Encyclopaedia Britannica [S2, 6 ed.]

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* . completed, and its limits correctly ascertained. It be derived from mutual assistance, and suggest the necessity of a permanent residence. The native of fowl °" extends in latitude from Cape York in 10° 45' south the colony of Sydney we know pretty well to be a to Wilson’s promontory in 39° 9' south, and in longitude from Dirk Hartog’s Island in Shark s Bay in gloomy, solitary, unsettled being ; seldom appearing, 113° east, to point Look-out in Glasshouse Bay in even in the town, without his spear, his throwing153° 35' east; tbe mean breadth, from north to south, stick, or his club. “ His spear,” says Colonel Colbeing about 1200, and length, from east to west, lins, “ is his defence against enemies. It is the wea2100 geographical miles, making an area equal to pon he uses to punish aggression, and revenge insult. about three-fourths of the Continent of Europe. A It is even the instrument with which he corrects his remarkable sameness in all the productions oi the wife in the last extreme ; for, in their passion, or three kingdoms of nature prevails in every part of perhaps oftener in a fit of jealousy, they scruple not its extensive coasts, and as remarkable a difference to inflict death. It is the plaything of children, and in two of them (the animal and vegetable) from those in the hands of persons of all ages.” Turnbull says, the natives of this part of New Holland are, beyond of the rest of the world. Natives. The natives, wherever they have been met with, comparison, the most barbarous on the surface of the are of the very lowest description of human be- Globe, and that the influence of European settlers ings. In the journal of the Duyfhen, the north has had no effect in rendering them more sensible of coast is described as thinly “ inhabited by wild, the benefits of civilization ; that every day men and cruel, black savages, by whom some of the crew women are to be seen in the streets of Sydney and were murderedand the ship Vianen, touching on Paramatta naked as in the moment of their birth; the western coast about 21° south, observed “ a foul yet he contends that they are far from being stupid ; and barren shore, green fields, and very wild, black, that they are the greatest mimics alive ; and that the barbarous inhabitants.” In 24° south, Polsert, who oddities, dress, walk, gait, and looks of all the Eucommanded the Batavia, saw four natives, whom he ropeans of any rank, from the time of Governor describes as “ wild, black, and altogether naked, not Phillip downwards, are so exactly imitated, as to covering even those parts which almost all savages form among them a kind of historic register of their conceal.” Tasman “ found in Hollandia Nova, several actions and characters ; and they are great in lat. 17° 12' south, a naked black people, with proficients in the slang language of the convicts. curly hair, malicious, and cruel, using for arms bows But this seems to be the sum total of all their acquiand arrows, hazagaeys and kalawaeys.” Dampier sitions from European intercourse. In all other redescribes them as being “ a naked black people, with spects they remain the same untutored, unprotected, curly hair, having a piece of the rind of a tree tied improvident, and comfortless savages we first found like a girdle about their waists, and a handful of long them. By all who have seen them they are described grass, or three or four green boughs full of leaves as hideously ugly, with flat noses, wide nostrils, eyes sunk in the head, overshadowed with thick black thrust under their girdle to cover their nakedness that “ the two fore-teeth of the upper jaw are want- eyebrows ; the mouth extravagantly wide, lips thick ing in all of them, men and women, old and young; and prominent, hair black and clotted, but not woolly, neither have they any beards.” And he remarks, the colour of the skin varying from dark bronze to “ they have no boats, canoes, or bark-logs.” The jet black. Their stature is below the middle size. south coast is so barren, and the naked hillocks of They are remarkably thin and ill made, their limbs sand so continuous, that there appears to be nothing small, and almost without any appearance of muscle. for human inhabitants to subsist upon. “ It is not They live chiefly on fish, which they sometimes spear surprising,” says D’Entrecasteaux, “ that Nuyts has and sometimes net, the women on parts of the coast given no details of this barren coast; for its aspect aiding to catch them with the hook and line. If a is so uniform, that the most fruitful imagination could dead whale happens to be cast on shore, numbers find nothing to say of it.” Even where the coun- flock to it from every part of the coast, just as the try begins to improve towards the eastward, in the vultures smell out a dead carcase, and they feast neighbourhood of Kangaroo Island, Captain Flin- sumptuously while any part of it remains. Those in ders found not the least vestige of inhabitants ; the interior are stated to live on grubs, ants and and, from the stupidity of the kangaroos on that their eggs, kangaroos, when they can catch them, fern Island, “ which,” he observes, “ not unfrequently ap- roots, various kinds of berries, and honey. These peared to consider us as seals,’’ he concludes sylvan satyrs are described as having long and lean there either are no natives, or that they are igno- legs and arms, owing, as is supposed, to their climbrant of every kind of embarkation. Towards the ing of trees, which they ascend by notches cut into northern part of the eastern coast, the same na- them by stone hatchets, in which the great toe is vigator thinks they are somewhat superior to those placed, and by these means they ascend trees that near Sydney, having belts round the waist, and fil- are 70 or 80 feet high. To add to their natural deformity, they thrust a lets about the head and upper part of the arm, associating in greater numbers, and dwelling in huts of a bone through the cartilage of the nose, and stick superior construction. They also catch fish with with gum to their hair, matted with moss, the teeth nets, which he thinks is alone a feature of distinction of men, sharks, or kangaroos, the tails of dogs', jawfrom those who only spear the fish, as a net requires bones of fish, &c. and daub their faces and bodies 3

zl V S T R A L zl S I A. 7 Australasia, with red and white clay, and scarify the skin in every there is at least a very extraordinary, and a distinct Australasia, part with sharp shells. The women and female chil- characteristic difference in both the animal and vedren are generally found to want the first two joints getable part of the creation, which makes a consiof the little finger of the left hand ; and the reason derable class of subjects in both these kingdoms pethey assign is, that they would otherwise be in the culiar to New Holland. The quadrupeds hitherto discovered, with very few exceptions, are of the kangaway of winding the fishing-lines over the hand. They have no fixed habitations, the climate gene- roo or opossum tribe ; having their hinder legs long rally allowing of their sleeping in the open air, in the out of all proportion, when compared with the length crevices of rocks, or under the shelter of the bushes. of the fore legs, and a sack under the belly of the Their temporary hovels consist of the bark of a female for the reception of the young> of which fatree, each hovel just large enough to receive a mily, though divided into different genera, there are single person ; to the northward, on the east coast, at least fifty distinct, species. They have rats, and some were discovered a little larger, so that a family dogs ofthejackall kind, all exactly alike, and a little might, on an emergency, squeeze under one of animal of the bear tribe named voomat, and these them ; but they are without furniture or convenien- pretty nearly complete the catalogue of four-footed ces of any description. They seem to have no idea animals yet known on this fifth Continent. There of the benefits arising from social life ; their largest appears, indeed, such an apparent affinity of the clans extend not beyond the family circle, of each of natural objects in New South Wales, that Dr which the eldest is called by a name synonymous White observes, all the quadrupeds are like oposwith that of father. They are totally without reli- sums, all the fish like sharks, and that every part of gion, neither paying the least respect or adoration the land, all the trees, and all the grasses, resemble to any object or being, real or imaginary. Hence one another. There is, however, an animal which they have nothing to prompt them to a good action, resembles nothing in the creation but itself,—which, nothing to deter them from a bad one ; hence mur- being rejected by naturalists from the classes mamder is not considered as any heinous crime, and wo- malia, aves, and pisces, must, we suppose, be consimen think nothing of destroying, by compression, dered as belonging to the amphibia,—we mean the Orthe infant in the womb, to avoid the trouble, if nithoryncus paradoxus, “ a quadruped with the beak brought alive into the world, of carrying it about and of a bird, which is contrary to known facts and refinding it subsistence. Should a woman die with an ceived opinions.” When the head of one of these infant at the breast, the living child is inhumanly beasts was brought to the late Dr Shaw, of the thrown into the same hole with the mother, and British Museum, he suspected it as an idle attempt covered with stones, of wrhich the brutal father to impose on his judgment, and did not hastily bethrows the first. They are savage even in love, the lieve that nature had set the bill of a duck on the very first act of courtship, on the part of the hus- bead of a quadruped; but so it has since proved to band, being that of knocking down his intended be the case. bride with a club, and dragging her away from her The birds are no less singular than the beasts, there friends, bleeding and senseless, to the woods ; the being black swans and white eagles; the former everyconsequence is, that scarcely a female of the age of where in such multitudes as to spoil a proverb that maturity is to be seen without her head full of scars, had held good for two thousand years ; and their the unequivocal marks of her husband’s affection. song, if we may credit Mr Bass, “ exactly resembles The nearest relations are also perpetually destroying the creaking of a rusty sign on a windy day.” The each other, either by stratagem or open combat; for, Mcenura superba, with its scalloped tail feathers, is savage as they are, they have a singular custom of perhaps the most singular and beautiful of that very expiating an offence, even murder, by the criminal elegant race of birds known by the name of birds of exposing himself to as many of the injured family as ■paradise ; cockatoos, parrots, and parroquets, are inmay choose to stand forth and hurl their spears at numerable, and of great variety. The mountain him. From the moment that he is so dreadfully eagle is a magnificent creature, but the emu is permangled that he can stand no longer, or has the haps the tallest and loftiest bird that exists, many good fortune to parry all their shafts, a reconcilement of them standing full seven feet high. takes place, and friendship is restored ; if the crimiThe plants are no less singular than the animals. Plants. nal refuses to stand this trial, he and all his family Of these Mr Brown has given a very curious and inare considered as fair game to attack and murder structive account in his Geographical and Systemawherever they are met with. The English used to tical Remarks, in the Appendix to Flinders's Voyage. attend these unequal combats, and thus gave coun- He collected nearly 3Q00 species of Australasian tenance to a savage practice, which not unfrequent- plants, which, with those brought to England by Sir ly ended in the death of the person who was put Joseph Banks and others, supplied him with the maon his defence. (See Collins, Flinders, Turnbull, terials for a Flora Terrce Australis, consisting of &c.) 4200 species, referable to 120 natural orders: but Vninnls. If no very essential difference be perceptible in he remarks, that more than half the number of spethe moral and physical qualities of the man of New cies belong to eleven only of those orders. Of the Holland, and the rest of the species, except that Eucalyptus, or gum-tree, the largest yet discovered, which arises from the different circumstances under there are not fewer than 100 different species. “ The which they are placed;—if the rocks and mountains, Eucalyptus globulus of Labillardiere,” says Mr and the earths, resemble nearly the inorganic sub- Brown, “ and another species, peculiar to the south stances that are met with in other parts of the wrorld, of Van Diernan’s Land, not unfrequently attain the

AUSTRALASIA. S Australasia, height of 150 feet, with a girth near the base of less subject to violent changes. In May, correspond- Australasia, from 25 to 40 feet.” Of this magnificent genus ing to our November, Labillardiere observed the there are 50 different species within the limits of the mountains in the interior covered with snow. The colony of Port Jackson. Of the beautiful and elegant western and southern coasts are bold, steep, and rock}", Melaleuca Mr Brown collected upwards of 50 species; the latter terminating so abruptly, as to appear as if it all of which, with the exception of the two species had been broken oft’: and the group of Islands, named the Leucodendron and Cajaputi, appear to be confined De Witt’s Isles, to the southward, twelve in number, to Terra Australis. The tribe of Stackhousece is en- formed out of the fragments. Cook found the cliffs tirely peculiar to that country. Of the natural order on the eastern side composed of sandstone; but the of proteacece, consisting of about 400 known species, vast buttresses that look towards the southern seas more than 200 are natives of New Holland, of which of ice, are stated by Flinders to be composed of bathey form one of its characteristic botanical features ; saltic columns, appearing like so many stacks of the Banksia, in particular, being one of the most chimneys. Labillardiere found, near this southern striking peculiarities of the vegetable kingdom. The extremity, a stratum of coal 3^ feet thick, and 200 Casuarina, of which 13 species have been disco- fathoms long, resting on sandstone. The soil in general is represented as more producvered, is another characteristic feature of the woods and thickets of New Holland. The most extensive tive than that of the east side of New Holland; and genus, however, is the leafless Acacia, of which there the Island has the advantage of being intersected by are more than 100 species; and this, with the Eucalyp- two fine rivers, rising near the centre : the one named tus, “ if taken together,’’ says Mr Brown, “ and consi- the Tamar, falling into Bass’s Strait on the north, dered with respect to the mass of vegetable matter and forming Port Dalrymple ; the other, the Derwent, they contain, calculated from the size as well which discharges itself into the sea on the south-east as from the number of individuals, are perhaps extremity; spreading its waters, in the first instance, nearly equal to all the other plants of that country.” over the Great Storm Bay, which communicates with The Casuarina and the Eucalyptus are represented as North Bay, Norfolk Bay, and Double Bay, on the furnishing excellent timber for ship-building, and east; and with D’Entrecasteaux’s Channel on the for all the purposes of domestic furniture, and agri- west. The Tamar, in its course, receives three cultural implements ; and the gum of the Eucalyptus streams,—the North Esk, the South Esk, and the is medicinal; of one species it might be employed as Lake river; and the tide flows about 30 miles up the pitch. Freycinet says, they procured a resinous sub- river, to the point where it is joined by the two Esks. stance from the Xanthorrhea, which served them to At the head of the western arm of Port Dalrymple, caulk their vessels. The bark of a tree on the Hawkes- is situated York town, on the skirt of a beautiful, bury is said to be as efficacious in tanning leather rich, and well wooded country. There is also a town, as the oak-bark; and a creeping plant (smilax) is named Hobart town, on the right bank of the Derused as a substitute for tea. Nutmegs wei’e found by went, about five miles inland. The country between Flinders on the northern coast, but they were small, these two towns was traversed by Mr Grimes in 1807, and had so little of an aromatic flavour, that Mr Brown who describes it to be everywhere rich and beautiful, gave the plant the specific name of insipida. Among abounding in grassy plains, marshes, and lakes, boundthe curious productions of the vegetable world is the ed on each side by hills, well clothed with wood, risCephalotus follicularis, or pitcher plant, of which a ing into high and rocky mountains. The description given by D’Entrecasteaux of the very correct and detailed drawing is given in the Atlas to Flinders’s Voyage. (For an account of the channel that bears his name, and the surrounding history of the British Colony in New Holland, see shores, is grand and imposing, and corresponds geNew Holland in the Encyclopcedia ; and Botany nerally with the following animated account of it from Bay, in this Supplement, for an account of its pre- M. Peron, ten years afterwards. “ Crowded on the surface of the soil are seen on every side those beausent state.) tiful Mimosas, those superb Metrosideros, those CorVan DieII. Having marked the progressive discovery of this reas, unknown till of late to our country, but now man’sLand. fajr an(j fertile Island, until it was ascertained to be become the pride of our shrubberies. From the such, by Tasman, Marion, Furneaux, Cook, D’En- shores of the ocean to the summits of the highest trecasteaux, Bass, and Flinders; we shall not think it mountains, may be observed the mighty Eucalyptus, necessary to notice the minor discoveries of Bligh, those giant trees of Australasian forests, many of which Hunter, Cox, &c. but proceed to give a general out- measure from 162 to 180 feet in height, and from 25 line of its dimensions, surface, and natural produc- to 30, and even 36 feet in circumference. Banksia, tions. It is situated between the parallels of 41° and of different species, the Protea, the Embothria, the General ^no gg' south latitude, and 144° 32' and 148° 25' east Leptosperma, form an enchanting belt round the skirts 1 J,s Country longitude ; its medial length, from north to south, of the forests. Here the Casuarina exhibits its beaubeing about l60, and breadth, from east to west, tiful form : there the elegant Exocarpus throws into 145 geographical miles. Its surface possesses every a hundred different places its negligent branches. variety of mountain, hill, and dale; of forests Everywhere spring up the most delightful thickets of and open meadows ; of inland lakes, rivers, and in- Melaleuca, Thesium, Conchyum, Evodia, all equally lets of the sea, forming safe and commodious har- interesting, either from their graceful shape, the lovebours, that can render a country valuable or agree- ly verdure of their foliage, the singularit}r of their able ; and it enjoys a temperate climate, which is, per- corollas, or the form of their seed-vessels.” f Voy. aux haps, not very different from that of England, though Terres Aust.) i

AUSTRALASIA. All the navigators who have visited the southern ever, to Gilolo, and reported that Saavedra had been Australasia, part of Van Dieman’s Land, describe the natives as a wrecked; but on his subsequent arrival they were Natives. mild, affable, good-humoured, and inoffensive people, tried, condemned, and executed. He is supposed to with the exception of Marion, the effect of whose have added about 50 leagues of discovery to that of fire-arms, Labillardiere thinks, had made them afraid Meneses. In 15295 Saavedra sailed a second time of Europeans. Flinders and Bass conceived, that the for New Spain, and, according to Galvaom (or Galnatives of this Island were sunk still lower in the scale vano), followed the coast of Papua eastwards above of human existence than those in the neighbourhood 500 leagues. In 1537, Gonzalva and Alvarado were dispatched of Port Jackson, though they saw but one man, and he is described as having “ a countenance more ex- on discovery by the Viceroy of Peru; but the forpressive of benignity and intelligence than of that fe- mer being killed in a mutiny, the crew chose another rocity or stupidity which generally characterized the commander ; and the first land they made was Papua. other natives.” They are obviously the same people The ship was in so crazy a state, that she was abanas those of New Holland, and go entirely naked, both doned ; the crew, only seven in number (the rest men and women ; but their language is altogether having died of hunger and fatigue), were made capdifferent ; they have the art, too, of striking fire with tives, and carried to an Island called Crespos (curly two flints, which is not known to the other Austra- haired men), from whence they were sent to the Molasian islanders; and it is also singular, that they set luccas and ransomed. In 1545, Ynigo Ortiz de Retz, in his voyage from no value on iron. The women refused from Cook’s people all presents, and rejected all their addresses, Tidore to New Spain, came to an Archipelago of not so much from a sense of virtue, it was supposed, Islands near the land of Papua; sailed 230 leagues as from the fear of the men, of whom they stood in along the north coast; and not knowing it had been great awe. In some places were found miserable huts before visited by Europeans, he called it Nueva Guiof twigs, and rude baskets, made of a j uncus, or nea, from the resemblance of the natives to those rush ; but these were all the signs that appeared of of the coast of Guinea. civilization. Cook, D’Entrecasteaux, and Baudin, In 1606, Torres made the east coast of New all observed many of the largest trees, with trunks Guinea, in his wray to the Moluccas, sailed westward hollowed out, apparently by means of fire ; and, as 300 leagues, doubled the south-east point, sailed 1 the hollow side invariably faced the east and south- along the southern coast, saw the northern coast of east, the lee-side to the prevailing winds, it was con- New Holland, and passed the Strait which now bears cluded they were intended as habitations. In D’En- his name. He describes the coast of New Guinea to trecasteaux’s Channel only were indications of huts be inhabited by a dark people, naked, except a covermade of the bark of the Eucalyptus, consisting of ing round the middle of painted cloth made of the three rolls stitched together. Entrecasteaux, bark of a tree. They had arms of clubs and darts Labillardiere, Flinders, &c.) ornamented with feathers. He fell in with many large islands, large ports, and large rivers. Towards the Papua or III. This great Island is, after New Holland, not only northern extremity he met with Mahomedans, who the first in point of magnitude, but claims a priority had swords and fire-arms. uinca. jn discovery over that and every other Island in the In 1616, Schouten came in sight of a burning Australasian Sea. In the year 1526, when the Por- mountain on the coast of New Guinea, which he Progress of tuguese and the Spaniards were disputing their re- named Vulcan, and immediately after of the coast Discovery, spective claims to the Spice Islands, Don Jorge de itself. The Island was well inhabited, and abounded Meneses, of the former nation, had, in his passage with cocoa nuts, but no anchoring ground could be from Malacca to the Moluccas, by extraordinary and found ; the natives black, with short hair, but others accidental circumstances, discovered the north coast appeared of a more tawny colour, with canoes of a of Papua, so called, according to some, because the different shape. Among the Islands in sight to the word signifies black, which was the colour of the na- northward, four small ones continually smoked. On tives, or curled hair, according to others. Meneses approaching the mainland, the natives, whom he remained at a port called Versija, till the change of calls real Papoos, came off, “ a wild, strange, and the monsoon, and then returned to the Moluccas. ridiculous people, active as monkeys, having black The next navigator who touched at Papua was Al- curled hair, rings in their ears and noses, and neckvarez de Saavedra, on his homeward voyage from the laces of hog’s tusks.” They had all some personal Moluccas, in 1528, for New Spain ; and from an idea defect; one was blind, another had a great leg, a that the country abounded in gold, he gave to it the third a swelled arm, which made Schouten conclude name of Isla del Oro. From the resemblance of the that this part of the country was unhealthy, in which natives to African Negroes, being black, with short he was more confirmed by observing their houses curly hair, the name was afterwards changed by the built upon stakes eight or nine feet from the ground. Spaniards to New Guinea, and not, as some have sup- At the two little Islands of Moa and Insou, on the posed, because it was thought that Guinea and Pa- north-east coast, the friendly natives supplied them pua were situated under the same parallel of lati- with abundance of cocoa nuts. At 28 leagues from tude ; which, however, they certainly are, though Moa, Schouten fell in with a group of fourteen one happens to be north and the other south latitude. small Islands covered with wood, but apparently unFie staid a month, and obtained provisions, but some inhabited ; but sailing to the northward, they were Portuguese deserted with the only boat the ship had, followed by six large canoes, the people in them and were left behind. They found their way, how- armed with javelins. Those in some canoes from VOL. II. PART I. B Australasia.

10 AUSTRALASIA. Australasia, another Island were of a tawny complexion, had ed than those southward; that among the weapons Australasia, long curly hair, and appeared, by their persons and used by them were hollow bamboo sticks, which language, to be a different race from the natives of they filled with lime, and by throwing it out, endeaPapua; they had rings of coloured glass, yellow voured to blind their enemies: this explanation, beads, and vessels of porcelain, which were regarded however, does not account for the f re. Forrest says, as “ evidences of their having communication with that the Chinese, from Tidore, trade with Papua, the East Indies.” Schouten’s Island is the largest under Dutch colours ; perhaps, therefore, gunpowof this group. Tasman visited all these islands, and der may be one of the articles carried by them in the coast of New Guinea, in 1643, and obtained vast exchange for the slaves, ambergrease, sea-slugs numbers of cocoa nuts and bananas from the friendly (biche de mer), tortoise-shell, loories, birds of paranatives of Moa and Insou. Tasman made no dis- dise, &c. which they carry back to China. If we suppose the Louisiade of Bougainville to be General coveries in this part of his voyage. Our countryman Dampier saw the coast in 1699* connected with New Guinea, this Island extends in View of but did not land ; the natives came off to his ship, a south-east by east direction from the Cape, absurd- Bapua, and he speaks in admiration of their large and pic- ly called Good Hope, nearly under the equator, to turesque proas. He discovered, however, a Strait un- Cape Deliverance, in 11south, being in length about known before, which divides New Guinea from New 1400, and medial breadth about 150 geographical Britain, and is now called after his name. Bougainville miles. The accounts of all the navigators who have was less fortunate, when, in 1768, he touched on the touched on the different parts of its coast, describe it coast of what he considered to be a separate Island, as a rich and magnifioent country, containing, in all and to which he gave the name of Louisiade; there human probability, from its situation and appearance, is, however, some reason to believe that it is a con- all the valuable vegetable products of the Moluccas tinuation of New Guinea. D’Entrecasteaux, in and the several Asiatic Islands. Forrest found the nut1792, passed along the northern coast of Louisiade, meg-tree on Manaswary Island in the Bay of Dory; and through Dampier’s Strait, but left the point of and he learned that a people in the interior, called Haits identity with, or separation from, New Guinea un- rqforas, cultivate the ground, and bring their produce down to the sea-coast; that they are very poor, and decided. have long hair, and that they live in trees, Sonnerat published “ A Voyage to Neiu Guinea," some of them r though he evidently never was there, but describes which they ascend by cutting notches in them. The the natives and productions from what he saw, and people of New Guinea, in many parts of the coast, Natives, what he could collect at the island of Gibby, to the live in huts, or cabins placed on stages that are erected on poles, commonly in the water; probably as a proteceastward of Gillolo. Forrest, in 1775, anchored in the Bay of Dory, on tion against snakes and other venomous creatures; the northern extremity of New Guinea, and collect- though Forrest seems to think against the Haraforas. ed some information respecting the inhabitants from On these stages they haul up their proas or canoes. a Mahomedan Hadji, who accompanied him. These people are invariably described as being Captain Cook, also, in his first voyage in 1770, made hideously ugly; their large eyes, flat noses, thick lips, the coast in about 6^° south latitude, a little to the woolly hair, and black shining skin, denote almost to northward of Cape Valscher, but did not bring his a certainty their African origin, and their affinity ship to anchor, on account of the hostility of the with the natives of New Holland ; but the difference natives. A party landed near a grove of cocoa-nut of language, and the want of all the useful productrees, and not far from it found plantain, and the tions on the latter, which abound on New Guinea^ bread-fruit tree. The breeze from the trees and induced Captain Cook to conclude, that there is no shrubs is said to have been charged with a fragrance intercourse between the two people. The Papuans not unlike that of gum benjamin. Three Indians increase their natural deformity by passing bones or rushed out. of the wood with a hideous shout, ran pieces of stick through the cartilage of the nose, and towards the party, the foremost throwing something frizzing out their curly locks like a mop, sometimes out of his hand which burnt like gunpowder, the to the enormous circumference of three feet. They other two hurling their lances at the same time. appear, however, to be one degree farther removed Before they reached the pinnace, from sixty to a from savage life than the New Hollanders, having hundred had collected, all stark naked; their ap- permanent houses, and both men and women wearpearance as to stature, colour, and crisped hair, re- ing wrappers round the waist, which are among the sembling that of the New Hollanders. They let off articles brought to them by the Chinese and Malays. fires by four or five at a time, but for wrhat purpose The only quadrupeds that are known to exist on Animus could not be imagined. These fires appeared to be this large Island are dogs, rats, and wild hogs; but discharged from a piece of stick, probably a hollow the feathered race are of great beauty and infinite cane; and the fire and smoke exactly resembled variety. New Guinea is the native country of those those of a musket, but without any report. Those singular and matchless beauties, the birds of parawho were on board ship, at a distance, concluded dise, which were once thought to have no legs, but they had fire-arms, and even those in the boat might always on the wing, and known by the name of pashave supposed them firing volleys, had they not been saros da sol, birds of the sun. They are said to so near as to ascertain that there was no report. migrate in large flocks, in the dry Monsoon, to the Torres had observed something of the same kind, Islands of Arroo, and other Islands to the west and in about 4° south latitude on the same coast, where, north-west of New Guinea. The great crown pigeon, he says, the inhabitants were black, but better cloth- parrots, loories, and minas, are natives of Papua.

11 AUSTRALASIA. Australasia. The whole of this great country is indented with thick cocoa-nut groves skirted all the low parts of Australasia. deep bays on every side, some of which nearly in- the coast. Labillardiere says that New Ireland tersect the island ; and the coast is surrounded on produces nutmegs, and he also mentions a new speevery side with a multitude of small Islands, all cies of the Areca palm, 108 feet high, the stem conpeopled with the same description of Blacks, except- sisting of hard solid timber. The natives of the Admiralty Islands, lying to the ing those already mentioned on the north-west, near the equator, most of which are under the govern- north-west, were found by Carteret to be less black ment of Mahometan Malays, with whom both the than those of New Britain and Ireland, with agreeDutch and Chinese have long kept up a considerable able countenances, not unlike Europeans ; their hair was curly, smeared with oil and red ochre, and their intercourse. bodies and faces painted with the same material; New BriIV. There can be little doubt that this extensive range the glans penis was covered with the shell called the tain, New of Islands was partially seen by Le Maire and Schou- Italia ovum, serving the same purpose as the woodIreland, and neigh- tenin l6l(5, who, after discovering the Groene Island en sheath of the Caffres in South Africa, whom, inbourini; and the Marquen Islands, steered along the northern deed, they seem to resemble as closely as the natives Islands. coast of New Ireland, as did Tasman also in 16‘42. of New Guinea do those of the western coast of Dampier, however, first ascertained New Britain to Africa. The women wear a bandage round the be an Island distinct from New Guinea, by passing waist. The central Island is tolerably large, and of the strait which since has borne his name. He visit- a beautiful appearance, clothed with the most luxued Port Montague on this Island, and speaks of the riant verdure, and cultivated to the very summit. black natives resembling the Papuans, their dex- Among the groves of cocoa-nut trees are numerous terity in managing their canoes, their woody hills, habitations, and the natives have evidently attained Discovery. fertile vales, and delightful rivulets. He also anchor- to a higher degree of civilization than their southern ed in Slinger’s Bay on New Ireland, which he con- neighbours; they use earthen vessels, and chew the ceived to be the same land with New Britain ; but betel leaf with chunam or lime. This central Island Carteret, in 1727? discovered and passed through a is surrounded by nearly thirty small flat Islets of costrait which separates them, and to which he gave ral, and reefs in the various stages of their progress the name of St George’s Channel. The Admiralty towards Islets. Proceeding to the westward, and to the northIslands of Carteret, to the north-westward of New Britain, had previously been discovered by Schou- west, we meet with other little clusters of Islands,—as ten, and named the Twenty-Jive Islands. New Bri- the Hermites, the Portland, the Echequier (chesstain was seen by Roggewein in 1722, and by Bou- board), vulgarly called Exchequer Islands, all of which consist, like the Admiralty Archipelago, of a gainville in 176‘8. D’Entrecasteaux, we believe, was the last navi- larger central Island surrounded by a chain of Islets gator who passed along the north coast of New Bri- and reefs, most of them covered with beautiful vertain, and through St George’s Channel, which dure. The natives of these groups, as they approach divides it from New Ireland, and from thence to the the equator, gradually assume a lighter colour and Admiralty Islands; and from his voyage, published by longer hair, till they lose entirely the negro chaRossel, together with Labillardiere and Carteret’s, racter, and melt into that of Malays, and other Asiwe shall extract a few gleanings. atic Islanders. (See Schouien, Dampier, Carteret, The extent of New Britain and Ireland is not ex- Labillardiere, &c.) General Descrip- actly known, nor have they been sufficiently explorlioii. ed to enable geographers to lay them down with V. This archipelago of Islands was one of the first Solomon’s accuracy, or even to state what number of Islands discoveries of the Spaniards in Australasia, though Islands, the group consists of: one of considerable extent the credit of it is given to Alonso de Mendana, who lies off the north-west end of New Ireland, which was sent on an expedition of discovery in 1567 from has been named New Hanover, and is itself sur- Callao by the Viceroy of Peru. He anchored in a Discovery, rounded by low woody Islands. The whole group port on the Island of Santa Ysabel, to which he gave occupies a space between 2^° and 6° of south lati- the name of Porta de la Estrella, and he also built a tude, and 149° and 153° of east longitude, and may brigantine to make farther discoveries, in which she probably contain an area not less than 10,000 geo- was particularly successful, having fallen in with thirgraphical miles. ty-three Islands in number, “ of very fine prospect.” Natives. Carteret saw but few natives on the south coast Many of them were of considerable size, to which of New Ireland, in passing through the strait, who they gave particular names, as Galera, Buonavista, showed marked signs of hostility, and were armed Florida, San German, Guadalcanar, San Christoval, with lances headed with flint; they had also slings, Santa Catarina, and Santa Ana. Guadalcanar, and good fishing-tackle. They were black, and had however, was the most attractive, having a port woolly hair, but their lips, he says, were not thick, which they named De la Cruz, and a river which nor their noses flat; their cheeks were streaked they called Galego. Of this Island Mendana took with white, and their hair and beards were covered possession for the King of Spain. When the voyage with a white powder; their canoes were long and was published, the name of Solomon’s Islands was narrow, and had generally outriggers; one of them given to the group, “ to the end that the Spameasured QO feet in length, and was formed out of niards, supposing them to be those Isles from whence a single tree. The two large Islands, and the whole Solomon fetched gold to adorn the temple at Jerugroup, in fact, were nearly covered with wood, and salem, might be the more desirous to go and inhabit

AUSTRALASIA. 12 Australasia, the same but it has been said that Mendana's ad- and fertile. It has a good port on the east side, Australasia, vice was, that they should not be colonized, “ that the where the Spaniards were attacked by the natives, English, or others, who pass the Strait of Magel- who wounded three of the invaders, and one dart hanes to go to the Moluccas, might have no suc- pierced through the target and arm of the Spanish cour there, but such as they get from the Indians.” commanding officer; the blacks had boughs on their The truth, however, is, that Mendana, on a second heads, and bands round their waists. The Spaniards voyage for the discovery of the Solomon Islands, re- observed here hogs and fowls. turned without being able to find them, which gave VI. To the south-east of Solomon’s Islands, and be- New Beoccasion to the remark, that, “ what Mendana discovered in his first voyage, he lost in his second.” tween the parallels of 14^° and 20° south latitude, brides, He discovered, however, in this second voyage, the are found a number of Islands, some of very consigreat Island of Santa Cruz, which is situated at the derable magnitude, called the New Hebrides^ or south-east extremity of Solomon’s Islands, and may Hebudes. They were first discovered in 1606, by Discovery, very fairly be considered as one of the group. Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, who, with Luis Vaez This Island, which has an excellent harbour, La Gra- de Torres, was sent by the King of Spain from Lima, ciosa, was first revisited by Carteret, in 17b'7> after with two ships and a zabra (launch) to establish Mendana’s discovery, who changed its name to that of a settlement at the Island Santa Cruz, and from Egmont, and made it the principal Island of a group thence to go in quest of the Tierra Austral, or which he called Queen Charlotte’s Islands. Here southern continent. This voyage has been consiMendana died, and Quiros succeeded to the com- dered, and justly so, among the most celebrated unmand ; but the search for Solomon’s Islands was a- dertaken by the Spaniards since the time of Magelbandoned when they were not more than 40 leagues hanes. In April 16O6, they discovered an Island, to from Christoval. It is a singular fact, that Solo- which they gave the name of Santa Maria, from mon’s Islands, whose name was sufficient to tempt whence they saw another Island to the southward, “so adventurers, were lost to Europeans for two cen- large,” says Torres, “ that we sailed for it.” On the turies after their discovery, and that we know at 2d May, they anchored in a bay, large enough present little, if any, more than Mendana gave to the to hold a thousand ships, to which they gave the apworld after his first voyage. They were revisited by propriate name of San Felipe y Santiago. Quiros at Bougainville in 1768 ; by M. Surville in 1769? on a once determined that he had now discovered the voyage from Pondicherry of mercantile speculation, long-sought-for southern continent, and in this conand who, from a ridiculous mistake, called them the viction named it the Australia del Espiritu Santo. Archipelago of the Arsacides, to mark the natives as Two rivers fell into the bay, one the Jordan, the assassins ; and by Lieutenant Shortland, of the Bri- other the Salvador. The surrounding country was tish navy, in 1788, who chose to call them New beautiful, and is thus described by the historian of Georgia; and frequently since that time by various the voyage: “ The banks of the rivers were coverBritish and French navigators;—still the little we ed with odoriferous flowers and plants, particularly orange flowers and sweet basil, the perfumes of know of them is from Mendana. Natives. Santa Ysabel, he says, was inhabited by people which were wafted to the ships by the morning and who had the complexion of mulattos, with curly evening breezes ; and, at the early dawn was heard, hair, with little covering to their bodies, who wor- from the neighbouring woods, the mixed melody of shipped serpents, toads, and such like creatures; many different kinds of birds, some in appearance their food cocoa-nuts and roots ; and it was believed like nightingales, blackbirds, larks, and goldfinches. that they eat human flesh, “ for the chief sent to the All the parts of the country in front of the sea were general a present of a quarter of a boy with the beautifully varied with fertile valleys, plains, windhand and arm.” Buonavista is twelve leagues in ex- ing rivers, and groves, which extend to the sides of tent, very fertile, well peopled, the natives living in green mountains.” (Torquemada, as quoted in regular villages or towns. On Florida, twrenty-five Burney’s Account of Discoveries in the South Sea.') Of this terrestrial paradise, which the Spaniards leagues in circuit, the natives dyed their hair red, collected together at the sound of conch-shells, and regarded as their own, it was intended to take imeat human flesh. Sesarga was well inhabited, pro- mediate possession ; they landed in great numbers ; duced plenty of yams and bread-fruit, and here the the Islanders were also numerous, became alarmed, Spaniards saw hogs. In the midst of the Island made them presents, and signified a wish for them was a volcano, continually emitting smoke. They to return to their ships. They, how ever, landed from saw bats which measured five feet between the tips their boats, on which the chief drew a line on the of the wings. At Guadalcanar they received in ground with the end of his bow, and made signs that barter two hens and a cock, the first fowls that had the Spaniards must not pass that boundary. It is said been seen. At San Christoval, the natives were that Torres, to show his contempt of the idea of very numerous, and drew up to give battle to the being restrained by barbarians, immediately passed Spaniards, their arms being darts, clubs, bows and the line. A battle ensued, in which the chief was arrows ; but they were dispersed by the fire of the killed, and all the rest fled into the woods. This muskets, which killed one Indian, and wounded rash act, however, was fatal to the views of the Spaothers. In the neighbouring village was found a niards, who never afterwards could prevail on the quantity of cocoa-nuts and almonds, sufficient to Islanders to have any friendly communication with have loaded a ship. Santa Ana was well peopled them ; and they left this country, after some ridicu-

13 A IT S T R A L a s 1 A. tains, bread-fruit, &c. The yams remarkably fine, Australasia; Australasia, lous formalities of taking possession in the name of Philip III. and founding a city, dignified with the one of which weighed fifty-six pounds, every ounce of which was good ; and they had pigs and poultry. name of the New Jerusalem. So anxious was Quiros of “ adding the Australia The juice of the cocoa-nut, and water, appeared to del Espiritu Santo to the other possessions of the be their only beverage. Their arms were clubs, Spanish monarchy,” that, after his return to Spain, darts, lances, and bows and arrows. Their canoes, he is said to have presented no less than fifty memo- clumsily sewed together, had outriggers, and were rials to the King. One of these, which was printed worked by paddles and by sails. The men wore a at Seville, begins thus : “ I, Captain Pedro Fer- wrapper round the loins, and the women a sort oi nandez de Quiros, say, that, with this I have pre- petticoat reaching to the knee. The natives of Mallicolo are called by Captain sented to your Majesty eight memorials relative to the settlement which ought to be made in Australia Cook “ an ape-like nation the most ugly, ill-proIncognita." In these memorials, he enumerates the portioned people he ever met with, and different many valuable productions of this supposed southern from all others ; diminutive in their persons, darkcontinent: cocoa-nuts, plantains, sugar-canes, yams, coloured, with black hair, short and curly, but not batatas, oranges, limes, papas, pumpkins, almonds, so4 woolly as a negro’s; they had long heads, flat nutmegs, mace, ginger, and pepper, in great quanti- faces, and monkey countenances, and a belt round ties ; woods for “ building any number of ships.” the waist, pulled tight across the belly, made them The animals are hogs, goats, and dogs; fowls, and look not unlike overgrown pismires. The women were a variety of useful and beautiful birds ; various good equally ugly ; the dress of both, in other respects, fish ; and pearl oysters. The climate is described as the same as that of Tanna, as were also the producso fine, and such a freshness in the air, that neither tions of the Island. Their houses were low', and by labour, exposure to the sun, or rain, or dews, covered with palm thatch. (See Dalrymplc, Burney., nor by intemperance, did any of the Spaniards fall Cook, &c.) sick; and among the natives many aged people were VII. This large Island, surrounded with coral islets New Cale-. seen. They wear a covering round the middle: Torres says they are all black and naked. They and reefs, was wholly unknown till Captain Cook, in donia. are described by Quiros as corpulent and strong, 1774, fell in with the north-western extremity in cleanly, cheerful, sensible, and grateful; their houses steering south-west from Mallicolo, from which it is stood on the ground, and not on poles, built of wood, distant not more than about 80 leagues. He anchorand thatched.' They weave nets, and make earthen ed within a small Island called Balabea, and oppovessels, have plantations inclosed with palisades, site to the district Belade. The great Island extends construct vessels which navigate to distant countries, between latitude 20° 5' and 22° 30' in the direction Descrip, and have places appropriated for burying the dead ; of north-west and south-east; about 250 miles long tion. and, he adds, as the last and decisive test of their by 60 broad. The land bears a great resemblance progress in civilization, “ they cut their hogs and to that of New South Wales, and many of its natural productions appeared to be the same, but the namake capons.’’ Descrip. archipelago of Islands, like that of Solomon, tives were different. They are represented as a Lion. was lost to the world for a century and a half, when strong, robust, active, well-made people, courteous Bougainville revisited them in 176S ; but, except and friendly, and not in the least addicted to pilferlanding on the Isle of Lepers, did nothing more than ing, in which respect they differ from every other discover that the land was not connected, but com- tribe of Australasia. They are nearly of the same Natives, posed of Islands, which he called the Great Cyclades ; colour as the natives of Tanna, and appeared to be a which, on being more accurately and extensively ex- mixed race between that people and those of the plored by Cook, in underwent another change Friendly Isles, or of Tanna and New Zealand ; their to that of New Hebrides, which they now bear in language being a mixture of them all. Of the same all our charts. According to the survey of our great disposition as the natives of the Friendly Islands, navigator, they consist of Tierra del Espiritu Santo, they were found to excel them in affability and hothe largest of the whole, St Bartholomew, Mallicola, nesty; and the women, like those of Tanna, were more the Isle of Lepers, Aurora, Whitsuntide, Ambrym, chaste than the females of the more eastern Islands, Apee, Paoom, Three-hills, Sandwich, Montagu, not one of the ship’s company having been able to Hinchinbrook, Shepherd’s Isles, Erromango, Tanna, obtain the least favour from any one of them. They I Natives. and Immer, Annatom, and Erronan. The two which wear a petticoat of the filaments of the plantain are more particularly described, are Mallicolo and tree, “ at least six or eight inches thick, but not one Tanna, the natives of which differ remarkably in inch longer than necessary for the use designed.” their persons and language; those of the latter hav- They paint and puncture their bodies, and wear earing curly but long hair, dark but not black, and rings, and necklaces, and bracelets, of tortoise and without anything of the negro character in their fea- other shells. Both men and women have good features, which are regular and agreeable; their per- tures and agreeable countenances, and some of the sons slender, active, and nimble. They found them men measured in height six feet four inches. 1 heir hospitable, civil, and good-natured ; but displayed a hair is frizzled out like a mop, is very black, coarse, jealousy of their visitors seeing the interior of the and strong, different from that of a negro. The Island, which could only be equalled in Japan or ruff mop-heads make use of “ scratchers,” composed China. All the plantations wrere fenced, and laid out of a number of sticks of hard wood, about the thickin a line: they consisted of sugar-canes, yams, plan- ness of knitting-needles, fastened together at one

14 AUSTRALASIA. Australasia. end like a sort of comb; the women have their hair dozen of cocks and hens were seen by the French. Australasia, cropped short. The men wear a wrapper round the (See Cook, Labillardiere, Arc.) loins, made of the bark of a tree. Their houses resemble bee-hives, with peaked roofs, entered by a VIII. Though these Islands geographically belong to Ne w Zea« hole just big enough to admit a man bent double. Australasia, the natives are, in their physical character lan(,• The sides are of spars and reeds, and both these and and language, Polynesians. They were first discothe roof well thatched with dry grass. They boil vered on the 13th December 164-2, by Abel Jansen Discovery, their roots and fish in earthen jars. They have nets Tasman, on his voyage of discovery from the Maurimade of plantain fibres, and the sails of their canoes tius ; and, on the 18th, the Heemskirk yacht, and are of the same material. These vessels consist of the fly-boat Zeehaan, came to anchor in a bay to two trees fixed together by a platform. They have which they afterwards gave the name of Moordeplantations of sugar-canes, plantains, bread-fruit, and naar’s or Murderer’s Bay, and to the Island that of cocoa-nut, but none of them very productive. The Staaten Land, in honour of the States General, and whole appearance of the country, indeed, is described in the possibility that it might join the Staaten Land as unable to support piany inhabitants. The greater to the east of the Tierra del Fuego. “ It is a fine part of the visible surface consists of barren rocky country,” says Tasman, “ and we hope it is part of mountains ; and though the plains and valleys appear- the unfcnoxvn South Continent." The expedition of ed to be fertile, Captain Cook was of opinion that Hendrik Brower to Chili the following year, cut off “ nature has been less bountiful to it than to any the latter Staaten Land from any continental conother tropical Island we know in this sea.” nection, and the name of the former was then chanD’Entrecasteaux passed the opposite extremity of ged to that of New Zealand. On the 19th, a boat with 13 natives came within a New Caledonia in 1792, when on his search after the unfortunate La Perouse, but was prevented by a bar- stone’s throw of the Heemskirk. The language in rier reef of coral from approaching the coast; and, which they hailed was unlike that of the Solomon’s in the following year, he visited Balade on the north- Islands, of which Tasman had a vocabulary. Their west. The account of the inhabitants, as given by vessel consisted of two narrow canoes, joined togeRossel and Labillardiere, differs altogether from that ther by boards, on which the people sat; their padof Cook. Instead of finding them friendly, honest, and dles, about a fathom long, pointed at the end ; their inoffensive, they are described as the worst of canni- clothing appeared ofmatts or cotton, but their breasts bals ; not only eating the flesh of their enemies, but were naked. They invited them to come on board, feeding on little children; ferocious in their dis- but in vain. The ships, however, were moved nearer positions, the most audacious thieves, and the wo- in shore, upon which seven double vessels came off. men the most shameless prostitutes. But their own A boat, being dispatched from one ship to the other, account of their transactions there, the confidence was previously attacked. Three men belonging to with which they straggled over the country, and the the Zeehaan were killed, and one mortally wounded ; readiness of the savages to serve them, by no means one of the killed was dragged into the canoes. After warrant the bad character they have thought fit to this, despairing of getting water or provisions, they give them ; and they had no more proof of their be- weighed and set sail, twenty-two of the native boats ing cannibals, than they had for accusing the people following them, eleven of which were full of people. of Van Dieman’s Land of the same practices, be- The ships fired, and the canoes returned to the shore. cause the Surgeon Major mistook the bone of a kanThe next visitor, at the distant period of 127 years, garoo for that of a young girl. They appear to have was Captain Surville, who, in 17695 Put into a bay endeavoured, by signs, to extort a confession to this on the north-eastern extremity, and gave it the name effect from the poor savages, who, on their part, were of Lauriston Bay. In the same year, Lieutenant also persuaded that the French were the real cannibals. (afterw’ards Captain) Cook, of the Endeavour, made The charge brought against the women is grounded the land on the 6th October 1769> the enormous solely on two young girls having been prevailed on height of which became the subject of much converby some of the crew to expose what decency requires sation ; and the general opinion was, that they had to be concealed, in return for some pieces of cloth or now discovered the Terra Australis incognita. This iron. Labillardiere thinks the inhabitants, as well voyage, however, and the circumnavigation of the as the vegetable productions, resemble those of Van Islands of New Zealand, entirely subverted the theoDieman’s Land. There was no want of different ry of a great southern continent. In 1772, Capkinds of esculent plants, though a great scarcity tains Marion du Fresne and Crozet put into the Bay prevailed from drought, or other cause, when they of Isles, where the former, and some of the crew, arrived. The young shoots of the Hybiscus tiliaceus, were murdered by the natives. In March 1773, Capthe fruit of the Cordia sebestina, the Dolichos tube- tain Cook in the Resolution, with Captain Furneaux rosus, Helianthus tuberosus, Arum esculentum, and in the Adventure, revisited New Zealand, where the Macrorrhizon, Hypoxis, Aleurites, figs, oranges, plan- latter had a whole boat’s crew, with a midshipman, tains, sugar-canes, cocoa-nuts, and the bread-fruit,— murdered by the inhabitants. In 1776 and 1777, a all afforded them articles of food. Yet Labillar- third visit was made to these Islands by Captain diere says they eat steatite, and that he saw one Cook. In these several visits, accompanied as he was man devour a piece of this stone as large as his two with men well versed in every branch of natural fists. They also eat a species of spider. They had knowledge, there will be found in the Voyages of lost the hogs which Cook left them, but some half Cook and Forster every species of information that

AUSTRALASIA. 16 Australasia, the ferocious disposition of the inhabitants made it showed no signs of decrepitude, and were full of Australasia practicable to collect. cheerfulness and vivacity. They are mild, gentle, 3escripThe two great Islands of New Zealand extend and affectionate towards each other, but ferocious ion. between latitude 34° and 48° south, longitude 181° and implacable towards their enemies; and it unfor. and 194° east; that to the northward called Eahei- tunately happens, that the little societies into which nomawe, is about 400 G. miles long by 90 me- they appear to be divided, are in an almost perpedial breadth ; the name of the southern Island is tual state of hostility, which makes it necessary fbr Tavaipoenammoo, is about 450 G. miles long by 95 them to dwell in happahs or villages, fortified with broad ; the former has a rich and fertile soil, well embankments, ditches, and pallisadoes. They give clothed with trees, some of them more than 20 feet no quarter, and feast with apparent relish on the in girt, and 90 feet high, without a branch. Some bodies of their enemies, which they cut up and broil of them resembled spruce, and were bone or jasper. Of these mateHals also are thpi ^ en sive weapons made • ? °^ ' long sharn at both emk f ianCe!i fourtfen feet C V ed g’a d Tbat e axe nf r°d’ f * f 0t bng Their ^ °

tress at the sight of Acueon, than these women ex- expedition. Their war dances are conrlnct/l pressed upon our approach.” On the third visit, saie furious and extoatanfslvk 'n is “ i“'

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h kid and p y e y out men,8‘ SutT without hair or teeth, able, numbers were left with them “^y^o^olL™ bT’ and l ’ considerable rwWoeur|d b™Sccept

AUSTRALASIA. ID Australasia, on the (irst and second visits of Captain Cook , but, of a group of Islands directly south of the south7 Australasia, cape OI of Tavai lavai Poenammoo, i UCliauimwv, one of the New ' Zealands, . r ,,,..1 ~ ’ excepting the cocks and hens, which had bred plen- nameu land’s group named Lord Auckland'so Group, byj the discoverer,^™tifully, and flew about wild in the woods, the others Mr Bristow, master ot a South Sea v\ haler, in g1 ati-j j j had been wantonly destroyed. In 1791, Vancouver tude to the nobleman whose name they bear, for hav- s an( g> touched at Dusky Bay, and remained there for some ing, when a boy, procured him admission into the time, examining the bays and creeks in the neigh- school of Greenwich Hospital. This group, seven bourhood ; but they did not see one human being. in number, were first seen on the 10th August 1806; And, in 1793, D’Entrecasteaux passed between the and, on the 20th October 1807, Captain Bristow Three King’s Island, and Cape Maria Van Dieman, came to anchor with his ship, the Sarah, in a fine but had no other communication with the natives harbour on the largest Island, which he called Enbut in their canoes. Unlike in every respect to the derby, and to the harbour he gave the quaint one of Otaheitans, they have evidently a common origin; their Sarah's Bosom. They are situated in lat. 50° 40' language not differing more than the language ot the south, and long. 166° 35' east. Wood and water being two New Zealand Islands from each other. 1 he few plentiful, and easily procured, they are represented notions they have of superior beings also accord with as holding out, in this desolate and remote region, those of Otaheite. (See Cook's Voyages.) considerable advantages to the southern whale fishA missionary of the name of Marsden, from merely ery. The climate, however, is unusually severe, and seeing some New Zealanders in New South W ales, the weather tempestuous. In the middle of sumhad the hardihood to accuse Captain Cook of having mer (December), every day was attended with drawn “ a false picture of the New Zealanders. He snow, sleet, or rain. Yet this severity of climate undoubtedly thought so, and went to the Islands with appeared to make no unfavourable impression on the a view of converting the natives to Christianity. He vegetable productions, as the woods were covered soon, however, abandoned this “ noble race of men, with verdure so early in the spring as October. He as he calls them, being unable, by his own account, observed four kinds of timber trees, the principal of “ to lay the first stone consoling himself for Ins disappointment by the reflection that “ the pious Is- which was mangrove (quaery ?) growing to the height of 30 or 40 feet; but the trunks were so twisted and raelites could not build the walls of Jerusalem with- turned by the violent winds, that it was difficult to out holding the sword in one hand and the trowel in find a straight piece of ten feet in length. There the other.” Captain Cook’s accuracy is too well was no want of shrubby and herbaceous plants; there established to be shaken by such authority. 1 he r ere neither men nor quadrupeds of any kind, following horrible transaction proves how well he wbut seals, sea-elephants, and sea-fowl, in great described the character of these cannibals. In De- plenty. The woods abounded with a great variety cember 1809, the ship Boyd, from Port Jackson, was of singing birds, with sweet melodious notes, and at Wang-arrooa, in the Bay of Islands, and admitted, among them was a species of lark ; wild-ducks, seals, without due caution, too large a number of natives on and snipes were plentiful, and he caught a kind of board, when the crew were suddenly attacked, overpowered, and slaughtered. Captain Alexander Beiry rock-cod with the hook and line. To the southward of the group, another small Island of the ship Edinburgh Castle, being on the coast, was discovered in 1811, to which was given the name ar was soon after apprised of this horrible event ? |”> of Campbell’s Island; and to the south-west of them, proceeding to the bay, found the remains of the Macquarrie’s Islands, in latitude 55° south, and longiBoyd, which had been burned by the savages. On tude 160° east. Several other Islands are scattered landing, he discovered that the massacre had been about those of New Zealand; Chatham Island to directed by Tippahee, the old chief, who had been so the eastward of it, and a group of small ones near it, much caressed at Sydney. The bones ot tne unby the Cornwallis in 1807 ; Bounty Island to the fortunate men lay scattered on the ground, where seen south-east; and to the southward of the latter, a little their bodies had been devoured by the savages. Sixteen were murdered and cut up on the deck of Island, which, from its position with regard to Engthe vessel; five others, who had fled for safety upon land, has been named Antipodes Island. (Bristow s the yards, were told by the old cannibal, that if they MS. Letter.) r w ould come down their lives should be spared, which, IX. Between the parallels of 48^° and 50° southland Kerguelen' after some hesitation, they consented to do. They were sent on shore ; and in five minutes after, their longitude 69° east, lies the barren and uninhabited Land. dead bodies lay on the beach. The only survivors Land of Kerguelen; so named from the French officer which Captain Berry contrived to save, were a who first discovered it in 1772, and who, on a second woman, two children, and a boy. Well might Cap- visit in 1773, discovered some small Islands near it, tain Berry conclude the narrative of his horrid mur- but on neither occasion was able once to bring his der by an admonition, “ Let no man trust a New ships to an anchor upon any part of the coast. Captain Cook was more fortunate. He had heard of Zealander.” To the eastward of New Zealand is an Island ot Kerguelen’s discovery at the Cape of Good Hope, £)jgCovery. considerable extent and well peopled, discovered by and wondered he should not have seen this land when Mr Broughton in 1791, when on a voyage round the he passed it so closely in 1770- In 1776, however, world with Vancouver. He called it Chatham he fell in with these Islands; and, as no account of KerIsland; the people and its productions the same as guelen’s voyage had been made public, he gave new names to each Island. Speaking of the main Island— those of New Zealand. (See Vancouver s Voy.) It may be proper here to notice a recent discovery “ I should,” says Cook, “ from its sterility, with

AUSTRALASIA. 17 Australasia, great propriety call it ‘ the Island of Desolation,’ but material is by no means an infallible criterion of a Australasia, that I would not rob M. de Kerguelen of the honour proximate eruption. Of the recent creation of Amsterdam there can of its bearing his name.” He changed, however, the “ Bale de L’Oiseau’ of the French, where they had be little doubt; indeed, it is scarcely yet cooled, and landed in a boat, and lodged a piece of parchment in is altered considerably since its first discovery by a bottle, into Christmas Harbour ; and called a round Vlaming in 1696. From every part of the sloping high rock “ Bligh’s Cap,” which had been named by sides of the crater, which is nearly 1000 yards in M. de Kerguelen the “ Isle of Rendezvous—al- diameter, and into which the sea has forced its way, though, says Cook, “ I know nothing that can ren- either smoke, or hot water, or hot mud, are seen to dezvous about it but fowls of the air ; for it is cer- issue ; and everywhere is felt a tremulous motion, tainly inaccessible to any other animal.” Kerguelen and a noise heard like that of boiling water. In thought he had discovered the Terra Australis In- many parts of the crater, in the centre of which cognita, but Cook soon determined that it was of no the water is 174 feet deep, the sea-water is tepid from the hot springs below; and numbers of these great extent. The hills were but of a moderate height, and yet, springs are found on the margin, below the high water in the middle of summer, were covered with snow ; mark, of various temperatures, from 100° to the boiling not a shrub was found on this Island, and not more than point. One very copious spring, slightly chalybeate, 17 or 18 different plants, one half of which were either issues, in a copious stream, into the crater, nearly on mosses or grasses ; the chief verdure was occasioned a level with the lowest state of the tide. These by one plant not unlike a saxifrage, spreading in tufts, springs cannot possibly descend from the summit of and forming a surface of a pretty extensive texture, the Island, the highest parts of which are the edges over a kind of bog or rotten turf; the highest plant of the crater, about 600 feet, and the whole area of resembled a small cabbage, when shot into seed, and the Island is not more than eight square miles ; a surwas about two feet high. No land animals were met face totally inadequate to collect and condense the with, but great plenty of the ursine seal (Phoca ursina). clouds, so as to produce these permanent springs. Penguins were very abundant, as were also shags, Why some modern geologists, and among them cormorants, albatrosses, gulls, ducks, petterels, and M. de Humboldt, should doubt of sea-water being sea swallows. A few fish of the size of a haddock converted into steam, and undergoing the process of were taken with the line, and the only shell-fish were distillation by subterranean fire, we are at a loss to know, or in what other manner they would account a few limpets and muscles. The steep cliffs towards the sea are rent from the for such large and permanent streams of fresh water, top downwards, but whether by 1’ains, frost, or earth- so situated as those are of Amsterdam Island. Another singularity which this Island presents, is quakes, could not be determined ; the productions of the hills were composed chiefly of a dark blue and in its mosses and grasses, which are all European; pretty hard stone, intermixed with small particles of to these may be added the Sonchus oleracea, or sow glimmer or quartz; lumps of coloured sandstone, and thistle; and the Apinm petrosilenum, or parsley; and of semitransparent quartz, are also common ; nothing the common Lycopodium, or club-moss, which grows appeared like an ore, or metal of any kind. (Cook’s luxuriantly on the bleak heaths of North Britain, seems to thrive equally well on the boggy soil of Third Voyage, Vol. I.) Amsterdam, heated, at the depth of a foot below the 8t Paul X. These small uninhabited Islands are interesting surface, to the temperature of 186° of Fahrenheit’s and Am- oniy jn a jraological point of view. Situated in the scale. The crater abounds with an excellent perch, of a midst of the great Indian Ocean, at the distance of 2000 miles from the nearest land, and removed but reddish colour, which is easily caught with the hook, 18 or 20 miles from each other, they have no com- and may be dropped at once into one of the hot mon point of resemblance : the one being the pro- springs on the margin, and boiled alive; and so caught duct of a volcanic eruption, scarcely yet cooled, with and dressed, we are told, it affords an excellent rea few mosses and grasses on its surface ; the other past. The bar across the mouth of the crater is recomposed of horizontal and parallel strata of rock, co- presented as one mass of cray-fish ; and in the sea, vered with frutescent plants; an appearance which outside the bar, are vast multitudes of whales, gramled the scientific gentlemen in D’Entrecasteaux’s ex- pusses, porpoises, seals, and sea lions, so as to be pedition to conclude, that an organization so regular dangerous for boats to pass. It was the same in could not proceed from a volcanic origin. A French Vlaming’s time, who “ found the sea so lull of seals seal-catcher, from the neighbouring island, had set fire and sea lions, that they were obliged to kill them to to the shrubbery, which continued to burn when the get a passage through ; when they steered from the navigators passed the Island; and imagining that shore, there was also an astonishing number of fish.” they saw pits of smoke issuing from the crevices between the strata, some of them were disposed to conXI. From the volcanic Island of Amsterdam, we Numerous Reefs and sider this circumstance as infallible indications of must now take a glance of those innumerable low Islets of subterranean fire. Perron, the seal-catcher above Islands and reefs of rocks which are scattered over the Coral scatmentioned, with the gentlemen of Lord Macartney’s greater part of the Australasian Sea, to the eastward tered over embassy, who explored the southernmost Island, Am- and northward of New Holland, and which are pro- the Austrasterdam, says that the shores of St Paul’s abounded duced by a different operation of nature to that lasian Sea. with pumice stone, but the presence of this light which lifted up Amsterdam—less violent, indeed, and vol. 11. part 1.

AUSTRALASIA. 18 Australasia with less eclat than the latter, but equally, if not sailed more than 500 miles, before a passage could Australasia U. ^ more firmly, established on the solid of be found through them out to sea.” Captain Flin- AuuJ . Austna. ^ volcanic Island notfoundations unfrequently a^ySS< ders paid some attention to the structure of these _r '' Y breaks down its supporters, and sinks back into the reefs, on one of which he suffered shipwreck. cavity out of which it was hurled, as was recently Having landed on one of these new creations, he the case with the Sabrina Island, near St Michael’s; says, “ We had wheat sheaves, mushrooms, stag’s but the Island of coral, created by slow and imper- horns, cabbage leaves, and a variety of other forms, ceptible degrees, hardens with time, and becomes glowing under water, with vivid tints of every shade betwixt green, purple, brown, and white.” “ It one solid mass from the summit to the base. We know very little, as yet, of the nature of the seems to me,” he adds, “ that when the animalcules, marine polypi that construct these wonderful fabrics, which form the coral at the bottom of the ocean, but we cannot be blind to the effects of their opera- cease to live, their structures adhere to each other, tions. Throughout the whole range of the Poly- by virtue either of the glutinous remains within, or nesian and Australasian Islands, there is scarcely a of some property in salt-water; and the interstices league of sea unoccupied by a coral reef or a coral being gradually filled up with sand and broken pieces Island; the former springing up to the surface of the of coral washed by the sea, which also adhere, a water perpendicularly from the fathomless bottom, mass of rock is at length formed. Future races of “ deeper than did ever plummet sound,” and the these animalcules erect their habitations upon the latter in various stages, from the low and naked rising bank, and die in their turn, to increase, but rock, with the water rippling over it, to an uninter- principally to elevate this monument of their wonderrupted forest of tall trees. “ I have seen,” says ful labours.” He says, that they not only work perDalrymple, in his Inquiry into the Formation of pendicularly, but that this barrier wall is the highest Islands, “ the coral banks in all their stages ; some part, and generally exposed to the open sea, and that in deep water ; others with a few rocks appearing the infant colonies find shelter within it. A bank is above the surface; some just formed into Islands, thus gradually formed, which is not long in being without the least appearance of vegetation ; others visited by sea-birds; salt-plants take root upon it, with a few weeds on the highest part; and lastly, and a soil begins to be formed ; a cocoa-nut, or the such as are covered with large timber, with a bottom- drupe of a pandanus, is thrown on shore ; land-birds less sea, at a pistol-shot distance.” In fact, as soon visit it, and deposit the seeds of shrubs and trees; as the edge of the reef is high enough to lay hold of every high tide and gale of wind add something to the floating sea-wreck, or for a bird to perch upon, the bank; the form of an Island is gradually assumed ; the Island may be said to commence. The dung of and last of all comes man to take possession. If we should imagine one of these immense coral birds, feathers, wreck of all kinds, cocoa-nuts floating with the young plant out of the shell, are the first reefs to be lifted up by a submarine volcano, and rudiments of the new Island. With Islands thus form- converted into an insular or continental ridge of hills, ed, and others in the several stages of their progres- such a ridge would exhibit most of the phenomena sive creation, Torres’ Strait is nearly choked up ; that are met with in hills of limestone. and Captain Flinders mentions one Island in it coverIt is worthy of remark, that, in this great division ed with the Casuarina, and a variety of other trees of the globe, fully equal in extent to that of Europe, there and shrubs which give food to paroquets, pi- is no quadruped larger than the kangaroo ; that there geons, and other birds, to whose ancestors, it is pro- is none of a ferocious character, and, in many of the bable, the Island was originally indebted for this ve- Islands, none of any description. Man only in Ausgetation. The time will come,—it may be ten thou- tralasia is an animal of prey; and more ferocious sand orten millions of years, but come it must,—when than the lynx, the leopard, or the hyena, he devours New Holland, and New Guinea, and all the little his own species, in countries too where nature has done groups of islets and reefs to the north and north- every thing for his comfort and subsistence ; the conwest of them, will either be united into one great con- sequence is, that population is so much checked and tinent, or be separated only with deep channels, in thwarted, that the number of all the natives that which the strength and velocity of the tide may ob- have been seen on the coasts of all the Islands, from struct the silent and unobserved agency of these in- the first discovery to the present time, would not in significant but most efficacious labourers. the aggregate amount to 20,000 souls. The only A barrier reef of coral runs along the whole of the hope of improvement must depend on the future eastern coast of New Holland, “among which,”says colonization of these healthful and fertile regions of Captain Flinders, “ we sought fourteen days, and the globe by some European power, (k.)

