, 1165; portrayal of, by Giambol­ ogna, 500

INDEX Medici, Cosimo II, de’, 357 Medici, Cosimo III, de’, 209, 740, 741, 1137 Medici, Ferdinand (Ferdinando) I, de’, 177, 207, 739, 782, 809, 1145; portrayal of, by Giambologna, 500 Medici, Ferdinand (Ferdinando) II, de’, 698, 740, 864, 887 Medici, Francesco I de’, 301, 739, 782, 1137, 1149 Medici, Gian Gastone de’, 740 Medici, Lorenzo (II Magnifico) de’, 23, 85, 299, 426, 445, 447, 502, 510, 672, 737-738, 753, 864, 1008 Medici, M. de’, 868, 964 Medici, P. de’, 738 Medici, Piero (II Gottoso), 300, 737 Medici family and collection, 3, 32, 59, 61, 85, 86, 87, 115, 140, 169, 187, 262, 300, 301, 428, 445, 449, 500, 522, 541, 543, 602, 685, 698, 709, 737- 741, 742, 746, 753, 926, 980, 991, 1005, 1137-1138 Medici Vase, 180, 740, 741, 1137 Medici Venus, 186, 241, 301, 332, 517, 619, 642, 740, 741- 742, 899, 957, 1137, 1138, 1175, 1191 Medusa, 52, 391 Medusa, 447 Meeting o f Leo X and Attila, 949 Megalopolis, 195 Megara, 459, 796, 824 Megara Hyblaea, 470, 471, 742-743, 1022, 1069 Megaw, A. H. S., 611, 652, 852, 873 Megaw, W.-R., 513 Mehmet (Mehmed; the Conqueror) II, Sultan, 48, 139, 1002 Meineke, A., 636 Meleager, 138 Meleager, 143, 564, 749, 898, 917, 1111, 1134, 1149, 1191; by Skopas, 291, 743 Melida, J. R., 747 Mellan, C., 691 Mellini family, 266 Mellink, M., 391 Mellon Foundation, 10 Melos (Phylakopi), 195, 343, 591, 595, 744, 771 Memnon, 700 Menander, portraits of, 744- 745, 938, 939 Mendel, G., 54, 216 Mendoza, R. de, 297 Menelaos, 1040 Menelaos and Patroklos, 863, 864 Mengarelli, R., 265, 1013 Menghini, N., 319 Mengs, Anton Raphael, 143, 179, 211, 292, 449, 564, 589, 630, 745- 747, 932, 1175; Jupiter and Ganymede, 747; Parnassus, 746

1275 Menidi, 494, 787 Mensa Isiaca, 148-149, 523 Mercati, G. B., 1087 Mercati, M., 782, 817, 1110 Mercuriale, G., 681 Mercury, 423, 863 Mercury, 498, 1111; by A. Coysevox, 332; by Giambologna, 500 Mercury and Argus, by Velazquez, 1153 Merida (Augusta Emerita), 57, 747- 748; Mu­ seo Nacional de Arte, 747 Merimee, P., 712 Meritt, B. D., 396 Merkelbach, R., 426 Merlin, A., 470, 710 Mertens, D., 493 Messel, A., 154, 874 Messene, 537 Messenia, 45, 726, 805 Messineo, G., 1169 Metapontion (Metaponto), 493, 676, 684, 702, 748, 824, 1067 Metellus, L. Caecilius, 1079 Metellus Creticus, Q. Caecilius, 1112 Metellus Macedonicus, Q. Caecilius, 919 Meteora, 1107 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 344, 409, 748- 750, 783, 784, 790, 958, 972, 1186. See also Baker Dancer; Boscotrecase; Cesnola collection; Death of Sarpedon, by Euphronios; Endymion Sarcophagus; Faun Teased by Cupids; Judgment of Paris; Korai and Kouroi; Medici Venus; Meleager Sar­ cophagus; Monteleone Chariot; Muses and Sirens Sarcophagus; Old Market Woman; Synistor P. Fannius; Rape of The Sabines; Wounded Amazon Metz, 714, 1197 Meursius, 497 Meyer, Eduard, 750- 751, 965 Meyer, Ernst, 751 Meyer, H., 28, 517 Micali, Giuseppe, 751- 752, 1072 Micali Painter, 752, 833 Michaelis, Adolf Theodor Friedrich, 56, 165, 223, 617, 752, 835, 879 Michalowski, K., 844 Michelangelo Buonarroti, 87, 95, 110, 127, 132, 145, 148, 155, 156, 176, 239, 240, 299, 318, 350, 398, 408, 424, 430, 446, 447, 449, 461, 517, 535, 544, 622, 623, 660, 661, 685, 720, 738, 752- 756, 818, 849, 865, 945, 1006, 1072, 1089, 1165, 1167, 1179; Adam, 755; Bacchus and Infant Satyr, 753, 754; Battle of Cascina, 755; Battle of the Centaurs, 753, 755; Brutus, 755; David, 755, 944; Day, 755; Faun, 753; Last Judg­

1276 ment, 145, 755; Pieta (Florence), 406; Re­ bellious Slave, 755; Resurrected Christ, 156; Saint Matthew, 755; Sleeping Cupid, 404, 753 Michelozzo, 188, 737, 805, 984, 1083 Michiel, Marcantonio (Anonimo Morelliano),

INDEX

Misenum, 712 Misson, M., 122 Mistra, 289 Mitford, W., 1038 Mithraeum, by Palazzo Barberini. See Rome, Mithraeum by Palazzo Barberini 756 Mithraeum of San Clemente, Rome, 760-761 Midas, 525 Mithras, 117, 689, 690, 696, 760 Midea, 877 Mithridates, 352, 591, 954 Migliarini, A. M., 463 Mnesikles, 399, 939 Milan, 756 Mobius, H., 535, 883 Milani, L. A., 445, 1138 Mochlos, 335, 761 Milas, 877 Modigliani, 450 Milchoefer, A., 106, 494 Mohammed al-Khayyam, 426 Miletos, 46, 153, 154, 192, 289, 363, 491, Molione, 381 576, 688, 694, 756- 757, 783, 823, 875, 876, Molossian Hounds, 739 1194 Mommsen, Theodor, 25, 73, 162, 180, 203, Milichus, 87 219, 243, 283, 361, 399, 476, 492, 516, Milizia, F., 68, 122 591, 598, 600, 616, 617, 636, 733, 761- 763, Mill, J. S., 812 813, 934, 962, 971, 1162, 1189, 1195 Miller, K., 1071 Mommsen, T. E., 763 Miller, W., 44 Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, 596 Millin de Grandmaison, 1176 Monaco, F., 73 Milo, 143 Monastiraki, 337 Milo of Crotona by Puget, 33 Monceaux, P., 611 Miltiades, 888, 924 Monconys, B. de, 1202 Miltner, F., 394 Mongan, A., 607 Milvian Bridge, 66, 757-758 Mongez, A., 607, 924 Minerva, 129, 1081, 1082 Montaigne, M. de, 277 Minerva, 78, 262, 295, 691, 863, 897, 1138; Montalto family and collection, 247 by P. da Cortona, 117; by Vien, 261; from Monte Iato, 1029 Velletri, 517 Montecalvo, 176 Minerva and Hercules, 1010 Montefeltre (Montefeltro), Federigo da, 300, Minervini, C. S., I l l 404, 460, 763-764 Minnesota Messenia Expedition, 419, 758Montefeltre, G., 763 759, 789, 805, 940 Montefortino, 198 Minns, E. H., 183 Montepulciano, 408, 527 Minoans, 38, 45, 64, 116, 334-337, 365, 366, Monteleone Chariot, 749, 750 410-412, 529-530, 559, 560, 582-583, 611Montelius, Oscar, 530, 764 613, 629, 642-646, 647-648, 682-684, 713, Montfaucon, Bernard de, 274, 284, 474, 501, 732-733, 744, 761, 838, 1208 661, 667, 764- 767, 795, 825, 870, 920, 942, Minoprio, A., 197 971, 1117, 1142 Minos, 152, 642, 644, 645 Montorsoli, 449, 587, 661 Minotaur, 655; portrayal of, 528 Montuori, E., 1026 Minto, A., 329, 409, 445, 916 Monument of Charles III, by A. Canova, 597 Minturnae, 57, 461, 621 Monument of Lysikrates, Athens, 104, 213, Minyas, 828 549, 767- 769, 1048 Miollis, S. A. F., 794, 803 Monument of Philopappos, Athens, 105, 702, Mionnet, T. E., 813 769- 770, 1008 Mirabilia urbis Romae, 24, 71, 129, 146, 235, Monument of the Julii, Saint-Remy, 65, 510, 255, 317, 323, 533, 551, 605, 723, 724, 770 733, 759- 760, 881, 943, 977 “ monumental philology,” 164, 617, 632, 767, Miracle of the Speaking Infant, by Titian, 962, 1015, 1121 1107 Monumentum Ancyranum, 397, 432, 600, Miracles of Christ, 1202 770- 771, 1092 Miranda, General, 942 Moore, E., 349 Miro, E. de, 1029 Mopsos, 98, 875 Mirri, L., 369, 980, 1177 Misano. See Marzabotto Morear, J., 628

INDEX Morelli, Abate Don Jacopo, 756 Morellio, A., 318 Moretti, G., 60, 555, 982, 1030, 1090 Morgan, J. P., 42, 167, 749 Morgantina (Serra Orlando), 401, 556, 771, 814, 1028, 1029, 1055; Museum, 771 Morigi Govi, C., 170, 1168 Morillon, A., 1034 M0rkheim, O., 1099 Morosini, Francesco, 16, 104, 634, 771-772, 859, 867, 1078 Morris, R., 618 Morris, W., 171 Morrison, A., 991 Morrow, K. D., 90 mosaics, 33-34, 82, 120-121, 186 Moscati, S., 3 Moschion, 480 Moschophoros. See Caljbearer Moscow, Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts, 183, 184 Moses Reading the Law to the Israelites, by L. Signorelli, 145 Mostra Augustea della Romanita, 67, 77, 776 Motya, 1028 Mourning Athena, 17 Mouliana, 1206 Mousaios, 939 Moutaffof collection, 450 Mrs. Siddons, by J. Flaxman, 391 Muffel, Nicolaus, 772-773 Muhly, P., 337 Muller, A., 1015 Muller, F., 513 Muller, Karl Otfried, 189, 341, 475, 547, 616, 672, 773-774, 833, 983, 1015, 1121, 1199 Muller, L., 1115 Mullooly, Father Joseph, 761 Mummius, 327, 1096 Munich, 628, 687, 701; Alte Pinakothek, 51; Antikensammlungen, 51-52, 701 (See also Ship of Dionysos, by Exekias); Glyptothek, 13, 21, 39, 51, 118, 152 169, 203, 513-515, 639, 701, 783 (see also Aigina; Albani col­ lection; Apollo; Barberini Faun; Boy with Goose; Commodus; Dead Niobid; Diomedes; Diskobolos; Knidian Aphrodite; Lucius Verus; Peace; Rome, “ Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus” ); Konigliches (Staatliches) Museum Antiker Kleinkunst, 51; Neue Pinakothek, 51; Neue Staatsgalerie, 51; Staatliche Munzsammlung, 83 Munoz, A., 135, 982, 1085 Munro, J. A. R., 728 Miinzer, F., 283 Murat, Caroline (Countess Lipona), 701, 111 Murat, J., 794 Muratori, L. A., 4, 399, 501

1277 Mure, W., 1128 Murlo, 5, 279, 774 Murray, A. S., 512, 1166 Murray, G., 221, 571 Murray, J., 359, 549, 613, 785 Musagetes, 1042 Muse, 430, 685, 731, 1012 Musee Napoleon. See Paris, Musee Napoleon Musee Napoleon III. See Paris, Mus6e Napo­ leon III Musee National de Louve. See Louvre Mu­ seum Museo Arquedogico Nacional, Madrid, 747, 774-775, 783. See also Birth of Athena; Dama de Baja; Dama de Elche; Madrid Puteal Museo Barracco, Rome, 775-776, 784. See also Athena and Marsyas; Perikles Museo del Foro. See Antiquario Forense Museo della Civita Romana, Rome, 61, 67, 68, 77, 776 Museo delle Terme. See Terme Museum Museo Nazionale di Napoli, 187, 225, 303, 340, 440, 442, 490, 737, 738, 776-779, 783, 832, 846, 864, 974, 1012, 1170. See also Alexander Mosaic; Apollo; Apollo and Mar­ syas; Athens; Belvedere Antinous; Blue Vase; Buscotrecase; “Dancers”; Dancing Faun; Farnese Antinous; Farnese Atlas; Farnese Bull; Farnese Captives; Farnese Cup; Farnese Flora; Farnese Hercules (Herakles)\ Farnese Venus; Hermaphroditus; Hermes Seated; Horatii and Curiatti; Mar­ cus Aurelius; Marsyus and Apollo; Moschien; Synistor, P. Fannius; Pseudo-Seneca; Sabina; Sassi-Famese “ Roma” ; Sokrates; Triton and Nereid; Triumph o f Bacchus; Weary Hercules (Hercules Latinus); Venus Chasing Cupid Museo Nazionale di Villa Giulia. See Villa Giulia Museo Nazionale Romano. See Terme Mu­ seum Muses, 447, 523, 903, 976; by G. Hamilton, 564 Muses and Sirens, 749 Muses with Apollo. See Apollo with Muses Museum Kircherianum, 439, 440, 637 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 62, 100, 591, 779-781, 783, 1186. See also Apollo; As­ sets; Augustus; Boston “ Counterpart” ; Mantiklos; Menander; Nike Driving a Chariot; Sokrates museums, 781-785 Musignano, 232 Mussche, H. F., 665

1278 Mussolini, B., 60, 432, 502, 605, 1139 Mustilli, D., 612 Mustoxydis, A., 13, 18, 536 Muti, C., 172, 177, 180 Muziano, G., 268, 318, 961 Mycenae, 62, 167, 195, 418, 475, 479, 629, 657, 676, 683, 688, 785- 786, 787, 788, 797, 965, 1016, 1018, 1019, 1134, 1182; Lion Gate, 684- 685, 785; Treasury of Atreus, 684, 1126-1128 Mycenaeans, 334, 643, 682, 785 786- 789, 790, 797, 939-940, 965, 1105-1106, 1016, 1134-35, 1136, 1182-1183 Myers, J. W. and E., 419 Mykonos, 288 Mylai, 1029 Mylasa, 854 Mylonas, George Emanuel, 387, 537, 786, 789- 790, 872, 1134 Mylonas, K. D., 1055 Myres, Sir John Linton, 268, 576, 645, 749, 790 838, 1186 Myrina, 612 Myrmillo. See Dying Trumpeter Myron, 88, 448, 593, 956; Cow, 518; Diskobolos, 364-365, 1124; Marsyas, 775, 879 Myrtos, 336 Myrtou-Pighades, 345 Mytens, D., 92 Mytilene, 192, 288, 688, 802 Naming of the Baptist, by A. Pisano, 897 Nanni, Giovanni. See Annio da Viterbo Nanteuil, R., 281 Naples, 2, 34, 152, 233, 302, 461, 712, 730, 791-792, 963, 1062, 1118; Museo Nazion­ ale di Napoli, 187, 225, 303, 340, 440, 442, 490, 737, 738, 776-779, 783, 832, 846, 864, 974, 1012, 1170 (see also Museo Nazionale di Napoli); Tomb of Vergil, 141, 165, 1118-1119 Napoleon Bonaparte, 28, 32, 35, 55, 144, 147, 174, 176, 177, 178, 180, 231, 233, 236, 240, 241, 279, 292, 313, 318, 351, 362, 365, 382, 431, 433, 435, 444, 458, 468, 554, 587, 588, 597, 607, 620, 660, 693, 694, 702, 741, 742, 792- 794, 807, 903, 907, 912, 915, 942, 981, 1128, 1138, 1149, 1150, 1158, 1174 Napoleon, by A. Canova, 234 Napoleon III, King of France, 222, 223, 237, 318, 481, 482, 598, 982, 905 Napoleoni, 316 Napoli, M., 837 Nar Fluvius. See Marforio Narce, 366, 471, 1168 Narcissus, 498, 804 Nardini, Famiano, 531, 553, 794-795, 941, 1086, 1088, 1142

INDEX Narni, 1005 Nash, Ernest, 555, 795 Nashville, Parthenon, 102 Nasonii, Tomb of. See Rome, Tomb of the Nasonii National Archaeological Museum, Athens, 18, 79, 106, 143, 496, 631, 648, 783, 796- 798, 858. See also Antikythera Youth; Artemision God; Athena Parthenos; Belvedere Antin­ ous; Flying Fish Fresco; Hirschfeld Krater; Korai and Kouro; Marathon Boy; Stele of Aristion; Varvakeion Athena National Galleries of Scotland, Edinburgh. See Edinburgh, National Galleries of Scotland Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen. See Copenhagen, National Museum National Museum, Copenhagen. See Copenha­ gen, National Museum National Museum, Naples. See Museo Nazion­ ale di Napoli National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden. See Ruksmuseum Van Ondheden National Socialist (Nazi) Party, 593, 683, 773 Natter, J.-L., 512 Naukides, 364 Naukratis, 97, 595, 688, 798 Nauplia (Nauplion), 459, 494 Navagero, 949 Navigation, by A. Pisano, 897 Naxos, 257, 288, 289, 343, 343, 353, 798- 799, 1028, 1067, 1134 Naxos (Sicily), 674, 1029 Nazis. See National Socialist Party Neandria, 646 Neapolis. See Naples Nelli, V., 28 Nemausus. See Nimes Nembrini, A., 76 Nemea, 45, 62, 459, 789, 790, 799-800 Nemesis, 953 Nemet, S., 59 Nemi, 22, 307, 413, 432, 564, 800- 801, 816, 902, 956, 1090, 1139 neo-Attic reliefs, 184 Neptune and Amphitrite, by J. Gossaert, 529 Nereid Monument. See Xanthos, Nereid Monu­ ment Nero, 87, 114, 308, 367, 368, 824, 908, 1095; portrayals of, 169, 731, 864 Nero Caesar, 251 Nero Drusus, 315 Nerva, 733, 811; portrayals of, 229, 603-606, 816 Nesselrath, A., 50 Nestor, 939 Nestor’s Cup, 900 Netto-Bol, M. M. L., 1179

INDEX Nettuno, 178 Neuerburg, N., 496 Neumann, F. de P., 653 New Haven, Yale University Art Gallery, 488 New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 344, 409, 748- 750, 783, 784, 790, 958, 972, 1186; Wrightsman Collection, 50. See also Metropolitan Museum of Art Newby Hall, 532 Newdigate Candelabra, 895 Newell, Edward T., 43, 801 Newton, Sir Charles, 192, 193, 324, 363, 479, 561, 582, 640, 641, 737, 752, 801-803 Nibby, Antonio, 125, 468, 483, 554, 795, 803804, 981, 1084, 1085 Niccoli, Nicolo dei, 201, 209, 288, 299, 498, 804- 805, 907 Niccolini, F. and F., 974 Niccolo da Tolentino, by A. del Castagno, 720, 738 Nice, 481 Nicholas III, Pope, 255 Nicholas V, Pope, 22, 160, 311, 552, 864, 917, 978, 1031 Nicholls, R. V., 1035 Nichoria, 789, 805 Nicolaus, son of Crescens, 252 Nicolet, C., 226 Nicosia, 780 Nicosia, F., 287, 446, 955 Niebuhr, B., 166, 518, 833 Nielsen, A. M., 816 Niemann, Georg(e), 98, 805- 806, 879, 1003, 1047, 1134 Nietzsche, F„ 150, 967 Nightingale, F., 1109 Nijmegen, 341 Nikaia, 288 Nikandre, 353, 582 Nike, 102; of Paionios, 806, 825 Nike Driving a Chariot, 780 Nikias, 353 Nikomedes, 640 Nikomedia, 215 Nikopolis, 215, 829 Nile, 886 Nile and Tiber, 82, 120, 297, 426, 461, 571, 656, 806- 807, 936, 1148, 1165, 1166 Nilsson, Martin Persson, 807- 808, 967 Nimes, 57, 80, 481, 618, 808- 809; Maison Carree, 481, 618, 711- 712, 809, 850; Pont du Gard, 56, 809, 914-915 Nimrud, 97 Nine, 646 Niobe Group (Niobids), 20, 301, 516, 570, 642, 740, 746, 809- 810, 815, 957, 1053, 1137-1138 Niobid Gul, 810

1279 Niobid Krater, Niobid Painter, 779, 833 Nirou Chani, 336, 1206 Nissen, H., 913 Nitovikla, 1065 Noack, F., 41, 670, 965, 1130 Noah, 31, 232, 533, 551 Nobili-Sforza, C., 138 Noble, J. V., 750 Nock, A. D., 808 Noel des Vergers, A., 462 Nogara, B., 890, 1150 Nogent, 412, 548 Nointel, Charles-Fran9ois Oilier, Marquis de, 16, 216, 415, 487, 691, 693, 810- 811, 1048 Nola, 566, 730, 811-812 Nolan, Father Louis, 761 Nolhac, P. de, 1152 Nollekens, J., 449, 619, 1149 Nolli, G.-B., 451 Norman, N., 1074 Normans, 327, 1028 Northumberland, Algernon, Duke of, 230 Northwood, J., 922 Nortia, 170, 1178 Norton, Charles Eliot, 44, 62, 63, 355, 687,

812 Norton, Christopher, 211 Norton, H., 987 Norton, R., 62, 346 Novios Plautios, 440 Noyen, J. van, 877 Nuceria, 908 Numantia, 812- 813, 1020 Numismatics, 10, 12, 27, 36, 37, 94, 113-114, 137, 140, 166, 180, 207, 384-386, 473, 478-479, 521, 524, 545, 622, 652, 653, 666, 671, 672, 681, 701, 702, 732, 740, 762, 766, 773, 780, 813- 815, 864, 865, 869,870, 896, 964, 965, 1004, 1049, 1099, 1120,

1121

Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, 83, 800, 815- 816, 926-927, 938. See also Sokrates Ny lander, C., 34 Nymph of Fontainebleau, by B. Cellini, 262 Nymph with a Shell, 332 Nysa, 591 Oath of the Horatii, by J.-L. David, 350, 468 obelisk, 20, 139, 156, 284, 286, 371, 446-447, 478, 551, 603, 636, 664, 705, 817- 820,845, 943, 944, 979, 980, 1032, 1051, 1062, 1143,

1211

Obelisk of Augustus, 845, 980 Obelisk of Domitian, 979 Obelisk of Psammetichos, 1107 Obelisk of Rameses II, 850 Oberhausen, 108 Oceanus. See Marforio Octavia, portrayal of, 607

1280 Octavian. See Augustus Octavian, 404, 731, 864 Octavius, 504 Octopus Flask, 1219 Odescalchi, B. See Innocent XI, Pope Odescalchi, L., 282, 820 Odescalchi family and collection, 433, 571, 820- 821, 932, 980, 1124 Odi, P., 678 Odo, 711 Odoacer, 951 Odoni, A. di, 756 Odysseus, 138, 613, 614, 822, 1043 Odysseus with the Body of Achilles, 864 Odyssey Landscapes, 100, 821-822, 975, 1150 Oedipus, 1096 Oeser, A. F., 516 Ogier, M., 1048 Ogulnii, 242 Ohlenroth, L., 108 Ohly, D., 13, 496, 635 Ohnefalsch-Richter, M., 268, 344 Oikonomos, A., 537 Oilpourer, 588 Oinomaos, 823 Olbia, 822-823, 1103 Old Market Woman, 749 Oldfather, W. A., 773 Olier. See Nointel, Charles-Fran?ois Oilier Oliver, J. A., 396 Olivier, J.-P., 337 Olivieri, A., 340 Olivierio, G., 346 Ollanda, Francisco d \ See Francisco d’Ollanda Oltos, 1102 Olympia, Greece, 7, 153, 206, 213, 341, 372, 417, 450, 469, 475, 494, 495, 496, 549, 592, 593, 797, 806, 823- 826, 879, 956, 1184, 1188; Temple of Hera, 298, 588, 824, 825, 1080- 1081; Temple of Zeus, 164, 342, 448, 824, 825, 853, 855, 1088- 1089, 1209-