AUSTRIA. L strict geographical language, Austria is the name of only a large province in the south-east of Germany, but it is commonly used to denote the great empire, composed of the province in question, the

kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, along with the provinces of Moravia, Carinthia, Styria, Tyrol, Transylvania, Galicia, Lombardy, Venice, and Dalmatia. This state has, of late years, undergone fre10

A U S T R I A. 19 Attitria. quent changes in point of territory and population. have confirmed Austria in the possession of the fol- Austria. IAt the beginning of the French Revolution, the lowing territories: Austrian dominions were computed to contain a population of nearly 25,000,000. This number would Bohemia, containing a population of 3,150,000 have been materially increased in 1796, by the acMoravia 1,320,000 quisition of Galicia and other parts of Poland, had Austrian Silesia 300,000 not the cession of the Netherlands and Lombardy Lower Austria 1,050,000 made a deduction, which kept it at nearly its Upper Austria 650,000 original amount. The diminution, in fact, would Salzburg and Berchtolsgaden 200,000 have been considerable, had not the French temptStyria - * 800,000 ed Austria to a separate peace in 1797, by seizCarinthia 280,000 ing and transferring to her the territory of one of Carniola 420,000 the oldest states in Europe,—the Republic of VeFriuli and Trieste 106,000 nice. In the next war, the splendid successes of the Galicia 4,850,000 campaign of 1799 at first promised to give back to Bukowine 250,000 Austria a portion of her lost territory; but the withHungary 7,400,000 drawing of Russia from the coalition, and the fatal Transylvania 1,600,000 days of Marengo and Hohenlinden, led, in 1801, to Sclavonia 500,000 a treaty which occasioned a further reduction of the Croatia 350,000 imperial frontier. The third war, that of 1805, was Venetian States 1,650,000 equally short and disastrous, leading, after the overIstria 100,000 throws at Ulm and Austerlitz, to the purchase of Dalmatia 300,000 pea ce by the surrender of the Venetian territory, Tyrol 650,000 Tyrol, and other provinces, containing in all a popuLombardy, and other acquisitions | 2,000,000 lation of nearly 3,000,000. in Italy In 1809, the resistance of Spain prompted Austria ©nee more to try her fortune in the field. Her army Total 27,926,000 was numerous, and a large proportion of the French force was in the Peninsula; but Prussia remained Vet this empire, so populous and fertile, wants, in neutral, and Russia took part, to a certain extent, a high degree, that consonance of national manners, against Austria. These circumstances enabled Bo- and that congeniality of national feeling, which are naparte, at the head of a mixed force of French and so essential to ease in governing, and have so long Germans (of the Confederation of the Rhine), to ac- formed the strength of France and Britain. Hunquire a superiority in the field, and to enter Vienna gary and Bohemia, which form so large a portion of a second time as a conqueror. This success was the imperial dominions, have little connection or chequered, indeed, by a sanguinary defeat at Aspern; conformity with each other, and still less with the but the victory of Wagram reinstated him in his su- remote provinces of Galicia or Lombardy, Add to periority, and the advance of a Russian force left the this, that the Austrian cabinet, while inferior to none Emperor Francis no other alternative than peace. A in diplomatic finesse, has frequently acted with a blind treaty was concluded on terms less humiliating than adherence to old prejudices, which we should little was anticipated, the cause of which was unknown expect in a European state in the eighteenth or nineat the time, but was soon found to be a conse- teenth century. Frederick II. who had such bitter quence of Francis consenting to give his daughter in contests with the Austrians, both in the field and camarriage to his conqueror. binet, declares that, in the former, they were unconBy the peace of 1809, the Austrian empire was scious of the value of good generals, while in negoreduced to a population of 20,000,000. The dimi- ciation they were perfectly untractable, so long as nution of her power was still greater from the ces- the aspect of affairs justified, in any degree, their sion of her frontier line; and France might, for a con- exorbitant demands. What better opinion were we siderable time, have overawed and controlled her, at liberty to form in the present age, when we saw had not the extravagant march to Moscow deprived their army entrusted to a Mack, and preparations of Bonaparte, in a few weeks, of that mighty army defence delayed until the French were marching on which appeared to ensure the subjection of the Vienna ? The grand source of future aggrandizeContinent. The subsequent successes of the allies ment to Austria is to be sought, not in the acquisiled, as is well known, to the restoration of Austria tion of additional territory, but in the improvement in more than her former splendour. and consolidation of her present dominions. This doctrine, applicable to all countries to an extent selWe shall now proceed to give some account of the dom apprehended by their rulers, is of the most urpresent state of this empire under the following heads : gent importance to a state, whose deficient instrucPopulation—Climate and physical aspect-~Education, Arts and Sciences—National Character Reli- tion, languid intercourse, difference of language, and blind attachment to hereditary usages, all concur to gion—-Government and Laws—Army Finances keep so many fellow-subjects in a state of alienation Agriculture—Mines and Manufactures, opulation. 1. The treaty, or act of Congress at Vienna, in 1815, from each other. It has become customary, particularly of late, to and the subsequent treaty of Pari« in the same year, consider Russia as superior in resources to Austria;

AUSTRIA. 20 Austria, an opinion sanctioned, among other authorities, by an tribes lead a pastoral life, and follow the habits of Austria, expression of Lord Grey, in one of the debates which plunder natural to wanderers ; while others are staregarded the conduct of our ministry of 1806-7j in re- tionary, and have made some progress in the ruder spect to foreign affairs. On considering, however, the kinds of manufactures. Jews are scattered in various rigour of the Russian climate, the barrenness of a great directions throughout the Austrian dominions, partiproportion of the soil, the inconvenience of vast dis- cularly in Bohemia, Moravia, and Galicia. Without tances, and the general barbarism of the people, we being numerous, they find means, especially in Galiare disposed to withhold our assent from this opi- cia, to transact most of the mercantile affairs of the nion, and to look with more confidence to the pro- country. Hungary, the most extensive and most fertile of bable augmentation of the population and power of the great divisions of the Austrian Empire, is perAustria. The following table will convey an idea of the i*elative density of the population of her dif- haps the most backward in point of civilization and knowledge. Many a rich tract, capable of supportferent provinces: ing a crowded population, is here allowed to remain Inhabitants per square League. in pasture, in consequence, partly of the ignorance of the cultivators, and partly of that most-absurd Bohemia 867 law which deprives the peasant of the right of holdAustrian Silesia 847 ing landed property. The extent of the evil is most Lower Austria 766 sensibly felt throughout Lower Hungary, the inhaMoravia *■ * 748 bitants of the northern part of the kingdom being Galicia 782 accustomed to greater exertion, and being even Croatia 657 known to possess occasionally little properties of Upper Austria 554 their own. Another cause of the ignorance and Styria 504 backward state of Hungary, is the difference in Hungary 495 point of language, manners, and religion, of various Military frontiers of Sclavonia 470 portions of its population. These have settled in it Carinthia 453 at different times, and from different causes, without Sclavonia 440 becoming blended with each other in the manner Transylvania, andits military frontiers 437 that takes place in an industrious and populous comMilitary frontiers of Croatia 390 munity. The majority of the Hungarian tribes are Bukowine 318 of Sclavonian descent, but they are mixed with a Military frontiers of Hungary 295 variety of other nations, such as Armenians, Jews, It is remarkable, that Lower Austria, though high- Macedonians, and followers of the Greek church. ly fertile, is not so well peopled as the manufac- The few Germans settled in Hungary are originally turing countries of Bohemia and Silesia. It is still from the south of the empire, particularly Suabia more remarkable, that the mountainous tracts of the and Bavaria. Bohemia reckons above three millions of inhabitlatter are found to contain a denser population than the rich plains of Hungary. 'The average of the ants, the chief part differing, both in language and whole empire is 579 inhabitants to the square league, in national feeling, from their German neighbours. a proportion hardly more than the half of that of They have even a decided aversion to the latter, France and England. Can there be a more striking and confine their national predilection to the Hunproof of the improveable powers of the empire, when garians, who are said, in return, to esteem them more we consider that, of the countries just mentioned, highly than their other fellow-subjects. The power the latter is, in point of soil and climate, inferior, of the Sovereign is much greater in Bohemia than in Hungary, for it comprises the legislative as well as and the former by no means superior to Austria ? No country, with the exception of Russia, com- the executive department. Notwithstanding this prises such a diversity of distinct tribes or races as strange anomaly, Bohemia is the least backward of the Austrian empire. The German part of the po- the Austrian provinces, whether we look to educapulation does not extend in considerable numbers tion or the labours of productive industry. The effibeyond the provinces of Upper and Lower Austria, cacy of regular habits, and of a compact population, a portion of Moravia, and particular parts of Styria in bringing aid to the executive power, is strikingly and Carinthia. Bohemia, although surrounded by a exemplified in the number of soldiers raised in BoGerman population, contains many districts inhabit- hemia,—a number almost equal to that which is suped only by its aboriginal tribes ; while, in Hungary plied by the far more extensive territory of Hungary. 2. The difference of elevation of soil causes as great Climate and and Austrian Poland, individuals of German extracAs* tion are very thinly scattered. The most numerous a difference of temperature in the Austrian empire Physical ect of the varied races of this empire is the Sclavonian, as in any country in Europe. At Vienna, situate P * a generic name now in a great measure lost in the less than 400 feet above the level of the sea, the subdivisions of Croats, Rascians, Carniolians, Bos- medium of annual heat is about 51° of Fahrenheit; niacs, &c. The Rascians, or Illyrians, are descend- at Gratz, a degree farther to the south, the medium ants of the ancient inhabitants of the vast tract is only 49°> the elevation being nearly 700 feet. known to the ancients by the name of Scythia. The Again, on the eastern frontier, Saltzburg, situate range, has an average fate of war has placed them alternately under the T urk- in the vicinity of an Alpine 0 ■ish and Austrian dominion ; their language is a dialect temperature of only 47 5 while at Prague, two deof Sclavonian mixed with the Illyrian. Some of their grees farther north, it is 48°.

AUSTRIA. 21 Lakes are frequent in certain parts of the Aus- Austria. Austria. Vienna, situate in a plain, intersected in a variety of directions by the Danube, the waters of which trian dominions. In Upper Styria, they owe, as in are here slow in their course, would be by no means the Highlands of Scotland, their formation to the healthy, were it not for the frequent breezes, which natural collection of water in valleys pent up in all directions ; a description, however, which does not apclear the air of unwholesome exhalations. The Austrian dominions may be divided, in point ply to the lakes in the level part of Hungary. Those of climate, into three regions, of which the southern are more properly marshes, and form, as in modem comprises the provinces adjoining to Italy, with a Greece, a striking indication of neglected agriculpart of Croatia, and extends from N. lat. 42° to 46°. ture. Large tracts are in this manner lost to every We here find the olive, the myrtle, the vine, the fig- useful purpose along the banks of the Danube, the tree, and even the pomegranate. The depth of win- Drave, the Save, and other rivers of le§s magniter may be compared to the month of March in a tude. Hungary may be called a vast plain of sandy soil, northern climate. The middle range extends from the 4bth to the 49th of north latitude, comprising marked in certain districts by the highest fertility, in Austria, properly so called, a great part of Hungary, others by absolute barrenness. Galicia is less level and a portion of Moravia and Bohemia. The olive than Hungary, but may likewise be called, in geis no longer found to grow in this latitude, but vines neral language, a sandy plain of great extent. and maize thrive in favourable situations. Winter Moravia is marked by more prominent features; lasts between three and four months; the spring is and w'hile its soil presents, on the southern slope mild, though rainy ; the summer warm but variable ; of its hills, the fertility of Lower Austria,—the the air is in general healthy, except in the neigh- northern side is found too cold for the cultivabourhood of the marshes of Hungary, which are tion of the grape. The inhabitants are active, and proverbially fatal to German settlers. The northern at a farther distance from primitive simplicity than region comprises Galicia, a part of Hungary, a the majority of their fellow-subjects. But the gargreat proportion of Bohemia and Moravia, with the den of Austria, and indeed of Germany, is the great whole of Austrian Silesia. Winter is here severe, valley, extending on either side of the Danube, to a and lasts fully five months ; vines and maize are no considerable way above Vienna. Unfortunately, the longer to be met with, and even wheat requires a riches of nature have not as yet been adequately imchoice of situation ; but the summer heats, particu- proved in this region ; the peasantry, though posseslarly in the valleys, are greater than we are accus- sed of the greatest honesty and sincerity, being devoid of intelligence or activity. These good and bad tomed to in Britain. If we cast our eyes on a map of the imperial do- qualities are not confined to the country ; they form minions, as, with the exception of the Polish part, the groundwork of the character of the inhabitants of they stood before the late annexations, we see them the capital, although necessarily modified by the hasurrounded by a chain of mountains in almost bits produced by permanent assemblages in one spot. The Austrian territory is traversed by a number every direction. Hungary is covered by the Carpathian range, which extends all the way to Silesia, of rivers, of which by far the most interesting is the and is even connected with the great circular bar- Danube. It receives about 40 rivers from north and rier of Bohemia. To the eastward lies an elevated south, before entering the imperial dominions, and territory, in the direction of Bavaria, while, in the about 100 more rfow into it before it falls into the south, the line of discrimination from Italy and Illy- Euxine, after a course of nearly 1500 miles Its bed rium is drawn with still more marked features. The becomes perceptibly widened by the influx of the highest mountains belong to the southern range ; Ens, at some distance above Vienna ; and its subsethose of the north seldom exceeding two or three quent breadth, though very various, may be said, in a thousand feet, while those of the south frequently general way, to be of one, two, or three miles. It is approach to four thousand. In the interior of the bordered throughout almost its whole course in the empire, and particularly in Hungary, there are Austrian territory by ridges of mountains, the distance levels of great extent, and the average height of of which from the water is generally greater on the many of the hills may be put down at only six or right than on the left bank. It is of sufficient depth eighthundred feet. Strictly speaking, the whole of the to bear shipping throughout the whole Austrian domountains along the southern part of the Austrian minions, and to admit, in Hungary, of vessels of condominions, and even those on the north, belong to siderable size. But, unfortunately, this noble stream one great range, extending, under a variety of modi- is not fitted for easy navigation ; its banks are offications and names, all the way from the Alps to ten steep and rocky, its current rapid, and its bed enRussia. The latitude being temperate, or rather cumbered with shoals. The height of the banks and warm, these varieties of elevation present a striking the frequent windings prevent the use of sails to the difference in vegetable produce; the lower part extent practised on the Rhine and the Vistula. It is being covered with vines, or rich crops of corn, necessary, therefore, to tow almost all the way, and while the adjacent elevation exhibits a picture of the boats, as well as the track along the banks, are Norwegian sterility. Some provinces abound with as yet in a very rude state. A similar negligence picturesque views, and remind the traveller of the prevails in regard to Canals, in which the Austrians magnificent scenery of Switzerland. Styria, in par- have hitherto made very little progress. ticular, has its glaciers and perpetual snows, its The Austrian rivers, and in particular the Danube, rumbling cascades, its tremendous avalanches, and teem with myriads of fish. The same is true of the its green pasturages, in the region of mist. various lakes scattered In different parts of the coun-

A U S T It 1 A. Austria, try. Some kinds of salmon in the Danube are of so hitherto been little cultivated at Vienna; natural his- Austria, rich a flavour as to enter regularly into the list of tory more. presents made by the princes residing in the neighVienna has likewise an Oriental Society, a Veteribourhood of its banks to their respective superiors. nary School, and some institutions for teaching the An attempt was lately made to convey some of this Fine Arts. These, however, are all, except the mechoice breed to the Rhine, by putting them into dical, inferior to correspondent establishments in the boats of such a construction as to admit the in- north of Germany. Another subject of regret is, gress of the water. The plan was to tow these boats that a youth, after making a certain progress at up the Danube, as far as Ulm, and afterwards to school or college, finds little means of farther adreach the Neckar by means of some of the lesser vancement from instructive society at Vienna. A rivers. It failed, however, and the undertakers had thirst for information is little felt among a people octhe mortification to see most of the fish perish by the cupied only with the tranquil enjoyment of the good way, in consequence, perhaps, of the smallness or things of this life; a people unambitious, uninquisiimproper construction of the boats. tive, and disposed to go over the same tract as their Education, 3. There exists, in point of education, a remarkable fathers and forefathers. It is in scenes of agitation Sciences difference between the North and South of Ger- that the faculties are called forth ; they become dormany, This difference is owing to the operation of mant in a state of general and continued acquiespolitical and moral causes—such as the difference of cence. The only feeling likely to stimulate minds the form of government; the greater number of free of this heavy texture is the desire of acquiring protowns in the north, and of public establishments ; and, perty ; and, in fact, trade of one kind or other forms above all, to the predominance of Protestantism. the chief sphere of individual activity throughout It has long been a point of fashion and competition the south of Germany. Such is the true cause of among the petty princes in the central and northern that literary apathy ascribed by some foreigners to parts of German)'-, to patronize literature. Un homme the restraints imposed by government on the press ;— de leltres is there, as in France, a personage of consi- restraints of no great severity, and certainly not inderable importance. Attempts have indeed been tended to check the progress of useful inquiry. made, during the last and present age, by Joseph II. Still Austria is not wholly devoid of names of emiand the late Sovereign of Bavaria, to improve the uni- nence in literature. Frederick Schlegel is well versities, and to found academies, in their respective known by his publications on the language and phiterritories. The Academy of Munich, in consequence losophy of India, and his brother William, by his of the patronage of the latter, now occupies a promi- translation of Shakespeare, and by his admirable nent rank among literary bodies ; and in Vienna, con- works on dramatic criticism. To these are to be siderable progress has been made in the method of added the names of a few poets, and of a greater teaching Medicine, Surgery, and Botany. But in other number of geographical and statistical writers. Hamrespects, whether we look to schools or universities, mer, the founder of the Oriental Society at Vienna, the state of instruction in Austria is very imperfect. has published a translation of a Persian poem of The innovations of Joseph were too abrupt to last; some extent, and, like Wieland, has laboured to they have all disappeared except his primary schools. transpose into the German language the ornaments The hereditary states alone possess the means of to- of the figurative style of the East. Etymology is a lerable education, the great provinces of Galicia study suited to the laborious habits of the Germans, and Hungary being in a manner deprived of them. and on this, as on many other subjects, they have Still there exists throughout this empire a patient given us, if not finished works, the materials at least and pains-taking industry, which will eventually prove of valuable compositions. With the application of a highly favourable to the dissemination of useful better method, and with rigid compression, a variety knowledge. A stranger, on entering a German of useful treatises might be extracted from the laschool, is struck with the arrangement, the gravity bours of the German literati. Prague has a university of high antiquity, but of and the silence that prevail throughout. Several towns in Austria have Gymnasia or Academies some- little reputation at the present day. The Catholic what similar to the Lycees in France,—calculated clergy are generally educated in humbler seminaries for teaching, not so much the classics as the intro- than universities. Without much pretension to ductory part of Mathematics, Medicine, or Law. literature, they bear the character of conscientious In the Academy of Medicine and Surgery at attention to their pastoral charge, in particular the Vienna, the buildings are spacious, the professors country curates. Oratory forms no part of their numerous, and well qualified. The access to great studies ; a German congregation meets, not for the Hospitals, to collections of Natural History, and to purpose of being gratified by a pathetic address, an extensive Botanical Garden, are all important fa- but of fulfilling, soberly and tranquilly, a religious cilities appended to this seminary. In fact, Vienna duty. Sermons in this country consist, accordingly, has held a distinguished rank in medicine since the of little else than plain moral lessons, deduced days of Van Swieten, the opportunity of practical fiom the Sacred Writings ; and the reputation of a observation afforded by a large city, and the liberality pastor rests chiefly on his attention to the sick, and * of the public establishments, rendering this capital the performance of private and unostentatious duties. Several establishments have been formed of late the resort of medical students from distant provinces; exactly as Gottingen is the point of attraction for moral years in Austria for the education of officers. The and natural philosophy. Chemistry, however, has principal is the Military Academy of Wieneriscb,

A U S T R I A. 23 Austi ia. Neustadt, in the neighbourhood of Vienna, where er degree of freedom before marriage, than it is Austria, the teachers are generally Engineer officers, dis- thought expedient to allow them in France. In do-v ^ ~ abled by wounds or otherwise from service. The mestic life, they act a modest and attentive part; pupils consist of young officers, or of youths of gen- fixing the predilection of their husbands, not, indeed’ teel families, preparing for the service. There are by the attractions of conversation, but by a mild and’ two other military seminaries in the capital, and steady fulfilment of the duties of a wife and mother. some smaller establishments in the provincial towns. They are thus probably more happy than the fair As to travelling for the purpose of information, sex in France, although possessed of much less inthe Austrians have in general much less inclination fluence, and occupying a less conspicuous part in than the English, or their German brethren in the society. The lower orders are distinguished by sinorth. Some examples, however, there are of men milar virtues. In some districts we may visit village of science repairing to distant regions, such as M. after village, without hearing of a single instance of Jacquin and Mohs who went to America in quest of domestic disquietude. The care of children, the plants unknown in Europe. Schultes, Gebhast, habit of labour, and attendance on Divine worship, Mebzer, and Bremer, have also found means to len- occupy all their thoughts. In Vienna, females form der their travels instrumental to the diffusion of the chief attraction of society to a foreigner. Most knowledge. of them speak french with fluency, tmct prefer it to In mechanical inventions the Austrians have made -he Austrian dialect of German, which is particularthat progress which may naturally be expected from ly unpleasant, having a slowness of accent and a hissa people, who, with a deal of patience and perseve- ing tone, extremely ungracious, particularly in the rance, are not in possession of the advantages of im- mouths of the common people. proved machinery. The result of their discoveries The habitual assiduity of the Austrians leads them is, therefore, rather the gratification of a fancy, than to cultivate, by preference, those occupations in which that practical application to a productive purpose, straight forward industry affords the means of sucwhich tends so greatly to cheapen labour in Britain. cess. Hence their progress in mechanics, and the One German artist frames a machine to perform the flourishing state of many of their manufactures. functions of a chess player; another makes a head Another feature in the German character, and one capable of an imitation of the human voice, while a at first somewhat difficult of explanation, is their third combines in a pauharmonicon the most varied predilection for music; a passion found to exist in the sounds of music. That instrument may, in fact, be humblest ranks, and under the least favourable circalled a concert in itself, a number of instruments cumstances. We meet here, in villages, with wanderbeing made to play simultaneously with the greatest ing musicians performing on trumpets made of the precision. cherry-tree wood, or on the most grotesque vioThe fine arts, with the exception of music, lins. If in vocal music they yield to the Italians, have hitherto made little progress in Austria. To they fully maintain the competition in point of infind an eminent painter or sculptor there would be a strumental performances—a taste which prevails as matter of no small difficulty. But when we come to well in the fertile parts of the empire, as in the sethink of music, who can forget that Haydn and cluded spots of Tyrol and Carniola; forming a cuMozart were formed at Vienna ? If they are inferior rious example of the results attendant on the contiin grace and melody to Italian composers, they are not nued prosecution of pn elegant study by a slow and to be surpassed in the grander powers of music. A apparently inanimate people. foreigner cannot receive a higher gratification at No country presents .fewer examples of crimiVienna, than by being present at the Oratorio in nal offences than Austria. Year passes after year, commemoration of Haydn. Architecture is still in without any necessity for the infliction of a capital its infancy in Austria. An Architectural Society has punishment. Averse as the inhabitants are to Frenchbeen lately instituted at Vienna, but most of the pub- men, particularly in the shape of military invaders, lic buildings have been planned by foreign artists. we know of no example, during any of the late inEngraving, demanding rather patience than exertion, vasions, of those secret assassinations which occurred has been cultivated there with considerable success. so frequently in Spain. onal 4. The Austrian national character is marked by the Of the manners of the inhabitants of the mounacter same features-as that of the German nation at large. tainous provinces of the empire, wre may form an Sincerity, fidelity, industry, and a love of order, are all conspicuous in them, and would long since have idea by fixing our attention on the Styrians and Carinthians. The middle range of these mountains entitled them to fill a distinguished rank in the scale presents a scanty pasturage ; their upper parts are of European civilization, had not their beneficial covered with tracts of snow, while the yew and fir operation been counteracted by a prejudiced go- are the only trees which are seen to raise their heads vernment, a deficient system of education, and an il- amidst the tempest. The inhabitants of these eleliterate priesthood. The consequence of these un- vated distiicts are simple, hospitable, and religious: fortunate drawbacks is the transmission of similar content with the produce of their land and cattle ; habits from father to son, a blind adherence to old usages, and an extravagant deference to hereditary cheerful and frank as simplicity and moderate derank, in the promotion of civil and military officers^ sires can make them, they have no wishes beyond which proved one of the great causes of the con- the limits of their own territory, fhe only ieelms which prevails among them with any keenness, is refmued defeats in the late wars with the French, in Austria, as in Britain, females enjoy a great- ligious zeal. They are ardent Catholics, and opeia. to all the idle suggestions of an illiterate priesthood.

A U S T R 1 A. 24 Austria. They are in the habit of undertaking distant pilgri- particularly numerous in Transylvania. The follow- Austria, of the Greek church, in one part or other of ' mages, which they are taught to consider as the best ers Austrian dominions, are said to exceed the number means of obtaining the forgiveness of trespasses. Along their roads are scattered mystic chapels, of 2,000,000;—a number in a state of gradual increase from the occasional influx of their brethren crosses, and other indications of the exercises ot de- from These new settlers are generally envotion. The traveller is often fortunate enough to gagedTurkey. in trade, and pass for possessing no slight find beside these religious erections a spring whose share of the address and artifice attributed to the waters afford him a delightful refreshment, when Greek merchants of the present day. Galicia compursuing his way along a confined valley. He finds prises a body of Armenian Catholics; a sect not ac himself here among a primitive race, who are y^ " wholly unknown in Hungary. The Protestants, inquainted with the arts of men in a more civilizes state, and are easily guided by an appeal to the cluding both Calvinists and Lutherans, amount, proheart. Their language is sonorous, and the echo bably, to nearly 3,000,000 throughout the whole emof which Bohemia and Moravia contain a very which repeats the call from the mountain side, often pire, proves a useful warning to the stranger when wan- insignificant proportion. The well known associadering from the path, or when approaching to the tion of Herrnhutters or Moravians, owes its origin brink of a precipice. Often, in the course of his to an Austrian province, and takes date from the journey, does he meet with inscriptions, in which the middle of the fifteenth century. The number of hand of a friend or a brother has recorded the name Jews under the Austrian dominion may amount to of one who has fallen a victim to the storm or the 300,000. Joseph II. took the lead of Bonaparte in an attempt to incorporate them with the mass of his torrent. 5. Austria has long contained a considerable diver- subjects, by extending to them the enjoyment Religion. sity of religious sects, without having suffered from of similar privileges. He found, however, that their contests in any part of her dominions except their habits, if they yield at all, give way but Bohemia, the country of the well known John Huss, very slowly, and that ages will be required to idenand Jerome of Prague. In the other provinces such tify them with their Christian fellow-subjects. In excesses have been avoided, partly from the mode- tolerating Mahometanism, Joseph had in view the rate character of the inhabitants, and partly from promotion of commercial intercourse with Turkey, a the tolerant spirit of the Imperial Family. There number of traders of that country being in the habit can be no doubt, howevei-, that, had the Reformation of travelling, and even of settling in Austria. 6. There exists a great diversity in the constitution Governhappily made progress in the Austrian dominions, meat and the result, as in the north of Germany, would have of the component parts of this extensive empire. ItLavvs • been a very material advancement in all departments may be safely assumed, that the disadvantage from of productive industry. Trade, manufactures, lite- want of unity, already noticed, will infallibly continue rature, are all cultivated with superiority in the north; to a considerable extent, until there be established a and if the agricultural produce of the south be larger, greater similarity in point of legislation. At present, the cause is to be sought merely in superiority ot each of the great divisions constitutes an unconnected soil and climate. Toleration, however, existed vir- body, and the whole resembles rather a federative astually for a considerable time back in Austria, and sociation than one compact consolidated state. In the it received a formal sanction from a law of Joseph Austrian provinces, the constitution is understood to II., which extended indulgence even to Jews and be founded on a great charter, passed so long ago as Mahometans. The Archbishop of Vienna is the 1156. In Bohemia, the principal laws are of more head of the Catholic clergy in a civil capacity; recent date, and hardly go back two centuries. In but the Bishop of St Palten appoints the regi- Austrian Silesia, there exists a great complexity of mental chaplains, and is accounted the superior public regulations, while Galicia, differing still more . j of all clergymen doing duty with the army. Church essentially from the other provinces, traces back patronage rests with the Sovereign, to the exclusion the basis of its constitutional dependence on Ausof the influence of the Pope. Convents, formerly tria no farther than 177JHungary is wholly distinct from the other dinumerous in Austria, have been considerably reduced during the last thirty years; but the church visions of the monarchy, and claims to be governed by laws altogether different. The first of these is property is still very considerable. In computing the relative number of different traced back so far as the end of the ninth century ; sects, it is common to estimate the Catholics at two- others date from the thirteenth, and confirmations of thirds of the whole. Protestants are not numerous ; the privileges of the nobility, with limitations of the the Austrian people at large being too little enlight- imperial power, were successively passed during the ened to exchange a worship which dazzles the ima- seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Here the gination by its pomp and ceremonies, for one whose emperor exercises the supreme power, only through chief appeal is to the understanding. The Greek the medium of the States or Parliament. He may church has no inconsiderable number of votaries dispose of the great offices of the kingdom, but scattered throughout Galicia, Hungary, Croatia, and under the restriction of giving them not only to naTransylvania. These are superintended by a number tives of Hungary, but to men of a certain rank. In of Bishops, some of whom recognise for their head this land of aristocracy, no plebeian, of whatever tathe Archbishop of Leopold, while others, who differ lents, is entitled to rise in a public office above the in point of creed, are under the jurisdiction of the humble station of a clerk. The Emperor is accountArchbishop of Gran in Hungary. The latter are ed the constitutional President of the Diet, but he i

AUSTRIA. 25 Austria, may delegate a representation to one of his great penny, the contributions for soldiers, all pass over Austria. officers. A general levy, or “ insurrection,” as it is his head, unless he become pledged to them, along termed, must, like other measures, proceed from the with his brethren, by a specific act of the Diet. In legislative assembly. return for all these exemptions, they are bound to The States, or parliamentary meetings, differ in rise en masse, and to serve personally under their Sodifferent provinces of the empire, but are generally vereign, whenever a war receives the approbation of divided into four classes; the prelates, the higher^ a General Diet. It will not escape the observation of , nobility, the knights, or gentry, and the deputies of our readers, that these fiscal privileges,always the subthe boroughs. It is a general meeting of these ject of boast among the Hungarian noblesse, and, in classes that constitutes the Hungarian Diet. The formeryears,not unfrequently a ground of quarrel with prelates have the right of voting first. The nobility their Austrian Sovereign, do not amount, in fact, to possess not only an exclusive title to public ap- anything like an entire exemption. Public burdens, pointments, but the daughters of the less affluent fa- however disguised, fall eventually, with a considermilies among them are admitted to an establishment able share of equality, on all classes. In Hungary, in convents, on proving their rank, or, as it is called, the inhabitants of the towns are obliged to seek, in the number of their quarters, in the manner pointed the enhanced price of the commodities, sold to the out by law. The Diet of Hungary is generally con- landholders, an indemnity for their greater share of vened once in three years, and meets at Presburg taxation. The late Emperor Joseph II. was disposed or Buda. The Prince Palatine, or, in his absence, to abrogate many of these pernicious usages, but the noble of highest rank, presides at the Tabula his character was not well fitted, nor did he reign procerum, having on his right the primate, along with long enough to accomplish the task. the archbishops, bishops, and other dignitaries of the In the hereditary provinces, or Austria Proper, church. The second board, or Tabula inclytorum, the power of the Emperor is much greater. In the has for its president the imperial representative, eye of the law, he is the supreme judge, the founwhile the third division of the Diet comprises the tain of dignity, the centre of legislative as well as of deputies of towns, the secretaries, and other inferior executive power. He has a right to impose taxes, officers. The deliberations proceed either on the to regulate the affairs of the church, and even to propositions of the sovereign, or on the bill of griev- modify religious worship, in whatever is not accountances of the subjects. The Diet is generally divided ed a fundamental article of faith. He may tolerate into chambers, who discuss business separately, and any religion, oppose the papal bulls, and prohibit communicate with each other by the medium of the publication of the pastoral letters of bishops. members. In case of non-agreement, the whole are This power, delicate as it is in a Catholic country, made to constitute one assembly, in which a decision has been sometimes exercised by the emperors, is made by plurality of votes. An act of the Diet when they had occasion to urge political points of receives the force of law when sanctioned by the importance with the sovereign pontiff. At such times Emperor, or King, as he is invariably termed in they have not scrupled to forbid their subjects to Hungary, and it seldom happens that any serious remit money to Rome, and have been known to indivision takes place between the Diet and the execu- terdict all correspondence between the Austrian tive power. and foreign convents. A more important prerogaSuch was formerly the extravagance of aristocra- tive is that which they possess to impose taxes on tic notions in Hungary, that no plebeian, or person church property throughout Austria and Galicia. engaged in trade, could carry on, in his own name, The executive government of the Austrian ema law-suit against one of the gentry. It was neces- pire at large consists of four great departments, and sary that the town where the plaintiff resided, should owed its present organization to the counsels of come forward and assume the cause of its citizen. Maria Theresa. One of these establishments reguThis absurd usage was abolished in 1802. Still, lates all home affairs ; foreign affairs are managed by however, a peasant or farmer can seldom bring, in another. Military matters are subjected to the his own name, an action against one of the gentry; third great department, while the fourth and last rehe must generally do it through the medium of his gulates the interior administration of Hungary. superior or landlord. The right of possessing land The name of Aulic is not confined, as is vulgarly in Hungary being confined to the privileged classes, imagined, to the Military Board; it is common to it follows that a donation of land by the Sovereign is several councils, and is given, among others, to the tantamount to conferring a title of nobility. The Board of Finance. Another department, sufficientland cultivated by the vassal is, of course, altogether ly indicative of the backward state of the science of the property of his superior ; but arrangements are government in Austria, is that which superintends made for allowing the former to reap, as far as that the working of mines for public account. is practicable, in so ignorant a country, the fruit of In this country, as in France, the attention of his labour. The corvees and taxes on the tiers etat, government has been lately given to a more easy so much complained of in France before the Revo- exposition of the fundamental rules of jurisprudence. lution, prevail here in all their extent. Hence the A first attempt was made so long as forty years ago, importance to the boroughs of acquiring the privi- and a code was published in 1767 in eight folio volumes. leges of free towns, and enabling their inhabitants to This performance had two great defects, its size and possess land without a title to nobility. its want of classification by general rules. While of The Hungarian landholder is exempt from all little use to lawyers, it was wholly unprofitable to imposts. Tithes, toll-dues, a tax called the thirtieth the public at large. Instructions were accordingly VOL. II. part i. D

26 A U S T Austria, given to an eminent civilian, Von Horten, to recast it in a condensed and improved form. Considerable progress was made in this before the death ot Joseph II.; and in 1794, under the auspices of the present sovereign, the first part of the civil code came forth in a new form. A few years after, the whole appeared in an amended shape, and government appointed several local commissions, with instructions to make reports on its applicability to the different provinces. Printed copies of the code were distributed in all directions, and the universities enjoined to take it into mature consideration. The definitive correction and promulgation of the code were retarded by various causes, and particularly by the unfortunate wars with France, so that its actual adoption did not take place until the beginning of 1812. The criminal code had not been so long withheld; it was promulgated in 1803, and introduced into practice in 1804. Military y. In a country where the executive power is not Establish- gubjected to animadversion, or to the exhibition of official statements, it is a matter of no small difficulty to compute the extent of the military force. It was supposed that, in the campaign of 1805, the Austrians had on foot above 250,000 effective troops, of whom nearly a fifth were cavalry. In that of 1809> this force of regulars was backed by a considerable body of reserve, and by above 100 battalions of militia, known by the name of landwehr ; but the state of discipline of the latter was not such as to offer any effectual resistance to the progress of the French. The war establishment, in regular troops, can scarcely be estimated, we apprehend, above 250,000 men ; and half this number may perhaps be taken as near the amount of her effective peace establishment. The irregulars in the Austrian service are drawn, in a great measure, from Croatia and other provinces along the Turkish frontier. About sixty years ago, the greater proportion of the Hungarian troops fell under this description ; but the wars with Prussia having taught, by dear bought experience, the value of discipline, the Austrian commandeis, in particular, Marshal Lascy, gradually accomplished a change, and converted hordes of flying squadions into compact and regular regiments. In the Hereditary States, and we believe in all the empire except Hungary, the levies are made, in the first instance, for militia duty, from which it is no difficult matter, in an absolute government, to accomplish a transition to the line. In Hungary, recruits are levied in virtue of an act of the Sovereign and the States, after the promulgation of which, the different Magnates find means to enlist the requisite number on their estates. The chief disadvantage of the necessity of a legislative sanction in Hungary, is the publicity thus given to the extent of military preparation. The length of service in the Austrian army has undergone alterations during the present age, and it now admits, as in Britain, of limitation by periods. In time of peace, the officers have no difficulty in obtaining a furlough for the greatest part of the year. Veterans and wounded men are entitled to admission at the military hospital of Vienna, or to a small out-pension. Though, to an English traveller, manufactures

R I A. would appear to have made little progress in the Austria. Austrian dominions, they stand on a footing equal to v-'" that of their continental neighbours, and supply government with most of the materials of war. Clothing, arms, ammunition, harness, are all furnished at different stations in Bohemia, Moravia, and the Hereditary States. The horses for the light cavalry are drawn from Hungary and Galicia; those for the heavy cavalry, chiefly from Bohemia and Moravia. The disposition of the inhabitants of most of the imperial territories, is well adapted to a military life. They are generally accustomed to pass their time out of doors, to indulge in active exercise, to follow the chace, and to occupy themselves with the care of horses. To such men marching and encamping is but a slight variation from established habits. The fire of the nightly watch is not more uncomfortable than that of their smoky cottages; while a loaf of bread, a slice of coarse pork, and a glass of spirits, supply them with all the nourishment they desire. In point of resources, therefore, Austria is one of the greatest of military powers,—her deficiency has hitherto been in their application. Too 'much attention is given to the minutice of individual exercise, without considering how seldom these niceties can be made applicable to collective numbers. Hence an endless list of military instructions, and a complexity of evolution, such as to be hardly practicable in a review, still less in a day of battle. At the same time, there exist very material omissions in regard to the method of moving large bodies of men. Will it be believed, that the Austrian regulations contain no explicit directions for a change from line into column, whether for attack or defence ! Hence, in a great measure, the loss sustained at Essling and Wagram by long exposure to the French artillery. Official instructions are given for the manoeuvres of battalions and regiments, but nothing is said of those of brigades, or larger divisions. The consequence is, that the Austrians form their line very slowly, and find, when it is once formed, a deal of difficulty in executing any other movements than those to front and rear. They have very little dexterity in separating, reuniting, or supporting each other at short notice. The military schools at Vienna having been found highly useful, the government has adopted the plan of establishing them elsewhere. The consequence, it is to be hoped, will be a gradual correction of the defects hitherto attendant on deficient education and blind patronage. Few services are more discouraging than the Austrian to an officer who has not the advantage of rank. 8. In Austria, a country possessed of very little fo-Finaiiceg* reign trade, the taxes are chiefly levied on the land, and on objects of interior consumption. Joseph II., desirous of new modelling this as well as other departments, proposed the adoption of a land and polltax on a uniform plan. As a necessary preliminary, arrangements were made for a general survey of the landed property of the empire, and several years devoted to that important operation. It wras, however, too unskilfully conducted to afford anything like a satisfactory ground to estimate the value of the different properties. No adequate allowance was made for the difference of plain and mountain, of fertile or barren

AUSTRIA. 27 Austria, tracts. The consequence is, that the collection of milar to that adopted in France after the death of Austria. this department of the revenue is still in a very im- Louis XIV., under the direction of the brothers Paperfect state, although the tax on land and houses ris, when a regular scale of estimates was formed on {impot fonder) forms necessarily the chief part of the a retrospect to the value of government paper at the Austrian revenue. In Bohemia, Galicia, and the different periods of its issue. 9. Agriculture is still in a very backward state Agriculture, Hereditary States, this important tax falls equally on all classes; in Hungary and Transylvania, it is throughout the Austrian dominions. The large proborne, as we have already observed, by the farmers portion of church and other public lands, with the and inhabitants of towns, to the apparent total exemp- general want of education, have hitherto prevented tion of the noblesse. the people from extracting an adequate return from The imperial demesnes form also a considerable their fertile territory. In casting the eye over these branch of the Austrian revenue, particularly in Ga- rich provinces, an observer is at a loss on which to licia. This source of income, which would be very fix as most favourable to the exertions of the husgreat in a country like Holland or Britain, where bandman. The uneven surface of the Hereditary landholders and farmers of capital would take the States rivals, in point of fertility, the extensive plains the portion land at a rent, and relieve government of all farther of Hungary and Transylvania. Again, T superintendence, is comparatively inconsiderable in of Poland, acquired by Austria, w as perhaps the a country where the administration either has not richest division of that ill-fated country. The folthe means or the judgment to throw off its hands, a lowing rough estimate has been made of the approtask which must always be unprofitably managed by priation of respective proportions of the empire. servants little interested in the produce of their la- Taking 70 as the integral, representing the whole bour. These crown demesnes are to be carefully surface, we shall have for distinguished from the personal property of the - 26 reigning family, the annual rental of which may Mountains, heaths, marshes, lakes, roads, Land under tillage, ]2 amount to L. 100,000 Sterling a-year. Another branch of revenue is derived in Austria, Meadows and pasturage in an inclosed or improved state, . _ y as in France, from the exclusive manufacture and 4 sale of tobacco. This monopoly extends over the Pasturage in a rude state, German dominions, but Hungary and Transylvania Woods and forests, comprising all uncleared tracts, » 18 are not subject to it. Austria has likewise a duty . . ^ on stamps, hair powder, starch, and various objects Vineyards and orchards, of luxury, among others, on the rouge used by the 70 fair sex. Wine, beer, brandy, carriages, pleasure horses, are all subjected to taxation. A consideraThe produce of the land along the Danube, from ble income is levied from legacy duties, fees on titles Vienna to the Bavarian frontier, has been greatly of nobility, china, glass, and even from a toleration increased within the last half century, by the use tax on the Jews. The financial embarrassments of of marl. The traveller, in pursuing this tract, sees the country, necessitated, in 1802, an increase of a in all directions a quantity of marl pits, wrought with full third on these duties, along with the imposition great activity. Bohemia is naturally fertile, but its of two taxes of a different kind—a poll and an in- agriculture is in a very backward state, from the concome tax. This rapid augmentation of public bur- tinued prevalence of feudal usages. Moravia has dens made it be calculated, that throughout the em- made greater progress, and furnishes an annual suppire no less than a fourth of the income of indivi- ply of corn for export. Hungary is in many parts duals found its way into the public treasury. To so fertile as to produce an abundant crop, with very compute the total of the revenue is a point of no little exertion from the labourer. Here may still be small difficulty in a country where taxes are compli- seen the primitive practice of treading out the corn cated, and official accounts either withheld or irre- by horses and oxen. Galicia, under a better system, gularly published; but we are disposed to think, might be rendered productive in the highest degree. that L. 18,000,000 Sterling may form a probable ap- The same holds in regard to the adjacent Polish proproximation to the gross revenue of this empire. vince of Bukowine. Maize is cultivated in Hungary The Austrian, like other governments, has had and Transylvania; millet in Hungary, Sclavonia, and recourse, in its distress, to the circulation of paper Carinthia ; and even rice is found to answer in the money,—a measure attended with all the bad conse- marshy districts of Temeswar. quences incidental to immoderate issues on the part The product of the Vine, though far short of of an authority not responsible to its subjects. The what it might be rendered, is a source of considerpublic debt exceeds 150 millions Sterling ; two-thirds able wealth to Austria. The wrell known tokay is of which, however, being created by the issue of pa- raised on the last chain of the Carpathian range, in per, are by no means deemed repayable at their no- the neighbourhood of the country of Zemplin. The minal amount. In fact, the repayment of a fifth part district where it is cultivated is of the extent of 60 or of that amount, will be accounted a fair retribution 70 square miles; its qualities are various, the richest of the debt contracted in this paper at an advanced kind proceeding from the grape, with little or no presstage of its depreciation. The rule at the treasury sure, while the inferior sorts are said to be made of was to raise prices as paper fell, and the eventual ad- the dried grape, reduced into a sort of pap, and justment of accounts between government and the mixed up w ith other Hungarian wines. We must stockholder will probably take place in a manner si- not take for granted, that all the wine sold under the

AUSTRIA. 28 Austria, name of tokay is the product of the district just men- in which the saline substance is frequently observed Austria, tioned. The dealers find this fashionable name a very to have made its way. Manufactures have of late years been consider* convenient passport for the produce of the adjacent ably on the increase throughout Austria. Few districts, so that even in Vienna there is not a tenth of real tokay among the wines sold under that designation. countries are more abundant in the supply of raw Tobacco is cultivated to a great extent in Hun- materials, and this substantial advantage received gary and other parts of the empire. Hops are a powerful, though ill-judged, co-operation on the raised in Moravia and Hungary, but more particu- part of Joseph IL, who thought it expedient to larly in Bohemia, where in some districts^ they are resort to a prohibition of several kinds of foreign manufactures. Linen and hemp may be called the Said to approach in quality to those of England. staples of the Hereditary States and of Bohemia. The stock of horned cattle is said to have decreased of late years in the Austrian empire, in Different qualities are fabricated in different places, consequence of the introduction of large numbers Moravia having generally the coarse stuffs, while of sheep. It has been computed, on a rough cal- certain parts of Bohemia carry the fabric to a point culation, that the Austrian dominions comprise about of great nicety. The ruder provinces of Galicia, two and a half millions head of cattle, above five Hungary, and Transylvania, have made little progress millions of sheep, and about one million of horses. in these branches of industry, or in the manufacture The Hungarian horses are small, but active, and ca- of cotton cloths, which is considerably diffused through pable of great fatigue. Many of them are accus- Bohemia and the Austrian states. Spinning matomed, in their early years, to wander in a wild state chines have been introduced from England, but the along their vast pastures, and are caught only when of price of the raw material is necessarily enhanced by an age to become fit for service in the field. Galicia the distance of land carriage. Woollen cloths are and Moravia contain a large proportion of the above made throughout the empire, particularly in Moravia, mentioned number of horses. The remainder are but the quality in the remote provinces is very inferior. No country is better adapted to excel in hardchiefly in Lower Austria; for neither Bohemia, nor the mountainous tracts on the south of the Heredi- ware manufactures than Austria. The mines in Botary States, contain any considerable number. There hemia, Styria, Carinthia, and Upper Austria, supply are four public establishments for the purpose of an abundant store of excellent materials. The steel training horses in Austria, the principal of which is of Carinthia and Styria is known and highly prized at Mezaehegyes in Hungary. In this, unquestion- in England. Vienna, Prague, and Karlsbad, conably the greatest institution of the kind in Europe, tain manufactures of this metal, and arms are made there are no less than 800 mares, of German, Bessa- in great abundance in more than a dozen of different rabian, Moldavian, Spanish, or Hungarian extraction. towns. Glass has long been made in great quantities Mines and 10* Hungary and Transylvania possess mines both in Bohemia and the neighbouring provinces ; but Mamifac- of gold and silver. I hey have also what is much the long continuance of the late wars was unfavourtures. more favourable to the increase of their produc- able to the ornamental species of this manufacture. tive industry, excellent mines of copper. The tin The course of recent events has thus unexpectedly Concluding of Bohemia is compared to that of Cornwall, as restored, and, in fact, more than restored, Austria to tg. well mixed together, strained through the seasoning pose. Hence we read in the Old Testament of unsieve, emptied into a hole in the flour, and mixed up leavened bread, as distinguished from loaf-bread. ■akinc:

bakeL wl° « the,.SoodT? 0f br ‘he dough. Or, in d S U addt % nfslom TK• ° ? , ‘ diminished one-half, and theitdeficiency supplied by an equal weight , balancing system offers the only means which human wisdom can devise to control the conduct of independent states; and the only means which can be employed to guard against injustice, or obtain icdiess, without an actual appeal to the sword. It was the habitual employment of these expedients, with a view to guard against distant dangers, that distinguished the balancing system, as exemplified in modern Europe, from those momentary efforts and loose confederacies in which all nations, and even the rudest tribes, have occasionally united, in order to repel or pull down a pow-erful and common enemy.* Without this habitual attention to foreign affairs, and constant application of the principles of counterpoise, there cannot, indeed, be said to exist any thing like a system of reciprocal guarantee of the independence of nations, such as is involved in the idea of a balance of power. What particular alliances each state ought to form, with a view to maintain this balance, is a matter of circumstances, and must vary with them. The object of the system is always the same, to preserve such a distribution of power amidst the varying relations of states, as shall most effectually check the spirit of encroachment, and confine every potentate to his own dominions.

BALANCE OF POWER. 48 the Megalopolitans, in particular, “ we may see, Balance of In the preceding observations, we have had it in for Power. view to give a general idea of the nature, intention, according to Mr Hume, “ the utmost refinements on the balance of power that ever entered into the and means of maintaining a balance of power among head of a Venetian or English speculatistand a number of connected nations of different degrees of power and magnitude. Before proceeding to aiiy by a later writer, this speech is also pointed out “ containing discussions of some of the most deremarks on the history and results of this branch ot as licate parts of the theory.” (Brougham’s Colonial policy, we shall recapitulate, in the words of M. Policy, B. iii. § 1.) All who peruse this remarkable Gentz, those fundamental maxims which constitute oration with due attention, mlist indeed perceive that the necessary conditions of the beneficial existence it fully bears out this character. Its reasonings may of such a system as we have described. These aie, analyzed into these leading doctrines of the balan“ That no one state in the common system must be cing system,—that it is the interest of eve*y state to ever become so powerful as to be able to coerce all prevent the formation of a predominating power; that the rest put together;— . “ That, if the system is not merely to exist, but to to this end the first encroachments ought to be promptly checked; and that it is necessary to join be maintained, without constant perils and violent even a rival against a former friend, when that friend concussions, every member which infringes it must would otherwise infringe upon the balance. * be in a condition to be coerced, not only by the colIt seems, in short, to be no longer a question, lective strength of the other members, but by any that it was only with the phrase, and not the idea, of majority of them, if not by one individual;—and, a balance power, that the ancients were unac“ That if ever a state attempts, by unlawful en- quainted. ofBut we cannot agree with Mr Hume terprise, to attain, or does in fact attain, to a degree when he goes so far as to say, that this principle, of power, which enables it to defy the danger ot a it has been more generally known and acunion of several of its neighbours, or even ot the though knowledged in modern times, has not had an authowhole, such a state should be used as a common rity much more extensive in practice, than in the anenemy; and if it has acquired that degree ot force cient world. {Essays, Vol. 1.) This opinion stands by an accidental concurrence of circumstances, with- clearly refuted by all the great facts, and by the whole out any acts of violence, whenever it appears upon tenor of modern history, from the commencement of the public theatre, no means which political wisdom the sixteenth century. It was the more constant can devise for the purpose of diminishing its power, operation of that principle which gradually formed should be neglected or left untried.” (Fragments upthe nations of Europe into one great republic or feon the Political Balance, c. 1.) deral league, whose common bond of union was the guarantee which it afforded of their respective indeAncient II. The knowledge of the ancients in regard to these pendence. But neither, on the other hand, can we knowledge great principles of national safety, and the penot of the Ba- ^en they came to obtain a decided influence among agree with Mr Brougham, when he affirms that the states displayed nothing beyond a mere spePnwcr andthe moderns, are points of considerable historical ancient culative knowledge in this department. (Colonial Porise of the interest. Mr Hume has shown, in a very satisfacModern tory manner, that the principle of preserving a ba- licy, B. iii. $ !•) + It may be very true, that those System. ]ance Gf power, is distinctly to be recognised m more enlarged ideas of foreign policy, which Demosthenes disclosed in some of his orations, were not many of the great political transactions of the anunderstood or acted upon by his contemcient nations. The anxiety of the Greeks, with regard generally poraries'; but it is nevertheless perfectly clear, from Mr to it*, was particularly manifested in that famous Hume’s statements, the accuracy of which has never league against the rising power of Athens which produced the Peloponnesian war. Athens herselt been called in question, that among the Grecian showed, that she both knew and practised this po- states, the maxim of preserving a balance of power, though it had not produced any course of policy so licy, by constantly throwing her power into the lighter regular and authoritative as the modern international scale, when Thebes and Sparta came to contend for the mastery of Greece. Mr Hume also traces the in- system, was yet, on many* occasions, the sole movfluence of this salutary principle in the contests ing spring of their wars and alliances. This maxim, indeed, lies so much within the sphere which arose among the successors ot Alexander ; of common sense, that it can scarcely fail to be attheir attention to it haying “ preserved distinct, for several a^es, the partitions made after the death tended to, wherever there is a collection of states of observing and attacking each other. But of that conqueror.” {Essays, Vol. I.) The ora- capable tions of Demosthenes frequently display very clear circumstances may be more or less favourable to the and extensive views in this branch of policy. In that growth of a consistent policy in this respect. In mo* There is a passage of Polybius, which has been frequently quoted, as pointing out the leading aim of the balancing system in terms the most explicit. The historian, after mentioning that Hiero, king of Syracuse acted wisely in assisting the Carthagenians in the war of the auxiliaries, adds,—“ Nunquam enim ejusmodi principia contemnere oportet, neque tanta cuiquam astruenda est potentia, ut cum eo postea de tuo auamvis manifesto jure disceptare ex cequo non queas. Lib. I. cap. 8.1. . , , . ? + It is with considerable diffidence that we venture to question any of Mr Broughams statements upoa thil subiect. His chapter on the balancing system, in the work referred to in the text, is marked by his usual extent of view and of information, and certainly constitutes a valuable portion of that very able and instructive performance.

BALANCE I ilauce of dern Europe, a number of considerable states were H Power, formed under such circumstances as tended peculi| arly to promote a regular intercourse among them, and, consequently, to develope and systematize this great principle of national security. But it did not begin to manifest itself until, in the gradual and similar progress of European society, the power of the sovereigns of these states was so far consolidated as to enable them to give part of their attention to foreign affairs, and to send and maintain armies beyond their own frontiers. It was in Italy, where civilization was more advanced, and where there was a number of small states and commonwealths, whose safety required that their rulers should reciprocally keep watch on each other, that the modern system of interference took its beginnings. From an early period of the fifteenth century, we see the balance of powder as constant an object of concern among these states, as, in the next, it came to be throughout Europe. “ Their jealousy of each other,” says Guiccardini, “made them watchful of every motion or measure that they conceived might any way increase the power of their neighII. hoursand he draws a splendid picture of the beneficial effects, the long peace, and general independence attendant upon this habitual attention to the principle in question. [History of Italy, B. i.) It was about the end of this century that these ideas began to extend to other quarters, and to actuate the movements of greater potentates. There were now several princes possessed of large consolidated kingdoms, wuth powers and prerogatives which enabled them to take part in distant wars and negotiations. The first great movement of an ambitious neighbour, would naturally therefore excite their jealousy, and bring them into concert. Thus, when Charles the Eighth of France, in 1494, invaded Italy, and laid claim to Naples, the sovereigns of Germany and Spain saw the expediency of listening to the Italian Princes, who suggested a confederacy to prevent France from gaining an accession of power, which could not but render her a dangerous neighbour. Dr Robertson regards the expedition of Charles as the first great exertion of those new powers, with f which the progress of society had invested the princes of Europe ; and the confederacy formed against him, as the first considerable extension of those ideas of a balance of powder, whose influence had hitherto been limited to the narrow,sphere of Italian politics. “ From this era,” he says, “ we can trace the progress of that intercourse between nations, which has linked the powers of Europe so closely together, and can discern the operations of that provident policy, which, during peace, guards against remote and contingent dangers, and in war has prevented rapid and destructive conquests.” ( View of the Progress of Society in Europe, sect. 2.) If we look only a little way beyond this era, we shall everywhere see a constant jealousy of the increase of powder, and a vigilant attention to all foreign operations, combined with the application of those means of safety which peculiarly belong to the balancing system. “ During that triumvirate of kings,” says Lord Bacon, in his usual expressive language, “ Henry the Eighth of England, Francis the First of France, and Charles the Fifth, Emperor, there was such a watch kept, that none VOL. II. PAliT I.

O F P O W E R. 49 of the three could win a palm of ground, but the other Balance of two would straightways balance if, either by confedera- P°wt;r‘ tion, or, if need were, by a war ; and would not, in any wise, take up peace at interest.’’ [Essays—on Empire.) It has been objected to Dr Robertson, much to our surprise, we will confess, considering the very intelligent quarter from which the objection comes, that he has represented “ the principle of the balance of power as a discovery made by the Italian politicians in consequence of this invasion of Charles; whereas, it was not to any such single event that the balancing system owed either its origin or refinement ; but to the progress of society, which placed the whole states of Europe in the same relative situation in which the states of Italy were at that period, and taught them not to wait for an actual invasion, but to see a Charles at all times in every prince or commonwealth that should manifest the least desire of change.” (Brougham’s Colonial Policy, B. III. $ 1.) What is here said as to the origin of the balancing system is no doubt true. We have already stated, that the principle on which it rests, is a principle of our common nature, which cannot fail to manifest itself in certain situations; but that nations must have arrived at an advanced stage of civilization and intercourse, before it can be acted upon with consistency and concert. It would, therefore, be absurd to represent that system as taking its rise in any single event, or its principle as a discovery of some long-sighted statesman. But Dr Robertson knew human nature too well to seek the origin of this principle in an accidental occurrence ; and he knew history too well to fix its origin “ as a consequence ” of Charles’s invasion. On the contrary, throughout the whole of his masterly chapter on the progress of the nations of Europe, with respect to the command of the national force requisite in foreign operations, he speaks of this system as holding progress with the growing improvement and intercourse of these nations ; and so far from representing the principle of the balance of power as a discovery consequent upon the event alluded to, he expressly speaks of the league against the French monarch, as only exemplifying an extension of those ideas which had long been familiar to the Italian statesmen, “in regulating the operations of the petty states in their own country.” ( View of the Progress of Society, sect. 2.) Before concluding these very general remarks on the rise of the balancing system in modern times, we shall briefly advert to a conjecture of M. Villers upon this subject, which occurs in his able work on the Reformation. Long before the states of Europe became united in a general system, Italy and Germany, he observes, had formed partial systems, with a view to restrain the members within them, each by the other, and thus maintain a balance of power. It is possible, he adds, that the idea of the general balance ot Europe may have been copied from these , partial confederacies. [Essai sur l1 Espritet VInfluence de la Reformation, 2de Partie.) This conjecture, if we rightly understand the learned author, appears to us exceedingly unphilosophical. The states of Europe embraced the idea of a balance of power in proportion as their circumstances enabled them to act upon it; ■ G

BALANCE

OF POWER. Balance of and not in consequence of any estimate of its effects, tions are keenly watched, and that his first successes Balance of Power. as displayed on those earlier and narrower stages of its would only expose him to a more extended contest, must see how hopeless would be any attempt to posagency. sess himself of the territories even of the weakest of General Re- III. It appears, then, to have been about the begin- his neighbours. Such is the general tendency of the suits, and ning of the sixteenth century that the principle of main- system"; and however it may have occasionally failed recent His- taining a balance of power came to be generally re- to prevent outrages, it cannot be doubted, that it has proved a formidable barrier against conquest, and a Svstcm/113 cognised and acted upon by the states of Europe; rampart of defence to the weaker states. * “ at first,” as M. Gentz says, “ more in a practical The complaint of a certain class of French poliway, ahd, as it were, from political instinct, but afterwards with clear, reflecting, and methodical constan- ticians, alluded to by Mr Burke, in his Letters on a cy.” (Fragments.) What were the advantages which Regicide Peace, “ that Rome had frequently acquirEurope reaped from this course of policy, we shall ed Lore territory in a single year, than all the power endeavour to show, after we have adverted to certain of France, actuated by all her ambition, had enabled arguments generally employed by those who w ish to her to acquire in txco centuries,’ forms, in fact, though unintended, one of the finest panegyrics that could have give an unfavourable view' of the balancing system. been pronounced upon the salutary influence of the By some, this system is represented as productive only of sanguinary wars, as but a convenient modern system. The advocates of that system can, inpretext to cover projects of ambition, or to screen deed, appeal to history for the most satisfactory of all the restless movements of national jealousy. Others proofs of its efficacy,, in the remarkable fact, that, for talk of it as being merely a brilliant conception ; a period of nearly three centuries, no European and appeal to the many violences and usurpations state, however small, lost its independence from exwhich modern history records, as proofs, if not of ternal violence. When we recollect the number of its nonentity, at least of its inefficacy. But there small states which, during so long a period, enjoyed is surely but little respect due to that sort of estimate an independent existence on the immediate frontiers of the system, which is founded solely on the abuses of powerful nations; and reflect for a moment on to which it is liable, or upon imperfections from which those evil passions which have, in all ages, prompted no human institution can be made free. They who the strong to prey on the weak ; we must admit decry, or who ridicule the balancing system, should that, but for that salutary jealousy of power, and be prepared to show,—not that it has sometimes united resistance to its encroachments, which it was afforded plausible pretexts for unnecessary wars, or the object and office of this system to nourish and has sometimes failed to protect the weak against enforce, these otherwise helpless states would have the outrages of the strong,-^but that it is wholly been speedily absorbed, or their independence anniuseless to interest ourselves in the safety of neigh- hilated, by the mighty masses with which they were bouring nations ; to take any trouble to avert dan- in contact. It was not the preservation of such gers which are yet distant; or to seek to strength- countries as Portugal or Holland, of Sweden or en ourselves against a powerful enemy, with any Denmark, which, though small compared with many strength not our own, ihis view of things, were it others in the system, were yet possessed of considerto prevail, would, as M. Gentz observes, open the able means of self-defence ;—it was not the preservamost desirable prospects to every sovereign whose tion of such states as these merely, but of a multipower and ambition might prompt him to aspire to tude of feeble, though happy communities, in Germany, in Switzerland, and Italy, which affords the universal domination. It must, we think, appear abundantly obvious to proudest proof of the salutary influence of the baevery one who reflects calmly upon the subject, that lancing system on the fortunes of modern Europe. r the balancing system is, upon the whole, greatly fa- “ Consider, for instance,” to use the impressive w ords of a distinguished writer and orator, “ the situation vourable to peace. The wars which peculiarly belong to it, are in the nature of a sacrifice of a smaller of the republic of Geneva; think of her defenceless present, to secure a greater future good; and the position in the very jaws of France ; but think also tendency of the system is to render these wars less of her undisturbed security, of her profound quiet, and less frequent. The evil passions which give rise of the brilliant success with which she applied to into ambitious attacks, like all other evil passions, will dustry and literature, while Lewis the Fourteenth was be more apt to be indulged, the less exposed they pouring his myriads into Italy before her gates; call are to opposition or restraint. And it cannot be to mind that happy period, when we scarcely dreamt questioned, that in proportion as the maxims of this more of the subjugation of the feeblest republic of system are vig lantly and steadily pursued, there will Europe, than of the conquest of her mightiest embe less inducement, because less prospect of success pire ; and say, whether any spectacle can be imagined more beautiful to the moral eye, or which aft’ords a to ambitious undertakings. Its object is to alarm, and to arm all against the more striking proof of progress in the noblest prinprince whose power prompts him to transgress upon ciples of true civilization.” (Mackintosh’s Speech on others; and the prince who knows that all his mo- the Trial of John Peltier, in 1803.) *

* Our readers will thank us, we think, for adding the following extract, in reference to our subject, from this justly celebrated oration. “ These small states were, in many respects, one of the most interesting

B A L A N C E Such were the great and noble results of the systern founded on the balance of power. It was a bridie upon the strong, and a bulwark to the weak. When it failed to prevent the inroads of violence and injustice, it yet acted as a restorative principle, and replaced injured nations in their former state of independence. It was at the memorable and fatal era of the partition of Poland in 1772 that it first lost this character,—that the first example was set of a deliberate, successful, unchecked conspiracy, against the independent existence of an unoffending country. It is here proper to mention, that some authors have spoken of this infamous transaction in terms which seem to imply, that it was quite in consonance with the principles of the balancing system. * It is indeed true, that the maxims of that system were still so far operative as to effect a relative equality in the division of the spoil. But, as the whole intention of this system is to maintain the integrity and independence of nations against unlawful attacks, the partition was just as diametrically opposite to its principle, as if the whole spoil had been appropriated by one robber, instead of being shared by three. The equality of the division did not take away from the danger of the example ; the example of states combining, not to uphold but to destroy,—not to enforce respect to the great principles of national safety, but to set them at defiance ; an example too soon followed by similar violences, and which, in fact, paved the way to that total overthrow of the ancient system of Europe which ere long took place. The origin of a project so pernicious in its consequences is a matter of some interest in the history of the balancing system. We learn, for the ■first time, from Rulhiere’s Histoire de Vanarchic de Pologne, published in 1807, that the distrac-

iialance of Fowcr.

OF P O \V E R. ' 5i tions of this country had suggested the project Balance of of a partition so «early as 1658 ; that a Swedish 1,owerminister, named Stippenbach, proposed it to his own court, to, Austria, and the GrandDuke of Prussia, whose armies were then in possession of the country ; and that it would, in all probability, have been acted upon, but for the discovery of the scheme by France, and consequent interference of that power, f With regard to the project actually carried into execution in 1772, each party concerned was desirous to shift the blame of the first proposal to the others; but it was generally believed to have originated with Frederick, though some were of opinion, that he was indebted for the idea to his brother, Prince Henry. Frederick, however, in one of his posthumous pieces, Memoires de 1763 jusqua 1775, states, that the scheme was devised by the Empress Catharine ; and this is corroborated by M. Rulhiere, who asserts that she communicated it to Prince Henry, during his visit to St Petersburg!! in 1770 ; a piece of information, he adds, which was detailed to him, in the most circumstantial manner, by three different secretaries, who accompanied the Prince to the Russian Court. (Tom. IV. p. 151, 210.) It seems to be generally acknowledged, that the proposal, when first made to the cabinet of Vienna, was opposed by that power ; and that her accession would not have been obtained, but for the astonishing apathy displayed by France, and, indeed, by all the other states of Europe. The silence of "England during the perpetration of this shameless plot against the independence of nations, if it can be accounted for, can never, at any rate, be excused ; inasmuch as the fact appears pretty well established, that, had she, as the guardian of the political balance,

parts of the ancient system of Europe. Unfortunately for the repose of mankind, great states are compelled, by regard to their own safety, to consider the military spirit and martial habits of their people as one of the main objects of their policy. Frequent hostilities seem almost the necessary condition of their greatness ; and, without being great, they cannot long remain safe. Smaller states, exempted from this cruel necessity—a hard condition of greatness, a bitter satire on human nature—devoted themselves to the arts of peace, to the cultivation of literature, and the improvement of reason. They became places of refuge for free and fearless discussion; they w^ere the impartial spectators and judges of the various contests of ambition, which, from time to time, disturbed the quiet of the world. They thus became peculiarly qualified to be the organs of that public opinion which converted Europe into a great republic, with laws which mitigated, though they could not extinguish, ambition; and with moral tribunals to which even the most despotic sovereigns were amenable. If wars of aggrandizement wrere undertaken, their authors were arraigned in the face of Europe. If acts of internal tyranny were perpetrated, they resounded from a thousand presses throughout all civilized countries. Princes, on whose wdll there were no legal checks, thus found a moral restraint which the most powerful of them could not brave with absolute impunity. They acted before a vast audience, to whose applause or condemnation they could not be utterly indifferent. The very constitution of human nature, the unalterable laws of the mind of man, against which all rebellion is fruitless, suojected the proudest tyrants to this control. iNo elevation of power,—no depravity, however consummate,—no innocence, however spotless,—can render man wholly independent of the praise or blame of his fellow-men.” * See, for example, the terms in which Count Hertzberg speaks of the partition in his essay Sur la Balance^ du Commerce et celle du Pouvoir. {Oeuvres, Tom. I.) The language of M. Gentz upon this subject, in his able work, L Etat de l Europe avant et aupres la Revolution Erangoise, is extremely exceptionable ; but, in his latei work, so often referred to in tnis article, he condemns the partition as wholly inconsistent with every sound idea of a balance of power, and as having in fact led to the subversion of the balancing system. 1" J’ai retrouve, says M. Rulhiere, dans les archives des affaires etrangeres de Prance, cette anecdote importante, et jusqua present ignoree. Tom. I. p. 9.

52 BALANCE O F P O W E R. of Balance of raised her voice against the partition, Europe strength and influence. The foundations of the Balance ovver Power. might have been saved from the fatal effects of that ancient structure were first sapped by a shame- P less disregard of the sacred principles of pubnew system of robbery and oppression, which the spoilers of Poland were suffered, without any sort of lie justice; and if the balance of power, in the full interruption, to exemplify. “ To my certain know- and sound acceptation of the term, is again to beledge,” says Mr Burke, “ if Gi’eat Britain had at come an object of the foreign policy of nations, those that time been willing to concur in preventing the guardian principles must hereafter constitute the execution of a project so dangerous in the example, rules of their conduct, in all the public transactions of even exhausted as France then was by the preceding Europe. Let us here again quote the words of M. war, and under a lazy and unenterprising prince, Gentz, written in 1806, in a too early hope of the apshe would have at every risk taken an active part in proaching deliverance of the Continent. He is speakthis business.’’ [Thoughts on French Affairs in 1791 •) ing of the transition which in that event ought to folIt wmuld lead us much beyond our limits to low “ t(*a state of things founded upon a balance of detail that long series of violences, and transfers power.” In order to this, says he, “ every just and conof dominion, too faithfully copied from the ex- scientious government must set it down as an unample of the first and succeeding partitions of Po- changeable maxim, never henceforth to lend an ear to land, by which all remains of the ancient sys- plans which are not founded in the strictest equity. tem were for a season swept from the earth. * We In the next place, though, in the proper sense of the more gladly proceed to observe, that the time has term, a general code of laws cannot be framed for the again arrived when the nations of Europe may and regulation of a confederacy of states, at least no means ought to unite, not, indeed, to rebuild the ancient should be left untried, to procure for this maxim a comedifice in its former proportions, that being rendered mon sanction, and the solemn ratification of treaties. impossible from the many melancholy changes which In every considerable alliance, in every treaty of peace, have taken place; but carefully to recal, and steadi- particularly in every congress composed of several ly to adhere to those great principles which consti- considerable poxvers, the parties must mutually engage tuted its foundation, and to which it owed all its themselves not to extend their territory by unjust beauty and strength. It is not enough to have over- means ; and not to enter into any scheme or associathrown a power which domineered over all, and to tion directed against the rights or possessions of an have reinstated some other powers in their pristine independent state, by whatever name it may be

* The following passage, though rather declamatory, contains some striking ideas as to the way in which the infamous partitions of Poland contributed to tills general overthrow. “ What rendered the project of a partition of Poland so incomparably more destructive to the higher interests of Europe than any former acts of violence of apparently a more aggravated character, was the decisive circumstance of its originating in that very sphere from which was expected to flow nothing but benefits and blessings, security in time of peace, and salvation in periods of danger. An union between several regents had been always considered as a beneficial barrier against lawless power, and the passions of an individual oppressor; it now appeared, to the terror of the world! that such an union could be formed for the purpose of bringing about precisely that evil against which it seemed destined as a bulwark of defence. The impression made by this detestable discovery must be still deeper and more painful, when we reflect that the framers of the wicked project, in the whole course of their undertaking, adopted the principle of the political balance as a star to conduct them through it; that they acted conformably to this principle as far as circumstances would admit, in the adjustment of their respective interests, and that while they inflicted upon its spirit the most frightful wounds, they borrowed its attire, its forms, and even its language. Corruptio optimi pessima. To witness such an abuse of the noblest mean which the European commonwealth possessed for assuring its safety and welfare, was, in itself, a revolting spectacle ; but the malignant character of the deed was first completely brought to light in its consequences. The cause of public justice was on all hands abandoned and betrayed. A horde of jabbering sophists, who, at that time in France, were striving- to shake the foundations of all principle, and to undermine every existing constitution, now that the mighty of the earth had broken into the sanctuary of national right, not under the impulse of incendiary passions, but deliberately and systematically, turned the most respectable political ideas into ridicule, without fear or reserve. Even among the enlightened and upright of the time, only a few escaped the dreadful contagion. Notwithstanding that what is purest in its nature may be profaned, and what is most wholesome may be poisoned—notwithstanding that the fatal blow which the federal constitution of Europe had received, called upon them the more loudly to unite, to establish the foundations of the building on a firmer basis, and more vigorously to exert themselves in its defence, they either gave themselves up to a comfortless incredulity in the efficacy of political maxims, or to a systematic indifference. The multitude, misled by the former, or not sufficiently warned against the latter, sunk every day deeper in the bottomless void, and became more and more accustomed to expect their law from violence, and their salvation from chance. How much this fatal habit of thinking must have contributed to facilitate crime, and spread desolation, when at last the evil days arrived when all right was trampled under foot, the ruin of all order conspired, and the whole social machine disjointed and broken, can have escaped only the inconsiderate observer.”—Gentz’s Fragments upon the Political Jdalance of Fur ope ^ p. 76. 11

B A L A N C E Balance of called, whether of dividing, of rounding, of concent citing, of uniting, or of indemnifying 'themselves other losses. A sort of anathema must also he pronounced by anticipation against all such as shall project such violations of right, or call upon others to assist them ; so that a lively conviction may be again established in the public mind, that when princes and states enter into combinations with one another, their objects are protection and defence against common danger, never the attack and invasion of the innocent.” (Fragments, cap. 3.) Whether these precepts of this great enemy of the late ambitious ruler of France, and advocate of those by whom he was overthrown, were taken as the guides of that “ Congress of Powers,” which lately met for the purposes of general pacification, we shall leave to others to determine; but thus much our present subject requires us to state, that, without a return in good earnest to those sound and salutary maxims, no durable peace is to be hoped for Europe, and no restoration of that system of balance by which Europe was so long distinguished and protected. 1V We have stiU to alIud ireaTedf arel ‘ e, and we can here but lin in the ^ y allude, to the great question, whether Britain, ialancing protected as she is on ail. sides by nature, ought ystem. to consider it as a necessary part of her policy0 to attend to the European balance of power ? This has been considered as constituting a separate question, by some who make no doubt that the other states of Europe could not long preserve their independence secure through any other course. Taking the question generally, we do not think there is any great difficult}' in regard to it. With the multitude, to be sure, it always will be popular to argue, that Britain stands in need of no other defence than what the seas and her invincible navy afford her, and that all continental connexions are useless or pernicious. But the argument from the advantages of our insular situation would not in fact bear out this conclusion, even were the seas and the navy a stronger defence than it is possible they always can be. Our commerce and our colonies, the supports of that navy, render it indispensably necessary that we should more particularly observe some nations, and ally ourselves with others. These gieat concerns make it, indeed, nothing less than absurd to talk of our being insulated as an empire or state because Britain is an island. And, with regard to invasion, it is clear, that we could not always be as secure, and as free from uneasy apprehensions, in a state of total insulation from foreign connexions, as with friends and confederates to employ or oppose a formidable enemy on his own confines, i But supposing the balance of power to constitute

OF P O W E E. 53 a great national object, the line of conduct which Balance of that object imposes upon us may, no doubt, be Power, affected by our insular situation. We may on some occasions allow other nations who are more exposed to danger, and who Ought, on that account, to be more on the alert to prevent encroachments, to take the first measures, and bear the first expence of resistance. We may watch and warn, and use the influence of our remonstrances and our counsels, without having recourse, except in urgent cases, to the extremity of arms. It is only, in a word, as to the application of the general principle, and not as to its being necessary and worthy to be entertained, that there seems any fair room for difference of opinion among British statesmen. In point of fact, all our later statesmen, however differing in other respects, have distinctly assented to the general doctrine, that the maintaining a balance of power was an interest of the highest importance to England. The last time, we believe, that this general question can be said to have been fairly brought into debate, and fully discussed in Parliament, was on occasion of the famous armament against Russia for refusing to restore Ocazakow to the Porte ; and on that occasion, though Mr Fox and his followers reprobated the armament in the strongest terms, they did so, not because they denied the great principle to which the minister appealed, as the sole justification of the measure, that the balance of power was a British concern, and gave Britain an undoubted interest to interfere in the affairs of the Continent,—not because they thought that Britain ought never to guard against any distant danger,—but because there was no such degree of danger from the retention of that city and its district, as called upon this country to interfere at the risk of a war. * If there be any certain medium between the policy which Britain and other countries ought to observe with a view to the balance of power, we do not know that it can be pointed out in more specific terms than in the following passage of one of Lord Bolingbroke’s political pieces, with which we shall conclude this article. “ Other nations must watch over every motion of their neighbours; penetrate, if they can, every design; foresee every minute event; and take part, by some’ engagement or other, in almost every conjuncture that arises. But as we cannot be easily nor suddenly attacked, it may be our interest to watch the secret workings of the several councils abroad ; to advise and warn ; to abet and oppose ; but it never can be our true interest easily and officiously to enter into action, much less into engagements that imply action and expence.” {Idea of a Patriot King.)

Ur ViV reOKUedl^S W W ly/ i T i0f thlf illust,'ious SrouP of orators an there are numerous gulfs and bays; the first towards every ship has her particular magazine ; the dry-dock the north, is theLimfiord, which nearly divides the pe- is constructed of wood, and requires 20 hours to ninsula of Jutland, being separated from the German pump it out, which is done by horses. Copenhagen Ocean only by a sandy isthmus, three or four miles is a free port, and for a long time- was the only one broad ; another arm of it advances southward to the in Denmark which enjoyed the privilege of importtown of Wybourgh, a length of about 80 or 90 miles; ing the produce of Iceland, Greenland, India, China, its entrance is two miles wide, but afterwards it be- and America; and, even yet, the principal returns comes greatly wider; sands that very sensibly in- from these countries are made to it. Maeen island is separated from the south-east end of The Islands crease, and masses of granite, obstruct its entrance. In Jutland, there are also the Gulfs of Manager, Zealand by Ulfsund, a narrow strait; it is about five ofMaeen, and Banders, and sevei’al bays. In Sleswick, on leagues long, and from one to three broad. It exthe Baltic side, are the Gulfs of Golding, Flens- ports 15,000 tons of corn. Samsoe, midway between borgh, and Slie, which resembles a great river, and Zealand and Jutland, is near five leagues long, and is Ekernefiord; in Holstein are the Gulfs of Kiel, formed of two peninsulas, the largest of which is five which separates this province from Sleswick, and of miles broad. The other islands belonging to the Lubec, and the bay of Colbergh. The Guden is the government of Zealand are of little consequence. chief river in Jutland, which falls into the Baltic, Saltholm, in the Sound, may, however, be particuat the Gulf of Banders, after a course of 40 miles ; larized ; it is four miles long, and two broad ; almost its navigation has been recently improved. covered by the sea in winter, but in summer affords >rts. From the Scaw to the entrance of the Gulf of good pasturage ; from it are exported to the capital, Limfiord, there are only small towns, chiefly inha- marble, freestone, and lime. bited by fishermen and pilots. On the north shore Funen, the second of the Danish islands in extent, *unCD-

62 BALTIC. Baltic. ^is 1() leagues long, and 11 broad. The Gulf of ter are corn, hemp, flax, hops, wax, butter, honey, Baltic, Odenzee runs considerably into it on the north-east. cattle, apples, and feathers. At the head of it stands the town of Odenzee, the caThe coast of Pomerania exhibits the effects of the Coast of pital. hrom twenty to thirty trading vessels belong to constant action of the waters of the Baltic. On the Pomerania, it. At Nyborg, on the Great Belt, a duty is paid west, the peninsula of Dars, and the Island of Zingst, by all merchant vessels passing through; it is also form the basin called des Da?s, which has six feet the usual crossing-place to Zealand, and has a good depth. The Strait of Gellen, farther east, separates port, and about as many vessels belonging to it as the Island of Rugen from the main. This strait varies Odenzee. The island of Funen exports corn, and, in breadth from fourteen miles to one and a quarter ; in the year 179(), there belonged to it fifty-seven the eastern entrance, called the Bodden, is navigable vessels above 20 tons ; containing 2522 tons, with for the largest vessels ; but in the narrows there is 109 men. From Rudkaebing, the only town on but three or four fathoms ; and the sand accumulates Langland, an island between Funen and Zealand, so fast here, as to require a toll on all vessels passing corn, salted meat, hides, honey, and wax are ex- through it, to defray the expence of clearing it. ported. The Gulf of Dantzic lies beyond the eastern limits Prussian Laaland. Laaland, the third of the Danish islands in size, of Pomerania, the western extremity of which, called Boasts, is 11 leagues long, and from six to eight broad. the Gulf of Putzic, is formed by a curved tongue of Considerable portions of its coast are so low as to be land. On the coast of Prussia are the two remarkinundated during the irregular elevations of the sea. able basins called the Fresch-HafF and Curish-Haff. The feathers of aquatic birds and corn are its princi- The waters of both are fresh, being supplied from s pal exports. From this island Fakter is separated the rivers of Poland, and each communicates with by Guldborg Sound, and from Maeen by Grensund. It the Baltic by a single strait. The Fresch Half, is eight leagues long, and from one to four broad. It which, besides three branches of the Vistula, receives exports corn and fruit. In the year 1799, there the rivers of Elbing, the Passarge, and the Pregel, is were in the bailiwick of Laaland and Falster four- 16 or 17 leagues long, and from one to five broad. teen vessels, of 4fi0 tons and 40 men. In the go- The communication of this basin with the Baltic has vernment of Jutland, are the Islands of Lessee and changed several times, and the present passage, near Anholt, in the Cattegat; the latter is surrounded by Pillau, was formed by a great storm in 1500; its dangerous banks. depth is from 13 to 16 feet. The tongue of land callBornholm. Bornholm is an island about seven leagues and a ed the Fresch-Nehrung, which separates it from the Balhalf from the coast of Sweden, and upwards of 17 tic, commences near Dantzic, and runs east about 1^ from the island of Rugen ; it is eight leagues long, leagues ; its breadth varies from one to three leagues. and five and a half broad. Its shores are composed The Curish-HafF, or Sea of the Cures, a people of Courof steep rocks, surrounded by dangerous reefs. land, is 19 leagues long, and from one to three broad. The principal imports are coffee, sugar, and to- Its depth is very irregular, and there are many sandbacco ; the principal exports are salted cod, corn, banks in it. Near the upper end there is no current, poultry, and clay for the porcelain manufactory but in the other parts the currents are very rapid. of Copenhagen, and freestone for its public build- It communicates with the Baltic by a channel near ings. The centre of commerce is at Ronne, near the Memel 3200 feet wide, and from 11 to 13 feet deep. middle of the west side of the Island. In 1800, this The spit of land which separates it from the Baltic, place employed 60 vessels and 130 boats, chiefly in called the Curish-Nehrung, is about 80 miles long, the fisheries. in some places three miles broad, but in other places Coasts, &c. The first shore on the south of the Baltic is is so very narrow, that the waves of the Baltic wash of Holstein1 iat andLuhec. ^ Holstein, the principal port-town of which over it into the basin. Its surface, which is princiis Kiel, a place of considerable commerce. The pally sand, continually changes, by the fury of the territory of Lubec succeeds. The city of Lubec is winds. From its ancient name Mendoniemi, or prosituate on the Trave, five leagues from its mouth. montory of Pines, it was probaby covered with those Its commerce is chiefly transit, and on commission, trees. It is inhabited only by fishermen and pilots, whose drawing from Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, their dwellings are not unfrequently overwhelmed by the raw commodities, and supplying them with wines, sand. It is frequented by immense numbers of crows silks, cloth, hardware, and colonial goods. It admits and hawks, the former of which supply food to the vessels of from 150 to 200 tons. In 1802 it had from inhabitants, and the tithe of them forms part of the 70 to 80 merchant vessels, and the same year 1368 revenue of the pastor. entered, and 1234 cleared out. Travemunde, on the The whole coast of Prussia and Courland is low, mouth of the Trave, about nine miles from Lubec, is sandy, and covered with pebbles; the latter, howthe port where vessels destined to and from Lubec ever, has calcareous cliffs, which seem to run under take their station. The Trave, near Lubec, is join- water to the Island of Gottland. The Gulf of Livo- Gulf of pj. ed by the Wakenitz, which, issuing from the Lake nia, or Riga, has Domes-ness for its southern limit; vonjai of Ratzeburgh, thus facilitates the water commu- between which and the Swaverort is the entrance, nication between Lubec and the interior. eight leagues wide; but from Domes-ness a sandMeckJenOn passing the Trave, the duchy of Mecklenburgh bank runs off, and a reef from Swaverort. The coast bargh. is entered. Wismar, a bay within the isle of Poel, of Livonia, and the islands off it, are in general and Rostock, on the left bank of the Warnaw, three higher than those of Courland, and are composed of leagues from its mouth, are the principal commercial sand, gravel, and calcareous strata. Entering the places in Mecklenburgh. The exports from the lat- Gulf of Finland, on the south side, is the bay of

BALTIC. 63 Roggerswic, inclosed by islands. The whole of rope. Its annual exports of corn average about Baltic. ! the coast of Finland is naked, stony, lined with rocks 700,000 tons. Its other exports are timber, beer, and islets, and nearly bare of vegetation. brandy, horse-hair, hogs’-bristles, feathers, wool, ] -ers of The principal rivers of Prussia that flow into the amber, honey, wax, linens, masts of ships, cork] issia. Baltic are the Oder and the Vistula. The Oder, wood, hemp and flax, potash, salt, tar, skins, fruits, after dividing into four principal branches, near the &c. Its imports are English manufactures, and Lonfrontiers of Pomerania, again flows in one stream don porter, herrings, fruits, lead, coffee, tea, sugar, near Stettin, and falls into the Gros-Haff. Between indigo, wines, &c. the Oder and the Vistula several lesser rivers empty Pillau, whence there is a considerable export ofPillau. themselves ; they are generally navigable, and form timber, stands on a peninsula washed by the Freschports at their mouths. Three of the branches of the Hatf on one side, and the Baltic on the other. From Vistula empty themselves into the Fresch Half, and Koningsbergh, on an island at the mouth of the Pregel, Koningsthe fourth, which alone retains its original name, falls are exported nearly the same articles as from Dant- bergh. into the Gulf of Dantzic at Weixelmunde. The zic, in between 60£) and 700 vessels annually.. From Pregel, which is deeper than the Fresch Half, into Elbing, at the mouth of the river of the same name, Elbing. which it falls, is navigated by vessels of considerable corn, starch, linseed-oil, soap, cordage, sail-cloth, burden. The Elbing issues from Lake Dramsen, saltpetre, potash, and timber, are exported in beand, as has been already noticed, falls into the Fresch tween 300 and 400 vessels annually. The port of Haff. The Niemen, below Tilsit, separates into two Memel, formerly the mouth of the river Dange, is Mcmef. branches, one running to the south-west, and the liable to be encumbered with mud ; its chief exports other to the north-west; thus both subdivide, and are, ship-timber, masts, linseed of a superior quality, fall into the Curish-Haff near Memel; the Dange, hemp, flax, hides and tallow. which gives a port to Memel,has a short course, but Ihe first Russian river of consequence that falls Russian is wide and deep. imo the Baltic is the W estern Dwina. It is navigable Rivers in Coiir 3 ts on Stralsund is the first commercial port on the Po!an(J t Pomera meranian shore of the Baltic. Its harbour is inclosed from its source to within a few miles of Riga, where aild Liv0 ridges of rocks form fourteen falls. These, however, U ' » i Shore. by jetties, but its access is dangerous and difficult, do not prevent the floating down of immense quart-' ’ on account of sand-banks. It has a considerable ex- tides of timber. It is frozen from the end of Novemport trade in brandy, starch, and linens. Stettin, ber to the beginning of April. It separates Courland on the Oder, succeeds. Vessels of moderate burden from Livonia, and, after a course of 180 leagues, falls go up to it, but large ones discharge at Swinemund, into the gulf of Livonia before Riga. The Narrowa, on the channel into the Gros-Haff, which separates which is the only outlet of Lakes Peipus and Plaskoff, the Islands of Usedom and Wollin. Between the years falls into the Gulf of Finland at Narva, but its navi1787 and 179fi> the annual or whole exports were gation is obstructed half a-league above that town by 3714 tons. The imports are manufactured goods from a fall. The Neva, which issues from Lake Ladoga, England, salt, wines, and fruits from France, &c. and empties itself by several branches at Petersburgh, linseed from Russia. About 160 vessels, manned by above which it is from 150 to 200 fathoms broad. It 1000 seamen, belong to it. From Politz, near the is shallow, and is frozen from the end of October to mouth of the Oder, are exported several thousand the end of April. The principal rivers in Finland in Finland, bushels of hops, chiefly to Sweden. are the Wuoxen, which falls into Lake Ladoga; The principal islands off the coast of Pomerania the Kymene, into the Gulf of Finland ; and the mds. are Rugen, Usedom, Ruden, and Wollin. Rugen is Kumo, Uleo, Kemi, and Torneo, which fall into the separated from the mainland by the Strait of Gellen. Gulf of Bothnia, at the towns of their respective It is of a very irregular shape, and consists of the names. In Courland, Russia has only two ports of Ports in Island Proper, and three peninsulas. It is supposed any commercial consequence, Liebau and VVindau. Couriaud, to contain 142,000 acres. Two of the peninsulas From the former, on a river of the same name, in the terminate in promontories, composed of chalky cliffs, year 1800, 111 vessels cleared out, and 113 entered one of which is 430 feet high. There is no port on it; and the value of its export was 1,065,700 rubles, the island, but from the roads are exported herrings, and of its imports 620,000. Riga and Pernau are cattle, corn, and salted geese. The coasts are very the principal ports in Livonia. Riga is one of the Riga, dangerous, scarcely a year passing in which several most commercial cities of the Baltic, and the second in Livonia, vessels are not stranded, and several ancient regula- of Russia in this respect. Its port can only receive tions are still in force respecting the assistance which small vessels, large ones being obliged to lie in the the inhabitants are bound to give in case of ship- roads. The exports consist of corn, hemp, flax, shipwrecks. The islands of Usedom, Ruden, and Wol- timber, pitch, potash, hides, tallow, iron, &c. The lin, are formed by the alluvium of the Peene and the imports are woollen and cotton goods, hardware, Oder; they are very low, and in general sandy. wines, oils, and spirits, and colonial produce. Dantzic is the principal commercial place in Prus1 ts in I hough the entrance to Revel is through danger- Revel, 1 ssian sian Poland. It is situate on the western branch of ous shoals, and it stands on a river which affords litthe Vistula, five miles from its mouth, and at the con- tle or no intercourse with the interior, yet its comfluence of the rivulets Motlau and Radaune. These merce is considerable. Its exports and imports are form its port, to which there is an entrance by a nearly the same as Riga. canal giving a new channel to the Vistula, the old Petersburgh is built on both sides of the Neva, pelor*one being choked up. Dantzic has long justly been and on several islands. The mouth of the river being burglx considered as one of the principal granaries of Eu- choked by sand, there are only from seven to eleven Baltic.

B A L 64 Baltic. feet water over it, according as the wind blows from the east or west. With easterly winds, the river often falls three or four feet below its general level; whereas westerly winds sometimes raise it from ten to fifteen feet. Loaded ships, of any considerable burden, cannot, therefore, approach the city within four miles. The principal exports are, iron, hemp, flax, cordage, tallow, hides, linseed-oil, hemp and flax-seed, planks and rafters, leather, soap, candles, wax and honey, fish, caviar, tobacco, rhubarb, tea, isinglass, feathers, linen, and furs. The principal imports are English cotton manufactures, French wines, colours, coffee, sugar, drugs, &c. Cronstadt, the principal ^tatiqp of the Russian Oronstadt. fleet, is built on a little island on the Gulf of Petersburgh, four leagues below the city, the same distance from Ingria, and nine leagues from Finland. The channel to the capital is between this place and the coast of Ingria. Its navigable breadth is three quar ters of a mile, its depth four fathoms. The channel between Cronstadt and the coast of Finland has only five feet water. Cronstadt has three havens, two for ships of war, and one for merchant vessels. The drydocks, which communicate with the sea by a canal, require nine days to empty them. The principal man of war’s port has space for 30 sail of the line. The first commercial port in Finland is Wyborgh, Ports in .Finland. built on a peninsula in a gulf of the same name. It exports corn, butter, tallow, fish, fish-oil, salted provisions, timber, tar, and hops. In 1793, the value of the exports was 12b,832 rubles, and of the imports 120,000. Helsingfors, the best port in Finland for large ships, is on a bay, and opposite to it is Sveaborg, the Gibraltar of the north. It occupies seven Islands, and has two basins for repairing ships of the line and smaller vessels. At the entrance of the Gulf of Bothnia, on a peninsula, stands Abo. Vessels drawing nine or ten feet go up to the town. While it belonged to Sweden, it was a staple town, with some trade to the Mediterranean, France, and ITolland, whither it exported iron, nails, copper, deals, rafters, pitch and tar, salted provisions, hides, furs, coarse linens, and firewood to Stockholm and Copenhagen. From Abo there is no commercial place of consequence till we come to Gamla Carlby, which, in 1794, had 14 ships, of 1530 tons, thirteen of which were employed in foreign trade. Its exports that year were 1800 barrels of tar, 1500 of pitch, between 3000 and 4000 deals, 2000 lbs. of butter, 273 cwt. of tallow, and 900 barrels of corn. Brahested, a staple town, while Finland belonged to Sweden, possesses commerce nearly of the same kind and to the same amount as Gamla Carlby. It lies in a bay between two peninsulas. Uleoborg, the chief town of East Bothnia, on the Uleo, exports annually a considerable quantity of pitch and tar, butter, tallow, salmon, pike, herrings, and deals. On the Islands at the mouth of the river are two building places, from which five or six ships are launched annually. Torneo is situate on a peninsula, and had formerly a good harbour, but the accumulation of sand has almost spoilt it. The exports, besides the general articles from the other ports of Finland, are salted and smoked rein-deer flesh, and the furs of

TIC. the rein-deer, fox, wolf, and ermine, procured from Bailie, the Laplanders who visit the town once a year. The Russian islands at the north extremity of the Russian Gulf of Livonia, Glsel and Dagoe, and the numerous Blands, Islands and rocks in the Gulf of Finland' require no particular notice. The Archipelago of Aland, which was ceded to Russia along with Swedish Finland in 1809, is composed of one considerable, and above 80 lesser islands and rocks. They are in general elevated, rising in rocky peaks, with numerous caverns. The principal island is nearly round, and 20 leagues in circumference. There is no town on any of them. Besides firewood, 12,000 loads of which are sent annually to Finland and Sweden, the inhabitants export salted beef, seal-skins and oil, tallow, hides, pilchards, and butter, chiefly to Stockholm. IV. The commerce of the Balticis considerably faci- Canals of litated and increased by means of different canals, thatthe Baltlfi form a communication with different parts of it, with it and other seas, and with the interior of the countries, the shores of which it washes. The ancient Scandinavian chronicles mention a Holsteii natural water communication between the Baltic ‘ anal, and the German Ocean, through the Danish peninsula, by means of the Gulf ot Kief, the river Lewensaw, the Lake Flemhud, and the river Eyder. When the communication ceased to be practicable, an attempt to renew it was made in the middle of the seventeenth century by the Duke of Holstein Gottorp. It did not however succeed, in consequence of the opposition of the King of Denmark. The union of Holstein and Denmark taking place in 1773, the proposed canal was begun in 1777, and finished in 1784. It enters from the Baltic by the Gulf of Kiel, near the mouth of the Lewensau, the waters of which serve to supply it. It then joins the northern extremity of Lake Flemhud, joins the Upper Eyder, passes by Rendsburgh, and falls into the German Ocean at Tonningen. The perpendicular tall towards the Baltic is 25 feet 6 inches ; and that towards the ocean 23. To Lake Flemhud, which is the highest point, the vessels are drawn by horses, and elevated by three locks of nearly 10 feet fall each : three other locks lower them to the Eyder ; from Rendsburgh to Tonningen the vessels use their sails. The whole length of the navigation, from sea to sea, is about 105 miles, of which the canal is about 20^; the breadth is 100 feet at top, and 54 at bottom; the least depth is 10* feet, so that it can admit vessels of about 140 tons burden. Upwards of 2000 pass it annually. The Baltic and the German Ocean are also united by means of the canal of Stecknitz. This canal Canal of unites the rivulet of that name, which falls into the*tec ni Trave with the Devenau, a rivulet emptying itself into the Elbe X Lauenborg. This navigation is fit only for flat-bottom boats, and is very tedious. The Baltic has communication with the interior ofOfMulilGermany, by the canals of Muhlrose and Finow. The first unites the Oder above Frankfort, with the Spree,11 one of the tributary streams of the Elbe. The canal of Finow joins the river of this name, which falls into the Oder, with the Havel, another branch of the Elbe. By means of these and some lesser canals, » 10

BALTIC. 65 Baltic. long navigation through Silesia, Brandenburgh, Low- the canal of Maria. The boats ascend the Neva, cross Baltic. ^ er Saxony, and Pomerania, is maintained. There the Lake Ladoga, and enter the Swir, which they asis also an artificial navigation which unites the Vistu- cend to Lake Onega. From this Lake they ascend Brom- la and the Oder ; this is the canal of Bromberg, which the Wytegra, which is united by the canal of Maria joins the Brahe, a tributary of the Vistula, with the to the Kowska. By ascending this, they arrive at rg* Netze, which falls into the Warthe, and the latter Lake Bieloe, crossing which they enter the river into the Oder. The Niemen, in conjunction with Tchesna, which they descend to the Wolga. A cathe Dnieper, affords a communication between the nal has long been projected to form a communication Pinsk. Baltic and the Black Sea ; the canal of Pinsk uniting between the Baltic and White Sea; but though it the former river near its head, with the Priapetz, was begun nearly forty years ago, there is only a which empties itself into the Dnieper. These seas short cut of about seven miles executed. Ever since the time of Gustavas Vasa, the Swedes Canals i*i are also united by means of the Dwina and Dnieper. The boats employed in this navigation ascend the have been anxious to form an inland navigation be- Sweden, Dwina to the Ulla, which they also ascend as far as tween Stockholm and the Cattegat, principally in order the Lake Beloie, out of which it flows. By crossing to avoid the payment of the duties of the Sound, and this lake, they reach the river Essena, which they Danish privateers in case of war. This navigation ascend to Lake Beresina. Here they enter a canal presented no very formidable difficulties. The Gotha four leagues long, which conveys them into Lake flows out of Lake Venar; this is at no great distance Plawia. From this lake the river Sargutsch flows, from Lake Hielmar ; and this is still nearer Lake which joins the river Beresina, and this latter falls Mselar, which communicates with the Baltic at Stockinto the Dnieper ; but the cataracts in this river, holm. Hence, it appears, that the plan of forming about 250 miles above its estuary, greatly impede an internal water communication between Gottenthe intercourse that might otherwise be established burgh and the capital, may be divided into three by these two navigations, between the Baltic and the principal parts ; the junction of the Hielmar and Black Sea. the Maelar ; of the Hielmar and the Venar ; and the The Baltic and Caspian Sea are united by the ca- rendering the Gotha navigable from the Venar to ( lalsof 1 ioga,&c. nals of Ladoga and Vyschnei Volotschok. The Gottenburgh. The Hielmar is 73 feet higher than canal of Ladoga, so called, not because it enters that the Maelar, which is six feet above the Baltic. These Lake, but as winding along its margin, extends from two lakes were united in the reigns of Christina, the river Volchof to the Neva. In the original na- Charles XI. and Charles XIL, by the small river vigation, the boats passed from the canal of Ladoga Ulvison, and the canal of Arboga. Nine locks are up the Volchof to Lake Ilmen, and from this lake necessary to establish this communication. The entered the river Masta ; but in consequence of the junction of the Hielmer and Venar has been atfatal accidents that happened on the rapids of this tempted, only very lately, with any hopes of a sucriver, one ot which is six or seven leagues long, a cessful and speedy termination. The obstacles that canal was cut directly from the Volchof to the Mas- opposed the navigation of the Gotha from Lake ta above the rapids. The old route is here only fol- Venar, were principally just at its first issuing from lowed at a certain season, and by boats of a peculiar that lake, at the four cataracts, 20 leagues above Gotconstruction. Ascending the Masta, the boats enter tenburgh, called by the general name of Trollhgeta; the Lake Mstinskoja, and thence the river Shlina, the fall of Akerstream, about a mile below these catafrom which, by means of a canal with a lock, they racts, and a bed of rocks at Edit, considerably nearer enter the Sna, and by another lock the canal of Gottenburgh. The first impediment was removed in Vyschnei Volotschok. This is a league in length, and the reign of Charles IX. and XII. by the Carisgraf from it a lock lowers the boats into the Twerza, which Canal. Attempts were made to remove the second they descend to the Volga. In order to facilitate the by carrying a canal along the channel of the river; ascending navigation from Petersburgh, which is but these not succeeding, it was resolved to cut the rendered tedious by the rapidity of the Volchof and canal through the solid rock that forms its banks. the Masta, a canal has been cut combining the Tich- This work was begun in 1793, and in seven years it win, which falls into the Lake Ladoga and the Somi- was completed. The canal commences below the na, which falls into the Molaga, a tributary of the Wol- first fall of Frollhseta (for this fall, by the former ga. In spring the vessels may draw two and a-half feet plan, had been nearly turned into still water), and is water ; but in summer only 26 inches. In autumn, carried nearly a league before it again joins the river; the navigation from Vyschnei Volotschok to Peters- its breadth is 22 feet, and its depth six and a-half; burgh is performed in rather more than a month ; in it has eight locks, and a large reservoir. A comsummer, in three weeks ; and in spring in a fortnight. munication between Lake Maelar and the lake Sodra By these canals a navigation is established nearly Barken on the borders of Dalecarlia, is effected by tlm whole way from Petersburgh to the frontiers of means of the canal of Straehmsholm, some small China, there being an interruption only in two places, lakes, a river, and several locks, some of which have both not more than 60 miles. The distance from Pe- a fall of 38 feet. A communication between Lake tersburgh is between Ib'OOand 1700 leagues; but the Maelar and the Baltic, considerably to the south of rivers being navigable only in the fine season, it re- the exit of that lake, and much shorter than by it, quires three years to complete the passage. The is afforded by means of a canal that joins I ake extent of the commerce is about one and a-half mil- Maelar with the Sound, at the head of which stands lion of rubles annually the town of Seeder Telje. c daria. The Baltic and the Caspian are also connected by It is also proposed to form a communication beVOL. 11. part 1.

BALTIC. 66 Baltic. tween the Cattegat and the Baltic, by means of the tic amounted to twelve or thirteen millions of rubles, Baltic. "L Gotha, the lakes Venar and Vetter, the river Mo- and her imports to about eight or ten. During the wars which arose out of the French tala, and a canal. Between these lakes are several intermediate waters, which will facilitate the commu- revolution, the commercial relations and resources nication; the Vetter empties itself by the river Mot- of the Baltic nations have undergone a considerable tala, which enters the Bay of Browick at Nordkoep- change by the transference of Swedish Pomerania ing ; but, in consequence of the falls and other ob- to Prussia; of Swedish Finland to Russia; and of structions of this river, it will be employed only part Norway to Sweden. The effects which these transof its course, in the intended navigation, which will ferences will produce, cannot yet be ascertained. The following statements and tables, w'ill exhibit be completed by a canal to the Gulf ol Slcetbacken, a view of the commerce of the Baltic nations at the at Soederkaeping. close of the last, and the commencement of the pre. Commerce V. In proportion as the maritime nations of Europe sent century. 16 The Danish vessels visit the ports of Mecklenburgh Banish ffM increased their navy, the commerce of the Baltic, ommer for the issue of promissory-notes in Great Britain, to have amounted to 735. In 1812, they amounted to 878; and,in 1814 andl8l5,toaboutl000. Of these, there are in London, besides the Bank of England, about 70 private banking-houses, and the remaining 930 are dispersed throughout the kingdom. To the management of these various money-dealers, the whole circulation of the country is committed. Their business consists in settling the cash transactions of

KING. distant places, and in issuing their notes, for the ac-1 Banking, commodation of trade, by discounting mercantile bills ; and the arrangements which they adopt for this purpose are eminently calculated to promote the dispatch of business, and the economy of cash. We have already, in part, explained in what man-System of ner the establishment of accredited banks tends to Banking « simplify the cash transactions of distant parts, and it is obvious that a community abounding in bankers of established character and credit, whose promissory-notes and bills ol exchange circulate, to the exclusion of specie, must possess ample means for carrying into effect all the refinements of money-dealing." In Great Britain, accordingly, the general progress of trade and manufactures—the known wealth of banking establishments—the security derived from the long continuance of domestic peace-—the high state of commercial confidence—the facilities of communication, joined to other advantages peculiar to such an advanced state ot society, have brought the system to perfection. By means of bills of exchange, circulated among the different bankers, remittances are made to the most distant parts with the most perfect security, and at an inconsiderable expence. The respective debts and credits of the great commercial towns, in place ot being settled in detail, or by remittances in specie, are, by the agency of the money-dealers, collected into one general account, which is brought to a common balance, and in this way the most extensive transactions may be settled with a comparatively small quantity of specie. If we suppose, for example, one of the two trading towns of Glasgow and Manchester to export, to the other, goods to the amount of L.2,000,000 annually, and to receive a return to the value of L.1,900,000, those transactions being, through the medium ol the bankers, brought into one general account, there remains only an undischarged balance of L.l00,000. But the tendency of the system being to make the whole complicated transactions of an extensive country centre in one common account, it may not be necessary, even for this balance of L.l00,000, to send a remittance of specie, seeing that it may be transferred, by a draft on some third place, to a more general fund of debt and credit, where it may be finally met and liquidated by opposite balances to the same amount. Thus, we may suppose the balance of L.l00,000, due from Manchester to Glasgow, to be discharged by a draft on London. In this case, London comes in the place of Glasgow, as the creditor of Manchester, the transaction being substantially to transfer the debt to the general cash account of those two places. But Manchester, in consequence of a favourable balance of trade, may be the creditor of other towns, as well as the debtor; and London being credited with the money to be received, as it was formerly charged with the money to be paid, all these insulated transactions are brought into one general account, on which the balance is struck, and it is only for this last and final balance that cash must be provided. In this highly artificial and curious system, the wealthy and populous towns natu-

# gee Inquiry into the Nature and Ejects of the Paper Credit of Great Britain) p. 154.

B A N K I N G. ily draw, as to a common centre, all the cash trans- oral tradition, or from the passing and imperfect re- Bankirw, ra actions of the neighbourhood ; the insulated balan- cords of the day, the scanty materials of domestic ces, arising on the commerce of the surrounding history. From some inquiries on this subject, made by country, are formed into new accounts by the money- a Committee or the House of Commons in 1780, we dealers of these towns, who, by a simple transfer of find, according to the evidence of several of the coldebt and credit in their books, bring them to a ge- lectors, that, betore this period, the mode of remitting neral balance. This balance they afterwards carry to the public revenue to the treasury was both irregua still more general account; and thus, at length, all lar, cumbersome, and expensive. In Scotland there the scattered debts of the country are collected into was no certain or regular /aannel of remitting to the one common account by the bankers of the metro- metropolis, and the remittances were not only very polls, which is then brought to a final balance. The uncertain as to the time, but the collectors, not being metropolis, the centre of intercourse and trade, is always able to procure bills, were frequently under the centre, also, of this vast system of money-deal- the necessity of remitting to the Receiver-General the ing. Here, as to a point, all the cash transactions actual money which they had collected. In difterof the country naturally converge, and here the ac- ent parts of England the same difficulties had, at a count is finally closed by payments in cash. fonner period, been experienced in the remitting of In this manner, all the money-dealing of this coun- the public revenue. From about the year 1740, it try, which cannot be transacted without remitting appears, that a premium had been paid to those who specie, is transferred to London. The payments of undertook the charge of remitting the money, of London, originating in its own extended commerce, from 20s. to 2s. 6’d. per cent. This premium, as the and in its great wealth and population, are of them- country advanced in wealth and industry, was graselves immense. These are still further increased by dually diminished, and about the year 1778, it was the payment of the interest on the national debt, entirely done away, the dates of the bills drawn on which is issued every quarter from the Bank of Eng- Hondon being also at the same time shortened. In land ; and London having also, in the course of the 1764, the collector of the Wales district paid 7$,. pier late wars, grown up to be in some degree the com- cent, fox bills on London, and in 1774, a premium of mercial metropolis, both of America and of Europe, 2s. fid. per cent, was paid by the collector of Dorsetit has been found convenient to transfer the payment shire, for bills payable on London at 40 days date. of foreign bills to it from all parts. In consequence Even so late as the year J780, though the collectors of these extended transactions, London has its debtors found no difficulty in the remitting of the public reand creditors in every quarter of the kingdom. venue, it was chiefly from merchants and manufacIt is the general centre of all money-dealing, and turers that they procured bills on the metropolis. there being, on this account, a greater demand in the Only a small part of their remittances were made country for money in London, than there is in Lon- through the medium of the country banks, and in don for money in the country, bills on London are all cases security was required for the whole sum reinvariably sold in the money market of the country mitted. Since the general establishment of banks, for a premium. The currency of every other bank is and the consequent increase of commercial confilimited in its circulation within particular districts, dence, the largest sums are now remitted from the and cannot, therefore, be employed in transacting the remotest parts with the most perfect regularity, and payments of distant places. But money in London without either premium or security; the only advanis a commodity in universal request, and bills for its tage derived by the banker from the transaction, bepayment constitute a medium of exchange common ing the use of the money for a certain number of to the whole country. days, varying in proportion to the distance from All the various money-dealers who are dispersed London. throughout the kingdom, require to be provided with All those complicated payments of the country, Mode of a stock of this common currency in order to carry which are transferred to London, are finally settled settling the on their business, and, for this purpose, they find It by the London bankers, with specie or with notes ofdai,y T,ans* necessary to establish a credit on the metropolis, on the Bank of England, it being the practice to use Bank, which, for a suitable premium, drafts may be obtained no other currency xn the payments of the metropolis ; in London, from them at all times. By thus transferring the pay- and in xnanaging those extensive money-dealings, they ments of the country, to be settled in one general ac- still act upon the principle of collecting the insulated count in the metropolis, both the expence and trouble transactions of individuals into one common account, of making remittances between distant places has been and this account is brought to a general balance. For greatly diminished. It would be interesting if we this purpose a clerk, it appears, is dispatched from could collect any exact account of the progressive each banker, at an appointed hour in the afternoon, diminution which took place, in consequence of this and a meeting of the whole having taken place in a improved system of banking, in the expence of ma- i oom provided for the purpose, each clerk exchanges naging the cash transactions of the country. But the drafts on other bankers, received at his own unfortunately those instructive facts which illustrate house, for the drafts on his own house, received at the the progress and internal structure of society, though houses of other bankers. The balances of the seve- .A of far more real importance than the accounts of wars bankers being then transferred from one to anoand battles, seldom attract the same attention. On ral ther, in a manner which it is unnecessary to explain this account, all traces of them are frequently lost in detail, the several accounts are finally wound up by before their importance is discovered, and the future each clerk into one balance, and it is only for this inquirer finds himself reduced either to glean from single balance that each banker has to provide specie VOL, u. part i.

?ankin».

^

BANKING. or notes. By this contrivance, so great a saving of ^ash is effected, that though the daily transactions of those bankers are calculated to amount to nearly L. 5,000,000, about L. 220,000 of bank-notes is generally found sufficient for the discharge of the several balances due at the settlement of the account. Other devices are also put in practice by these active and ingenious money-dealers, for economising the use of cash. Many bankers are allowed to have a general cash-account with the Bank of England, in which, if they are careful to keep a supply of good bills, they may always procure whatever cash they require on a day’s notice. For the same purpose also of preventing any waste ol the circulating medium, accredited brokers are in the habit of hourly walking Lombard Street, and of borrowing the superfluous cash of one broker and lending it to another, foi a day, a week, or any longer period, to be repaid when called for; and so nicely is the scale adjusted by those various devices, that the most opulent houses are frequently accommodated with a supply of cash before three o’clock, to be repaid by a draft at the general balance of accounts, which takes place in the afternoon. * The recent policy of the Bank of England has also tended greatly to favour those economical contrivances of the inferior bankers. The daily demand made upon them by the Bank for the amount of bills accepted and payable at their several houses, is of course considerable, and was formerly made at an early hour, before the notes were issued for bills discounted on the same day, and without any previous notice to the bankers of the demands for which they might be liable, and of which they had no means of judging. For some time past the Bank has adopted a different practice, having notified the amount of the demand at an earlier hour, and taken payment at four in the afternoon, receiving for part of the sum such drafts or bills as the bankers may happen to hold in place of bank-notes. In consequence of all those contrivances, the circulation of London is carried on with the smallest possible quantity of currency which is consistent with the regularity of its payments; and any sudden reduction, therefore, in the amount of its circulating cash, would ultimately lead to a state of general insolvency and suspension of confidence. Bills and drafts from all quarters of the country being also made payable in London, and accepted by the different bankers, and a failure in any one of those payments being deemed an act of insolvency, it is evident that any general derangement of credit in London must spread far and wide throughout the kingdom. The punctuality of the London payments is necessary to sustain and regulate the whole paper credit of the country; and these payments being made exclusively in Bank of England notes, the circulation of those notes cannot,, in any case, be materially reduced with safety to the community. Prior to the restriction act, there was no risk of any un-

due increase in the circulation of bank-notes, as the Banking, excess would have been immediately returned in exchange for specie. But the Bank, being now released from its obligation to pay in specie, and being thus closed against any return of its superfluous notes, its circulation may be increased at the discretion of its directors ; and, in these very peculiar circumstances, it is the opinion of Mr Thornton, f that the true policy of the Bank is generally to allow its circulation to vibrate within certain limits; to resort, when the temptation to borrow in the way of discounts is too strong, to some effectual principle of restriction, but in no case materially to reduce the sum in circulation ; to afford a slow and cautious extension of it, as the general trade of the kingdom is enlarged ; and to allow of a temporary increase, even beyond its usual limits, in a season of extraordinary difficulty or alarm. It is justly observed by Dr Smith, after he has ex- Disadyanr plained all the advantages of banking, that the com- tages incimerce and industry of a country cannot be so secure when managed with paper money, as when managed paper> ^ with a currency of gold and silver. “ The gold and silver money which circulates in any country,” he observes, “ may very properly be compared to a highway, which, while it circulates and carries to market* all the grass and corn of the country, produces itself not a,single pile of either. The judicious operations of banking, by providing, if I may be allowed so violent a metaphor, a sort of waggon-way through the air, enable the country to convert, as it were, a great part of its highways into good pastures and corn-fields, and thereby to increase very considerably the annual produce of its land and labour. The commerce and industry of the country, however, it must be acknowledged, though they may be somewhat augmented, cannot be altogether so secure, when they are thus, as it were, suspended on the Daedalian wings of paper money, as when they travel about upon the solid ground of gold and silver. Over and above the accidents to which they are exposed from the unskilfulness of the conductors of this paper money, they are liable to several others, from which no prudence or skill of these conductors can guard them.” [Wealth of Nations. Buchanan’s edit. Vol. I. p. 508.) The necessary effect of every system of paper currency is, to encourage the principle of commercial credit. This is, indeed, the foundation on which it is raised, and the more widely the circulation of paper is extended, the more closely will the mercantile community be knit together by the artificial ties of confidence and credit. Wherever there is trade, there must no doubt be credit. But where banks are generally established for the purpose of circulating paper money, credit must be augmented tenfold, seeing that, in such circumstances, no one can receive a payment without becoming a creditor. It is an evil, therefore, inseparable from any system under which a currency of the precious metals is supersed-

# Bonsanquet’s Observations on the Report of the Bullion Committee. f Inquiry into the Nature and Ejects of the Paper Credit of Great Britain, p. 293.

BANKING. 83 Bank'n'r. ed by one purely conventional, that while a useless cie gradually centre in the metropolis, the bankers Banking, expence is thereby saved to the community, and generally disposing of the property which they hold in while its capital also acquires an increased degree of the public funds and other Government securities, and activity, the trading part of society are brought into demanding from the Bank of England specie for such a state of general dependence, that every man whatever quantity of its notes they can collect. The may be said, in some degree, to rest upon his neigh- Directors of the Bank, astonished by this alarming bour, and the whole to rest upon the principle of confi- drain of their cash, naturally contract the circulation dence in each other. The banker’s notes obtain a gene- of their paper. But the transactions of the metroral circulation; no demand is made upon him for their polis having been hitherto managed with the most payment in cash, because the public believe that he exact frugality, both of notes and specie, this sudden has property to pay them. The banker, in like manner, diminution of its circulating cash must leave the moneydiscounts the merchant’s bills, from an opinion of his dealers unprovided with funds necessary for their imsolvency, and the merchant, in giving credit, is guid- mense payments, and must thusderange the wholeecoed by the same rule. Confidence, in short, is the nomyofthat complicatedsystem which has been raised charm which holds the whole together, and while this upon the frail foundations of confidence and credit. principle prevails, no evil will result from this com- The disorder arising in the metropolis, from a want of plicated system of credit. Bank-notes will circulate cash, will soon extend itself to the remotest extrefreely—there will be no great demand for specie— mities of the kingdom. In the mutual dependence and the merchant will always be enabled to convert created by credit and confidence, the failure of one his bills into cash. In these circumstances, every merchant involves others in the same fate, bankruptexpedient will be adopted to spare the use both of cies multiply in every quarter, and the alarm innotes and of specie. The merchant will naturally creases with such rapidity, as to threaten a general be anxious to reduce as low as possible the stock of subversion of credit and confidence throughout the cash which he reserves for occasional demands; in country. * many cases he will trust to accident for providing In such a disordered state of the circulation, all Policy to fa* funds, such as to the sale of his goods, or to his cre- the inferior banks are naturally induced, from a pru- adoP,ed by dit with his banker; while the banker, who provides dent regard to their own safety, to limit the issue of a cheap instrument of exchange in place of a more their notes, by which means the scarcity of cash is a disordered expensive one, and whose profit consists in lending it increased, and the evil greatly aggravated. But the state ffi® on the same terms, has, in like manner, a strong Bank of England cannot safely act on such a con* Circulation, inducement to increase the circulation of his paper, tracted policy ; for it is evident, that the general disand, trusting to his credit, to diminish the specie re- credit of bank-notes is occasioned by the alarm preserved for its payment. While the system is in this vailing in the country, and that, while this alarm conmanner strained to its utmost pitch, the merchants ma- tinues, the Bank may be drained of its specie by the naging the commerce of the country with the smallest most limited circulation of its notes, which will be possible quantity of paper, and the bankers circulating returned upon it as fast as they are issued. In all ' the paper with the smallest possible quantity of specie, such cases, therefore, the only safe course for the let us suppose, that from whatever cause, either from Bank to pursue, is rather to enlarge the circulation the alarms of war, or from a succession of bank- of its notes, that the alarm may be quieted, and that ruptcies, the principle of mercantile confidence be- the supply of currency may be perfectly adequate to gins to fail. In this case, the former ties by which effect the daily payments of London, of which the merchants were connected with each other are now punctual discharge is necessary to the solvency of broken ; the usual channels of circulation, by which a the country at large. It is not to be wondered at, small quantity of cash rapidly passing from one however, if the Bank, while the nature of paper cirhand to another, served for transacting the payments culation, and of the evils to which it is exposed, were of the community, are interrupted, and the money in but imperfectly known, should not always have uncirculation is, in consequence, found insufficient for the derstood its true interest, and should therefore have punctuality of mercantile payments. The supply of hesitated to embrace a policy so unusual, and appacurrency, however, in place of being increased, is rently so hazardous. In the course of the year 1793, Interrnpstill further diminished; the bankers, from the fears the country was agitated by a sudden and general t‘on natural to their situation, limiting the circulation of alarm. The scarcity of money was extreme, and dit in 179S‘ their notes, and refusing to accommodate the mer- paper was discredited. Numerous bankruptcies took chant, as before, by discounting his bills; and the place, and there was a great demand among the public, in their turn, discrediting the paper of the country banks for specie, which the Bank of Engbanks. This general failure of confidence immediate- land was as usual ultimately called upon to supply. ly produces alarming bankruptcies, many merchants Embanassed by the drain of its specie, the Directors stopping payments, not from a want of property, of the Bank refused to accommodate several great and but from a want of cash ; a run commences on the opulent country banks who applied for assistance, banks for specie, many of whom are, in consequence, and they were also unwilling to augment the issue of obliged to suspend their cash payments. The Bank their paper. Immediate and important failures enof England being the great repository of gold in this sued, and the increasing alarm and distress for money country, the demands of the country banks for spe- in London, plainly showed that the relief of the * Buchanan’s edition of Smith’s Wealth of Nations, additional volume, p. 99.

84 BANKING. Ranking, country was necessary to the solvency of the cumstances, therefore, namely, the alarm in the coun- Banking, metropolis. It did not appear, that, at this period, try—the discredit of country bank-notes—the pressing the notes issued by the Bank of England were fewer demands of those banks for specie, all centering in the than usual, but, owing to the failure of confidence metropolis,—and, lastly, the undue restriction of its among mercantile men, they circulated more slowly, issues by the Bank, such a scarcity of cash was proand they became in this manner inadequate to trans- duced in London, and such an alarm followed, that act the immense payments of London, with the same the run upon the Bank of England for specie, so far from abating, continued to increase with an alarmregularity as before. The Bank of England, not deeming it expedient to ing rapidity. In these circumstances, the Directors enlarge the issue of its paper, a remedy of exactly communicated to the Chancellor of the Exchequer the same nature was administered by Parliament. A an account of the precise reduction which had taken loan of Exchequer bills, to the amount, if required, place in the amount of their cash, the consequence of L. 5,000,000, was directed to be made to as many of which was, that an Order in Council was at length merchants, giving proper security, as should apply. issued, on Sunday the 26th February, restraining Such were the salutary effects of this measure, that the Bank from all further payments in specie. An the very expectation of a seasonable supply of what act of Parliament was soon after passed, confirming could be immediately converted into cash, diffused a the restriction on the cash payments of the Bank ; general feeling of confidence ; the punctuality of and this principle has been since continued, by sucthe London payments was restored, and the credit cessive acts of Parliament. By the last act, passed of the country began to recover. Of the sum pro- in April 1816, it is continued for two years from posed to be granted by Parliament, applications were that date. An event so unlooked-for and unprecedented as a made for L. 3,855,624, some of which being either rejected or withdrawn, the actual sum issued from the stoppage of payments by the Bank of England, proExchequer amounted to L. 2,202,000, which was duced, at first, a general feeling of astonishment and punctually repaid without either apparent diffiwdty or alarm ; and as the executive government had interdistress. The effect of this measure was to supply the fered, on its own discretion, to suspend the obligacommunity with a temporary currency, in place of tions of the Bank to its creditors, it was necessary that which had fallen into discredit, or which had that the sanction of the Legislature should be obtainbeen withdrawn from circulation by the caution of ed for this extraordinary exercise of power. The the banks ; and its advantages were evinced by the whole matter being therefore referred to the consispeedy restoration of mercantile confidence, and by deration of Parliament, long and anxious discussions the increased facility of raising money, which was took place, on the causes which had given rise to previously felt both in the metropolis and in the this great convulsion in the mercantile world, and country at large. * on the policy to be pursued, in a state of things so wholly unexpected. Parliamentary committees were InternipThis state of confidence continued, with little intion of Cre-terruption, until the year 1795. At this period, the appointed, with power to examine the officers of the dit in 1797, Bank, in consequence of the large advances which it Bank, both as to the general state of its affairs, and ^had made to Government, was under the necessity as to the circumstances which led to its present emPayments °f retrenching the sum usually allotted for the dis- barrassments ; and by the labour of these committees, hy the Bank count of mercantile bills. A scarcity of cash was joined to the able publications of individuals on the of Englanii. soon felt among the merchants and money-dealers of subject, such a precise and accurate account has the metropolis, and the threatened invasion of the been collected respecting all the facts of this extracountry, during the year 1796, concurred to spread ordinary case, that it has not only been made clear a general alarm, which naturally gave rise to the dis- in itself, but a new and steady light has been thrown, credit of bank-notes, and to a demand for specie. by the information disclosed, on the general princiAbout this period, several banks in the north of Eng- ples of paper currency. We shall briefly consider, land were under the necessity of suspending their cash on these general principles, to what causes this mepayments, and the alarm of these failures soon reach- morable suspension of cash payments by the Bank of ing the metropolis, the Bank of England was sub- England was chiefly owing. jected, about the beginning of the year 1797> to an It is obvious, from the very nature of banking, Dancers to alarming drain of specie, partly to supply the de- that the stock of specie reserved by a bank for the which mand of the country banks, and partly from the re- payment of such demands as may be made upon it, Banks of ^ turn of its own discredited notes. In order to check cannot bear any proportion to the amount of its ^!e eSp0S. this increasing pressure, the Bank diminished the notes in circulation ; and that, if a certain proportioned, circulation of its notes, which having, for several of these notes should at any time be suddenly returnyears before, amounted to nearly L.l 1,000,000, and ed for payment, a suspension of its cash payments having been reduced, for some time, to between must be the inevitable consequence. This is an evil L.9,000,000and L.l0,000,000, were, at this particular inherent in the very nature of paper currency, period, brought down to between L.8,000,000 and against which no caution can duly provide, since the L.9,000,000. From a combination of all these cir- profit of the banker is exactly in proportion to the * Report of the Commissioners to the House of Commons. Thornton On Paper Credit, p. 51. Buchanan’s edition of Smith’s Wealth of Nations} additional volume, p. 102. Edinburgh Review, \o\. IX. P- 193.

banking. Banking, excess of his circulating paper over the specie reser- ture abroad, may undoubtedly be exposed to an in- Banking, convenient drain of its specie, it seems scarcely pos- ^v^ved for its payment. A bank, and more especially a national bank, may sible that this drain can be so rapid as to endanger be subjected to demands for specie from either of its credit. It is not in the nature of trade to prothe two following causes : 1st, From an unfavourable duce any such sudden and unexpected crisis. The operations of trade always leave time for some prebalance of trade ; or, 2dly, From domestic alarm. 1. When the imports of a nation exceed its ex- vious arrangement, and they have generally some ports, a balance of debt will remain due to foreign respect also to the convenience of all the parties countries; and in the country which owes the ba- concerned. It is well known, for example, that in lance there will be a greater demand for money the case of a heavy accumulation of foreign debt, from abroad than for money at home. If the unfa- whatever cause, the balance is more frequently disvourable balance of trade continues, the demand charged by an exportation of goods than of specie. for money abroad, with which the balance may be The effect of foreign debt is to depress the exchange; discharged, will increase, and foreign money, or bills an unfavourable exchange, or, in other words, the on foreign bankers, will be sold for a premium. In high price of money abroad, operates as an inducethis case, there arises a temptation to export the ment to export goods; the exporter, besides his coin of the country, which, from the state of trade, usual profit, gaining an additional profit equal to the has become more valuable abroad than at home ; and difference of the exchange. It will always be obwhere a national bank is established, whose notes served, therefore, that a great foreign expenditure is are convertible into cash at the will of the holder, it very soon followed by a large exportation of goods, may undoubtedly be exposed, by an unfavourable and though specie may be partly remitted for its disbalance of trade, to demands for specie to a consi- charge, the produce of the country is found to anderable amount. But, in the nature of things, the swer the purpose equally well. From the year 1793 drain of specie from this cause must be slow and to 1797> the foreign exportation of this country on gradual, and where a bank has ample funds where- the Continent of Europe and to the West Indies, with to purchase specie, it can hardly ever, in this amounted to L. 33,510,779 ;* and in consequence case, be driven to the exceptionable measure of sus- of these heavy expences abroad, the Bank was subpending its cash payments. The Bank of England jected to demands for specie to a considerable has frequently been exposed, from this or from simi- amount. But though the Directors of the Bank, in lar causes, to a regular drain of its specie; but its their correspondence with the Government, comcredit was in no danger from those demands, because plain heavily of the loss of specie which the Bank its coffers could always be replenished as fast as they had experienced, and though, in February 1796, were exhausted. Prior to the great recoinage, in they even go the length of formally recording it as 1774, the gold currency of this country was in a their opinion, that any farther advance to the Emvery debased state ; the market price of gold rose, peror of Germany, or any foreign state, would be in consequence, above its mint price; and the value fatal to the Bank, j- this opinion seems evidently of bank-notes was lowered to the standard of the to have been the result of undue apprehension, and debased coin, for which they were currently inter- to have been expressed strongly for the purpose of changed. In these circumstances, it was a profit- deterring the Chancellor of the Exchequer from perable transaction to procure bank-notes for their no- severing in his system of lavish advances to foreign minal price in light and worn guineas, and to return powers, the effect of which, they justly conceived, them upon the Bank for the same nominal price in would be injurious to the Bank, by subjecting it to a guineas of their standard weight, which last were farther and very inconvenient drain of its specie. But melted down and sold for bank-notes at the market since, in the course of the three several years of 1794., price of bullion ; and these notes were immediately 1795, and 179t), the foreign expenditure of the counreturned upon the Bank in exchange for a new sup- try amounted to something more than L. 8,000,000, ply of standard guineas, to be again melted and sold. L.11,000,000, and L. 10,000,000, without injuring In consequence of this state of the currency, the the credit of the Bank, it can hardly be believed Bank of England was subjected to a constant and that an additional expenditure of L. 3,000,000, or regular drain of its specie, and to a very great an- even L. 4,000,000, could have given such a sudden nual expence in replacing the guineas of which it shock to its credit, as to have occasioned the suswas drained. But there was no risk that this drain, pension of its cash payments. Nor do the Directors, hovyever expensive and troublesome, would ever lead although they express generally their uneasiness at to a suspension of its cash payments, because it was the drain of their specie, ever seem to have contemregular and gradual, and subject to calculation ; so plated such a catastrophe. On the contrary, the that, as long as the Bank had wherewithal to pur- Governor and Deputy-governor, when examined bechase guineas, they could always be provided in suf- fore the Secret Committee of the House of Lords, ficient quantity to answer the demand. state that they did not apprehend imminent danger In like manner, though a public bank, from an un- previous to the 21st February 1797. j: From all favourable balance of trade, or from a great expendi- these circumstances, therefore, it appears that the * Report of the Lords* Committee of Secrecy, Appendix, p. 107f Copy of a Resolution of the Court of Directors of the Bank of England, 11th February 179f). Report of the Lords’ Committee of Secrecy, p. 80. t Report of the Lords Committee of Secrecy, Minutes of Evidence, p, 11.

See

BANKING. 1

Banking, drain of specie to which the Bank was subjected in v consequence of the great foreign expenditure of the country previous to the year 1797. or in consequence of any unfavourable balance of trade, though constant, was confined within certain limits; that provision could have been made for it; and that, though it imposed on the Bank a certain annual expence, yet, with due exertion to procure the necessary supplies of specie, it could never have been fatal to the credit of so great an establishment. 2. The drain of specie to which a great national bank may be subjected from the prevalence of a general alarm, is in all respects different from that which may be produced by a great foreign expenditure, or by the fluctuations of trade. The impulse given by panic is, in its very nature, sudden and instantaneous. It generally terminates also, and that speedily, in some violent crisis. If we suppose, therefore, that a bank, which circulates its notes extensively, suddenly falls into discredit, that from some unknown cause, a sudden suspicion of its solvency seizes all the holders of its notes, it is obvious that all these persons, under the violent impulse of their fears, will rush at once to the bank with notes in exchange for specie ; and it is equally certain, that whatever funds a bank may ultimately possess, its stock of specie must be speedily exhausted by such a sudden inundation of its discredited notes. In this case its cash payments must be suspended for a time, until the alarm of its creditors be dissipated by a full disclosure of its affairs. Such being the fatal operation of domestic alarm on the credit of a bank, it can scarcely be doubted that this was the immediate cause of the catastrophe which befel the Bank of England in 1797; more especially, as we find that

it was exposed for more than two years to the drain Bauking of specie occasioned by foreign expenditure, without any injury to its credit, while one single week or little more of domestic alarm, terminated in a suspension of its cash payments. On Tuesday the 21st February, the Directors of the Bank were so alarmed by the increasing demand for specie, that they communicated to the Chancellor of the Exchequer the precise reduction which had taken place in the amount of their cash. In the course of the preceding week, the drain of guineas had been considerable ; but after Tuesday the 21st, it continued increasing with the most alarming rapidity, insomuch that, according to the evidence of the Directors, the demand for specie, on the two last days of the week, exceeded that of the four preceding days. This is the great and conclusive fact, which points at once to the cause of the ruin which was impending over the Bank. It was not so much the actual loss of specie which excited apprehension, its cash having been lower both during the American war and in the year 1782 ; but the unparalleled rapidity with which the drain increased, was the alarming circumstance which defied all precautions, and which finally rendered the suspension of cash payments by the Bank an act of overruling necessity. Its stock of specie had no doubt been previously reduced by the demand arising from an unfavourable balance of trade, and this would naturally tend to bring matters more speedily to a crisis. But however well replenished the Bank might have been with specie, the demand was increasing at such an accelerated rate, that, in the course of a few days more, it would have been quite sufficient, without the help of any other cause, to have drained it of its last guinea. *

* That the embarrassments of the Bank were occasioned by the demand at home is plain, from the following evidence of Mr Giles and Mr Raikes, before the Lords’ Committee of Secrecy:— Mr Giles was examined as follows :— “ Has the Bank of England lately experienced an unusual drain of cash ?—Most certainly. “ Are you able to ascertain how far this drain was wholly, or in part, occasioned by demands for cash from different parts of the country ?—It was owing, in great part, to demands from the country : indirectly from the country, but directly from the bankers in London (who are to supply the country) upon us. tt Whether, by the eftects of this drain, the balance of cash remaining in your hands has been reduced considerably below the amount at which it has usually been maintained?—The cash of the Bank has, of late, been considerably reduced. I have known it a great deal lower ; but, on this occasion, the demands have been unparalleledly rapid; they have, of late, been progressively increasing, but, in the last week, particularly so ; and we had every reason to apprehend that these demands would continue, and even increase. “ Whether such reduction had been continuing in an increased proportion to the balance remaining in your hands up to the date of the minute of Council transmitted to you ?—We have generally answered this question in our preceding answer ; but, we beg leave to add, that the demands have been progressively increasing in the course of the last week, -and in the last two days exceeded the demands of the four preceding days.” Mr Giles and Mr Raikes were examined as follows:— “ Do you think the restriction made by the order of Council of the 26th of February was necessary ?— Certainly. “ Do you consider it as necessary to the interest of the Bank ?—The rapid drains we had upon the Bank, and the continuance of them, made us think it advisable to communicate to his Majesty’s Ministers the situation of the Bank, that they might, in their wisdom, use such means as they might think expedient. # « When was that communication made to the Chancellor of the Exchequer ?—We think the first was on Tuesday the 21st of February; the drains not only continued but increased, and so rapidly the last day or two, that we communicated it to the Chancellor of the Exchequer on Saturday, and had the honour to meet 4iis Majesty’s Ministers on the Sunday,

87 BANKING. Bankin'; .ankiiig. The act restricting the Bank of England from cur, we may observe, that the foreign exchanges of a N ,' paying its notes in specie, or rather the act by which country may be influenced by the state of its currency ] asons for obtained this privilege, was, when it was first pass- at home, as well as by an unfavourable balance on its ' « ed, justified by the necessity of the case. The alarm foreign trade ; and as it is of the first importance to |i »of Cash was so general, that no other expedient remained to mark the distinction between anunfavourable exchange ] yments save the credit of the Bank. But all sudden and proceeding from the state of trade, and an unfavour1 ,lie Ba,lk violent alarms are in their own nature of short dura. able exchange proceeding from the state of the currenIuldered ^on ; an(* w^en Parliamentary inquiry, which cy, since the least want of accuracy in this essential I ’ was commenced into the affairs of the Bank, disclos- point must throw the whole subject into confusion, it ed in its favour a large balance of accumulated pro- is material to remark, that the unfavourable state of fits, all suspicion of its solvency, and all farther alarm, the exchange, and the demands for specie to which was immediately done away. In these circumstan- the Bank was in consequence exposed, which are ces, the privilege of refusing specie for its notes be- urged by Mr Thornton as reasons for continuing the ing still continued to the Bank, it was necessary to restriction on cash payments, have always been asjustify this proceeding on different grounds from cribed by those who deny the necessity of that re; those urged in favour of the original measure; and striction, not to the state of trade, but to the deprewith this view, Mr Thornton, the great advocate of ciation of the paper, in consequence of that overthe Bank, insists, that, to have enforced the resump- issue which they maintain to have taken place very tion of cash payments, after they were once suspend- soon after the Bank was released from its obligaed, at any subsequent period of the last war, would tion of paying in specie. Mr Thornton insists, * have endangered the credit of the Bank as much as that if the Bank had been opened to demands when the first restriction act was passed ;—that, after for specie, it might, in consequence of the unfathe conclusion of peace, the country was embarrassed vourable state of the exchange, have been exby an unfavourable balance of trade, proceeding hausted of its cash ; and that, to guard against this, chiefly from the necessity of making large importa- it was still necessary to continue the suspension of tions of corn, in order to supply the deficiencies of its cash payments. According to the opposite hytwo successively bad crops,—that the Bank must, in pothesis, it is maintained, that the state of the exconsequence, have been exposed to a continual drain change, to which Mr Thornton refers, was connectof its specie,—and that the restriction on its cash ed not with the state of the trade, but with the state payments was, therefore, still necessary, as a securi- of the currency,—that the Bank being now closed against any return of its notes, had issued them in ty against this danger. We have already endeavoured to show, that the excess,—that having, in consequence, fallen in value, drain of specie to which an unfavourable balance of it became profitable to return them upon the Bank trade may subject the Bank, can never be such as to for specie,—that the demand for specie, of which endanger its credit, because, in such cases, the de- the advocates of the Bank complain, was in reality mand is neither so rapid nor so considerable as to produced by the depreciation of its own notes,—and preclude the Bank from providing the necessary sup- that the reasons, therefore, assigned by Mr Thornton ply of gold. Where trade is in such a state, indeed, for the continuance of the restriction, rather prove the Bank will be exposed to a considerable annual the necessity of reinforcing on the Bank the obligaexpence in procuring specie. The punctual and ho- tion of paying in cash, by which means its currency nourable discharge of its obligations to the public being restored to the value from which it had fallen, will frequently be found to be both inconvenient and the demand for specie would have ceased; and Bankexpensive, and its Directors will naturally be desirous notes and specie would have been demanded indiscrito be free from that which increases responsibility, minately. The one would have answered all the and diminishes profit. But, unless in the case of a purposes of the other, and the business of the general alarm, and discredit of bank-notes, it does country would have been transacted, as before, not seem that a suspension of cash payments can with a mixed currency of paper and of gold. It ever be necessary to the safety of a bank. It de- is not to be supposed, indeed, that there were no serves to be considered also, that an unfavourable such occurrences in the history of the country, prebalance of trade, accompanied by an unfavourable vious to the year 1797, as unfavourable balances of exchange, is in its own nature of short duration. It trade, large importations of corn, in consequence of is an evil which tends to redress itself; a large im- scarcity, and heavy foreign expenditure, in conseportation of goods, necessarily leading to an exporta- quence of war. The Bank, from the time of its first tion in the same proportion. But, although it is not establishment, has had to encounter all the fluctuaconsistent with the plan of the present article to en- tions incident to peace or war. It has also been exter fully into the subject, for the consideration of posed to drains of specie from unfavourable balances which at greater length other opportunities will oc- of trade, as well as from the debased state of the “ Were not the drains from Tuesday the 21st of February to the Saturday inclusive, much greater and more rapid than they had been in the whole of the preceding week ?—Certainly ; they were unexampled. “ Did you apprehend imminent danger previous to Tuesday the 21st ?—We cannot say we did. “ When did you first apprehend imminent danger ?—We cannot say we apprehended any imminent danger, but from the fears of the drains continuing. Not wishing to risk the drains continuing, we submitted it to the Chancellor of the Exchequer.”—Report of the Lords’ Committee of Secrecy. Minutes, March J797« * Inquiry into the Nature and Effects of the Paper Credit of Britain, p. 115.