1210

Olynthos, 45, 790, 826, 964 Omphalos Apollo, 107 Onatas, 88, 956 Onesas, 870 Onesimos, 1102 Oplontis (Torre Annunziata), 826-827 Opportunity, by Lysippos, 215 Optatus, 1104 Orange (Arausio), 23, 64, 481, 827-828, 1007. See also Arch at Orange Orchomenos, 372, 494, 787, 828, 1016, 1018 Orestes and Pylades, 175 Oricellarius, Bemardus. See Rucellai, Bernardo Original Sin, by Domenichino, 366 Orlandini, P., 1029

INDEX Orlandos, Anastasios K., 17, 107, 387, 528, 536, 537, 829, 861, 937, 953, 1079 Orlov, Count, 1041 Oropos, 537 Orpheus, 863 Orpheus, by B. Bandinelli, 115; by A. Canova, 233 Orsi, Paolo, 3, 482, 674, 743, 111, 829- 830, 884, 1029, 1068 Orsini, A., 738 Orsini, D., 1014 Orsini (Ursinus), Fulvio, 12, 138, 148, 186, 236, 245, 247, 248, 300, 427, 480, 510, 531, 622, 661, 664, 744, 813, 830- 833, 862, 868, 888, 977, 979, 989, 1004, 1039, 1080, 1120, 1152 Orsini, G., 209 Orsini, V., 171 Orsini family, 800, 1095 Ortelius, A., 1120 Orvieto (Volsinii), 170, 445, 650, 833, 1010, 1178; Faina Museum, 833; National Mu­ seum, 833 Osiris, 48, 150, 1126 Osten, P. von, 1035 Ostenberg, C. E., 5, 1066 Ostia, 82, 136, 221, 222, 227, 288, 432, 564, 596, 804, 822, 834, 865, 905, 906, 915, 925, 1092, 1124, 1140, 1176 Otho, King of Greece, 536, 639, 796, 1016 Otto, Cardinal of Augsburg, 25 Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor, 157 Otto of Freising, 1130 Ottoboni, Cardinal Pietro, 159 Ottonaio, F., 277 Ottone, L„ 118, 119 Oudaan, J., 1202 Overbeck, Johannes, 41, 83, 223, 475, 627, 688, 752, 834- 835, 1063 Ovid, 444, 913, 1019, 1113-1115 Oxe, A., 85 Oxford: Ashmolean Museum, 93, 95- 97, 295, 411, 595, 652, 782, 1126, 1182 (See also Felix Gem; Marmor Parium); Bodleian Li­ brary, 94, 966; Pitt-Rivers Museum, 900, 901; University, 94, 95 Ozgen, R., 641 Pacca edict on antiquities, 436, 980 Pace, B., 1029 Pacetti, V., 119, 120 Pacheco, Cardinal Francesco, 268, 1153 Pacheia Ammos, 335, 1020 Pacho, J.-R., 345, 346 Paciaudi, P. M., 730 Pacini, G., 986 Pacioli, Fra Luca de, 503

451, 681, 931, 93

INDEX Packard, D., 321 Packard Foundation, 10 Paderni, C., 187 Padua, 461 Paestum (Poseidonia), 225, 233, 517, 639, 712, 836- 838, 895, 963, 1027, 1173 Paetus, 699 Paetus and Arria. See Ludovisi Gaul Killing Himself and His Wife Pagenstecher, R., 376 Paionios of Mende, 806 Pais, E., I l l “ Palace of Titus” . See Rome, Domus Aurea Palagi, P., 101, 169 Palaikastro, 335, 337, 583, 838 Palaimon, 611 Palatine Hill, Rome, 53, 54, 74, 221, 224, 237, 242, 286, 295, 367, 377, 460, 463, 468, 471, 516, 553, 598, 838- 840, 849, 889, 956, 973, 977, 978, 980, 982, 1023, 1033, 1052, 1091, 1167 Palazzi, F., 226, 319 Palazzo Mattei, Rome, 706, 731, 840-841 Paleotti, C., 28 Palermo, 287, 358, 359, 517, 841, 1028 Palestrina. See Praeneste Palestrina Mosaic. See Barberini Mosaic Palinuro, 493 Palladio, Andrea, 72, 73, 130, 131, 134, 188, 293, 295, 413, 553, 559, 618, 842- 843, 1009, 1024, 1046, 1075, 1080, 1109, 1161 Pallas, 1196 Pallas, 173, 1111; by Botticelli, 185 Pallavicini family, 173 Pallotta, Cardinal, 1180 Pallottino, M., 3, 502, 723, 750 Palma, B., 382, 695, 699 Palmer, R. E. A., 662 Palmer, S., 95 Palmyra, 110, 549, 844, 935, 958, 1202, 1203 Palomino, A., 1153 Palotta, Cardinal, 980 Pamphili, C., 37 Pan, 442, 991, 1144 Pan and Apollo, 522 Pancrazi, G. M., 14 Pandora, 1111 Panettieri collection, 51 Panini, Giovanni Paolo, 77, 90, 844-846, 963, 1130; Adoration of the Magi, 845; Alexan­ der Visiting the Tomb of Achilles, 845; Capriccio of Roman Ruins, 845; Festival at the Teatro Argentina for the Wedding of the Dauphin, 845; The Interior of the Pantheon, 845; The Return of the Veteran, 845 Paniterra collection, 701

1281 Panofka, Theodor, 489, 601, 608, 617, 846, 1050 Panofsky, E., 159 Panormos. See Palermo Pantagato, O., 12 Pantalica, 829, 1029 Pantheon, Rome, 23, 117, 126, 172, 228, 234, 249, 255, 318,371, 373, 386, 435, 499, 516, 554, 593,594, 619, 631, 656, 705, 759, 772, 793,818, 845, 847- 851, 873, 879, 881, 931, 949,963, 976, 977, 982, 1005, 1016, 1027, 1091, 1109, 1142 Pantikapaion. See Kerch Panvinio, Onofrio, 12, 268, 373, 398, 427, 451, 531, 553, 681, 851- 852, 943, 979 Papademetriou, J., 190, 395, 649, 786, 867 Papavasiliou, G. A., 269 Papenbroek, G. van, 959 Paphos, 595, 852-853 “Papirius,** 601 Pappalardo, 884 Paradeisos, 1065 Paribeni, E., 278 Paribeni, R., 560, 1030, 1090 Paris, 294; Bibliotheque Nationale, 209, 273, 512, 596, 671, 718; Cabinet des Medailles, 273, 693, 704, 985; Louvre, 21, 32, 39, 66, 223, 224, 265, 271, 303, 346, 409, 564, 581, 596, 692- 695, 704, 710, 783, 810, 825, 859, 972, 1159, 1174 (see also Louve Mu­ seum); Musee Central des Arts, 147; Musee des antiquites nationales, Saint-Germain-enLaye, 481; Musee Napoleon, 55, 169, 176, 180, 693, 903; Musee Napoleon III, 223, 694 Paris and Helen, by G. Hamilton, 562-563 Paris Giving the Apple to Aphrodite, 216 Parision, 853 Parisot, M., 141 Parker, A. J., 1139 Parker, J. H„ 981 Parmigianino, 143 Parnassus, by A. Mantegna, 174, 438; by A. Mengs, 746 Paros, 288, 343, 344, 396, 727, 853 Parrasio, G., 25 Pars, William, 270, 355, 363, 415, 603, 853854, 935, 953, 1038, 1078; Caractacus be­ fore the Emperor Claudius, 854 Parthenon, Athens, 15, 17, 18, 38, 102, 104, 145, 192, 234,279, 280, 289, 295, 303, 325, 388-390, 400, 415, 443, 450, 517, 549, 593, 632, 653,692, 693, 702, 771, 772, 783, 806, 810,854- 862, 873, 879, 1008, 1062, 1175, 1184, 1197 Pascoli, L., 122 Pashley, R., 334, 549

1282

INDEX

Pasqualino, Lelio, 862-863, 868, 990 Pennelli brothers, 224, 450 Penni, G. F., 505 Pasqualino, P., 862 Pasqui, 423 Penrose, Francis Cranmer, 194, 872- 873, Pasquino, 82, 656, 724, 725, 739, 755, 8631084, 1105 864, 1004, 1142, 1201 Penthesilea Painter, 1102 Pentheus, 899 Passed, G. B., 730, 878 Peparelli, F., 39 Passionei, Cardinal, 1124 Patin, C., 1004, 1047 Perachora, 866, 873 Perennius, 85 Pastoral Caprice with the Arch of Constantine, Peretti, A., 121 by Claude Lorraine, 290 Pergamon, 46, 56, 153, 204, 288, 289, 298, Paton, R., 651 304, 324, 372, 381, 494, 495, 528, 783, Patras, 459 863, 873- 874, 1029, 1043, 1092, 1166; Patricolo, 1022 Great Altar, 46, 152, 154, 204, 324, 534Patroklos, 462 535, 600, 628, 783, 874; Museum, Berlin, Patroni, G., 1043 Paul II, Pope, 299, 426, 438, 484, 510, 523, 874-875 678, 720, 738, 864- 865, 902, 967, 968, 978, Perge, 47, 875 Perikles, 854; portrayal of, attributed to Kresi1031 las, 775 Paul III, Pope, 67, 71, 110, 130, 143, 148, Perino del Vaga, 246, 255, 431, 544 255, 300, 307, 318, 319, 424, 425, 427, Perinthos, 288 428, 429, 430, 664, 720, 865- 866, 978, 979, Perkins, C. P., 779 1075, 1107, 1112, 1148 Perne, A., 442 Paul IV, Pope, 680 Pernice, Erich, 875-876 Paul V, Pope, 57, 146, 172, 173, 174, 606, Pernier, Luigi, 78, 335, 528, 612, 645, 683, 705, 979, 1082 876, 883, 1072 Paulin, E., 132 Perrenot, N., 876 Pauline Borghese, by A. Canova, 234 Perrenot de Granvelle, Antoine, 569, 692, 831, Paulinus of Nola, 811 876- 877, 889, 924 Paulsen, F., 342 Perrier, F., 141, 178, 667, 742, 971 Paulus, 331 Perrins, C. W. D., 377 Pausanias, 164, 465, 548, 803 Perrot, G., 770, 1146 Pavia, L. da, 934 Persephone, 387, 1185 Pax Augusta, 60, 1137 Persephone, 1185 Payne, Humfry Gilbert Garth, 866, 873 Perseus, 79 Pazarli, 46 Perseus, 1134; by A. Canova, 233, 234; by B. Peace, 21 Cellini, 262 Peacock, I., 944 Persian, 738 Peasant Resting on a Staff, by Giambologna, Persians, 18, 400, 425, 653, 709, 757, 954, 500 1011, 1205 “Pedagogue, ” 810 Persson, Axel W., 97, 877 Pedley, J., 837 Perugia, 86, 409, 527, 650, 708, 877- 878, Pegasus, 391, 966 1005 Peiraeus, 18, 325, 537, 866-867 Perugino, 67, 1031 Peirae'is Bronzes, 648, 867-868 Peruzzi, Baldassare, 72, 130, 228, 455, 734, Peiresc, Nicolas-Claude, 27, 32, 219, 276, 396, 415, 484, 486, 487, 497,510, 525,590,878- 879, 978, 1024, 1082, 1095, 1116, 637, 704, 728, 766, 830,862, 868- 8711144, , 920, 1166; Apollo and Marsyas, 878; Sol 930, 931, 964, 965, 966,979, 988,989,in Sagittarius, 878 Peruzzi, S., 1113 1121 Pescennius Niger, 214 Peisistratos, 106 Pesciotti collection, 1168 Pelagatti, P., 799, 1029, 1167 Peter Leopold, Duke, 1137 Peleus, 920 Peter I (the Great), Emperor of Russia, 433, Pella, 871- 872, 1158 589 Pellerin, J., 384 Peter the Great, by Falconet, 722 Pelops, 685, 823 Petersen, Eugen, 98, 223, 322, 492, 494, 700, Pembroke, Earl of, 980 723, 822, 879- 881, 1063 Pendelbury, John Devitt Stringfellow, 336, Petite Erculanese, 584 646, 872

INDEX Petra, 703, 1194 Petra tou Limniti, 1065 Petrakos, B., 953 Petrakos, V., 537 Petrarch, Francesco, 166, 297, 311, 371, 458, 552, 597, 881- 882, 922, 940, 950, 977, 1118, 1158 Petrie, W. M. F., 434, 798 Petroncini, G., 986 Petrovic, V. R., 1056 Petrus Diaconus, 533 Petty, W., 92, 216, 415, 728, 966 Peutinger, Konrad, 25, 73, 108, 264, 398, 882, 1071 Peutinger Table. See Tabula Pentingeriana Pezolli, V., 291 Pfaff, C., 79 Pfalz, K. L. von der, 137 Pfuhl, Ernst, 538, 882-883 Phaethon, 1126 Phaidra and Hippolytos, 898 Phaidros, 939 Phaistos, 335, 336, 528, 560, 583, 612, 679, 683, 713, 876, 883-884 “ Phaistos Disc,” 583, 883 Phanagoria, 183, 184 Pharnakes, 832 Pharos. See Alexandria, Lighthouse Pheidias, 101, 102, 136, 180, 215, 298, 332, 338, 390, 448, 597, 672, 824, 826, 857, 879, 934, 956, 957, 1032, 1088, 1100; Ama­ zon, 731; Athena Parthenos, 18, 101, 102, 183, 448, 672, 815, 854, 857, 858, 907; Bronze Athena, 200, 215; Zeus of Olympia, 215, 824, 826, 943, 1209-1210 Pheidon, 79 Philadelphia, University Museum, 652, 1207 Philander, 1042 Philemon, 938 Philetas of Kos, 938 Philios, 953 Philip of Macedon, 864 Philip the Arab, 589 Philip II, King of Macedon, 47, 214, 327, 355, 375, 824, 826, 1115-1116, 1159; portrayal of, 943 Philip II, King of Spain, 521, 570, 713, 931, 1001, 1045, 1107 Philip II Augustus, King of France, 692 Philip III, King of Spain, 714 Philip III, Arrhidaios, King of Macedon, 1115 Philip IV, King of Spain, 276, 293, 366, 570, 931, 932, 1045, 1153, 1158 Philip V, King of Macedon, 1, 353 Philip V, King of Spain, 282, 571, 820, 932 Philippi, 288 Philippi (scholar), 77 Philiskos of Korkyra, 938

1283 Philistion, 939 Philo (architect), 388 Philodemos of Gadara, 1171; portrayal of, 939 Philoktetes, 147, 326 Philopappos, 769 Philosophy, by Raphael, 88 Philostratos, 142, 518, 623 Philoxenos of Eretria, 33 ‘‘Phocion, ’ ’ 607 photography: aerial, 97, 187, 419, 443, 482, 748, 1044; in archaeology, 67, 93, 172, 417, 419, 935 Phourni, 64 Phylakopi. See Melos Piazza Armerina, 286, 628, 884- 885, 1029 Picard, C., 468, 469 Picasso, 450 Piccheri. See Pichler Piccolomini, Aeneas Sylvius. See Pius II Piccolomini, A. T., 1111 Piccolomini, Cardinal Francesco, 307 Pichler, A., 885 Pichler, Giovanni, 885 Pichler, Giuseppe, 885 Pichler, L., 449, 885 Pichler family, 885- 886, 920 Pickard-Cambridge, Sir Arthur Wallace, 886, 1015 Pickel, C., See Celtis, C. Pickier. See Pichler Pico della Mirandola, G., 738 Pierleoni family, 1095 Piermarini, G., 77 Pieta (Florence) by Michelangelo, 406 Pietrangeli, C., 1150, 1151 Pietrasanta, D. LoFaso. See Serradifalco Piertro da Cortona, 27, 71, 117, 307, 366, 886-888, 920, 931, 1004, 1080, 1091; Age of Copper, 887; Age of Gold, 887; Age of Iron, 887; Age of Silver, 887; Hercules and the Harpies, 117; Janus, 117; Martyrdom of Saint Bibiana, 887; Minerva, 117; Rape of the Sabines, 887; Titans, 117; Vulcan, 117 Pietro da Padova, Andrea di. See Palladio, An­ drea Pietro de’ Gianuzzi Giulio di. See Giulio Ro­ mano Pietro della Gondola, Andrea di. See Palladio, Andrea Piganiol, A., 470, 828 Pighius, Stephanus Winandus, 247, 284, 373, 622, 624, 708, 877, 888- 889, 979, 1034. See also Codex Pighianus Pigna. See Belvedere Pigna Pignoria, L., 497 Pigorini, Luigi, 375, 445, 575, 637, 830, 889-

890

1284 Pikler. See Pichler Family Pilato, L., 166 “ Pillar of Pompey.” See Alexandria, “ Pillar of Pompey” Pillet, M., 378 Pincelli, R., 170, 1168 Pindakos, 278 Pindar, 1096 Pindemonti, F., 72 Pinelli, G., 868 Pinturicchio, 49, 67, 544, 1143 Pinza, Giovanni, 890 Piombino Apollo, 648, 693, 890-891 Pippi, Giulio. See Giulio Romano Piraeus. See Peiraeus Piranesi, F., 547, 555, 558, 892, 895, 911 Piranesi, Giovanni Battista, 6, 67, 73, 77, 165, 211, 229, 236, 284, 315, 316, 410, 450, 454, 553, 556, 558, 559, 567, 632, 736, 837, 846, 848, 891- 895, 911, 963, 1036, 1085, 1086, 1088, 1094, 1112, 1116, 1130, 1131, 1160, 1164, 1177 Pirckheimer, Willibald, 380, 603, 895-896 Pisa, 83, 262, 896, 898, 899; Campo Santo, 227, 896, 898, 899 Pisano, Andrea, 896- 898; Baptism of Christ, 897; Creation, 897; Horsemanship, 897; In­ ventor of the Arts, 897; Labors of Man, 898; Naming of the Baptist, 897; Navigation, 897; Prometheus Shaping the Body of Man, 897; Sculpture, 897; Trade, 898; Weaving, 897, 898 Pisano, Nicola and Giovanni, 83, 227, 466, 898-899; Adoration of the Magi, 899; Dan­ iel, 899; Last Judgment, 899; Presentation in the Temple, 899; Prudence, 899 Pisones, Calpumii, 1111, 1171 Pithekoussai, 269, 338, 899-900 Pitigliano, 366 Pittakis, K. S., 16, 18, 105, 396, 536, 537, 635, 796, 860, 906 Pitt-Rivers, Augustus Henry Lane Fox, 417, 782, 900-901, 935, 1060, 1191 Pius II, Pope, 22, 23, 161, 299, 605, 901-902, 919, 984, 1109, 1116 Pius III, Pope, 727 Pius IV, Pope, 57, 110, 132, 255, 315, 373, 427, 680, 1148-1149 Pius V, Pope, 57, 240, 268, 739, 1149 Pius VI, Pope, 236, 291, 292, 429, 464, 540, 556, 564, 640, 782, 792, 885, 902- 904, 944, 1149, 1150, 1163, 1174 Pius VII, Pope, 71, 231, 233, 234, 792, 794, 905, 915, 981, 1101 Pius IX, Pope, 3, 57, 109, 905- 906, 912, 915 Pius XII, Pope, 229, 1151 Pizzofalcone, 791

INDEX Plancus, L. Munatius, 704, 1084 Plarasa, 54 Plataia, 354, 355, 1184 Platina, 720, 968 Platner, J., 1027 Platner, Samuel Ball, 93, 554, 696, 795, 906, 1026 Plato, 139, 299, 816 Platon, N., 336, 337, 528, 583, 969, 1096, 1208 Plautianus, 71 Plautilla, 71 Plautius, Aulus, 689 Plemmyrion, 829 Pliny the Younger and His Mother at Misenum, by A. Kauffmann, 630 Plutarch, 857 Pnyx, Athens, 45, 106, 906-907 Pococke, R., 344, 655, 999 Poe, E. A., 545 Poggio Bracciolini, Giovanni Francesco, 24, 50, 160, 299, 397, 398, 552, 718, 772, 804, 902, 907- 908, 940, 977, 993, 998 Poggio Buco, 224 Poggio Civitate. See Murlo Pohl, I., 1168 Poidebard, A., 1140 Poieessa, 634 Poinssot, J., 1103 Poinssot, L., 710, 1103 Pola, 287, 1047; Arch of the Sergii, 72- 74, 139, 1025, 1129 Pole, R., 689 Poletti, L., 313 Poli collection, 111 Policoro, 493 Polidoro da Caravaggio, 175, 246, 255 Polignac, M. de, 153 Polimartium. See Bomarzo Poliochni, 612 Poliphilus, 306 Poliziano, A., 282, 738, 753 Pollaiuolo, A., 184, 242 Poliak, L., 661, 775 Pollini, J., 60, 251, 426 Pollitt, J. J., 578, 939 Polydeukes, 440 Polydoros, 660, 1043. See also Laocoon Polyeuktos, Demosthenes, 1201 Polygnotos, 8, 298, 518 Polyhymnia, 4 Polykleitos (architect), 395 Polykleitos (sculptor), 299, 364, 448, 804, 957, 987; Amazon, 693; Doryphoros (Spearbearer), 602, 879; Hera, 79 Polykles, 179 Polykrates, 999

INDEX Polymetis, 1042 Polyphemus, 147 Polyphemus and Galatea, 147, 598 Polyzalos of Gela, 271 Pomerance, L., 1208 Pomey, P., 1140 Pomona, 697, 739, 1083 Pompeii, 28, 33, 57, 166, 185-187, 198, 207, 233, 270, 302, 349, 350, 376, 414, 416, 441, 442, 449, 468, 483, 491, 501, 517, 565, 633, 712, 733, 774, 776, 778, 826, 834, 876, 908- 914, 915, 973-976, 985, 1027, 1049, 1050, 1070, 1173, 1187; Villa of the Mysteries (Villa dei Misteri), 913,

1169-1170 Pompey, 1095; portrayals of, 429, 816, 1012 Pompey, Sextus, 1028 Pomponius Hylas, columbarium of, 315 Pons Milvius. See Milvian Bridge Ponsiani, D., 312 Pont du Gard, by H. Robert, 963 Pont du Gard, Gard, France, 56, 809, 914-915 Pontano, G. G., 1113 Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia, 36, 222, 547, 600, 905, 915- 916, 981 Pontius, P., 991, 992 Ponz, A., 747 Ponzio, F., 172 Popham, M., 337, 646, 668 Poppaea, 910, 957 Poppaea family, 827 Poppy Goddess, 583 Populonia, 409, 461, 916 Porcari, F., 917 Porcari, G., 917 Porcari, M. V. de’, 917 Porcari, S., 255, 917 Porcari family, 917 Porcellino (Wild Boar), 739, 1137 Porcher, E. A., 193, 346 Porlezza, G. da, 842 Poros Cave, 336 Porsenna (Porsena), Lars, 408, 738, 1006, 1116 Port of Ostia with the Embarkation o f Saint Paula, by Claude Lorraine, 290 Porta, Della. See Della Porta Porta, Maggiore, Rome, 377, 507, 917- 919, 982, 1009, 1083, 1113 Porta di Ripetta, by H. Robert, 963 Porter, Sir James, 952 Portici, 186, 187, 517, 584, 585, 586, 973 Portico of Octavia, Rome, 902, 919 Portland Vase, 118, 193, 211, 511, 567, 741, 919- 922, 930, 931, 989, 1142, 1188 Portland, Duchess of, 920, 1124