BANKING. 88 Banking, currency ; but it was not until the year 1797> that ducted their affairs with prudence, they have ge- Banking, its Directors, as a security against those inconve- nerally increased their original capital, and on this niences, bethought themselves of the singular ex- account have acquired a great degree of respectapedient of dishonouring their own notes. In form- bility and credit. It is a well known fact, that er periods too, the credit of the Bank was nearly among the Scotch banks failures have been much subverted by domestic alarm. A case of this na- less frequent than among the country banks in Engture occurred in the reign of Queen Anne, when, land. In no country, perhaps, has banking been carried Bailk °f from the apprehension of a French invasion, the ile dnd * Bank was assailed by an alarming demand for specie. to such an injurious excess as of late years it has been in Ireland. The national Bank of Ireland was The alarm, however, as is usual in all such cases, soon passing away, the credit of the Bank was entire- established in 1788, with an original capital of ly re-established, and payments in specie were of L.600,000, raised by subscription, which was lent to course continued during the remainder of the war. government at an interest of 4 per cent. It was The Directors did not venture upon the bold step placed under the management of a governor, deputyof making a temporary alarm a pretext for the per- governor, and fifteen directors ; eight of whom, includmanent suspension of their cash payments. They ing the governor and deputy-governor, were to form reserved this extreme remedy for extreme cases, not a court of directors, for managing the concerns of thinking it applicable to those ordinary casualties the Bank. They were eligible every year, and it was provided that one third, at least, of the directors to which all banks are necessarily exposed. Bank of At the time when the Bank of England suspend- should be annually changed. In 1809, the Bank of Ireland obtained a renewal cas i io.c^ ^ Payments» a hnv was passed, protecting a of its charter for twenty-one years, on condition that ic,°a!*iVi'ider'debtor who offered its notes in payment against arrest, though his creditor, by a common action of debt,' its capital should be increased by L. 1,000,000 of might Still recover payment in guineas, the legal cur- stock, to be raised from the proprietary at the rate rency of the country. In 1810, when guineas be- of L. 125 per cent., and to be lent to government at gan to be currently sold for 25s. and 26s. in paper, 5 per cent, per annum. The Bank also agreed to a law was passed prohibiting this traffic, and impos- continue the management of the public debt and ing severe penalties on those who should exchange loans, free of expence to government, during the conbank-notes for less than their nominal value in gold. tinuance of its charter. In 1797, when the Bank of England suspended its Tenants, who offered payment of their rents in banknotes, were at the same time protected against dis- cash payments, the same privilege was extended to tress, though they were still liable to a common ac- the Bank of Ireland, and after this period its circution of debt or of ejectment. In 1811, inconse- lation was rapidly increased. The following is an quence of a great landed proprietor announcing that account of the amount of its notes in circulation at he would exact payment of his rents in guineas, an different periods: act was passed, protecting a debtor who offered Bank of England notes in payment of his debt against all 1797 L. 621,917 1801 2,266,471 farther proceedings. The paper of the Bank of 1802 2,678,980 England became, in this manner, legal tender for all 1803 2,633,864 existing debts, however depreciated it might be in 1804 2,986,999 its value, and the law conferring upon it this import1805 2,902,438 ant privilege still continues in force. 1806 2,465,710 Chartered jn Scotland, banking has been generally carried on 1807 2,818,140 1808 2,732,483 Scotland great prudence and success. There are at pre1809 3,141,410 ° ’ sent, in the metropolis of Scotland, three banks incor1810 porated by charter, namely, the Bank of Scotland, established by act of Parliament in 1695 ; the Royal This increased circulation of paper appears to Bank, established by royal charter in 1727; and the British Linen Company, originally incorporated in have exceeded the wants of the community, since it 1746, with a capital of L.l00,000, for the encourage- was followed by rise in the price of bullion, and ment of the linen manufacture, but afterwards con- by the depression of the exchange. About the verted into a bank, for the issue of promissory-notes, year 1804, this evil had proceeded to such an exand the discounting of bills. Those different banks, tent, that guineas were openly advertised and sold besides their annual dividends, have been accumu- for a premium of 10 per cent., and the exchange lating a fund of undivided profit, which they have, with London was about 17 per cent, against from time to time, been adding to their original ca- Dublin. From this depreciation of the notes of the pital. The Bank of Scotland and the Royal Bank, national Bank many serious evils arose. The silver have each a capital of L.l,000,000, with an additional currency, which circulated in Ireland, was generally L.500,000 subscribed for, but which has never been in a debased state, and the intrinsic value of the ditcalled up. The capital of the British Linen Company ferent coins was not equal to the value for which was lately increased from L.200,000 to L. 500,000. they were current. But by the fall which had taken Of the country banks in Scotland, it may be re- place in the notes of the Bank of Ireland, those demarked, that in most cases they have been establish- based silver coins became more valuable in the form ed on the security of ample funds; and having con- of bullion than in the form of currency. They 3

BAN KING. 89 lankinsr. were, accordingly, all melted down, and the com- ent banks in Paris were consolidated into one great Banking. " munity being in consequence exposed to the great- national bank, called the Bank of France, by an act of est inconvenience, their place was supplied in Dub- the imperial government. The act establishing this lin and other parts by counterfeits, and in seve- bank fixed its capital at 45,000,000 francs, equal to ral districts by a paper currency, issued for sums L. 1,875,000 Sterling, to be divided into 45 000 gradually decreasing from 6s. to 6d., and even shares of 1000 francs each. It was vested with the to 3d. It is calculated by several persons, who exclusive privilege of issuing promissory-notes, paygave evidence before a committee of the House of able on demand, in consideration of which, it made Commons in 1804, that, about this time, there were large advances to government. Its business was to dispersed throughout Ireland 295 issuers of this pa- discount bills of exchange, notes, or bonds ; but it per money, chiefly consisting of a motley body of was prohibited from carrying on any commerce, exshopkeepers, merchants, and petty-dealers of all de- cept in cash or bullion. The administration of the scriptions. The country wTas inundated with this Bank of France was committed to fifteen directors exceptionable currency, and it was the occasion of and three censors, and to these was added a council such general inconvenience, as well as of such nume- of discount, consisting of twelve of the principal rous forgeries and frauds, that the circulation of notes merchants in Paris, who were to have the privilege for such small sums was at length prohibited by law. of a vote in all matters relative to the discounting of Notwithstanding the prohibition, those notes still con- bills. The great body of the proprietors were retinued to circulate, the law was evaded by various presented by 200 delegates, chosen from among those contrivances, and the want of a better currency secur- possessed of the greatest number of shares, who were ed their circulation. The Bank of Ireland has since to meet annually, or oftener if they were required. made an issue of stamped dollars, which, by supply- To this assembly the affairs of the Bank were to be ing the wants of trade, has, in a great measure, re- annually submitted, and the members of the council of discount were to state, whether, in granting dismedied the evil complained of. The premium on guineas, which, in 1804, was 10 counts, the directors had conformed to the general per cent., has since greatly declined, and the foreign rules established to regulate their proceedings. These exchanges of Ireland have also become more favour- 200 representatives were also to elect the directors, of able. In 1808, guineas were exchanged for paper whom three, and the censors, of whom one, were to at a premium of 8d., and paper has since risen nearly be annually changed. It was provided that the dito par. As the Bank of Ireland has increased, in vidend for the year (1804) should not exceed eight place of diminishing, its circulation, since 1804, the per cent., to be paid half-yearly, and that whatever cause of this rise in the value of paper must be profit remained should be invested in the public funds, sought for in the retrenchment of the notes of other and allowed to accumulate as a fund of reserve against banks. It appears, accordingly, that the number of contingencies. The exclusive privileges of the Bank provincial banks has, of late years,been very consider- were granted for fifteen years, commencing from the ably diminished in Ireland, and that of fifty banks which year 1804. issued notes in the year 1804, not more than nineteen Under these regulations, the Bank of France comremained in 1812, the others having either failed or menced its operations ; and during the first year of withdrawn from business. * The extinction of so its establishment, its profits amounted to 4,185,937 large a portion of the currency would necessarily in- francs (L. 174,414), being rather more than 12 crease the value of what remained in circulation. per cent, upon its original capital. Of this sum, 8 The price of Irish bank-stock has been greatly im- per cent, was divided among the proprietors; the reproved in value within the last twenty years. The mainder was invested in 5 per cent, stock, as a fund following is an account of its price at different periods: of reserve ; and in the following year, the net profit amounted to4,652,398 francs(L. 193,850). In the lat90 per cent. 1798 January ter part of the year 1805, the Bank of France was con115 1799 January siderably embarrassed by the drain of its specie, which, 1802 January 179 in 1806, continued to increase with such rapidity, that 140 1804 January the Bank was obliged to suspend its cash payments. 1810 189 Various causes are assigned for this catastrophe, which 214 1816 September seems to have chiefly originated in the necessity of Dividend on Irish bank-stock at different periods. making large remittances of specie to the armies then 1798 per cent. engaged in the Austrian war—in the great advances 1801 6f of the Bank to the Government—in the over issue of 1803 7£ its notes—and finally, in vague and unfounded alarms Bonus in 1803 5 which generally prevailed respecting its solvency. 1816 10 Its notes fell from their standard value, and were exnk of In France the progress of banking, as of every changed at a discount for specie. The exchange mce. other domestic improvement was retarded by the with the country of France became at the same time convulsions of the revolution. But in the year unfavourable to Paris, to the amount of 12 per 1803, when the peace of the continent appeared to be cent.; and the Bank having restricted its discounts, secured, and tranquillity prevailed at home, the differ- several important bankruptcies took place, which * Wakefield’s Statistical and Political Account of Ireland, Vol. II. p. 171. VOL. II. PART I. M

BANKING. 90 Banking, tended greatly to increase the general alarm.* After their engagements to the public. This bank, like the Banking. the peace of the Continent was re-established by the Bank of England, has frequently been employed as a treaty of Presburg, the advances made by the Bank great engine of state; its funds have been diverted to the government were punctually repaid, and pay- from their proper purposes to assist in the great ments in cash were resumed about the commence- emergencies of the public service; and its directors, ment of the year 1806. In the course of this year yielding to the pressure of temporary demands, have also, in consequence of a decree of the imperial go- been forced, for a time, to suspend their payments vernment, a change took place in the administration in cash. But the Bank of France has always resumof the Bank. In place of fifteen directors, its aifairs ed the ordinary cou. se of its payments as soon as the were committed to a governor and two deputy-go- alarm and the demand for specie began to abate ; vernors, who were to be appointed by the Emperor. while the Bank of England, having once obtained At the same time, its capital, consisting of 45.000 a dispensation from its obligations to the public, shares of 1000 francs each, was increased to 90,000 seems ever since to have been intent on securing the continuance of this privilege. The example of the shares, or to 90,000,000 of francs. The new shares were disposed of by the Bank to Bank of France, which, though it suspended its cash great advantage, and in consequence of this acces- payments, in consequence of the pressure arising sion to its capital, it was enabled considerably to ex- from domestic alarm, resumed those payments as soon tend its operations. By an imperial decree issued at as the alarm began to subside, may serve to expose Bayonne, in the year 1808, it was authorized to the insufficiency of the arguments urged in this counestablish branches in some of the chief provincial try in favour of the continued suspension of cash paytowns; and establishments of this nature were begun ments by the Bank of England. The circumstances at Lyons and Rouen, for the purpose of circulating of the two banks appear to have been precisely simibank-notes, and of discounting bills of exchange. But lar, and no reason can be imagined to justify the the merchants of these towns, though they willingly one more than the other in continuing to refuse payreceived accommodation from the banks, showed no ment of its notes. The following is a statement of the affairs of the disposition to circulate their notes. Almost all the notes issued were immediately returned on the Bank Bank of France on the 12th August 1816: f for payment; and it is worthy of remark, that neither Francs. L. the notes of the ancient Caisse d’Escompte, nor those 90,000 shares of 1000 francs of the present Paris Bank, have ever obtained any (L. 45 each), 90,000,000 4,125,000 990,000 general circulation in the country of France. Fund of undivided profit, 21,600,000 In 1814, when France was invaded by the com111,600,000 5,115,000 bined armies of Europe, the Bank of Paris was called upon to make large advances to government, and, at this period, its notes in circulation, joined to its Investment of this Capital, other engagements, exceeded by about 20 millions Francs. L. of francs the value of the specie, and other effects of which it was possessed. A general alarm began In the 5 per cent. Consol. (from which a revenue is to prevail; the Bank was exposed to a ruinous drain derived of 2 millions), 33,500,000 1,395,834 of its specie; and on the 18th January a resolution was adopted, not entirely to suspend its cash pay- In shares of its own, which it has repui'chased (which ments, but to limit the sum to be paid in cash to has the same effect as if, 500,000 francs per day, arid not to pay more to each by the rules of its instituindividual than 1000 francs. In February the Bank, tion, the number of shares having made the necessary arrangements, resumed had been more limited), 25,500,000 1,062,500 its payments in cash for all sums, and during the siege and capture of Paris, it continued to pay in cash, Advances made to government on treasury-bonds, even while the cannon thundered at the gates of the or other securities bearcity. In like manner, during the subsequent invasion 26,000,000 1,083,333 ing interest, of the country in 1815-, payments in cash were not, nor 166.666 4,000,000 have they ever been since suspended even for a day. Property, 22,600,000 941,667 In all the trying situations in which they have Specie and bills, been placed, the Directors of the Bank of France 111,600,000 4,650,000 appear to have displayed a laudable zeal to fulfil * Considerations sur L’Institution des principales Banques de VEurope, particulierement sur celle de France. Par M. Monbrion. 1805. Rapport fait a la Chambre de Commerce par une commission speciale sur la Banque de France, et les causes de la crise quelle a eprouvee. 1806. f The Editor was enabled to furnish the Writer of this article with some of these particulars in regard to the Bank of France, and with this statement of its affairs, by means of a communication kindly made to him by M. Jean-Batiste Say, dated at Paris, on the 14th August last (1816). M. Say is well known as the Author of Trade d’Economic Politique, in 2 vols. 8vo, a work, perhaps the most generally sound, instructive, and comprehensive, that has been published on that important science since the appearance of the Wealth of Nations.

BANKING. .91 Banking Debts owing by the Bank of France on the 12th improvement throughout the country, and banks Banking II , August 1816: have, in consequence, been established in all the II Janks for most considerable towns. In 1804, they were cal- Banks for Savings. Francs. L. Savings. The amount of its notes in culated, according to the most accurate computacirculation, - 70,000,000 2,916,667 tion that could be made, to amount to eighty, inAmount of deposits, - 20,000,000 833,334 cluding ten subordinate banks ; and the capital invested in this business was estimated at 50,000,000 90,000,000 3,750,000 of dollars, f % The principal American bank is that of the United For this sum the Bank has either specie in its cof- States, which was incorporated by an act of the Lefers, or good bills, generally at the short date of 45 gislature in 1791- By this act, it is provided, that days. If we add to this the sum of 22,600 francs in the capital stock shall consist of 10,000,000 dollars, bills and specie, already stated as part of its capital, it in 25,000 shares of 400 dollars each, one-fourth to follows that the Bank of France, on the 12th August be paid in specie, and three-fourths in 6 per cent. 1816, was possessed of effects to the amount of stock. The bank is restricted from taking more 112,600,000 francs (L. 4,691,667)- Of this sum it than 6 per cent, on their discounts, or from advanhad 41,000,000 francs in hard cash. cing more to government than 100,000 dollars. It The following is an account of the dividends from declares half-yearly dividends, which, from its esta1806 inclusive : blishment, have been 4 per cent., with two surplus dividends, one of 1 per cent., and the other of 2 per cent. The date at which it discounts bills is two Profit Divided. months. Francs. 1805-6. The late war in which America was involved with 72 per cent. 100 Dags of 1806,) Great Britain, seems to have occasioned consider20 to December 31. J able disorder in the state of her circulation. From the speech of the President to the Congress, in De1807. 82 1808. cember 1815, it would appear, that the public fi73 1809. nances and trade of the United States had been ex74 1810. posed to great inconvenience from the want of some 74 1811. uniform national currency, and from the disappear66 1812. ance of the precious metals. To remedy these evils, 69 75 1813. it was purposed to establish a new bank at Phila75 50 1814. delphia, on the security of such ample funds as should 60* 1815. engage universal confidence, and should thus give its 64 1816. half-yearly notes a free circulation through every part of the dividend. h 36 United States. A bill, for this purpose, was passed in the last Session of Congress, and it is understood, In the United States, banking has of late yeai mericnn that the capital required has been since subscrianks. kept pace with the general progress of wealth an bed. (o.)

BANKS I OR SAVINGS. The institutions pointed out by this designation constitute a variety of money-banks, in general, and, to a certain extent, partake of the nature of the class. Of money-banks, in general, the end is to afford to the owner of money two advantages; the first, safe custody for his money; the second, a profit by it, under the name of interest. Other advantages which banks afford, or are capable of being made to afford, it is not, for the present purpose, necessary to bring to view. bjects of The circumstances of the poor man lay him under is class many disadvantages, as compared with the rich. In Banks, this case, we find a particular example. The money* of the rich man, being in considerable quantity, easily finds individuals who will perform for it the func-

tions of banking, because it yields an adequate profit. The money of the poor man, being small in quantity, can find nobody to perform for it the functions of banking, because it is incapable of yielding an adequate profit. Let us consider the natural tendency of this situation of the labouring man. He can make no profit by money retained. He also lies under many chances of being unable to preserve it. The coarse and imperfect means for shutting his house, or any receptacle which it may contain, exposes his little treasure to the hand even of a clumsy depredator. Accordingly, we find, that persons in the lower situation of life, who acquire a reputation for the possession of hoards, are almost always robbed. If they are disposed to lend the

q° ma^e out this dividend, 194,238 francs were taken from the fund of undivided profit. T oee Economica, or Statistical Manual for the United States of America, p. 159> 160.

92 BANKSFOR Banks for fruit of their industry and frugality, their limited expev Sayings. rience 0f mankind makes them yield to the man who takes most pains to persuade them; and that is often the man who never means to pay them again, and who has, therefore, the strongest motives to take the measures necessary for gaining their confidence. Money is for two purposes. It is either tor present use, or future use ; and wisdom directs that it should be employed for the one or the other, according as, in either case, it is calculated to contribute most to happiness upon the whole. But the poor man is thus deprived, in whole, or in part, of the means of applying his money to future use. To this extent, therefore, even wisdom itself would direct him to employ it for present use, in whatever way it is capable of adding most to his enjoyments. Parsimony in such a case is hardly a virtue. The rich are commonly, we cannot say always, very severe observers of the conduct of the poor, and nearly as often unjust. Plow nearly universal among them are the exclamations against the improvidence of the poor! by which is meant the practice of devoting to present use the whole of their earnings, without reserving as great a portion of them as possible to future use. Amid these exclamations, the degree is totally forgot, in which the poor are deprived of the means of reserving money for future use, and the consequent propriety and prudence of devoting it wholly to present use. If human happiness is prodigiously improved by reserving for future use a proportion of the command which, over and above the necessaries of life, a man may possess over the means of enjoyment, it is surely desirable that this great instrument of happiness should, in the greatest degree possible, be provided for the most numerous, and in the same degree in which the most numerous, the most important portion of the race. To place it in the power of this portion of the race to secure a share of the good things of life for future use, a system of banking, adapted to their circumstances, is evidently, in the present state of society, in the highest degree desirable. It is one of the means, without which, or something equivalent, the end cannot be obtained. The question, respecting the utility of banks, adapted to the circumstances of the labouring branch of the population, being thus decided, it only remains, as should seem, to inquire, what is the sort of institution by which the advantages of a bank,—safe custody, and profit for money, can be most completely secured to this great class of the population. When this second question is resolved, the subject, it may be supposed, would be exhausted. The supposition, however, would be erroneous, and the exposition would still remain very imperfect, and even superficial. When it is ascertained, that banks for the cash of the poor would be useful to the poor, we should act very carelessly, if we remained contented with a mere vague conception of utility in general. To complete the inquiry, we should trace the subject in its ramifications, and pursue them to the very point of termination. We should not be satisfied with a belief that banks will, to some degree, and in some way, we know not what, be useful to the poor. We

SAVINGS. should ascertain, with accuracy, in what way or Barks fo( ways, and in what degree, they will tend to increase the happiness of this principal branch of the population. This is rendered more necessary, by the conduct of those who have chiefly undertaken the patronage of banks for this class of the population. They have been too lavish in their promise of beneficial effects from this desirable institution. They have stretched the vague idea of utility to any extent which suited their imaginations. There is nothing desirable for human beings which they have not described as the natural product of banks for the poor. Happiness and virtue are two things which they will be sure to produce in any quantity we please. But when gentlemen treat us with these extraordinary promises of good from Savings Banks, they take not sufficient pains to show the connection. They neglect to inform us how the events are to come about. They do not show in what manner, if the one set of things precede, the other things which they so largely predict, must all ol them follow. Now, this is not satisfactory. This is to assume and affirm, not to disclose. This is to beg the question, not to resolve it. This way of proceeding not only removes no uncertainty, it has a tendency to draw men upon false ground, and to recommend to them measures for practice founded upon mistaken notions of things, and therefore pregnant with the chances of evil. The first part of a sound and rational inquiry into DiffeI.ent the subject of Savings Banks would thus undoubt- views of i edly be, to defne the utility which the institution the Uti- j is calculated to produce; to ascertain exactly the hty J|k„eIy! ingredients of which the composition is formed, and the quantity in which it may be expected to exist. Banksl j For this purpose, it may be remarked, that the effects calculated to arise from the institution of Savings Banks are of two sorts ; 1st, the immediate; 2dly, the derived. The first result at once from the operations of the Bank. The second arise only from the first, and are, in reality, the effects of the effects. 1. The effects of the first stage,—the effects which immediately result from the operations of the Bank, are two,—safe custody for the money deposited, and, interest upon it. Of these effects no general exposition is required. They are known and familiar to every body. 2. The effects of these effects come next under review. They are more complicated, and far less easy to understand. It is expected that safe custody for money, and a profit by it, in the shape of interest, will produce a disposition to accumulate. This is the second stage. From this, other effects, which may be called effects of the third stage, are expected. The disposition to accumulate will produce industry and frugality, which implies temperance. 1 his is the third stage, and these are effects oi the third derivation. Industry and frugality will produce a reserve of wealth. This is the effect of the fourth stage, or fourth derivation.

BANKS FOR SAVINGS. 93 Banks for This reserve of wealth will produce an effect of so fast as the procreative power of the human con- Banks for Saving^^ tjie stagej namely, security against the miseries stitution increases consumers. Savings. ^ of want. This is the proposition which Mr Malthus added' The utility consists in these latter effects, the in- to the doctrine of population ; and it is undoubtedly dustry and frugality, the provision against the mise- a proposition of extensive import, pregnant with conries of want. These, then, are the ingredients of sequences of the greatest moment, and materially which the compound is formed. The question is, changing our views of the measures necessary to be in what degree it may be expected to be produced : pursued for improving the condition of mankind. in other words, what power can the banks in quesIt is perfectly evident, that, so long as men ars tion possess to produce among that class of the po- produced in greater numbers than can be fed, there pulation industry, frugality, and a provision against must be excessive misery. What is wanted then is, the miseries of want ? It is the resolution of this the means of preventing mankind from increasing so question which is required at the hands of every fast; from increasing faster than food can be inone by whom is undertaken an account of a system creased to support them. To the discovery of these of banking adapted to the circumstances of the means, the resources of the human mind should be poor. intensely applied. This is the foundation of all imIt is impossible to speak with any accuracy of the provement. In the attainment of this important end, circumstances of the most numerous class of the it is abundantly plain that there is nothing impractipeople, without bearing in view the principle of po- cable. There is nothing which offers any considerpulation, or the law according to which the multipli- able difficulty, except the prejudices of mankind. cation of the species takes place. Of this doctrine, one of the facts which it is on This law is by no means of recent discovery. It the present occasion peculiarly necessary to carry in had long in political philosophy been regarded as an view, is the mode in which the misery in question, established fact, that a nation is always peopled up the misery arising from the existence of a greater to its means of subsistence; that the only check to number of human beings than there is food to mainpopulation is the want of food ; that mankind, as tain, diffuses itself. Burke somewhat ingeniously expressed it, “ propaPor a share of the food which is brought into exgate by the mouthand that the number of men, if istence, the greater part of mankind have nothing to food were not wanting, would double, as the example give but their labour. Of those who are endeavourof America proved, every twenty or five and twenty ing to purchase food by their labour, there is not years. But after establishing this doctrine, the world enough for all; some must want. What is the conseemed a long time afraid to look it in the face, and sequence ? Those who are in danger of being left out glad to leave it in the situation into which it had in the distribution, offer more labour for the same been hi ought. At last, a period arose when men of quantity of food; that is to say, they agree to work for a certain description began to talk intemperately less wages ; by this competition, the wages of labour about the opinion, that the human condition was pro- are reduced, and made so low that they are not sufficigressive, and susceptible of indefinite improvement, ent to procure food for the families of all the labourers. and men of another description began to be alarmed Ihe whole are placed in the lowest and most afflictat this doctrine. ing state of poverty; and of those whose wants are In opposition to the persons who spoke with en- more than usually great, or supply more than usually thusiasm oi this susceptibility of improvement, under small, a portion must die, from the want of a suffithe name of the perfectibility of the human mind, Mr ciency of the necessaries of life. The state of wages is Malthus brought forward the principle of population. sufficient to afford the means of existence to as many It was. not enough for his purpose to say, that as the food produced can barely preserve alive; the supopulation ascended to the level of food; because perabundance, who, by their competition, have renthere was nothing in that relation inconsistent with im- dered thus miserable the situation of the rest, must provement, or opposite to the principles of perfectibi- inevitably perish. Whatever the state of production lity. He went, therefore, a step farther, and said, that in regard to food, the wages of the labourer are sufpopulation rose beyond the level of food ; a situation ficient to enable the labourers, as a body, to raise a. in which vice and misery must of necessity prevail, number of children sufficient to keep up the populaand unlimited progression was impossible. tion to the- level of the food. The labourer who has Though no part of the doctrine of Mr Malthus the number of children correspondent to that inhas been left uncontested, it is now, among thinking crease, has just enough to keep his family alive, and men, pretty generally allowed, that, excepting cer- no more. Those who have a greater than this numtain favourable situations, as in new countries, where ber, and not a greater than the usual means of prothere is unoccupied land of sufficient productiveness, curing food, must partially starve. which may be placed under cultivation as fast as This is the natural unavoidable condition of the men are multiplied, a greater number of human be- greater part of mankind, so long as they continue to ings is produced than there is food to support. produce numbers greater than can be fed. The This, it is understood, is the habitual condition of question then is, what are the effects which, in this human nature. The disposition of mankind to mar- situation of mankind, the institution of banks for ry, and the prolific power with which nature has ensavings of the poor are calculated to produce ? dowed them, cause a greater number of human be- theEvery thing, as we have already seen, is to be deings to be born than it is possible to feed; because rived through the medium of the disposition to acthe earth cannot be made to increase her produce cumulate.

BANKS E O R SAVINGS. 94 Banks for But the disposition to accumulate, as far as men children, their powers ot accumulation cease. But Banks far Savings. are wholly deprived of the means of accumulation, there is a previous hoard: What becomes ot it? is out of the question; for either it is wholly incaIt is either wholly expended, at the time of pable of existing, or exists to no manner of purpose, marriage, upon the furnishing of a louse ; 01 it is Of the labouring people, however, who have fa- not. . ... milies, all but those of whom the families are uncomIf it is wholly expended upon the furnishing ot monly small, or who possess uncommon advantages, a house, it contributes to present enjoyment, like are, according to the principle of population, either any other expence whatsoever; like that, for example, in a state of starvation, or upon the very brink of it, of a fine coat; and forms no longer a piovision and have nothing to accumulate. against a day of adversity and the evils of want. The unmarried part of the population, therefore, Let us suppose that it is not wholly expended those who have no families, or those who have very upon the furnishing of a house, but that a portion, at small ones, are those alone to whom the institution least, of it remains. This, it will be said, is reserved as of savings banks can present any motives whatsoever, a provision against want; and of this the beneficial The question is, what are the effects which will be effects may be reckoned sure. But abstracting from produced upon society by the motives which it pre- extraordinary cases of bad health, least common in sents to this reduced part of the population ? the earliest stage of the married life, and other exThat it will increase to a certain extent the dis- traordinary accidents, the first pressure will arise position to accumulate, maj? naturally be expected, from the increase of the family. After that number To how great an extent, general principles afford us of children is born, which exhausts the earnings of no means of very accurately foreseeing. We must the father, the birth of another child produces the wait for experience to determine. In the meantime, miseries of want. If there is no fund remaining f10n* we know that single persons are for the most part former accumulations, hardship introduces death, and young ; and that youth is not the season when the the amount of the population is thus, upon the whole, pleasures of the present moment are most easily kept down to the level of the food. If there is a vanquished by those of the future. The training of fund remaining from former accumulations, it will the human mind must be more skilful, and more now of necessity be consumed; and by its consumpmoral to avast degree, before this salutary power tion will enable the family to go on a little longer ; will belong to any considerable portion of the youth to rear a child or two more. But the numbei of in any class of the population, especially in the least children reared was before as great as there was food to instructed of all. maintain. If a greater number is raised, there is Let us next inquire the tendency which it will an excess of population, who bid against one another possess, whatever the degree in which it may be ex- for employment, and lower the wages of labour, pected to exist. Already, the great mass of the population were m a 1 In the first place, it will produce an abstinence state of unavoidable misery from the lowness of wages, from such hurtful pleasures as are attended with ex- An increase of poverty is now brought upon them ; pence. Under this description is included the plea- and their situation is rendered more deplorable than it sure of intoxicating liquors, and no other possibly was before. It is impossible not to consider this as whatsoever. There is hardly any other indulgence one of the effects, which a fund accumulated before on which any portion, worth regarding, of the earn- marriage, by the laborious pait of the community, ings of the poor is bestowed, which can at all deserve has a tendency to produce. And this is a tendency the name of hurtful, or from which there would be altogether noxious. any virtue in abstaining, if the means of obtaining it The greater part of those who have talked and were enjoyed in sufficient abundance. To this, then, written about savings banks have left the principle ot the moral effect of savings banks may be supposed to population altogether out of their view. They have, be very nearly confined. But assuredly this, if it can therefore, left out of their view that circumstance on be produced in any considerable degree, must be which the condition of the most numerous class of regarded as an effect of no ordinary importance. mankind radically, and irremediably, and almost Passing from the moral effects, we come to the wholly depends. Of course, their observations and accumulation which it may be in the power of the conclusions are of little importance, unmarried part of the population to make. To this, Others, whose minds are philosophical enough to and what may spring out of it, all the remaining ef- perceive the influence of the principle of population fects of savings banks are evidently confined. upon the condition of the great bulk of mankind, aie A part of the .unmarried population will make ac- of opinion, that savings banks will have a salutary cumulations, and undoubtedly they ought, if pos- effect upon the principle of population, and amehosible, to be provided with the means of doing so. rate the condition of mankind, by lessening the raLet us suppose that the greatest part of them pro- pidity with which they multiply. This is a specufit by those means. What consequences are we able lation of the deepest interest. If this be an effect of to foresee? savings banks, they will, indeed, deserve the attention Of unmarried persons there are few who are not and patronage of the philanthropist and the sage, looking forward to the married state, and few by The following is the mode in which the authors of whom, sooner or later, it is not entered. As soon this opinion believe that the happy effects which as persons of the lower class are married, or, at any they anticipate will take place. The means of prorate, as soon as they have a certain number of filing by the reserve of a portion of their earnings,

I

BANKS FOR S A V I N G S. Banks for which savings banks will provide for the unmarried state of the poor. In conjunction with other causes, Banks for Savings part Gf labouring people, will give them, it is sup- savings banks are not only desirable, but necessary. Savings. : posed, a taste for accumulation : Aware of the im- The noxious consequence will be, if those who have ' possibility of accumulating after marriage, their de- it in their power to do more, shall suppose that savsire of accumulation will make them defer the period ings banks are sufficient to do all, and there should of marriage : Of deferred marriages, the result will limit their exertions. Taken by themselves, it is at be a less numerous offspring : A smaller number of least a doubt whether savings banks may not propeople in proportion to the food will be reared: The duce as great a quantity of evil as good. ^ competition for food will be reduced ; the competition for hands will be increased ; wages will rise ; and the It now remains that we should give an account of History of cruel poverty of the mass of the population will be the measures which have been taken for the establish- Savings abated. ment of savings banks, and endeavour, if we can, to Banks* In this deduction, nothing is doubtful, unless the ascertain the most useful form which they are capacommencing step. If the desire created in young ble of receiving. persons for accumulation is sufficiently strong to proW e are not aware that the idea of an institution, duce any considerable postponement of the period of answering in any degree the description of a savings marriage, all the other effects will necessarily follow; bank, was in this country expressed in public before a reduced number of children ; an increased reward the year 17975 when a peculiar scheme for the maof labour; and a correspondent amelioration in the nagement of paupers, or persons deprived of the condition of the greatest portion of the race. Sav- means of maintaining themselves, was published by 1 ings banks will prove one of the most important in- Mr Bentham in \ oung’s Annals of Agriculture. It ventions, to which the ingenuity of man has yet given would require too long a digression to give an account existence. of this plan of Mr Bentham, which embraces a great It would be rash, however, to claim as an ascer- number of points, and would require an exposition tained fact, that savings banks will have the effect of considerable complexity. Of that plan, one part of retarding the period of marriage. There are per- consisted in the institution of what he distinguished sons who hold the very opposite belief. They say, by the name of afrugality bank. that what chiefly retards marriage at present among The series of wants to which it was by him desthe better part of the labouring population, among tined to operate as a remedy, were as follows: those who have a regard to appearance, and a value 1. Want of physical means of safe custody, such for respectability, is the want of means to provide as lock-up places ; thence, danger of depredation, the furniture of a house; that savings banks will en- and accidental loss. able them to provide that furniture at an earlier period 2. Difficulty of opposing and never-yielding rethan at present; and that the institution will there- sistance to the temptations afforded by the instrufore accelerate the period of marriage, increase the ments of sensual enjoyment, where the means of purnumber of those who cannot be fed, and thus add to chasing them are constantly at hand. the calamities of mankind. They ridicule the idea, 3. Want of the means of obtaining a profit by the that the love of saving will become, in the breast savings of the poor, or the use of them in portions ot young persons, a match for the passions which adapted to their peculiar exigencies. prompt them to marriage. 4. Want of a set of instructions and mementos If we consider accurately what takes place among constantly at hand, presenting to view the several mankind, we shall probably conclude that both ef- exigencies, or sources of demand for money in store, fects will be produced; that the love of saving will, and the use of providing it. no doubt, induce some persons to defer the period of He next proceeded to sketch the properties which marriage ; but that the means of furnishing a house, appeared to him to be desirable in a system of fruplaced at an earlier period within their reach, will gality banks, commensurate to the whole population produce the very opposite effect in regard to others. of the self-maintaining poor. These were, The question is, which class is likely to be the 1. Fund, solid and secure. most numerous ? and this is plainly one of those 2. Plan of provision all-comprehensive. questions to which no very certain answer can be 3. Scale of dealing commensurate to the pecuniagiven. But if we consider the strength of the pas- ry faculties of each customer. sions which urge to marriage, we shall probably sus4. Terms of dealing sufficiently advantageous to pect that it will not be easy for the love of saving to the customer. acquire an equal force in the breast of any consider5. Places of transacting business suitable ; viz. in able portion of persons who are young, whose educa- point of vicinity, and other conveniences. tion has been very bad, and who hence have little 6. Mode of transacting business accommodating. power either of foresight or of self-command. 7. Mode of operation prompt. Such are the different views which may be taken 8. Mode of book-keeping clear and satisfactory. of the effects which banks for the savings of the poor In the plan, however, of the bank which Mr Benwill produce. The exposition is useful to check the tham contemplated for answering the purposes which intemperate conclusions of enthusiastic patrons, and he thus described, he did not direct his view to that to show that much more than the mere institution simplest of all the forms of banking, the mere reof savings banks is necessary to produce any consi- ceipt of money, to be paid again with interest when derable amelioration, either in the physical or moral demanded; the form to which the patrons of savings

96 BANKS FOR SAVINGS. Banks for banks at present appear judiciously to confine their “ Extract from an Account of a Char italic Bank at Banks for Savings, attention. Mr Bentham’s proposal was to receive into Tottenham for the Savings of the Poor, by Mrs Wakefield. v-the frugality banks the deposits of the poor, not tor the mere purpose of yielding an interest, and being with“ For the purpose of providing a safe and condrawn when wanted, but to form or purchase an annuity for old age, when the power of earning wrould venient place of deposit for the savings of labourers, servants, and other poor persons, a charitable estabe either destroyed or impaired. That the accumulation of the poor might not, how- blishment has been lately formed at Tottenham, in ever, be confined to one exigency, though that the the county of Middlesex. It is guaranteed by six greatest, he proposed that this superannuation annui- trustees, who are gentlemen of fortune and responsity should be convertible, in the whole or in any part, bility, most of them possessing considerable landed into any other species of benefit, adapted to the exi- property. This renders it as safe and certain as ingencies of the owner. It might, for example, be stitutions of this kind can be, and insures it from converted into an annuity for an existing wife, in the that fluctuation of value to which the public funds event of widowhood. It might be converted into an are liable. The books are kept by a lady, and never annuity during the nonage of a certain number of opened but on the first Monday in every month, children. It might serve as a pledge on which to either for receipts or payments. Any sum is received borrow money. Part of it might be sold to raise a above one shilling ; and five per cent, is given for every 20s. that lies 12 kalendar months ; every permarriage fund, or it might be simply withdrawn. son so depositing money being at liberty to recal it, Mr Bentham then proceeded to compare the effects of a system of frugality banks with those of any day the books are opened; but no business is friendly or benefit societies. To this comparison, transacted at any other time. “ The money so collected is divided equally behowever, w^e cannot with any advantage proceed, till that other species of institution is first described. tween the six trustees. For every additional L.100, We are, therefore, inclined to reserve it wholly to the a new trustee is to be chosen; so that a trustee can article Benefit Societies, to which the reader is only risk his proportion of L.100. None but the labouring classes are admitted to this benefit; and referred. as to place of residence. It is somewhat remarkable, that no allusion which there is no restriction “ OBSERVATIONS. we can perceive in any of the numerous pamphlets “ These few simple rules are all that have hitherto to which the subject of savings banks has lately given birth, is made to this early scheme of Mr been found necessary for the establishment of this Bentham; though the work in which it is contained charity, the design of which is both original and usenot only appeared in a periodical and popular publi- ful. To those who have applied themselves to that cation so long ago, but was laid upon the table of branch of political economy which relates to increasthe committee of the House of Commons, appointed ing the comforts, and improving the morals of the to inquire into the subject of Penitentiary Houses in inferior classes of society, it must be obvious that 1811, and referred to in the appendix to their report; every endeavour to encourage and enable them to and was published separately in one 8vo volume, in provide for their own wants, rather than to rely upon 1812, under the title of Pauper Management im- the gratuitous gifts of the rich, are of great advantage to the whole community. proved. 5 “ It is not sufficient to stimulate the poor to indusAs no attempt was made to carry Mr Bentham s try, unless they can be persuaded to adopt habits of plan of pauper management into practice, his scheme of a frugality bank, as a part of it, remained with- frugality. This is evinced amongst many different kinds of artisans and labourers, who earn large wages, out effect. The first attempt, as far as our researches have but do not in general possess any better resources in been able to discover, to give actual existence to the the day of calamity than those who do not gain above idea of a bank adapted to the exigencies of the poor, half as much money. The season of plenty should was owing wholly to a lady, to whom the public are then provide for the season of want, and the gains of indebted for several excellent productions of the pen, summer be laid by for the rigours of winter. But and who never took up her abode in any place, it must be obvious how difficult it is for even the sowhile health and strength remained, without endea- ber labourer to save up his money, when it is at hand vouring to perform something of importance tor to supply the wants that occur in his family. For ameliorating the condition of those by whom she was those of intemperate habits, ready money is a very surrounded. Mrs Priscilla Wakefield, the lady to strong temptation to the indulgence of those perniwhom we allude, residing, in the year 1803, at Tot- cious propensities. “ Many would try to make a little hoard for sicktenham, in Middlesex, a populous village, within a few miles of London, not only projected, but was the ness or old age, but they know not where to place it means of instituting, and the principal instrument in without danger or inconvenience. They do not uncarrying on, a bank at that place for the savings of derstand how to put money in, or to take it out of the poor. An account of this institution, drawn up the bank ; nor will it answer for small sums, either in by Mrs Wakefield, and dated the 24th of May 1804, point of trouble or of loss of time. The same causes was published in the fourth volume of the Reports frequently occasion thoughtless servants to spend all xyf the Society for Bettering the Condition of the their wages in youth, and in consequence to pass then Poor. The account is so short, and so much to the old age in a workhouse,—a sad reverse from the inpurpose, that it may with advantage be inserted here. dulgence of a gentleman’s family, to which they have

A

BANKS FOR SAVINGS. 97 anksfor been habituated. Many instances indeed have oc- Duncan, in a well written pamphlet, in which he de- Banks for avmgs^ currecb that, for want of a place of security for their scribes the form of his own institution, and explains Savings, money, the poor have lost their hard earned savings, the object which the system has in view, and the by lending it to some artful or distressed person, who principles upon which it is founded, informs us, that has persuaded them it will be safe in his hands. his idea of an economical bank for the savings of the “ The success of the little bank for children, con- industrious, was accidentally suggested to him by a nected with the Tottenham Female Benefit Club, perusal of the pamphlet, entitled, Tranquillity, of mentioned in a former part of the reports, encouraged Mr Bone, at a time when his mind was peculiarly the present design ; and it may be worth remarking, excited to the consideration of the subject, by the that the bank was opened by an orphan girl of four- circumstances of the poor in the town and vicinity of teen, who placed L.2 in it, which she had earned in Dumfries, and by the threatened approach of what very small sums, and saved in the Benefit Club.” he deemed a national misfortune, the introduction of In 1805 and 1806, two pamphlets were published poor-rates, by Mr Bone, in the first of which he seems to have The course pursued by Mr Duncan is in the high, had it chiefly in view to point out the objects to which est degree instructive. It is founded upon an aca scheme for preventing among the poor the miseries curate knowledge of human nature, in which the of want ought principally to be directed; in the se- men who step forth from elevated situations to amecond, to sketch the form of an institution by which liorate the condition of their fellow-creatures, are those objects might be obtained. rl he scheme of Mr in general singularly deficient, and therefore most Bone is, however, nearly as comprehensive as that of commonly reap nothing but the natural fruit of iniuMr Bentham, and, therefore, extending far beyond dicious measures—disappointment. As a great effect the subject to which the present article is confined, was intended to be produced upon the minds of the The following are its principal objects : people, Mr Duncan saw the necessity of carrying the 1. To piovide eormoi table dwellings for all wdio minds of the people along with him, and of adopting require them. ^ the most powerful means for making them feel and 2. Sums for their maintenance. take an interest in the concern. Unless the interest 3. A provision for widows and children, education is felt, and powerfully felt, the operation of the for the latter included. machinery will be feeble, and its effects trifling. 4. Endowments to children at 21 years of age. Novelty may give it some appearance of strength for . 5. Temporary dwellings to destitute strangers. a time, but this will gradually decay 6. To afford small loans. In the first place, it was necessary that every cause 7. 1 revision for persons who have belonged to the of obstruction should be removed. “ The prejudices army or navy. of the people should be carefully consulted; they 5. io grant annuities to persons to whom that should be treated even with delicacy; and the most mode of assistance is the best adapted. unreasonable scruples of the ignorant and suspicious 9* lo aiioid a provision for persons lame, or other- should, as far as nossihlp. hp oBviaf-pR » it

M;s ■c r 'n '> .ud.

)8

BANKSFOR

Banks for remarks : Those who are at all acquainted with the Savings, history of friendly societies, must be aware, that they owe much of their popularity to the interest excited among the lower orders, by the share to which each of the members is admitted in the management ot the institution. The love of power is inherent in the human mind, and the constitution of friendly societies is calculated to gratify this natural feeling. I he members find, in the exercise of their 1 unctions, a certain increase of personal consequence, which interests their self-love in the prosperity of the establishment. Besides, by thus having constantly before their eyes the operation of the scheme, m ali its details, they are more forcibly reminded of its advantages ; and not only induced to make greater efforts themselves for obtaining these advantages, but also to persuade others to follow their example. Hence it happens, that a great number of active and zealous supporters of the institution are always, to be found amono-st the members of a friendly society, who do more for the success of the establishment than can possibly be effected by the benevolent exertions ot individuals in a higher station. For these reasons Mr Duncan held it expedient to give the contributors themselves a share in the management of the institution ; and that share was well chosen. The contributors in a body were not fit to be the acting parties; but they were fit to choose those who should act for them. A general meeting is held once a-year, consisting of all the members who have made payments for six months, and whose deposits amount to L.l. By this meeting are chosen the court of directors, the committee, the treasurer, and the trustee, the functionaries to whom the executive operations are confined. And by this also are reviewed and controlled the transactions of the past year, with power to reverse the decisions of the committee and court ot directors ; to make new laws and regulations, or alter those already made; and, in other respects, to provide tor the welfare of the institution. . . . The power of choice is somewhat limited by the qualifications required. The society consists of two sorts of members, the ordinary, and the extraordinary, and honorary. The general meetings have alone the power of electing honorary members; but tiie Bank Trustee, the Lord-Lieutenant and Vice Lieutenant of the county, the Sheriff-depute and Ins substitute, the members of Parliament for the county and burgh, the ministers ot the parish, with certain magistrates of the town, are honorary members ex officio; and there are certain regulated subscriptions or donations, of no great amount, which constitute the person paying them, ipso facto, an extraordinary or honorary member. Now, it is from this list of honorat y and extraordinary members that the choice of functionaries bv the general meeting is annually to be made provided a sufficient number of them should be disposed to accept of the offices designed ; if not, from such of the ordinary members as make deposits to the amount of not less than L.2, 12s. in the year. It is not fitting here to enter into the details ot the organization, or those of the executive arrangement. It is sufficient to state, that deposits are received in sums oi ls., bear interest at the amount ot L. 1; and aie

SAVINGS. always payable, with compound interest, on a week’s Banks for notice. It seems not to have been till 1814 that the project of savings banks made any farther progress in Scotland. In that year, “ the Edinburgh Bank for Savings was instituted,” says Mr Duncan, “ by a society of gentlemen, of the first influence and respectability ; who, from their enlightened labours in the suppression oi mendicity, and in tne establishment of a permanent provision for the poor, had already acquired no trifling claim to the confidence and affection of the public, and particularly ©f the lower orders.” In the constitution of this bank, the interference was rejected of the depositors themselves ; who were simply required to confide their money in the hands of the gentlemen who undertook the management of the institution. “ This circumstance,” says Mr Duncan, “ has operated as a powerful obstruction to the success of the plan. I he truth ot this will appear in a very striking point of view, if we contrast the progress of the scheme in Edinburgh with that of the Ruthwell parish bank, or of those institutions which are formed on a similar plan. And he then presents a statement of facts, which fully support the position, and strongly illustrate the importance of the principle on which the Ruthwell institution was founded. Mr Duncan, from deference to the gentlemen who made the decision for the Edinburgh bank, seems willing to allow that a general meeting of all the contributors, and a reservation to that meeting of certain appropriate powers, useful and important as it is, may, in great cities, such as Edinburgh, be attended with inconveniences which outweigh its advantages. May not this, however, be a concession too easily made ? It would, at least, he desirable to have good reasons presented for the sacrifice of so great an advantage, before we consent to its being made. There is an obvious inconvenience in assemblages of people, of any description, when too large. And if one bank were to serve for the whole of a great city, and the contributors should amount to any considerable part of the population, the assemblage would undoubtedly he too large. But this, under the circumstances in contemplation, would not he tne case. To accommodate the customers, there ought to be a bank in every parish, or similar district. There would be no greater inconvenience in calling together the moderate number ot contributors to such a bank in a city, than in the country. The fact is proved by the ample experience of friendly societies; the members of which do actually meet much oftener than once a-year, and devoid ofmany advantages which the mixtureof persons of the upper classes would afford to the association of a savings hank. It any central, or general institution, to give unity and combination to The operations of the different banks of a great city, were found to he useful, it might be formed of delegates chosen by the committees of the several distnet or parochial banks; and thus, without any inconvenience that can be rationally contemplated, all that fervent interest which is the natural effect of giving the contributors themselves a pa* t to act in the formation and conduct of savings banks, would be provided for and secured. In London itself.

] *

BEi

BANKS FOR SAVINGS. 99 iks for there are various institutions, wholly dependent up- title him to receive his dividends every six months, Bunks for Savin [V n 8, g^ * ^ . on voluntary contributions, the subscribers to which, the same as those paid at the Bank of England, one “v though extremely numerous, are annually called to- sixth being deducted for the expences of the instigether for the election of committees and other ma- tution. In the constitution of this bank, no part of nagers. The society of Schools for All may be ad- the management, and no control over it, were given duced as a conspicuous example. And whei'e is to the depositors. Certain trustees and managers w^ere constituted, with powers of supplying vacanthe inconvenience that is ever found to result ? In the meantime, efforts were begun for the exten- cies ; and the money of the depositers was vested in the funds in the names of a certain portion of the 'fin s*on ^)e system in England. In the year 1813, a trustees. and. judicious and successful attempt was made by Dr In the month of November 1815, a bank was proHaygarth for the establishment of a bank for savings at Bath, where, sometime before, an institution, un- jected for the town and vicinity of Southampton, to der the name of a servant’s fund, had been formed on which the zeal and influence of the Right Honournearly similar principles, at the suggestion of Lady able George Rose in a great degree contributed. In the formation of this institution, the model of the Isabella Douglas, sister of the Earl of Selkirk. The circumstances of England were in several re- Edinburgh bank was principally followed. It was spects much less favourable to any plan founded up- composed of a certain number of noblemen and on the savings of the poor than those of Scotland. gentlemen, who formed themselves into an associaThe disadvantages existing in England are justly tion for banking the money of the poor; excluding enumerated by Mr Duncan, under four heads ; 1st, entirely the intervention of the depositers. It differThe character and habits of the people; 2dly, The ed from the bank established at Bath, which gave nature of the ecclesiastical establishment; 3dly, The the depositers a proportion of the dividends, and left system of poor laws ; 4thly, The state of the bank- them to the chance of gain or loss by the fluctuation ing business. of the stock which their money had purchased; the The first three are general, and the nature of the Southampton bank, though it vested the money in obstruction which they afford in some degree obvi- government securities, undertook to pay a fixed inous. The illustration of these here may therefore variable interest of 4 per cent, on each sum of 12s. be waved. The last, however, so intimately con- 6d.; and to repay the deposit when demanded, withcerns the operations of the banks for the poor, that it out addition or diminution. The chance of any rise requires a difference even in their constitution. It or fall in the price of the funds, the bank, in this fs the practice of the banks of Scotland to allow in- way, took upon itself. The Southampton, like the terest for the monies deposited with them; and so Edinburgh bank, limited the amount of deposits perfect is the foundation on which some of them are which it would receive from any one individual; and placed, that the security attached to the deposits fixed the sum at L. 25. they receive, is equal to that of the Bank of EngSome attempts were also made in London. A land itself. The operations of the economical bank bank was instituted, under the influence of Barber are here, therefore, simple in the highest degree. It Beaumont, Esq. in the parish of Covent-Garden. A has only to open an account with one of these banks, committee of the inhabitants of the parish, rated at and pay to the contributors the interest received, L. 50 and upwards, together with the members of making such a deduction as the expences of the in- the vestry, form one committee, and twenty-four of stitution may require. the depositers, chosen by themselves, form another In England it is not customary for banks to allow committee, who jointly choose their agents, and coninterest on the deposits which are made with them. duct the business. The want of security in this plan And where possibly interest might be obtained, the is an obvious objection ; the money remaining in the security would not always be good. The savings hands of certain individuals, in the character of treabanks have no source whence interest can be de- surers, allowing interest at 5 per cent. rived with the due measure of security, except the A bank was opened in Clerkenwell, another papublic funds. But, with respect to them, a great rish in the metropolis, on the 29th of January 1816, inconvenience arises from the fluctuation of price. chiefly through the instrumentality of Charles layWhat is desirable, above all things, is such a lor, Esq., on a plan by which the depositers appoint degree of simplicity and plainness in the transac- their directors, their committees of accounts, their tions, that the reasons of every thing may be visible superintendents, &c. from their own number, and to the uninstructed minds of the people with whom thus conduct the business of the institution wholly the institution has to deal. But this fluctuation in for themselves. The treasurer is allowed to retain the price of stock is an unavoidable source of com- to the amount of only L. 200, for which he gives seplication and obscurity. The money of one man curity, and allows interest at 5 per cent, for the sum produces more, that of another less, according to in his hands. The other funds are invested in governthe price of stock, at the time when his deposit is ment securities. The great defect in this otherwise made. When it is withdrawn, a sum is received, admirably constituted institution, seems to be the ligreater or less than that which was put in, according miting the choice of managers and functionaries to as the price of stock has risen or declined. the depositers themselves. Why should the deposiThe plan upon which Dr Haygarth proceeded, in ters deprive themselves of the advantage of choosing the bank which his strenuous exertions were the a person who would be eminently useful as a mameans of setting on foot in Bath, was to make every nager, though not of a rank of life to require the indepositor, to the value of one or more pounds of stitution for his own use ? If the depositers have the stock, a proprietor of stock to that amount, and en- power of choosing, for the management, whom they

100 BANKS FOR Banks for please, depositers or not, they will have all that share Savings. 0f actjon which is necessary to establish their confidence and animate their zeal; while, at the same time, ^nen of superior education and influence may be joined with them, and prevent, by their wisdom and authority, any error to which the business might be otherwise exposed. As often as men of superior education and fortune showed a disposition to render themselves useful in the conduct of the institution, daily and universal experience prove how certainly and gladly they would be chosen. In the meantime, the prosperity of the Clerkenwell bank is a complete proof of the safety with which that co-operation of the contributors, the utility of which is so well demonstrated by Mr Duncan, may be employed in the greatest cities. Clerkenwell is a parish, a great part of which is inhabited by some of the poorest people in the metropolis; the establishment of the bank was attended with nothing which was calculated to excite any attention ; with advertisement scantily sufficient to make it known in the district; yet on the 22d of April, less than three months after the time of its institution, it had 157 depositers, and had received L. 269, 11s. 6d. These local and confined attempts in the^metropolis were followed by others on a larger scale. The Society for Bettering the Condition of the Poor took measures for interesting a sufficient number of noblemen and gentlemen to establish a grand Savings Bank, or Provident Institution, which was deemed a preferable name, for the whole of the western half of the metropolis. Several meetings of persons of high rank and others were held during the month of March 1816. The plan of the bank of Southampton, to pay a certain fixed rate of interest, and return the neat deposit on demand, was first proposed. This, with regard to the facility of giving satisfaction to the contributors, and avoiding all misconception on their part, injurious to the prosperity of the institution, was highly desirable. But, after a due consideration of the danger to which the institution would, on this plan, be exposed, in the event of any great depression of the price of stock, it was resolved to follow the example of Bath ; to render each depositor a stockholder, and consequently himself liable to either the profit or the loss w’hich the fluctuation of stock might occasion. This institution was composed of the noblemen and gentlemen by whom it was promoted, who formed themselves into an association, consisting of a president, vice-president, trustees, and managers ; wholly excluding the co-operation of the depositers, and all intervention or control on their part. This institution was opened in Panton Street, Hay Market, on the 15th of Apri^following; and another, promoted by the principal gentlemen in the city, and founded on similar principles, was soon afterwards opened in Bishopsgate Street, for the eastern half of the metropolis. Of the bank for the western division of the metropolis, a particular account has been published by Joseph Hume, Esq. one of the managers, which deserves attention, as containing a valuable set of practical rules for the detail of the business, according to the principles on which that institution is founded ; and, above all, as containing the description of a sys-

SAVINGS. tem of Book-Keeping, admirably adapted to the pur- flanks for pose of savings banks in general, and of which that vJ^™gsgentleman himself was the principal contriver. By Mr Hume and Dr Hay garth, w^e see that the term Provident Institution is applied as the name of those associations which have it for their object to enable the poor to place their money in the stocks. The term Bank, whether called a Savings Bank or a Frugality Bank, they would confine to these institutions which pay a fixed interest, and return the neat deposit. The term Bank, however, is equally applicable to both, and the best denomination they can receive. Some adjunct is wanted to distinguish this from other species of banks, and no good one has yet been found. Neither Frugality nor Savings is distinctive ; every bank is a frugality bank. Poors Bank would be the best, but for one conclusive objection, that it is humiliating, and in common acceptation disparaging. As government securities afford in England the only expedient, attended with safety, for employing the deposits of the poor ; but as these securities are, at the same time, attended with the great inconvenience of fluctuation, and require the transmission of the money to and from the metropolis, of which the inconvenience would often be considerable; Mr Hume is of opinion, that the powers of government should be employed for the removal of these two inconveniences, which would merely afford to banks for the poor in England those advantages which they already enjoy in Scotland, from the admirable state of the banking business. The effects might be accomplished by the payment of the money to the receiver of each county, and by the receipt from him of the proper returns. This would no otherwise change the nature of the transaction, than that the money would thus be lent to government in a way extremely convenient to the poor, while, by purchase into the public stocks, it is still lent to government, but in a way far from convenient to that class of the people. There may be, and there are, solid objections to the rendering any great portion of the people the creditors of government, as being unfavourable to that independence of the people on the government, on which all security for good government depends ; but if the people are to be rendered the creditors of government, there can be no objection to them being rendered so in a way convenient to themselves, rather than in a way which is the contrary. And if there is no other security but that of government to which the banks for the poor can have recourse, we are reduced to the alternative of either having no banks for the poor at all, or lending the money to government. It will occur to some persons, that it might be lent to the parishes on the security of the poor-rate. But to those who contemplate the abolition of the poor-rate, this will not appear desirable as a permanent expedient. If counties were managed according to their ancient constitution, the best plan might be, to lend it to the counties, on the security of the county rate. But even in this case, it could not be lent without admitting a prodigious evil, the principle of county debts. No mention has been made of the plan ot Mr Baron Mazeres, in the account which has been ren* 4

B A N junks for dered of the successive steps by which the business Savings Gf savingS banks has been brought to its present , I] ck, state ; because it was not conceived that this plan burn. corresponded to the idea of a savings bank. It is, however, necessary to be described, because it is not impossible that some of the ideas realized in savings banks may have been derived from it. The plan of Baron Mazeres was a proposal for establishing life-annuities in parishes, for the benefit of the industrious poor. It was published in 1772, accompanied with the suggestion of certain alterations by the celebrated Dr Price. It was recommended to the nation to obtain a law, for enabling the parish officers in England to grant, upon purchase, to the labouring inhabitants life-annuities, to be paid out of the parish rates. The measure met with support from some of the most distinguished characters of the time, and a bill was brought into the House of Commons by Mr Dowdswell, under the auspices of Mr Burke, Sir G. Savile, Lord John Cavendish, Mr Dunning, Mr Thomas Townshend, and others, for carrying it into effect. The plan received the sanction of the Commons, the bill was passed, and carried to the House of Lords. Here it was not equally fortunate ; it was not even permitted to come to a second reading. One cannot conceive any very good reason for throwing it out; because, if it produced any effects, they could not J)e evil. The defect of the project appears to consist in this, that it was not calculated to produce effects at all; it involved in itself an obstruction fatal to its operations. To purchase these annuities a sum of money, large to the purchaser, wras demanded all at once. How' was he to possess it ? Whence was he to obtain it ? The means were almost universally wanting, and likely to continue so. It is worth while to mention, that a savings bank, entitled Le Bureau d'Economic, was established by law at Paris, in one of the first years of the French revolution, and it was in existence till a late period, perhaps is to the present. The account of it which we have seen, is in the Archives of Useful Knowledge, published in Philadelphia, where a bank of industry was lately established. Mr Bentham’s plan of a frugality bank, added to this scheme two important amendments, which at once brought it within the range of practicability, and enlarged the bounds of its usefulness He proposed that the people should purchase life-annuities, by sums deposited

BANNOCKBURN, a rivulet in the county of Stirling, celebrated for a battle fought on its banks in the earlier part of the fourteenth century. As no correct details of this battle have been given in the body of the work, it becomes necessary to supply that defect in this place. The failure of the royal line of Scotland, by direct descent, in the grand-daughter of Alexander III. who died in the year 12.90, excited a competition among several powerful nobles for the crown. But deciding their respective rights by the sword would have deluged the kingdom with blood; nor were the finances of any in that condition which could enable them to maintain an arduous and protracted contest The claims of all were, therefore, by common consent, sub-

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gradually; and that these annuities should be con- Banks for vertible into other forms of benefit, suitable to the bavjjlSs exigencies of each individual. BannockWith regard to the best model of a savings bank, burn, there is nothing of much importance which remains to be said. The great difficulty consisted in the ori- General ginal idea. When that was fully framed, every thing else suggested itself, without the smallest difficulty. tionofthe*se Two things were immediately seen to be funda-Banks, mental: In the first place, security for the funds : In the second place, the zeal of the people. The best general instruction which can be given to those who have institutions to form, is to set these two objects before them, as the ends which they have to pursue ; and to adopt the means, which, in the peculiar circumstances of each case, promise to be most effectual in attaining them. 1. With regard to security, the coui-se appears to be abundantly plain. There is perfect security with many other advantages in the great banks in Scotland, which of course should be universally employed. In England, there is no resource but government security, to which, as at present existing, several inconveniences are attached. 2. With regard to the excitation of that degree of fervent interest among the people, which is necessary for the production of any considerable effects, all persons will not have their minds equally open to conviction. Yet the means appear to be abundantly certain and clear; let the contributors, in annual meetings, choose their own office-bearers, not limiting the choice to their own body ; and let the people of weight and character in the district, not only show their readiness, but their desire to be chosen. This is the general idea ; it may be modified into a variety of forms, according to the circumstances of different places; circumstances to which matters of detail ought as much as possible to conform. It is an appendage to this principle, that the numbers, hence the district, should not be large, which a single bank is destined to serve. This appears to be expedient, or rather indispensable, on other accounts; to facilitate access to the customer; to prevent loss of time by attendance, if numbers should be liable to repair to the same office at the same time; and to render practicable, by division, the otherwise impracticable amount of labour, which, if the great majority of the people should bring deposits, the management of them will create. (FF0

mitted to Edward I. of England, a warlike and politic prince, who, having heard them patiently, with due solemnity adjudged the throne to John Baliol. Edward, though without apparent partiality, had not lost sight of his own interest; but the truth was soon betrayed, that he wished to render Scotland an appanage of England, could it have been effected. The right of superiority was asserted, acknowledged, and then resisted ; but Edward had power in his hands, and the abdication of Baliol followed a short and troubled reign. That monarch now openly avowed his design of subjugating Scotland, which he affected to consider only as a fief of his kingdom. Some patriots arose in the course of an interregnum ; but their co-operation being generally disturbed by jealousies among