1285 Porto Rafti, 459 portrait iconography, study of, 168, 276, 510, 681, 922- 925, 1049, 1111, 1118 Portrait o f a Lady, by Botticelli, 185 Portunus, 453, 1088 Portus, 221, 657, 834, 902, 925- 926, 1120 Portus Cosanus, 926, 1146 Poseidon, 399, 610, 789, 1040 Poseidonia. See Paestum Posilipo, 1118 Postel, G., 1014 Potocki, S. K., 811 Pottier, E., 694 Pouilloux, 953 Poulsen, Paul Frederik Sigfred, 191, 926- 927, 1038 Poulsen, V., 745 Pound, E., 432 Pouqueville, 1128 Poursat, J.-C., 337 Pourtales collection, 803 Poussin, Nicolas, 27, 37, 120, 122, 124, 140, 141, 142, 143, 175, 290, 350, 366, 408, 449, 667, 717, 927- 929, 930, 931, 1004, 1091; Achilles Among the Daughters of Lycomedes, 928; Bacchanal, 929; Death of Germanicus, 928; Et in Arcadia Ego, 929; Funeral of Phocion, 929; Holy Family in Egypt, 928; Massacre of Innocents, 928; Rape of the Sabines, 699, 928; Seven Sacra­ ments, 211, 928; Triumph of David, 928 Powell, D„ 866 Powhatan’s Mantle, 97 Pozzo, Carlo Antonio, 122, 929, 930 Pozzo, Cassiano dal, 20, 27, 32, 120, 122, 141, 408, 681, 749, 767, 886, 927, 928, 929- 931, 971, 979, 989, 1080, 1091, 1092; dal Pozzo-Albani drawings, 20, 27, 120, 122, 173, 264, 283, 284, 408, 474, 731, 920, 921, 927, 929-931, 971, 1014, 1092 Pozzuoli (Puteoli), 712, 792, 1007, 1027, 1194 Prada, F., 1180 Prado Museum, Madrid, 282, 783, 931- 932, 1153. See also Apollo with Muses; Apotheo­ sis of Claudius; Borghese Hermaphrodite; Castor and Follux; Crouching Venus; Faun with Kid; Madonna della Parla; Muses Praeneste, 120, 121, 197, 440, 932- 933; Bar­ berini Tomb, 117, 121, 155, 933; Bernardini Tomb, 155, 576, 637, 933; Museo Nazion­ ale Prenestino, 933; Temple of Fortuna, 117, 188, 413, 628, 887, 931, 932, 1007, 10791080, 1167. See also Barberini Mosaic Praenestine Fibula, 399, 700, 933, 934 Prag, A.J.N.W., 1116 Praisos (Praesos), 560 Prassa, 336

1286 Praxiteles, 143, 237, 362, 404, 448, 809, 943, 957, 1032, 1185; Apollo Sauroktonos, 55, 443; Dionysos, 448; Hermes with the Infant Dionysos, 342, 588, 592, 825, 1081; Knidian Aphrodite, 90, 640-641, 742, 1156 Praxiteles Showing Phryne the Statue of Cu­ pid, by A. Kauffmann, 630 Praying Boy, 153, 523, 934-935 Preisler, 1038 Presentation in the Temple, by N. Pesano, 899 Presuhn, E., 974 Priam, 1132 Priam before Achilles, 326 “ Priam’s Treasure,” 1018 Priapus, 642 “Priapus,” 1045 Priene, 46, 153, 417, 591, 600, 854, 935- 936, 1016 Prieur, B., 90 Prima Porta. See Rome, Villa of Livia at Prima Porta Primaticcio, F., 262, 449, 569, 936, 1148, 1166 Primavera, by Botticelli, 185 Prinias, 335, 560, 876 Prisco, V. de, 181 Prix de Rome, 132, 163, 468, 607 Probianus, 1171 Prokesch-Osten, A. von, 906 Proklos, 858 Prometheus Shaping the Body of Man, by A. Pisano, 897 Propylaia, Athens, 15, 16, 17, 18, 105, 357, 390, 399, 639, 829, 936- 937, 1062, 1197 Prosdocimi, A., 279 Proserpina, 404 “ Prospetto Milanese,” 237, 708 Prosymna, 45 Protogenes, 1147 Protonotariou-Deilaki, E., 98 Protuccius, C. C. See Celtis, Conradus Proussa, 205 Providence, Rhode Island School of Design, 1186 Prudence, by N. Pisano, 899 Prud’hon, 974 Psammetichos II, 817 Pseira, 335, 337, 937- 938, 1020 Pseudo-Seneca, 177-178, 708, 832, 938- 939, 989, 1142 Psyche, by Giambologna, 500 “Psyche” Crouching, 276 Psychro, 560 Ptoan Apollo, 648 Ptolemais, 345, 346 Ptolemy, 504 Ptolemy I Soter, 34, 344 Ptolemy II Philadelphos, 35, 1001

INDEX Puchstein, O., 647, 1022, 1029 Pudicitia, 509, 731 Puget, Milo o f Crotona, 33 Pugilists, by A. Canova, 233 Puglisi, S. M., 54, 839 Pullan, R., 417, 935 Punishment of Dirce. See Farnese Bull Punishment of Korah, Dathan and Abiram, by Botticelli, 185 Punishment of Prometheus, 216 Pupluna. See Populonia Purgold, 549 Puteoli. See Pozzuoli Pydna, 811 Pyla-Kokkinokremos, 345 Pylos, Messenia, 45, 162, 683, 758, 787, 788, 789, 805, 939- 940, 1155 Pyramid of Cestius, Rome, 499, 516, 593, 881, 940- 941, 973, 979, 1091 Pyrgi, 265, 684, 941, 1168; Antiquarium Pyrgense, 941 Pyrgos, 336, 1206 Pyrrhus, 791 Pystilos, 14 Pythagoras of Rhegion, 271, 364 Pytheos, 736 Pythokritos, 1166

Quadratianus, P. M., 131 Quatremere de Quincy, Antoine-Chrysostome, 391, 942-943 Quednow, C. F., 1129 Queen of Sweden’s Faun. See Faun with Kid Querini, A. M., 864 Quin, H., 1074 Quintilii, 1163 Quirinal Horse Tamers, 82, 99, 131, 185, 246, 263, 386, 447, 448, 517, 689, 716, 755, 759, 818, 864, 865, 882, 943- 944, 979, 1004, 1006, 1032, 1091, 1142, 1179, 1201; by Antico, 50

Rabirius, 839 Radford, C.A.R., 197 Radziwill, Prince, 655 Raffaello Sanzio. See Raphael Sanzio Raimondi, Marcantonio, 224, 293, 338, 360, 945- 946, 1148, 1165 Rainaldi, 559 Raiser, J. N. von, 108 Rakob, F., 493 Rakow, Dr. and Mrs. L. S., 922 Ramage, N., 204 Rameses II, 850 Ramsay, Sir William, 595 Rampin Horseman, 694, 866 Rancoureuil, Abbe, 980

INDEX

1287

Randall-Maclver, David, 946-947 Remus. See Romulus and Remus Randolph, B., 655 Renaudin, L., 97 Rangabe, A. R., 79, 537, 1105 Renfrew, C., 744, 853 Ranke, L. von, 636 Reni, G., 142, 696 Renier de Huy, 1172 Ranucius, 331 Reno, G. da, 552 Ranulph Higden, 539 Resting Faun, 509 Raoul-Rochette, D., 942 restoration of antiquities, 37, 50, 118, 168, Rape of a Sabine, by Giambologna, 33, 500 197, 373, 504, 532, 540, 565, 619,682, Rape of Europa, 528; by A. Diirer, 380; by 695, 698, 701, 735, 736, 737, 740,756, Titian, 424 767, 861, 1101, 1148 Rape of Persephone (Proserpina), 173, 183, Resurrected Christ, by Michelangelo, 156 273 Rethemiotakis, G., 337 Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus, by P. P. Rethemiotakis, N., 337 Rubens, 424 Return of the Veteran, by G. Panini, 845 Rape of the Sabines, 124; by J.-L. David, 351; Reuvens, C.J.C., 959, 960 by Pietro da Cortona, 887; by N. Poussin, Revely, W., 1062 699, 928; from the Basilica Aemilia, Rome, Revett, Nicholas, 16, 69, 105, 270, 355, 400, 124 415, 487, 532, 549, 768, 769, 799,854, Raphael, Sanzio, 89, 95, 127, 141, 142, 145, 149, 155, 174, 276, 293, 297, 302,305,856, 861,935, 937, 952- 953, 969, 1037, 350, 360, 366, 415, 473, 502, 505,553,1038, 1062, 1077, 1078, 1084, 1098, 1123, 622, 631, 673, 708, 849, 878, 886,945,1204 946, 947- 949, 973, 1009, 1109, 1136, 1137, Reynolds, Joyce, 401 Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 630, 1037, 1187 1179; Disputa del Sacramento, 947; Gala­ Reynst, G. van, 153, 959 tea, 944; Meeting of Leo X and Attila, 949; Rezzonico family, 893, 1176 Philosophy, 88; School of Athens, 947, Rhadamanthys, 883 1039; Stoning of Saint Stephen, 949 Rhamnous, 537, 953-954 Rapp, G., 758, 805 Rhodes, 193, 256, 288, 314, 315, 325, 418, Rasmussen, T. B., 167, 204 612, 712, 729, 756, 807, 934 954- 955, Raspe, Rudolph Erich, 512, 513, 607, 9491043, 1166 950, 1074 Rhodes, D. E., 360 Rath, M. von, 154 Rhoikos, 582 Ratte, C., 54 Rhomaios, K. A., 47, 649, 927, 1159 Ravenna, 458; Museo di San Vitale, 1108 Rhousopoulos, A., 883 Rawson, M., 162, 163 Riace Warriors, 955-956 Rayet Head, 815 Riario, Cardinal Raffaele, 753 Raymond de Baux, 64 Ribbeck, O., 283 Re, Lorenzo, 981 Ricci, Corrado, 605, 606, 956, 982 Reale Accademia di Belle Arti, 2 Ricci, G., 15 Reale Accademia Ercolanese. See Academia Ricci di Montepulciani, Cardinal, 264, 740 Herculanensis Richardot, J., 990 Rebecca and Eleazer at the Well, by M. de Richardson, E. H., 43, 191 Vos, 1180 Richardson, Jonathan, father and son, 640, Rebellious Slave, by Michelangelo, 755 746, 956-957 Reclining Satyr, 698 Richardson, K. M., 1162 Recognition of Orestes by Iphigenia, 1107 Richardson, L., 43, 554 Redford, 387 Richardson, R. B., 328 Reggio Calabria, National Museum, 955 Richelieu, Cardinal, 691, 693 “Regisole,'’ 151, 233, 370, 449, 756, 881, Richmond, Sir Ian Archibald, 197, 957- 958, 950-951 1194 Regolini, Father Alessandro, 951-952 Richter, Gisela M. A., 513, 588, 648, 749, Regolini-Galassi Tomb, Cerveteri, 155, 264925, 939, 958, 1038 265, 409, 540, 890, 951- 952, 1150, 1151 Richter, O. F. von, 1002 Reinach, S., 694 Ridgway, B., 56, 63, 110, 338, 382-383, 588, Rembrandt, 167, 282 695, 699, 806, 891, 955 remote sensing, 265, 409, 675-676, 684, 1064, Ridolfino brothers, 3 1067, 1072 Riedel, J. F., 1199

1288 Riegl, Alois, 41, 629, 732, 958-959, 1061, 1193 Riemann, H., 1081 Riepenhausen, J., 697 Rieti, 176 Rijkmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden, 231, 535,

959-960 Rimini, 371; Arch of Augustus, 23, 65, 804, 1129, 1130 Ripa, Cesare, 960-961 Ripanda, Jacopo, 318, 878, 961-962 Ritschl, F., 150, 202, 203, 576, 617, 879, 1019 Ritter, K., 636 Rivarel, P., 770 Riviere, Marquis de, 1156 Rizomylo. See Nichoria Rizza, G., 674 Rizzo, G. E., 974 Rizzo, P., 799 Robert, Carl, 41, 474, 591, 617, 632, 767, 845, 962, 965, 972, 1189 Robert, Hubert, 64, 65, 468, 770, 846, 962963, 1130; Garden Scene with Fountain, 963; Grande Galerie du Louvre in Ruins, 963; Pont du Gard, 963; Porta di Ripetta, 963 Robert, L., 396 Robert Wood and James Dawkins Enter into Palmyra, by G. Hamilton, 562, 1203 Robertson, C. M., 873 Robertson, M., 55, 241, 742 Robinson, C. A., 611 Robinson, David Moore, 826, 963-964 Robinson, Edward, 749 Robinson, E. S. G., 732 Robinson, H., 328 Roche, J., 274 Rockefeller, J. D., 10, 45, 749, 1056 Rockefeller Foundation, 10 Rockox, Nicolaas, 282, 869, 964-965 Rocque favour, 914 Rodenwaldt, Gerhart, 159, 568, 723, 965-966, 972 Rodin, 271, 450 Rodio, G., 60 Roe, Sir Thomas, 92, 205, 216, 415, 966-967 Roehl, H., 166 Rohde, Erwin, 41, 967 Rokeby Venus, by Velazquez, 180 Roma, 747, 809; portrayal of, 484 Roma Triumphant, 267. See also Sassi-Farnese ‘‘Roma Romaios, K., 536 Roman Academy, 263, 304, 678, 679, 864,

967-968 Roman Agora, Athens, 9, 105, 537, 968-969 Roman Hyperboreans. See Hyperboreans Roman sarcophagi, 83, 99, 118, 173, 227, 262,

INDEX 273, 292, 296, 464, 474, 506, 507, 568, 664, 733, 748, 749, 896, 897, 946, 961, 962, 965, 969- 973, 1108, 1118, 1135, 1185 Roman Vergil, 887, 1151 Roman wall painting, 27-28, 123, 186, 845,

973-976 Romanelli, P., 3, 54, 675, 839, 982, 1072 Romano, C., 404 Rome, 976- 983; Acqua Paola, 606, 979, 1082; Altar of Consus, 839; “ Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus,” 39 ; Amphitheatrum Castrense, 977; Antiquario Forense, 53- 54, 124, 1085; Antiquario Palatino, 54, 1052; Aqua Alexandriana, 56; Aqua Amo Novus, 917; Aqua Claudia, 56, 917; Aqua Julia, 1130; Aqua Marcia, 56; Aqua Traiana, 134, 146; Aqua Virgo (Acqua Vergine), 56, 57, 680, 1031; Ara Gentis Iuliae, 61; Ara Pacis Augustae, 59- 61, 228, 301, 432, 593, 694, 822, 879, 928, 931, 979, 982, 1090, 1137, 1151, 1191; Ara Pietatis Augustae, 61; Area Noe (See Rome, Temple of Minerva); Arch of Augustus, 978, 982; Arch of Claudius, 66, 616; Arch of Constantine, 23, 37, 66-68, 82, 185, 290, 297, 322, 371, 373, 386, 425, 435, 461, 506, 593, 628, 723, 845, 878, 887, 945, 948, 961, 980, 981, 989, 1007, 1109, 1129, 1147; Arch of Gallienus, 894, 978; Arch of Janus, 373, 793, 981, 1033; Arch of Septimius Severus, 23, 70- 71, 74, 172, 226, 297, 371, 373, 386, 435, 456, 457, 795, 845, 865, 981, 1129; Arch of the Argentarii, 461, 927, 1092; Arch of Titus, 74- 76, 82, 297, 367, 386, 461, 463, 838, 840, 864, 865, 928, 977, 981, 1091, 1109, 1143, 1201; Arco di Portogallo, 77, 979, 1130; Arcus Novus of Diocletian, 61; Archus Trasi (Arch of Constantine), 67; Argiletum, 124; Atrium Vestae, 458, 982, 983, 1145; Aula Isiaca, 54, 840, 973; Aure­ lian Wall, 110, 940, 1163; Aventine Hill, 283, 377, 553, 727, 1026; Aviary of Varro, 680; Basilica Aemilia, 23, 53, 124- 125, 458, 727, 795, 803, 978, 982; Basilica Ae­ milia et Fulvia, 457; Basilica Julia, 125, 457, 795, 978, 980, 981; Basilica of Maxen­ tius (Basilica of Constantine), 23, 126- 127, 188, 197, 240, 322, 323, 506, 554, 705, 727, 793, 803, 849, 977, 978, 979, 980, 981; Basilica Paulli (See Rome, Basilica Ae­ milia); Basilica Sempronia, 125; Basilica Ulpia, 606; Baths of Agrippa, 228, 977; Baths of Alexander Severus, 146, 977; Baths of Caracalla, 129- 131, 132, 163, 377, 424, 427, 429, 430, 460, 593, 865, 956, 977, 978, 982, 1027; Baths of Commodus (see Rome, Baths of Agrippa); Baths of Constantine, 131, 386, 578, 887, 943, 977,

INDEX 979, 982, 1089; Baths of Decuis, 843; Baths of Diocletian, 132- 134, 138, 176, 179, 266, 373, 386, 447, 680, 956, 977, 978, 982, 1007, 1033, 1089; Baths of Sallust, 977; Baths of Titus, 134, 135, 369, 709, 968, 1119; Baths of Trajan, 130, 134- 135, 369, 386, 660, 727, 977; Caelian Hill, 460; Cam­ pus Martius, 39, 59, 138, 146, 227- 229, 238, 316, 366, 377, 553, 663, 806, 817, 850, 978, 1051, 1093, 1196; Capitoline Hill, 74, 131, 176, 238- 239, 242, 297, 458, 468, 492, 553, 554, 609, 720, 865, 881, 977, 979, 981, 1091, 1132 (see also Rome: Capi­ toline Museums); Capitoline Museums, 20, 223, 231, 233, 239- 241, 256, 299, 300, 303, 398, 435, 467, 509, 593, 621, 709, 753, 781, 897, 978, 1031, 1032, 1111, 1113, 1149, 1174 (see also Artemis of Ephesos; Cancelleria Reliefs; Capitoline Brutus; Capi­ toline Camillus; Capitoline Wolf; Constan­ tine; Constantine II; Dying Trumpeter; Eros, attributed to Lysippos; Lex de imperio Vespasiani Marcus Aurelius Equestrian Statue; Marforio; Rome, Palazzo dei Conservatori; Sarcophagus of Alexander Severus; Satyrs (della Valle); “Seated Agrippina’’; Sokra­ tes; Spinario; Tabula Iliaca); Casa dei Crescentii, 252-253; Castel Sant’Angelo (Tomb of Hadrian), 49, 118, 143, 253-255, 593, 597, 664, 678, 705, 794, 881, 977, 978, 979; Castra Praetoria, 680; Circus Flamin­ ius, 229, 680, 706, 977; Circus Maximus, 284- 287, 478, 664, 680, 817, 818, 839, 977, 979, 982, 1023, 1052; Circus of Maxentius, 377, 803, 979, 1163; Clivus Capitolinus, 436; Cloaca Maxima, 53, 124, 803; Colos­ seum, 134, 226, 230, 234, 262, 295, 308314, 318, 323, 366, 367, 368, 371, 386, 432, 435, 436, 447, 516, 529, 544, 565, 593, 619, 632, 656, 761, 772, 793, 794, 845, 887, 902, 906, 948, 949, 976, 977, 978, 979, 980, 981, 984, 1005, 1006, 1007, 1027, 1033, 1051, 1091, 1093, 1109, 1136, 1143, 1165, 1201; Column of Antoninus Pius, 316, 1201; Column of Marcus Aure­ lius, 82, 141, 157, 297, 316-317, 373, 386, 447, 506, 879, 898, 977, 979, 1032, 1109, 1165; Column of Phocas, 453, 457, 981; Column of Trajan, 76, 82, 99, 141, 157, 268, 283, 297, 317- 319, 371, 386, 422, 447, 461, 481, 499, 506, 507, 606, 616, 794, 878, 879, 881, 886, 887, 930, 961, 977, 989, 1006, 1007, 1009, 1032, 1036, 1109; Comitium, 172, 455, 458, 662; Domus Au­ gustiana, 54, 839, 840, 973, 982; Domus Aurea (Golden House), 27, 123, 126, 134, 135, 226, 296, 297, 308, 367- 369, 413, 431, 435, 461, 499, 544, 545, 685, 756, 793,

1289 794, 878, 949, 961, 968, 973, 978, 980, 981, 1136, 1177, 1188; Domus Transitoria, 54, 839, 973; Equus Domitiani, 457, 982; Esquiline Hill, 27, 231, 377, 727, 809, 821, 1130, 1177; Famesina villa, 1090; Forum Boarium, 71, 188, 239, 453-455 , 793, 794, 795, 978, 981, 982, 1007, 1010, 1033; Fo­ rum Holitorium, 981; Forum of Augustus, 502, 603, 605, 982; Forum of Julius Caesar, 603, 605, 803, 956, 981, 982; Forum of Nerva (Forum Transitorium), 373, 603- 606, 897, 977, 978, 979; Forum of Trajan, 10, 172, 226, 317, 425, 503, 603, 606, 793, 794, 978, 981; Forum Romanum, 10, 23, 43, 53, 70, 74, 124, 171-172, 198, 221, 238, 240, 242, 290, 367, 373, 377, 398, 418, 427, 432, 455- 458, 468, 473, 490, 632, 724, 793, 794, 795, 803, 838, 865, 893, 956, 977, 1027, 1075, 1079, 1084, 1145; Forum Transitorium (See Forum of Nerva); Gardens of Maecenas, 27, 367; Gardens of Sallust, 177, 382, 478, 696, 700, 980; Hip­ podrome of Domitian (see Rome, Stadium of Domitian [Palatine Hill]); House of Au­ gustus, 598; House of Decius, 727; House of the Griffins, 54; House of Livia, 598, 840, 973, 982; Horologium (Solarium) of Augustus, 229; Horrea Agrippina, 172; Horrea Piperataria, 126; Imperial Fora, 603607; Lacus Curtius, 982; Lacus Iutumae, 172; Lapis Niger, 53, 171, 172, 242, 399, 455, 662- 663, 982; Largo Argentina, Area Sacra, 663, 982, 1096; Lateran, 239, 242, 286, 297, 323, 397, 447, 460, 663- 664, 705, 719, 720 721, 865, 893, 979, 1032, 1045 (see also Capitoline Wolf; Marcus Aurelius Equestrian Statue); Le Calonnacce (see Rome, Forum of Nerva); Lupercal, 839; Macellum Magnum, 188; Markets of Trajan, 373, 506, 606, 1006, 1167; Mausoleum of Augustus, 60, 228, 240, 397, 432, 502, 615, 727, 733- 736, 739, 770, 944, 977, 978, 980, 982; Meta Sudens, 313; Milvian Bridge, 66, 757- 758 ; Mithraeum by Palazzo Barberini, 117; Mithraeum of San Clemente, 760- 761; Mithraeum in Baths of Caracalla, 130; Mu­ seo Barracco, 775- 776, 784 (see also Athena and Marsyas; Marsyas; Perikles)\ Museo della Civilta Romana, 61, 67, 68, 77, 776; Museo Kircheriano, 155; Museo Napoleonico, 232; Museo Nazionale delle Terme, 37, 132, 266, 267, 303, 638, 696, 755, 783, 800, 982, 1089- 1091, 1167, 1169 (see also Terme Museum); Museo Pigorini, 638, 890, 934; Museo Torlonia, 1120 (see obelisk; Obelisk o f . . . ) ; Oppian Hill, 134; Palatine Hill, 53, 54, 74, 221, 224, 237, 242, 286, 295, 367, 377, 460, 463, 468, 471, 516,