102 BAN Bannock- themselves, they were quickly overwhelmed, and a burn. large proportion of the peers and barons swore fealty to the English sovereign. By a barbarous sentence, the most distinguished defender of Scottish liberty, Sir William Wallace, was put to death at London, and Edward conceived that the terror of his punishment would restrain others from resistance. He was mistaken, however, for Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, grandson of one of the original competitors lor the kingdom, reviving his claim, was crowned at Scone in the year 1306, and prepared to vindicate it by the sword. He was at first unsuccessful, and two of his brothers perished in the contest, while the English were repeatedly victorious, and obtained possession of all the strong-holds throughout the country. Meantime, after expressing irreconcilable hatred to Bruce, Edward died, and his son, who solemnly swore that he never would remain two nights in the same place until he reached Scotland, resolved to maintain his superiority. But the imbecility which he speedily displayed, his ignorance of the real dispositions of the people with whom he had to deal, and other circumstances, induced many who had pledged their fealty to his father now to desert himself; and the partizans of Bruce, who was generally acknowledged the real and legitimate sovereign, rapidly increased in number. The south and west were released from the power of the English ; several places of strength were gained, either by force or stratagem; and, encouraged by success, he even ventured to penetrate the less protected parts of the neighbouring kingdom. Edward, however, sought to preserve the allegiance of those who still adhered to his interest, by conferring obligations upon them ; and as there were many in Scotland disaffected to the government of Bruce, he never abandoned the original plan of subjugation. After various successes and discomfitures on either side, one of the strongest fortresses, Stirling Castle, then in possession of the English, was invested by Edward Bruce, a surviving brother of the king. The governor, Sir Philip Mowbray, pressed on all hands, offered to surrender if he should not be relieved by his countrymen on the 24th of June 1314, to which Bruce, commanding the besiegers, incautiously assented; and although he thus incurred the displeasure of his brother, the sanction of the latter was not withheld. It was these preliminary events, which we deem it necessary to explain, that were productive of the celebrated battle of Bannockburn. Edward being made acquainted with the circumstances, quickly ascertained the importance of carrying succours to Stirling Castle, and resolved to levy a powerful force for the purpose of combating the Scottish king, who was posted so as to intercept his access to it. From the writ commanding the different counties to furnish their respective proportions of the military, it would appear either that the design of Robert to dislodge his enemies was long premeditated, or that he had remained a considerable time encamped at the place of rendezvous, the Torwood, a few miles east of Stirling. It specifies that “ the Scots had endeavoured, as far as they were able, to collect a vast body of foot in a strong and rugged position, where it was difficult for cavalry to act, between him and his

B A N castle of Stirling.” Probably the Torwood then extend- Bannock, ed farther west than wre are accustomed to fix its limits bmn* at the present day ; therefore we must seek for the Scottish camp nearer the object of contention. There were assembled about 30,000 men, besides an unarmed and undisciplined rabble of followers and retainers, amounting to a great number, not less than perhaps two-thirds of the regular force. The Scottish historians calculate the English army at 100,000 men. But here we cannot sufficiently regret that it is principally from a poetical narrative and tradition we are enabled to deduce the interesting events of that aera; therefore, as poets are in general but faithless historians, their writings must always be received with reserve. At the same time, Barbour, the poet who records the battle of Bannockburn in detail, seems to have had little in view, besides the glory of his country ; and there are also some slight notices to be found elsewhere corroborative of the general train of the history. On Saturday the 22d of June, Robert having received intelligence that the English had reached Edinburgh, withdrew his army from its encampment in the Torwood, to take up another position in the neighbourhood of Stirling Castle. There he extended his troops in three divisions, occupying a wood, it would appear, from the stream called Bannock, on the right towards the church of St Ninian, and on the left nearly, it is supposed, in the direction of the present road from Edinburgh to Stirling. In the night he directed a great number of small pits to be dug knee-deep, and covered with turf, concealing at the bottom a kind of projecting spikes called calthrops, or caltrops, designed for the destruction of cavalry. The position was besides protected by a morass in the vicinity, and peculiarly favourable, in many respects, against the attack of cavalry, which the Scottish king chiefly dreaded. On Sunday the 23d, an alarm spread of the approach of the enemy, and Bruce prepared to receive them, for he had now chosen the ground on which he awaited the attack ; his whole army heard mass, and in answer to his proclaiming that those who were not confident of victory might retire, all unanimously declared their resolution to conquer or die. His troops were marshalled in three divisions, of which that on the right was commanded by his brother Edward, the left wing by Lord Douglas and the young Stewart of Scotland, and the centre by his nephew, Randolph, Earl of Murray, while he himself took the command of the reserve, posted on a rising ground in the rear, whence he could obtain a view of the passing incidents. But it is remarkable that this reserve consisted of the most savage part of the inhabitants of Scotland, the Western Islanders and men of Argyle, as also his own vassals of Carrick in Ayrshire. The followers of the camp were now sent to a valley at a little distance to the left of the position. In this manner Bruce designed to deceive his enemies. Meantime a squadron of 800 horse was detached from the English army for the purpose of gaining Stirling Castle, by a circuitous route through the low ground to the north-east. The king, the first to perceive it, reproached the Earl of Murray, his nephew, with leaving the place exposed, and he,

B A N iannock- anxious to repair his fault, hastened with 500 spear)UI

men c ec ‘-i_' ^ ^ ^ie enemy, wherein he with difficulty — succeeded. Soon after, the van of the English appeared in sight, while Robert was in front of the Scottish line. He was recognised by Henry de Bohun advancing a bow-shot before his comrades, from a crown surmounting his helmet, and the authoritative manner in which he disposed his troops. Being mounted on a sorry horse, the Engiishman quickly advanced upon him, but his spear missing the king in his course, the latter, rising in his stirrups, cleft his helmet with a single blow of his battle-axe, and Bohun fell to the earth. This valiant deed encouraged his people ; but to his friends, who warned him he had exposed himself too hardily to danger, he tacitly seemed conscious of temerity, and regretted that the shaft of his weapon had been broken by the violence of the blow. This closed the operations of the first day. The armies reposed in the vicinity of each other; both were impatient for the succeeding dawn, the one anticipating undoubted victory, the other in anxious hopes of being liberated from the yoke of strangers. Bruce addressed his troops, recapitulating the conduct of the enemy, how the government of the country had been usurped, and those that had fallen into their hands most barbarously treated; that now they were to fight for all they held dear, their own personal liberty and the safety of their families. He showed them, that their position was such as would insure success ; that they fought in a good cause, but the English only for conquest; that they would, when victorious, be enriched with the spoils of the vanquished, and he promised that the heirs of those who fell should enjoy privileges merited by the conduct of their predecessors. But he strenuously urged the necessity for order, to avoid pillaging the slain, and to preserve their line unbroken. At break of day, the Scots, drawn out in battle array, beheld the English already prepared ; but, notwithstanding their own inferiority of number, they were animated by the justice of their cause, and with confidence in their leader. To propitiate the Deity, Maurice, Abbot of Inchaffray, celebrated mass, and passed in front of the army, bearing a crucifix in his hand, and exhorting the soldiers. The troops then partook of some refreshment, and Bruce, in conformity with the customs of his aera, created some of his most distinguished followers knights. The English army was commanded by Edward in person, attended by a bodyguard of 500 cavalry well armed ; and among his troops were 52,000 archers. But the same unanimity did not subsist as among his foes although he, on his part, was confident of victory; and the Scottish host having knelt with one accord to utter a pious ejaculation, and receive benediction, he exclaimed to those around him, “ Behold, they kneel to ask mercy ! ” He was quickly undeceived. A signal was now given; the armies approached, and a sanguinary contest ensued, unexampled in the annals of British history. The van of the English, composed of cavalry, galloped on to charge the right wing of the Scots, commanded by Edward Bruce, which received them with intrepidity. While this wing was en-

B A N 103 gaged, Randolph advanced with a division to meet the Bannockmain body of the enemy ; and the left wing also has- burn* tened to participate in the conflict. Repeated charges of cavalry attempted, but in vain, to break the Scottish line; it proved impenetrable ; they were everywhere resisted and repulsed. At this time, the battle seems to have been general, but the Scots were drawn up in a small and compact form, while the unwieldy mass of the English army could only be partially brought into action. Nevertheless, the former were grievously annoyed by the archers ; but they fought desperately with their spears, swords, and knives, and also iron clubs or maces ; besides, they were protected by light armour, which did not restrain their agility. Edward, the king’s brother, was hard pressed by the English cavalry, and the Earl of Murray, making a movement to his support, was almost overwhelmed by the multitude of the enemy, while a terrible shower of arrows saluted the third division advancing to their relief, which galled them severely. The English still presented a vast and extensive front, but the king directed one of his chosen leaders, Sir Robert Keith, to take the archers in flank with 500 horse, and their impetuosity proved irresistible. They were suddenly overthrown, and fled with precipitation. The king, satisfied with this important advantage, brought up the reserve, encouraging his people to press onward, as they were now sure of victor}'; and he spoke with greater confidence, as the Earl of Gloucester, in endeavouring to rally the fugitives, was unhorsed and slain. The reserve about this period fell into the line, which had been weakened in no inconsiderable degree by the previous operations ; the Scottish archers, in their turn, did uncommon execution among the enemy; they inspirited each other to the attack, and their comrades bore every thing down before them. The numbers of the English proved their own destruction ; for those who recoiled, threw the rest into disorder, and those who fell were immediately trampled to death and destroyed. Notwithstanding, the battle continued to rage furiously, and victory was long and keenly contested. But, at length, at this critical period, the retainers of the Scottish camp, who had previously been sent to a valley in the rear, suddenly appeared on the neighbouring height in view of the English army. Intimidated by the approach of what was believed a strong reinforcement, they soon began to waver, and as Robert urged his troops forward, they gradually receded, and at last took to flight. Edward, with 500 horse, prepared to seek shelter in Stirling Castle, but the governor found means to dissuade him from it; and he then consulted the speediest means of escape. The rout of his army became complete, their bands were totally broken, and they fled with precipitation on every side. Some sought refuge among the rocks of the castle; many hurried to the river Forth, where they were drowned ; but the most terrific scene of carnage was in the valley where the rivulet Bannock flows ; for the ascent towards the east being steep and difficult, and then probably impeded by wood, they were exposed to inevitable destruction. Scarce any who took that direction escaped ; the course of the stream was interrupted, and a bridge was formed of the bodies of

B A N 104 BAN Bannock- the slain. The peasantry, witnessing the defeat of all night, and then sent with that of Lord Clifford to Bannock. bl burn ™ the English soldiers, inhumanly slaughtered them, England. The more distinguished slain received interment in consecrated ground, the others were thrown Barf,ary rat n tbe r Barbarv g ifyi g * revenge, and glutting themselves in States; blood. Nevertheless, prodigies of valour were per- into pits. The booty taken in the battle was immense; States, formed; and, at the earlier part of the rout, Sir so great, indeed, as to disseminate riches throughout' Giles Argentine telling Edward it was not his cus- the kingdom, which may well be believed, as the tom to retreat, rushed amidst his enemies and was English anticipated nothing less than discomfiture. slain. But Edward, hotly pursued, continued his “ O day of vengeance and fatality,” one of their hisflight, followed by 60 horse under command of torians exclaims, “ hateful accursed day, to be blotDouglas, until both, as if by mutual consent, halted ted from the circle of the year; a day which tarat Winchburgh, 20 miles from the field of battle. nished the glory of England, despoiled our nation, < Again mounting, the pursuit was continued 40 miles and enriched its enemies to the amount of L.200,000. farther to Dunbar, where the castle gates being open- How many valiant youths and illustrious nobles, how many excellent horses and beautiful arms, how many ed to Edward, a vessel conveyed him to England. Meantime, the scattered fugitives were either fall- precious vestments and golden vessels, were lost in ing under the sword of their enemies, or seeking that single unfortunate day!” The privy-seal of Edsafety in the speed of their flight. A body of Welsh- ward was also among the spoils, but restored by Romen appeared nearly naked, having been induced to bert, who used Ins victory with such clemency and throw aside their upper garments, in ordei to fight moderation, as to gain the applauses even of the hoswith the greater freedom; and now were the easiest tile nation. Among the prisoners was Baston, a victims. Some continued to conceal themselves in Carmelite friar, said to have been brought by Edward the woody parts of the neighbourhood in hopes of to celebrate his expected conquest; he now obtained mercy; and Sir Marmaduke Twenge, after lurking his freedom on condition of paying a similar ransom, through the night in a bush, surrendered himselt to but in favour of his enemies. His poem probably Robert, personally, by whom he was courteously merits more attention and confidence than ought to be bestowed on any other narrative of the battle, betreated. There are two things which it is equally difficult cause he alone was contemporary with it, and most of many of the incidents to ascertain, the numbers who fell, and the duration probably was a spectator r of the engagement. The victors are aiways pr me to which happened tw enty years before Barbour was magnify their conquest; the vanquished to diminish born. But we must again regret that it fell to the their defeat, and to exaggerate its difficulty. If it be share of poets only to perpetuate the remembrance true that Edward fled on the same day to Dunbar, of events so important and interesting. The immediate consequences of this great victory the conflict, though from dawn, could not be very long ; yet, it is not easy to conceive how the un- were the surrender of all the fortresses of Scotland wieldy mass of the English army could be brought to their lawful owmers, the liberation of the inhabiinto action unless by slow operations. The loss on tants from a foreign yoke, and the firm establishment both sides was certainly very great. Barbour asserts of the sovereign on the throne. Many inconsiderthat of the English to have been 80,000 men, and that able engagements have been magnified into battles, 200 knights were killed. But the truth of this cal- but this may probably vie with those most celebrated culation is disputable, especially as it is said elsewhere, in history, though fought at a period when the nathat only 42 knights were slain, and 60 made prison- tion was, without all doubt, almost in a savage state. ers. Barbour also affirms, that only two Scotsmen Some memorials of it still remain on the spot; armour of note fell on the occasion, Sir William Vipont and and weapons have been frequently dug up from the Sir Walter Ross. The king bitterly regretted the neighbourhood ; and at an interval of 500 years, the Earl of Gloucester, for he was his own near relative, inhabitants of the vicinity met on the 24th of June and historians maintain, that had the Scots known 1814, to celebrate the triumph of their ancestors, him he would not have fallen that day. He caused his the memory of which has been sedulously preserved (s.) body to be carried to St Ninian’s church, and watched among them.

BARBARY ] he name of Barbary, or the Barbary States, is applied by the moderns to an extensive district, occupying, with the exclusion of Egypt, the whole northern coast of Africa. It comprehends also that portion of the western coast which lies to the north of the Great Desert. The States included within this district are entirely independent of, and even hostile to each other; and they also differ in some particulars of their political constitution. There prevails, however, a striking similarity in the whole of their moral and physical circumstances. Throughout

STATES. all these states, we see the same races inhabiting the towns, the plains, and the mountain districts; the same forms of social life; the same degraded and corrupted barbarism succeeding to ancient grandeur and civilization. Nature presents a corresponding similarity in all the peculiar qualities of aspect, soil, and climate. These resembling features constitute Barbary decidedly one region ; and it will, therefore, be convenient to include its various states in one general article. In the body of the work will be found, under the

w>3

B A R B A R ; rbary head of Barb ary, and under those of Morocco, AlBat^* . giers, Tunis, and Tripoli, a pretty copious account ** of the history of these states, and an outline of their peculiar constitution. It remains to give a general view of the physical aspect of this extensive region, of the various classes of its inhabitants, and of its present political and social condition. jiral Among the natural objects which this region prer*ir sents, the most prominent is that immense and cele^‘ brated mountain chain which, under the name of Atlas, traverses nearly its whole extent. The loftiest portion is that which towers over the plain of Morocco, which, notwithstanding the intense heat of the climate, presents a range of summits clad in perpetual snow. The most recent traveller in this country, known by the name of Ali Bey, states that, after a very careful measurement, he found this portion to be 13,200 feet above the level of the sea. The lower stages are well cultivated, and of luxuriant fertility; while, in ascending, they exhibit every variety of climate, from the torrid to that of the frigid zone. In skirting the kingdoms of Algiers and Tunis, its height is greatly diminished, and is represented by Dr Shaw as not exceeding the loftier eminences of our own island. The greater part of its declivity is here covered with wines and forests ; and only occasionally a rocky precipice rears its head above the rest. This part of the range separates into various branches, bearing different names. The most elevated is Mount Jurjura, in the province of Algiers, which is covered with snow during a g eat part of the year. It forms a species of chain by itself, and rises very high above all others east of Morocco. Besides the grand chain, there is found, between it and the sea, another, called the Little Atlas, extending from the Straits of Gibraltar to Bona in Algiers. The structure and component parts of this vast range have been very imperfectly explored. It appears probable, however, that, as in other mountain groups of the first magnitude, the central mass, as well as the loftier pinnacles, are composed of granite. Ali Bey states, that the rocks on the coast consist of secondary granite, with sandstone resting on it; a combination which seems deserving of notice, from its resemblance to that which occurs at the southern extremity of Africa. Marble also is said to occur abundantly in the western regions. The lower and eastern branches appear, however, to contain a large proportion of calcareous rocks. The chain, considering its extent, is thought not peculiarly rich in metallic ores, though this character may have been derived from the supine neglect of the inhabitants in exploring its mineral treasures. Silver and copper are procured to a considerable amount in the Tunisian territory. Algiers has lead, and a small proportion of iron. Morocco contains no mines that are known or worked, unless in the province of Suse, the southern extremity of the empire. There, iron is found at Idaultit, and copper, in considerable quantity, in the vicinity of Tessellert. Ihe report of gold and silver mines is treated as a fabie by Chenier; but Jackson asserts that he saw evident traces of them in the neighbourhood of Messa. He confirms the report of Leo, that the VOL. II. PART I.

Y S T A T E S. 105 sovereigns of Morocco discourage the working of Barbary these mines, lest the natives, who at present can Sti*te'swith difficulty be retained under the yoke, should thus be enabled to set them completely at defiance. That narrow tract between the Atlas chain and the sea, which comprises the Barbary States, forms a plain of luxuriant fertility, traversed bvinnumerablestreams, descending from this mighty storehouse of waters. Chenier calculates, that upwards of six thousand are poured down from the western Atlas upon the plains of Morocco. The vicinity, however, of the receptacle to their source, prevents their ever forming rivers of great magnitude. The principal are. in Morocco, the Seboo, the Morbeya, the Tensift, and the Suse; in Algiers, the Shelliff; in Tunis, the Mejerdah. I he soil, which is naturally of the same loose and sandy character which prevails over northern Africa, is, by this profusion of moisture, rendered equal in fertility to any in the world. Its lightness is even beneficial, by enabling it to he worked with the utmost facility, so that, according to Dr Shaw, a yoke of oxen can plough an acre in the day. But wherever water fails, deserts are produced, which present, on a smaller scale, the same appearances with those immense wastes which extend south of the Atlas. The moisture then, which these mountains supply, is the sole spring of fertility to northern Africa; and Tripoli, where they terminate, borders almost immediately on the sandy waste. Along the southern base of the Atlas extends a vast region, called Biledulgerid, or more properly Bled-el-Jereede—the dry country. It forms a gradual transition from the luxuriant plains of Barbary to the sterile desolation of the ISahara. Large streams, descending from the great chain, traverseit from north to south, till they expand into lakes, or are lost in the sands of the desert. The moisture, evaporated by the scorching winds which blow from the south, is not sufficient for the production of wheat, barley, or the finer fruits ; dates are its abundant and almost sole product. They form the food of its inhabitants, and the basis of their commerce. Considered in a political view, this region is nominally subject to those states of Barbary which lie in contact with it; but the subjection scarcely amounts to more than the payment of a certain tribute. The part contiguous to, and dependent upon Morocco, is known by the names of Tablet and Sigilmessa. The whole of Barbary abounds, in a very remarkable degree, with different species of saline substances. Common salt particularly is found in every form, and in the greatest abundance. That drawn from the mines of Morocco is of a red colour, very strong and coarse; a white and finer kind is produced by evaporation on the sea coast. The lakes of Barbary are almost all salt, to an equal degree with the sea itself; and in the course of the summer, many of these dry up entirely, leaving the mineral encrusted on their beds. Near the lake of Marks, in the-Algerine territory, there is a mountain composed entirely of salt, and all the chains which traverse it contain copious repositories of this mineral. Most of the springs which are not warm are salt; and in the territory of Tunis, there is no fresh water, unless from rain. Many of the rivers, when o

BARB ARY 106 Barbary they dry up in summer, leave their banks copiously States, encrusted with nitrous and saline exudations. Saltpetre is not found in a concrete state; but at Tlemsan, Kairwan, and many other places, the earth is so impregnated with it, that six ounces are obtained from a quintal of soil. The Atlas mountains, so far as hitherto known, are not the seat of any volcanic eruptions. In East Barbary, earthquakes are frequent during the hot and dry season; they have sometimes thrown down houses, and even carried them to a considerable distance; but these are rare instances; for their effects ai*e by no means so great and terrible as in the south of Europe, and other countries exposed to their ravages. The interior heat, however, manifests itself by that which it communicates to a large proportion of the waters, which flow through this territory. Most of the streams of the Jereede are at least lukewarm ; and near Oran, Tlemsan, Gabs, and other places in the territory of Algiers, they acquire a temperature which fits them lor warm baths. About 40 miles to the east of Constantina, are those called the Hammam Meskouteen, the heat of which is so intense, as to boil animal food in a quarter of an hour. The rocks over which this rivulet flows are entirely calcined by its influence, which, acting variously on the different substances, consuming some and leaving others nearly entire, produces some curious phenomena. The rocks at one place represent a line of regular cones, believed by the Arabs to be the tents of their ancestors converted into stone. At another place, the action is still deeper and more irregular ; the figures of sheep, horses, camels, even of men, women, and children, are presented to the eye, all of which are believed by the natives to have undergone the same transformation. Vegetable The productions of the soil in Barbary are not and Animal materially different from those of southern Europe, Produc- tiie climate being brought, by the vicinity of the tl0ns ‘ mountains, to pretty nearly the same temperature. The grains chiefly cultivated are wheat and barley ; of which the crops are abundant, though there is not above one in the year. Oats are not frequent, but beans and lentils are very common. Pease have been introduced by Europeans. Pot herbs and fruits are abundant, and nearly resemble those of Europe, with addition, in the last branch, of the palm tree and the lotus. The animal world, particularly in its wild members, presents an interesting field of observation. The Numidian lion still retains its ancient character of strength and ferocity. To guard against its attacks, the villages and encampments are surrounded with a species of palisade, and upon the slightest alarm, large fires are kindled ; yet these multiplied precautions are not always sufficient to prevent the irruption of this lord of the forests. The animal called here a tiger is in reality only a panther. Wild boars are very numerous, and the hunting of them affords a favourite amusement. The hyaena is common, and is called the dubbah. Jackson mentions an animal, called the aondad, which inhabits the most lofty and precipitous regions of the Atlas; but, on account of its rugged and inaccessible haunts, 4

STATES. has never been sufficiently observed or described. The Barbary antelope, or gazel, from its beauty, is the favourite of States. the Arabs, The Barbary females paint their eyes ~ ^ ~ with a preparation of lead called Elkahol-filelly, in order that they may rival the largeness and blackness of those of the gazel. Gazel here, as angel with us, is the most flattering epithet that can be applied to female beauty. Although the antelope be the swiftest of all animals, he is soon fatigued, so that the greyhound at length comes up with him. The flesh is valued, and is similar to venison. Among the smaller animals, the most noted are the jerboa and jird, which are about the size of a rat, burrow in the ground, and afford agreeable food. Among birds, the chief is the ostrich, an often Birds* described species, and which occurs along the whole northern border of the desert. Those about Wedinoon and Cape Bojador are said to be the largest, and to have the finest feathers of any in the world. The feathers form a considerable article in the commerce of Morocco. The serpent species is very numerous. The great Serpents. Boa Constrictor is frequently found in the Sahara. It is not poisonous, and destroys merely by its immense strength and ferocity. There are several species, which contain a very active poison; but these, Dr Shaw conceives, do not exist in that great variety which is enumerated by ancient writers. There are also domestic serpents, which are of a more harmless nature, are never molested, and held even in a kind of veneration. The most destructive of this class are the scorpions, which swarm to such a degree, that, in summer, they are often found in the beds. It is believed in Morocco, that the flesh of this animal affords a cure for its bite ; and most of the inhabitants, on that account, keep a bottle of scorpions preserved in olive oil. Shaw observes, that those of Algiers and Tunis, to the north of the Atlas, are not very noxious, causing only a slight inflammation and fever, but that, in the Sahara, they are much larger, and their venom more malignant. The insect tribe, in this country, presents a insects. much more terrible enemy, the locust. This destructive insect is bred on the confines of the desert; but at irregular intervals, impelled by some unknown cause, its swarms take their direction towards the cultivated regions. They move in vast bodies, and with an order which resembles that of regular armies. The march is all in one direction, led by a chief, called by the natives Sultan Jeraad. All attempts to stop their course by digging deep pits, or by kindling fires, have proved abortive. The foremost, indeed, fall victims to these means of annoyance ; but the vast mass behind, undismayed by the fate of their forerunners, continue to pour on, file after file, in close and uninterrupted succession. The fires are extinguished; the pits are filled up; and the husbandman abandons in despair every attempt to arrest their progress. Every thing green is thoroughly consumed ; and the fields, from being clad in all the verdure of spring, assume at once the aspect of wintry desolation. This scourge sometimes continues for several years, and is not unfrequently followed by the still more terrible evil of plague. It forms a very inconsiderable compensa-

BARBARY

STATES. 107 found. It is applied to the inhabitants of the cities Barbary Barbary tion to the inhabitants, that they use the locusts as States. f00(j} an(j? in that view, regard them even as a deli- of Barbary, and the country in their immediate vici- ^ate^ , nity. Their manners and habits of life have been de-'y cacy. scribed in considerable detail in the body of the Jomestic The domestic animals do not differ materially from Lninials. those of Europe, with the exception of the camel, work, under the head of Morocco. Generally which, though frequent in Barbary, belongs more pro- speaking, a Mahometan city presents an uniform asperly to the desert. The excellence of the horse was pect. Everywhere the same silence and seclusion, formerly the boast of Numidia; and Barbary horses the same absence of all gaiety, bustle, and animahave been highly valued, even in modern times. But tion ; narrow and dirty streets, bordered on each side the breed is said to have degenerated, chiefly in con- by lines of dead wall,—each individual burying himsequence of the best horses being liable to be seized self in the interior of his family, and shrouding his by persons in power. The ass, and still more the existence, as it were, from every other eye; while the mule, are the animals chiefly employed in labour. female sex, who, in Europe, form the ornament of The cows are small, and produce little milk. The society, are immured in the apartments of the haram, sheep fed on the Atlas are often of exquisite flavour. bought and sold almost as slaves. With all this The wool being left entirely to nature, is of various is combined an outward deportment of great gravity, quality, some of it coarse, but some very fine. The solemnity, and decorum, with which neither the sengoats of Morocco produce that species of leather, timents nor actions are found to correspond. All the softness and pliability of which make it to be held this is more particularly true of the cities of Morocco; for in Algiers and Tunis, an unsettled government, in such high estimation. Remains of After surveying the aspect of nature, our attention and the habits of a seafaring life, have produced, indent Art. next qrawn to t]ie ruins 0f ancient art. The especially in the lower orders, a greater appearance whole extent of Algiers and Tunis, and even deep of activity and turbulence, though without any deinto the desert, is covered with the most superb mo- parture from the general tenor of oriental habits. The Letters lately published, written by a female numents of Roman grandeur. Constantina (the ancient Cirta), Spaitla (Suffetula), El Gemme, and relation of Mr Tully, formerly consul at Tripoli, many other places, exhibit specimens of the architec- give a very lively picture of the manners of a Barture of that people in its highest perfection. The bary court, and particularly of female society. temple at Spaitla is considered by Bruce as the This she had very peculiar access to observe, most perfect example of the composite order existing. through the intimate footing on which she lived It seems matter of regret, as well as of surprise, con- with the ladies of the palace. The wives of the sidering the general interest taken in these objects, bashaw, and the other grandees, are generally Georthat the drawings made by Bruce, or under his gian or Circassian captives, who are purchased at direction, said to be very fine, should never have* been Constantinople at an early age, and trained in all given to the public. The remains of Carthage are en- those accomplishments which tit them for the harams tirely subterraneous ; yet these still convey an idea of of the great. By the Mahometan law, each indivithe greatness and industry of that celebrated people. dual may have four wives, and an equal number of Of that immense aqueduct which conveyed water to concubines; but there is one principal wife, who the city from the distance of sixty miles, many hun- alone shares the sovereign power. She has usually dred arches are still to be seen, and several cisterns, the same origin with the others, and enters the hanearly entire, are used as habitations by the Arabs. ram as a slave, but succeeds, by address and superior A few years ago, in digging among the ruins of Utica, powers of captivation, in raising herself to this envied some labourers found a number of beautiful statues, dignity. It is unlawful for the daughters of the sovesome mutilated, but others in complete preservation. reign to marry a subject; and as they do not usually Among them were two statues of Tiberius and Augus- form alliances with foreign states, they have no retus, the former very finely executed, and four female source but to marry Turks and renegadoes, the refigures, two of them exquisite specimens of Grecian fuse of the society. They thus often choose as comsculpture. The spirit of antiquarian research seems panions for life, persons unworthy even to appear in to be active among the Christian inhabitants of their company. Accordingly, the husband is ruled Tunis; and many, even of the poorer classes, are with the most absolute sway, and treated usually said to be in possession of medals, engraved stones, worse than their slaves; to all which he quietly suband other curiosities. These, however, by being dis- mits, in consideration of the lucrative offices to which persed, are in some measure lost to the public. this connection secures his advancement. The toilet of a Moorish lady is said to be formM. Fagan, the British consul at Palermo, lately applied for permission to make excavations, which would ed entirely after the ancient model. No dressingno doubt be obtained, provided an adequate pecu- table is used ; but a number of slaves attend, to each niary compensation were offered. In that case, very of whom a different office is assigned. One plaits, and perfumes the hair, another arranges the eyeinteresting discoveries would probably be made. Different The population of the Barbary States is made up brows, a third paints them, and so on. A profusion Classes of of a number of distinct races. A particular survey of the richest Arabian perfumes and scented waters Inhabitants. 0f each vvqj therefore be necessary, in order to is used, and powdered cloves, in vast quantity, are stuffed into the hair. The eyelashes are, by a very afford any complete view of the subject. The first and most numerous class are the Moors. tedious process, painted black, and, by pulling out a This is an European term, derived from the ancient number of the hairs, are formed into a particular Matin', of whom probably no traces are now to be shape. This operation, though attended with very

B A R B A R Y STATES. 108 Barbary acute pain, is cheerfully submitted to. In short, a them to endure all this oppression. Ip ^Morocco, Barbary to have, Stares.* Moorish lady cannot be fully dressed under several however, long suffering appears at le* hours ; and her appearance is then so completely al- wearied their patience, and their numbe ' have been tered, that her nearest relations could scarcely be considerably thinned. In the capital, they are not now supposed to exceed 2000. No such diable to recognise her. These ladies are represented, in the letters alluded minution seems to have occurred in the other states. to, as by no means spending their time, as usually sup- Tunis is calculated to contain above 15,000. The country Moors, or those who cultivate the posed, in listless indolence. It is their task to overlook the numerous slaves who grind, spin, and perform all plains of Barbary, appear to differ very widely from the necessary domestic offices. They are particularly the inhabitants of the cities. The property, or raexpected to superintend the culinary operations, in ther the occupation of land, is, as usual in despotic order to guard against poison, the administering of countries, much subdivided. The manners of the which at meals is not unusual in these countries. cultivators have been little observed, but they are These cares, with those of their family, fill up the time said to be characterized by a peculiar degree of igof the more amiable and domestic members of the norance and simplicity. The inhabitants of the pastoral districts intermediharam ; while those of a lighter turn find full occupation in the difficult and dangerous intrigues to which ate between the sea coast and the Sahara, are known their disposition prompts them. With a few excep- by the name of Arabs. They appear, in fact, to tions, however, they seem tolerably cheerful; and comprise such of the descendants of the conquerthe view which these letters give of their character ors of Barbary as have adhered to their original and is, on the whole, favourable. native employments. They exhibit the same migraThe inhabitants of the towns do not form a race by tory habits, the same simplicity of life, and the same themselves, but are aggregated from the various races union of hospitality and plunder, which distinguish who inhabit, or have inhabited, the country districts— their countrymen in Arabia. The touch of despotism the Arabs, the Brebers, probably in part also the an- has, however, taken from them much of that sense cient possessors, and the Vandal conquerors of north- of honour and dignity which elevate the latter above ern Africa. All these have been cast into that mould the common level of barbarous tribes. They live in which Moslem despotism invariably forms. There is, tents, thirty or forty of which united form a camp or however, a peculiar race, called Andalousie, de- douar, under the command of a shiek : the supremascendants of those Moors, expelled from Spain by the cy over a number of these camps constitutes a Great stupid despotism of that government. They inhabit Shiek or Emir. The tents are made by themselves, chiefly the northern cities of the empire of Morocco. of camels’ hair and the fibres of the palm tree; they They pique themselves on their descent, and seem to are arranged generally in three concentric circles, retain somewhat of that pride of birth which was around the habitation of the shiek. The cattle go probably formed during their residence in Europe. out to pasture during the day, and are tended by the The sciences, which anciently formed the glory of men and boys; at night they are withdrawn within the Saracen name, are now, throughout the whole of the circle of the tents. They are farther guarded this region, entirely extinct. Instruments are still by a number of vigilant dogs, who bark incessantly. shown, which display the most exquisite mechanical The complexion of the Arabs is of a deep copper. skill; but they are preserved merely as antique cu- The females possess beauty when young, but quickly riosities, without any knowledge of the principles by lose it. They adorn themselves by puncturing and which they were constructed. Astronomy does not tattowing, practices unknown to the other inhabitants extend to the construction of a sun-dial, nor che- of Barbary. When the spot occupied by a douar is mistry beyond the making of rose-water. With re- exhausted, they remove to another ; the women are gard to medicine, the estimation in which that sci- then conveyed in groups generally of three, upon the ence, once so flourishing, is held, may be judged by back of each camel; while the children, lambs, and the emolument reaped by its professors. The fee of kids, are lodged in panniers on each side. The shieks a physician scarcely ever exceeds sixpence ; and the embrace every opportunity of acting independently ; most serious operations are performed for a shilling. and whenever a weak government or civil war ocThese humble practitioners succeed tolerably, when curs, immediately begin to plunder. Of all the inonly external wounds are to be healed ; but in all in- habitants of Barbary, the Arabs are animated with ternal maladies, it appears very doubtful whether the most bigoted zeal for the Moslem tenets, and most patients die of the disease, or of the remedies the deadliest enmity to the Christian name. This administered. disposition, the eftects of which have been felt by all The Jews form a numerous class throughout all European visitors, has probably darkened somewhat the cities, both of Eastern and Western Barbary. beyond reality the picture drawn by them of these They seem to exist there nearly on the same footing tribes. as in Europe during the middle ages, the objects of From the inhabitants of the plains, we ascend to universal hatred, contempt, and derision, and their those of the mountain districts. The greater part of plunder the invariable resource, whenever the sove- the declivity of the Atlas chain is cultivated by a very reign finds himself in pecuniary embarrassment. Yet remarkable people, called the Brebers. They have their knowledge of trade, and entire devotion to it, been named also Brebes, Berebbers, Barbars; and have almost secured to them the monopoly of mer- from them the name of Barbary is supposed to be cantile and money transactions; and they arp thus derived. The Brebers appear to be descended from enabled to make such enormous profits as induces the original possessors of this region; they view

BARB ARY STATES. 109 Barbary themselves still as its rightful owners, and regard We proceed now to take a view of the political Baibary .States. with boundless indignation all the other nations by state of this extensive region, which has sustained States. * whom it is now occupied. Their subjection has al- no change from the lapse of time, and is that of a p^|j?jcai ways been very imperfect, and the slightest injury savage, uncontrolled, and turbulent despotism. In stat(, 0f has been sufficient to drive them into rebellion. Turkey and the Asiatic empires, there are pub- Barbary. Their chiefs are elective, and they alone, in this part lie bodies, rendered venerable by religion, by of Africa, have a government moulded into some- law, and even by knowledge, who share and what of a republican form. Their character is ex- moderate the power, of the despot. In Barbary, tremely warlike, and they excel the inhabitants there are none such ; the will, or rather momentary of the plains in the management of fire-arms. The caprice of the sovereign rules every thing. Yet the army of Morocco has often been completely defeated throne, though thus absolute, is not thereby rendered by them, and pursued to the gates of the capital. secure; resting on no basis, it is overturned by the In general, however, they carry on war chiefly by slightest storm that arises. The death of a sovereign surprise and ambuscade. The idea formed of them is almost invariably followed by disputed succession by the Saracen conquerors may be conceived by a and civil war; so that tranquillity, the sole boast of passage in a celebrated Arabian writer (Bakoui), who despotism, is not even secured by it to this unfortugravely informs us, that they are the offspring of the nate country. giant Goliah, whom they resemble in strength and The present sovereign of Morocco is named Mu- Morocco, wickedness. They are divided into various tribes, ley Soliman. He has three brothers, two of whom of whom the Errifi, inhabiting a province of the contended with him for the sovereignty, and being same name between Algiers and Morocco, are the overcome, now live in exile. He is about forty, rather handsome, and of a quick comprehension. He most powerful and ferocious. The Brebers are distinguished from the other in- is afakih or doctor, deeply versed in the Mahometan habitants of Barbary by a language which has no- faith, and passes the greater part of the day in praything in common with any of the rest. It is consi- er. His religious austerity prompts him to shun dered by Adelung to be the same (allowing for some every appearance of luxury in his dress and manner variation of dialect) with that of the Tibbo, the of life. Requiring still greater simplicity in his miTuarick, and of all the indigenous population of this nisters and attendants, he has completely banished part of Africa. Marsden and Langles have supposed that splendour which usually accompanies a court. it to be a corruption of the ancient Punic language ; The most pernicious effect of this bigotry consists in but Mr Pinkerton forcibly argues, that a language the hostility with which it inspires him against variwhich has no abstract terms, none belonging to the ous branches of industry. He has ordered all the arts and sciences, and no written characters, could plantations of tobacco to be destroyed, because, alscarcely be even a corruption of the language of though the prophet has not forbidden the use of that a civilized people. Its high antiquity, however, can- plant, there is no evidence of his having used it himself. In the same spirit, he opposes every possible obstrucnot be doubted. with Europeans, whom, as infidels, The Shelluhs inhabit the southern parts of Mo- tion to commerce rocco. They are smaller in stature than the Brebers, he regards writh horror. In other respects, his goand in character somewhat less rude. In all other vernment is said to be milder than that usually exrespects, thej^ exactly resemble, and may be consi- perienced by the people of Morocco. dered as a branch of that race. Some writers have Algiers holds the next rank; but nearly a century Algiers, asserted their language to be different; but the voca- has elapsed since any narrative of its internal state bulary given by Chenier, and the information of has been published by any European visitor. The Dupuis, seem to leave no doubt that it is merely most recent information regarding its interior that we have seen, is contained in an American puba dialect with very slight variations. To these different classes we may finally add one lication, drawn up from the statements of the which is not inconsiderable,—that of the negroes. Ori- American captives who were confined there from ginally brought as slaves from Soudan andTombuctoo, 1792 to 1795. At that time the Dey was a Turkish they have multiplied greatly, and have even risen to soldier, named Hassan, about fifty, who had been distinguished estimation. The sovereigns of Moroc- brought from near Smyrna in the year 1786. Havco, unable, from the natural jealousy of despotism, ing insinuated himself into the favour of the reignto trust their own subjects, have placed their entire ing monarch, he gradually rose through the different confidence in negro troops. These form the stand- offices to that of prime minister. The old Dey dying army of the empire, the body guard of the sove- ing, Cedelli, a Greek, and a creature of Hassan, reign, and the garrison of all the principal fortresses. urged, and even ostensibly compelled him to assume Their pay is very small, not exceeding a penny a- the sovereignty. He prevailed ; and another candiday; but its smallness is compensated by the licence date who started up was put to death by the bow j in which they are allowed to indulge. A person, string. There have probably been several changes well acquainted with Morocco, being asked what since; and a new Dey is said to have come into their pay was, answered, “ Whatever they can rob power within the last six months. The Divan, it apor steal.” Muley Ishmael maintained nearly 100,000 pears, have lost almost entirely the influence which of these troops. Their fidelity to their monarch is they once possessed, and do little more than sancsaid to be exemplary. Negro slaves still continue to tion the measures determined on by the Dey. be imported in great numbers, particularly into MoThe present sovereign of Tunis is called Hamooda rocco. Bey, and is certainly an extraordinary character. He

BARB ARY 110 Baibary has displayed a most energetic policy, and has seated Slates, himself more firmly on the throne than any of his predecessors. He is now (1816) about fifty-five years of T,,nis ‘ age, and has reigned twenty-nine, a period quite unexampled in the tumultuous annals oi Tunis. He has, in a great measure, thrown off that dependence on the Turkish power, by which the state was formerly enthralled; he even chooses his ministers and favourites, in preference, out of other nations. The mere vigour of his character and administration seems to have freed him from that dread of conspiracy and insurrection, by which former Beys were perpetually haunted. His brother, and his two cousins, though the rightful heirs to the throne, live on the most friendly terms with him, and partake of all his amusements. He extends a very liberal protection to all classes of his subjects, even Christians and Jews, who, before his time, might be insulted or killed with perfect impunity. He is indefatigable in the dispatch of business, and spends vei’y little time in sleep, or in the haram. At seven in the morning, he generally receives the consuls of foreign nations in the hall of audience. From eight to twelve, he sits in the hall of justice. He is supreme judge throughout his own dominions ; all his subjects, from the highest to the lowest, attend and plead their own cause. Unfortunately, wherever the Bey’s personal interest is concerned, justice is entirely out of the question. His hand is always open for bribes from either party, and sometimes from both. Where such all-powerful motives do not interfere, he administers justice with equity, and even discovers a peculiar tact in eliciting the truth. His decisions are always given and executed with equal promptitude. Upon the whole, the security of person and property, and the general state of society, has been greatly ameliorated since his accession to power. Nothing seems to prevent him from being a good prince, except an avarice which knows no bounds, and hesitates at no means of gratification. This induces him to restrain the freedom of trade, to load it with monopolies, and often, which is worst of all, to become a merchant himself. He takes every opportunity of extorting money from his opulent subjects, without any pretence, and by the most arbitrary exactions. The following affords a curious example of Tunisian economy. Fie has erected a new palace, which will, it is said, be one of the most splendid edifices in Barbary ; but, in order to lighten the expence, the ground floor has been fitted up into shops. He has given up the use of wine, in which he formerly indulged to great excess; but he is much addicted to other shameful species of debauchery. The ministers and favourites of Hamooda are of the lowest description, both as to birth and character. The Zapatapa, or keeper of the seals, and Soliman Kiaya, commander of the army, are both Georgian slaves. The former is stained with every vice, but the latter exhibits an honourable and humane disposition, very rare in this country. The Bey’s private secretary is a Christian slave ; and the important and lucrative post of guardian of the slaves is held by a Neapolitan renegado. For some time past, a furious war has raged between the states of Algiers and Tunis; the former, the more powerful of the two, being ambitious of

STATES. conquering its weaker neighbour. The Bey of Tunis Barbary can call out a force of from 40,000 to 50,000 men;^ States. but they are merely an armed mob, and scarcely present the semblance of a regular army. The Algerine troops, however, are precisely of the same description. In the spring of 1807, the two armies took the field. That of Tunis was highly appointed, and thought of nothing less than the conquest of the Algerine province of Constantina. But so soon as the advanced guard of the Algerines was seen reconnoitring, the whole Tunisian army turned, threw down their arms, and fled with the utmost rapidity in every direction. Many are said to have arrived at Tunis, without having once ventured to look behind. 1 he Algerines took possession of their camp, baggage, and 15,000 camels, laden with every kind of supplies. It is supposed that nothing but the dread that so easy a victory might be the effect of stratagem, prevented the enemy from marching forward, and entering Tunis. The army of the Bey, however, reassembled almost as quickly as it had dispersed; and in July he was again able to take the field. On the 13th, the two armies approached each other; and the advanced guards having met, the troops of Tunis began to fly in confusion. But a Greek slave having ventured to fire a cannon, the Algerines took the alarm, and retreated precipitately to their own camp. The Tunisians having thereafter rallied, the two armies remained all next day in sight of each other. In the evening, however, Soliman Kiaya, having gone up the mountains to reconnoitre with a small body of cavalry, the Algerines began to dread, that an attempt was making to surround them ; upon which, the whole army broke up, and fled precipitately in every direction, leaving their camp, baggage, and 10,000 camels, in the hands of the victors. The latter, satiated with plunder, were not inclined to advance, otherwise they might easily have taken possession of Constantina. We need scarcely add, that such combats were not attended with serious bloodshed ; they were sufficient, however, to deter these heroes from again taking the field, and the war was thenceforth carried on by petty skirmishes. The government of Tripoli presents a still darker Tripoli. picture than that of Tunis. The flourishing era in the history of this state, was the reign of Hamet the Great, at the commencement of the last century. He freed Tripoli from the Turkish yoke, in a manner worthy indeed of so barbarous an administration. He invited to a feast 300 of their chiefs, each of whom, as they successively entered, were strangled. At the same time, a general massacre took place in the city. The Porte being propitiated by presents, he was left to reign in tranquillity. He reduced to complete subjection the hitherto untractable possessors of the mountain districts of Garian and Mesulata; and even succeeded in rendering Fezzan his tributary. He invited foreigners to settle in his dominions, and promoted the manufactures of woollen stuffs, Morocco leather, &c. His popularity enabled him to render the crown hereditary in his family. The late Bashaw reigned for thirty years with great moderation and mildness ; and Tripoli assumed a civilized and pacific character, very unusual in this part of the world. A

Ill B A R B A 11 Y STATES. Barbary most unfavourable change has taken place in his son population of Morocco at 14,886,600; of whom the Barbary States. Yusuf, the present Bashaw. He began his career cities and towns contain 895,600; the provinces within by murdex-ing his elder brother, an amiable prince, Atlas 10,341,000; the Berebbers amount to3,000,000, in the most barbarous manner. Then surrounding the Tafilets to 650,000. He states these numbers to himself by negro slaves and Arabs, he gained be founded upon information extracted from the Iman ascendancy over the more pacific inhabitants perial Register. They are quite improbable, and very . of the city. He thus succeeded in driving out far beyond any estimate formed by preceding tx*avelhis second brother, and seizing on the sovereign- lers. Chenier does not conceive that the empire can some have even reduty. He is represented as uniting in himself all contain above six millions ; and r the vices of that worst of chai-acters, a Barbary ced the estimate so low as tw o. Mr Macgill heard despot. He has, in a great measure, ruined com- the population of the Tunisian territory generally estimerce, by monopolizing to himself all the lucrative mated at five millions; but is inclined to reduce the and important branches. His principal minister is estimate to half that amount. Of these he supSidi Hamet, who shares with his master the most de- poses that 7000 may be Turks, 100,000 Jews, cided partiality to the French, and enmity to the 7000 Christians; the rest Moors, Arabs, and reneEnglish. Lord Nelson, in 1798, sent a line of bat- gadoes. Of the Algerine territory we have seen tle ship to demand that the Bashaw' should for no estimate ; but being more extensive and equally ever remove from his councils so dangerous a sub- cultivated with that of Tunis, it must contain a ject. A feigned compliance took place, but lasted greater population. Tripoli is reckoned by Ali Bey only till the English ship was out of sight of Tripoli. to contain two millions; probably beyond the truth. This personage has since been raised to a higher si- Of the great cities, Morocco is generally suptuation, that of minister for foreign affairs, while his posed to contain 30,000; Fez, by Jackson, 380,000; creature Mustapha has been appointed captain of by Ali Bey, only 100,000; Tunis, by Mr Macgill, the port. The place of fii’st admiral is held by a 100,000; by Mr Blaquiere, 130,000 ; Algiers, by Dr person beai'ing the name of Murat Rais, but who is Shaw, 117,000; Tripoli, by Mr Blaquiere, 25,000; in reality a Scotsman, named Peter Lysle. Being by Ali Bey, only 15,000. With a soil so fertile, and where manufacturing Commerce, at Tripoli in 1792, as mate of an English vessel, and accused of plundering part of the cargo, he fled to industry is in so low a state, the productions ot the castle, embraced Mahometanism, and received a the earth must form the staple articles of export. command in the Tripoline navy. He soon distin- Bai'bary, in ancient and even in modern times, has guished himself in the capacity of a pirate, and rose been the granary of southern Europe. Of late, by degrees to his present high situation. He is said, however, this branch of trade has been neai'ly cut off however, to enjoy it but little, and to sigh still for the by a general prohibition, in all the states, against the exportation of corn. The materials for export loss of his country, and his friends. Religion. The religion of Barbary is well known to be are thus reduced to fruits, gums, hides, wax, and the throughout Mahometan, professed with a degree of produce of the vexy few manufactures which flourish rigour and intolerance unknown in any other x’egion throughout these states. Of these, Morocco leather is of the globe. There is not, however, as in Turkey, the most important. Fez is the place whei’e this maany great body, like the Ulema, to act as the deposi- nufacture flourishes in the highest perfection ; but it taxy of its doctrines and influence. This influence is is also carried on in the other cities of Moi'occo, as here enjoyed by individuals who raise themselves, by well as those of Eastern Barbary. Fez is also distinpersonal merit or demerit, to the character of saints. guished by the manufacture of woollen haiks, a speSaints, in Morocco, almost share with the sovereign cies of long cloths universally wox-n by the Moors the power of the empire. Sidi Ali and Sidi Alarbi are when they go abroad; of sashes and silk handkerchiefs; the two most eminent reigning saints. Their con- and of carpets, which are little inferior to those ot sideration is chiefly supported by working miracles, Turkey. Tunis is famous for the manufacture of a and does not require any sacrifice of the pleasures of species of conical woollen caps, called scull-caps, unilife. They indulge in all these without reserve, and, versally worn, not only in Barbary, but over the besides the usual number of wives, keep numerous Levant. This fabric formerly employed fifty thouconcubines. The districts in which these saints reside sand persons ; but the manufacturers of Leghorn and pay no taxes, and are subject to no authority, ex- Mai'seilles now imitate it, and succeed in underselling cept theirs; and they are perpetually surrounded by the Tunisians, though, in tne quality ot the stuff", the a body of armed men, to chastise their own enemies latter remain still unrivalled. Robes and shawls of and those of the prophet. At some distance from woollen gauze are also made to a great extent. ConTripoli, there is a fortified village possessed by a cerning the manufactures of Algiers and Tripoli, we saint, called the Lion, which serves as an asylum for have few details; but with the exception of caps, every species of criminals, even those who are guilty they appear to be nearly similar to those of Tunis. The caravan trade with the interior of Africa is of high treason. Idiots, throughout Barbary, are generally reputed saints ; and some, in order to main- chiefly carried on from Morocco and Tripoli, brom tain the reputation of sanctity, find it expedient to the former it is very extensive. The caravans carry chiefly salt, tobacco, and European goods ; they counterfeit the total absence of reason. Amouut of The population of Barbary has been very variously bring back slaves, ivory, and gold dust. Lempriere estimates the amount of the former at one million ; hfioPOPU* rePorted> antl has never been fixed on any Precise or the latter at ten millions; which, if correct, would authentic data. We shall collect the different statements made on the subject. Mr Jackson gives the imply the profits on this trade to be immense.- 'Ihe

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states'trade from Tripoli has been greatly diminished, in consequence of the Bashaw having embroiled himself with his Arab neighbours, who, occupying the route by which the caravans must pass, render the communication extremely precarious. The European goods for which there exists a demand in the Barbary States, are exceedingly various. They include more or less of almost every article both of manufacture and of colonial produce. In the former class are such articles as, being of inferior quality, can be afforded at a cheap rate ; Yorkshire cloths, particularly drugg 'ts and serges; muslins of the coarsest and cheapest sort; coarse linen, particularly German. Raw silk and Spanish wool were imported to a great extent when their manufactures were more flourishing. French wines are imported into the eastern states, where the precepts of Ma hornet are less rigidly observed. The other imports are tin and lead to a considerable extent, English is preferred, coffee, sugar, and the different kinds of spices: hardware, cutlery, toys, are in some demand ; also alum, vitriol, cochineal, gum-lac, and vermilion, for their manufactures. The commerce of Morocco is greatly diminished by the senseless bigotry of the reigning Emperor. The intercourse with Europe is now confined to the port of Mogadore, and is subject to various restrictions. The articles of export, suited to the European market, appear, by Mr Jackson’s enumeration, to be chiefly sweet and bitter almonds, about 1,000 000 lbs.; gum Barbary, gum Senegal, and gum Sandarac, upwards of 100,000 lbs.; cow and calf skins, 260,000 lbs. ; goat skins, 10,000 dozen ; wool, 30,000 lbs.; ostrich feathers, olive oil, citrons, and some minor articles. The commerce of Eastern Barbary has hitherto been carried on chiefly from Leghorn and Marseilles. Louis XIV. established at the latter port a Royal African Company, which formed several establishments upon the coast of the Algerine province of Constantina. The objects were the corn trade and the coral fishery, which they shared at first with an English company already established; but the latter failing, the whole trade fell into the hands of the French. Their first establishment was at the Bastion de France, at the western extremity of Alfiers ; but this was abandoned, and they settled at «a Cala, Bona, 11 Col, and Tabarca. They paid L. 4000 a-year to the Dey of Algiers, and \00 per cent, to the Bey of Constantina, on the grain exported ; in addition to which, they were obliged to submit to various species of extortion and humiliation. The Continental war, and the extinction of the French naval power, threw a large proportion of this trade Into the hands of the British ; and Malta became the channel through which it was conducted. In 1806’, the British Government contracted with the Dey of Algiers for the possession of La Cala, Bona, and II Col; in consideration of which, they stipulated to pay him the sum of 50>000 dollars (L. 11,000 Sterling). Mr Blaquiere, and other persons acquainted with this coast, are of opinion, that very important advantages might be derived from this settlement. The coral fishery alone might employ 500 boats and 9000 men ; besides which, there is a large export of

states.

hides, wax, and wool. It is added, that the country Barbaiy produces ship-timber, particularly oak, of the best States. quality, and in inexhaustible abundance, and that excellent hemp and flax might be raised. As yet, however, the British Government have continued to pay the money, without forming any establishment, or deriving any benefit from the privilege thus purchased. The coral fishery is carried on by a small number of French and Neapolitan boats ; and the spirited attempts made by the merchants at Malta to open a communication with this quarter have been frustrated From the pressure of the war, or other causes, no military establishment has yet been formed at La Cala. I he place, however, is said to be admirably suited for such a purpose, and, at a very small expence, might be rendered impregnable. We hall finally consider these states under the Christian view, which has so justly excited the interest ands‘ilvuysympathy of the British nation, that of Christian slavery. To be placed under the absolute control of the most brutal and corrupted of mortals, whom religious antipathy has divested besides of every human sympathy—without any law or earthly power to appeal to—the hopeless victims of brutal cruelty, and still more brutal voluptuousness;—this is certainly the most dreadful fate to which human beings were ever devoted. Yet such has been the fate of thousands of Europeans, among whom were often those who, from rank, sex, and cultivation of mind, must have been most keenly sensible of its horrors. Painful as the subject is, it seems indispensable to give some details which may illustrate the extent of the evil, and the necessity which existed for some arrangements to remedy it. The most particular and authentic account of the treatment of slaves at Algiers is that given in the American work already alluded to. On the 23d October 1792, the ship President saw approaching an armed xebeck, bearing Spanish colours, till she came within gun-shot, when she instantly hoisted the bloody flag, and fired. Escape was now impossible ; the xebeck instantly put out a boat, with thirty armed men, who rowed furiously towards the vessel, and boarded it with the wildest shouts and outcries. No resistance being made, they began to strip the crew with a fury of avarice, of which it was impossible to form an idea. Sometimes several fell upon one American, and fought over him for the clothes of which he was stript. Having ransacked every corner, they then ordered the Americans to descend into the boat; and those who showed any hesitation were instantly knocked down, and kicked over into it. On reaching Algiers, the distribution took place. The Dey made first his choice, which was formerly limited to an eighth of the whole, but now extends to as great a number as he chooses to demand. For this purpose, they were conducted to the palace, and drawn up in files along a court, where they passed under this review. Having made his selection, he dismissed the rest with the compliment, “ Go, you Christian dogs, and eat stones.” The youngest were employed in menial offices about the palace, the rest were put to work in the marine and in public buildings. Whenever a foreign vessel was in the port, they were loaded with thirty or forty pounds weight

B A R B A R Y Barbary of chains, in order to prevent their escape. Their State?, heaviest labour consisted in dragging immense stones from a neighbouring quarry, for the repair and enlargement of the mole. A. body of Turks attended to urge them on, but gave no aid, unless by continually roaring out Hyomoly, “ heave away,” with a noise so tremendous, that it was heard at the distance of more than a league. At night, they were locked up in two huge buildings, called bagnios, the lower part of which was employed for shops, and the upper for the joint accommodation of the captives and of the wild beasts belonging to the Dey. There was no bed in the place, and they were obliged to lie on the floor, till their own ingenuity enabled them to erect some humble substitute. The daily allowance of food was a pound of very bad bread, and a small quantity of oil. Many sunk under this accumulation of distress, and were carried to the Spanish hospital, the only relief provided for their miseries. The sympathy of the American people having been at length excited by reports of their suffei'ings, they opened a negociation, and, at the expence of nearly 800,000 dollars, procured the release of the captives. The observations made by Captain Croker, during his visit in 1815, agree with the narrative of the Americans, and prove that no improvement had taken place since that time. At the period of his arrival, three hundred Christian captives had been driven in from Bona, exposed to such treatment that fifty died within six days after reaching Algiers. They were still employed in the quarries, and loaded with chains, as before. His description of the house in which they were locked up is, that, “ if it had light,” it would resemble those in which the West Indian negroes keep their pigs. Being now at peace with the great powers, their piracy is chiefly exercised on Naples and Sardinia, with whom they have always taken care to continue at war. European, and even English colours, are assumed to entrap the unfortunate victims. They frequently also make descents on the coast, and sweep away all the inhabitants, without distinction of age and sex. The Tunisians, at the commencement of the reign of the present Bey, landed on the island of St Pierre, belonging to Sardinia, and carried off the whole population, amounting to upwards of a thousand. At Tunis and Tripoli, the treatment of slaves is not so utterly inhuman as at Algiers. The most dreadful fate is that of those who are judged fit to be received into the haram of the prince, or any of his principal officers; which, in consequence of the depraved propensities here prevalent, is not confined to one sex. Of those who become the slaves of private persons, both at Tunis and Algiers, some are tolerably, and a fewvery well treated. It is not easy to ascertain the precise extent in which this enormous evil lately existed. Mr Blaquiere, though he represents its horrors in the most glowing colours, considers the whole number of captives as amounting only to a thousand. Mr Macgill calculates two thousand in Tunis alone, and the Americans the same number at Algiers. The first estimate, howevei’, is probably the more correct, as, by a calculation of the amount and rate of ransoms returned, the number in VOL. II. PART i.

STATES. ns Algiers, at the time of Lord Exmouth’s first expedi- Barbary tion, appears to have been four hundred and fifteen. hta,es« The outrageous conduct of the Barbary corsairs has repeatedly roused the indignation of the principal European states. Yet it has happened, that most of the expeditions undertaken to repress or intimidate them have been not only unsuccessful, but attended with the most disastrous issue. We may particularly mention the expedition of Charles V., which will be found narrated in the body of the work. More recently, in 1776> the Spaniards sent a large fleet into the road of Algiers, w'hich landed 13,000 or 14,000 troops. Through a want of harmony, however, between the commanders, the army reimbarked, and the fleet sailed off without attempting anything of importance. They returned in 1783, when the fortifications were greatly strengthened, but by means of gunboats, they were enabled to bombard the city in a terrible manner. Yet the Dey, though obliged to leave his palace, was neither moved by his own danger, nor by the sufferings of his subjects, to sue for peace; and the Spaniards at length retired. They returned next year; but the Dey had now prepared a large force of gunboats, which kept them at a distance; and they were obliged to move off, without having effected anything whatever. The Algerines now believed themselves invincible; and the Spaniards were fain to purchase peace with a million of dollars, besides a large sum for the ransom of their captives. In 1800, the Americans waged war against Tripoli, in consequence of a vessel belonging to them having been seized, and the crew made slaves. They repeatedly attacked the harbour, and did some damage to it, but wrere not able to make any serious impression, or to produce any effect, besides that of impelling the tyrant to a more rigorous treatment of his captives. They then adopted a different course. They landed in Egypt, where they were joined by Hamet, the elder brother of Yusuf, the reigning Bashaw, and to whom the throne rightfully belonged. The confederates having collected 500 men, marched through the Lybian desert, and took Derne, the frontier town of Tripoli. Notwithstanding the smallness of this force, Yusuf, alarmed by the popularity of his brother, accepted the mediation of the Danish consul, and a treaty was concluded. The prisoners were restored at a moderate ransom, and Hamet, now abandoned, returned to Egypt. Upon the whole, there seems to have been very little ground for the boast which has been made, respecting the conduct and success of this American expedition. After the termination of the Continental war, which had absorbed every other interest, a deep feeling was excited in the British nation, for the fate of their fellow Christians, who were groaning under this horrible slavery. Sicily and Sardinia, the chief sufferers, were our intimate allies; besides which, Britain, as mistress of the seas, seemed called upon to put down a system of naval warfare and depredation, inconsistent with all those ties by which civilized nations are united together. Urged by this impulse, the British Government directed Lord Exmouth (late Sir E. Pellew) to sail with a squadron agaiost Algiei*s and

BARB ARY STATES. 114 Barbary Tunis. The appearance of this armament was suffi- but after seven hours fighting, the enemy’s batteries Barbary Shitcs cient to induce both states to a compliance with the were reduced to a state of ruin ; and the flotilla States , A Barlow, terms demanded, which were, peace with Sicily and having succeeded in setting fire to some of the Al- Barlow. gerine vessels, the flame spread to such a degree, that Sardinia; the restoration of their captives at a moderate ransom ; and an engagement, in every future the whole fleet, arsenal, and gunboats, were ere long war, to treat prisoners in the manner customary among reduced to ashes. On the following morning, the civilized nations. Scarcely, however, had this treaty Dey submitted unconditionally to the terms prebeen signed, when it was violated, on the part ot Al- scribed by the British Government. These were— giers, in the most outrageous manner. Several hun- the abolition, for ever, of Christian slavery; the dred boats, chiefly Neapolitan, being employed under immediate delivery, to Lord Exrnouth, of all capsanction of the British flag, in carrying on the pearl- tives, of whatever nation, who were within the terfishery on the coast near Bona, a gun was suddenly ritory of Algiers ; the repayment of the ransoms forfired from the castle, when two thousand Turks and merly received ; with apology and reparation to the Moors rushed down upon the unfortunate fishermen, British consul, for insults that had been offered to and, aided by fire from the forts, massacred the whole him. All these stipulations were executed with the of them. The English flag was seized, and trampled utmost promptitude. Thus terminated an achievement, than which under foot. Lord Exmouth had already sailed, and was arrived in England before he heard of this dread- none has ever reflected a purer glory on the British ful tragedy. The utmost expedition was then em- name—one undertaken, not from any merely British ployed to equip a T new and more formidable arma- motives, but to defend the general cause of humaniment. In a few w eeks Lord Exmouth again sailed, ty, and vindicate the rights of the civilized world. and being joined at Gibraltar by a Dutch squadron All observers agree that, in the case of a race at once under Admiral Capellen, arrived before Algiers, on mean and barbarous, fear is the only motive which the 26th August last (1816), about three months can act with sufficient force ; and that a signal chasfrom the time at which he had left it. On the morn- tisement, such as cannot be soon forgotten, affords ing of the 27th, a flag of truce was sent in, stating the only security for their future moderation. The the conditions on which alone peace would now be lesson which the Algerines have now received is of granted, and allowing two hours for their acceptance. this description ; and there is therefore every reason Three houi’s elapsed, without an answer, but also to hope that its influence may be long and salutary. without any hostile movement; and Lord Exmouth See Shaw’s Travels; Jackson’s Account of Mo-f began to hope the intentions of the Dey might be rocco ; Macgill’s Account of Tunis ; Blaquiere’s Letpacific, when several shots were fired from the har- ters on Sicily; Tully’s l.eltcrs ; Ali Bey’s Travels; bour. A combat of the most terrible description Keatinge’s Travels ; Appendix to Robert Adam’s immediately began, the batteries being attacked Travels in the Interior of Africa; Account of Alwith all the characteristic valour of British sea- giers, and of the Treatment of American Captives, men, and defended with all the fury of barbarian by James Wilson Stephens, of Philadelphia. Brookdesperation. The British fleet suffered severely; lyn, 1800. (b.)

BARLOW (Joel), an American literary and political character of considerable note, was born in the year 1756, in the village of Reading, State of Connecticut ; and appears to have been the youngest of ten children. His father died when he was yet a boy; but his friends, attentive to his instruction, employed his portion of the paternal inheritance for his education, at the college of Newhaven, in his native state. Here he commenced his studies in 177J* In the course of the prescribed exercises of composition, he discovered a taste for poetry; and two productions crept into public view ; one entitled The Prospect of Peace; the other, An Elegy on the Death of Mr Hosmer, Member of the American Congress. It appears that Mr Barlow was destined for the clerical profession ; and that his friends solicited and obtained for him the appointment of chaplain to a militia company of Massachusets, the functions of which he performed till the event of peace. One of his panegyrists has observed, in reference to his subsequent change of profession, that, “ amongst the Presbyterians of New England, the priesthood is nothing else than a species of civil ordination. He who receives it may pass to another employment; and it is common enough to see young

men preach the gospel in order to have time to prepare themselves for another profession.” This explanation, however, is hardly reconcileable with the spirit of the New England theologians, who even now require from the candidate for holy orders a solemn declaration, that he is moved to this calling by a certain species of inspiration, or divine impulse, and not by any carnal or interested motive. In 1781, while he followed the army in quality of chaplain, he contracted a marriage with Miss Baldwin of Newhaven ; and it was during this period of his life that he planned the edifice of his future fame in his poem destined to celebrate the discovery and prospects of America. It was also during this period that the patriarchs of Connecticut proposed to adopt a new metrical translation of the Psalms, which excited to emulation all the poetical genius of the state. The version of Barlow carried the prize ; and is to this day sung in the churches of New England. At the conclusion of peace between the United States and Great Britain, he abandoned the ecclesiastical life, and settled at the village of Hartford, where, two years afterwards, he published the poem alluded to, entitled, The Vision of Colrm10

BAR Barlow. busy which he afterwards gave to the world in a ^V^^more expanded and imposing form. After quitting the service of the church, he appears for some time to have practised law; but, in 1788, he likewise abandoned that profession to become the agent of a mercantile company, who had purchased some millions of acres of lands situate on, or near the river Ohio, which they proposed to sell to foreigners at an enhanced price. For this purpose, Mr Barlow was sent to Europe ; and it is said that he was fortunate in the execution of this commission. Having during this period become deeply interested by the events of the French Revolution, he published, in the years 1791 and 1792, the following political pieces : 1. Advice to the Privileged Orders.— 2. The Conspiracy of Kings.—3. Letter to the National Convention of France.—f. The Royal Recollections. Towards the end of the year 1792, he was, being then in London, appointed by the Constitutional Society of London one of a deputation to present an address to the National Convention of France,—a circumstance which attracted the notice of the British Parliament, it having been stated by a member that the Convention had received an address by means of two fellows calling themselves the representatives of Great Britain, viz. Frost and Barlow. In 1793, Barlow, from motives of curiosity, accompanied the four commissioners of the National Convention who were sent to Montblanc, to organize that department; and this excursion gave rise to another production, entitled, A Letter to the People of Piedmont. He also translated about this time Volney’s well known work, entitled, Ruins of Empires. Objects of a commercial nature at length drew him to Hamburgh, and afterwards to the coast of Africa, where he received the commission of consul-general of the United States, with instructions to enter into and conclude treaties with the Barbary powers, for the purpose of procuring the ransom of the American citizens who were detained as slaves in those countries. The execution of this commission was prompt and fortunate ; and, after residing for some time in Paris, to which he returned from Barbary, he, in 1805, proceeded to America, and purchased a neat habitation in the territory of Columbia, the seat of the general government, to which he gave the name of Kahrama. Here he formed an acquaintance with certain considerable members of Congress, to whom he greatly recommended Tiimself by the publication of a short sketch of a plan of national education, and an address to the citizens of Washington upon occasion of one of the anniversaries of American independence. He now also published the superb quarto edition of his national poem, to which he finally gave the name of The Columbiad. Soon after his return from Europe, he was admitted to the confidence of the first magistrate of the United States ; and, in 1811, he received the valued appointment of minister-plenipotentiary to the court of France. This nomination met with powerful op-

BAR 115 position in the Senate, and passed only by a small Barlow. majority. He sailed for his destination on board of the Constitution frigate, disembarked at Cherburg in September 1812, and proceeded to the French capital, where he was received, in the Emperor’s absence, by the minister of foreign affairs, who.“ was instructed to say the most flattering things relative to his appointment.” The great object of his mission was to obtain compensation for the American property confiscated in virtue of the Berlin and Milan decrees. This arrangement was to be regulated in a manner the least onerous to the French treasury. American ships and cargoes were, at the same time, to be freed from unjust detention, and a new commercial treaty to be formed on principles of national justice and reciprocity. In pursuit of this object, he followed the Emperor Napoleon to Wilna, in the memorable winter of 1812; but this diplomatic journey was without advantage, and the failure was the more mortifying, as it was undertaken without the advice or instructions of the American Government. Mr Barlow was returning to Paris, when he was seized with a violent inflammatory disease, of which he died, on the 26th of December, in the 58th year of his age. His nephew, late midshipman on board of the Constitution frigate, whom he took from his studies to accompany him in this journey, and a secretary of the French Legation in the United States, were witnesses of his last moments, and saw him interred at the place where he closed his eyes, an obscure village of Poland. Of the private life of Mr Barlow there is but little to say. He was of a very taciturn disposition ; and though he had lived so long abroad, was in manners and appearance a true New England man. His life was sober and uniform. His court dress, though plain, he called his harness. He left no issue ; but his wife survived him, and returned to America, to the enjoyment of considerable property bequeathed by her husband. To this account of Mr Barlow, for which we are indebted to a correspondent abroad, to whom he was known, we shall subjoin the estimate which has been formed of his great work the Columbiad, by a very competent critic. “ In this poem, the whole history, past, present, and future, of America, is delivered in the clumsy and revolting form of a miraculous vision ; and thus truth is not only blended with falsehood and fancy, but is presented to the mind under the mask of the grossest and most palpable fiction—From the prose which he has introduced into the volume, and even from much of what is given as poetry, it is easy to see that he was a man of a plain, strong, and resolute understanding; but without any play or vivacity of fancy, any gift of simplicity or pathos, any loftiness of genius, or delicacy of taste. Though not deficient in literature, nor unread in poetrjq he had evidently none of the higher elements of a poet in his composition ; and has accordingly made a most injudicious choice and unfortunate application of the models which lay before him. Instead of aspiring to emulate the sub-

116 BAR Barlovr lime composure of Milton, or the natural eloquence II Barometer. and flowing nervousness of Dryden, he has bethought him of transferring to epic poetry the light, sparkling, and tawdry diction of Darwin; and of narrating great events, and delivering lofty precepts, in an

BAR unhappy imitation of that picturesque, puerile, and Barlow pedamic style, which alternately charms and disgusts N us in the pages of our poetical physiologist.” [Edin- . ^l'mete1, burgh Review, Vol. XV.^. y*-

BAROMETER. I he Encyclopcedia contains such an account of the discovery and construction of this most valuable instrument, as could be drawn from the popular treatises of natm*al philosophy in the English language. But, unfortunately, our compilers of elementary works have seldom taken the trouble to remount to the original sources of information, and have frequently, by substituting their own fancies, or servilely copying the mistakes of others, contrived to disfigure egregiously the relation of facts, and the history of the progress of invention. We now purpose, therefore, as far as our limits will admit, to remodel the article; and, passing rather slightly over the description of the different kinds of barometers, and other practical details already given, to dwell more especially on the successive steps which led to the fine discovery of atmospheric pressure, and its application to physical science. The opinions entertained by the ancients concern-

disposed, however, to consider it as element, of a pure, divine, and incorruptible nature; an opinion and of the which afterwards gave occasion to the famous Quinta Schoolmen. Essentia, or Quintessence of the schoolmen. The alchemists, who sprung up nearly about the same benighted period, in adopting those notions, modified them to suit their own peculiar views. To the elements commonly received, they joined the active auxiliaries of mercury and sulphur. For quintessence they substituted spirit and elixir ; the former, drawn off by the application of tire, being conceived to represent the animating principle of each body ; while the latter, extracted by the combined action of heat and moisture, w^as supposed to exhibit its concentrated and most select qualities. Some of the ancient cosmologists supposed a vacuum beyond the shining expanse of aether, destined to receive the exhalations from this nether world. ©pinions Others denied the existence of a separate void, but Ancients • subjects, appear at best only splendid vi- admitted small vacuities interspersed through bodies. sions. They speculated boldly in cosmological theo- Aristotle, however, maintained the necessity of a Physical ries, but were easily satisfied with those conclusions plenum, asserting that our idea of space or exten- rt'.ne,s of which merely soothe the fancy. Many of the phi- sion is inseparable from that of body. To this prin-Aliitot!e' losophical notions, however, adopted in remote ages, ciple he ascribed the suspension of water in a tube, have left a durable impression in the structure of when the finger is applied to shut the upper end. language, and still continue to exert a visible influ- Yet the very contempt in which that philosopher, ence in moulding the current sentiments of mankind. from a consciousness of his own superiority, was The early sages of Greece distinguished matter into accustomed to hold the received opinions, might have the four primary elements, of earth, water, air, and led him to take juster views. Fie rejected the nofire, which, by their various combinations, were sup- tion, that air has levity inherent in its nature; nor posed to produce the animated spectacle of the uni- would he admit the more plausible idea, that a fluid verse. With these elements were associated corre- so easily moved must possess the quality of perfect insponding qualities, in a binary conjunction : Hot and difference, and be neither light nor heavy. Aristotle cold; dry and moist. Earth and water w ere con- not only maintained that air is ponderous, but did sidered as ponderous and inert; but air and fire, en- not scruple to appeal to direct experiment in support dued with elastic virtue, w'ere imagined to possess of his assertion. A bladder, he says, will be found lightness and activity. Fire, though extracted from to gain some weight, on being blown or filled with all bodies by the operations of nature or of art, was air. But this was evidently a mere random asseryet conceived to be derived, by invisible emanation, tion, betraying his ignorance of the constitution of from that diffuse lambent fluid, which, under the fluids. A bag filled with air, and suspended in a like name of iEther, occupied the highest heavens, and medium, it is obvious, from the laws of hydrostatics, constituted the substance and nutriment of the ce- must weigh exactly the same as before. If it be allestial bodies. While the earthy matter would, there- leged that, in blowing up the bladder, a portion of fore, naturally settle towards the centre, and the air would be introduced immediately from the Jungs, aqueous fluids roll along the surface, of the solid and containing, therefore, a small admixture of carglobe; the air and fire soared aloft, the former occu- bonic acid gas, which is specifically lighter than the pying the whole of the region below the moon, and common atmospheric fluid; the additional weight, the latter streaming through the boundless extent of amounting scarcely perhaps to a grain, would be too space. This sublunary scene is exposed to inces- minute to be detected by any of the jeweller’s basant change, calamity, and decay; but above it lances constructed in ancient Greece. was supposed to reign a perpetual calm, the seat of The mutual opposition of the leading philosophical bliss, and of divine and imperishable essence. sects ol antiquity had, in general, most fatally disAristotle, and some other philosophers, viewing couraged the application of mathematical reasoning asther as altogether distinct from culinary fire, were to the system of the material world. The Academi-

BAROMETER. 117 Barometer, cians, or the disciples of Plato, who cultivated georae- ages. The ingenuity of Galileo prepared a com- Barometer, try with ardour and brilliant success, were disposed to plete revolution in science. By means of a few regard that science as a pure intellectual contempla- simple but striking experiments performed on the tion ; and resigning themselves to the illusion of their lagoons of Venice, he established the laws of motion, lofty dreams, they turned with disdain from the in- which he now transferred from the surface of our vestigation of individual facts and all the vulgar globe, to direct the revolutions of the heavenly realities of life. The mind of Aristotle was of a bodies. The publication of his Dialogues, which more sober and practical cast; acute, profound, unfold the right process of induction, and are not and discriminating, it ranged, with incredible indus- less distinguished by fineness of conception than try, over an immense field of inquiry. That judi- beauty of diction, form a new era in the annals of cious philosopher recommended a careful and con- philosophy. He was the first that attempted to asstant appeal to external observation, as the only sure certain the weight’of air by actual experiment; and ground on which to erect the structure of physics ; considering the nicety of the operation, and the but unfortunately his scholars neglected too much rudeness of the instruments constructed at that period, the study of mathematics, the most powerful instru- he made a very tolerable approach to the truth. It had ment for conducting physical research. The pre- been known for many ages, that air is capable of cepts of Aristotle, though excellent in some re- being highly condensed ; and Ctesebius of Alexandria spects, were hence in the sequel unproductive of had invented an engine, which, by the force of the any genuine fruit. On the contrary, the weight of sudden expansion of this compressed fluid, hurled mishis opinions, during a long course of ages, confined sile weapons. This was afterwards improved into the wind or air-gun, which seems to have been not unand repressed the efforts of human genius. Modem It must be gratefully acknowledged, that the alche- common in Europe as early as the fifteenth century, Experimen- mists, styled also philosophers by fire, were the first though soon afterwards generally superseded in practalists. among the moderns who dared to explore new paths of tice by the introduction of fire-arms. Galileo, being science. Their projects were, indeed, highly chimeri- led by a different path from that pursued at present, set cal, but they had the merit at least of setting the ex- himself to examine the weight which air acquires by ample of investigating the properties of matter by ac- condensation. Having fitted a large copper vessel tual experiment. They likewise formed associations with a valve, he injected air into its cavity by means among individuals, for the more effectual prosecution of a syringe, and then suspended it to a balance. The of such researches. Hence the origin of that obscure additional increase of weight being thus found, he sect, known by the fanciful title of Rosicrucians, opened the valve under an inverted glass receiver full who sprung up in Germany, and insensibly spread of water, and measured, by the displacement of this their influence over the Continent. Those princi- liquid, the surplus quantity of air which had been ples were afterwards transplanted into the matur- injected into the copper vessel. He thence concluded ed soil of Italy, where philosophy, succeeding to that air is 400 times lighter than water, being about the cultivation of letters, wore a more attractive the double of the true estimate. After he had, by such researches, acquired celegarb. Baptista Porta, a Neapolitan nobleman, who flourished about the latter part of the sixteenth cen- brity in the scientific world, Galileo accepted an intury, was especially distinguished by his zeal in pro- vitation, with a very handsome appointment, from moting such pursuits. Having spent many years in Cosmo de Medici; and devoting himself intensely travelling over Europe to gain information respect- to astronomical observations, aided by the telescope, ing natural objects, he invited a few individuals of a which, froman obscure hint, he had recently constructsimilar taste to assemble, at stated times, in his house, ed, yet occasionally unbending his mind with elegant and assist him in making new experiments. These recreation, he spent almost the whole of the evening of meetings, however, gave umbrage to the watchful his life, at the villa of Arcetri, near Florence, in a style jealousy of the clergy, and they were soon sup • of comfort and even splendour. But, while occupied pressed by a mandate from the Court of Rome. But with those delightful pursuits—exploring the planethe example was imitated in other parts ot Italy, tary phases—and discovering new worlds—he was where the papal authority enjoyed less respect; and for a moment recalled to his early studies, by an inciacademies, for the promotion of natural science, dent destined to form an epoch in the history of were successfully instituted under the patronage of physical science. Some artisans, in the service of Incidentala °^ different princes, particularly those of the illustrious the Grand Duke, having been employed to construct a lifting or sucking pump for a very deep well, p^!!^ house of Medici. * Galileo. In this ferment of inquiry, Galileo arose, a man fit- found, with equal surprise and vexation, that, in spite ted alike by the gifts of nature, and the lights of edu- of all the pains they had taken in fitting the piston and cation, to be the founder of experimental science. His valves, the water could by no effort be made to rise elegant genius was invigorated by the study ot the higher in the barrel than eighteen palms, or thirty-two Greek geometry ; and he conceived the happy and feet. In this dilemma, they applied to Galileo for an prolific idea of employing that refined instrument to explication of the cause of a failure so unexpected and explore facts and combine the results. Archimedes, perplexing. But the philosopher was not yet preindeed, among the ancients, had anticipated this road pared to encounter such a discordant fact. The of discovcy, having most successfully applied the Aristotelian tenet of the impossibility of the existpowers of geometrical analysis to the investigation ence of a void, was, at this per'od, universally reof some parts of mechanics and hydrostatics. But ceived as an unquestionable truth. It had become his was a solitary instance, unheeded by succeeding 4 favourite axiom of the schoolmen, deceiving

BAROMETER. 118 Barometer, themselves—as Leibnitz did afterwards, in proposing one of the ends hermetically, or closed it under the Barometer, his principle of siifficient reason—by the glimmer of a flame of a lamp ; he then filled the cavity of the metaphorical expression, theJuga vacui,or nature’s hor- tube with mercury, and applying his finger to the ror of a void. To create a vacuum, they gravely main- open end, he inverted it in a bason likewise containing tained, would require the hand of Omnipotence, trans- mercury, though covered with a portion of water. cending the utmost power of men or even devils. The mercury instantly sunk to nearly thirty inches But Galileo, though borne along by the current of opi- above the lower surface ; but on raising the tube, till nion, saw the necessity of at least modifying the ge- its orifice communicated with the layer of water, the neral principle. Without questioning nature’s ab- mercury run all out, and the water now sprung up Timid and liorrence 0f a vacuum, he supposed the influence of to the top, and occupied the whole of the cavity. Expiration this horror to be confined within certain limits, not It was thus proved, that the water and mercury are of Galileo, exceeding the pressure of a column of water eighteen each supported by the same equipoise, which Torripalms in height. This was evidently evading, rather celli, after some hesitation, at last concluded to be than meeting, the difficulty proposed for his solution. the pressure of the external atmosphere. He next Yet, in the last of his Dialogues, he actually mentions converted the mercurial column into a form adapted an experiment to ascertain this power or virtu, as he for observation, by bending the lower end of the tube, calls it, of a vacuum. A piston, exactly fitted into a and constructing what has since received the name of smooth hollow cylinder, was rammed quite to the the syphon barometer. (See fg. 1. Plate XXXII.) end, and this carefully shut up ; then placing the cy- Thus armed with a commodious instrument, he soon linder in an upright but inverted position, successive detected the variation of atmospheric pressure, which weights were appended to the rod, till it was drawn depends on the change of weather. These importfrom the close end, and pulled down. It may seem ant results were published in the year 1645; but strange, that the Tuscan philosopher, after advan- Torricelli did rot live to enjoy the fame of his great cing so far, should have stopt on the verge of a great discovery,ft iis most promising genius was snatched discovery. He had already weighed the air, and it away by a t :aid fever in the flower of his age. The report of Torricelli’s first experiments having was only another small step thence to infer the effect of its incumbent mass. But the atmosphere was been carried to France before he had ventured to still supposed to reach to the moon, and the pressure draw his capital conclusion, set philosophers to speof columns of such enormous height seemed to mock culate on the cause of such an unexpected fact. Desall calculation,and overwhelm the imagination.* Yet, cartes, with his usual rapidity and boldness of conon reconsidering the subject, Galileo began to sus- ception, did not hesitate, in his correspondence with pect the solidity of the explication which he had Mersenne, to refer the suspension of the mercury in given ; but it was now too late for him, in his ad- the tube at once to the pressure of the external vanced age, loaded with bodily infirmities, and di- atmosphere. But this influence appears not very spirited by clerical persecution, to attempt any far- consistent with his system, which assumed the exther innovation in science. Recommending it ear- istence of an absolute plenum, and only supplied the nestly to his friend and pupil Torricelli to resume place of a void by the diffusion of subtile abraded the investigation, this illustrious precursor of Newr- particles of matter. He suspected also the accuracy ton expired in 1642, the very year in which the of Galileo’s estimate of the weight of the air, which English philosopher was born. His uniform kind- he thought was scarcely appreciable by experiment. But, in the same country, the subject was now Pascal’s Exness and urbanity rendered him extremely beloved; and his disciples, particularly Torricelli, Viviani, and pursued with deliberate caution, and through all its P«riments.' Ricci, venerating his memory, caught the same taste, details, by another genius of the highest order; one and followed similar pursuits. of the finest and most original that France has ever Torricelli’s Torricelli now conceived the happy idea of produced. Pascal had shown premature and extrafamous Ex- exhibiting the action of a pump on a contract- ordinary talents, which were encouraged by his fapemuent. e(i SCale, by means of a column of mercury, ther, a man of learning, who lived in habits of intiwhich is nearly fourteen times heavier than water. macy with the literati of Paris. The young philosoThis experiment he first communicated to his pher happened to be residing at Rouen, in 1646, friend V iviani, who performed it with success in when he was informed of the famous Italian experi16'43; and he afterwards repeated and varied it him- ment. Having access, fortunately, to a glass-house, self. The method which he took brought very he resolved immediately to repeat the observations neatly under one view all the circumstances affecting on a large scale. He had already suspected the the question. Having selected a tube about a quar- justness of the principle, that “ nature abhors a vater of an inch wide, and four feet long, he sealed cuum,” and thought that the condensation and rare* I his narrative, which marks so well the slow and timid steps whereby men, even of the highest intellectual endowments, usually advance in the search after truth, is drawn from the writings of Galileo himself. I he carelessness of some authors in mis-stating facts, and imputing unworthy motives to those patriarchs of science who could not open their eyes all at once to the bright effulgence of day, deserves severe reprehension. We may remark, in passing, that M. Biot, who ranks now among the first mathematicians and philosophers in France, has not scrupled, in a recent bulky compilation on physics, to allege that Galileo only joked with the artisans who asked him the reason of the failure of their pump; that he had an idea of the true explication, but chose to keep his secret, and suffered it to die with him. Such a contemptible conduct would certainly have been a reproach to Galileo’s acknowledged candour.

B A R O M E T E R 119 Barometer, faction of the air point to a different, or at least a volved him in a wretched controversy. Father Barometer. modified conclusion. With a view to clear up this Noel, rector of the Jesuits’ College at Paris, keenly subject, Pascal performed a number of satisfactory attacked it, armed with all the miserable sophisms experiments, of which we shall cite a few of the more of the schools, and the absurd dogmas of the Romish striking, nearly in Ins own language, tinctured evident- church. He contended, that the space above the ly with the prevailing opinions of the age : 1. Having mercurial column was corporeal, because it was vifitted a piston to an open glass tube, and rammed it sible and admitted light; that a void being a mere quite down, he applied his finger close to the lower non-entity, cannot have different degrees of magniend, and plunged the whole under water ; then draw- tude ; that the separation produced in the experiing back the piston, which was done with ease, the ments was violent and unnatural; and he presupposed finger felt strongly and rather painfully attracted, that the atmosphere, like blood, containing a mixture while an apparent vacuity was formed above it, and of the several elements, the fire and the finer part of continued to enlarge : but instantly on removing the the air were detached from it, and violently forced finger, the water, contrary to its nature, darted up through the pores of the glass, to occupy the desertand filled the whole of the cavity. 2. A glass tube, ed space. To enforce these puerile arguments, the about fifty feet long, sealed hermetically at one end, reverend Jesuit did not scruple to employ the poiand filled with water, or rather red wine, as a more soned weapon which his order has often wielded with visible fluid, was inverted perpendicularly in a bason deadly effect,—the hinting an oblique charge of of the same. The liquid immediately subsided, leav- heresy. This rude attack only roused Pascal, and ing a vacant space of thirty-five feet; but, on gradually disposed him boldly to throw off the fetters of invereclining the tube, the liquid rose again, and con- terate opinion. He began to perceive that “ abhortinued to mount, till it struck a sharp blow against rence” cannot, in strict logic, be applied to nature, the top of the glass. 3. A syphon, having one leg fifty- which is a mere personification, and incapable of pasfive feet high, and the other only fifty, being filled sion ; and was inclined, by degrees, to adopt the clear with water, and planted in two basons containing the disembarrassed explication of Torricelli, referring the game, such that the shorter branch had a perpendi- suspension of the mercurial column to the pressure cular position, the water sunk in both to the same of the external atmosphere. In stating this conclulevel, without being attracted, as usual in syphons, to sion, he makes some remarks which would deserve the longer branch ; but, on leaning the syphon back, the serious attention of philosophers in the present the columns rose till they united at the top, and then age. “ When the weakness of men is unable to find the water began to flow towards the lower bason. The out the true causes of phenomena, they are apt to same experiment was also performed with mercury, employ their subtlety in substituting imaginary ones, the syphon having one leg ten feet, and the other which they express by specious names that fill the only nine feet and a half in length, the mercury being ear, without satisfying the judgment. It is thus that found to divide itself into two columns, which con- the sympathy and antipathy of natural bodies are astinued suspended at an altitude of about thirty inches. serted to be the efficient and unequivocal causes of 4. Having nicely fitted a piston to a long glass several effects, as if inanimate substances were really syringe, and pushed it down to the end, he immer- capable of sympathy and antipathy. The same thing sed this in a bason of mercury, and held the tube in may be said of the antiperistasis, and various other a vertical position ; on gently drawing up the piston, chimerical causes, which afford only a vain relief to the mercury closelyfollowed it to the heightof twenty- the avidity of men to know hidden truths, and which, nine inches, but then stopt, leaving the piston to form far from discovering them, only serve to conceal the above it an apparent vacuity. In this state, also, ignorance of those who invent such explications, and the syringe weighed exactly the same, whatever was nourish it in their followers.” These remarks, equally the magnitude of the vacant space. judicious and profound, are the more striking, since His cautious From these and other similar experiments, Pascal Lord Bacon, while he proposed to i*eform and newrInduction. je{j j,js incluctive process, with a degree of caution model the whole structure of human learning, yet that might seem to border on timidity. He inferred complied with the taste of his age in retaining much of that all bodies have a reluctance to a visible separa- the jargon and barbarous distinctions of the schools. tion, or that nature abhors an apparent void; that But Pascal did not rest satisfied with mere reason- Pascal’s de. this reluctance is exactly the same for a small as for ing, however strictly conducted ; and he soon devised c*hve Expea great vacuity ; and that the force is limited, and ex- an experiment which should palpably mark, undernincnt' ceeds not the pressure of a column of water thirty- different circumstances, the varying effects of atmothree feet in height. He next ventured one step far- spheric pressure. It occurred to him, that, if the ther, and concluded, that this apparent vacuity was not mercury in the Torricellian tube were really supportfilled by air lodged in the pores of the glass, or de- ed by the counterpoising weight of the atmosphere, it rived from external filtration ; that it contained no would be affected by the mass of superincumbent subtile matter secreted from the atmosphere, and fluid, and must therefore partially subside in the was not occupied by mercurial vapours or spiritous higher elevations. He was impatient to have his conexhalations ; in short, that a real and absolute vacu- jecture tried in a favourable situation, and, in Novemum had been formed. ber 1647, he wrote a letter communicating those Attacked by Pascal, then only twenty-four years of age, propos- views to his brother-in-law, Perier, who filled an ofed to w'rite a treatise on the subject of those inquiries; fice of considerable trust in the province, and combut thought proper, in the meantime, to publish a monly resided at Clermont in Auvergne, in the imshort abstract of it, which appeared in 1047? and in- mediate vicinity of the Puy de Dome, a lofty coni*

barometer. 120 Barometer, cal mountain, which rose, according to estimation, though they were not published till after his death, Barometer,J above the altitude of 500 toises. Various avocations, two short treatises, On the Equilibrium of Liquors, '**~\~* however, prevented that intelligent person from com- and On the Weight of the Mass of Air, remarkable plying with his instructions, till the following year. for their neatness, perspicuity, and lucid order. The Early in the morning of the 19th of September 1648, laws of the equilibrium of fluids are there beautifully a few curious friends joined him in the garden of a deduced from a single principle, which suggests a monastery, situate near the lowest part of the city of variety of original views and admiiable remarks. In Clermont, where he had brought a quantity of mer- those tracts, he likewise gives a description of the cury, and two glass tubes hermetically sealed at the Hydraulic Press, a most useful and powerful matop. These he filled and inverted, as usual, and chine, which has lately been revived in this country, found the mercury to stand in both at the same and considered as a new invention. A similar discovery, which wras made about the Discovery height, namely, 26 inches and 3| lines, or 28 Engsame time in Germany, came seasonably to support of the Airlish inches. Leaving one of the tubes behind, in the custody of the subprior, he proceeded with the other the triumph of innovation. Otto Guricke, a wealthy to the summit of the mountain, and repeated the ex- magistrate of Magdeburg, who amused his leisure periment, when his party were surprised and delighted by constructing pieces of mechanism, and instituting to see the mercury sink more than three inches under curious physical inquiries, finding that the belief in the former mark, and remain suspended at the height the impossibility of a vacuum, with other scholastic of 23 inches and 2 lines, or 24.7 English inches. In tenets, was on the gradual decline, had the boldness his descent from the mountain, he observed, at two se- to conceive that the forming of a void was a task veral stations, that the mercury successively rose; and, perhaps within the reach of human ingenuity. Fired on his return to the monastery, he found it stood exact- with the idea of accomplishing what for ages had ly at the same point as at first. Encouraged by the suc- been deemed unattainable, he directed all his efforts cess of this memorable experiment, Perier repeated it to compass that end. In his first trials he failed, on the highest tower of Clermont, and noted a difference as might be expected; but, by perseverance, he of two lines at an elevation of 20 toises. Pascal, on his was enabled to surmount every obstacle. Having part, as soon as the intelligence reached him at Paris, filled a wooden cask with water, he attempted to exwhere he then chanced to be, made similar observa- tract this again, by means of a small sucking pump, tions on the top of a high house, and in the belfry of introduced at the bottom of the cask, and worked the church of St Jacques des Boucheries, near the vigorously by three stout men ; a hissing noise was border of the Seine ; and so much was he satisfied heard like that of boiling water, the air entered from with the results, that he proposed already the appli- above through the interstices of the wood, and the cation of the barometer for measuring the relative water flowed out. The more effectually to exclude height of distant places on the surface of the globe. the air, he next took a smaller cask, with a sucker The investigation of the existence and effects of attached to it, and placed it within a larger one, havatmospheric pressure was now completed, and it ing filled up the space between them with water. threw a sudden blaze over the whole contexture of On working the pump as before, the water was forced physical science. The fame of the experiments per- through the pores of the wood into the inner cask, formed in Italy and in France, quickly spread over but none was extracted by the action of the piston. Opposiiion Europe. Yet such is the force nf habit and early Foiled in these attempts with wooden casks, he had which it ex- prejudice, that, after the first moments of surprise recourse to a copper ball, to the under part of which penenced. anj confusjon; few 0f the learned at this period had he screwed an inclining sucker; and, with this apthe courage to open their eyes to the light which had paratus, he at last succeeded in extracting the air. so unexpectedly burst upon them; but, secretly che- He continued the operation, till no farther portion of rishing their inveterate notions, they sought to com- air was perceived to issue from the vent. On openfort themselves, by starting a variety of captious ob- ing the cock again, the air rushed into the cavity of jections. Father Mersenne, though a man of some the ball with violence ; and the same effect took place, abilities, conceived that suction was occasioned by with scarcely any diminution of power, after an incertain hooked particles dispersed through the atmo- terval of a day or two. The construction of the masphere, which laid hold of any fluid in contact with chine was afterwards rendered more perfect, by subthem, and drew it towards the general mass. Father stituting a large inclined metal sucker, with its joints Linus, plunging still deeper in mysticism and ab- secured by immersion in water. Such was the origin of that most valuable addition surdity, gravely proposed the funicular hypothesis, which attributes the suspension of the mercurial co- to philosophical apparatus—the air-pump, which long lumn to the agency of certain small invisible threads. retained its earliest rude and simple form on the ConBut others of the clergy attacked Pascal with en- tinent. By help of this new and powerful instrument, venomed bitterness. The Jesuits of the college of Guricke was enabled to perform some interesting and Montserrand scrupled not, in their public theses, to very important experiments. One of these, which pervert his expressions, and even contest the origi- demonstrates in a very striking way the pressure of nality of his experiments. The philosopher was just- the atmosphere, has been since deservedly styled the ly incensed at their base conduct; and those repeat- Magdeburg Experiment. It was performed with two ed provocations served, no doubt, to give a keener hollow copper hemispheres, closely fitted together, edge to his wit, when he afterwards directed it with and the air exhausted from their cavity. This sinsuch overwhelming energy against that insidious and gular experiment Guricke had the honour of exhiformidable order of priesthood. He composed in 1653, biting, in the year 1654, before the princes of the

121 M E T E R. religious awe. A small association was there formed, Barometer, for combining together the efforts of individuals in the prosecution of such inquiries ; and the fruits of this mutual compact were afterwards visible in the composition of various philosophical works. But the Restoration, by which the nation, in a burst of inconsiderate loyalty, surrendered the privileges which it had purchased with torrents of blood, threw the government of the universities again into the hands of men decidedly hostile to the very shadow of improvement. Experimental science withdrew to a more congenial soil, and sought shelter and support in the wider scope of the capital. The college founded by the munificence of Sir Thomas Gresham, for the benefit of the citizens of London, though now unfortunately sunk in absolute neglect, had the merit of first extending its protection to the pursuits of inductive philosophy. It produced a succession of professors, eminent in mathematical learning, which is so closely allied with experimental research. A more extensive association was accordingly formed in London, which regularly met at the apartments within the Exchange, and was afterwards, at the suggestion of Oldenburg, the resident from the city of Hamburg, and in imitation of the foreign academies, constituted by charter into the Royal Society. Such Royal So was the humble beginning of that illustrious body, ciety. and such was all the countenance it received from a needy and profligate government. The institution, however, proved at first eminently useful, by the influence it had in directing the public opinion, and the shelter it afforded to experimental philosophy against the jealousy and declared hostility of the clerical and scholastic seminaries. The union of rank, or wealth, or talent, though still very limited in its range, bestowed a degree of lustre on the infant society, that was quite necessary for its defence against the attacks of ignorance, and the mining of bigotry. One of the most active members of the Royal So- Boyle ami ciety was Mr Boyle, who, having become acquaint- Book, ed with experimental researches in the course of his travels, devoted, after his return home, his time and his fortune to such calm but engaging pursuits. In this occupation, he derived the most essential aid from Dr Hook, whom he had the discernment to engage as his assistant,—the most skilful mechanician, and the best practical philosopher, of the age. The same ingenious person was likewise employed as operator to the society, and undertook to produce at each meeting some new experiments for the instruction and enScience' in- ^atie great struggle for the security of private rights tertainment of the members. One of the favourite suba England. h * called forth the national energy, and its trium- jects was to exhibit the properties of the atmosphere. phant success had infused among all classes of men Dr Hook, at the instance of Mr Boyle, had given a a spirit of boldness and enterprise most favourable more convenient form to the air-pump, and had mato the reception of the new philosophy. The parlia- terially improved its construction, especially by the mentary commissioners, by removing the more vio- application of oil to the joints and valves. With lent and bigoted members of the universities, con- this improved machine, a more perfect vacuum was tributed, on the whole, to encourage a more liberal procured than Giiricke had obtained; and the Engtone of thinking in those opulent seminaries. Near lish philosophers were thus enabled to perform a vathe close of the civil war, and during the vigorous riety of delicate and interesting experiments, which administration of Cromwell, the philosophy by ex- extended the influence of the original discovery. periment found some proselytes at last among the In those early meetings, too, of the Royal Society, cloisters of Oxford, whex'e the mass of antiquated the suspension of the mercury in the Torricellian opinions had lain so long embalmed and protected by tube had still the attraction of novelty. The famous VOL. 11. part 1. Q B A R O Barometer, empire and the foreign ministers, assembled at the diet of Ratisbon. The force of two teams, each consisting of a dozen of horses, made to pull in opposite directions, was found insufficient to separate the hemispheres. It was now that the Burgomaster of Magdeburg heard, for the first time, of Torricelli’s great discovery, and the intelligence must have appeared quite delightful to him, who, by a path so different, had yet arrived at a similar conclusion. After his return from this splendid assembly, Giiricke pursued at borne various pneumatical researches. He showed the diminished pressure of the atmosphere at an elevation above the surface, by means of a hollow ball fitted with a stop-cock ; having carried this to a height, a portion of the contained air rushed out on turning the cock; but when it was brought down again and opened, the same measure of air apparently flowed into its cavity. He actually weighed the air, by ascertaining, by a nice balance, the loss which a large bottle sustained on being exhausted, and found that air is 970 times lighter than water, a very near approximation, if allowance were made for the residuum of air still left in the bottle. He was the first wrho proposed the Statical Ba-»S/a#ica/ Balance for measuring the variations of atmospheric density, consisting of a hollow glass ball about a foot in diameter, hermetically sealed, and freely suspended in the air, to indicate by its different buoyancy the changes which take place in the gravity of the external fluid. But Giiricke took great pleasure in a huge water barometer erected in his bouse. It consisted of y tube above thirty feet high, rising along the wall, and terminated by a tall and rather wade tube hermetically sealed, containing a toy, of the shape of a man. The whole being filled with water, and set in a bason on the ground, the column of liquid settled to the proper altitude, and left the toy floating on its surface ; but all the lower part of the tube being concealed under the wainscoting, the little image, or weather-mannikin, as he was called, made its appearance only when raised up into view in fine weather. This whimsical contrivance, which receivAnemos- ed the name of anemoscope, or semper vivum, excited cope. among the populace vast admiration ; and the worthy magistrate was in consequence shrewdly suspected by his townsmen of being too familiar with the powers of darkness. tntroflucThe taste for experimental science was about this ion of Ex- time introduced from the Continent into England.

B A R O M E T E R. 122 Barometer. Italian experiment, as it was called, was frequently first proposed a simple method for effecting that ob- Ifaiometer. v**-' repeated and varied in the presence of a few ot the ject, by combining a mercurial with a water barometer; * which arrangement, though subject to imperfection, has more assiduous members, who, though delighted with the exhibition, continued to reason and to doubt con- led to many of the subsequent improvements. {Seefig. Huygens’s cerning the cause of the phenomenon. 1 hese doubts 4.) He directed two short barometric tubes to be ceAxperiacquired new force from a singular experiment which mented, the one into the bottom, and the other to the men S * the celebrated Huygens'some years afterwards com- neck of a phial; or, still better, that the tubes should municated, during a visit he made to London. Having be joined, by the flame of a lamp, to the opposite ends filled a glass tube eighty inches long with mercu- of a wide and regular cylinder. The lower tube, and a ry, and carefully expelled whatever air was lurking portion of the cylinder, were then to be filled with about the sides, he gently inverted it, as usual, in a mercury, and above it was to be introduced pure wabason; when the mercury notwithstanding remained ter, reaching to the top of the upper tube, and there still hanging from the top of the tube, and did not sub- sealed close. When this compound tube was invertside to the proper height, till it was struck with a slight ed in a bason of mercury, it is evident that the coblow. This anomalous fact appeared then extremely lumns both of mercury and of water would sink, till puzzling. The experiment,indeed, requires great nice- their joint pressure became just equal to the superty and address on the part of the operator, and evident- incumbent weight of the external atmosphere. But ly depends on a concurrence of circumstances which the variation of this weight would afterwards be inhave not yet been sufficiently explained. There can, dicated chiefly by the large motion of the water; at present, exist no doubt that this extraordinary sus- since the mercurial column, spreading out above pension of the mercury is occasioned by its obstinate into a broad surface, must, in any case, experiadhesion to the inside of the tube, which, in the pro- ence a very slight difference of altitude. 'Ihus, cess of purging the air, becomes probably lined with suppose the cylinder to have eight times the a very thin film of mercurial oxyd. But Huygens, diameter of the upper tube, or a section sixty-four who had embraced the leading principles of the (ku’’ times greater, mercury being 13.6 times denser than tesian philosophy, was inclined to draw a very differ- water: For each inch of increase of altitude which ent conclusion. He thought that the fact proved the the ordinary mercurial column gains, the top of the existence of another fluid, besides the atmosphere, water would be raised in the tube 11.4 inches, its and one possessed of such extreme subtlety and power, own rise being 11.18 inches, and that ot the wide as to be capable of permeating the grosser bodies. In mercurial cylinder only .18 of an inch, yet equal in ordinary cases, this fine ethereal substance might be pressure to 2.4 inches of water. But Descartes, supposed to escape through the pores of the glass, generally satisfied with mere theory and speculation, and leave the mercurial column to (he mere pressure did not live to see his construction of the barometer of the atmosphere. Such was the unfortunate intro- carried into effect; and Chanut, the French resident duction of that ideal being—an aether—into experi- at Stockholm, to whom he had imparted his views, mental science, which it has continued to infest with met with such difficulty in the execution of the promysticism, and to dazzle with a false glare. Similar ject, that, after some fruitless attempts, he abandonnotions are perpetually renewed by a certain class of ed it altogether. Huygens was more fortunate ; and succeeded, by Hiiy£rf*ns’s superficial inquirers, and have exercised a visible and Double Ramost pernicious influence in retarding the progress of dint of perseverance and skill, in constructing the ronieter Cartesian barometer. But he had the mortification sound philosophy. Cistern Ba- It was soon perceived, that the syphon barometer to find that, in spite of all the pains he could take, rometer. 0f Torricelli has a disadvantageous form. Both the water, after it was relieved from the pressure of branches of the tube being supposed of the same the atmosphere by the sealing up of the tube, conwidth, the mercury must evidently sink as much in stantly discharged a portion of air, which collected the one as it will rise in the other ; so that the varia- at the top, and by its elasticity depressed the comtions in the height of the column are thence reduced pound column below its due altitude. Convinced to half the true quantity. A small bason, or semi- that this source of imperfection is irremediable, he circular wooden box, to hold the surplus mercury, sought to rectify the construction of the instrument, was therefore attached to the frame of the instru- and produced his Double Barometer; a form of combiment ; and this construction, with very little change, nation frequently used, especially when the object is was adopted, during the course of a century, by the rather to make the variations very sensible than to obmakers of the ordinary barometer. But the syphon tain delicate results. [Seefig. 5.) He joined a barobarometer itself was afterwards materially improved metric tube of the usual length by the flame of a blowby having its lower branch blown into a wide bulb pipe, to two wide cylinders, the one sealed at the for holding the charge of mercury. [See Jig. 2. Plate top, and the other annexed likewise hermetically to XXXII.) This form of the barometer is not quite ac- a tall and narrow tube, open at its extremity ; he curate, owing to the smallness and unequal shape of then bent the thicker tube a little above the lower the round bulb; but being very convenient for car- cylinder, and brought the two branches to be parallel. riage, it has grown into general use, at least for the The instrument being thus formed, he filled the first branch with mercury, and introduced above, in the cheaper and more common sort of instruments. Barometer As soon as the barometer came to be regarded as second branch, some liquid of comparative lightness. «>f Descar- a Weather-glass, ingenuity was set at work to devise the Alcohol would, in this respect, answer extremely tcs * means of enlarging its scale of variations. Descartes well, if it were not so liable to waste by evaporation-

123 B A R O M E T E II. Barometer, Barometer. An alkaline lye, or the deliquiate salt of tartar, alteration of one-tenth in the altitude of the comwhich also readily admits of being coloured, was, mon mercurial column, would be marked by a motion through 12 X l-3f> inches, or 16.3 inches. But therefore, on the whole, preferred. The principle of this construction is evidently the such a vast enlargement of the scale is far greater same as in that of Descartes; but the vacuum ly- than would ever be desirable in practice. It were ing contiguous to the mercury itself, can have no better, therefore, to introduce next the mercury admixture of disengaged air or of aqueous vapour. some fluid which is denser than water. If oil of Since the cylinders are made very much wider than sassafras were combined w ith oil of oranges, the divithe bore of the annexed tube, the variation of pres- sions of the scale would be augmented only sixtysure will be produced almost entirely by the change eight times, and consequently the whole range might, of altitude which the alkaline liquor undergoes, the not exceed ten or twelve feet. Those oils, however, mercury suffering only a very minute alteration of would move rather sluggishly, especially in cold ascent or descent. The divisions of the ordinary weather, and might, from their incessant shiftscale will be about tenfold enlarged, if a section of ings, during a lengthened period, become insensibly each cylinder should exceed twenty times that of mixed. On the other hand, fluids of distinct characters are seldom free from chemical action ; they the tube in which the liquor plays. A barometer of this construction has decided ad- expand differently with heat, and by coating with fts advantages and vantages with respect to the extent of its changes, but other traces the inside of the tube, they are the more defects. still it is not exempt from considerable defects. The apt to retard the motion of the column. In general, moisture on the inner surface of the cylindrical re- the advantage of any very great augmentation of the servoir increases the adhesion of the mercury, and scale is counterbalanced, as the fluids then work by retards its movements. But a much greater source irregular starts; and the instrument loses in delicacy of error proceeds from the influence of heat in ex- whatever it has gained in extent of action. Another method of augmenting the variations of tending the volume of liquor contained in that reservoir, and rising into the narrow stem. This in- the barometer was invented by the same fertile genius, strument, therefore, to a certain extent, blends the which has the advantage of uniting great simplicity indications of the barometer with those of the ther- with tolerable accuracy. (SeeJig. 7-) Resuming the mometer, which are essentially different, and can sel- syphon barometer, he made a small float of iron or glass to rest on the exterior surface of the mercury, dom accord. About the same period, Dr Hook likewise pro- and suspended by a slender thread passed round a Hook’s Double Ba- posed a double barometer, of a similar construction, small wheel or cylindrical axis that carried an index. rometer. pje afterwards resumed the subject, and with a view Though the varieties of the height of the mercurial Whp(ll Ba_ to correct the defect of the former arrangement he column are in a tube of this form, reduced to half rometer, produced, in lf)85, an instrument of a more complex the ordinary measure; yet, from the great length of form, but very ingeniously conceived. (See Jig. 6.) the index compared with the diameter of its axis, the To the upper end of the open stem, he joined a third divisions on the circumference of the circle in which cylinder of the same dimensions as the two former, it travels are much amplified. The little machinery but tapering away to a fine orifice at the top. The being concealed within the frame of the instrument, principal tube being filled as usual with mercury, the index only is brought into view, protected by a extending to occupy the bottoms of both the con- circular plate of glass. Thus fitted up, the whole nected cylinders, he introduced a liquor immedi- forms rather a handsome piece of furniture. The ately over the mercury in the second cylinder, Wheel Barometer, as it is called, has long maintained rising partly into the stem; above this, again, he its reputation among ordinary observers. A very simple mode of enlarging the divisions of the [nciinej poured another liquor specifically lighter and differently coloured, filling up the rest of the stem, and barometer is commonly ascribed to Sir Samuel More- Baromete* mounting into the third cylinder. By this artificial land, the same person who had invented, or perhaps and delicate combination, the mercury is left per- only revived, the Speaking Trumpet. (Seefig. 8.) It fectly stationary, and all the movements correspond- consisted in merely bending the upper part of the ing to the changes of atmospheric pressure, are per- tube into a very oblique position. By this plan, formed by the counterpoising liquors, and marked however, the scale, which depends on the perpenby their line of mutual separation. Since the stem dicular altitude, cannot be augmented beyond three or narrow tube remains constantly full, the variation or four times, without incurring evident risk of inof its pressure must depend on the different propor- accuracy. This instrument is called the Inclined tions of its length occupied by the two fluids. If or Diagonal Barometer. The form has been somethe weight of external atmosphere should, for in- times varied by the fancy of artists, who, repeating stance, increase, the denser liquor will rise, and con- the inclination of the tube, have occasionally given sequently cause the lighter liquor to contract its the upper part a zig-zag appearance. The most ingenious barometer, filled with mercury gfinare column. The action of this compound barometer, being thus produced merely by the difference of only, and yet admitting a scale of any extent, was in- rometer. the gravity of the two fluids, might, therefore, be vented by Cassini and by John Bernoulli, who first gave augmented indefinitely. Suppose the liquid resting the description of it in 1710. (See fig. 9.) A wide on the mercury to be pure water, and the superin- cylinder is annexed to the top of the main tube, at the cumbent liquid to be olive oil, which is about one- bottom of which there is joined at the right angles twelfth part lighter ; the scale would be enlarged no another long and narrow tube. The mercury, in asless than one hundred and sixty-three times, or an cending or descending within the wide cylinder

L24 B A 11 O M E T E It. Barometer, must, therefore, run along tills horizontal tube. If that minution, the three mercurial columns which pro- Baronater. cylinder have a diameter only four times greater duce the counterpoise, will each descend and push than the bore of the tube, the scale of variation will up the last fluid of the series by their combined be augmented sixteen times. This instrument is, effects. It is evident, that, by multiplying those from its shape, called the Square Barometer. It is branches, the barometer will have its altitude pronot found in practice to answer so well as the theory portionally reduced. But this construction, though might lead us to suppose. The mercury creeps specious in theory, is found to have no practical adalong the horizontal tube with difficulty, and by de- vantages. The instrument is, from its complication, sultory advances; and these irregularities increase, very difficult to construct; its motions are sluggish, as it becomes, from its motion and exposure, cover- owing to the multiplicity of tubes, and the conjunced with dust and partial oxidation. tion of fluids, and they are subject to derangements Conical Bs- The simplest of all the barometers, with an enlarg- from the variable influence of temperature. It has, lometer. ej sca]Cj afc same time, one of the most ingetherefore, been generally abandoned. nious, is the Conical or Pendant Barometer, invented These difterent forms of the instrument have Sectoral and described in by Amontons, a French philo- been variously modified, and often brought for- Barometer, sopher, who being afflicted with total deafness, in con- ward with claims of novelty. WTe may notice, how’sequence of a fever in his infancy, had devoted him- ever, the Sectoral Barometer proposed by Magelself to mechanical contrivances. { See Jig. 3, Plate lan, in which the mercury is always made to rise to XXXII.) This instrument consists merely of a the same high point of the tube, by drawing this tube, four feet or more in length, with a bore less or more aside from the vertical position. The narrower than ordinary, and tapering regularly to arc they described will indicate the deviation from the top. The width at the bottom must hardly the perpendicular, and consequently the actual deexceed three-twentieth parts of an inch, while scent of the mercury. But the difference between near the top it may be contracted to about one- the vertical and the oblique line is not measured by tenth. A column of thirty-one inches of mercury- the inclination merely ; it is proportioned to the being introduced, the tube is gently inverted and versed sine of this angle, or nearly to the square of held perpendicular; the cohesion of such a narrow the arc. The advantage of this mode of observing column is sufficient to prevent it from dividing and is, therefore, best perceived in small variations of admitting the air, unless it be shaken; but over- the mercurial column. In the hands of a skilful powering the atmospheric pressure, it descends till observer, the best and most accurate barometer, it has contracted into the equiponderant altitude, by alter all, is that of the original construction, with passing into a wide part of the tube. To obtain a tube rather wide, and a broad cistern. To apply equal divisions on the scale, it is necessary that the minute divisions, is decidedly preferable to any entube should have an uniform taper. The most ac- largement of the scale. T he measuring of such divicurate construction of a barometer of this kind sions has been since rendered extremely easy, by is, therefore, attained by forming together two tubes the adaptation of the differential scale—a most vathat have even but unequal bores, the longer and luable contrivance proposed by Vernier, early in narrower one being uppermost. If the width of the the seventeenth century, but strangely neglected upper tube were supposed to be to that of the under long afterwards. This delicate appendage being one as two to three, the scale would be enlarged once adopted, it became the more desirable to imthree times, since, by descending three inches from prove the sensibility, and regulate the correctness the top, and consequently two at the bottom, the of the indications of the barometer. Effect of column would suffer a contraction of one inch in The first object was carefully to cleanse the mer- Moisture height. cury, and to expel any portions of air or moisture ad- Mthin the This species of barometer is thus recommended hering to the inside of the tube. The influence of aque- ®ai'ometnC by its simplicity and its ample range. But the bore ous vapour in depressing the mercurial column had U )C* of the tube being indispensably narrow, the mercury been observed by Huygens; but other more evapormoves with difficulty, and resists the impression of able fluids w7ere afterwards found to occasion, by their minute changes of external action. When the co- presence, a still greater derangement. Homberg nical shaped tube is retained, the instrument is lia- having, about the year 1705, washed a tube with ble to some inaccuracy from the influence of the alcohol, to remove the impurities from its internal cohesion of the mercury, which varies with the surface, remarked that the mercury introduced into diameter of the column in different parts of the it stood an inch and half lower than usual; a deprestube. sion which this ingenious chemist was disposed to atAmontons likewise proposed another form of ba- tribute to the elasticity of the spiritous exhalations rometer, in which the mercurial column is subdivided collected above the mercurial column ; though other among several short connected branches. (Seef o-. 10.) academicians, and Amontons among the rest, misled Suppose the instrument were to have only the third part by their Cartesian prejudices, sought to ascribe the efof the usual height; the first, third, and fifth branches fect to the different sized pores of the glass. These anoenlarged above and below into very short cylinders, malies were removed, by heating or rather boiling the are filled with mercury; and the second, fourth, and mercury in the tube, till it was completely purged of sixth branches, which may have their bores narrower, air and moisture, and brought into close contact with are occupied with some light fluid, or simply with the inside of the tube. But a new fact occurred which air. If the external pressure should suffer any di- long puzzled the mechanical philosophers. The tube

125 BAROMETE R. Barometer, of a barometer, which had been filled with more than duplicate ratio of the diameter. But on the subject Barometer, **~Ya*”' usual care, was observed to exhibit a luminous ap- of capillary action, we expect, with no small degree Lnmhious pearance, when moved or slightly agitated in the of impatience, to see a paper which was very lateBarometer, ^jg curjous phenomenon gave occasion to ly communicated to the Royal Society of London, multiplied and prolonged controversies ; it was attri- by Mr Ivory, of the Military College at Sandbuted to the subtile matter of Descartes, or ascribed hurst, one of the most original and profound mato a native phosphorescence, or a latent fire inherent thematicians that our island has had the honour to in the mercury. Our countryman, Hauksbee, in the produce. The influence of the predominating attraction of Pure Meryear 1708, gave the first rational explanation of the fact, by referring it to electricity, which he had just the particles of mercury to themselves, above their rury has albegun to cultivate as a distinct science. It resembles adhesion to the sides of a glass tube, has not been exactly, indeed, the experiment of the exhausted considered with so much attention as it demands. flask, in which an electrical current flashes with a Nothing is more common than to remark that the diffuse lambent flame, like the aurora borealis, or the mercury in the barometer is in the act of rising, if northern streamers. The friction of the mercury it show a convex surface, but about to fall, if it against the inside of the tube excites electricity, should appear concave. Now, the top of the merwhile the vacuity, or rather the very attenuated va- curial column must always remain convex, if the pour, in which the supposed fluid plays, facilitates barometer .be properly constructed, the tube perits expansion. When the vacuum is rendered very fectly clean, and the mercury purged of all impuperfect, by the careful and accurate boiling of the rities. But if the inside of the tube be any how mercury, the lambent flashing ceases, for want of soiled, whether covered with humidity or stained with a fine medium to conduct and disperse the electri- mercurial oxyd, the metallic fluid will adhere so obstinately to the glass, as to lose its convexity, and to cal influence. The next point to which experimenters were led to subside into a flat surface, or even sink into a concadirect their attention, was the effect of the width of vity, like water and other liquids. Hence the danger the tube on the altitude of the mercurial column. of boiling the mercury too long in the tube, as it beEffect of Plantade, a lawyer at Montpellier, appears to have comes partially oxydated, and the thin crust so formhe width been one 0f tiie fjrst who remarked that the mercury ed not only suspends the column higher, but obstructs ttlie rnl)e. s{.an(js always lower in narrow' tubes. This fact he the freedom of its motion. The same effect is produced communicated about the year 1730 to Cassini, who by greasing the inside of the tube. Some respectable was then occupied in the south of France, with car- authors, from not attending to these facts, have hastily rying on the great trigonometrical survey. But the inferred that the convex appearance which mercury discrepancies observed by Plantade being unfortu- assumes in the barometer was merely accidental, and nately confounded with other collateral circumstan- consequently removed by a more complete boiling ces, w-ere for a time overlooked. In tubes having a and purification. In the case of tubes having wide bores, the de- Qiuintity of narrow bore, the depression of the mercury, however, is very considerable, as may be readily per- pression of the mercurial column may, without any dep^ssum ceived in a small glass syphon, of which the one sensible error, be disregarded. According to the acbranch is about half an inch in diameter, and that of curate experiments made by Lord Charles Caventhe other branch less than the tenth of an inch. dish, and published by his son, the celebrated Mr CaThus, if the narrow tube had a width of only the vendish, the quantity of depression is only the 200th thirteenth part of an inch, the depression of the mer- part of an inch in a tube of 6-10ths of an inch in cury would amount to half an inch, which is about diameter, the 28th part of an inch in a tube of 3-10ths the third part of the elevation to which water in si- diameter, and the 15th part of an inch in a tube of milar circumstances would be raised by capillary ac- 2-10ths diameter. Wide tubes ought, therefore, tion. This effect has not been sufficiently examined, to be preferred in the construction of barometers, but it appears to result from the attraction of the both on account of the facility with which the merparticles of the mercury to each other exceeding cury moves in them, and the smallness of its depression. their attraction to the surface of the glass. Mercu- The only circumstance to overbalance these advanry, in contact with glass, therefore, tends to a sphe- tages, would be the necessity and inconvenience of rical form, and always assumes a convex surface having a very large cistern. A quarter of an inch within a clean tube. Water and other liquids again may be reckoned a good width of tube, and the cormanifest an opposite character, the mutual attrac- responding depression is only the twentieth part of tion of their particles being less than their adhesion an inch. In the syphon barometer, if both branches have the to glass. Accordingly, they spread along a vitreous surface, instead of collecting into drops; and in nar- same diameter, the action is exerted on opposite sides, row tubes they mount above the level, and invariably and, therefore, the effect of depression becomes enhave a concave termination. If the bore be so small tirely lost. For accurate purposes, this original form as to be reckoned capillary, the depression of mer- of the instrument has been again resumed, and the cury is, like the elevation of water, inversely as the inconvenience arising from the large variation of the diameter; but when the bore has a considerable lower level entirely obviated by an ingenious contrivApplication width, the quantity of depression, depending on the ance introduced about forty years since. This con- ofal alh curvature of the surface of the mercury, diminishes sists in the application of a leathern bag, instead of ein ® * a wooden or ivory cistern, to hold the surplus merproportionally faster, and follows nearly the inverse

126 BAROMETE R. The same country, however, which had given Barometer, Barometer, cury. Besides the barometric tube, there is placed adjacent to it another short one of the same width, birth to the thermometer, began its improvement. communicating with the mercury contained in the After the principle of the barometer was establish- a bag, which being pressed by turning a screw below, ed, the members of the Academy del Cimento, is, at each observation, brought exactly to the same founded at Florence in 1657, and supplied with libemark. The external atmosphere readily acts through ral funds by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, had, among the substance of the leather, but the mercury, other interesting physical researches, resumed the from the powerful cohesion of its own particles, can- application of the thermometer; and instead of air, not be squeezed through the pores or that casing they substituted alcohol or spirit of wine, another without violent compression. The addition of a bag very expansible fluid not affected by pressure, while within a cylindrical box, omitting the lower tube, they attached to the tube a scale graduated on a relikewise renders the barometer easily portable; since, gular plan, though directed by no very precise meafor safe carriage, the mercury can be screwed up sures. The instrument so constructed, but sometight, to fill the whole cavity of its tube, but, on what varied in its form, being copied by Italian artturning the screw again, the column will subside ists, was dispersed over Europe under the name of the Florence Glass. From its careless execution, and rest on a broad base. Effect of The last object which required nice observation, however, in the hands of itinerant venders, this therHeat oil tlie was to estimate the effect of heat in dilating the mometer, or rather thermomoscope, appears never to Baromeler. mercury, and consequently increasing the altitude have obtained an established reputation. The great object was to bring thermometers to an Attempts to of the equiponderant column. This correction could not be made with any sort of accuracy pre- exact correspondence. It was expedient, therefore, obtain a vious to the application of the thermometer, which, not only to select a proper fluid, but to adopt an uni- Standard, though invented half a century earlier than the ba- form and consistent scale. Alcohol, linseed oil, and rometer, was yet more than another half century in mercury, had been successively tried. The graduaarriving at perfection. Hero, a mechanical philoso- tion w as at first drawn from the temperature of celpher, who flourished at Alexandria about 130 years lars and deep caves, which, indicating the natural before Christ, has described in his Spiritalia a sort heat of the globe, had long been considered invariof huge weather-glass, in which water was made to able ; but more enlarged experience discovered the rise and fall by the vicissitudes of day and night, or inaccuracy of that supposition, and showed the mean rather the changes of heat and cold. This machine temperature to be materially modified by the latitude . had for ages" been overlooked, or merely con- of the place, and its elevation above the level of invention sidered in the light of a curious contrivance. But the sea. Congelation, or rather the inverted prof the Ther-Sanctorio, the inventor of the famous statical ba- cess, the thawing of ice, or the melting of snow, mometer. lanCe, a very learned and ingenious Italian physi- was then found to remain fixed; a most important cian, who was long professor of medicine in the fact, which had been first noticed by Giiricke, but university of Padua, and had laboured to improve his overlooked till a considerable time afterwards. A art by the application of experimental science, redu- stationary point was hence obtained, from which to ced the hydraulic machine of Hero into a more commence the thermometer scale. But different compendious form, and thus constructed, about the modes were pursued for determining the divisions. close of the sixteenth century, the instrument since Amontons, reverting to the air-thermometer in spite Amontens* known by the name of the air-thermometer, which of its acknowledged defects, found that the elasticity he employed with obvious advantage to examine the of air compressed in the bulb, and able at the temheat of the human body in fevers. Some years af- perature of melting snow to support a column of terwards, a similar instrument was contrived, per- mercury fifty-four inches high, was capable of raishaps without any communication, by Drebbel, a very ing this to seventy-eight inches, at the heat of boilclever and scheming Dutch artist, who visited London ing w ater; and he seemed contented in framing a in the reign of James I., and introduced the know- rude standard, with merely dividing the intermediate space into inches and half-inches. ledge of that instrument into England. But about the same, or nearly at the beginning Newlou. But this air-thermometer was evidently of the same nature with what has been since called the manometer; of the eighteenth century, Newton himself cast a it could measure only the dilatation or augmented elas- keen though rapid glance on the subject of heat, ticity of the air confined within its bulb, whether occa- and proposed a thermometer of a much simpler sioned by heat or the diminution of external pressure. and more elegant construction. Having adopted It was, therefore, considered merely as a weather- linseed oil as a fixed and uniform substance, capable glass, indicating the state of the atmosphere ; nor of great dilatation, he discovered by experiment, could its blended impressions, which might separate- that distinguishing the capacity of the bulb into ly affect both the thermometer and barometer, be ten thousand equal parts, the liquid expanded 256 then distinguished. Had it been more closely parts, from melting snow to blood heat, and 725 studied, it must have led, by another path, to the parts to that of boiling water. These numbers, discovery of the latter. But those irregularities to however, being inconveniently large, he reduced which the air-thermometer was hence subject appear them somewhat more than twrenty times, adopting to have created such doubts respecting the accuracy 12 and 34 as the proportional divisions on his scale. of the instrument, as occasioned its being neglected But oil, being so viscid a substance, was found t« trail and collect on the inside of the tube; and tbif long afterwards. 6

BAROMETER. 127 Barometer, thermometer, though constructed on a right prin- scale, or the 9742d part on the scale of Fahrenheit. A correction, therefore, on the height of the ciple, never came into general use. ftijemer. Rdemer, the Danish astronomer who made the fine mercurial column in the barometer, becomes necesdiscovery of the progressive motion of light, was the sary according to the changes of temperature which first who proposed mercury as the fittest fluid for ther- it undergoes. In this climate, the extreme varia, mometers; and Halley and A montons remarked about tion arising from that cause will seldom exceed the same time, that it expands uniformly with heat, two-tenths of an inch. But if the barometer be and remains nearly stationary at the point of boiling suspended in a room, kept at an agreeable tempe)elisle’s water. On this principle, Delisle, of St Petersburg!!, rature, the error occasioned by the expansion of the jt'liermonie- constructed, in 1733, a mercurial thermometer, with mercury may, in ordinary cases, be disregarded, a descending scale, the distance from freezing to since it will scarcely amount to the twentieth part boiling water occupying 153, or, in round numbers, of an inch. 150 divisions, of which the bulb itself contains Since the barometer marks the condition ol the 10,000. A more ingenious method, but perhaps too refined, for graduating thermometers, was proposed distant atmosphere, and intimates those internal altenaldini. by Renaldini in 1694. It consisted in adopting the terations which are generally connected with the scale in the successive temperatures produced by change of the weather, it is particularly '-finable at mixtures in the different proportions of twelve parts sea, by forewarning the mariner of the approach oi of water at the moment of thawing and of ebullition. a storm. But an instrument of the ordinary conThis suggestion led to a very important inference, struction would not answer this purpose, the agitasince it proved that mercury expands uniformly with, tion of a vessel on a tempestuous ocean being such equal additions of heat, while alcohol swells constant- as will not only throw the ponderous mercurial coly in a rising progression. But the capital improve- lumn into violent oscillation, but communicate those ment of the thermometer wras effected by the skill and sudden shocks which must infallibly break the tube. "ahrenperseverance of Fahrenheit, whose name has remain- Various attempts haveaccordingly been made to obtain Marine B ileit’sTher- e(j justly attached to the instrument. This ingenious a Marine Barometer, exempt from risk, and yet suf- rometer. aometer. person> originally a merchant at Dantzic, who had ficiently sensible to the variations of the atmosphere. the misfortune to fail in business, was induced, by The conical or pendant barometer being,from the narhis taste for mechanics and chemistry, to have re- rowness of its bore, rather sluggish, was first recomcourse to the manufacture of thermometers, as the mended for that purpose, though never adopted into means of gaining a slender livelihood. But not meet- practice. About the beginning of the eighteenth ing with sufficient encouragement at home, he re- century, Dr Hook and Amontons severally proposed moved, about the year 1720, to Holland, the great to employ for a barometer on board ship, the manoemporium of the arts, and fixed his future residence meter or air-thermometer. To obviate the derangeat Amsterdam. He now preferred mercury to alco- ment arising from the influence of heat, there was to hol for filling his thermometers; and, adopting the be placed beside it a spirit-of-vvine-thermometer, with division of the bulb into 10,000 parts, he reckoned a ball so large as to give expansions equal to those 64 of them as the expansion between freezing to of the portion of air confined within the bulb. The blood-heat, and 32 as the contraction from the difference between the two adjacent columns of lisame point to what he considered as extreme cold, quid would therefore measure the variation of exteror that produced by the mixture of salt with snow. nal pressure. But to procure such a nice adaptaThese numbei*s were extremely convenient, being- tion would prove so extremely difficult in practice, found by a repeated bisection. With respect to the that most probably this instrument was seldom or heat of boiling water, Fahrenheit discovered the im- ever actually constructed. Besides, the liquid coportant fact, that it varies with the state of atmo- lumn of the manometer, though light and narrow, spheric pressure. Taking the mean, however, he would yet be much shaken by the rolling and pitchreckoned 180 degrees from freezing to ebullition, ing at sea. Notwithstanding these weighty objecand, therefore, marked this point at 212 on his scale. tions, however, this compound manometer was The Celsian The thermometer owes its improvement to Celsius, tried in England, mercury being employed as the fluid both of expansion and pressure, and various ^rade'Ther Pro^essor at Upsal, who in 1742 placed the com- adjustments applied by means of a complex machimometer.^* niencement of the scale at congelation, and divided the interval thence to boiling water into an hun- nery. An ingenious and very substantial kind of marine dred degrees, extending such a portion downwards as might be wanted. This centesimal thermometer barometer was above twenty years since recommended is exactly the same as what the French have since by Blondeau, one of the professors of the naval acadecalled the centigrade, which, from its fitness and my at Brest. (See fig. 11. Plate XXXII.) It consisted Blondeau’s of an iron tube, bent below into a syphon, and filled Marine Basimplicity, deserves to be universally adopted. The thermometer having been thus carried by carefully with mercury, which carried afloat. For this rometer. successive steps to perfection, it was found by deli- purpose, a musket-barrel, about three feet long, was cate experiments, that, between the points of boiling choseh, having a very smooth and even bore, and an Correction and freezing, the expansion of mercury amounts to iron breech closely welded to it, instead of being solMthe Ea- the fifty_fourth part of its bulk, or that it acquires, dered with brass, which might become corroded by effected by ^or eac^ degree heat, an increase of volume the action of the mercury. The lower end of the tube Heat. amounting to the 5412th part on the centesimal had a collar of leather, to which was screwed a piece