1290

INDEX

553, 598, 838- 840, 849, 889, 956, 973, 977, Mater, 839; “ Temple of Marius,” 759; 978, 980, 982, 1023, 1033, 1052, 1091, Temple of Mater Matuta, 983, 1010, 1088; 1167; Palazzo Caprini (“ House of Raph­ Temple of Minerva, 386, 604, 606, 977, ael” ), 188; Palazzo dei Conservatori, 61, 66, 979, 1081- 1082; “ Temple of Minerva Med77; Palazzo Farnese, 237; Palazzo Mattei, ica,” 202, 509, 949, 1082- 1083; Temple of 706, 731, 840- 841; Pantheon, 23, 117, 126, Neptune, 39, 727; Temple of Peace, 451, 172, 228, 234, 249, 255,318,371,373, 554, 603, 605- 606, 727, 1082; Temple of 386, 435, 499, 516, 554,593,594,619, Portunus, 453, 1088; Temple of Roma, 127, 631, 656, 705, 759, 772,793,818,845, 242; Temple of Saturn, 125, 456, 727, 794, 847- 851, 873, 879, 881,931,949,963, 976, 795, 977, 978, 981, 1084- 1085; Temple of Sol Invictus Elagabalus, 839; Temple of the 977, 982, 1005, 1016, 1027, 1091, 1109, Sun, 865, 978; Temple of Vediovis, 239; 1142; Piazza del Popolo, 286, 447, 705, Temple of Venus, 727, 759; Temple of Ve­ 979; Ponte Sant’Angelo, 254; Porta nus and Rome, 53, 74, 554, 794, 803, 977, Maggiore, 377, 507, 917-919, 982, 1009, 978, 979, 981, 1085- 1086; Temple of Ve­ 1083, 1113; Porta Pia, 110; Porta Praenesnus Genetrix, 298, 605; Temple of Venus tina (see Rome, Porta Maggiore); Portico of Hortulorum Sallustiorum, 478; Temple of Octavia, 902, 919; Pyramid of Cestius, 499, Vespasian, 226, 234, 456, 457, 794, 795, 516, 593, 881, 940- 941, 973, 979, 1091; Quirinal Hill, 168, 247, 307, 377, 540, 541, 977, 978, 981, 1086; Temple of Vesta (Fo­ rum), 53, 171, 373, 455, 458; “ Temple of 606, 679, 943, 967, 978, 982, 1026; Regia, Vesta,” 435, 455, 516, 794, 795, 839, 978, 43, 53, 172, 201, 398, 455, 458, 978, 982, 981, 1086- 1088; Temple of Victoria, 839; 983; Rostra, 70, 982; Ruminal Fig Tree, Theater of Balbus, 706; Theater of Marcel­ 242; Sacra Via, 298, 794, 982; Saepta Julia, lus, 309, 366, 506, 615, 680, 809, 879, 919, 298; Santa Maria Maggiore, 447, 705; Sant’Omobono, Area Sacra, 983, 1010, 977, 978, 982, 1005, 1006, 1009, 1013, 1093- 1095, 1179; Theater of Pompey, 228, 1088; Scalae Caci, 839; Senate House, 977, 309, 386, 822, 976, 977, 1006, 1095- 1096; 979, 982; Septizodium, 317, 373, 447, 839, Thermae Antoninianae (see Rome, Baths of 978, 1023, 1032; “ Servian” Wall, 172, Carcacalla); Thermae Constantinianae (see 1025-1026, 1163; Servilian Gardens, 803; Rome, Baths of Constantine); Thermae DioStadium of Domitian (Campus Martius), cletianae (see Rome, Baths of Diocletian); 228, 1051-1052; Stadium of Domitian (Pal­ atine Hill), 188, 680, 840, 1052; Tabernae “Thermae of Vespasian,” 134; Thermae Titi (see Rome, Baths of Titus); Thermae Novae, 124; Tabularium, 239, 309, 977, Traiani (see Rome, Baths of Trajan); Tiber 981, 983; Tarpeian Rock, 238; Temple of Island, 377; Tomb of Annia Regilla, 23, Antoninus and Faustina, 457, 468, 793, 794, 949; Tomb of Aulus Hirtius, 229; Tomb of 977, 979, 981, 1075-1076; Temple of Caecilia Metella, 231, 373, 977, 1033, Apollo Actiacus, 727, 839; Temple of 1112- 1113, 1163; Tomb of Calventii, 202; Apollo Sosianus, 176, 809; Temple of Cas­ Tomb of Cercenii, 23; Tomb of Fury Saces, tor (and Pollux), 125, 373, 436, 453, 455, 918, 1113; Tomb of Nasonii (see Rome, 457, 727, 794, 803, 977, 981, 1079; Temple Tomb of Ovid); Tomb of Ovid, 123, 141, of Concord, 436, 727, 795, 803, 977, 981; 474, 973, 1113- 1115; Tomb of Remus (see Temple of Deifred Augustus, 298; Temple Rome, Pyramid of Cestius); Tomb of Romu­ of Fortuna, 983, 1010, 1088; Temple of For­ lus, 881, 940; Tomb of the Scipios, 980, tuna Huiusce Diei, 663; Temple of “Fortuna 1116- 1118, 1163, 1177; Torlonia Museum, Virilis,” 373, 454, 455, 794, 981; Temple 237; Trastevere, 56, 759, 981; “ Trophies of of Hadrian, 228; Temple of Hercules Victor, Marius,” 99, 893; Umbilicus, 386; under­ 53; Temple of Isis, 20, 1051; Temple of Ja­ ground basilica at Porta Maggiore, 982; Usnus, 597; Temple of Julius Caesar, 171, trinum Augustorum, 1177; Velian Hill, 982; 457, 982; Temple of Juno Moneta, 238-239, Via Appia, 23, 231, 315, 377, 460, 564, 1084; Temple of Juno Regina, 919; Temple 803, 902, 1112, 1163; Via Ardeatina, 1164; of Jupiter Feretrius, 238; Temple of Jupiter Via Labreana, 1090, 1113; Via Nomentana, Optimus Maximus, 238, 240, 727, 978, 982, 302; Via Praenestina, 1113; Via Sacra (see 1084, 1152; Temple of Jupiter Stator (Cam­ Sacra Via); Vigna Codini, columbarium, pus Martius), 919; Temple of Jupiter Stator 222, 315; Villa Albani, 55, 746, 938, 1120; (Palatine Hill), 727, 839; Temple of Jupiter Villa Borghese, 178, 179, 180, 237, 307; Tonans, 1086; Temple of Jupiter Victor, Villa Giulia, 256, 265, 276, 329, 623, 624, 839; Temple of Mars, 1163; Temple of 637, 784, 941, 1089, 1153, 1167- 1168, Mars Ultor, 605, 981; Temple of Magna

INDEX 1189 (see also Barberini Tomb; Bernardini Tomb; Chigi Vase; Ficoroni Cista); Villa Mattei, 938; Villa Medici, 60, 66, 177, 292, 301, 467, 660, 740, 741, 1137, 1153; Villa of Livia at Prima Porta, 108, 593, 982, 1090, 1169 ; Villa Torlonia, 1014, 1119; Viminal Hill, 377 Romuald of Salerno, 760 Romualdi, A., 916 Romulus, 238, 284, 551, 662, 838, 889 Romulus, Conqueror of Acron, by J. Ingres, 607 Romulus, son of Maxentius, 1163 Romulus and Remus, 839 Romulus and Remus, 242, 806; by L. Carracci, 242; by P. P. Rubens, 243 Roncalli, F., 265, 1153 Rondanini Medusa, 514, 517 Roos, Lord, 92 Rosa, P., 313, 598, 982 Rose, C. B., 60 Rose, H. J., 808 Rosell, N., 551 Roselle. See Rusellae Rosetta Stone, 35 Rosinus, 358 Ross, Ludwig, 13, 16, 80, 105, 269, 324, 343, 513, 536, 853, 860, 983- 984, 999, 1079 Rossellino, Bernardo, 984 Rossi, D. de, 119, 120, 709 Rossi, F., 85 Rossi, P., 905 Rossi Danieli, L., 5, 1178 Rossini, L., 67, 73, 77, 1130 Rossini, P., 553 Rossiter, S., 550 Rostovtzeff, Michael Ivanovitch, 181, 183, 201, 378, 379, 976, 985- 986, 1201 Rostovtzeff, S., 379, 985 Rothschild family, 181 Rotroff, S., 1115 Rottiers, Colonel, 959 Roubilliac, 449 Rouchomovski (Roushowmowsky), I., 450, 1104 Rouille, G., 704 Round Temple by the Tiber. See Temple of Vesta Rousopoulos, A., 1093 Rovere, Cardinal Galeotto della, 660 Rovere, Cardinal Giulio della, 247 Rovere, Francesco della. See Sixtus IV Rovere, F. M. delle, 602 Rovere, G. delle. See Julius II, Pope Rovere, V. delle, 602 Rowell, H., 43 Rowles, E., 222 Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture (Paris), 143, 332, 667, 668, 725, 845

1291 Royal Academy (London), 148, 630, 1035, 1189, 1191 Royal Institute of British Architects, 38, 172 Royal Numismatic Society, 652 Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, 647, 783,

986-987 Royal Prussian Institute of Archaeology, 491 Rubenius, Albert. See Rubens, Albert Rubenius, Philippus. See Rubens, Philip Rubens, Albert, 486, 487, 497, 511, 628, 987988, 990 Rubens, Peter Paul, 27, 32, 92, 117, 148, 173, 174, 177, 179, 205, 219, 276, 282, 430, 431, 485, 486, 487, 497, 510, 535, 687, 862, 868, 869, 887, 920, 922, 930, 964, 965, 979, 987, 988- 990, 991, 992, 1039, 1086, 1137, 1202; Drunken Hercules, 731; Dying Seneca, 178, 938; Four Philosophers, 938, 989; Gemma Tiberiana, painting, 487; Marie de’ Medici series, 145, 430, 699; Holy Women at the Sepulcher, 731; Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus, 424; Venus, Bacchus and Ceres, 338 Rubens, Philip, 430, 687, 965, 989, 990-991 Rubens Vase, 511, 535, 989, 991 Rubensohn, O., 343, 853 Rucellai, Bernardo, 447, 552, 991-993 Rucellai, G., 23, 991 Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, 301, 484, 520, 546, 569, 653, 782 Ruggiero, M., 1050 Ruggiero, S., I l l Rumpf, A., 269, 628 Rupprecht of Bavaria, 83 Rusca, M., 826 Rusellae (Roselle), 461, 493, 993- 994, 1162 Rushforth, G. McN., 196 Ruskin, J., 171, 812 Ruspi, Carlo Filippo Baldassarre, 408, 701,

994-995 Rustici, C., 439 Rustici, F. de, 1145 Rutland, Duke of, 211 Ruvo, 222 Ryberg, I. S., 723 Sabina, 77, 254; portrayal of, 1012 Sabina and Hadrian (Venus with Mars), 173, 174 Sabouroff (Saburov) collection, 475 Sabratha, 432, 675, 996-997 Sacchi, B. See Platina Sacconi, G., 172 Sacken, E., 59 Sackett, L. H., 337, 646, 668, 838 Sacrati collection, 173 “Sacred and Profane Love," by Titian, 1108 Sacrifice by Antoninus Dius, 694

1292 Sacrifice of Isis, 37 Sacrifice of Marcus Aurelius, 723, 990 Sacrifices See Capitoline Camillus Sadeler, 377 Sadoleto, Cardinal, 968 Saewulf, 104 Saflund, G., 1026 Saguntum, 997 Saint Albans. See Verulamium Saint Augustine, 310 Saint George, by Donatello, 370 Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Musee des antiquites nationales, 481 Saint Helena, 533, 603, 664, 887, 1129 Saint John the Baptist, by Donatello, 369, 370 St. Longinus, by Bernini, 156 Saint Luke Painting the Virgin (2 versions), by M. van Heemskerck, 575 Saint Mark Preaching at Alexandria, by Gen­ tile Bellini, 139 Saint Matthew, by Michelangelo, 755 Saint-Non, Abbe de, 1028, 1115 Saint Peter, bronze statue, attributed to Ar­ nolfo di Cambio, 84; marble statue, attrib­ uted to Arnolfo di Cambio, 84 Saint Petersburg, Hermitage, 183, 541, 588590, 639, 738, 823, 1074. See also Augustus and Livia; Peter I (the Great) Saint Philip Exorcising the Demon, by F. Lippi, 544 Saint-Remy, Monument of the Julii, 65, 510, 770. See also Glanon; Arch at St-Remy Saint Sebastian, by Sodoma, 33 Saint-Vincent, J. B. de, 352, 420-421 Saintes, 481 Saitaphemes, 1102-1103 Sak9egozii, 48 Sakellaraki, E., 64 Sakellarakis, Y., 64, 337 Salac, A., 1003 Saladin, H., 1103 Salamanca, A., 656 Salamanca, Marques de, 774 Salamis, 213, 459 Salamis (Cyprus), 344, 345, 780, 796, 1166 Saliagos, 853 Salinas, 1022 Salis, J.F.W., Count de, 545 Sallust, 478, 1109 Sallustia, 1156 Salmacis, 180 Salnitro, I., 841 Salpinum, 833 Salt Cellar of Francis I, by B. Cellini, 262 Salutati, Coluccio, 997-998 Salviat, E., 482 Salviati, Cardinal Antonio Maria, 961 Salviati, F., 575

INDEX Salvini, A. M., 526 Salzman, 955 Samos, 210, 289, 491, 495, 496, 576, 581582, 649, 998- 999, 1194 Samothrace, 45, 150, 288, 324, 447, 654, 669, 670, 693, 717, 805, 999- 1004, 1165-1166, 1184; museum, 1003 Sams, G. K., 525 Samuel, S., 987 San Carlo Borromeo. See Borromeo, San Carlo San Giovenale, 476, 556 San Ildefonso Group. See Castor and Pollux (San Ildefonso Group) Sancto Gallo Franciscus Iulianide. See San­ gallo, Francesco da Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi, by Claude Lor­ raine, 290 Sanders, I., 337 Sandrart, Joachim von, 92, 508, 938, 1004, 1091 Sandrart, S. M. von, 27 Sandys, G., 655 Sandys, Sir John, 1004-1005 Sanfelice, F., 837 Sangallo, A. da, the Elder, 125, 1007 Sangallo, Antonio da, the Younger, 67, 72, 255, 264, 300, 430, 734, 947, 1005- 1006, 1014, 1116, 1161, 1166 Sangallo, Aristotile da, 755 Sangallo, Francesco da, 660, 1006- 1007; Gio­ vanni delle Bande Nere, 1006; Virgin and Child with Saint Anne, 1006 Sangallo, Giangalo da, 16, 67, 71, 77, 117, 124, 130, 544, 600, 660, 769, 842, 858, 918, 1005, 1006, 1007- 1009, 1024, 1080, 1109, 1130 Sangallo, G. B. da, 73, 734, 1005 Sannazaro, J., 673 Sanquirico, 101 Sansovino, A., 544, 1009 Sansovino, Jacopo, 1009- 1010; Bacchus, 1009; Madonna and Child, 1012; Madonna del Parto, 1009 Santacroce, P., 640 Santangelo, M., 769 Santangelo collection, 111 Santi, G., 926 Santini, E., 181 Santiponce. See Italica Sant’Omobono, Area Sacra, Rome, 983, 1010, 1088 Santorini. See Thera Santoro, Cardinal Fazio, 24 Sappho, 138, 516 Saqqara (Sakkara), 194, 434 Saracens, 12, 352, 834, 954 Saranda Kolonnes, 852 Sardis, 47, 289, 359, 568, 1011

INDEX Saria, B., 1056 Sarmatians, 59 Sarrafian, D., 750 Sarre, F., 378 Sassetti, F., 447, 1009 Sassetti, N., 1009 Sassi, B., 1011 Sassi, D., 1011 Sassi, F., 1011 Sassi, I., 1011 Sassi Caduti, 423 Sassi family and collection, 428, 1011-1012, 1118 Sassi-Farnese “Roma ' (Apollo), 429, 1012 Saties, Vel, 462 Satricum, 1013, 1168 Satrius, M., 251 Saturn (Saturnus), 177, 238, 426 Satyr, 498, 903; by Praxiteles, 1111 Satyr Carrying the Infant Bacchus, 266 Satyr with Hercules, 966 Satyr Pouring Wine, 564 Satyros (architect), 736 Satyrs, della Valle, 1144 Sauppe, H., 617 Sautel, Abbe, 828 Savary, M., 655 Savelli, G., 1014 Savelli family and collection, 172, 302, 879, 977, 978, 1006, 1013-1014, 1095 Saviron, P., 775 Savostina, E. A., 184 Scalamonti, F., 288 Scalfurotto, 891 Scaliger, J. C., 1014 Scaliger, Joseph Justus, 294, 398, 524, 546, 687, 1014-1015 scenic antiquities, 773, 886, 967, 1015 Schadewaldt, W., 1195 Schaeffer, C. F. A., 345, 393 Schakowsky, N., 577 Schamal, 647 Schapiro, M., 159 Scharf, G., 1205 Schaubert, E., 639, 983, 1079 Schede, M., 999 Schedel, H., 548 Schefold, K., 401, 767, 974 Schelstrate, 1152 Scheyb, F. C. de, 1071 Schiavone, 1049 Schickhardt, H., 403 Schiering, W., 826, 1210 Schilardi, D., 853 Schiller, F. von, 518, 661 Schimmel, N., 750 Schimmelpfennig, B., 759 Schindler, W., 767

1293 Schinkel, Karl Friedrich von, 153, 561, 639, 1015-1016; View of Greece in Its Prime, 1016 Schleiermacher, F.D.E., 166, 773 Schliemann, Heinrich, 7, 46, 79, 97, 220, 268, 289, 372, 418, 419, 475, 479, 487, 494, 513, 530, 537, 576, 600, 614, 629, 672, 685, 688, 717, 785, 786, 787, 797, 828, 1016-1019, 1038, 1060, 1105, 1128, 1132, 1191, 1194, 1204 Schliemann, S., 372, 758 Schlottmann, 1002 Schmidt, E., 475 Schmidt, J., 1103 Schoen, H. von, 52 Schonborn, A., 98, 1134 Schone, R., 647 Schonwisner, J., 59 School of Athens, by Raphael, 1039 School of Painting, by P. Testa, 1091 “ School of Vergil.” See Rome, Septizodium Schott, A., 770, 964 Schottus, F., 889 Schrader, H., 220, 659, 935 Schreiber, Theodor, 835, 1019 Schubring, 482, 674 Schuchhardt, C., 376, 636 Schuller, 343 Schulten, Adolf, 812, 813, 1019-1020, 1121 Schweitzer, B., 376 Scientific Expedition to the Morea. See Expe­ dition Scientifique de Moree Scipio Aemilianus, 250, 812, 1020 Scipio Africanus, 613 Scipio Africanus, 86, 267, 698 Scipio Barbatus, L. Cornelius, 1118 Scipio, Cnaeus Cornelius, 1073 Scipio, L. Cornelius, 1116 Scorel, J. van, 574, 689; Cleopatra, 574; Lu­ cretia, 574 Scott, R., 43 Scranton, R., 634, 907 ‘‘Scaper. ’’ See Apoxyomenos Scriverius, 497 SCUBA, 1139 Sculpture, by A. Pisano, 897 Scuola Italiana di Archeologia, 442. See also Italian School of Archaeology Scylla, 870 Scythian Slave. See Arrotino Scythians, 97, 183, 589, 985, 1016, 1103 Sea Monster, by Mantegna, 380 Seager, Richard Berry, 335, 761, 937, 1020 “ Seal of Nero.” See Apollo and Marsyas Sear, F., 70 Searls, H. E., 1081 Sears, Mr. and Mrs. J. M., 328 Seasons, 224

1294 ‘‘Seated Agrippina, ’ ’ 957 Seated Bacchus with Panther, 1145 Seated Daphnis, 360 Seated Herakles, by Lysippos, 216 Sebastiano del Piombo, 149, 224 Secundinii family, 603 Securitas, 507 Seetzen, U., 488 Segesta, 493, 517, 594, 1021, 1022, 1029 Segontium, 1191 Segovia, 57, 1021 Seguier, J.-F., 711 Seguier, P., 667 Segusio. See Susa Seidler, L., 517 Sejanus, 1043 Selden, J., 92, 728, 1036 Seleucia Pieria, 53 Seleukos (Seleucus) I Nikator, 53, 769 Seley, J., 431 Selinus (Selinunte), 743, 824, 841, 1022- 1023, 1028, 1029 Sella, Q., 3, Selvans, 170 Seneca, 505. See also Pseudo-Seneca Septimius Severus, 70, 71, 130, 214, 217, 245, 316, 451, 534, 605, 674, 815, 816, 839, 1052, 1095; portrayal of, 951 Septizodium (“ Septizonium” ), 1023 Serapis, 806 Serapis, 442 Sergei, J. T., 555 Sergii family, 72 Sergius III, Pope, 242 Serlio, Sebastiano, 67, 71, 72, 73, 77, 130, 131, 228-229, 711, 842, 1023- 1025, 1046, 1130 Seroux d’Agincourt, 1152 Serra Orlando. See Morgantina Serradifalco (D. LoFaso Pietrasanta), Duke of, 15, 1021, 1022, 1029, 1067, 1068 Sertorius, 1021 Servandoni, G. N., 845 “ Servian” Wall, Rome, 172, 1025- 1026, 1163 Servius Tullius, 1010 Sesklo, 1134 Sestieri, P., 837 Sestos, 1 Seti I, 1036 Seven against Thebes, 526, 1134 Seven Sacraments, by Poussin, 928 Severan Marble Plan. See Forma Urbis Romae Severini, G., 4 Severus Alexander, 130 Seville, Archaeological Museum, 613 Sextus Marius and his Daugther. See Ludovisi Gaul Killing Himself and His Wife Seyrig, H., 844

INDEX Sforza, B., 763 Sforza, Cardinal Alessandro, 247 Sforza family, 160 Sgobbo, I., 114 SHARPS, 1140 Shaw, J. W., 337, 647 Shaw, M. C., 647 She-Wolf with Twins. See Capitoline Wolf Shear, N. J., 1027 Shear, T. L., Jr., 10, 1027 Shear, Theodore Leslie, Sr., 10, 45, 107, 328, 688, 1026- 1027, 1099 Shearman, J., 297 Sheffield, Lord, 501 Shelburne, Earl of. See Lansdowne, Marquess Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 912, 941, 944, 1027 Sherlerstein, Baron von, 441 Shield of Scipio, 1047 Ship of Dionysos, by Exekias, 232 Shipwreck Krater, 900 Sibilla, G., 291, 449 Sichtermann, H., 972 Sicily, 21, 152, 193, 212, 435, 481, 494, 556, 592, 594, 742, 771, 798, 803, 829, 841, 876, 884, 1021, 1022-23, 1028- 1029, 10671069, 1173 Side, 47, 438, 1029- 1030, 1166 Sidon, 801 Sieber, F., 334, 655 Sieglin, E. von, 1019 Siemens, M., 1194 Siena, 410, 527 Sieveking, J., 61, 475, 723, 770 Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, 288 Signorelli, L., 544; Moses Reading the Law to the Israelites, 145 Signorili, N., 398, 552, 1084 Sigonio, 12, 979 Sikyon, 44, 459, 824, 829 Silchester, 1064 Silenos (Silenus), 177, 989 Silenous with Bacchus, 1039 Silius, 326 Silvestre, T., 608 Simon, E., 107, 534 Simone di Tommaso, 146 Simonetti, M., 226 Sinda, 476 Siphnian Treasury, Delphi, 343, 353, 356, 469,

1030-1031 Siphnos, 343, 1134 Sir John Hawkwood, by P. Uccello, 720 Siracusa. See Syracuse Siren with Cithara, 815 Sirletus, Cardinal, 888 Sisyphos, 138 Six, J., 578 Sixtus IV, Pope, 237, 239, 242, 323, 455, 552,

INDEX 622, 664, 678, 685, 753, 763, 781, 967, 978, 1031- 1032, 1045 Sixtus V, Pope, 57, 132, 286, 312, 317, 318, 446, 447, 664, 705, 720, 724, 738, 817, 943, 944, 978, 979, 1023, 1032- 1033, 1112, 1132, 1142 Sj0qvist, E., 771, 1029, 1055, 1065, 1066 sketchbooks, 99-100, 139, 166, 168, 283, 296, 373, 624, 1007-1008, 1171-1172, 1179 Skias, A., 769 Sklavokampos, 726 Skopas, 291, 695, 736, 743, 809, 1001, 1074 Skyllis, Athena of Lindos, 215 Slavs, 10, 1041, 1122 Sleep, by A. Algardi, 37 Sleeping Cupid, 148, 698, 965; by Michelan­ gelo, 404 Sleeping Nymph, by Canova, 180 Sligo, Lord, 213, 1128 Sloane, Sir Hans, 191, 1033-1034 Small-Moore, A., 328 Smetius, J., 341 Smetius, Martinus, 247, 373, 398, 624, 687, 888, 979, 1014, 1034-1035 Smirke, R., 295 Smith, Adam, 5 Smith, A. H., 197, 512 Smith, C., 744 Smith, C. R., 690 Smith, H. W., 675 Smith, J. A., 886 Smith, M., 346 Smith, R. M., 193 Smith, R.R.R., 54, 401, 925 Smollett, T., 742 Smuglewicz, F., 212 Smyrna, 46, 161, 195, 215, 270, 288, 358, 434, 438, 691, 803, 1035, 1048 Snake Goddess, 583 Soane, Sir John, 1035-1036 Sociedad Espafiola de Estudios Clasicos, 477 Societa Colombaria, 527 Societa degli Occulti, 3 Societa Reale Borbonica, 2 Societe centrale des architects, 164 Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies, 479, 581, 803 Society of Antiquaries of London, 20, 36, 417, 893, 1036- 1037, 1124, 1188, 1200 Society of Dilettanti, 46, 105, 270, 363, 387, 390, 415, 417, 483, 532, 641, 642, 854, 935, 952, 953, 999, 1037- 1038, 1041, 1062, 1204 Society of Friends and Patrons of the Glyptothek and the Antikensammlungen, 52 Sodalitas Rhenana, 263, 895 Soderini, P., 87 Soderini family, 97

1295 Sodoma, 224; Saint Sebastian, 33 Sogliano, A., 974 Sokrates, 267, 504, 698, 780, 1038- 1040; by Lysippos, 1038 Sokrates and the Mirror, 1039 Sokrates Doused with Water by Xanthippe, 1039 Sol in Sagittarius, by B. Peruzzi, 878 Soles, J., 761 Soli, 344, 1065 Soloeis, 841 Solon, 832 Soluntum, 1029 Sommella Mura, A., 1010 Sophocles, 192 Sophron of Syracuse, 939 Sordinas, 650 Soren, D., 652 Sorgente, C., 441 Sosibios Vase, 632 Sostratos, 534, 832 Soteriades, G., 536 Sotheby’s, 193 Sotira, 345 Sotiriou, G. A., 394 Soucieu, 704 Soufflot, J.-G., 837 Sounion, 200, 213, 230, 459, 494, 537, 854, 1040, 1050 South Etruria Survey, 467 Spalato. See Split Spanheim, E., 137 Spargi, 1139 Sparta, 79, 97, 195, 289, 459, 550, 966, 10401041, 1178, 1182 Spartacus, 811 Spearbearer, by Polykleitos. See Doryphoros, by Polykleitos Speer, A., 593 Speier, H., 492 Spello, 371 Spence, Joseph, 742, 1037, 1041-1042 Sperling, J., 162 Sperlonga, 661, 1043; Museo Nazionale, 1043 Spes, 430 Sphakteria, 806 Sphoungaras, 1020 Spiers, R. P., 1054 Spina, 1043-1044 Spinario, 239, 240, 242, 262, 360, 461, 498, 529, 539, 570, 656, 664, 716, 780, 944, 1009, 1032, 1044- 1046; by Antico, 50 Spinazzi, I., 809 Spinazzola, V., 777, 913 Spinelli, D„ 376 Spink and Son, 800 Split, 6, 23, 806, 887, 1046-1047 Spoleto, 516

1296 Spon, Jacob, 16, 68, 104, 216, 328, 352, 355, 415, 422, 487, 549, 704, 766, 767, 769, 810, 870, 935, 1046, 1047-1049, 1077, 1078, 1192 Spratt, T.A.B., 334, 656 Spreti, D., 398 Springer, A., 962 Squarcione, Francesco, 715, 716, 1049 Stabiae, 186, 778, 827, 1049-1050 Stackelberg, Otto Magnus von, 127, 198, 408, 416, 562, 601, 799, 846, 1050-1051 Stadium of Domitian, Campus Martius, Rome, 228, 1051-1052 Stadium of Domitian, Palatine Hill, Rome, 188, 680, 840, 1052 Stael, Madame de, 312 Staes, G., 717 Stais, V., 13, 536, 953, 1040 Stamatakis, P., 785, 1128 Standing Hercules, 529 Standing Hermaphrodite, 172 Stanhope, L., 18, 825 Stark, Karl Bernard, 1052-1054 Stathatos, H., 797 Statius, A., 207, 247, 473, 924 Stauropolis. See Aphrodisias Stavropoullos, P., 107, 969 Stefano, R., 1144 Stele of Aristion, 797 Stelluti, F., 2, 120 Stendhal, 312, 712 Stentinello, 829 Stephania, 345 Stephen of Blois, 579 Stern, H., 219 Stevens, Gorham Phillips, 42, 1054 Stewart, A., 695, 1074 Stier, W., 594 Stillman, W. J., 62, 268, 645, 1105, 1146 Stillwell, A. N., 328 Stillwell, Richard, 162, 771, 1029, 1054-1055 Stoa of Attalos, Athens, 9, 10, 107, 1055-1056 Stobi, 1056-1057 Stockholm: Gustav Ill’s Museum of Antiqui­ ties, 555; Medelhavsmuseet, 1065; National Museum, 282; Royal Palace, 556 Stone, R. E., 50 Stonehenge, 1064 Stoning of Saint Stephen, by Giulio Romano, 505; by Raphael, 949 Stoppio, N., 24 Stosch, Philipp von, 153, 511, 526, 1057, 1058, 1199 Strack, J. H., 1093 Strada, Jacopo, 24, 1057-1059 Strangford, Lord, 635 stratigraphical excavation, 17, 171, 172, 417, 458, 619, 901, 1059-1060 Strobel, P., 889

INDEX Strong, D., 541 Strong, Eugene Sellers, 197, 572, 696, 10601061, 1193 Strong, S. A., 1060 Stroud, R., 328 Strozzi, C., 140, 463 Strozzi family and collection, 162 Strzygowski, Josef, 219, 1061-1062 Stuart, James, 16, 69, 70, 105, 328, 355, 400, 415, 487, 532, 549, 768, 769, 854, 856, 861, 937, 952, 969, 1036, 1037, 1038, 1057, 1062-1063, 1077, 1078, 1084, 1098, 1123, 1204 Stubbings, F. H., 789 Stubbs, G., 1188 Stucchi, S., 251 Studius. See Ludius Studniczka, F., 495, 578, 658, 744, 1063, 1194 Stukely, William, 417, 690, 1063-1064 Stiiler, A., 153 Sturgeon, M., 611 Sturges, W. A., 986 Stylli, 1065 Styrenius, C.-G., 98 Suares (Suaresius), G. M., 71, 120, 1080 Succi, P., 462, 821 Sul, 129 Suleiman the Magnificent, 954 Sulla, 9, 120, 239, 298, 355, 400, 710, 811, 867, 868, 908, 933, 1049, 1079, 1084, 1096, 1122, portrayals of, 578 Surghul, 646 Suri, 941 Susa (Segusio), Arch of Augustus, 65-66, 1129 Susini, A., 424 Svoronos, J. N., 52 Swedish Cyprus Expedition, 392, 509, 556, 638, 1064-1065 Swedish Institute at Athens, 1065 Swedish Institute in Rome, 5, 167, 509, 807, 1065-1066 Swidde, W., 282 Swindler, Mary Hamilton, 1066 Sybaris, 676, 684, 1066-1067 Sydenham, E. A., 732 Sydney, P., 626 Sylvester II, Pope, 1196 Syme, R., 283 Symeoni, G., 704 Symeonoglou, S., 1097 Symi, 583 Symmachus, 311, 1095 Synistor, P. Fannius, 181, 750 Syracuse, 339, 431, 482, 594, 674, 771, 829, 884, 1028, 1029, 1067-1068, 1069, 1124; National Archaeological Museum, 830, 1068-1069 Syros, 1134

INDEX Szepmtiveszeti Muzeum. See Budapest, Fine Arts Museum Szombathely, 1113, 1115 Tabula Augustana, 1071 Tabula Iliaca, 138, 422, 1070 Tabula Isiaca. See Mensa Isiaca Tabula Peutingeriana, 263-264, 509, 826, 1046, 1070-1071 Tadius, S. See Ludius Tadmor. See Palmyra Tadmur. See Palmyra Tages, 1072 Tagiura, 675 Talbot, A., 91 Talocchini, A., 1162 Tamerlane the Great, 55 Tanagra, 450 Tanoulas, T., 937 Tanucci, B., 4, 185, 186, 187 Taormina, 287, 517, 799 Tapapius Rufus, A., 675 Taranto (Taras), 515, 1124, 1177 Tarchon, 1072 Tarchunies Rumach, 462 Tarentum, 1163 Tarpeia, 124 Tarquinia, 211, 212, 407, 408, 409, 410, 416, 601, 650, 676, 684, 994, 1051, 1072- 1073, 1168; National Archaeological Museum, 534 Tarquinius Priscus, 238, 284 Tarquinius Superbus, 238, 284, 455 Tarraco (Tarragona), 57, 1073 Tarsus (Tarsos), 47, 62, 519, 1066 Tassi, A., 290 Tassie, James, 512, 607, 920, 950, 1057, 1073- 1074, 1188 Tassie, W., 1074 Taurian Venus, 589 Tauriskos, Punishment of Dirce, 423 Tavernier, J. B., 844 Taylor, Joan du P., 345 Taylor, Josiah, 1063 Taylour, Lord William, 163, 786 Tazza Farnese. See Farnese Cup Tchemia, A., 1140 Tebanianus, sarcophagus of, 227 Tedellini, P., 319 Tegea, 494, 1074-1075 Tegel, 601 Telamon, 179 Telemachos (priest), 311 Telephos, 534 Telesilla, 80 Tell el-Amarna, 97, 872 Tellus, 60, 1137 Tempesta, A., 415 Temple, Sir William, 193 Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, Rome,

1297 457, 468, 793, 794, 977, 979, 981, 1075-

1076 Temple of Apollo, Corinth, 362, 328, 1077 Temple of Artemis, Ephesos, 193, 215, 393, 595, 814, 1048, 1077-1078 Temple of Athena Nike, Athens, 15, 18, 105, 390, 829, 937, 983, 1078-1079 Temple of Castor, Rome, 125, 373, 436, 453, 455, 457, 727, 794, 803, 977, 981, 1079 Temple of Fortuna, Praeneste, 117, 188, 413, 628, 887, 931, 932, 1007, 1079- 1080, 1167 Temple of Hera, Olympia, 298, 588, 824, 825,

1080-1081 Temple of Minerva, Rome, 306, 604, 606, 977, 979, 1081-1082 “ Temple of Minerva Medica,” Rome, 202, 509, 949, 1082-1083 Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens, 18, 70, 104, 106, 594, 1083-1084 Temple of Saturn, Rome, 125, 456, 727, 794, 795, 977, 978, 981, 1084-1085 Temple of the Dioscuri. See Temple of Castor Temple of Venus and Rome, Rome, 53, 74, 554, 794, 803, 977, 978, 979, 981, 1085-

1086 Temple of Vespasian, Rome, 226, 234, 456, 457, 794, 795, 977, 978, 981, 1086 “ Temple of Vesta,” Rome, 435, 455, 516, 794, 795, 977, 978, 981, 1086-1088 Temple of Zeus, Olympia, 164, 342, 448, 824, 825, 853, 855, 1088- 1089, 1209-1210 Temptation of Saint Jerome, by Domenichino, 366 Tenerani, P., 56, 109 Tenos, 343, 1047 Teos, 854 Terentius Bembus. See Vatican Terenee Terme, Rome, Museum, Rome, 37, 132, 266, 267, 303, 638, 696, 755, 783, 800, 982, 1089- 1091, 1167, 1169. See also Apollo and Daphne; Ara Pacis Augustae; Augustus; Bacchus; Bronze Boxer; Boy with Goose; Crouching Venus; Diskobolos; Hellenistic “Ruler”; Hermaphrodite; Ludovisi Ares; Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus; Ludovisi Caul; Ludovisi Mercury; Ludovisi Minerva; Lu­ dovisi “ Throne” ; Muse Sarcophagus; Odys­ sey Landscapes; Pseudo-Seneca; Scipio Africanus; Sleeping Child; Sokrates; Venus of Cyrene Terme di Calluccio. See ‘‘Temple of Minerva Medica’ ’ Temi, 1168 terra sigillata, 85 Terracina, 461, 1005 Testa, Pietro, 120, 931, 1091- 1092; School of Painting, 1091 Tetius (Teti), H., 920 Tetrachs in Venice, 215

1298 Teutoburg Forest, 294 Texier, Charles-Felix-Marie, 46, 54, 98, 100, 363, 641, 709, 874, 1092 Thales, 757 Thanatos, 700 Thapsos, 829, 1029 Thasos, 288 Theater of Dionysos, Athens, 18, 106, 372, 417, 494, 536, 744, 1015, 1092-1093 Theater of Marcellus, Rome, 309, 366, 506, 615, 680, 809, 879, 919, 977, 978, 982, 1005, 1006, 1009, 1013, 1093- 1095, 1179 Theater of Pompey, Rome, 228, 309, 386, 822, 976, 977, 1006, 1095-1096 Thebes, 537, 549, 648, 683, 788, 828, 1048, 1096- 1097, 1204 Theft of the Palladium, 438 Themelis, P., 337 Themis, 823, 953 Themistokles, 107, 867; portrayal of, 888 Thenon, L., 334, 528 Theodorescu, D., 837 Theodoric, 110, 130, 254, 273, 457, 976, 1159, 1169; portrayal of, 951 Theodoros, 582 Theodorus II Lascaris, 874 Theodosius I, 35, 139, 214, 317, 355, 824 Theodosius II, 102, 215, 858 Theokritos, 938 Theophano, 157 Theophilus, 35 Thera (Santorini), 343, 495, 537, 726, 761, 797, 883, 1097-1098 Thermae Agrippae. See Rome, Baths of Agrippa Thermopylai, 726, 1204 Theron, 592 Thesan-Leuokothea, 941 Theseus, 68, 103, 104, 581, 655 Theseus, 186, 224, 653, 1134 Theseus and Antiope, 401 Theseus and the Minotaur, by A. Canova, 234 Thespis, 939 Thessaloniki, 288, 871, 1098- 1099; Archaeo­ logical Museum, 1099 Thetis, 920 Thevai. See Thebes Thibron, 709 Thiersch, F., 1105 Thode, H., 965 Thomassin, P., 264, 510 Thompson, D. B., 581 Thompson, H. A., 10, 70, 107, 769, 907, 1056 Thompson, Margaret, 1099 Thomsen, Christian Jurgensen, 764, 1059,

1099-1100 Thorikos, 44, 537, 665, 787 Thorn-Puller. See Spinario

INDEX Thorpe, J., 165 Thorvaldsen, Bertel, 13, 464, 489, 540, 601, 608, 701, 1100- 1102, 1119, 1183, 1211; Hope, 450; Jason with the Golden Fleece, 1100; Triumph of Alexander, 1119 Thorvaldsen Group (vase painting), 1102 Thorvaldsens Museum, Copenhagen, 1100,

1102 Thracians, 97 Three Age System, 764 Three Graces, 205, 307 “ Throne of Neptune,” 360 Thucydides, 267 Thugga, 1102-1103 Thurii, 1066, 1067 “ Thusnelda," 1145, 1165 Thyatira, 289 Tiara of Saitaphemes, 450, 1102-1103 Tiber, 99, 131, 623, 656, 693, 724, 756, 806807, 878, 936, 1148, 1166 Tiberius, 56, 58, 60, 61, 64, 243, 699, 811, 839, 1043, 1079; portrayals of, 251, 484, 486, 487, 675, 816 Tiberis. See Marforio Tiepolo, G. B., 88 Tiepolo, L., 403 Tifemum. See Citta di Castello Tiffany, L. C., 922 Tigris, 1148 Timachidas, 325 Timarchos, portrait of Menander, 744 Timgad, 1104-1105 Timoleon, 14, 743 Timotheos, 736, 871 Tintoretto, 1179, 1180 Tiridates, 1095 Tiryns, 372, 418, 494, 496, 683, 787, 788, 1016, 1018, 1105-1106 Tischbein, Johann Heinrich Wilhelm, 186, 567, 818, 911, 1085, 1106- 1107; Goethe in the Campagna, 517, 1106 Titans, by Pietro da Cortona, 117 Titian, 149, 276, 302, 307, 541, 922, 1059, 1107- 1108, 1179; Andrians, 1107; Charles V on Horseback, 569; Diana and Actaeon, 338; Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence, 1108; Miracle of the Speaking Infant, 1107; Rape of Europa, 424; “Sacred and Profane Love," 1108; Twelve Caesars, 1108; Wor­ ship of Venus, 1107 Titus, 149, 286, 308, 368, 839, 917, 1086; portrayals of, 864 Titus Livius Puteanus, 830 Titus Tatius, 238 Tivoli, 188, 288, 290, 308, 496, 680, 755, 810, 854, 865, 888, 902, 903, 923, 932, 1006, 1108- 1111, 1149; Hadrian’s Villa, 20, 23, 37, 118, 188, 192, 202, 288, 291, 298, 338,

INDEX 413, 427, 443, 496, 544, 556, 558- 559, 564, 567, 619, 628, 680, 681, 806, 864, 895, 903, 905, 949, 1124, 1176 Tizio, Sigismondo, 278, 1111-1112 Tocra, 195 Todi, 1168 Tolomei, C., 296 Tolstikov, V. P., 183 Tomb of Caecilia Metella, 231, 373, 977, 1033, 1112- 1113, 1163 Tomb of Eurysaces, 918, 1113 Tomb of Ovid, 123, 141, 474, 973, 1113-1115 “Tomb of Philip II,” Vergina, 47, 1115- 1116, 1159 Tomb of Remus. See Pyramid of Cestus Tomb of the Horatii and Curiatii, 902, 1116 Tomb of the Scipios, Rome, 980, 1116- 1118, 1163, 1177 Tomb of Vergil, Naples, 141, 165, 1118-1119 Tomis, 1113 Topham, R., 841 topography, study of, 204, 216, 670, 773, 915; of Athens, 103-107; of Greece, 548-550, 751; of Italy, 21; of Rome, 22, 161, 168, 197, 361, 550-555, 658, 673, 681, 851, 906, 976-983 Torchbearer, by A. Algardi, 37 Torelli, M., 60, 837 Torlonia, A., 462, 803, 925, 1014, 1119 Torlonia, G., 1119, 1120 Torlonia family and collection, 21, 509, 834, 925-926, 1119- 1120, 1180 Toronto, Royal Ontario Museum, 647, 783, 986- 987; model of Athena Parthenos, 102, 987 Torrentius, Laevinus, 831, 888, 1120-1121 Torriani, O., 979, 1075 Toscanelli, P., 22, 201 Tositsa, E., 797 Totalitatsideal, 166, 203, 475, 807, 1121, 1189, 1195 Totila, 840 Touloupa, E., 668, 1096 Tourkoyeitonia, 64 Tourloti, 1020 Tournefort, J. P. de, 334, 343, 352, 634, 655, 853, 999 Tournon, C. de, 793, 803, 1084 Tovar, Antonio, 1121-1122 Tower of the Winds, Athens, 105, 417, 536, 549, 797, 1008, 1122-1123 Town Mosaic, 583 Townley, Charles, 19, 165, 192, 302, 365, 532, 564, 565, 620, 980, 1036, 1037, 11241125, 1177 Toynbee, J.M.C., 925 Tradate, S. da, 413, 437, 718 Trade, by A. Pisano, 898

1299 Tradescant, John, the Elder and Younger, 94, 95, 782, 1126 Tragedy, 903 Trajan, 67, 244, 288, 292, 368, 488, 515, 605, 613, 747, 878, 925, 1104, 1109, 1132; por­ trayal of, 1038 Tralles, 215, 600 Transfeldt, J. G., 68, 104, 1084 Traversari, A., 804 Traversari, G., 73 Travlos, J., 70, 769, 1056 “Treasure of Kourion,” 651 Treasury of Atreus, Mycenae, 684, 1126-1128 Trebonius Gallus, 878 Treheux, J., 352 Trendall, A. D., 197 Trendelenburg, 453 Treu, G., 1089 Triarius, 352 Trier, 714, 896, 1128- 1129, 1197; Igel Monu­ ment, 517, 603, 714, 1197; Rheinisches Landesmuseum, 1129 Trinakria. See Sicily Triopis, 641 Tripergole, 1007 Tripoli, 172, 675, 691; museum, 675 Triptolemos, 426 Trissino, G., 673, 842 Triton and Nereid, 380 Triumph of Alexander, by B. Thorvaldsen, 1119 Triumph of an Emperor, by A. Algardi, 37 Triumph of Bacchus, 185 by M. van Heem­ skerck, 575 Triumph of Caesar, by A. Mantegna, 438 Triumph of David, by N. Poussin, 928 Triumph of Joseph in Egypt, 870 Triumph of Marcus Aurelius, 723 Triumph of Neptune, by Antico, 50 Triumphal Arch of Maximilian I, by A. Diirer, 381 “triumphal” arches, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 74, 77, 78, 272, 551, 1025, 1129-1130 Trivulzio, 661 Troad, 1, 594. See also Troy Troizen, 459 Trojan War, 1030, 1070 “Trophies of Marius,” 239, 240, 1092, 1130-

1132 Troy, 46, 162, 213, 220, 253, 289, 372, 418, 494, 753, 772, 787, 1016, 1018, 1019, 1060, 1132- 1133, 1182, 1202, 1204 Trumpeter, by Epigonos, 381 Trypiti, 337 Trysa (Golba§i), 46, 150, 654, 783, 806, 1134 Tschira, A., 17 Tsipopoulou, M., 559 Tsoungiza, 789, 799, 800

1300 Tsountas, Christos, 343, 536, 537, 785, 787, 853, 1134-1135, 1146 Tubingen, 85 Tulliola, 447, 1135 Tunis, Musee du Bardo, 180, 711, 1103. See also Eros Turin, Museo Egizio, 149. See also Mensa Is­ iaca; Museum of Antiquities Turiozzi, F. A., 1180 Turkish Historical Society, 46, 48 Turnebe, A., 1014 Turner, E. T., 193 Turner, J.M.W., 388 Tusa, V., 1022, 1029 Tuscania, 224 Tuscolo, 231, 1005 Twain, Mark, 763 Twedell, J., 581 Twelve Caesars, by Titian, 1108 Tyana, 110, 215 Tybout, R. A., 975 Tyche of Antioch, 1176 Tylissos, 726 Tyndaris, 1029 Typaneai, 751 Tyrannicides, by Kritios, 448 Tyrrhenus, 49 Tyrwhitt, M. D., 192 Tyrwhitt, T., 192 Tyskiewiczs collection, 815 Tzedakis, Y., 337 Tzia. See Keos Uberti, F. degli, 944 Uccello, P., Sir John Hawkwood, 720 Udine, Giovanni da, 85, 255, 544, 673, 973, 1136 Uffizi Gallery, Florence, 32, 301, 737, 739, 740, 782, 784, 1137-1138, 1147, 1179. See also Alexander, Dying; Arringatore; Arrotino; Belvedere Mercury; Borghese Faun; Chimaera of Arezzo; Crouching Venus; Dancing Faun (Florence); Francis Vase; Hanging Marsysas; Hermaphrodite; Idolino; Laocoon, by B. Bandinelli; Medici Vase; Medici Venus; Minerva; Niobe Group; Seated Daphnis Ugonio, 182 Ulu Barun, 1139 Ulysses, 936. See also Odysseus Umberto I, King of Italy, 850 Umbilicus. See Rome, Umbilicus underwater and maritime archaeology, 22, 307, 413, 677, 681, 728, 1138-1141 UNESCO, 304, 683, 861 Unger, W., 1106 Uni, 330

INDEX Uni-Astarte, 941 Urban VIII, Pope, 10, 110, 116-117, 118, 255, 705, 849, 929, 979 Urinates, Vel, 171 Urlichs, K. L. von, 1051 Ursinus Fulvius. See Orsini, Fulvio Usener, H., 376, 876, 1188 Ussher, Archbishop, 1036 Utrecht, 596, 622 Vacca, Flaminio, 178, 266, 425, 691, 920, 1142; Lion, 1142; Saint Francis of Assisi, 1142 Vacherie, L. de la, 377 Vaga, P. del, 1005 Vaglieri, 54 Vahlen, J., 598 Vaison-la-Romaine, 481 Valadier, Giuseppe, 74, 226, 455, 458, 758, 793, 794, 1075, 1079, 1088, 1116, 1119, 1142-1143 Valavez, 276 Valens, 130, 213 Valentini, R., 759, 772 Valentinian I, 130 Valentinus, 219 Valerian (Valerianus), 816, 818 Valerianus, Bolzanius Pierius, 960, 1143-1144 Valesio, F., 511 Valla, L., 678 Valle, B. della, 1144 Valle, Cardinal Andrea della, 61, 1144 Valle, della, family and collection, 99, 295, 296, 449, 615, 740, 878, 888, 936, 1137, 1144-1145, 1165 Valle, Faustina della, 1144 Valle, Filippo della, 1144 Valle, P. della, 434, 844 Valle, Q. della, 1145 Valle, S. della, 1145 Vallentine, J. R., 922 Vallet, G., 470, 743, 1029 Vallois, R., 352 Valois, A. J. E., 792 Valois, P. de, 486 Van Deman, Esther Boise, 57, 710, 1145 Van Der Beke, Lieven. See Torrentius, Levinus Van Dyck, A., 27, 92, 625, 869 Van Keuren, F., 837 Vandals, 251, 606, 674, 811, 865, 976 Vanth Group, 833 Vanvitelli, Gaspare. See Wittel, Gaspar Van Vanvitelli (Van Wittel), L., 132, 1201 Vapheio, 537, 787, 1134, 1146 Varro, 922 Varus, Q., 1109, 1111 Varvakeion Athena, 102, 672