BAROMETER. 128 Barometer,/ of iron, perforated through its whole length, and cing the suspension higher, the mercurial column Barometer, ' y bent into an arch, having screwed likewise, with a suffers always some depression. The reason of this collar of leather at its other extremity, a vertical curious observation is not well explained. It procylinder of iron, four inches high, and of the same bably results from the different centrifugal tendenbore exactly as the tube. The contracted aperture cies communicated to the opposite portions of the at the end of the tube, not being exactly in the mid- columns. The swinging of the instrument would dle, was not always opposite that of the arch; and, evidently augment the pressure of the upper portion therefore, by turning it occasionally aside, the commu- of the column, while it diminished that of the under nication could be contracted at pleasure, or even ob- portion. But this lower portion, being longer than structed entirely. The cylindrical appendix was taper- the other, its tendency to descend would be propored at the top to a narrow orifice, through which an iron tional Iv so much greater. About the point of suswire, attached to a small ivory float, had been intro- pension, however, the opposite effects of the centriduced. To prepare this instrument for action, the fugal tendencies are balanced, since the superior mercury was first boiled in the tube ; then the arch, force being employed to set in motion a narrower cofilled with hot mercury, was screwed to the end, the lumn, the reflux and efflux of the mercury in the upcock opened, and the surplus mercury allowed to per cylinder must be preserved nearly equal. Marine barometers, thus improved, are now very flow over ; next the vertical piece, with its float, was screwed on, and a little mercury added, to give it generally used, and with great benefit to the public due play. The origin of the scale was to be deter- service, on board ships of war and Indiamen. To mined from the comparison with another good baro- facilitate the keeping of a register of barometrical meter of the ordinary construction ; but, owing to observations, the meritorious and indefatigable Mr the equality of the bores of the opposite tubes, the Horsburgh, hydrographer to the East India Compa- Hors_ divisions were only half the usual size, or the inches ny, has lately published a set of engraved ruled bnrgh’s sheets, adapted for the convenience of navigators. Blates. were exhibited by half-inches. This species of barometer is certainly free from all In these plates, the height of the mercury, from sort of risk, while the facility which, by means of twenty-seven to thirty-one inches, is represented, in turning the arch, it affords in checking the ascent and inches and tenth parts, by horizontal lines, while each descent of the mercury, prevents in a great measure successive day' has a space apportioned to it by verthe oscillations of that fluid. If the instrument tical bars. The state of the barometer at every obwere properly suspended, therefore, its indications servation is marked with a dot, and these dots being would be tolerably steady and regular. The chief afterwards connected together, exhibit an irregular objection to it consists in the diminutive range of its ■waved line, stretching across the sheet, and indicating the series of the changes of the weather. At the scale. In every marine barometer, the main object is to lowest points, from which the curve again returns, give steadiness to the mercurial column, by retarding a gale generally follows. From the observations its motion in the tube ; in short, to imitate the equaliz- made off the Cape of Good Hope, during the month of ing effect of the fly in mechanics. Oneformof construc- May 1815, by an ingenious and active young officer, tion was, instead of the cistern below, to annex a spi- Captain Basil Hall, of his Majesty’s sloop Victor, it ral tube composed of a number of horizontal convolu- appears that whenever the mercury fell to 29,60 tions. Passement, an ingenious Parisian artist, about inches, a storm ensued ; the column always rose the year 1758, improved on this idea. He twisted when the gale abated, and wdien it reached near the barometer tube near the middle, at least twice thirty inches, the weather became fair. Those gales round, and joined to its upper end a wide cylinder. often came on suddenly, without any visible change But more effectually to prevent all irregular oscilla- in the aspect of the sky, but the marine barometer tions, he took a tube with a very narrow or capillary never failed to give warning of their approach. bore, and contracted it below, while he annexed a To explain the cause of the variations of the ba- Difficuliy wide cylindrical piece at its other extremity. The only thing wanted now to the perfection of this in- rometer, has long perplexed philosophers. Many !n explain. strument, was to devise a mode of suspending'it that hypotheses have at different times been advanced on should soften the jerks, and allow it generally to the subject; but it would be a mere waste of time, to (iie 3aroffle, maintain a vertical position. Our English artists make any detailed recital of such crude and unsatis- ter. have, by repeated trials, at last succeeded in sur- factory attempts. The various and often imaginary mounting all the difficulties. The marine barometer, effects of vapours of heat and winds have been emmanufactured by Mr Cary of London, (Seejg. 12, Plate ployed in framing an explication of the changes of XXXII.) is one of the most approved kind. It consists the atmosphere. The fact that the mercurial coof a capillary tube, about twenty-seven inches long, lumn generally falls before rain, seemed at complete with a bore scarcely exceeding the thirtieth part of an variance with the intimation of the senses, it being a inch, but terminated by a cylinder four or five inches notion universally prevalent, that the air is heavier high, and nearly three-tenths of an inch in diameter. when the sky appears lowering and overcast; anoIt is suspended by a spring and jimbols, near the top ther proof, if it were wanted, how fallacious are all at a certain point, which in each case is discover- current opinions in matters of science. ed by actual trial. By making the suspension lower, Leibnitz,fancying he haddiscovered a new principle it is found, that the agitation of the barometer will in hydrostatics, endeavoured, by a sort of metaphysicause the mercury to rise a little; while, by pla- cal argument, to demonstrate that, though a body

B A R O M E T E R. 129 Barometer, adds its own weight to the pressure of a fluid in which emission is quite opened, rind the liquid will rise se- Barometer. it is suspended, yet it will cease to be ponderous in veral inches m the long stem; but, still continuing the act of falling. This alleged principle will not, the blast, let the orifice be gradually contracted, and in the actual state of science, be thought to require the column will first descend to its ordinary level, any serious refutation; nor, were it even admitted, and then sink considerably below it. would it be found at all adequate to the explication of the phenomenon, since the weight of moisture The fall and rise of the mercury in the barome- Causes of precipitated from the whole body of atmosphere ter must evidently be occasioned by some correspond- die ' ariacould never, by the absence of its pressure, occasion ing reduction or accumulation of the atmosphere g0n of tlie a diminution of the tenth part of an inch in the alti- at the place of observation. Whatever augments aiome{ei' tude of the mercurial column. the elasticity of the air will cause part of the incumbent Dr Halley and Mairan sought to account for the fluid to evade and leave for the time a diminished verdepression of the barometer before a storm, to the tical pressure. The efflux of wind might also prowithdrawing of the vertical pressure of the atmo- duce a temporary reduction of the atmospheric sphere, when borne swiftly along the surface of the column. But the real difficulty consists in explainglobe by a horizontal motion. This hypothesis at ing why the variations of the barometer should be first sight appears very plausible, and might seem greater in the high latitudes than between the trofarther confirmed by a noted experiment which most pics, and why they so much exceed in all cases the authors have admitted without due examination, quantities which calculation might assign. [anksbee’s Hauksbee, a skilful and ingenious experimental phii he influence of heat will account for the semilosopher, about the year 1704*, placed two barome- diurnal variations of the barometer which are obters, about three feet asunder, with their naked cis- served, especially within the torrid regions. From terns in two close square wooden boxes, connected ten o’clock in the morning till four in the afternoon, by a horizontal brass pipe; one of these boxes had, the mercury generally falls; but, after that hour, it inserted at right angles, an open pipe on the one rises again, till ten o’clock at night, when it drops till side, and a second pipe terminating in a screw, on four in the morning, and then mounts till ten o’clock the other side ; to this end he adapted a strong glo- in the forenoon. These regular changes, which amount bular receiver of about a foot in diameter, which to about the five-hundredth part of the whole atmohad been charged, by injection from a syringe, with spheric pressure, depend on the prevalence of the alterthree or four atmospheres; then suddenly opening the nating land and sea breezes, occasioned by the diversistop-cock, and giving vent for the escape of the air fied action of the sun’s rays upon the earth and water. through the box and over the surface of the included The accumulation of air is greatest at four o’clock cistern, the mercury sunk equally in both the baro- in the morning and evening, and the mercury then meters more than two inches. attains its highest point; but it sinks lowest at ten This elegant experiment might be deemed entirely o’clock in the morning and evening, when the inconclusive, if a minute circumstance, on which the suc- cumbent mass has been the most reduced. cess really depends, had not unfortunately been overA similar reason will explain the effects of the * Fallacy, looked. It will be perceived from the inspection of the northerly and easterly winds, in elevating the mercufigure which Hauksbee has given, that the exit pipe of ry of the barometer in our climate. A chill air, the box was considerably wider than the pipe which with enfeebled elasticity, is thus accumulated, and conveyed into it the stream of air. This fluid, escaping exerts a predominant pressure. from compression, would, therefore, be carried by its The augmented elasticity communicated to the elasticity as much beyond the state of equilibrium; air by the action of heat or the presence of humidiwhile the width of the orifice, by facilitating its ty, and the reduction of the incumbent mass by the emission, would allow the portion occupying the efflux of winds, have each their distinct influence, in box and the connected reservoir to preserve its ac- disturbing the equilibrium of atmospheric ocean. quired expansion. If the pipe of discharge from the But the effects, particularly in the high latitudes, box had been much narrower than the other, an op- much surpass the regular operation of those causes. posite effect must have taken place ; for the air ac- rIhe only mode, perhaps, of removing the difficulty, cumulated over the cistern, not finding a ready vent, is to take into consideration the comparative slowwould remain in a state of condensation. This curious ness with which any force is propagated through fact is another of the many instances which might be the vast body of atmosphere. An inequality may cited to show the great delicacy and circumspection continue to accumulate in one spot, before the required in performing philosophical experiments. counterbalancing influence of the distant portions of The same results, however, can be exhibited by a the aerial fluid can arrive to modify the result. In very simple apparatus. Let a small box, or rather a the higher latitudes, the narrow circle of air may be glass ball, have a short narrow tube inserted in the considered as, in some measure, insulated from the one side, and another wide tube opposite to this, expanded ocean of atmosphere, and hence, perhaps, with a cross slider of brass, for contracting the orifice the variations of the barometer are concentrated at pleasure ; and, to the under part of the ball, join a there, and swelled beyond the due proportion. We long perpendicular tube, bent back like a syphon to content ourselves with throwing out this hint at more than half its height and containing a double present, but hope to be able to resume and discuss column of water. Now, blow through the narrow the subject at some length under the article Clitube into the cavity of the ball, while the orifice of mate. \v.) VOL. 11. part 1. R '

130 BAROMETRICAL Barometric Jr was remarked in the preceding article, that the cal Mea- decisive experiment by which Pascal established the suremenh^. rea]j^y 0;p atmospheric pressure, had likew ise suggested to this ingenious philosopher the method of determining the elevations of distant points on the surface of the globe. But the first attempts were very rude, proceeding on the inaccurate supposition that the lower mass of air is a fluid of uniform density. Different authors estimated variously from eighty to ninety feet as the altitude, which corresponds to a variation of the tenth part of an inch in the mercurial column. The Torricellian tube or cane, as it was then called, was, on its first introduction to England, carried accordingly to the tops of mountains, or conveyed to the bottom of pits and mines, or even let down to great depths in the sea. Among those experimentalists who laboured most assiduously in the study and application of the barometer in this part of the island, we should mention Sinclair. George Sinclair. This ingenious person had been Professor of Philosophy in the University of Glasgow, but seems to have conscientiously resigned his office soon after the Restoration, rather than comply with that hated episcopacy which the minions of Charles II. had forced upon the people of Scotland. He then retired to the village of Tranent, not far from Edinburgh, and was employed as a practical engineer, in tracing the levels of coal-pits, in directing the machinery employed in the mines at Leadhills, and afterwards in the great undertaking of conducting wrater from the heights of the Pentlands to supply the northern metropolis. Though not a profound mathematician, he w7as skilled in mechanics and hydrostatics, and possessed no small share of invention. Sinclair is said to be the first who applied to the mercurial tube the name of baroscope, or indicator of weight, the more definite appellation of barometer, or measurer of weight, not having been appropriated till many years afterwards. During his excursions in 16‘68 and 1670, he employed that instrument to measure the heights of Arthur’s Seat, Leadhills, and Tinto, above the adjacent plains. He followed the original mode of using a tube

MEASUREMENTS. sealed at the top, with a paper scale pasted against Barometrithe side, which he carried to the top of the moun- dements tain, where he filled it with mercury ; and, inverting it in a bason, he noted the altitude of the suspended column, and repeated the same experiment below ; a very rude method certainly,—but no better was practised in England during the succeeding thirty years. In a small scarce tract, printed in 1688, and bearing the quaint title of Proteus bound with Chains, Sinclair gives some judicious remarks on the variations of the barometer, considered as a weatherglass, and delivers very sound opinions, on the whole, respecting the causes of the chief meteorological phenomena. In a postscript to that piece, he proposes u most efficient and ingenious method of weighing up wrecks from the bottom of the sea. It consisted in employing two large arks, or square wooden boxes, fastened to the sides of the ship, and charged with air carried down to them by a succession of inverted casks, open at the lower end. An ark of a cubical shape, and twenty feet in every dimension, the smallest which he mentions, would, as he computes, have a buoyancy equivalent to 448,000 pounds Troy. It is remarkable that the celebrated Mr Watt always employs this very mode, using a large gazometer, floating in a pond dug in the court of his manufactory, and charged gradually by the action of bellows, for raising the ponderous engines constructed at Soho, and lifting them over his walls into the boats, which are stationed to receive them in the adjacent canal.* In all the computations hitherto made from different altitudes of the barometer, the air was considered as an uniform fluid ; no regard being had to the gra- Relation of dual diminution of density which must evidently take Air s , place in ascending the atmosphere. To estimate the Elasticity, effect of that gradation, it became requisite previously to determine the actual relation subsisting between the density of the fluid and its elasticity. This was first ascertained in England by Townley, who inferred from some experiments of Boyle, that the elastic force which the air exerts is exactly propor-

* Sinclair wus author of a well-known little book, entitled, Satan s Invisible World Discovered, which, at a former period, was sold at all the public fairs in the country, and devoured with eagerness and dismay by the Scottish peasantry. In a quarto volume, on Hydrostatics, and the Working of Coal-mines, printed in Holland, and published by subscription in 1672, he digressed so widely from his subject, as to insert A True Relation of the Witches of Glenluce. But this was the folly of the age, which several of the most learned men had not been able to escape. It is painful to observe, that James Gregory, the inventor of the reflecting telescope, who, although endowed wdth talents of the highest order, yet appears to have had a keen temper, and to have imbibed an hereditary attachment to royalism and episcopacy, should have stooped to attack an unoffending and less fortunate rival. He w7rote a little tract against Sinclair’s Hydrostatics, with the title of the Art of Weighing Vanity, and under the thin disguise of Patrick Mather, archbeadle to the University of St Andrew’s. It is a piece full of low scurrility, and memorable only for a very short Latin paper appended to it, containing the series first given to represent the motion of a pendulum in a circular arc. In the British Museum, there is a letter of Gregory to Collins, the secretary of the Royal Society, boasting of his project, and soliciting information, with which to overwhelm the poor author. But with all his eagerness to hunt down Sinclair, he never touches on the strange episode of the witches of Glenluce. What a picture of times approaching so near our own ! 10

BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 131 laromotri- tional to its density. A similar conclusion was about ascents, therefore, in the atmosphere, the corre- Bavometrical Mea ' Yemenis ^ same ti1116 drawn by Mariotte, a French philoso- sponding .0 densities must form a decreasing0 0geometri- surements. ‘ pher, from a still better series of experiments. Fol- cali senes. lowing out this very simple law, he thought of comTo apply this elegant theorem, Dr Halley avail- Rule Deputing heights from barometrical observations, by ed himself of the best experiments which had been duced. the rules usually employed in constructing tables of lo- performed to determine the relative densities of air, garithms ; and had, therefore, obtained some glimpse, water, and mercury. In different trials made near no doubt by a sort of conjectural process, of the re- the earth’s surface, it was found, when the baromemarkable result, that the density of the atmosphere ter stood at 29| inches, that the air is 840. 852, or decreases in a geometrical progression, correspond- even 860 times lighter than water. Taking round ing to the elevations taken after an arithmetical one. numbers, therefore, and assuming the specific graBut seemingly not aware of the importance of the vity of mercury to be 13^, he reckoned 800 X 13* principle at which he was pointing, Mariotte imme- X 30 — 10,800 inches, or 90 feet, as the altitude of diately deserted it; and calculating from a repeated an atmospheric column which, near the surface, bisection of the column of air between the two sta- would exert a pressure equivalent to that of an inch tions into successive horizontal strata, he contented of mercury. For the coefficient, which answers to himself with interpolating the densities according to the actual constitution of the atmosphere, Halley a harmonic division, which he next abandoned for should have taken the thirtieth part of .4342945, the simplicity of a series with equal differences. the modulus of the common system of logarithms, This able experimenter hence only sketched out or .0144748. But he proceeded less directly, having a mode of investigating the problem of barometrical satisfied himself with taking the arithmetical mean measurements, without arriving at any very definite between the differences of the logarithms of 29 and or consistent rule of solution. SO, and of those of 30 and 31; a compensation of erelalion of In 1686, the ingenious and active philosopher Dr rors, which gives .0144765, hardly deviating from imosphe- Halley resumed the subject, and discovered the law the former. Hence he gave this simple analogy for connects t le u/lileva^ ^ elevation of the atmosphere with computing the heights of mountains by the baromeits density ; of which he gave a clear demonstration, ter ; as the constant number .0144765 is to the differon, * derived from the well known properties of the hy- ence between the logarithms of the barometric coperbola referred to its asymptotes. Since the height lumns at the two stations, so is 900 feet to the elevaof the mercury indicates the pressure, and conse- tion required. The result of this operation is eviquently the elasticity of the external air, it must dently the same as if the logarithmic difference had be proportioned likewise to the density. Where- been multiplied by the number 62170; a very tofore the breadth of a given mass of air, or the lerable approximation at all seasons for a northern thickness of a stratum which corresponds to a cer- climate, and quite accurate, indeed, if the mass of intain portion of the mercurial column, will be in- tervening air had a medium temperature of 46° by versely as this altitude. Let O be the centre of a Fahrenheit’s scale. Dr Halley supposed that the obrectangular hyperbola, of which OA and OB are servations themselves might, from the influence of the asymptotes; and conceive the distances OA and heat, differ about the fifteenth part between sumOB to represent the heights of the mercury at two mer and winter. But the thermometer was still stations. The perpendiculars AC and BD, which so imperfect an instrument, that it could not be are reciprocally as OA and OB, must hence express applied with confidence in correcting such variations. the relative thickness of strata corresponding to The principle which Halley thus investigated Otherwise might be derived from a simpler process. Conceive l”vesfioa,* the atmosphere to be divided into a multitude of equally thin horizontal strata, it is obvious that each successive stratum would, to the pressure of the superincumbent stratum, add its own weight, which being as its density or elasticity, is therefore proportioned to the collective pressure ; and, consequently, those densities will continually increase in going downwards, exactly in the same way, and after a like progression, as money accumulates at compound interest, where a constant portion of the aggregate fluid is regularly joined to the capital. Such, in fact, is the distinguishing character of a geometrical equal portions of the barometric scale. Divide AB progression, that the increase or decrease of each into a multitude of equal segments, and erect the succeeding term is always proportioned to the term perpendiculars EM, FL, GK, and HI. The inter, itself. The logarithmic curve is hence the best eluded spaces, from AC to BD, will denote the suc- adapted for exhibiting the relations which connect cessive thickness of the series of strata into which the densities with the elevations in the atmosphere; the whole mass of air between the two stations is the axis of the curve expressing the elevation, while subdivided. Consequently the aggregate or mixti- each ordinate represents the corresponding density lineal space P^AC, which is proportional to the lo- of the stratum of air. It being a fundamental progarithm of the ratio of OB to OA, will express the perty of the logarithmic curve, that every subtandifference of atmospheric elevation when the mer- gent applied to it has the same length, the exact decurial column mounts from B to A. Taking equal termination of this in the case of our atmosphere, is

132 BAROMETRICAL Barometri- the only thing wanted for the final solution of the cal Mea- general problem. guremcu^ Eieven years after Dr Halley had given his rule for barometrical measurements, this philosopher had an opportunity of applying it to discover the height of Snowdon in North Wales. He found that the barometer which stood at 29*9 inches on the sea shore near Caernarvon, fell a few hours after, when planted on the summit of the mountain, to 26.1 inches, the altitude having been ascertained previously by a trigonometrical observation to be 1240 yards. Newton’s The year l6S7 is memorable as the date of the General fii’st publication of the Princijna, which was drawn up Solution, chiefly at the urgent request of Halley, from disjointed materials that had lain a considerable time in the author’s hands. In that immortal work, Newton resumed the problem of the gradation of atmospheric density, and solved it in that general way which suited his penetrating genius. He demonstrated that, supposing the particles of air, like other bodies, to have their weight or gravitating tendency diminished as the squares of their distances from the centre of the earth, if those distances be taken in harmonic progression, the corresponding densities of the atmosphere will form a geometrical one. But since the diminution of attraction at the greatest height we are able to reach, amounts only to the two thousandth part of the whole; this difference is too minute to be admitted into practice ; and the simpler law first established by the sagacity of Halley may be deemed sufficiently accurate for every real purpose. Newton has given a sort of geometrical solution of the problem. But a more precise, and, in this case, a clearer investigation, is obtained by help of the symbols of the integral calculus. Let x and x' express the altitudes of two strata of atmosphere, and y and y' the corresponding densities, the radius of the earth ; suppose farther, that e represents the altitude of the equiponderant column which measures the elasticity of the air. Since the density of the air depends on the incumbent pressure, its decrement must evidently be proportional to the weight of each superadded minute stratum, or to the density of this stratum multiplied into its thickness and power of gi*avitation. or

Whence — edy — ydx ^ -

ccl/ii r^dx ————of which the complete integral y [r + xf

is e H Log. y — , . , — . . ,. y r-\-x r-px rx r + a;' If r be regarded as indefinitely great in comparison y' of X, the expression will pass into e H Log. ~ — x'-—x, which is only the common formula. Application Little seemed wanting, therefore, to complete the of the Ther-practice of barometrical measurements, but the apmonaeter. p]ication of the thermometer, to correct the results. This instrument, however, advanced slow ly to perfection, and more than forty years yet elapsed before it came into current use. Some of the continental philosophers likewise, biassed, perhaps, by a secret jealousy of the superiority which England had acquired in science, began to throw out doubts re4

MEASUREMENTS. specting the reality or accuracy o< the law of geo- Barometri. metrical progression in the atmosphere. Daniel Ber- rii* Meanoulli, a man of candour on the whole as well as ingenuity, but who, with some proneness to speculative reasoning, had imbibed unfortunately many of the prejudices of the Cartesian and Leibnitzian schools., proposed in his capital work, the Hydrodynamica, which came out in 1736, certain vague hypotheses regarding the constitution of the atmosphere, as deduced from certain internal motions attributed to its component strata. The specious results of those calculations led him hastily to deviate from the principle of the geometrical progression of density in the upper regions. In this departure he was followed by Cassini and Horrebow, who concluded from some partial observations they had made, that the barometer, in its indications of atmospheric pressure, is subject to irregularity; and that, near the surface of the earth, it obeys a different law from what it obtains at great elevations. A strong light, however, was thrown upon the subject in 1753 by Bouguer, Bouguer. an able mathematician, and a very skilful and ingenious observer, who, with other academicians, had been employed for several years in measuring a degree of the meridian along the stupendous ridge of the Andes. From the comparison of more than thirty distinct observations, he deduced a simple and elegant rule for computing heights by means ot the barometer. It is, that the difference between the logarithms of the mercurial columns at the two stations being diminished by one-thirtieth part, and the decimal point shifted four places to the right, will express the required elevation in toises. Since the English was to the French foot nearly as fifteen to sixteen, the rule would be accommodated to our measures, and the result expressed in feet, if the logarithmic difference were augmented by the thirtieth part, then multiplied by six, and the decimal point thrown back four places; or, what is the same thing, if that logarithmic difference were multiplied at once by 62,000. But Bouguer imagined, that this rule would not hold exactly in Europe, or in the low^er regions of the torrid zone ; and to explain the deviation, he had recourse to the forced supposition that the particles of air possess different degrees of elasticity. Lambert, a philosopher of great originality and penetration, afterwards published some excellent remarks on the comparison of barometrical measurements. But no material progress was made till 1755, when M. de Luc of Geneva resumed the subject, j)e lu and the detached 15.6; while, on the peak of Snowdon, the barometer fell to 26.409 inches, and the attached and detached thermometers marked respectively 10°,0 and 8°,8. Here twice the difference of the attached thermometers is 11°.4, and twice the sum of the detached thermometer is 48°.8, which becomes 50.8, when augmented by the fifth part of the mean temperature on that parallel. Now, omitting the lower decimals, the first correction is .00264 X 11.4 = .030, to be added to 26.409. Wherefore,. Log. 30.091 = 1.4784366 Log. 26.439 = 1-4222450 Difference = .0561416 Constant multiplier = 60000 Approximate height = 3368.496

And, for the true height, the correction is 3-37 X 50.8 = 171.2, which gives 3340 for the final result. We shall take another example from the observations made by Sir George Shuckburgh Evelyn, at the same period, among the mountains of Savoy. This accurate philosopher found the barometer, placed in a cabin near the base of the Mole, and only 672 feet above the surface of the lake of Geneva, to stand at 28,152 inches, while the attached and detached thermometers indicated l6°.3 and 17°.4; but, another barometer carried to the summit of that lofty insulated mountain, the mercury sunk to 24,176 inches, the attached and detached thermometers marking 14°.4and 13°.4. Wherefore, twnce the difference of the degrees on the attached was 3°.8, and tw ice the sum of the degrees on the detached thermometer wras 6l°.6. Consequently, the correction to be applied to the higher column was .0024 X 3.8 = .009, which makes it 4.185. Now, Log. 28,152 = 1.4495092 Log. 24,185 = 1.3835461 Difference = .0659631 Constant multiplier = 60000 Approximate elevation = 3957-7S6 To correct this approximate elevation, remove the decimal point three places back, and multiply it by 6l°.6, increased by 2°.9, the fifth part of the mean temperature, corresponding to the latitude; but 3.96 X 64.5 = 255.4, and 3957.8 + 255.4 = 4213. Hence the summit of the Mole is 4885 feet above the lake of Geneva, or 6083 feet above the level of the Mediterranean Sea. * The last example we shall give is drawn from the observation which Baron Humboldt made among the Andes, near the summit of Chimborago, the highest spot ever approached by man. This celebrated traveller found there, that the barometer fell to 14,850 English inches; the attached thermometer in the tent being at 10°, and the detached in open air being 1.6° under zero. But the same barometer, carried down to the shore of the Pacific Ocean, rose exactly to 30 inches, while both the attached and detached thermometers stood at 25°.3. Consequently the cor-

MEASUREMENTS. 135 rection to be applied to the upper column is = ,0015 Barometrion a nA ' cal MeaLog. 30,000= 1.4771213 Log. 14.895 = 1.1730405 Difference = .3040808 Constant multiplier = 60000 Approximate elevation = 18244.848 Now, the difference of the detached thermometers or 26.9° being doubled and farther increased by 5.8°, the fifth part of the mean temperature at the equator, makes 59°.6; the final correction to be applied is therefore = 18.24 X 590«6 = 1087, which gives 19,332 feet for the true elevation observed, or 2140 feet below the summit of Chimborago. These calculations are performed by the help of Calculation logarithms. It is desirable, howrever, to approxi- Wit!a>nt Lo* mate at least to barometrical measurements with-®311 1111S’ out such aid. A very simple rule for this object has been given by Professor Leslie in his Elements of Geometry. Since Log. ^ = 2 M ( a + 6 + where M denotes K^)s+sGt05&c'> the modulus of the logarithmic system. When a approaches to by the lower terms may be rejected without sensible error, or Log. ^=2 M

very near-

ly. Wherefore, in reference to our atmosphere, the modulus is expressed by the equiponderant column of homogeneous fluid, or 60,000 X .4342945 = 26,058 feet, or only 26,000 in round numbers jwhence, as the sum oj' the mercurial columns is to their difference, so is the constant number 52,000 feet to the approximate height. Let General Roy’s observation on Snowdon be resumed as an example: The analogy is 30.091 + 26.439 '. 30.091—26.439, or 56.530 ‘. 3.652 .’ I 52000 *. 3,359, the approximate elevation, differing very little from the logarithmic result. This mode of calculation may be deemed sufficiently accurate for determining any altitude that exceeds not 5000 feet. But it will extend to greater elevations, if the second term of the series be likewise taken; which is done by striking off three figures, and cubing the half of this number. Thus, resuming the mensuration of Chimborago ; 44.895". 15.105 I i 52,000". 17,496, and (8.75)3 = 670, making together 18,166 for a nearer approximation. The calculation of barometrical measurements, in- Barometric eluding the corrections required, is rendered most Scale, easy and expeditious by means of a sliding rule made by Mr Cary, optician in London. This small instrument should always go along with mountain barometers, and it will be found a very agreeable companion to every geological traveller. But portable barometers, in spite of every precaution, are yet so liable to be broken or deranged, that other auxiliary methods are desirable for ascertaining distant elevations. In this view, the variation of the boiling point of water was proposed by Fahrenheit, as far back as the year 1724, the idea having occurred to him, as it had done before to A montons, while engaged with experiments to perfect his thermometer. Little regard,however,seems to have beenpaidtothe sugges-

BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 136 Baromeffi. Baromctri- titm, till De Luc and Saussure made a series of observa- temperature of 5^°. The correction for the actualC:il Mefl tions on the heat of ebullition at different elevations mean temperature can easily be applied. If a more above the surface. About thirty years since, Caval- correct coefficient be afterwards determined, the ' lo attempted to revive the scheme of Fahrenheit, same thousand, retained as a multiplier, may easily but experienced much difficulty in preventing the be adapted to another temperature. This method of measuring elevations on the sur- Mode of irregular starts of the thermometer plunged in boiling water. The best and surest way of examining face of the globe is, therefore, capable of great im- tLacingVer. !c‘31 Sec' the heat of ebullition, is to suspend the bulb of the provement, and might be employed with advantagetl0DS ’ thermometer in the confined steam, as it rises from in a variety of cases where observations with the bathe water ; and this mode, we understand, has very rometer are not easily obtained. Its application would lately been resumed, with great prospect of success, be most important to physical geography, in ascertaining the capital points for tracing the outline of by the Reverend Mr Wollaston. Tempera The heat at which water boils, or passes into the the profile or vertical section of any country. The tare of form of steam, depends on the weight of the super- common maps, which exhibit mere superficial exBoiling Water ap incumbent atmosphere. By diminishing this pres- tension, are quite insufficient to represent the great plied to die sure, the point of ebullition is always lowered. It features of nature, since the climate and productions Mensura- appears that, while the boiling heat sinks by equal of any place depend as much on its elevation above tion of differences, the corresponding atmospheric pressure the sea as its latitude. Scientific travellers have acHeights. decreases exactly, or at least extremely nearly, in cordingly turned their attention of late years to the a geometrical progression; it being found that framing of vertical sections. As a specimen, we give every time such pressure is reduced to one half, the in fig. 22, from Humboldt’s Geography of Plants, a temperature of boiling water suffers a regular diminu- section across the American Continent, one of the tion of about eighteen centesimal degrees. This best and most interesting that has yet appeared. beautiful relation assimilates with the law which con- It consists, in fact, of four combined sections, tranects the density and elevation of the successive strata versing through an extent of 425 miles. The line of the atmosphere. The interval noticed between the begins at Acapulco on the shore of the Pacific Ocean, boiling points at two distinct stations must be pro- and runs 195 miles, about a point of the compass portional to their difference of altitude above the towards the East of North, to the city of Mexico; level of the sea. We have, therefore, only to deter- then 80 miles, a point to the South of East, to La mine the coefficient or constant multiplier; which Puebla de los Angeles; again it holds a North-East may be discovered either from an experiment under direction of 70 miles, to the Cruz Blanca ; and finally the rarefied receiver of an air-pump, or from an ac- bends 80 miles East by South, to Vera Cruz, on the tual observation performed at the bottom and on the coast of the Atlantic. A scale of altitudes is annexed, top of some lofty mountain. We shall prefer at pre- which shows the vast elevation of the table-land of sent the observation made by Saussure on the sum- Mexico. An attempt is likewise made in this profile mit of Mont Blanc. This diligent philosopher found, to give some idea of the geological structure of the by means of a very delicate thermometer constructed external crust. Limestone is represented by straight on purpose, that water which boiled at 101°.62 in the lines slightly inclined from the horizontal position ; plain below when the barometer stood at 30.534 Basalt, by straight lines slightly reclined from the English inches, boiled at 86°.24 on the top of that perpendicular : Porphyry, by waved lines somewhat, mountain, while the barometer had sunk to 17.136. reclined ; Granite, by confused hatches : Amygdaloid, Wherefore the distance between the points of ebulli- by confused points. tion, or 15.38 centesimal degrees, must correspond to By this mode of distant levelling, a very interest- The Casan approximate elevation of 15,050 feet; which gives ing discovery, in another quarter of our globe, has Pliin below 978^ feet of ascent for each degree, supposing the been recently made by Engelhardt and Parrot, twro mean temperature of the atmospheric column to be Prussian travellers. They proceeded, on the 13th that of congelation. But it will be more convenient July 1814, from the mouth of the Kuban, at the to assume 1000 for the constant multiplier, which island of Taman, on the Black Sea ; and, examincorresponds to the temperature of 5^°. ing carefully every day the state of the barometer, To reduce this very simple result into practice, it they advanced with fifty-one observations, the diswould be requisite to have a thermometer with a fine tance of 990 wersts, or 711 English miles, to the capillary bore, and nicely constructed, the stem six mouth of the Terek, on the margin of the Caspian or eight inches long, and bearing ten or a few more Sea. Similar observations were repeated and muldegrees from the boiling point; these degrees to be tiplied on their return. From a diligent comparison divided into twenty or perhaps fifty equal parts en- of the whole, it follows that the Caspian is 334 Enggraved on the tube, which should be rather thick, lish feet below the level of the Black Sea. That the and terminating in a bulb of about half an inch dia- Caspian really occupies a lower level than the Ocean, meter. This thermometer, being fitted with a brass had been suspected before, from a comparison of ring two inches above the bulb, should screw into some registers of barometers kept at St Petersburg, the narrow neck of a small copper flask, which holds and on the borders of that inland sea; but the last some water, but has a hole perforated near the top observation places the question beyond all doubt. for allowing the steam to escape. The water may It farther appears, -that within 250 wersts, or 189 be made to boil by the application of a lamp. The miles, of the Caspian, the country is already depressdifterence between the indications of the thermome- ed to the level of the Ocean, leaving, therefore, an ters at the two stations being multiplied by a thou- immense bason, from which the waters are supposed sand feet, will give the elevation corresponding to a to have retired by a subterranean percolation, (d.)

fij-'K/Ziry J&e oe/i^r*

Published bv.l.Con stable X* Co.Kdiur 1$JG.

BAR BARRACKS. Till the middle of the year 1792, when was a prospect of a war with revolutionar rance VoUccT. yF > and the British ministry were apprehensive of disturbances in this country, barracks were neither very numerous, nor were they under the control and management of a separate and peculiar Board. Till that time, they were built under the authority and directions of the Board of Ordnance, by whom they were supplied with bedding and the necessary utensils. Any extra articles that W’ere requisite were supplied by the secretary at war. In 1792, orders were given by the ministry to build cavalry barracks with the utmost despatch, and the deputy-adjutant-general was directed to superintend the building and fitting them up. In January 1793, he was appointed superintendant-general of barracks ; and, on the 1st of May that year, the King’s warrant was issued for their regulation. Greater powers were given to the superintendant-general in the year 1794'; but as these seemed to interfere with the duties and powers of the Board of Ordnance, a new warrant was issued in the year 1795, defining and limiting the respective duties and powers of the Board of Ordnance, and the superintendant-general, or barrack-master-general, as he was now called. In the year 179(b Ike barrack-office establishment consisted of a barrack-master-general, with two clerks; a deputy-barrack-master-general; an assistant-barrack-master-general, with three clerks; an accountant, with five clerks; an assistant-barrackmaster-general for the general inspection of barracks, and six other assistant-barrack-masters-general for the particular inspection of barracks in different districts ; five clerks for general business; one assistant-barrack-master-general for the building branch ; one checking clerk, and seven other clerks; two architects and surveyors; one assistant-barrackmaster-general in North Britain ; with two assistants and clerks ; one treasurer ; and three other assistantbarrack-masters-general for general duties, and visiting barracks. The salaries and extra pay of these officers amounted, in 1796, to L. 9524, 17s. 2d. The establishment was afterwards considerably increased, in proportion as the number of barracks throughout the kingdom increased, and by the creation of some new officers, among whom was a law clerk. In 1806, the salaries amounted to L. 19,329, 4s. lOd. )fficial Re- During this year, the commissioners of military inorfs re- qUiry began their duties ; and their first reports were Barracks.

0n tlie sub ec j t of the barrack establishment: In the arrangement of this establishment, and in the mode in which its duties were performed, particularly with respect to the supplies of coals, &c. to the different barracks, and the contracts for building them, they pointed out many things that were highly objectionable; and concluded their reports by recommending that the offices of barrack-master-general, and deputy-barrack-master-general, shouldbe totally abolished, and that the superintendence of the barrack establishment should be vested in commissioners. This suggestion, and some others relative to the mode of transacting the business of the department, and preventing useless and extravagant expenditure, have r been ingeme* ; and the establishment is ^ eu * underfollowed the direction of barrack four commissioners, onenow of vob, 11. tart i.

ianacks.

BAR 137 whom is generally a military man. The mode of Barracks, writing letters in this public department is deserving of notice and imitation, as securing despatch and accuracy. A sheet of paper being folded in the middle, officers of the department, who address the barrack-office, write their letters on the left side; and, along with the original letter, send a duplicate in the same form, and signed also. On the blank side of the duplicate is written the official answer from the barrack-office which is sent; and, on the original letter, which is preserved in the office, is copied the answer: each party has thus an exact copy of the whole correspondence. As it frequently happened, that it was absolutely Clause ia necessary to build barracks on an emergency, when yct there was no time to summon a jury to value the ,espeCtiu that he was advised to submit to the operation of lithotomy, as affording the only means of arresting a lingering and painful death. But he constantly refused to undergo the pain and risk to which it would have necessarily exposed him, till, after long protracted suffering, during which he had in vain exhausted all the resources of medicine, he wras suddenly relieved by a symptomatic spitting of blood ; this haemorrhage, however, was pregnant with new dangers, and, by its continual recurrence, wras the immediate occasion of his death, on the 15th of October 1806, in the 72d year of his age. As we have already stated, he had published in the same year a second edition of his Nouveaux Elemens de la Science de VHomme. He bequeathed his books and manuscripts to M. Lordat, who, in consequence, published two volumes of Consultations de Medecine, Svo, Paris, 1810, to which he prefixed a preface of his own. Previous to the appearance of this work, however, a collection of consultations of Barthez, and of some other physicians of Paris, w as given to the world by Saint-Ursin; but it appears to have been unauthorized by those to whom he had confided his papers, and contains but few of the consultations which were afterwards published by M. Lordat. Another posthumous wrork of Barthez, the Trade du Beau, preceded by some account of his life, was edited in 1807 by his brother, M. Barthez de Marmorieres, who is known as the author of agricultural essays, and projects for improving the maritime coast of Languedoc, together with some translations from the oriental languages ; and who has been mistaken, in a recent biographical work, for the subject of the present article. Barthez has enjoyed a much higher reputation on the Continent than in this country, where, indeed, his writings are but little known. The work which has chiefly contributed to establish his fame, and which contains the developement of his peculiar opinions on physiology, is the Nouveaux Elemens de la Science de VHomme. It is not written, how ever, with the simplicity and clearness which might have been expected from one who had been in the constant habit of instructing others, and whose lectures were generally admired as possessing those qualities in an eminent degree. He appears to have been early impressed with thefutility of all the theories that had been hitherto advanced in explanation of the phenomena presented by living beings, and to have been incited to the bold attempt of raising a new system upon more rational and solid foundations. In the preliminary discourse to the work w e have alluded to, he lays down, with great correctness, the fundamental principles of the method of philosophizing in the natural sciences. The common object of these sciences he states to be the research into the causes of natural phenomena, in as far as they can be learned by experience; and shows that we have no direct knowledge of these causes, except as manifested by such of their effects as we perceive. In the infancy of philosophy, numerous causes are assigned to these

B A R Bartliez. apparently diversified effects; during its advancement, and in proportion as the similarity of effects, which had been referred to different causes, is established, the number of these assigned causes becomes more and more circumscribed. Although the real nature of the agents producing those general facts, to which we ultimately arrive by following this method of induction, be absolutely unknown, yet, in reasoning concerning them, we find it convenient to express them by a name, as if they were really known to us ; in the same way as in prosecuting an algebraical calculus, we must employ characters to express the unknown, as well as the given quantities. But the distinction should ever be kept in view; and we should err greatly were we to imagine that we could derive any ultimate advantage by the substitution of other symbols, which differed from them only in appearance, or which involved the admission of some hypothetical principle. Such are the rules by which he professes to be guided in his own investigations ; and such the tests by which he examines and passes judgment upon the doctrines of the different sects of Animists, Mechanicians, and Chemists, which had successively prevailed before him in the schools of medicine, and also upon the more recent doctrine of the Solidists, which was then becoming fashionable. In the review which he gives of the opinions of the several leaders of these sects, he displays an accurate acquaintance with the wide circle of medical literature. But, in the prosecution of his plan, he shows, what the example of others has so often proved, that it is easier to overthrow than to build a system ; and he evidently violates the strict principles of induction, and of cautious limitation to the province of philosophical inquiry, which he had prescribed, when he engages in the task himself. He sets out with endeavouring to establish a gradation among the causes which operate in producing motion. The simplest of these is the force of impulsion; that of gravitation appears to him less simple ; and still less so those of electricity and magnetism. The principles which regulate chemical affinities are more complicated, as well as those which are concerned in the crystallization of bodies. But the forces which produce the phenomena of living vegetables and animals are of a more refined order, and are all referable, according to Barthez, to a single cause, which he denominates the vital principle, or principle of life. Having established this dogma, he proceeds to discuss a variety of abstruse questions that have been agitated on the subject, such as whether the vital principle has an independent existence, distinct from the organized body which it animates ; and whether it be a modification of the soul or rational mind. He gives an elaborate historical sketch of the opinions of philosophers from the earliest times respecting the nature of life, tracing the different sentiments entertained by the followers of Aristotle and Descartes, together with the Stahlians and Boerhaavians, on the one hand; and those of Pythagoras, of Plato, and the sect of Stoics, on the other : the former not acknowledging any principle of life distinct from either matter or mind; and the latter admitting such a principle attached to the living body. A third class VOL, II. PART i.

BAR 145 of philosophers is noticed, at the head of which he Baitliezs places Bacon, and with which he associates Leibnitz, ■ Cudworth, Van Helmont, and Hoffman, who have recognised the existence of a vital power different from the ordinary physical properties of matter, and at the same time totally distinct from the soul. After expending much useless argument in refutation of the Stahlian doctrine of the identity of the vital with the thinking principles, and devoting a long chapter to the consideration of doubts as to our means of deciding the question, he shows himself strongly inclined to the belief that the principle of life is something which has a separate existence, distinct from any modification, either of matter or of mind. There is little doubt, indeed, that this was his firm persuasion, as he reasons from it in many parts of his work, though he seems averse to declare it, without qualification, while he is discussing these questions. Having thus personified, as he very aptly expresses it, this new principle of life, he appeals to it for the solution of every difficulty. It is the master key which unlocks every secret, and renders all the operations of the living animal body perfectly intelligible. Irritability and sensibility are at once the direct effects of this universal agent. All the modifications of these properties, and, in a word, every phenomenon of life, which is not obviously the result of physical laws, are but so many immediate operations of the vital principle. To this fertile source he refers not only the ordinary muscular contractions, but also the slower and less sensible motions which take place in the iris, in the vascular system, and, in general, in those parts in which no muscular structure can be discerned : effects which he attributes to the tonic power of the vital principle. He contends for the existence of another power in the fibres, still derived from the same sourcenamely, the power of elongation, after they have been contracted; a power which he thinks quite distinct from the other mechanical properties of the fibre, and of which the operation is exemplified in the dilatation of the pupil, the extension of the corpora cavernosa, and of the, nipples, and in the diastole of the heart itself. He plumes himself more particularly upon his supposed discovery of a new species of force, distinct from the muscular power, which he terms the force of fixed situation, and of which he infers the existence from the circumstance of the tendo Achilles being ruptured, and of the patella, and head of the os calcis being fractured, on some occasions, by an apparently slight exertion. He avails himself of this principle, also, to explain the phenomena of teta?ms, and other spasmodic affections. In a subsequent part of the work, he labours to establish the identity of sensibility and irritability, or, at least, the intimate connection which subsists between them, and the dependence of both upon the immediate and direct operations of the vital principle. He endeavours to prove, that both the sensitive and moving powers are exercised in the circulating fluids of the body; and adduces, in support of this opinion, many of the arguments brought forward by Mr Hunter in proof of the vitality of the blood. On the subject of secretion, implying processes which have been hitherto enveloped in so much darkness, x

146 BAR Bai thez. and of which the explanation has in vain been sought for on mechanical and chemical principles, he is very brief; as it is the peculiar advantage ot his theory, like the sword of Alexander, to cut through every knot that bids defiance to ordinary powers of unravelling. Secretion, being inexplicable by any of the hitherto known laws of nature, is, of course, simply the effect of the vital principle. Ihe phenomena of animal heat were in danger of being at once consigned to the same Proteus-like power, which could operate every possible diversity of effects. But chemistry had, in this instance, interposed some plausible theories, which must first be set aside; and Barthez is at great pains to state the reasons of his dissent from the received doctrines on this subject, and of his disbelief in the existence of caloric. He prefers the hypothesis which supposes heat to be a mere quality, excited by motion ; and generated accordingly, in living animals, by the intestine motions of their fluids, and the friction of the solids against each other; and the cause of these motions and frictions being unknown, it followed, as a necessary consequence, that they must arise from the operation of the vital principle. Respiration he considers as a cooling or moderating process, and as useful, also, in exciting throughout the system the tonic actions; but all these actions and agitations of the fibres, and these intestine motions of the fluids, are still regulated by the vital principle, which adapts them to variations of climate, and other external circumstances of temperature. Amidst these vague and unprofitable speculations, his work contains a great store of facts, which are often instructive, though sometimes they expose the credulity of the author. He has collected, for example, a number of curious particulars relative to the opei'ation of different poisons on different animals; but intermingles with these well attested facts, many idle tales respecting the bites of rabid or enraged animals, in which the peculiar manners of the animal were communicated to the human species. Thus, he quotes instances of men barking or attempting to bite in hydrophobia; of some mewing like cats, after having been bitten by these animals; and of others, again, who flapped their arms, and crowed like cocks, after receiving the bite of one of these birds. A large portion of the work is dedicated to the consideration of Sympathies, which he distinguishes from what he terms Synergies; defining the latter to be the connection, whether simultaneous or successive, of the vital forces of different organs, so as to constitute a function or a disease. He divides sympathies into three classes, according as they occur between organs having no visible relation to each other, those which have similar structures and functions, and those which are united by an intermediate texture, or by receiving the same set of vessels or nerves. His chapter on Temperaments is ably drawn up ; and he discusses well the comparative influence of physical and moral causes in modifying the human temperament, and the changes produced by age, and the approach of death. He explains the operation of the more usual causes of death ; and enters into a comparison of the mutabi-

BAR lity of different seasons and climates ; and concludes, Baithp*. from several facts and arguments, that the actual cessation of life is, in general, not accompanied by any painful sensation. The merit of Barthez, as a physiologist, is more conspicuous on subjects which admitted less of his being led astray by his proneness to indulge in abstract speculation, and his predilection for metaphysical refinement. The most favourable specimen of his talents is afforded by his Nonvelle Me~ chanique des Mouvemens de V Homme et des Animaux ; in which, avoiding all discussion as to the cause of muscular motion, he traces the mode in which this force has been applied by nature, according to the principles of mechanism, in effecting the different movements of the animal machine. He examines the relative disposition of the bones and muscles, the structure of the articulations, and the general play and particular motions of the limbs. Borelii [He Motu Animalium) had given the first model of such a work ; but Barthez has investigated the subject with greater care, and has extended his views to a much wider range of phenomena. He enters minutely into the consideration of a great variety of modes of locomotion, both in man and the inferior animals; for which he has amassed an immense number of facts; forming, altogether, a work which will ever remain a monument of his industry and superior abilities. In consulting his writings on the practical branches of his profession, we again find ourselves bewildered in a labyrinth of speculations on the proximate causes of disease, and the modus operandi of remedies. In his Treatise on Gout, he adopts the principles of the humeral pathology, in addition to his own physiological doctrines concerning the force of fixed situation, or principle which retains muscular parts in their appropriate places independently of irritability. He states the proximate cause of this disease to be a specific gouty state of the habit; which he infers from the supposed influence he has observed from specific remedies, and especially aconite, in curing it. He defines the gouty state of the blood to consist in “ an improper mixture of its component parts, which prevents, in different degrees, the natural formation of its excrementitious humours; so that these humours, being more or less altered, undergo a spontaneous decomposition, which causes the earthy substance to predominate in them.” This earthy substance, or, in other words, gouty matter, is deposited upon the extremities, and thus occasions the paroxysm. His practice, on the whole, notwithstanding his adoption of theories now generally exploded, is tolerably judicious; though he shows but little discrimination in the analysis which he gives of the works of practical authors on this disease ; and he seems to be strangely deficient in information as to the practice of English physicians. In other respects, his knowledge is accurate and copious ; and the history he gives of several of the irregular forms of gout, and also that of sciatica, in which, however, he chiefly follows Cotannius, are deserving of praise. In the preface to his Nova Doctrina de Functionibus Natures Humance, he has given an excellent ar10

B A S 147 BAR Barthez rangement of the general principles of the objects to ty by which his health and reputation often suffered. Basedow. II be kept in view in the medical treatment of diseases. In 1741, Basedow went to Leipsic to study theology. He treats of this subject more at large in his treatise He gave himself up entirely to the instructions of Be Methodo Medendi, published at Montpellier, in the professor, Crusius, and the study of philosophy. 1777, and also in the preface to his Traite des Mala- This, at first, made him sceptical in theology ; a more dies Goutteuses. He considers all the different profound examination of the sacred writings, and of methods and indications of cure as capable of being all that relates to them, brought him back to the comprehended under three heads, the natural, the Christian faith ; but, in his retirement, he formed his analytic, and the empiric. The natural methods belief after his own ideas, and it was far from orthohave for their object to promote the spontaneous dox. Having returned to Hamburgh, he lived there operations of nature tending to restore health, or, as without any employment till 1749, when M. de they have been usually termed, the vires medicatrices Quaalen, privy-counsellor of Holstein, appointed naturce. The analytic methods are those which pro- him preceptor to his son. Basedow now began to ceed upon a previous analysis of the disease into the apply himself to the subject of education. At first, several simpler diseases of which it consists, or into he would not teach his pupil Latin otherwise than by their ultimate component symptoms, which are iso- talking with him in Latin ; and he wrote a dissertation lateiy and successively combated by means respec- on this subject, published at Kiel inT751, In usitata tively suited to each. These are the more indicated, et optima honestioris Juventutis erudiendce Methodus. in proportion as the disease is more complex, and In 1753, he was chosen professor of moral philosophy admits of being resolved into a greater number of and belles-lettres in the academy of Soroe, in Denelements. The empiric plan of treatment is directed mark. Here he published, in 1758, his Practical to change the whole nature of the disease, bj' means Philosophy for all Conditions, in two volumes (Coof which experience has taught us the efficacy in penhagen and Leipsic, second edition, in 1777), analogous cases. These means are of three kinds; which contained many good observations on educahaving either a perturbing, an imitative, or a specific tion in general, and on that of girls in particular; operation : the first being such as, by producing ef- but he advanced in it opinions by no means consistfects of a different kind from those of the disease, ent with Lutheran orthodoxy; so that the Count tend to diminish or entirely suppress the latter (as Danneskiold, superintendant of the academy, took when the paroxysm of an ague is prevented by the his place from him, and removed him to the school excitement of a strong sudorific or cathartic opera- of exercises at Altona. Basedow still continued to tion) ; the second, such as produce effects analogous devote himself to theological studies. In 17f>4, he to those which nature herself employs for the cure published his Philalethes, or New Considerations on of the disease ; and the third, those whose salutary the Truths of Religion and Reason, within the Limits operation is known in no other way than as the direct of Revelation, two volumes in 8vo. The magistrates of Altona forbade the reading of this work. He was result of experience. The writings of Barthez appear to have had con- not allowed any longer permission to print his writings siderable influence in overthrowing many of the at Hamburgh or Lubeck; the communion was procrude and preposterous theories which had prevailed hibited to him and all his family; and the common in the schools of medicine ; and, however he may people were on the point of stoning him. Basedow, have been seduced from the path of genuine philo- however, who was convinced of the truth of his opisophy by an excessive disposition to generalize, and nions, displayed prodigious activity in defending an overweening fondness for abstruse speculation, he them. He wrote his Methodical Instruction in Relistill deserves the praise of being an original thinker, gion, and the Morality of Reason, Altona, 1764; his and of standing pre-eminent among his contempo- Theoretical System of sound Reason, 1765 ; his Essay raries for the courage with which he shook off the on Free Dogmatism, Berlin, 1766 ; his Extracts from trammels of authority, in a university where it had the Old and New Testament, and his Essay in favour ruled with despotic sway, and where the dogmas of of the Truth of Christianity, in the same year. The last of these works he particularly valued himself antiquity were held in peculiar reverence. (w.) BASEDOW (John Bernard), a celebrated upon, because he there founds the evidence of ChristGerman writer, born at Hamburgh, September ianity chiefly on its moral purity. In these, and 11, 1723, was the son of a hair-dresser. Ill other works, he, however, maintained several heterotreatment made him abandon his father’s house. dox opinions; as the non-eternity of future punishA physician, in a neighbouring village, took him ments,—the inequality of the three Persons of the into his service, and shortly after persuaded him Trinity,—the insufficiency of the atonement for our to return home to his father. Being placed in one sins by the death of Jesus Christ, &c. Constantly of the lower classes of the college of St John, the persecuted in his theological career, he would have severity of his masters rendered him harsh and vio- fallen the victim of his incautious zeal, if the Count lent himself. Forced to submit to a slow and ri- de Bernstoff, minister of state, and J. A. Cramer, gorous method of study, he contracted a dislike to another officer of the court of Copenhagen, had not patience and regularity, which exercised a marked taken him under their protection. He left off givinfluence over the whole course of his life. Poor ing lessons, without losing his salary; and, towards but intelligent, he often performed their tasks for his the end of 1767, he abandoned theology to devote school-fellows, who could afford to pay for it; and himself with the same ardour to education, of which they, in return, invited him to their parties of plea- he conceived the project of a general reform in Gersure, which contributed to those habits of irregulari- many, He began by publishing An Address to the

148 BAS Basedow. Friends of Humanity, and to Persons in Poxver, on Schools, on Education, and its hifluencc on public Happiness, xvilh the Plan of an Elementary Treatise on human Knowledge, Hamburgh, 1768. He proposed the reform of schools, of the common methods of instruction, the establishment of an institute for qualifying teachers ; and solicited subscriptions for the printing of his Elementary work, where his principles were to be explained at length, and accompanied with plates. For this object, he required 5050 crowns. The subscriptions presently mounted up to 15,000 crowns : the Empress of Russia, Catherine II. sent a thousand crowns, the King of Denmark nine hundred. In 1770 appeared at Altona the first volume of his Method for Fathers and Mothers of Families, and for the Chiefs of the People ; and six months after, the three first parts of his Elementary Treatise, in 8vo, with 54 plates. This work, which was praised in all the journals, was translated into French by Huber, and into Latin by Mangelsdorf; but Schlozer, in the German translation of the Essay on National Education, by M. de la Chalotais, accused Basedow of having omitted in his plan various branches of science, and of having had in view only a pecuniary speculation. Basedow, in despair, ofi'ered to return the price of his book to those who were not satisfied with it. Only one man, a Swiss, demanded his subscription. Encouraged by the success of the Treatise, our author continued to write other works on the same subject, and on the same principles ; among others, his Treatise on Arithmetic, 1773, and Elements of pure Mathematics, 1772. His Agathocrator, or the Education of Teachers to come, 1771? procured him a medal from the Emperor Joseph II.; and the visits which he made to Brunswick, to Leipsic, Dessau, Berlin, and Halle, to inquire into the state of public instruction, having enabled him to enlarge and correct his ideas, and convinced him that his Elementary work contained many erroneous and hasty assertions, he published a new and improved edition of this work in 1774. The same year, he published his Legacy for Consciences, or Manual of natural and revealed Religion ; a work which he composed in order to make known the real state of his religious opinions, and to clear himself from the imputation of wishing to found a new sect. In his travels, he had been well received by the Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, who promised him his protection. From that time, he had resolved to establish an institute for education at Dessau, and to apply his principles himself in forming disciples who might spread them over all Germany. Little calculated, by nature or habit, to succeed in an employ, ment which requires the greatest regularity, patience, and attention, he, however, engaged in this new project with all his accustomed ardour. The name of Philanthropinon appeared to him the most expressive of his views; and he published at Leipsic in 1774 a pamphlet, entitled, The Philanthropinon founded at Dessau, containing the details of his plan. He immediately set about carrying it into execution; but he had few scholars, and the success by no means answered his hopes. The institution, badly managed, became the theatre of the quarrels between Basedow and the masters who taught in it

BAS under his direction. The assistance of the celebrat- Basedow, ed Campe, a journal which they both composed together under the title of School Dialogues, from 1777 to 1779, and a public examination which went off with eclat, gave a transient splendour to the Philanthropinon ; but in a short time Basedow quarrelled with Campe, made complaints against his Prince, quitted and returned to the care of the institution ; and exemplifying in his conduct the eftects of coarse manners, and bad temper, was at length drawn into the most scandalous scenes in his disputes with Professor Wolke, his former coadjutor. This institution was finally shut up in I793. Basedow for some time had given up all thoughts of education ; he returned to his old theological inquiries, and residing sometimes at Magdeburgh, sometimes at Halle, sometimes at Leipsic, he took part in the famous controversy excited in Germany by the Fragments of Wolfenb'utel, an anonymous posthumous work of Reimarus, published by Lessing. Doctor Semler having written a pretended refutation of the Fragments, Basedow, without difficulty, exposed the ill intentions of the author, who secretly attacked the cause he affected to defend ; and, with his usual vehemence and frankness, called upon Semler to declare himself openly, offering to indemnify him with his fortune, if this public declaration should prove prejudicial to him. Semler made no reply, and Basedow wrote on. He published his work entitled, Jesus Christ, the Christian World, and the small Number of the Elect, in 1784; and the year following, returning to the study, which had divided his time and his powers with theology, he gave the public his New Method of Learning to Read, which he employed with success in two schools of little girls at Magdeburgh ; and in this occupation he passed four hours every day for some time previous to his death, which took place in this city, July 25, 1790. He died with Christian firmness and resignation, and desired that his body might be opened, wishing (to use his own words) to be still useful to his fellow-citizens after his death. In 1797, a monument of marble was erected on the spot where he was buried. d 0 manners unpolished and abrupt, he joined gross habits; be was fond of wine, of which he drank to excess; in short, with a character in itsell unamiable, he seemed, by his conduct, sometimes to take pains to render his services ol no use, and his virtues of no account. Nothing can give a better idea of him than what he says of himself: “ The sagacious reader will discover by my writings, that I have been especially called to serve the cause of truth and humanity, in following a path hitherto unknown. My opinions have succeeded one another, as has been seen. I have been at different times Lutheran, sceptic, infidel, a friend to natural religion, a convert to Christianity, a Christian with paradoxical sentiments, and more and more heterodox. In me has been seen a thinker tormented within by his own reflections, and a writer tormented from without, because he has been at one time hated, at another misunderstood. Bold and enterprising in my actions, I have always seen, with a faultering heart, the dangers

BAS '.asedow. which threatened me, and from which Providence has saved me in part. I have made little account of domestic happiness, of friendship, or society. I have suffered the penalty. Occupied in curing others, I have neglected the health of my own mind. Esteem is due to the sincerity of my opinions, rather than to my conduct. I desired ardently to make it perfect, but this would have required more perseverance and more attention than the meditation of abstract truths ; accordingly, I have oftener been dissatisfied with myself than with others, with whom, however, for the same reason, I have been rarely satisfied. My heart has had little enjoyment of the consolations of religion, because every occasion led me into difficult researches, and thus weakened the force of sentiment. I regard myself as a man and a Christian, such as there are but few in the world, and such as it is not desirable that there should be many.” This frankness, without affectation and without pride, induces us to honour the character of a man who has rendered some services to his country and his age. His work On the Education of Princes destined to the Throne has been translated into French by Bourjoing. A list of his writings may be seen in Meusel’s Lexicon of German Writers, from 1750 to 1800, and a farther account of his life in Schlichtegroll’s Necrology for 1790. Goethe tells an anecdote of going a journey in company with him and Lavater, who fell into a violent dispute about the Trinity. Basedow consoled himself with the hope of getting some beer and a pipe of tobacco at an inn which he saw before them on the road. When they came to it, Goethe made the coachman drive on to the great chagrin of Basedow, to whom he excused himself by saying, that the sign of the inn was tvoo triangles, and as he had such an aversion to one triangle (the scholastic emblem of the Trinity), he was afraid the sight of two might overcome him. This conceit, according to Goethe, pacified our anti-trinitarian divine. Basedow, in his general writings, endeavoured to apply philosophy to practical purposes, and to give a more popular air to his reasonings than had been usual with his countrymen before his time. He held truth to be of little value without practice, and, indeed, he held its essence to depend chiefly on its utility. He considered external or speculative truth to be a very vague and doubtful thing; and that it is principally the consequences of things to the mind itself, that is, a moral necessity, which determines it to believe strongly and consistently on any point, so that that is true to each individual which makes the most lasting impression on his mind, anti which he feels to be necessary to his happiness. Thus he regarded practical good as the test of speculative truth. He gave great weight to the principle of analogy, and founded the doctrine of a Providence on this principle. He considered common sense as one ingredient in philosophical reasoning, and rejected all systems which appeared to him to exclude it; such as idealism, the doctrine of monads, and a pre-established harmony. His favourite adage in his system of education, was to follow Nature. Fie wished the mind to be led to knowledge, virtue, and religion, by gentle means, instead of those of constraint and terror. Indeed, his

B A S 149 principles on this subject are very nearly the same Basedow as those of Locke and Rousseau; and he seems to Haskethave done little else than to have given currency in making. Germany to the same reasonings which those philosophers had taught before him in England and France. He insisted on the disuse of the preposterous and unhealthy dresses used by children and their parents, such as stays, swaddling-clothes, tight bandages round the neck, the knees, &c. He recommended exercise and hardy sports as necessary to the health and activity of the body. He proposed to exercise the judgment by teaching a knowledge of things, and not merely to load the memory with words. He preferred the practical sciences to the speculative, the living to the dead languages, modern to ancient history, things which are more near to those which are more remote. In fine, most of his principles were in themselves sound and good, and have in fact exerted their influence on the actual progress of civilization ; they were only erroneous from the excess to which he sometimes appears to have carried them; partly from the natural vehemence of his mind, partly from the natural tendency to paradox on the side of new opinions. Paradox, by exciting attention, and enlisting the passions, is perhaps necessary to contend against prejudice; common sense and reason are lost sight of by both parties during the combat; but in the end they prevail, if they have fair play allowed them. Thus, in the present instance, it is now generally admitted, that something besides the classics is necessary to a liberal education; nor is it thought requisite to arrive at this conclusion through the antithesis to the vulgar opinion of his day set up by Basedow, viz. that the classics are of no use at all in a rational system of education. (z.) BASKET-MAKING. The earlier arts among mankind, in an uncivilized condition, are restricted to operations on materials which undergo slight and imperceptible changes; and implements are fabricated from substances almost in their natural state. The process of interweaving twigs, reeds, or leaves, is seen among the rudest nations of the world, and there is known even an inferior specimen of art among the natives of VanDieman’s Land, consistingof a bunch of rushes tied together at either end, which, spread out in the middle, forms a basket. But the sudden alteration of shape obviously renders this construction less convenient; whence the same and other tribes make a basket of leaves interwoven, and that so skilfully executed, that it retains either milk or water. A bundle of rushes spread out may be compared to the warp of a web, and the application of others across it to the woof, also an early discovery, for basket-making is literally a web of the coarsest materials. By experience these materials are refined and ornamented, and in the most improved stages of manufacture, neat and useful implements and utensils are produced. Scarcely any nation has been entirely ignorant of the art; and our ancestors in this island made baskets which, we learn, were carried to Rome either for use or ornament. Basket-making, however, has by no means been Various apconfined to the fabrication of those simple anR use-plications of ful utensils from which its name is derived. Of old, the shields of soldiers were fashioned of wicker-

B A S K E T-M A K I N G. 150 Basket* Basket- work, either plain or covered with hides, and the of the number. The natives of some parts of South making. miiking. like has been witnessed among modern savages. America make baskets simply of rushes, so closely interwoven as to hold water, and thousands of them In Britain, the wicker boats of the natives, coare annually sold in the Spanish provinces. The vered with the skins of animals, attracted the notice of the Romans; and Herodotus mentions Caffres and Hottentots are alike skilful wfith the boats of this kind on the Tigris and Euphrates. roots of plants. Thus it does not belong to EuroBut there was this difference, that the former peans to rival an uncivilized tribe in the exercise of seem to have been of the ordinary figure of a a simple art. But of all materials, osiers or willows _. boat, whereas the latter were round and covered are in most general use. Osiers, employed for basket-making, are either Osiers for with bitumen. Boats of this shape, about seven feet in diameter, are used at the present day on taken entire, cut from the root, split asunder, or inajt-n these rivers; and boats of analogous construc- stripped of their bark, according to the work to be tion are employed in crossing the rivers of India, produced ; but in the latter case, they are previously which have not a rapid current. At Hurrial, a soaked in water. The stripping is performed by town on the western side of Hindostan, the river drawing the willow's through an iron-edged impleToombudra is not fordable from June to October; ment called brakes, which removes the bark, and the during which interval, round basket-boats are used willows are then cleaned, so far as necessary, by the to transport people, goods, and cattle, to the opposite manual operation of a sharp knife. Next they are sides. They are of all sizes, from three to fifteen exposed to the sun and air, and afterwards placed feet in diameter, but shallow, not being above three in a dry situation. But it is not less necessary to feet in depth ; and some will carry thirty men. They preserve willows with tneir bark in the same manner, are of very simple construction: A number of pieces for nothing can be more injurious than the humidity of split bamboo, twenty for example, are laid on inherent in the plant; and previous to use, they must the ground, crossing each other near the centre, and be soaked some days in water also. The barked or there fastened with thongs ; the ends of the bam- white osier is then divided into bundles or faggots boos are then elevated by several persons, and fixed according to size; the larger being reserved to foim asunder at due distance by means of stakes, in which the strong work in the skeleton of the basket, and. position they are bound by other long slips of bamboo. the smaller for weaving the bottom and sides. Should The latter are introduced alternately over and under the latter be applied to ordinary work, they are taken the pieces first crossed, and tied at the intersections whole, but for implements of slight and finer texture, to preserve the shape. This being completed, begin- each osier is divided into splits and skains ; which ning from the bottom to the centre, the parts above the names denote the different degrees of size to which intended height or depth of the basket-boat are cut they are reduced. Splits are osiers cleft into four off, and it is liberated from the stakes reversed, and parts, by means of a particular implement employed covered with half-dressed hides sewed together with for that purpose, consisting of two edge tools placed thongs. Nothing can be more expeditious or more at right angles, whereby the rod is longitudinally simple than the fabrication and materials' of these divided down the pith. These are next drawn vessels, if they merit that name. One may be made through an implement resembling the common by six men in as many hours. Only two substances, spoke-shave, keeping the grain of the split next almost always accessible, are used,—hides and bam- the wood or stock of the shave, while the pith is preboo. They are navigated either by paddles where sented to the edge of the iron, which is set in an the water is deep, or are pushed over a shallow oblique direction to the wood; And in order to bottom with long poles; and the passengers with- bring the split into a shape still more regular, it is in are safely transported, being kept dry by planks passed through another implement called an upright, and pieces of wood at the bottom. The basket- consisting of a flat piece of steel, each end of boats on the river Kristna, in the same country, are which is fashioned into a cutting edge, like that of an about twelve feet in diameter, and four feet deep. ordinary chisel. The flat is bent round, so that Whole armies are thus enabled to continue their the two edges approach each other at a greater or march, and even heavy artillery has been in the same less interval by means of regulating screws, and the manner conveyed across rivers. Sometimes the whole is fixed in a handle. By passing the splits boats are towed by bullocks fastened to them, and between the two edges, they are reduced to skains, goaded on in the proper direction. We may al- the thickness of which is determined by the interval so observe, that in different parts of the world, between the edges of the tool. All the implements whole houses, cottages, fences, and gates, are form- required by a basket-maker are few and simple ; they ed of basket or wicker-work. On the Continent, a consist, besides the preceding, of knives, bodkins and two horse carriage, called a Holstein waggon, of drills for boring, leads for keeping the work steady very considerable size, and fit to carry several per- w'hile in process, and where it is of small dimensons, is composed solely of basket-work; the same sions, a heavy piece of iron, called a beater, which is is done in Britain with regard to the bodies of employed to beat the basket close as it is augmentgigs; and an appendage of the stage-coaches is lite- ed. Thus a basket-maker has this great advantage rally designed the basket ; besides a vast variety of over many other artificers, that he can establish himself in his profession at the most inconsiderable exworks on a smaller scale. Materials In respect to the materials employed, besides those pence either for tools or materials. employed. specified as belonging to the ruder nations, there are An ordinary basket is made by preparing the re- Mdliod of many which are equally the product of nature and quisite number of osiers, and preserving their length ° art. ^ Twigs, branches, straw, and whalebone, are all considerably greater than that of the finished work,