INDEX Vasari, Giorgio, 99, 277, 408, 449, 522, 575, 623, 685, 737, 739, 753, 782, 898, 948, 1108, 1136, 1137, 1143, 1144, 1146- 1148, 1166, 1167, 1200 Vasi, G., 553-554 Vasi, M., 554 Vasi family, 553-554 Vasilakis, A., 337 Vasilike, 335, 1020 Vathypetro, 337 Vatican, 41, 49, 233, 291, 544, 731, 759, 814, 820, 878, 1108; Library, 209, 902; Muse­ ums, 226, 232, 300, 303, 373, 408, 462, 464, 467, 540, 554, 556, 558, 564, 574, 622, 624, 680, 686, 693, 709, 746, 778, 781, 782, 890, 902, 903, 904, 936, 951, 980, 1080, 1118, 1137, 1147, 1148- 1151, 1152, 1166, 1173-1174, 1180. See also Aldobrandini Wedding; Amazon; Antinous; Apollo and the Muses; Apollo Sauroktonos; Apoxyomenos; Arno; Augustus of Prima Porta; Bacchus and Satyr; Belvedere Apollo; Belvedere Pigna; Belvedere Torso; Boy with Goose; Cancelleria Reliefs; “ Cleopatra"; Commodus as Hercules; Constantine; Dishobolos; Fire in the Borgo; Ganymede; Giustiniani Minerva; Hercules and Antaeus; Hercules and Telephus; Kneeling Persian; Knidian Aphrodite; Laocoon; Mars of Todi; Meleager; Mercury; Muses with Apollo; Nile; Niobid Girl; Odyssey Landscapes; “ Phocion” ; Rome, Ara Pacis Augustae; Rome, Column of Antoninus Pius; Saint He­ lena, Sarcophagus of; Sokrates; Tiber; Ti­ gris; Venus Felix; Verospi Jupiter Vatican Obelisk, 817, 818, 819, 881, 925 Vatican Terence, 140, 830, 887, 931 Vatican Vergil, 123, 148, 756, 830, 887, 931, 1092, 1151-1152 Vatluna. See Vetulonia Vattier de Beauville, J., 346 Vedel Simonsen, L. S., 1100 Veii, 222, 231, 276, 298, 409, 758, 1025, 1152- 1153, 1167, 1168 Velathri. See Volterra Velazquez, Diego Rodriguez, 570, 571, 931932, 1153- 1155; Mars, 1153; Mercury and Argus, 1153; Rokeby Venus, 180, 1153 Veii Pasha, 543, 1128 Velia, 712 Velianas, Thefarie, 941 Vendramin collection, 959 Vendramino, G., 756 Venetians, 643, 771-772, 859, 954 Veneziano, A., 59, 224, 1024 Venice, 461, 596-597; Biblioteca Marciana,

1301 209, 541, 542; Museo Archeologico, 35, 458, 541, 542, 934 (see also Praying Boy); Saint Mark’s Cathedral, excavations by Boni, 172; Seminario Patriarcale, 744 Ventidius, L., 168 Ventris, Michael, 476, 645, 682, 1155, 1182, 1186 Venus, 298, 605, 727, 759, 1085-1086; by Velazquez, 1153; portrayals of, 60, 139, 299, 404, 498, 539, 565, 737, 936, 1083, 1144 Venus, Bacchus and Ceres, by P. P. Rubens, 338 Venus Chasing Cupid, 862 Venus de Milo, 693, 744, 1155-1156 Venus ex balneo. See Knidian Aphrodite Venus Felix, 246, 571, 623, 1147, 1148, 1156-

1158 Venus Frutis, 665 Venus Genetrix, 505 Venus Kallipygos, 266 Venus of Arles, 82, 302, 504, 517 Venus of Cyrene, 346 Venus Pudica, 185 Venus Victrix, 1095 Venus with Mars, 173, 174. See also Sabina and Hadrian Venusia, 1163 Venuti, D., 429 Venuti, F., 3 Venuti, N. M., 3 Venuti, R., 3, 319, 696, 731 Vergerio, Pietro Paolo, 940, 1158 Vergil, 791, 1070, 1118-1119; portrayal of, 607, 745, 816, 938, 939 Vergil Reading the Aeenid to Augustus, by In­ gres, 607 Vergilius Romanus. See Roman Vergil Vergina, 47, 537, 871, 1099, 1158- 1159; “ Tomb of Philip II,” 47, 1115- 1116, 1159 Verlinden, C., 337 Vermeule, C. C., 780 Vermeule, E., 780 Verona, 72, 151, 197, 517, 706, 851, 1006, 1025, 1159- 1161; Arch of the Gavii, 72, 73, 1130, 1161; Museo Lapidario Maffeiano, 708 Veronese, 249 Verospi Jupiter, 1176 Verres, 298, 1028 Verrius, Flaccus, 933 Verrocchio, 449, 737, 1148; Colleone, 597, 722 Versailles, 692, 693, 1148 Versakis, F., 536, 649 Vertue, G., 625, 1042 Verucchio, 198

1302 Verulamium, 412, 1037, 1161-1162 Vespasian, 162, 229, 297, 308, 368, 451, 605, 811, 828, 839, 917, 1081; portrayals of, 864, 881 Vespignani, F., 821 Vesta, 1109 Vesta, 1012 Vestal Virgin. See Giustiniani Hestia Vestor and Co., 986 Vetters, H., 394 Vettori, P., 245 Vetulonia, 31, 445, 461, 1162, 1177 Via Appia, Rome, 23, 231, 315, 377, 460, 564, 803, 902, 1112, 1163 Vibenna (Vipenas) brothers, 462, 1180 Vico, Enea, 403, 405, 473, 510, 544, 656, 807, 1145, 1163-1165 Victor Emmanuel (Vittorio Emanuele) II, King of Italy, 445, 850 Victoria, Queen of England, 38 Victorious Athlete. See Getty Athlete Victory of Samothrace, 693, 1001, 1002, 1003,

1165-1166 Vien, J. M., 350, 468; Cupid Seller, 468 Vienna, 58; Kunsthistorisches Museum, 150— 151, 653- 654, 783, 1003, 1134, 1166; Mu­ seum of Arts and Crafts, 959. See also Gemma Augustea; Gonzaga Cameo; Magdalensburg Youth; Triumph of Bacchus Vienne, 338, 481, 618 Vierneisel, K., 13, 515 Vigemere, 315 Vignola, Giacomo, 623, 840, 936, 1148, 1166-

1167 Vignoli, 316 Villa dei Bronzi. See Villa of the Papyri Villa dei Pisoni. See Villa of the Papyri Villa Giulia, Rome, 256, 265, 276, 329, 623, 624, 637, 784, 941, 1089, 1153, 1167- 1168, 1189 Villa Item. See Villa of the Mysteries Villa of Livia at Prima Porta, Rome, 108, 593, 982, 1090, 1169 Villa of Prima Porta. See Villa of Livia Villa of the Mysteries, 913, 1169-1170 Villa of the Papyri, 186, 298, 496, 585, 778,

1170-1171 Villani, G., 85 Villanova, 169 Villanovan culture, 168-169, 198, 530, 946, 1168- 1169, 1209 Villard, F., 470, 743, 1029 Villard de Honnecourt, 1171-1172 Ville, A. de, 73 Vincent of Beauvais, 151 Vincenzo I, Duke of Mantua, 149 Viola, L., 1067 Viollet-Le-Duc, 1172-1173

INDEX Vipenas brothers. See Vibenna brothers Vipsul. See Fiesole Virgin and Child with Saint Anne, by F. da Sangallo, 1006 Virtuosi al Pantheon, 680 Virtus, 1095 Visconti, A., 1176 Visconti, Ennio Quirino, 55, 143, 173, 174, 176, 178, 179, 292, 316, 362, 382, 390, 426, 430, 487, 547, 587, 607, 661, 693, 699, 863, 903, 924, 1149, 1173-1176 Visconti, F. A., 319, 1176, 1177 Visconti, Giovanni Battista, 291, 319, 365, 903, 1149, 1173, 1176-1177 Visconti, P. E., 319 Visigoths, 711, 809, 828, 976, 1073 Vision of Augustus on the Capitoline Hill, by Ghirlandaio, 499 Vision of the True Cross, by Giulio Romano, 506 Vitelleschi, G., 160 Vitellius, portrayals of, 505, 541, 816 Viterbo, 5, 48, 171, 231, 408, 1177-1178 Vitruvius, 56, 78, 188, 272, 305, 307, 371, 460, 544, 842, 1005, 1166, 1171 Vitruvius Cerdo, L., 72 Vittori, L., 171 Vivant Denon, 588, 693 Vivenzio brothers, 811 Vivianius, J., 1120 Vix, 480; prater, 1178 Vlad Borelli, L., 822 Vlasaki, M., 337 Vogue, 344 Volage (survey ship), 744 Volaterrae. See Volterra Vollenweider, M.-L., 513 Vollgraff, W., 80, 622 Vologaeses III, 722 Volpato, G., 120, 555 Volsinii, 85, 170-171, 418, 445, 470, 471, 650, 833, 1010, 1168, 1178 Volso, M., 525 Voltaire, 4, 236 Volterra, 284, 406, 408, 410, 416, 443, 445, 461, 546, 708, 1178- 1179; Museo Etrusco Guarnacci, 408, 410, 443, 1179 Volterra, D. da, 832 Volterra, F. da, 705 Volterra, R. da, 833 Volumni, 878 Volupia, 1088 Volusianus, C. R., 130 Vona, F., 181 Vorou, 726 Vorsterman, L., 1039 Vorstius, 524 Vos, Mariette de, 975

INDEX Vos, Martin de, 1179- 1180; Rebecca and Eleazer at the Well, 1180 Voss, J. H., 518 Vossius, J. G., 625 Vouet, S., 667 Vouni, 1065 Voutier, O., 1155 Voza, G., 1029 Vrokastro, 335, 612 Vulca, 242, 1152, 1153 Vulcan, 662 Vulcan, by Pietro da Cortona, 117 Vulci, 204, 222, 224, 231-232, 330, 409, 540, 701, 1120, 1168, 1180- 1181, 1184; Frangois Tomb, 409, 461, 462-463 Vyzantios, S., 535 Waagen, G. F., 1005 Wace, Alan John Bayard, 550, 645, 657, 683, 786, 788, 1128, 1182-1183 Wace, H., 786 Wachsmuth, C., 283 Waddington, 344 Waelkens, M., 425 Wagner, Johann Martin von, 409, 513-514, 543, 640, 701, 994, 1183-1184 Waldstein (Walston), Sir Charles, 44, 79, 443,

1184 Wallace-Hadrill, A., 197 Walpole, H., 911, 1037 Walpole, Sir Robert, 1037 Walsingham, S., 198 Walston, Charles. See Waldstein, Charles Walter, H., 13 Walters, Henry, 991, 1184-1185 Walters, W. T., 1185 Ward-Perkins, John Bryan, 70, 197, 418, 675, 997, 1185 Warren, Edward Perry, 700, 779, 780, 1186 Warren, P., 336, 646 Warwick Vase, 567, 564, 895 Washington, G., 818 Waterfliet, M. L., Duke of, 521 Watson, G., 581 Watteau, A., 261 Weaving, by A. Pisano, 897, 898 Webb, P., 172 Weber, K., 584, 911 Webster, Thomas Bertram Lonsdale, 1015,

1186 Wechel, C., 25 Weddell, W., 532 Wedgwood, Josiah, 410, 444, 450, 911, 922, 1036, 1186- 1188; Hercules in the Garden of the Hesperides, 1187 Weege, Fritz, 212, 225, 226, 688, 1188-1189 Weger A., 617 Wegner, M., 723, 925

1303 weights and measures, study of 30, 166, 207, 681, 869 Weinreich, O., 376 Weiss, R., 25, 151 Weitzmann, K., 1070 Welcker, Friedrich Gottlieb, 150, 202, 203, 223, 341, 475, 601, 773, 835, 879, 1121, 1195, 1189 Weld-Blundell, H., 346 Wellcome, H. S., 443 Weller, C., 937 Wellesley, 364 Welser, M., 108, 1071 Welter, G., 13 Wenzel, Prince of Lichtenstein, 935 Wertheimer, S., 991 West, Benjamin, 1107, 1189- 1191; Agrippina Landing at Brundisium, 1191; Choice of Hercules, 1189; Conversion of Saint Paul, 391 Westholm, A., 877, 1065 Wharton, Dr. T., 94, 1126 Wharton, Lord, 529 Wheeler, Mrs. T. V., 1162 Wheeler, Sir Mortimer, 332, 690, 1060, 1162, 1185, 1191-1192 Wheler, George, 16, 68, 215, 216, 328, 352, 355, 396, 415, 487, 549, 769, 810, 935, 1046, 1047, 1077, 1078, 1192 White, J. W., 63, 687 Whitehouse, D. B., 197 Whitehouse, H., 120 Whittlesey, J. and E., 419 Whood, J., 1042 Wickhoff, Franz, 76, 77, 145, 629, 770, 822, 959, 1019, 1060, 1061, 1192-1193 Wide, S., 807 Wiegand, Theodor, 112, 153, 204, 217, 363, 491, 495, 576, 632, 757, 876, 935, 999, 1063, 1193-1194 Wiesbaden, Landesmuseum, 154 Wieseler, F., 150 Wightman, Edith Mary, 1194 Wilamowitz-Moellendorf, Ulrich von, 41, 136, 342, 372, 476, 591, 616, 617, 632, 670, 688, 767, 773, 807, 883, 926, 934, 962, 965, 1121, 1188, 1189, 1195, 1201 Wilberg, K., 549 Wilcox, M., 1140 Wilcox, P., 1140 Wild Boar. See Porcellino Wilde, O., 802 Wilhelm, A., 396 Wilhelmine, Margrave of Ansbach-Bayreuth, 153 Will, E., 63 Willemsen, F., 496 William of Malmesbury, 406, 590, 1195-1196

1304 William I, King of the Netherlands, 231, 535, 959, 960 William I (the Silent) of Orange and Nassau, 828 William I (Wilhelm I), King of Prussia and Emperor, 491 William II, King of England, 129 William II (Wilhelm II), King of Prussia and Kaiser, 112, 372, 610, 632, 636, 649 William IV (Wilhelm IV), Duke of Bavaria, 24 William V (Wilhelm V), Duke of Bavaria, 24 Williams, C. K., 328, 799 Williams, Hugh Williams, 400, 1196-1197 Williams, N., 922 Williams, P. W., 578 Wilson, R., 20, 619 Wiltheim, A., 603, 1197 Wiltheim, E., 1197 Wiltheim, Jean-Guillaume, 1197 Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, 4, 6, 20, 28, 54, 122, 138, 140, 143, 145, 148, 174, 175, 179, 186, 187, 203, 211, 237, 241, 243, 293, 315, 319, 342, 382, 416, 425, 430, 435, 444, 448, 468, 493, 494, 501, 511, 516, 538, 568, 587, 593, 597, 602, 607, 630, 632, 661, 677, 730, 742, 743, 746, 747, 767, 825, 837, 893, 911, 924, 938, 971, 974, 1027, 1036, 1057, 1072, 1107, 1124, 1138, 1158, 1173, 1175, 1176, 1186, 1193, 1198-1200 Windsor Castle, 675 Winged Victory. See Victory of Samothrace Winghe, 182 Winkes, R., 959 Winnefeld, H., 376 Winter, F., 144, 220 Winter (Campana Relief), 224 Wiseman, J., 1056 Wit, J. de, 1152 Witdoeck, H., 965 Witt, R., 998 Witte, J. de, 162, 672 Wittel, Gaspar van, 74, 218, 1201 Wittkower, R., 23, 377 Woelfflin, E., 629 Wohlgemuth, M., 581 Wolf, Friedrich August, 166, 1038, 1121, 1195, 1201-1202 Wolff, F., 153, 874 Wolff, Reinier van der, 622, 1202 Wolfflin, H., 41, 658, 670, 732, 965, 1061 Wolsky, F., 780 Wolters, P., 17, 204, 210 Wood, A., 94 Wood, J. T., 193, 393, 1077 Wood, Robert, 1, 6, 355, 549, 854, 935, 952, 1038, 1202-1204

INDEX Woodhouse, J., 193 Woolley, Sir Leonard, 38 Worm, O., 782 Worsaae, J. J., 764, 1060 Worship o f Venus, by Titian, 1107 Worthley, Sir Richard, 517 Wounded Amazon, by Kresilas, 749 Wrede, W., 495 Wren, Sir Christopher, 295, 690 Wrestlers, 301, 740, 1137 Wright, D. H., 123 Wright, J. R., 800 Wulzinger, K., 112 Wunderkammer. See Kunst- und Wunderkammer Wurster, W., 1093 Wiirttemberg, Schloss Wolfegg, 99 Wurzburg, Martin von Wagner Museum, 658, 686, 1184 Wythe, G., 618 Xanthippos, grave relief of, 192 Xanthos, 46, 47, 438, 806, 1205- 1206; Harpy Tomb, 46, 192; Nereid Monument, 46, 192, 438, 736 Xanthoudides, Stephanos, 335, 336, 528, 1206 Xenophanes, 939 Xenophon, 88 Xerxes, 1, 728, 1133 Ximenes, P., 993 Young, Rodney Stuart, 525, 1207 Zadoks Josephus-Jitta, A. N., 925 Zaghouan, 250, 493 Zahn, R., 376, 1097 Zahn, W.J.K., 33, 912, 974 Zakros (Zakro), 335, 337, 583, 595, 1208 Zaltieri, B., 249 Zancani-Montuoro, P., 3, 837 Zanker, P., 109, 925 Zannoni, Antonio, 169, 198, 1208-1209 Zanotti-Bianco, U., 837, 1067 Zanth, L., 594, 1022, 1029 Zaphiropoulou, D., 744 Zappati, 226 Zavoykin, A. A., 184 Zazoff, P., 513 Zei, P., 463 Zeiller, J., 1047 Zeno (architect), 98 Zenobia, 844 Zeus, 789, 823, 867, 1088; portrayals of, 858, 965 Zeus Diktaios, 583 Zeus Meilichios, 911 Zeus of Olympia, by Pheidias, 215, 824, 826, 943, 1209-1210

INDEX Zeus of Otricoli, 517 Zeus Ourios, 934 Zeus Polieus, 955 Zeus Theantes, 45 Zeuxis, 871 Zeuxis Choosing the Models for the Painting of Helen of Troy, by A. Kauffmann, 630 Ziebland, G. F., 51 Ziller, E., 1093 Zincirli, 48 Zingara. See Capitoline Camillus Zoega, Georg, 601, 1189, 1211

1305 Zoffany, J., 565, 1124, 1125, 1137 Zograf, A. N., 823 Zominthos, 337 Zoppo, 1049 Zuccari (Zuccaro), F., 27 Zuccari (Zuccaro), T., 832 Zuccari (Zuccaro) family, 973 Zucchetti, G., 759, 772 Zucchi, A., 631 Zuffa, M., 170 Zygouries, 788 Zythepsa, 1127

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About the Contributors ROBERT ACKERMAN is Director of Humanities at the University of the Arts, Philadelphia. He is the author of J. G. Frazer: His Life and Work (1987) and The Myth and Ritual School: J. G. Frazer and the Cambridge Ritualists (1991). He has also published many articles on J. G. Frazer in such journals as American Scholar and Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. JAMES C. ANDERSON, j r . is Professor of Classics at the University of Geor­ gia. He is the author of Historical Topography o f the Imperial Fora (1984) and Roman Brick Stamps: The Thomas Ashby Collection (1991). He has also au­ thored articles on Roman topography and architecture in the American Journal o f Archaeology, Bonner Jahrbiicher, and Historia: Zeitschrift fu r Alte Geschichte. BABETTE E. ARTHUR, an art historian with a special interest in Roman im­ perial iconography, is Adjunct Instructor and Curator of Collections at the Uni­ versity of Central Florida. R.L.N. BARBER is Senior Lecturer in Classical Archaeology at the University of Edinburgh. He is the author of The Cyclades in the Bronze Age (1987) and the Blue Guide volume on Greece (1988, 1995). His articles include a study on the Early Cycladic period in the American Journal o f Archaeology. BARBARA A. BARLETTA is Associate Professor of Art History at the Uni­ versity of Florida. She is a specialist in Greek art, particularly that of Southern Italy and Sicily. Her publications include Ionic Style in Archaic Sicily: The Monumental Art (1983) as well as articles in the American Journal o f Archae­ ology and Romische Mitteilungen.

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ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

GEORGE CHARLES BAUER is Professor of Art History at the University of California, Irvine. He is the author of Bernini in Perspective (1976) and Paul Freart de Chantelou, Diary o f the Cavaliere Bernini’s Visit to Paris (1665) Annotations (1985), as well as an article on “ Experimental Shadow Casting and the Early History of Perspective” in The Art Bulletin. PHILIP P. BETANCOURT is Laura H. Carnell Professor of Art History and Archaeology at Temple University. His many publications on the archaeology of Bronze Age and early Greece include The Aeolic Style in Architecture: A Survey o f Its Development in Palestine, The Halikarnassos Peninsula and Greece, 1000-500 B.C. (1977) and The History o f Minoan Pottery (1985). He is also editor with Costis Davaras of the reports on excavations at Pseira. GIULIANA BIANCO, with an architectural background and an M.A. in Art History, has worked with the University of Toronto since 1976 at the excava­ tions of Kommos, preparing and publishing architectural and survey drawings of the site in Hesperia. She has a special interest in the Italian archaeologists who pioneered excavation on Crete. WILLIAM R. BIERS is Professor of Art History and Archaeology at the Uni­ versity of Missouri, Columbia. He is the author of The Archaeology o f Greece: An Introduction (1980, rev. ed. 1987) and Art, Artifacts, and Chronology in Classical Archaeology (1992). With wide-ranging interests in Greek art and classical archaeology, he has published in Hesperia, the American Journal o f Archaeology, Antike Kunst, and other journals. JUDITH BINDER is Senior Associate Member of the American School of Clas­ sical Studies at Athens. She is the author of The Athenian Agora, 7, Lamps o f the Roman Period (1961) and articles on the sculpture of the Parthenon in Archaiologikon Deltion and volumes in honor of Nikolaos Kontoleon and Sterling Dow. PHYLLIS PRAY BOBER is Leslie Clark Professor Emeritus in the Humanities and also Professor Emeritus in the Department of the History of Art and the Department of Classical and Near Eastern Archaeology at Bryn Mawr College. She is co-author with R. Rubinstein of Renaissance Artists and Antique Sculp­ ture (1986). Among her many publications are articles on Roman provincial sculpture, the usage of antiquity during the Renaissance, and the history of food and gastronomy. E. W. BODNAR is Professor Emeritus of Classics at Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. He is the author of Cyriacus o f Ancona and Athens (1960) and Cyriacus o f Ancona’s Journeys in the Propontis and the Northern Aegean 1444-1445 (1976). He has also published articles on Cyriacus of An­

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

1309

cona in the American Journal o f Archaeology, Archaeology, Hesperia, and Mediae valia. ANDREA BOLLAND is Assistant Professor of Art History at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln. She is the author of “ Art and Humanism in Early Re­ naissance Padua” in Renaissance Quarterly. GIULIANO BONFANTE, formerly professor of linguistics at Princeton Uni­ versity, the University of Turin, and other institutions, recently celebrated his ninetieth birthday. He has issued hundreds of publications on Roman and Italian literature, Indo-European linguistics, and the Etruscan language; most recent is his La Lingua parlata in Orazio (1994). LARISSA BONFANTE is Professor of Classics at New York University. She is the author of Etruscan Dress (1975) and editor and author of Etruscan Life and Afterlife, as well as co-author with her father, Giuliano Bonfante, of The Etruscan Language (1983). She has published numerous articles and reviews on the archaeology of Italy in the Journal o f Roman Studies, Studi Etruschi, American Journal o f Archaeology, and elsewhere. BRUCE BOUCHER is Reader in the History of Art at University College, University of London. He is the author of The Sculpture o f Jacopo Sansovino (1991) and Andrea Palladio: The Architect in His Time (1994). G. W. BOWERSOCK is Professor of Ancient History at the Institute for Ad­ vanced Study, Princeton. Among his many books are Augustus and the Greek World (1965) and Hellenism in Late Antiquity (1990). He has published exten­ sively in scholarly journals, with articles on Greek, Roman, and Near Eastern history and the history of classical traditions. MARTHA W. BALDWIN BOWSKY is Professor of Classics at the University of the Pacific. She is the author of “ Roman Crete: No Provincial Backwater” published in the Proceedings o f the Seventh International Cretological Congress (1991). In addition, she has published many articles on Roman Crete and Greek inscriptions and social history in Classical Journal, Historia, Hesperia and other journals. BEVERLY LOUISE BROWN is Assistant Director at the Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth. She is the author of Jacopo Bassano (1992) and Giambattista Tie­ polo: Master o f the Oil Sketch (1993). She has published articles on Italian Renaissance architecture and Venetian painting in many journals, including The Burlington Magazine, Mitteilungen des Kunsthistorischen Instituts im Florenz, The Renaissance Quarterly, and Venezia Arti.

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CLIFFORD M. BROWN is Professor of Art History at Carleton University, Ottawa. Among his books are La Grotta di Isabella d ’Este: un simbolo di con­ tinued dinastica per i duchi di Mantova (1985) and “Our Accustomed Discourse on the A n t i q u e C e s a r e Gonzaga and Gerolamo Garimberto— Two Renais­ sance Collectors o f Greco-Roman Art (1993). He has also published many ar­ ticles in journals including The Burlington Magazine, and The Art Bulletin. VINCENT J. BRUNO is Professor Emeritus at the University of Texas at Ar­ lington. His publications include Hellenistic Painting Techniques (1985) and Cosa, 4, The Houses (1993) as well as articles on archaeology and the history of art in the American Journal o f Archaeology, Archaeology, and the Interna­ tional Journal o f Nautical Archaeology. FRANCOIS BUCHER is Professor of Medieval Art and Architecture at Florida State University. He is the founder and editor (1961-70) of Gesta, and is the author of many books and articles, including Architector, The Lodge and Sketch­ books o f Medieval Architects (1979), A Blazing End (1984) and The Traveler's Key to Medieval France (1986). WILLIAM M. CALDER III is Wiliam Abbott Oldfather Professor of the Clas­ sics at The University of Illinois at Urbana/Champaign. He has published over six hundred books, articles and reviews in the areas of Greek and Latin literature, including Studies in the Modern History o f Classical Scholarship (1984), The Prussian and the Poet (1991), An Introductory Bibliography to the History o f Classical Scholarship Chiefly in the XlXth and XXth Centuries (1992), and Fur­ ther Letters o f Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (1994). VIRGINIA W. CALLAHAN is Professor of Classical Languages Emerita at Howard University, Washington, D.C. She is the author of Gregorii Nysseni Opera Ascetica-Vita S. Macrinae (1952) and Andreas Alciatus-The Latin Em­ blems (1985). Her works also include numerous articles on the relationship be­ tween Alciatus and Erasmus. JOHN McK. CAMP II is Mellon Professor of Classical Studies at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens and Director of the Agora excavations. He is the author of The Athenian Agora (1986) and The Birth o f Democracy (1993). He has contributed numerous articles on Greek archaeology to Hesperia, American Journal o f Archaeology, and other journals. JANE BURR CARTER is Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Classical Studies at Tulane University. She is the author of Greek Ivory-Carving in the Orientalizing and Archaic Periods (1985) and the forthcoming The Be­ ginning o f Greek Sculpture. She has written articles on preclassical Greek art and culture published in the American Journal o f Archaeology.

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MORTIMER CHAMBERS is Professor of History at the University of Califor­ nia, Los Angeles. He is the author of Georg Busolt: His Career in his Letters (1990) and Aristoteles, Stoat der Athener (1990). He is also the author of articles on Greek history and historians in American Historical Review, Classical Phi­ lology, and other journals. B. F. COOK, now retired, was Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities at the British Museum from 1976 to 1993. He is the author of Greek and Roman Art in the British Museum (1976), The Elgin Marbles (1984), The Townley Marbles (1985), and Greek Inscriptions (1987), as well as numerous articles on a wide variety of subjects from Greek, Roman, and Etruscan antiquity and the history of archaeology. WILLIAM D.E. COULSON is Director of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. He is the author of Cities o f the Delta, 1, Naukratis (1981), and Sculpture from Arcadia and Laconia (1993). He has published many articles on the archaeology of the Greek Dark Ages in Hesperia, American Journal o f Archaeology, Annual o f the British School at Athens, and other journals. ELIZABETH CROPPER is Professor of Art History at Johns Hopkins Univer­ sity. She is the author of The Ideal o f Painting: Pietro Testa’s Diisseldorf Note­ book (1984) and Pietro Testa, 1612-1650: Prints and Drawings (1988). She has written articles on Italian art of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in The Burlington Magazine, The Art Bulletin, and the Journal o f the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. COSTIS DAVARAS is Professor of Minoan Archaeology at the University of Athens. He is the author of Die Statue von Astritsi und die Anfange der griechische Plastik (1972) and Guide to Cretan Antiquities (1990). He has written articles on Minoan and Cretan archaeology and Greek epigraphy in Cretan Stud­ ies, Kadmos, Hesperia, and other journals. GLENYS DAVIES is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Classics at the University of Edinburgh. She is the editor of Plaster and Marble: The Classical and Neo-Classical Portrait Bust (1991). Among her articles are “ The Signifi­ cance of the Handshake Motif in Classical Funerary Art” in the American Jour­ nal o f Archaeology (1985) and “ The Albacini Cast Collection: Character and Significance” in the Journal o f the History o f Collections (1991). JACK L. DAVIS is Carl W. Blegen Professor at the University of Cincinnati. His publications include Papers in Cycladic Prehistory (1979) and Landscape Archaeology as Long-Term History (1991), as well as articles on Greek prehis­ tory, the Ottoman history of Greece, and surface survey in tht American Journal o f Archaeology, the Journal o f Mediterranean Archaeology, and Hesperia.

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JOYCE M. DAVIS is Associate Professor of Art at Valdosta State University in Georgia. She received the Master’s degree from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, with a thesis on “ Diirer’s Animals: A Study of the Drawings” (1969). She has a special interest in the Baroque period in France. NANCY THOMSON d e GRUMMOND is Professor and Chair of the Depart­ ment of Classics at Florida State University. She was founder and editor of Archaeological News (1973-1985) and served as editor and co-author of A Guide to Etruscan Mirrors (1982) and The Etruscans, Legacy o f a Lost Civili­ zation (1992). She has contributed articles on Etruscan and Roman archaeology and Renaissance and Baroque art to the American Journal o f Archaeology, The Art Bulletin, Studi Etruschi and other journals. W. W. d e GRUMMOND is Professor of Classics at Florida State University. He is the former editor of the Classical Journal (1983-1991). Articles he has published include “ Aeneas Despairing” in Hermes (1977), “ Hands and Tails on the Vapheio Cups” in American Journal o f Archaeology (1980), and“ The Animated Implement: A Catullan Source for Vergil’s Plough” in Eranos (1993). G. DENHAENE is an art historian specializing in Flemish painting and human­ ism during the Renaissance. She is the author of Lambert Lombard, Renaissance et humanisme a Liege (1990) and articles in the Bulletin de ITnstitut historique beige de Rome, as well as numerous entries in the forthcoming Dictionnaire des peintres beiges and The Dictionary o f Art. RICHARD DANIEL d e PUMA is Professor of Classical Art and Archaeology at the University of Iowa. Among the books he has written are Etruscan Tomb Groups (1986) and two fascicles of the Corpus Speculorum Etruscorum (1987, 1993). Recently he served as co-editor (with J. P. Small) of Murlo and the Etrus­ cans (1994). He is the author of numerous articles on the Etruscans in the Ameri­ can Journal o f Archaeology, Studi Etruschi, Archaeology, and other journals. B. UNDERWOOD DURETTE is an art historian who earned her Ph.D. from Florida State University, with a dissertation on “ The History and Interpretation of the Aldobrandini Wedding” (1992). She is also the author of “ The Smoking Candle of the Merode Altarpiece,” published in Athanor. MARY ANN EAVERLY is Associate Professor of Classics at the University of Florida. She is the author of Archaic Greek Equestrian Sculpture (1995). INGRID E.M. EDLUND is Associate Professor of Classics at The University of Texas at Austin. She is the author of The Gods and the Place: Location and Function o f Sanctuaries in the Countryside o f Etruria and Magna Graeca (1987) and The Seated and Standing Statue Akroteria from Poggio Civitate (Murlo)

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

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(1992). She has also published articles on Etruscan archaeology and Roman history in Archaeological News, American Journal o f Archaeology, Eranos, and other journals. HARRISON EITELJORG II is Director of the Center for the Study of Archi­ tecture. He is the author of The Entrance to the Acropolis Before Mnesicles (1994). In addition, he has published many articles on the use of computers in archaeology, in the CSA Newsletter and elsewhere. C.W.J. ELIOT is President of the University of Prince Edward Island. He is the author of Coastal Demes o f Attica, A Study o f the Policy o f Kleisthenes (1962) and of numerous articles in Hesperia on Greek archaeology, art, and topography. He has a special interest in the activities of travelers to Greece in past centuries. JOHN A. ELLIOTT is Associate Professor of Art History at the University of South Carolina, Aiken. He is the author of Study Guide, Art: History o f Painting, Sculpture, Architecture by Frederick Hartt (1993) and of “ The Etruscan Wolfman in Myth and Ritual” in Etruscan Studies. CHRISTOFFER H. ERICSSON, now retired, was Professor of Art History and Lecturer in Classical Archaeology at Jyvaskyla University. He is editor-in-chief of the journal Helikon and author of Roman Architecture Expressed in Sketches by Francesco di Giorgio Martini (1980). He has also written articles on Roman imperial architecture and maritime history and archaeology for various pub­ lications. HARRY B. EVANS is Professor of Classics at Fordham University. He is the author of Publica Carmina: Ovid's Books from Exile (1983) and Water Distri­ bution in Ancient Rome: The Evidence o f Frontinus (1994). He has also pub­ lished articles on Roman topography and Latin poetry in the American Journal o f Archaeology, the Classical Journal, and Hermes. DIANE FAVRO is Associate Professor in the Department of Architecture and Urban Design at the University of California, Los Angeles. She is co-editor of and a contributor to Streets: Critical Perspectives on Public Space (1994). Her articles include “ Pater Urbis: Augustus as City Father of Rome” in the Journal o f the Society o f Architectural Historians (1992) and “ The Roman Latrine: Urban Technology and Socialization” in On Architecture, the City and Tech­ nology (1990). PHILIPP FEHL is Professor Emeritus of Art History at the University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana. He is the author of The Classical Monument: Reflections on the Connection between Morality and Art in Greek and Roman Sculpture (1972) and, with his wife, Raina Fehl, and K. Aldrich, of F. Junius, The Lit-

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ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

erature o f Classical Art (1991). He has published numerous studies on the his­ tory of art and the history of archaeology and on the survival and revival of the classical tradition. J. FEIJE is Librarian of the Instituut voor Kunst-, Architecturgeschiedenis en Archeologie at the Rijksuniversitet Groningen. He is the editor of the journal Pharos. ENRIQUETA HARRIS FRANKFORT is an Honorary Fellow and former Cu­ rator of the photographic collection at the Warburg Institute, University of Lon­ don. She is the author of The Prado Museum, Treasure House o f the Spanish Royal Collections (1940) and Velazquez (1982). She has also written articles on Velazquez and Spanish painting published in The Burlington Magazine, Archivo Espanol de Arte, and Journal o f the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. JACK FREIBERG is Assistant Professor of Art History at Florida State Uni­ versity. He is the author of The Lateran in 1600: Christian Concord in CounterReformation Rome (1995). He has also published articles on Italian Renaissance and Baroque art and architecture in The Burlington Magazine and Zeitschrift fur Kunstgeschichte. DAVID FUNK is a candidate for the doctorate in Humanities at Florida State University and a member of the staff at the university excavations at Cetamura del Chianti. He has a special interest in the Romanization of Etruria. ROBERT W. GASTON is Senior Lecturer in Art History at La Trobe Univer­ sity. He is the editor and co-author of Pirro Ligorio, Artist and Antiquarian (1988) and has published numerous articles on Renaissance antiquarian studies and religious paintings, in Medievalia et Humanistica, Journal o f the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Mitteilungen des Kunsthistorischen Instituts in Florenz and elsewhere. BERNARD GOLDMAN is Professor Emeritus at Wayne State University. He is the author of The Sacred Portal (1986) and The Ancient Arts o f Western and Central Asia (1991). Among his published articles are “ Asiatic Ancestry of the Greek Gorgon” in Berytus and “ A Dura-Europos Dipinto” in Oriens Antiquus. NORMA GOLDMAN is Adjunct Professor at Wayne State University. She is the author of Latin Via Ovid (1978, 1983) and Cosa: The Lamps (Memoirs o f the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 39, 1994). She has also written the articles “ Ancient Roman Footwear” and “ Reconstructing Ancient Roman Costumes” in The World o f Ancient Costume (1994) and has published an article on “ Re­ constructing the Colosseum Awning” in Archaeology.

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

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ULRICH K. GOLDSMITH is Professor of German and Comparative Literature Emeritus at the University of Colorado at Boulder. He is the author of Stefan George: A Study o f his Early Work (1959) and various studies on Goethe, Shake­ speare, Rilke and Mallarme. He has written many articles and reviews in Comparative Literature Studies, German Quarterly, Publications o f the Modern Language Association, and other periodicals. FERNANDO FERNANDEZ GOMEZ is Director of the Museo Arqueologico Sevilla, and has served as Director of excavations at El Raso de Candeleda since 1970. He is the author of La Lex Irnitana y su contexto arqueologico (1990) and “ La fuente orientalizante de El Gandul (Sevilla)” in Archivo Espanol de Arqueologfa (1989), as well as other articles in Trabajos de Preistoria, Noticiario Arqueologico Hispanico, and Revista de Arqueologfa. PHYLLIS W. G. GORDAN, a specialist on early Italian Renaissance humanism, was the author of Fifteenth-century Books in the Library o f Howard Lehman Goodhart (1955) and Two Renaissance Book Hunters, the Letters o f Poggius Bracciolini to Nicolaus de Niccolis (1974). ARTHUR E. GORDON was Professor of Latin Emeritus at the University of California, Berkeley. A leading expert on Latin epigraphy, he was frequently aided by his wife Joyce in his publication of enduring works in this field: Album o f Dated Latin Inscriptions (1958-1965), The Inscribed Fibula Praenestina: Problems o f Authenticity (1975), and Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy (1983). ANTHONY GRAFTON is Professor of History at Princeton University. He is the author of Defenders o f the Text (1991) and Joseph Scaliger (1983-1993). MICHAEL GREENHALGH is Professor of Art History at the Australian Na­ tional University, Canberra. He is the author of The Classical Tradition in Art (1978) and The Survival o f Roman Antiquities in the Middle Ages (1989). ANN C. GUNTER is Associate Curator of Ancient Near Eastern Art at the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution. She is the author of Gordion Final Reports, 3, The Bronze Age (1991) and Ancient Iranian Metalwork in the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery and the Freer Gallery o f Art (1992). She has also written articles on Near Eastern architecture and sculpture in Iran, Revue des Etudes Anciennes, and Culture and History. ROBIN HAGG is Professor of Classical Archaeology and Ancient History at Goteborg University. He has edited numerous books, including Excavations in the Barbouna Area at Asine (together with I. Hagg, 1973, 1978, 1980) and Greek Sanctuaries: New Approaches (together with N. Marinatos, 1993). He is

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also the author of articles on Minoan and Mycenaean archaeology, iconography, and religion; burial customs and sanctuaries of the Argolid in the Iron Age; and Protogeometric and Geometric pottery. JEFFERSON C. HARRISON is an art historian specializing in the works of Maerten van Heemskerck. KIM J. HARTSWICK is Associate Professor of Art History at The George Washington University. He is the author of articles on Greek and Roman sculp­ ture published in the American Journal o f Archaeology, Jahrbiich des Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts, and Revue Archeologique. PAMELA HEMPHILL is Professor Emeritus of Art History and Archaeology at West Chester University, West Chester, Pennsylvania. An archaeological sur­ veyor who works in South Etruria, Italy, she has most recently published “ The Romans and the San Giovenale Area,” Opuscula Romana (1993). A. TREVOR HODGE is Professor of Classics at Carleton University, Ottawa. He is the author of Future Currents in Aqueduct Studies (1991) and Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply (1992). He has published the articles ‘‘Barbegal: A Roman Fac­ tory” and “ Siphons in Roman Aqueducts” in Scientific American, as well as many articles on the study of aqueducts in the American Journal o f Archaeology. MICHAEL HOFF is Assistant Professor in the Department of Art at the Uni­ versity of Nebraska. His central interest is Roman Athens, and he has published articles in Hesperia, Museum Helveticum, and Archaologische Anzeiger. PETER HOLLIDAY is Associate Professor of Art History at California State University at San Bernardino. He is the editor of and a contributor to Narrative and Event in Ancient Art (1993). He is the author of “ History, Time and Ritual on the Ara Pacis Augustae” published in The Art Bulletin as well as many other articles on Etruscan and Roman art in such journals as the American Journal o f Archaeology, Getty Museum Journal, and Etruscan Studies. ERNST HOMANN-WEDEKING is Professor Emeritus at the Universitat Miinchen. He is the author of the books Die Anfange der Griechische Grossplastik (1950) and Archaic Greece (1968). He has written articles on Greek, Roman and Etruscan archaeology in Romische Mitteilungen and Athenische Mitteilungen. DEBORAH HOWARD is Fellow of St. John’s College and Librarian of the Faculty of Architecture and History of Art at the University of Cambridge. She is the author of The Architectural History o f Venice (1980, 1987), Jacopo San­ sovino: Architecture and Patronage in Renaissance Venice (1975, 1987), and

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

1317

The Architectural History o f Scotland: Scottish Architecture from the Refor­ mation to the Restoration 1560-1660 (forthcoming). S. HOWARD is Senior Professor Emeritus at the University of California at Davis. His books include Bartolomeo Cavaceppi: Eighteenth Century Restorer (1958, 1982) and Antiquity Restored: Essays on the After Life o f the Antique (1990). He has also written articles on the restoration of ancient sculptures for the American Journal o f Archaeology, The Art Bulletin, and the Journal o f the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. SERENA Q. HUTTON is a tutor and freelance lecturer in the History of Art through the Department of Adult Education at the University of Oxford. She has published an article on Gavin Hamilton, “ A Historical Painter” in The Burlington Magazine as well as various exhibition reviews in Artwork. AMILCARE A. IANNUCCI is a Professor in the Department of Italian Studies at the University of Toronto, and has also been a Visiting Professor at the Universita per Stranieri in Siena, the University of Rome and the University of Venice. Professor Iannucci is the author of a book on Dante, Forma ed evento nella Divina Commedia (1984) and of numerous articles on various aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Italian literature, which have appeared in Dante Stud­ ies, Forum Italicum, Medioevo Romanzo, and other journals. ROBERT E. JACKSON, an art historian with a special interest in American art, received the Master’s degree at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, with a thesis on “ The French Influence upon the Art of Winslow Homer, 1836— 1881” (1978). SIMON KEAY is Senior Lecturer in Archaeology at the University of South­ ampton. He is the author of Roman Spain (1988) and co-editor, with T.F.C. Blagg and R.F.J. Jones, of Papers in Iberian Archaeology (1984). DALE KINNEY is Professor of the History of Art at Bryn Mawr College. She has recently published an article in the American Journal o f Archaeology on the authenticity of a Late Antique ivory diptych (1994) and is the author of “ Mirabilia urbis Romae” in the volume The Classics in the Middle Ages (1990). JOHN L. KISSINGER is Assistant Reference Librarian of the Gould Memorial Library at Brunswick College. He has a special interest in Greek and Roman ports and harbor installations. DIANE E.E. KLEINER is Professor of the History of Art and Classics and Chair of the Department of Classics at Yale University. She is the author of Roman Imperial Funerary Altars with Portraits (1987) and Roman Sculpture

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(1992). Recent articles include ‘Social Status, Marriage, and Male Heirs in the Age of Augustus” in the North Carolina Museum o f Art Bulletin (1990) and “ Politics and Gender in the Pictorial Propaganda of Antony and Octavian” in Classical Views (1992). FRED S. KLEINER is Professor of Art History and Archaeology at Boston University and Editor-in-Chief of the American Journal o f Archaeology. He is the author of The Arch o f Nero in Rome (1985) and co-author of Art through the Ages, 10th ed. (1995). In addition, he has written articles on Greek and Roman art, architecture, and numismatics in leading European and American journals. E. R. KNAUER is Consulting Scholar at the University Museum of the Uni­ versity of Pennsylvania, Mediterranean Section. She is the author of Ein Skyphos des Triptolemosmalers (1973) and Die Carta Marina des Olaus Magnus von 1534, Ein Kartographisches Meisterwerk und seine Wirkung (1981). She has published numerous articles on a wide range of subjects, including Greek vase painting, cartography, costume history, and objects from the cult of Isis. ROBERT B. KOEHL is Associate Professor in the Department of Classical and Oriental Studies at Hunter College, State University of New York. He is the author of the forthcoming Aegean Bronze Age Rhyta, as well as articles on Mycenaean pottery, Minoan frescoes, and Minoan initiation rites, published in the American Journal o f Archaeology and the Journal o f Hellenic Studies. GERHARD M. KOEPPEL is Professor of Classical Archaeology at the Uni­ versity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Professor Koeppel is the author of a series of articles on Roman historical reliefs of the Imperial period appearing in Bonner Jahrbiicher. He has also published articles on the Roman pontifical college as shown on the Ara Pacis (in Archaeological News), on reliefs from the Arch of Claudius in Rome and a military itinerarium on the Column of Trajan (both in Romische Mitteilungen). E. C. KOPFF is Associate Professor of Classics at the University of Colorado at Boulder. He is the editor of The Seaborne Commerce o f Ancient Rome: Stud­ ies in Archaeology and History (1980), and of the Teubner text of the Bacchae of Euripides. LAETITIA LA FOLLETTE is Associate Professor of Art History at the Uni­ versity of Massachusetts at Amherst. She is the author of a monograph on The Baths o f Trajan Decius on the Aventine (1994). She has also published “ A Contribution of A. Palladio to the Study of Roman Thermae” in the Journal o f the American Society o f Architectural Historians (1993) and “ The Costume of the Roman Bride” in The World o f Roman Costume (1994).

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VICTOR LANGE is Professor Emeritus of German Literature at Princeton Uni­ versity. He is the author of numerous articles on Goethe and his age in various journals, both American and German. STEPHEN C. LAW is Chair of the Department of Humanities at Central State University, Edmond, Oklahoma. He received the doctorate in Humanities from Florida State University with a dissertation on “ In risu veritas: The Dialectics of the Comic Spirit” (1985). PHYLLIS WILLIAMS LEHMANN is William R. Kenan, Jr. Emerita Professor of Art at Smith College. She is the author of Roman Wall Paintings from Boscoreale in the Metropolitan Museum o f Art (1953) and Samothrace, 3, The Hieron (1969). Professor Lehmann has published many articles on ancient and Renaissance art in The Art Bulletin, the American Journal o f Archaeology, and the Journal o f Architectural Historians. ANNE J. LYONS received the Master’s degree in Classical Archaeology from Florida State University, with a thesis on “ Ring Dance Compositions: A Dia­ chronic Study of the Iconography and Find Spots of Ring Dance Compositions in Crete, Cyprus and Mainland Greece from the 18th to the 6th centuries B.C.” WILLIAM L. MacDONALD, formerly of Yale University and Smith College, is the author of Architecture o f the Roman Empire (1982, 1986) and Hadrian's Villa and Its Legacy (with John Pinto, 1995). He has also written many articles on the history of architecture published in Studies in the History o f Art, Ar­ chaeology, Perspecta, and others. ARTHUR MacGREGOR is Assistant Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Ox­ ford. He is the author of Tradescant's Rarities (1983), The Origins o f Museums (1985), The Late King's Goods (1989), and Sir Hans Sloane (1994). He has published a number of articles on aspects of the history of collecting. CHARLES RANDALL MACK is Professor of Art History and William J. Todd Professor of the Italian Renaissance at the University of South Carolina. He is the author of Pienza: The Creation o f a Renaissance City and Paper Pleasures: Five Centuries o f Drawings and Watercolors (1992). His publications include “ Montaigne in Italy: Of Kidney Stones and Thermal Spas” in Renaissance Papers (1993) and “ Rediscovered: A Painting of St. Mary Magdalene” in the Southeastern College Art Conference Review (1994). NANNO MARINATOS has taught classics and archaeology at Oberlin College and the University of Colorado at Boulder. She is author and editor of a number of books on Minoan archaeology and religion, including Art and Religion in Thera: Reconstructing a Bronze Age Society (1984) and Minoan Religion: Ritual

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Image and Symbol (1993). Much of her research is centered on the Minoan site of Akrotiri (Thera), discovered by her father, Spyridon Marinatos. CAROL MATTUSCH is Professor of Classics at George Mason University. She is the author of Bronzeworkers in the Athenian Agora (1982), Greek Bronze Statuary: From the Beginnings through the 5th Century B.C. (1988) and the forthcoming work Classical Bronze Statuary: The Limits o f Style and Technique. Her articles and reviews have appeared in the American Journal o f Archaeology, The Art Bulletin, Classical Review, and elsewhere. ANNA MARGUERITE McCANN is Archaeological Consultant at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Dr. McCann is the author of The Roman Port and Fishery o f Cosa (1987) and Deep Water Archaeology (1994). She has also written many articles on underwater archaeology for such publications as Na­ tional Geographic Magazine, Scientific American, and the Journal o f Field Ar­ chaeology. ANDREW P. McCORMICK received the Ph.D. from Duke University in Re­ naissance History with a dissertation on “ The Anatomy of Early Renaissance Propaganda: A Study of Goro Dati’s Storia di Firenze” (1980). Parts of his dissertation have appeared in Bibliotheque d ’Humanisme et de Renaissance, Studi Medievali, and other journals. He co-authored (with H. van Veen) Tuscany and the Low Countries (1985). JOANN McDANIEL is a candidate for the Ph.D. in Classics at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Her areas of special interest are Roman ar­ chitecture and topography, Augustan society and literature, and Latin epigraphy. She has been a researcher for L ’Annee Philologique since 1992. Her publications include “ Signum, Simulacrum, Statua, Palladium?” in Archaeological News. ELIZABETH McGRATH is Curator of the Photographic Collection at the War­ burg Institute, University of London. Her book Rubens: Subjects from History (Corpus Rubenianum) is in press. She has also written many articles on Rubens and Renaissance iconography, appearing in the Journal o f the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes and The Burlington Magazine. ELIZABETH R. MEANEY received the Master’s degree in Classical Archae­ ology from Florida State University, with a thesis on “ Ancient Equine Breeds: Their Influences on the Development of Greek Horses” (1979). J. MEJER is Reader of Classics at the University of Copenhagen. His books include Diogenes Laertius and his Hellenistic Background (1978) as well as three Danish works on Presocratic Philosophy and the history of Ancient Greek

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and Latin translations. Professor Mejer has also published many articles on an­ cient philosophy and the history of classical scholarship. WILLIAM E. METCALF is Chief Curator and Curator of Roman and Byzantine Coins at the American Numismatic Society. Among his books are The Cistophori o f Hadrian (1980) and The Silver Coinage o f Cappadocia, VespasianCommodus (1995). He has authored numerous articles, mostly on Roman coinage, in American Numismatic Society Museum Notes, Revue Suisse Numismatique and other journals. MARJON VAN DER MEULEN is an independent researcher in the field of art history. She is the author of Petrus Paulus Rubens Antiquarius (1975), The Rembrandt Documents (1979), and Rubens After the Antique (1994). Among her articles are “ A Note on Rubens’s Letter on Tripods” in The Burlington Magazine and “ A Rubens Drawing Reattributed” in Essays in Northern Eu­ ropean Art. STELLA G. MILLER is Professor of Classical and Near Eastern Archaeology at Bryn Mawr College. Professor Miller is the author of Two Groups o f Thes­ salian Gold (1979) and The Tomb o f Lyson and Kallikles (1993). She has also written many articles published in various journals on Greek (particularly Mac­ edonian) subjects, as well as excavation reports on the Athenian Agora, Corinth, Nemea, and Troy. S. G. MILLER is Professor of Classics at the University of California at Berke­ ley. Among his books are Arete: Greek Sports from Ancient Sources (1991) and Nemea, 1, Architectural Studies (1992). He is also the author of the Nemea Excavation reports from 1975-1982 and 1988, as well as an article forthcoming in Historia, “ Old Bouleuterion or Old Metroon?” CHARLES MITCHELL is Professor Emeritus of Art History at Bryn Mawr College. He is the author (with Erna Mandowsky) of Pirro Ligorio's Roman Antiquities (1963) and co-editor (with Edward W. Bodnar) of Cyriacus o f An­ cona's Journeys in the Propontis and the Northern Aegean, 1444-1445 (1976). JOHN F. MOFFITT is Professor of Art History at New Mexico State University. Among his books are Spanish Painting (1973) and Art Forgery: The Case o f the Lady o f Elche (1995). In addition, he has written numerous articles on the history of Spanish art for journals in both Europe and the United States. JENNIFER MONTAGU is an Honorary Fellow at the Warburg Institute, Uni­ versity of London. She is the author of Alessandro Algardi (1985) and Roman Baroque Sculpture: The Industry o f Art (1989). Professor Montagu has also

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published articles on Roman Baroque sculpture and French seventeenth-century art and theory in The Art Bulletin, The Burlington Magazine, and elsewhere. SARAH P. MORRIS is Professor of Classics at the University of California, Los Angeles. She is the author of The Black and White Style (1984) and Daidalos and the Origins o f Greek Art (1992). Professor Morris has published articles on the miniature frescoes from Thera, Greek pottery, and early Greek art and the Near East in such journals as the American Journal o f Archaeology, Hesperia, and Arethusa. ANITA F. MOSKOWITZ is Professor of Art History at the State University of New York at Stony Brook. She has authored The Sculpture o f Andrea and Nino Pisano (1986) and Nicola Pisano's Area di San Domenico and its Legacy (1994). She has published articles on Italian Gothic and Renaissance sculpture in The Art Bulletin, Gesta, and Antichita Viva. DEBRA L. MURPHY is Assistant Professor of Art History at the University of North Florida. She is the author of Joseph Jeffers Dodge: An American Clas­ sicist (1992). C. NAUMER is a Humanities instructor at Florida A and M University, and a candidate for the Ph.D. at Florida State University. Her dissertation is in prog­ ress, on “ The Theme of Antiquity Displayed within Nature in Renaissance and Baroque Painting.” ROBERT NEUMAN is Professor of Art History at Florida State University. He is the author of Robert de Cotte and the Perfection o f Architecture in EighteenthCentury France (1994). Professor Neuman has also published articles on Italian Baroque ceiling painting, French Baroque architecture, and French Rococo painting in Studies in Iconography, Journal o f the Society o f Architectural His­ torians, and Gazette des Beaux-Arts. JONATHAN NELSON is Adjunct Professor of Art History at Syracuse University in Florence. He has published on Filippino Lippi and Agnolo Bron­ zino in Rivista d ’Arte, Gazette des Beaux-Arts, and elsewhere. ANN M. NICGORSKI, who teaches at Willamette University, holds a Ph.D. in art history from the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Her dissertation was a study of the significance of the Herakles Knot in ancient art. NAOMI NORMAN is Associate Professor of Classics at the University of Geor­ gia at Athens. She has published widely on Roman North Africa, Greek archi­ tecture and cult, and excavations at Carthage. Professor Norman is editor

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

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of Archaeological News and is working on a book on the archaeology of Car­ thage. JOHN OSBORNE is Professor of Medieval History in Art at the University of Victoria, and currently Director of the Medieval Studies program. He is the author of Master Gregorius: The Marvels o f Rome (1987) and articles on the material culture of medieval Rome in Gesta, Papers o f the British School at Rome, and Zeitschrift fu r Kunstgeschichte. CLAIRE PACE is Lecturer in the History of Art at the University of Glasgow. She is the author of Felibien's Life o f Poussin (1981) and of an article on Bellori’s drawings after Roman paintings in Papers o f the British School at Rome. THOMAS G. PALAIMA is Dickson Centennial Professor of Classics and Di­ rector of the Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory at the University of Texas at Austin. He is the author of The Scribes o f Pylos (1988) and the editor of Aegean Seals, Sealings and Administration (Aegaeum 5: 1991). In addition, he has authored numerous articles and edited four other books on Aegean scripts, sealing systems, Mycenaean kingship and society, and the history of Linear B scholarship. ROBERT E.A. PALMER is Professor of Classical Studies at the University of Pennsylvania. Among Professor Palmer’s books are The King and the Comitium (1969), The Archaic Community o f the Romans (1970), Roman Religion and Roman Empire (1973), and Studies in the Northern Campus Martius (1990). He has published extensively in scholarly journals in both the United States and Europe. S. L. PETRAKIS is Visiting Lecturer in the Department of Classics at the Col­ lege of William and Mary. She is completing the Ph.D. at the University of Pennsylvania with a dissertation on “ Ayioryitika, a Prehistoric Settlement in Eastern Arcadia.” Her research interests lie in the topography and prehistory of mainland Greece. ANGELIKI PETROPOULOU is a Research Fellow at the National Hellenic Research Institute/Center for Greek and Roman Antiquity. She has pursued the study of ancient Greek religion and epigraphy publishing articles in the Amer­ ican Journal o f Philology, Talanta, and Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. ALEX POTTS is Senior Lecturer at Goldsmiths’ College, London University. He is the author of Flesh and the Ideal Winckelmann and the Origins o f Art History (1994) as well as articles on eighteenth-century visual aesthetics, history, and sculpture in Art History, Oxford Art Journal, and elsewhere.

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ANTONY RAUBITSCHEK is Professor Emeritus at Stanford University. He is the author of hundreds of articles and reviews in scholarly journals in both the United States and Europe on a wide range of subjects, including Greek epig­ raphy, social customs, and literature, and the Olympic Games. EMELINE HILL RICHARDSON, Professor Emerita of Classical Archaeology at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, is the author of The Etrus­ cans: Their Art and Civilization (1964) and Etruscan Votive Bronzes: Geomet­ ric, Orientalizing, Archaic (1982). She has contributed numerous articles on Etruscan sculpture, bronze mirrors, and iconography to the Memoirs o f the American Academy in Rome, Archaeological News, and other journals. L. RICHARDSON, j r is James B. Duke Professor of Latin Emeritus at Duke University. He is the author of Pompeii: An Architectural History (1988) and A New Topographical Dictionary o f Ancient Rome (1992). DAVID RIDGWAY is Reader in Classics at Edinburgh University, and was Jerome Lecturer in Michigan and Rome in 1990-1991. He has edited the second English-language edition of M. Pallottino, The Etruscans (1975) and, with F. R. Serra Ridgway, Italy before the Romans (1979). He is the author of The First Western Greeks (1992) and with G. Buchner, Pithekoussai /, and has contributed articles and reviews on Etruscan, Western Greek, and Sardinian archaeology to Archaeological Reports, Classical Review, and Studi Etruschi. FRANCESCA R. SERRA RIDGWAY is Honorary Fellow in the Department of Classics at Edinburgh University. With David Ridgway, she edited Italy be­ fore the Romans (1979) and the English-language edition of S. Steingraber, Etruscan Painting (1988). She is the author, jointly with L. Cavagnaro Vanoni, of Vasi etruschi a figure rosse dagli scavi della Fondazione Lerici nella necropoli de Monterozzi a Tarquinia (1989), and of articles on Etruscan archae­ ology in Classical Review, Journal o f Roman Archaeology, and Melanges de VEcole Frangaise de Rome. RONALD T. RIDLEY is Reader at the University of Melbourne, Australia. Among his books are The Eagle and the Spade (1992) and Jessie Webb, a Memoir (1994). He has also published many articles, mostly in European jour­ nals, on classical history, the history of historical writing, and the history of archaeology. ELEANOR A. ROBBINS is a freelance art historian in London. She has pub­ lished book reviews and articles on Anglo-Saxon archaeology and various other subjects in Archaeological News, Scottish Slavonic Review, and other journals. CLARE ROBERTSON is Reader in the History of Art at the University of Reading. Professor Robertson is the author of “ // Gran Cardinale": Alessandro

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Farnese, Patron o f the Arts (1992) and Veronese (1992). She has also published articles on aspects of Renaissance iconography in The Burlington Magazine and the Journal o f the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. MICHAEL L. ROBERTSON is Humanities Instructor at Johnson County Com­ munity College. He is the author of an article on Etruscan graffiti from Cetamura del Chianti in Studi Etruschi. RONA ROISMAN is the author of “ Francesco de Sangallo: a Rediscovered Early Donatellesque ‘Magdalen’ and Two Wills from 1574 and 1576” in The Burlington Magazine and “ Francesco da Sangallo’s Tomb of Leonardo Bona­ fede in the Certosa del Galluzzo” in Rutgers Art Review. LYNN E. ROLLER is Associate Professor of Classics at the University of Cal­ ifornia, Davis, and the author of Gordion Special Studies, 1, The Non-Verbal Graffiti, Dipinti, and Stamps (1987). Among the articles Professor Roller has published are “ Attis on Greek Votive Monuments” in Hesperia and “ The Great Mother at Gordion” in Journal o f Hellenic Studies. BETSY ROSASCO is Associate Curator of The Art Museum, Princeton Uni­ versity. She is the author of The Sculptures o f the Chateau o f Marly during the Reign o f Louis XIV (1966) and of numerous articles on French Baroque art and architecture in American and European journals. PATRICIA A. ROSE is Associate Professor and Chairman of the Department of Art History at Florida State University. She is the author of Wolf Huber Studies: Aspects o f Renaissance Thought and Practice in Danube School Paint­ ing (1977). Among the articles she has published are “ The Iconography of the Raising of the Cross” in Print Review (Tribute to Wolfgang Stechow) and “ Bears, Baldness and the Double Spirit: Identification of Donatello’s Zuccone” in The Art Bulletin. PATRICK ROWE is Associate Professor of Art History at Pensacola Junior College. He is the author of the chapter “ The Fabric of Etruscan Mirrors: The Manufacturing Process, The Chemical Composition” in A Guide to Etruscan Mirrors (1982). Along with N. T. de Grummond, Rochelle Marrinan, and Glen H. Doran, Professor Rowe published the reports of the excavations at Cetamura del Chianti in Etruscan Studies. INGRID ROWLAND is Assistant Professor of Art at the University of Chicago. She is the author of The Correspondence o f Agostino Chigi ((1995). Professor Rowland has also published “ Raphael, Angelo Colocci and the Genesis of the Architectural Orders” in The Art Bulletin and “ The Patronage of Agostino Chigi” in Renaissance Quarterly.

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RUTH RUBINSTEIN is Research Consultant for the Census of Antique Works of Art Known during the Renaissance at the Warburg Institute, University of London. With Phyllis Pray Bober, she is the author of Renaissance Artists and Antique Sculpture: A Handbook o f Sources (1986) and with E. Casamassima, of Antiquarian Drawings from Dosio’s Roman Workshop (1993). She has pub­ lished articles on antiquities known in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Italy in The Burlington Magazine, Renaissance Studies, and elsewhere. PAMELA J. RUSSELL is the author of Kalavasos-Ayios Dhimitrios, 2, Ceram­ ics, Objects, Tombs, Special Studies (1989) and Ceramics and Society: Making and Marketing Ancient Greek Pottery (1994). In addition, she has published articles on Roman and Cypriot pottery in Hesperia and the Report of the De­ partment o f Antiquities, Cyprus. MICHELE R. SALZMAN is Associate Professor of Classics at Boston Univer­ sity. She is the author of On Roman Time: The Codex-Calendar o f 354 and the Rhythms o f Urban Life in Late Antiquity (1990) as well as the article “ The Representation of April and the Calendar of 354” in the American Journal o f Archaeology. She has published on Latin literature, Roman religion, and the Christianization of the Roman aristocracy in Historia, Helios, and other journals. INGEBORG A. SCHWEIGER received the Master’s degree in Classics from the University of Cincinnati. JOSEPH W. SHAW is Professor in the Department of Fine Art at the University of Toronto. He is the author of Minoan Architecture: Materials and Techniques (1973) and editor of the series of publications on Kommos (1990). A specialist on Bronze Age Aegean architecture and archaeology, he is a frequent contributor to Hesperia and the American Journal o f Archaeology. PHOEBE S. SHEFTEL is a member of the staff of the Center for the Study of Architecture. She is the author of “ The Archaeological Institute of America, 1879-1979: A Centennial Review” in the American Journal o f Archaeology. CHRISTOPHER G. SIMON is Visiting Assistant Professor at the University of California, Berkeley. He has written the article on “ Greek Art and Religion” for Macmillan’s The Dictionary o f Art and “ The Archaeology of Cult in Geo­ metric Greece: Ionian Altars, Temples and Dedications” for From Pasture to Polis: Art in the Age o f Homer. JEFFREY S. SOLES is Head of the Department of Classical Studies at the University of North Carolina, Greensboro and co-director of the Mochlos Ex­ cavations. He is the author of Prepalatial Cemeteries at Mochlos and Gournia

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(1992) as well as articles on the Gournia Palace and the excavations at Mochlos in the American Journal o f Archaeology and Hesperia. MARY ELLEN SOLES is Curator of Ancient Art at the North Carolina Museum of Art. She is the author of “ Tradition and Innovation: A Statue of Aphrodite” in the North Carolina Museum o f Art Bulletin. CHERYL L. SOWDER is Assistant Professor of Art History at Jacksonville University. She is the author of the chapter “ Etruscan Mythological Figures” in A Guide to Etruscan Mirrors (1982) and editor of Alexander Brest Museum and Gallery, a Guide to the Collections (1994). In addition, Professor Sowder has published “ Utilitarian Pottery at Cetamura del Chianti” in Archaeological News. JOANNE E. SOWELL is Associate Professor of Art History at the University of Nebraska at Omaha. She is the author of articles on Spanish Cistercian ar­ chitecture in Studies in Cistercian Art and Architecture, and on the teaching of art history in College Teaching and Art Education. PHILIP O. SPANN is Associate Professor in the Department of Languages and Literature at the University of Utah. He is the author of Quintus Sertorius and the Legacy o f Sulla (1987) and contributed “ Southeast Hispania” for the forth­ coming Atlas o f the Greek and Roman World. He has also published articles on the Late Roman Republic and on Roman Spain in Classical Journal, Historia, and Hispania Antiqua. CHRISTINE SPERLING is Associate Professor in the Department of Art at Bloomsburg University. She was a Fellow at Villa I Tatti (the Harvard Univer­ sity Center for Renaissance Studies in Florence), 1989-1990. She has published “ Donatello’s Bronze David and the Demands of Medici Politics” in The Bur­ lington Magazine (1992) and an article on Alberti in the Journal o f the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. JEANINE STAGE is Principal at Avondale Elementary School in Birmingham, Alabama. With John James, et al., she is co-author of A Guide to the Sacred Architecture o f Medieval France (1986). She contributed entries on Boblinger and Ensinger to the Macmillan Encyclopedia o f Architecture (1982) and pub­ lished an article on “ Extant Etruscan Textiles” in Studi e Materiali (1991). SHELLEY C. STONE III is Associate Professor of Art History at California State University, Bakersfield. He wrote the article “ The Toga: From National to Cere­ monial Garment” for The World o f Roman Costume (1994). He is also the author of “ Sextus Pompey, Octavian and Sicily” in the American Journal o f Ar­

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chaeology and “ The Imperial Sculptural Group in the Metroon at Olympia” in Athenische Mitteilungen. CHERYL SUMNER holds the Ph.D. in Art History from Florida State Univer­ sity; her dissertation (1989) was on “ The Artistic Observation of the Copernican Universe (1543-1750).” JOHN SVARLIEN is Assistant Professor of Classics at Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky. His verse translations from Ovid’s Amores appear in Latin Lyric and Elegiac Poetry (eds. D. Ray or and W. Batstone, 1994). He is also the author of “ Lucilianus Character” published in the American Journal o f Philol­ ogyJ. S. TASSIE is Adjunct Professor of French He is the author of a number of articles on literature and on eighteenth-century art history. Collins-Robert French Dictionary, 2nd edition

at Carleton University, Ottawa. French-Canadian language and He was also a contributor to the (1987).

ELIZABETH C. TEVIOTDALE is Assistant Curator of Manuscripts at The J. Paul Getty Museum. She has published articles in Current Musicology, The British Library Journal, Imago musicae, and The Rutgers Art Review. DAVID L. THOMPSON is Associate Professor of Classics at Howard Univer­ sity. He is the author of Mummy Portraits in the J. Paul Getty Museum (1982) as well as various articles on Greek and Roman art and archaeology in the American Journal o f Archaeology, Archaeology, Archeologia Classica, and La Parola del Passato. DAVID A. TRAILL is Professor of Classics at the University of California, Davis. He is the author of Myth, Scandal and History: The Heinrich Schliemann Contro­ versy and a First Edition o f the Mycenaean Diary (1986) and of Schliemann o f Troy, Treasure and Deceit (1995). Professor Traill has also published articles on H. Schliemann, Homer, Catullus, Horace, and Vergil in Classical Philology, the Jour­ nal o f Hellenic Studies, and the American Journal o f Philology. PHILIP J. TRAINA recently earned the Master’s degree in Classical Civilization from Florida State University. His interest lies in Rome under the JulioClaudians. J. B. TRAPP is former Director, now Honorary Fellow, at the Warburg Institute, University of London. He is the author of Essays on the Renaissance and the Classical Tradition (1990) and Erasmus, Colet and More: The Early Tudor Humanists and Their Books (1991). He has published numerous articles on English humanism and the history of archaeology during the Middle Ages and Renaissance.

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

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MICHAEL VICKERS is Senior Assistant Keeper in the Department of An­ tiquities at the Ashmolean Museum. He is the author (with David Gill) of Artful Crafts: Ancient Greek Silverware and Pottery (1994), and articles on archae­ ology and art history in the American Journal o f Archaeology, the Journal o f Hellenic Studies, and The Art Bulletin. JUDY WAGNER is Professor of Humanities and Composition at St. Johns River Community College. SUSAN WALKER is Assistant Keeper in the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities at the British Museum. She is the author of Memorials to the Roman Dead (1985), Roman Art (1991), and articles on Roman Greece in the Journal o f Roman Studies, Archaologischer Anzeiger, and the Annual o f the British School o f Athens. J. K. WASANO received the Master of Arts in Art History at Florida State University. CATHERINE MORRIS WESTCOTT is Adjunct Associate Professor of Hu­ manities at Jacksonville University. She is the author of the forthcoming book The Believer’s Art and of articles on the works of Jean Delville and John Martins in the Journal o f the Fantastic in the Arts and Athanor. DAVID WHITEHOUSE is Director of The Corning Museum of Glass. He is the author of Glass: A Pocket Dictionary (1993) and English Cameo Glass (1994) as well as more than three hundred articles and reviews on Islamic and Medieval European archaeology in Iran, Medieval Archaeology, and other jour­ nals. SHARON WICHMANN received the Master of Arts in Humanities from Florida State University. She is currently teaching English at the Deutsche Aussenhandles und Verkers Akademie, Bremen. SHELLIE WILLIAMS is Curator of Education at the Gibbes Museum of Art in Charleston, South Carolina. She received the Master’s degree in Art History at Florida State University with a thesis on the representation of the griffin in Etruscan art. She served as an archaeological illustrator for the excavations at Cetamura del Chianti. JOHN WILTON-ELY is Professor Emeritus in the History of Art at the Uni­ versity of Hull. Among his books are Piranesi as Architect and Designer (1993) and Piranesi: The Complete Etchings (1994). Professor Wilton-Ely has also published “ Piranesi and the role of archaeological illustration” in Piranesi e La Cultura Antiquaria (1983) as well as a number of related articles in Apollo, The

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Burlington Magazine, and elsewhere. He is a Fellow of the Society of Anti­ quaries of London. FIKRET K. YEGUL is Professor of Classical Art and Architecture at the Uni­ versity of California, Santa Barbara. Among his books are Gentlemen o f Instinct and Breeding: Architecture at the American Academy in Rome (1992) and Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity (1992). For the latter he was awarded the 1994 Hitchcock Award of the Society of Architectural Historians. Professor Yegiil is the author of articles on Roman architecture and iconography in the Jour­ nal o f Roman Archaeology and elsewhere. TOBY YUEN has published articles on the influence of the Graeco-Roman minor arts on Renaissance artists in the Journal o f the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, The Burlington Magazine, and the Gazette des Beaux-Arts.