B A S K E T-M AKIN G. Basket- They are ranged in pairs on the floor parallel to Edinburgh, a number of the blind find employment Basketnaking. eacj1 other, at small intervals, in the direction of the of the same kind, in the asylum established there. The best materials for basket-making have been pr0(ri ess in '■“Y ^‘ longer diameter of the basket; and this may be callprincipally imported into Great Britain from France tll(, culiivaed the woof, for, as we have said, basket work is liteand Holland; but the duration of the war induced tiun of Osirally a web. These parallel rods are then crossed at right angles by two of the largest osiers, with the the inhabitants of this country to endeavour to obtain ers. thick ends towards the workman, who places his foot a supply at home. Cultivation of the osier was imupon them; and weaving each alternately over and perfectly understood in England, and in Scotland it under the parallel pieces first laid down, they are scarcely received any attention whatever; whence, as by that means confined in their places. The whole a suitable encouragement, that patriotic Society, now forms what is technically called the slat or slate, whose notice is specially directed to the improvewhich is the foundation of the basket. Next, the ment of arts and manufactures, some years ago, oflong end of one of the two rods is taken, and wove fered premiums to those cultivators who should raise under and over the pairs of short ends all round the the greatest quantity, not being less than 6000 plants bottom, until the whole be wove in. I he same is on an acre. It became an object with such cultivators to asdone with the other rod; and then additional long osiers are also wove in, until the bottom be of certain, not only the quantity that could be obtainsufficient size, and the woof be occupied by them. ed, but the quality of the produce, which was of Thus the bottom, or foundation on which the super- the greater consequence, as many plants, passing structure is to be raised, is finished; and this latter under the general name of osiers, and even possesspart is accomplished by sharpening the large ends of ing their external characters, are ill adapted for the as many long and stout osiers as may be necessary to work intended. But considerable light has been form the ribs or skeleton. These are forced or thrown on the subject by Mr Philipps of Ely, who plaited between the rods of the bottom, from the was early rewarded by a premium on account of the edge towards the centre, and are turned up in the utility of his observations. He remarks that the osier direction of the sides; then other rods are wove in is a species ot salix, of which there are many varieand out between each of them, until the basket is ties ; and these may be comprehended under two raised to the intended height, or, more correctly classes; the first containing nine or ten species. speaking, the depth it is to receive. The edge or None, however, excepting one, the grey or brindled brim is finished by turning down the perpendicular osier, is of use. This, in common with the others, ends of the ribs, now protruding and standing up has a light coloured leaf, but is distinguished by the over each other, whereby the whole are firmly and bark being streaked with red or blood colour; and compactly united. A handle is adapted to the work it is of late introduction into Britain on the Isle of by forcing two or three osiers sharpened at the end, Ely, where the observer’s experiments seem to have and cut to the requisite length, down the weaving of been chiefly made. It grows vigorously, is very the sides, close together; and they are pinned fast, hardy and tough, and bleaches well. All the others about two inches from the brim, in order that the of the same class prefer a wet soil, where they grow handle, when completed, may be retained in its pro- quickly and large, and will flourish even in the most per position. The osiers are then either bound barren kind of peat; but they are coarse and spongy, or plaited, in such fashion as pleases the taste of the have a thick pith, and are perishable. Nevertheless, they are sometimes used for coarser workmanship, artist. This is the most simple kind of basket; from which and are profitable to those who live in the vicinity of others differ only in finer materials, and nicer exe- places where there is a great demand for osiers, and cution ; but in these there is considerable scope for cheap conveyance. During the interruption of conI taste and fancy, and implements are produced of ex- tinental intercourse, they were much resorted to treme neatness and ingenuity in construction. Some by basket-makers; but their inferiority has brought are formed of twigs or straw entire; others of sec- the English baskets into disrepute in foreign markets. tions, split of various thickness, coloured, plaited, or The second class, according to Mr Philipps, contains plain ; and baskets of endless variety in size, figure, four or five difi'erent species. One of these, the and texture, are fabricated according to the artist’s in- Welsh willow, is very tough and durable, but not of clination. The skains are frequently smoked and dyed, a favourable colour; there are two varieties, red and either of dull or brilliant colours, and, by intermixing white ; the former of which is preferred, and forms part of every plantation, from its particular utility in them judiciously, a very good eftect is produced, ility of From the simplicity of this manufacture, a great tying up the bundles of w illows, after they have been s Manu- many individuals, independent of professed basket- barked or whitened. Their bitterness is such as to be a protection from the depredations of cattle. BeBlind makers> are occupied in it; and, fortunately, it affords sides these, there are the west country Spaniard, | employment to the blind in the several asylums established for their reception. Not that persons the new willow, the French, and red Kent willow. suffering privation of sight are incapable of more in- The first has been superseded by others of superior quagenious and delicate mechanical exercises; but the lity, but experience proves that an acre wall carry 2000 facility of teaching and acquiring the principles of plants more of them, with greater advantage, than of basket-making being alike obvious, is one of the some in higher repute. But the best of all is esteemstrongest recommendations in its favour. At Liver- ed the French willow; especially as being most adaptpool, where there is an asylum of this description, ed for smaller and finer work in baskets, fans, hats, the art is practised with success; and in the city of and other light articles. It is rather of slow growth,

B A S K E T-M AKIN G. 152 Basket- but extremely taper, pliant, close grained, tough, and but water constantly stagnant is ruinous. He pro- Basket, making. durable. Great quantities of it are always imported poses to make the cuts or shoots from 15 to “'aking. from the continent, its culture being more neglected 17 inches long, and to allow four or five inches here than that of others; however, it must be distin- to remain above ground, to be cut over by the surguished from a species resembling it, which is cha- face of the soil, when the heads of the stocks shall, racterized by the leaves snapping in a manner as in a series of years, have become too bushy. By brittle as glass, when drawn through the fingers. this operation, the vigour of the plant is renewPlantations of the French willow have been strongly ed in the most decided manner. Mr Sheriff forrecommended, as forming a useful commodity, and gets, however, that, in the time he mentions, a being always in demand. Having attained the re- much greater protrusion from the earth will have quisite maturity, all w illows are cut over and made up taken place by the simple vegetation of the plant into bunches in iron hoops, an ell or 40 inches in than necessary to leave room for cutting off the head. diameter, for the manufacturers, and are sold, either It is necessary, in his opinion, to trim and dress the in this way or in loads; the price being subject to stocks from decayed wood, and to retain only as many buds on each as the plant may be expected to fluctuation, according to scarcity or abundance. In regard to the cultivation of osiers, very differ- bring to perfection in length and strength of shoot. ent opinions prevail; originating, it is probable, from Thus the superabundant stumps of old wood are cut too limited experiments, combined with the diversity down, the weakest shoots extirpated in November of soil and climate. Mr Philipps, whose opinions and December, or March and April, and seldom are entitled to attention, conceives, that autumn more than two buds should be left on those selected and not spring is the most proper season for plant- to stand and produce the next summer’s growth. ing willows; the stagnation of the juices, he con- He considers the leading errors of those who have siders the true criterion whereby to regulate the pe- attempted the cultivation of osiers to consist in riod, but not on account of the set so much as on employing improper soil, peat earth, perhaps, or account of the trunk ; for if the shoot be severed when poor bogs ; and also in defective preparation of the sap is in circulation, the parent plant bleeds the soil, though suitable in other respects. Failure to death. The osiers which he planted in the first may, besides, arise from planting bad or useless speweek of October, he found to have struck roots about cies of osiers ; putting too few cuts in the ground; Christmas, though there was no external sign of ve- neglecting their subsequent culture, particularly durgetation. la prosecuting this subject, Mr Philipps ing the first spring and summer after plantation ; alobserves, that he made a plantation in autumn, and lowing the shoots to be cut over after Christmas, and filled up part of the ground which was vacant in the before the middle of March, which may admit of the following month of March with additional sets. The stocks being much weakened by hard frosts succeedlatter were the further advanced in May, but in June ing heavy rains, immediately after the twigs have the autumn plants had the advantage, and continued been cut, and before the wounds from the knife growing well, while many of the others died. In have healed. By pursuing a system analogous to summer, he remarks, “ when the fibres have been what is here exposed, he calculates the profits of formed before the winter, or when a tendency to form an acre of osiers at about L. 18, 10s.; and he menthem has been observed by the swelling of the bark, tions that he contracted to receive a sum between and particularly at the eye, the plant is enabled to L. 220 and L. 250, for the produce of twelve statute charge itself with a sufficient portion of the juices to acres and a half. It does not appear, however, that answer the demand of spring.” Therefore, he con- this was an annual qrop, and it is rather to be infercludes, that the proper rule is to plant as early in au- red that willows of several years growth formed part tumn as the shoots may be cut, without injuring the of it. Mr Sheriff’s experiments and observations parent stock. The cultivator lays out the ground were rewarded with the gold medal of the Society in beds or burrows 18 feet broad, digging ditches for the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures. nine feet wide on each side. The upper surface of Another cultivator, Mr Wade, calculated his profits the ditches, to the depth of 14 inches, is thrown on on fourteen acres, which were planted with 12,000 the beds, and the remainder of what is excavated sets each, at intervals of 26 inches by 10, as amountfrom them is used for turf or fuel. The beds, now ing to L. \0 per acre. consisting of about two feet and a half thick of solid Among the experiments on the quality of soil may earth above the surface of the substratum of peat, are be instanced a plantation made in spring, of large planted in the following autumn, and produce good cuttings, 18 inches long, thrust so far into the earth crops. as to leave four or five inches protruding. Part of Soil best Experiments have been made by various cultiva- the ground had been in wheat after summer fallow, suited for tors respecting the suitableness of different soils, and and part, which was also planted, had been sown with Osiers. after having borne different kinds of grain. Mr grass seeds. The plants made a more vigorous shoot Sheriff has related a profitable mode of culture prac- in spring than at any subsequent period, and but few tised by him in Scotland ; and also makes some judi- failed of the whole. Those which succeeded the cious observations on the subject in general. He re- wheat produced the best osiers, and those which marks, tha£ the finest and most valuable twigs can be were planted among the grass seeds the worst. Both procured only from land cured of chilling, weeping stood on a strong clay soil. From the difference seen springs ; and if the soil is not of considerable thick- here, it has been concluded, that, as the cleanest ness, it must be rendered so by manure. Moderate ground produced the best crop, summer fallowing moisture is favourable to the production of fine twigs, would be advantageous. Another example is given,

BAS Basket- where, of 350 sets planted in garden ground, of which making. the soji was 34^ succeeded, producing, in the first year apparently, a bundle 38 inches in circumference, and some of the osiers above 10 feet long. They were planted in the latter end of March, arranged in rows, between which was sowm a crop of beans. Both the interval separating the plants and their age are arbitrary, as is also the extent of the plantation, and wre must likewise add the quality of the soil, for experiments have not been made on a sufficient scale to determine the fact. The most superficial observer cannot fail to have remarked the comparative slenderness of all plants crowded together, and the superior strength of those apart from each other. The sets of osiers, for several reasons, should be inserted in regular rows : their age does not appear important, and no where is a more vigorous crop produced than from the root of the oldest tree deprived of its trunk. In general, previous preparation of the ground is profitable ; and plantations may thence be formed, which are to be annually cut over for baskets and such light utensils ; but the shoot is allowed to grow two, or even four years, if strong rods are required for larger and coarser workmanship. The rapidity and certainty with which this plant vegetates, preserves it in a manner under absolute control, and adapts it particularly for a variety of mechanical purposes. Many cultivators recommend deep insertion of the shoot into the ground ; but here there is a limitation ; for if too deeply inserted, the vegetation will be less vigorous. At the same time, the powerful tendency to vegetation in a willow is rather an exception to ordinary rules, and although the lower part be injured, roots may spring nearer the surface. But it is not to be overlooked, that if a tree be transplanted into too deep a pit, the root, instead of striking out new fibres, remains inactive, and the tree withers and decays; or if seeds be deposited too deep in the earth, no vegetation will ensue; whereas, even those on the surface will put forth a radicle, and establish themselves there. In the former case, they either lose the germinative faculty, or are destroyed ; but, if a tree be transplanted into a shallow pit, the root will spread, and the whole exhibit luxuriant vegetation. These are facts which demand greater attention than they usually receive, and the depth at which the shoots of osiers are inserted should be carefully observed. Nevertheless, we must repeat, that it does appear deep insertion is not equally noxious to them as to other plants. It is commonly understood, that willows flourish no where but with abundance of water. Undoubtedly, adequate humidity is very essential; but this general position is quite erroneous, as experiment and observation daily testify. Willows growing in water have almost invariably a sickly aspect, few strong or healthy scyons spring from them, and their vegetation is never so vigorous as when they are at some distance from it. Every plant has a [ redilection for a particular place, where the conditions of its aliment and vegetation concur. The willow requires a considerable degree of humidity, though it will also be seen vigorous on drier soils; but the vicinity of water is an essential quality in selecting a suitable VOL. II. PAST I.

B A T 153 spot for a plantation. The purposes to which the plants are to be applied must be considered, and the niay113 circumstances of their growth so regulated, that they Bathing, become suitable and adapted for them. There is little doubt, that, with due notice and consideration, this plant may receive great amelioration by culture. All plantations must be wrell fenced against cattle, as the willow, both shoot and leaf, is a favourite kind of food; and as some particular caterpillars infest the plant at certain seasons of the year, stripping it totally bai’e and injuring its vegetation, care should be taken to remove them as effectually as possible. (s-) BATHING. In addition to the historical, eco- Medical nomical, and physical details respecting the practice of Bathing, which have been inserted in the body of ^^a0f the Encyclopcedia, we find many investigations in Bathing, the works of some of the latest authors, relating to its medical and physiological effects, which require to be attentively considered. A methodical arrangement of these effects, reijerred to the respective divisions of therapeutic agencies, would be of great use in enabling us to attain a distinct idea of their nature; but such an arrangement is, in fact, a matter of extreme difficulty, for two reasons; Jirst, Because the temperature, the continuance, and the impregnation of the bath, are capable of being so varied, as materially to vary the nature of the remedy, without any distinct limit between its different forms; and, secondly, Because the classes of medical agents, to which several of these effects belong, are by no means distinctly defined ; to say nothing of the additional complexity arising from the division of the effects into immediate and remote, which is often extremely important. The remote effects, howrever, being of a more general nature, and relating chiefly to the improvement or deterioration of the actions of the whole system, it is only the immediate effects that require to be accurately analyzed and distinguished ; and these we must endeavour to reduce to some methodical classification of therapeutic powers. Baths, as depending on w^ater, have been naturally referred to the class of diluent remedies, in which water is comprehended; and they have sometimes even been recommended as nutrients ; they may also act as excitants of cutaneous sensation; as stimulants, or rather calefacients, increasing the velocity of the circulation of the blood ; as sudorifics ; as diuretics ; as “ sorbentia” or sorbefacients ; as refrigerants or astringents; as tonics; and as retardants of the pulse, a capacity in which some would call them relaxants; while they seem in many cases to be useful as antispasmodics, or to relieve certain Nervous affections, by something like a narcotic or sedative power. We might also refer the mechanical effect of ablution, in removing the natural secretions of the skin, to the dietetic habits conducive to the preservation of health; but this process, though highly necessary for our comfort, is perhaps less essentially important to health, than has often been itnagiued; and, in some particular cases, the practice of the very frequent removal of the unctuous and volatile secretions of the skin has even appeared to be injuriu

BATHING. 154 Balhing. ous, and to occasion indolent tumours of the absor- cidentally wetted with salt water are but little lia- Batlmia ble to take cold; and this fact has been supposed to v^,V^1 bent glands belonging to the parts concerned. If we admit that baths are ever, strictly speak- indicate some stimulant property in the contents of ing, either diluent or nutrient, we must suppose the fluid; but it may be explained, with greater simthe cutaneous absorbents to be the channels of plicity, from the slower evaporation of salt water, these actions; and the majority of authors, both which causes it to carry off heat much less rapidly ancient and modern, have certainly considered the than fresh, the cooling process being also retarded skin as imbibing, with great facility, not only wa- by the greater moisture of the sea air. In order to determine how far any kind of bathing ter, but also any kind of substance capable of being dissolved in it; nor is there any doubt that, under may properly be called a stimulant or calefacient, we some circumstances, the cutaneous absorbents have must consider what are the tests by which we judge been found to possess such a power in a certain of the increased rapidity of the circulation of the degree; but Mr Seguin and Dr Currie have shown blood. The term calefacient is, indeed, somewhat that, in common cases, very little or no effect is to objectionable, as implying, that animal heat depends be expected from this absorption ;* that the strongest solely or principally on the motion of the blood, medical agents, when dissolved in the water of a bath, which is not, in the present state of our knowledge, exhibited no operation on the system while the skin the most probable opinion; and besides this etymowas entire ; and that no perceptible advantage was ob- logical inaccuracy, the definition of the term, as imtained from a continued immersion in a bath of nutritive plying an accelerated circulation, involves a confluids, notwithstanding the extreme exhaustion of the siderable difficulty, since we have no means of assystem, in a case of completely obstructed deglutition ; certaining whether increased frequency of pulsation and they suppose that where weight has been gain- compensates, or not, in any particular instance, for ed during immersion in a bath, the absorption oc- diminished fulness and strength. On the other hand, casioning its increase has been principally per- the operation of almost all medical agents is such as formed by the lungs, retaining the moisture, which to relieve us from this ambiguity in the application of the definition ; for we can scarcely mention any they receive in abundance with the air inhaled. The other immediate effects of bathing must de- remedy which materially accelerates the pulse, withpend on the contact of the fluid with the skin, either out, at the same time, increasing its strength. There as simply moistening and softening the cuticle, or as are, indeed, many medicines which are often designatexciting a peculiar sensation in the cutaneous nerves, ed by the vague denomination of stimulants, and whether of touch only, or of heat or cold, or, in which have no effect whatever on the circulation, some cases, of slight pain, where the skin has been but either simply aivaken the nervous energies in previously in a state of irritation, especially if the general, or excite local sensations of heat or painK water contains a saline impregnation; or, lastly, as and this multiplicity of significations is a sufficient altering the state of the circulation by any of these reason for rejecting the term from a correct classifimeans, especially by the change of temperature ; cation. It happens, however, not unfrequently, that this effect being also often modified by the change astringent and febrifuge medicines will reduce the of the position of the body, and by the distribu- frequency of the pulse, and increase its fulness; and tion of the pressure or resistance which supports it becomes necessary, for an accurate analysis of the its weight throughout almost the whole surface, in- operation of remedies which affect the circulation, stead of its being confined, as usual, to the parts on to distinguish the accelerants of the pulse from the which we sit or stand. The excitement of the augmentatives and the intensitives, all of which may nerves of the skin appears to be salutary in many possibly be independent of the production of an incutaneous diseases, which are benefited by warm crease of temperature ; and this increase may also bathing, whether in fresh or in salt water, or in sul- in some cases be produced, at least in the extremities fureous or other mineral waters, as at Harrow- and the superficial parts, and apparently also in the gate, and at Baden, and Pfeffer and Leuck in Swit- whole system, without any change in the circulation, zerland ; the bathers sometimes remaining whole days by the operation of certain remedies, which might in the water for weeks together, until a peculiar be called thalptics, if it were necessary to distinefflorescence has appeared on the skin, and has again guish them as independent agents; and to these disappeared, j- The mud baths in the north of Italy are four classes we might add four others of an exactly of a nature somewhat similar, and are said to be of con- opposite nature, which might be called retardants, siderable advantage in some paralytic cases. But if we diminutives, and remissives of the pulse, and psyctics, allow the truth of the opinion of Seguin and Currie, we or direct refrigerants; and the last four classes must infer that there are few instances in which the would belong to a general division of remedies comeffects of bathing on the system in general can de- prehending those which lessen the force of animal pend much on the impregnation of the water; and actions ; a division which it has not commonly been we ought perhaps to attribute the acknowledged ad- found necessary to establish, for any practical classivantage of sea bathing in a variety of diseases, in fication of the materia medica. great measure, to the mildness and equability of the Now, it appears that a hot bath, of a temperature temperature of the sea. It is true, that persons ac- exceeding 98°, the usual heat of the human body, * Currie’s Medical Reports on the Effects of Water, 8vo. Liverpool, 1798, p. 244. f Marcard iiber die biider, 8. Hanov. 1793. Traduit par Par ant, 8. Par. 1801, p. 40, 41. 5

155 BAT H I N G. Bathing. Bathin?. will commonly act both as an accelerant and an aug- times ; it-is obvious, that what Galen calls moderatementative of the pulse, but probably not as an in- ly warm, we should at present term a hot bath ; and tensitive; it may, however, very properly be classed probably his excessively hot baths somewhat reas a calefacient, if such a description of remedies sembled that which is mentioned by Fburcroy. be admitted. Dr Parr* says, that a bath of 100° “ Cold baths,” he says, “ at first make the pulse rendered the pulse fuller and more frequent; but slow and weak; afterwards, if they disagree, and that, after the bath, it was slower than usual; at produce torpor, the pulse remains weak ; but if the higher temperatures, the effects were still more bath is likely to strengthen the system, producing a marked; and in Marcard’s experiments (p. 71) the salutary glow, then the pulse becomes full and strong, results were nearly similar. Dr Haygarth observed and natural in point of frequency.” It is, however, remarkable, that the cold bath not (Marcard, p. 67), that in a bath of 114° the pulse was rendered more frequent, and the arteries were evi- uncommonly renders the pulse very considerably dently dilated. In Finland, according to Martin more frequent at the first immersion ; a circumstance (Marcard, p. 223), the vapour baths are usually which was particularly observed by Athill, f and heated to about 120°, and they often increase the which, notwithstanding Marcard’s doubts, has been frequency of the pulse from 70 in a minute to 110 since fully confirmed by Dr Stock. ^ This increase of or 120. Fourcroy mentions a bath ol 66° degrees, frequency seems principally to depend on the painful which must have been of the centigrade scale, sensation of cold occasioned by the first immersion, making 151° of Fahrenheit, and not 181°, as Mar- especially wdiile it is incomplete; it is commonly very card supposes (p. 216), which wras followed, an hour transitory, and is succeeded by a retardation, while afterwards, by a fatal apoplexy. Whatever exagger- the fulness of the pulsations is diminished from the ation there may be in this report, it may still serve first. The sudorific effect of the hot bath seems to be, in to explain to us the excesses which were frequently committed in the use of baths by the Greeks and great measure, the natural consequence of the acceRomans, and the pernicious effects attributed to them leration of the circulation, and to be nearly proporby the ancient physicians. Hippocrates observes tional to this acceleration, being also favoured by the (Aph. v. 16), that the too frequent employment of softening of the cuticle, and perhaps by the dilatahot bathing causes a softness and debility of the tion of the cutaneous exhalants. It is principally remuscles, a want of firmness of the nerves, and a commended in rheumatism, and it is also considered dulness of the faculties, with occasional haemorrhages as conducive to the cure of some cutaneous affecand faintings, sometimes even terminating in death; tions ; and when this effect is thought particularly deand in the Clouds of Aristophanes, we have a mock sirable, it is usual to take the bath late in the evening, defence of warm bathing deduced from the usual and to promote its operation by going into a warm dedication of hot springs to Hercules, which implies bed immediately after it. In considering these and other changes produced a perfect confidence in the opinion of the pernicious tendency of the practice, accompanied, or followed, in the system by bathing, we must be careful to avoid as it frequently was, by other indulgencies, to which the very common error of applying inaccurately and it has too often given occasion. This traditional indiscriminately the laws of mechanical and physical condemnation of hot bathing has been erroneously agents to the effects produced in the animal econotransferred by some of the moderns to warm or tepid my. Some of the latest and best authors on therabathing; and since it has been asserted by authors peutics have talked of the expansion of the fluids of high celebrity, that air above 60° will generally contained in the vessels, in consequence of the eleoccasion a sensation of warmth, it seems to have vation of temperature occasioned by the warm bath, been inferred that water above 60° must constitute and of the contraction of the vessels themselves by a warm bath, and consequently produce enervating the cold bath, as if they were phenomena of the same and debilitating effects. The fact is, however, that kind, and simply opposed to each other. The truth a bath below 1001 is scarcely ever heating in any is, that the mean temperature of all the fluids in the material degree ; and even at 100°, the pulse, though body is seldom elevated more than a degree or two somewhat accelerated, is often not at all augmented in by the effect of a bath of any kind; and even if the fulness, nor are the subsequent effects materially elevation were ten degrees, the expansion of all the different from those which usually result from an circulating fluids would not exceed the bulk of a sinequal acceleration produced by any kind of mode- gle additional ounce of blood or of water. The merate exercise. It is observed by Galen in his Treatise chanical effect of cold, on the other hand, would imon the Pulse [Opp. V ol. III. p. 3. Td. Pas.), that mediately tend to lessen the tension of the vessels, « baths, when moderately warm, cause the pulse to by contracting the fluid contained within them more be full, and strong, and frequent; when excessively than the vessels themselves ; but this effect would be hot, small and obscure, but frequent and hard, scarcely more sensible than the former, even if we sometimes, however, after a time, becoming slow, allowed that the general temperature might be dethough still feeble.” Of this retardation of the pulse pressed 10° or 12°, as it seemed to be in some of Dr in a very hot bath we have no experience in modern Currie’s experiments; and the actual contraction, * De Balneo, Med. Comm. Ed. i. 297, or Marcard by Parant, p. 66. f On Cold Bathing, Marcard, p. 239 ; Med. Comm. Edinb. vi. 62. % Medical Collections on the Effects of Cold, 8vo, Lend. 1805, App.

156 B A T H I N G. Bathing, which is really observable in the superficial parts pletely to the superficial parts, to which the hand is during immersion in the cold bath, can only be applied. The diuretic effect of a cold bath may referable to the action of living powers, which be partly explained from a similar distension of the fall decidedly under the description of involuntary renal vessels, which must be favourable to the secremuscularity. Dr Parry’s late experiments have tion of the kidneys; and if the same effect is somevery clearly shown the existence of such powers, times produced in a hot bath, when the superficial and exhibited their temporary and local action. * vessels are rather dilated than contracted, it is in this He found that, when the carotid of a ewe was laid case much less considerable than in the cold bath, bare, its circumference was 525 thousandths of an and probably only takes place in consequence of the inch; “ but it almost immediately shrunk, through the increased rapidity of the circulation, which affects whole space which was exposed, so as to become in the whole sanguiferous system. The glow, which succeeds to the first sensation of circumference only .470; at the same time, a portion of the artery, before the contracted part, and cold, may be attributed in great measure to the inwhich had been more recently exposed, was .635 ; creased sensibility of the nerves after a partial torthe pulse in the dilated part was very strong and full, por, rendering them more susceptible of the sensathat in the contracted part very weak and soft.” tion of heat, which is always relative to the actual Dr Parry has chosen to distinguish these effects from temperature of the skin ; but it appears, from Dr those which are observed in other muscular parts by Currie’s experiments, that there is also sometimes a a peculiar denomination; but the distinction appears real increase of heat as measured by the thermometo be perfectly arbitrary, and Dr Young, whom he ter ; and it is probable, that the causes concerned in quotes as denying the muscular powers of the arte- the production of animal heat are called up into a ries, on account of the chemical nature of their more vigorous exertion, in a strong constitution, coats, has expressly asserted their muscularity, in whenever they are required for the purposes of life; contradiction to the conclusions of Bichat and Ber- so that they first supply the superficial parts of the zelius. [Medical Literature, 8vo, Lond. 1813, p. 502.) body during the immersion, with as much heat as is But by whatever term we choose to denote the ef- necessary to overcome the painful sensation of cold, fect, there is little doubt that an unusual degree of and afterwards, by a continuation of the same action, cold has a tendency to produce such a general con- occasion an actual elevation of temperature above traction of the coats of all the superficial capillary the natural standard. Dr Currie found, that, during arteries ; and the diminution of their diameter must the affusion of a bucket of cold salt water on the necessarily increase that part of the resistance to the heads and whole bodies of two healthy persons, no blood’s motion, which is derived from its friction depression of temperature was observable ; but in a against the sides of the vessels, and must, therefore, minute or two afterwards, although they remained tend materially to lessen its velocity. Again, if the without motion, the mercury rose 2°: in a third percontractions of the heart are at all proportional in son of a feebler constitution, although the temperamagnitude or in frequency to the quantity of blood ture remained equally unchanged during the affusion, entering it, and acting as a stimulus to its motions, it sunk, in a minute after, half a degree. These efit is not unnatural to suppose that its pulsations will fects seem to be almost entirely independent of any be rendered feebler by the diminution of that quan- change in the state of the circulation, wdiich must tity, occasioned by the increase of the resistance, be rather retarded than accelerated, while the geneand that the primitive retardation will be redoubled ration of heat is increased. It is true, that the heart by the operation of this cause. At the same time, might be called into more powerful action at the however, that the cutaneous vessels are contracted, same time that the pulsation at the wrist became those of the internal parts must necessarily be en- feeble, from the permanent contraction of the radial larged. Hence arises the sensation of oppression on artery ; but the action of the heart would still be exthe chest, with the sobbing or panting for breath, hibited by the carotids, undisguised by this modificawhich generally occurs at the first immersion in cold tion ; and the carotids have not been observed to water, from the fulness of the vessels of the lungs, beat more strongly in the cold bath than at other and which is increased, in some measure, when the times, although Dr Currie has remarked, that when immersion becomes total, by the pressure of the wa- “ the pulse could hardly be felt at the wrist,” “ the ter on the abdomen, and consequent!)^ of the con- heart pulsated with great steadiness and due force tents of the abdomen on the diaphragm. From the a fact precisely analogous to Dr Parry’s interesting same cause arises also the pulsation in the descend- experiment on the carotid of the ewe. ing aorta, which has been observed to be much more \\ arm baths may be classed with propriety among distinguishable after swimming than at other times the most useful sorbefacient remedies; but it is not [Medical Transactions, Yol, V.); the internal vessels easy to decide, whether they are much more active being distended so as to exhibit the effects of the in promoting absorption than other sudorifics, or heart’s action more violently, and the heart itself than evacuants in general. When the weather debeating with more than usual force in consequence of prives a valetudinarian of his accustomed walk, the the exertion, while the contents of the abdomen are bath often affords him a valuable substitute, increascompressed, and ai’e enabled, by the presence of the ing the appetite, and promoting the digestion; but surrounding fluid, to transmit the pulsation very com- too great an appetite, without muscular exercise, is * Experimental Inquiry on the Arterial Pulse, 8vo, Bath, 1816, p. 41.

157 BATHING. Bathing, sometimes an evil, and this may have been one of the stores us to comfort, and defends us from fevers. A Bathing, causes of the inconveniences occasioned by an abuse strong young man in the country will plunge into of bathing. A warm bath has often been of advan- cold water at once when heated, and be much retage in promoting the absorption of dropsical fluids, freshed by it. Animals also wash themselves when especially when they are of limited extent, as in they are hot, by a natural instinct, as they eat when cases of partial anasarcous swellings ; but the most they are hungry, and seek warmth when they are important sorbefacient effect of bathing is exhibited cold. In fevers, if we had sufficient powers of disin the cure of glandular diseases, for which sea wa- crimination, we might probably sometimes derive mater, whether in the form of a warm or a cold bath, terial advantage from the use of the cold bath, withhas long been considered as a specific remedy ; and out premising the hot; and some persons have been there is no doubt that a residence by the sea side, actually benefited by this remedy. But without a with a judicious employment of bathing, and the oc- more intimate knowledge of diseases than we possess, casional internal use of sea water, or of some equi- we cannot generally venture on the practice; and valent remedy, has been of the most essential service least of all in hectic fever, where there is not strength to many constitutions, which have exhibited these enough to bear the shock. A stout young man, symptoms of general debility and languid absorption; having a fever, in warm weather, without visceral the tonic and sorbefacient powers of the remedy be- inflammation, would bring on a salutary perspiration ing happily combined, for invigorating and calling into by bathing in cold water; and if he were in the habit of cold bathing, he might have recourse to it with activity the diminished energies of the constitution. The refrigerant or astringent powers, both of warm the more confidence; but, for the hectic, it is unand of cold bathing, have been abundantly elucidated safe, especially when there is much emaciation : thus, by the late Ur Currie, who has introduced the reme- in a hot and dry summer, those who have travelled dy into general practice, as a febrifuge, especially in far, and are become thin and weak, have no need of the form of cold or tepid affusion, with the most sa- being cooled, nor would it be safe for them to use lutary effects. It is not easy to determine how far the cold bath without first going into the warm. For the contraction of the superficial vessels by the we seem to be hardened by the cold bath like iron, astringent powers of cold, and how far the retarda- when heated first; and if we previously warm ourtion of the pulse, which may possibly be dependent selves by exercise, the effect is the same.” Dr Curon that contraction, are concerned in the advantage rie’s relation of an adventure of his own might almost derived from bathing in fevers; but it is at least ob- be supposed 4o have been intended as a commentary vious that the remedy does not operate simply by on these remarks of Galen. [Reports, p. 120.) “ On the abstraction of heat, since the tepid affusion is the 1st of September 1778, two students of medioften more rapidly successful in abating fever than cine at Edinburgh set out on foot on a journey, a the cold. We may also collect from the experiments considerable part of which lay along one of the rivers of Marcard, that a bath at about ,00° is more effica- of Scotland. They started by sun-rise, and proceedcious in abating the frequency of the pulse, than at ed with alacrity in the cool of the morning. At the any lower or higher temperature ; and these facts end of eight miles, they breakfasted, rested for an appear to afford a very strong argument against the hour, and then resumed their journey. The day hypothesis, that the principal utility of the cold affu- grew warm as it advanced, and after a march of eight sion depends on the sudden shock which is given miles more, they arrived heated, but not fatigued, on to the nervous system. Dr Currie has frequently the banks of the river above mentioned, about eleven found the pulse reduced by a single cold affusion in the forenoon. Urged by the fervor of the day, from 120 or 130 to 80 or 90, and the heat from 101° and tempted by the beauty of the stream, they stripor 106° to the natural standard. But he very pro- ped instantly, and threw themselves into the river. perly limits the employment of the remedy to those The utmost refreshment followed, and when they recases in which the temperature is considerably ele- tired to the neighbouring inn, this was succeeded by vated, and the arterial system is in strong action, a disposition to sleep, which they indulged. In the without local inflammation ; and where there is less afternoon they proceeded, and travelling sixteen vigour in the system, he often employs the tepid in- miles further at a single stretch, arrived at the inn stead of the cold affusion, or even contents himself where they were to sleep, a little after sunset. The with moistening the face and the extremities; for afternoon had been warm, and they perspired proinstance, in hectic fever, the hands and feet only, fusely : but the evening was temperate, and rather which he finds actually hotter than the rest of the cool. They had travelled for some miles slowly, and body. A late writer on consumption has very justly arrived at the end of their journey stiffened and remarked how much of Dr Currie’s reasoning on the wearied with their exercise. The refreshment which effects of cold bathing had been anticipated by Ga- they had experienced in the morning from bathinglen, although, for want of a thermometer, he had induced, however, one of them to repeat the experinot been able to employ the remedy in fever with ment, and he went perfectly cool into the same river, safety. “ Bathing,” says Dr Young [On Consump- expecting to relax his limbs in the water, and aftertive Diseases, 8vo, Lond. 1815, p. 135), “ is very wards to enjoy profound sleep. The consequences strongly recommended in the Method of Healing, and were very different. The Tweed, which was so rethe process is very minutely described : first warm freshing in the morning, now felt extremely' cold ; air is employed, next warm water, and then cold and he left the water hastily. No genial glow sucwater, and lastly, the sweat is wiped off. When we ceeded, but a feverish chill remained for some time, are fatigued or dried up by exercise, the bath re- with a small frequent pulse, and flying pains over the

B A T H I N G. 158 Bathing. body. Warm liquids and frictions brouglit on at to Dr Parr, there is commonly no observable change. Bathing. length considerable heat, and towards morning per- (Marcard, p. 63, 66.) From these experiments Dr Marcard very justly spiration and sleep followed. Next day about noon infers, that in a great variety 01 cases, toe warm they proceeded on foot, but the traveller wno had bath affords the only direct and certain mode of bathed was extremely feeble ; and though they had lowering the pulse without inconvenience (p. 88); to perform a journey of a single stage only, as some and we must be contented with the empirical knowpart of it was difficult and mountainous, he was obliged to take the assistance of a carriage which ledge of this fact, without attempting to explain why overtook them on the road. It was several days be- a temperature of 90° is more favourable for the retardation of the pulse, than a much lower temperafore he recovered his usual vigour.’ The experiments of the same judicious^ author, ture, at which the thermometrical heat would cerpublished in the Philosophical Fransuctions for 17112, tainly be more rapidly reduced. Dr Stock has also afford some striking illustrations of the effects of se- made several observations on the effect of cold bathvere cold : he employed baths at the temperature of ing on the pulse; but, in his experiments, the retar44° and 40°; the natural pulse of the person sub- dation was much less constantly observable than the jected to the experiment was about 70 in a minute, diminution; a variation which frequently occurs and it was generally raised to 85 or more by the pre- when the temperature is very low. The salutary effects of cold applications, in some paration for immersion ; but in the water it invariably cases of gout, were well known to Hippocrates, and sunk to about 65, becoming firm, regular, and small. The change of temperature, as measured under the have been more lately extolled by Homberg, Floyer, tongue, was still more remarkable, and greater than and Pietschen; Marcard (p. 256) very properly states could have been expected either from reasoning or the objections to their employment, and, notwithfrom former observations; for the mercury fell, within standing all that Dr Kinglake has done to recommend them, they have not been adopted by prudent a minute or two after immersion, from 98° or 100° practitioners, except in very recent cases, and in to 87° or 88° ; it then rose gradually, but not reguyoung and unbroken constitutions. Aretaeus prelarly, in a quarter of an hour, to about 9h°‘ Upon a second exposure to the wind, it fell to about 90°> and scribes the affusion of cold water for giddiness and was in one instance lowered 2° more at the first im- headache, and it has certainly been successful in some mersion in a bath of 97^°? in which the natural tem- obstinate cases of this kind (Marcard, p. 255); and perature was by degrees recovered, although not much has even appeared to be a powerful palliative in some more rapidly than it had risen during the former im- descriptions of mania. In fevers, Dr Cm lie found mersion in the very cold water; but what raised it its effects more permanent than those of the tepid afby far the most speedily was the application of very fusion, although not always so speedy. We have ample experience of the tonic powers of hot water to the region of the stomach. When, however, Dr Currie himself went slowly into a bath of bathing in more than one of its forms ; although no 36°, in a light flannel dress, and remained in it tor more than thirty or forty years ago., the great majotwo minutes, no observable alteration was produced rity of practitioners in Great Britain were disposed to in the heat of his body ; and this circumstance might confine these powers within the limits of toe coid, 01 at almost induce us to suspect that the other subjects most of the tepid bath. But travellers in warmer of his experiments had incautiously allowed their countries had often informed us of the invigorating mouths to be cooled by the inhalation of the cold air. effect of a warm bath taken after fatigue ; and Bruce, Dr Marcard’s experiments (p. 71) not only confirm in particular, extolled its comforts and its salubrity, the fact Of the general retardation and diminution of from having used it in Egypt. The opinions of Marthe pulse by the cold bath ; but they show that the card on the same subject weve partly made known ■retardation commonly extends to all temperatures through Beddoes; ( ount Bumiord, in his thi-teenth below that of the human body, becoming, indeed, Essay, has exhibited, in a popular point of view, the much more remarkable in the tepid bath than in a benefits which he himself derived from taking the bath of the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, warm bath habitually in the middle of the day rawhich does not appear to produce the effect w ith ther than at night; and Dr Alexander Buchan, in equal uniformity. 1 hus, in a bath at 60° and at 63°, his work on sea bathing, has assisted in dissipating the pulse was rather accelerated than retarded: in the remaining prejudices against its employment as six experiments from 70° to 80° inclusive, taking the a mild tonic, tor feeble or enervated constitutions, mean of all the quantities, in order to obtain a result and for persons who have suffered from great faless liable to accidental errors, and representing all tigue, it is decidedly preferable to the cold bath ; the experiments in a compendious torm, the tempe- but as the strength is gradually recovered, it may rature was 75°, and in 20 minutes the pulse was often-increase its efficacy to lower the temperature We may begin, for instance, with a reduced from 78 to 70: in four from 80° to 90°, the by degrees. 5 0 mean temperature was 87°5 and the pulsations were warm0 bath at 96° or 98 , and lower it by degrees reduced in 54 minutes from 91 1c 75 t in three at to 9Q or a little less; and hence the transition to 90°, the mean reduction in 36 minutes was from 97 to the open sea in the middle of a summer s day will 75: and three experiments above 90° give for a mean not be too abrupt, the water being often heated to temperature 92°, and a reduction from 82 to 70, ef- 70° or more on a coast well suited for bathing; and fected in 35 minutes. Marteau had found a slight if the constitution appears to acquire strength under reduction of frequency at 93°: but at 96°, according the experiment, the hour of bathing may be made

159 bathing. Bathing. Bathing, earlier and earlier, until the temperature is no high- some cases of rheumatism; but, more commonly, the er than about 60°. The time of remaining in the best mode of using baths in rheumatism is to begin water may also be modified according to the powers with a bath raised, during the immersion, to as high of the constitution; a single immersion being the a temperature as the patient can bear, so as to act as most easily supported, and a longer continuance in a powerful sudorific, and to continue the course, the water, till the sensation of cold has subsided, when the pain has been relieved, at lower and lower calling forth the faculty of generating heat into fuller temperatures, ending it with cold bathing in the open action; observing always not only how the health sea. Notwithstanding the acknowledged utility of warm appears to be affected, but which mode is the most conducive to the pleasure or comfort of the indi- bathing in a variety of circumstances, there may posvidual, which will often throw some light on the sibly have been some exaggeration in the marvellous operation of the remedy. In most cases it will be opinions which have been sometimes entertained of found, that where either warm or cold bathing agrees its utility for the prolongation of life. Galen has with the constitution, it is followed by a sense of indeed mentioned a number of persons w ho had atyouth, and vigour, and self complacency, which is tained a great age, and who were in the habit of equally agreeable and salubrious. v\ e must also making daily use of the bath, which is enough to make allowances for peculiarities of constitution, prove that such a habit cannot be extremely perniwhich may require a deviation from the temperature cious ; and if we supposed a constitution to retain usually recommended. Thus, there are some persons all its energies, but to have them concealed and obwho have so singular a sensibility, as to feel a bath of scured for want of proper stimuli, the warm bath 110° not too warm, and to be absolutely chilled by a might tend to remove the evil; but it is more natubath of 100°: and, in such cases, it is probable that ral to believe, that the approach of old age has a at 105° the pulse would not be materially accelerat- tendency to weaken the radical powers of the coned. In other instances, the cold bath produces stitution, which cannot afford to be roused into disheadache and dejection of spirits. I his inconvenience proportionate exertion ; and to apprehend, that the is sometimes obviated by proper evacuations, which temporary vivacity and activity, superinduced by should also always be premised to bathing, where any foreign agent, whether by warm bathing, or by there is any appearance of visceral disease, or of a removal to a warmer climate, would only tend still congestion of any kind. The sea water will answer more to exhaust the already diminished store of this purpose sufficiently well, either alone or mixed vitality. The narcotic and sedative, or specifically antispaswith warm milk, or with some chamomile flowers infused in it; but it has no material advantage over modic effects of bathing are most effectually exhiany other cathartic which may be preferred by the bited, in ordinary cases, by the warm or tepid bath, patient. It is also recommended by all authors on which is often employed for the relief of pain, and cold bathing to plunge in head foremost, and this for the removal of any irregular or convulsive affecprecaution is highly proper where there is any ap- tion. Possibly also the effect of the warm bath in prehension of headache, but in other cases it is of retarding the pulse may be partly derived from its little moment. If, after all, the cold bath continues sedative power as affecting the r heart; and if we take to disagree, it wall be generally advisable to exchange this connexion for granted, w e may infer from it, it for the warm ; and after a time it may be proper that the antispasmodic effect will be most advantageously obtained from a bath at 90°, which has been to give the cold a second trial. ft is unnecessary to enter into a minute detail of found to retard the pulse the most effectually. But the diseases in which bathing is useful as a tonic. It where there is internal inflammation, it may be deis, however, particularly indicated in a variety of sirable to dilate the superficial vessels by a bath complaints which are peculiar to females; and to somewhat hotter than this, so as to relieve the interweakly children, especially such as are ricketty and nal parts from a part of the fluid which distends them, scrofulous, sea bathing is most essentially necessary. but without increasing the velocity of the circulation On the other hand, cold bathing is almost universal- by too high a temperature. The cold affusion is ly to be avoided where there is any consumptive also a powerful remedy in many cases of tetanic disease, or any inflammatory affection of any of disease. Hippocrates (Aph. v. 21) has remarked, the internal parts ; an exception which is easily un- that it often creates a glow wdiich overpowers the derstood, from the natural tendency of cold to cause convulsive contraction, especially where the subject a congestion of blood in the vessels of those parts, is young and athletic, the weather hot, and the disin consequence of the contraction of the superficial ease independent of local injury ; and the modern exvessels. The sudorific effect of the warm bath, fol- perience of Dr Wright and Dr Currie has confirmed lowed by the refrigerant quality of the tepid, and and extended the observation. In another passage the tonic powers of the cold, exhibit a succession of he tell us (Aph. v. 25), that the abundant affusion remedies nearly analogous to the mode of treatment of cold water generally relieves and removes swellwhich is usually found to be most successful in fevers ings and pains in the limbs as well as spasms, proof various kinds; in most of which we begin with ducing a moderate degree of torpor, which supersudorific medicines, and proceed to astringents and sedes the pain ; but, in fact, the relief of inflammatonics. Hippocrates, in his book on the use of li- tory affections by cold is rather to be referred to its quids, observes that gout is one of the diseases in astringent than to its sedative powers. This is, inwhich both hot and cold applications afford effectual deed, a point which has been much discussed by morelief; and the remark is equal!}7 just with respect to dern theorists; but it must be confessed, that all our

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B A T theories are of little importance in physic, any further than as they assist us in clearly comprehending and distinctly remembering the facts, which we derive from immediate experience in the treatment of diseases. (v. n.) BATNEARS, or BATTIES, a people of the north part of Hindostan, inhabiting a country which extends about 200 miles in length, and 100 in breadth, and of which the capital is Batneer, situate, according to some authorities, 170, and according to others, 219 miles west-north-west of Delhi. This country comprehends part of the province of Delhi, Lahore, and Ajmeer. The Battles present many peculiarities in manners and customs, distinguishing them from the other people of Hindostan. They seem to consist of three different races ; the chief are Rajpoot Mahometans ; the common people Jauts, who have adopted the same religion ; and the cultivators of the soil are called Ryis, a very peaceable and inoffensive class. But in general they are characterized as shepherds ; and although principally restricted to the territory whence their name is derived, various tribes of them are to be found in the Punjab ; as they are also scattered over the high grounds to the east of the Indus. But great obscurity prevails in every thing regarding them. The Batties are Mahometans, and highly venerate the memory of a certain saint, Sheik Fereed, who flourished in the fifteenth century ; and it is said, that however adverse to their natural disposition, should any one, in invoking his name, claim their protection, it is never withheld. Yet their customs, in other respects, are at variance with those of the Mahometans ; and particularly in the females appearing, without any reserve, unveiled in public, and in their associating promiscuously with the men, as in other countries. The wives of the Rajpoot chiefs form an exception ; and it is reported among these Rajpoots, that their ancestors migrated some centuries ago from the district of Jesselmere, and after various vicissitudes, settled in the Batneer country. Most of the inhabitants under their rule were originally Jauts, dwelling on the western bank of the river Sutledge, in the twenty-ninth degree of north latitude, and who have not been known long in the portion of the peninsula now occupied by them. Having embraced the Mahometan faith, they were invited by the ancestor of the present Rajah of the Batties to cross the river about a century ago, and settle in his country, where their posterity still reside. The Jauts constitute the lower orders of the people, and are treated with great moderation by their superiors. The whole territory, extending as above described, is apparently under the dominion of a supreme prince or rajah, whose authority is acknowledged by inferior chiefs or rajahs; for the term rajah, in strictness, applies to none but those invested with a paramount rule. This potentate can bring 20,000 or 30,000 troops into the field, but quite undisciplined, and despising the necessary principle of subordination. His revenue chiefly arises from the plundering of his troops ; for their wars are directed more to predatory purposes than to an open contest; and the rajah, instead of repress-

BAT ing the ravages of this immense banditti, willingly Bailies, participates of the spoils. When strangers observed to him, that the soil and agriculture of his country were sufficient to enable his subjects to enjoy plenty, he replied, that the number of Rajpoots in his service is so considerable compared w ith the mass of the people, that, should he attempt to restrain the depredations of the latter, the subversion of his own authority might ensue, because it wmuld be interfering with old and established customs. The rajah who made this remark was in every respect a good and humane character. But the people over whom he rules are by no means entitled to the same repute; they are of a cruel, savage, and ferocious disposition; they entertain an utter abhorrence of the usages of civilized life ; they are thieves from their earliest origin, and during their predatory incursions into the neighbouring districts, do not scruple, though unresisted, to add murder to robbery. This systematic plundering produces a revenue of above L. 120,000 per annum to their princes, at least that is the conjectural amount, for there are no data whei*eon to form exact calculations. Many of the Batties appear to be entirely nomadic, changing their residence from place to place, as subsistence fails. Their exports are horses, camels, bullocks, buffaloes, and ghee ; and they sell some surplus grain above what is necessary for their own consumption; but their traffic is very inconsiderable ; and what they do carry on is with the petty merchants of Behadra, Nohur, and other towns, through the means of the disciples of the Sheik Fereed, their favourite saint. A large portion of the country is unproductive ; but along the banks of the river Cuggur, from Batneer to the town of Futtahbad, the soil is uncommonly rich, and well adapted for cultivation. The inundations of this river fertilize its banks, and the subsidence of the waters leaves them to a great distance, prepared for plentiful crops of wheat, rice, and barley, amply rewarding the labours of the husbandman. It is the scarcity of water which occasions the barrenness of the ground; nevertheless, there is more raised than the inhabitants can consume. Their horses are numerous, but it is computed that they lose a fourth of them annually by the sting or bite of a winged insect; for the injured part degenerates into an incurable cancerous sore. , We are unacquainted with any river of note, excepting the Cuggur, which is lost in the sands to the westward of this district. According to the tradition of the natives, its original bed being choked up by immense quantities of earth, forced down from the mountains, its course was altered. The chief towns of the Batties are Batneer the capital, which lies in a situation almost inaccessible to an enemy, for no water is to be procured within 12 miles, but what supplies the inhabitants ; however, it was taken in 1398 by Timouf, and more recently by General Thomas. Their other principal towns are Arroah, Futtahbad, Sirsa, and Ramgah, and there are many forts, which, though defenceless against the skill of European troops, are impregnable to the irregular marauders of Hindostan. 6

B A T Batii^p. Numbers of the Batties have, of late years, emigrated from their native country, to establish themselves in the western parts of the dominions of Oude; and several families of them are to be met with in Rohilcund. They are practised travellers, and well trained to it by the laborious journies undertaken in crossing the great desert to the west of their territories. These expeditions are frequentfy made by large parties, for the purpose of a predatory incursion on some peaceable country more remote; and they exemplify both skill and determination in attaining their object. Camels previously laden with provisions are dispatched to different stations in the desert, which is about 130 miles in breadth, and deposited there. The most intelligent of the party, about to follow, are selected as guides, and receive the most implicit obedience from their companions during the journey, which closes at the frontier of the hostile country, or rather that to which their hostility is directed. The guides, by long experience, become expert, without compass or land-mark : they seldom tail to conduct the party to the appointed station where the provisions will be found, and thence across the remainder of the desert in safety. But should they accidentally miss the points of rendezvous, and those where their necessities shall be relieved, they are exposed to inevitable destruction, and any of their party heedlessly straying from the rest, become the victims of the accumulated evils of hunger, thirst, and fatigue. The adventurers steer their course by the sun in the day-time, and by the polar star at night; and by similar aids they are enabled to retrace the way they have travelled. Should provisions fail, a bullock is killed, roasted, and partitioned on the spot, and, after a hasty meal, the journey is resumed. The history of the Batties has attracted the notice of few European authors. They seem to carry on frequent wars with neighbouring states, and are the most formidable enemies that oppose the Rajah of Beykaneer. The latter invaded their territories some years ago, but without success, which is not surprising, considering the comparative smallness of the force which he can bring into the field, and the nature of the country. Temporary advantages were, notwithstanding, obtained over the Batties, and the Beykaneer Rajah erected a fortress in Batinda, which, if not within their territory, is on its immediate confines. This contributed to overawe them for a time, and repressed their incursions into his own domains ; as, independent of the garrison, he stationed a large body of cavalry in the fort, whose frequent sallies and captures of cattle annoyed the Batties so much, that they contemplated a total emigration from their own country. But a military adventurer, George Thomas, an Irishman by birth, who, endowed with singular talents and intrepidity, had founded an independent state in the northwest of India for himself, was then at war with the province of Beykaneer. Having reached its frontiers, the Batties solicited his alliance, and, to induce him to espouse their Cause the more readily, offered him 40,000 rupees, if he would reduce the obnoxious fort. It appears, that the Beykaneer forces wrere now masters of Batneer, the capital, whither General Thomas, who had accepted the proposals of the Batties, VOL. II. PART I.

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marched to dislodge them. He found a numerous garrison, and, having brought up his artillery, began to batter the place, preparatory to an assault. This, however, the enemy avoided by capitulation, and was allowed to evacuate the city with the honours of war, while the Batties were put in possession. In further prosecution of the war, several actions ensued, and various fortresses were taken ; but it would appear, that one of the Battie chiefs, at variance with General Thomas, commenced hostilities against him, about the period now alluded to; and, in this new warfare with his late allies, his forces were so much reduced by repeated encounters, that, being scarcely able ^ to stand an engagement, he fortified his camps. The Batties, after frequent attacks, withdrew their troops by night, whereon General Thomas took and burnt Futtahbad, and other places, and might have occupied the whole country; but a neighbouring chief, having concluded an alliance with the Batties and sent 1000 cavalry to their aid, General Thomas retreated to Jyjur, a town within his own territory, in order to relieve his people from the fatigues and diseases of the, preceding campaign. (s.) BAUME (Anthony), a druggist in Paris, dis» tinguished by his knowledge of chemistry, and by his practical application of that knowledge, was born at Senlis in 1728. He was the son of an innkeeper, and was put apprentice to the eminent chemist Geoffrey. He had not received a regular school education, a defect which occasioned him many difficulties in prosecuting his scientific researches, which he nevertheless did with much ardour. In 1752, he was admitted a member of the College of Pharmacy. Soon after he was appointed professor of chemistry at that establishment, and in his lectures he displayed the excellent arrangement which is seen in his published works. He carried to a great extent his commercial establishment in Paris for the preparation of drugs for medicine and the arts, such as the acetate of lead, the muriate of tin, mercurial salts, and antimonial mixtures. At the same time, he published papers on the crystallization of salts, on the phenomena of congelation, on those of fermentation, on the combinations and preparations of sulphur, opium, mercury, boracic acid, platina, and Peruvian bark, on the metallic oxides, the acetates of the alkalis, on emetic tartar, on vegetable fecula, and on vegetable extracts. In consequence of these scientific works, Baume was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences. He wrote a great many articles in the Dictionnairc des Arts et Metiers, and had previously published several technological papers, namely on dyeing, on the gilding of clock-work, on a method for extinguishing fires, on the mode of keeping corn, on buildings of plaster, on soap-making, on clay, and on the nature of soils fitted for agriculture. He made numerous experiments along with Macquer, for the purpose of fabricating in France a porcelain equal to the Japanese. He established the first manufactory of sal-ammoniac in France, a substance which before that was obtained from Egypt. He was the first who devised and set on foot a process for bleaching raw silk. Having acquired a competency by the success of these different undertakings, he retired from trade, and devoted his

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.162 B A U Bamn6 time to the application of chemistry to the arts. II . He improved the process for dyeing scarlet at the ' -!»*aVar~xl' niamifactory of the Gobelins, and he published a cheap process for purifying saltpetre. He bestowed much time in forming an areometer intended for general use; and published a process for obtaining a mild fecula from the horse-chesnut. By the revolution he lost his fortune, but was not thereby disheartened : this calamity led him to resume his trade. He was chosen a correspondent of the Institute in 17£K>* He died in 1804, at - the age of 76‘. He was temperate, regular in his habits, and active. Many of his papers are published in the Memoires de l'* Academic des Sciences. Of his separate publications, the following may be mentioned here: Dissertation sur VEther, in 12mo. Plan d'un cours de Chimie Experiment ale, 1757? in 12mo. Opuscules de Chimie, 1798, in 8vo. Elemens de Pharmacie Theorique et Pratique, 2 vols. 8vo. Chimie Experimentale et Raisonnee, 3 vols. in 8vo, 1773. This last is antiquated, on account of the many improvements which have been made in the science of chemistry since its publication; but his Elements of Pharmacy are still useful, as a good dispensary, written with method and clearness : the processes are well described, and the formulae properly discussed. He did not adopt the Lavoisierian Nomenclature. (y.) Recent BAVARIA. This country has undergone several History. very remarkable changes within the last forty years. The first of these political agitations, in point of time, and the greatest, perhaps, in point of general interest (for, in those days, the European public were not accustomed to the making and unmaking of governments), was the disputed succession in the year 1778. It was occasioned by the extinction of the reigning branch, by the death of the Elector, on 31st December 1777. The right of succession, on the part of the collateral heir (the Palatine of the Rhine), admitted of no doubt; but various fiefs, obtained at successive intervals by Bavaria, were of a nature to be considered in the light of Imperial property, on the failure of the direct line. This, however, was but a small part of the expected change—the House of Austria, having long cast an eager eye on a province which lay so conveniently for annexation, and which had so often, by the influence of France, proved a thorn in its side, was impatient to avail itself of this opportunity of obtaining possession of Bavaria. Little opposition w^as to be expected from France, the young king (Louis XVI.) being married to a sister of the Emperor Joseph; but a very different conduct w-as anticipated from Frederick II. This warlike sovereign, though now approaching to his 70th year, came forward in support of the independence of Bavaria with all his characteristic decision ; and though unsupported by the heir of the late Elector, found means, by dint of military and diplomatic exertion, to induce the cabinet of Vienna to desist from the chief part of its ambitious pretensions. Had England been so situated as to come forward with the appearance of efficient co-operation, the matter would have been speedily brought to issue ; but w’e were then embroiled with our American colonies, so that the object of the Prussian

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court was not attained -without formidable arma- Bavaria, ments, and a repetition of manoeuvres indicative of^"V> hostilities on a large scale. Fortunatejy, however, the remembrance of the seven years’ war, the recollection of the firm stand made by Prussia, and the disposition to resistance evinced by the smaller courts of Germany, had the effect of producing an adjustment without bloodshed. The particulars of this interesting episode in German history, are given at considerable length in a pamphlet lately published, under the title of Memoire Historique de la Negotiation en 1778, au sujet de la Succession de la Baviere. From this time forward, Bavaria remained in profound peace until the French Revolution roused Germany to arms. The Elector, although pacifically disposed, felt it necessary to join a cause embraced by Austria and England, and continued to let his contingent fight along with the Imperialists, until the French found the means of making their way into the interior of the empire. His first departure from the alliance took place in 1796 (August), when Moreau advanced with a powerful army to his capital, and concluded a treaty for a cessation of hostilities, at a moment when the French were expected to invade the Austrian states in three different directions. This time, however, the project of invasion failed, the armies being too much divided, and one of the generals (Jourdan) being ill qualified to meet a moment of emergency. The peace ot Campo Formio was concluded next year under circumstances that began to favour the influence of France in Germany, and particularly in Bavaria. This peace lasted hardly two years ; and, in the second war, Jourdan advanced once more (March 1799) to experience new defeats at the hand of the Austrians. This army bore the high-sounding name of Armee de VExecution de VEmpire, but its composition bore many marks of the corrupting influence of an interval of peace and bad government. Bavaria remained free from the presence of contending armies for somewhat more than a twelvemonth, until Moreau advanced at the head of a much more powerful and better appointed force. His operations were crowned by the decisive victory of Hohenlinden, and the influence of France over the empire too strongly confirmed by the peace of Luneville. It is from the date of that treaty (1801) that we are to look for the direct interference of Bonaparte in the affairs of the interior of the empire, where the disunion of Austria and Prussia paralized every wish to assert the independence of the Germanic name. That wish, however, was not strongly felt in Bavaria, where Bonaparte's character was not understood, and where the predominant feeling was a dread of Austria. An alliance was accordingly contracted between Bavaria and France; and when, in the summer of 1805, there remained no farther doubt of the hostile movements of Austria and Russia, Bonaparte thought proper to delay his notice of war until the imperialists had passed the frontiers of his new ally. The consequence of the disastrous campaign that ensued was the aggrandizement of Bavaria by the cession of various provinces, particularly Tyrol, and the elevation in 180G of the Elector to the title of King*

BAY Bavaria. The subsequent resignation of the rank of Emperor of Germany by Francis II. the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, but, above all, the overthrow of Prussia, rendered the power of France paramount throughout the empire, and enabled her, in 1809, to find, even in a German force, the means of resisting the efforts of Austria. The connection of Bavaria and France, now farther confirmed by the marriage of Bonaparte’s step-son to a princess of the reigning family, seemed to rest on an immoveable basis, when the intoxication of success produced at last the memorable march to Moscow, and made the possession of unparalleled power the cause and instrument of its own overthrow. The Bavarian force engaged in the Russian expedition perished chiefly in the latter part of the retreat, between the Berezina and the Niemen. The horror excited by so melancholy an event, and the hatred inspired by Bonaparte’s tyranny for some years back, created a general desire in the Bavarians to make common cause with their countrymen in the north, and vindicate the independence of Germany. The public, however, both there and elsewhere, imagined that the court would not go along with the people ; and, after the rupture of the armistice in August 1818, Bavaria stood ostensibly on the side of France. Two months elapsed, before it was discovered that this attitude formed part of the plan concerted with Austria, and discovered to the world only by the sudden march of the Bavarians to interrupt Bonaparte’s retreat at Hanau. General Wrede commanded on that occasion with great spirit, and caused a severe loss to the French; but found it impracticable to arrest the progress of a mass which pushed on in close order, regardless of the havock made on its flanks and extremities. Bavaria now followed, without interruption, the line of policy concerted with Austria, and was not supposed to waver for a moment on the temporary resumption of power by Bonaparte when he landed from Elba. Her unexpected abandonment of him in 1813, is to he attributed to a guarantee from Russia and Austria that she would be maintained in the possession of her actual acquisitions, subject, however, to partial changes, of which the principal was the restitution of Tyrol. That country, proverbially poor, was attached to Austria with all the ardour natural to a retired and simple population. Its relinquishment was, therefore, a slight sacrifice sfor Bavaria, when compared with the fate that would have awaited her had she ventured, like Saxony, to resist the allies. The proceedings of the Vienna Congress, as well as the subsequent treaties, placed Bavaria on the footing of a power of consequence, confirming the title of the King, granting him a share of the contribution-money paid by France, and stipulating the support of a division of Bavarians, along with the other allies, at the expence of that country. Military The military establishment of Bavaria has lately Establish- been raised to nearly (j0,000 men ; in peace, it will ments, Po- probably be somewhat below the half. The populapulation, and Reve- tion, including the late acquisitions, is understood to nue. exceed 3,000,000; the revenue about L.1,500,000 Sterling. Considerable progress has been made during the last half century in redeeming the reproach

BAY of ignorance, so long cast on the inhabitants of this, in common with the other southern provinces ot Germany ; for it must be confessed, that all that we had occasion to lament in regard to the backwardness of education and knowledge in our account of Austria, is applicable to Bavaria. The misfortune of both countries has been a bigoted and ignorant priesthood, who, not content with absorbing in their own hands a very valuable portion of the lands of the country, ha\ e all along insisted on the expulsion of the Protestants, and on the observance of the endless holidays and ab surd usages which impede the progress of industry among their followers. Hence, a general habit of indolence, and miserable backwardness in agriculture; and, in point of learning, a complete contrast to the northern part of Germany. It would be wrong, however, to carry this unpleasant picture so far as to represent the present generation as worse than their ancestors, or the population as in a state of diminution. On the contrary, Munich hopes ere long to rank among the literary cities of Germany ; but ages will be required to bring the population on a level with their northern neighbours. Bavaria, like Austria and the rest of Germany, has, all along, had the semblance of a representative government, composed of prelates, noblesse, and deputies from the towns. Munich is their place of assemblage ; but they have met very seldom for a long time past. That city contains a population of between 40,000 and 50,000 inhabitants, and is one of the handsomest towns in Germany. As to soil, Bavaria is mountainous and woody towards the south; the ground rising in the direction of the Alps, and containing a number of lakes and marshes, with little that has as yet been brought under tillage. To the northward are plains, extensive and rich, until we reach the Palatinate, which is, in great part, mountainous and woody. The word Palatinate being ambiguous, it may be well to observe that the Palatinate, properly called Bavarian, lies to the north of the Danube, and has Amberg for its capital. But the Rhenish Palatinate belonged likewise, until recent exchanges, to the dominions of this house, the late Elector of Bavaria haying been originally a member of the Imperial Diet, in the capacity of Elector Palatine, and having, by his succession to the government of Bavaria, combined the possessions of the two houses. His chief error was, like that of his neighbour, the Emperor Joseph, a desire to introduce improvements without making sufficient allowance for the ignorance of his subjects, He abolished the monastic orders in parts of his dominions, which were by no means ripe for such a change. A great deal has been said about the masonic and other secret societies formed in this country, at the time of the French Revolution, and combining, as was pretended, their efforts with similar societies in Prussia, for the purpose of shaking the established government. These rumours, we are inclined to think, had but slender foundation, there being very little in the condition of Bavaria to afford a promise of success to so strange a project. The present King succeeded to the Electorate in 1799; he was formerly Duke of Deuxyonts, and cousin of the preceding Elector, (pd*)

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164 BAY Baycn. BAYEN (Peter), a celebrated chemist, member v ^‘V"w/ of the Institute of France, was born in 1725, at Chalons sur Marne. He showed a great inclination to study, and was sent by his parents to school at Troyes, where he went through a course of classical education with success. The bent of his disposition was to physical science. He went to Paris in 1749> and became the pupil and friend of an eminent druggist. In this situation, he acquired a complete knowledge of the profession ; and before the age of thirty, he was appointed chief apothecary to the French army in Germany, in the seven years’ war, a situation which he tilled with industry, intelligence, and integrity. After the conclusion of peace, he returned to Paris. The French government had employed Rouelle to name chemists for the purpose of analyzing the mineral waters which are found in ditferent parts of France, and had allotted funds for this purpose. One of the chemists named was Bayen, and he employed himself ardently in these analyses for several years. His analysis of the waters of Barege and of Bagneres de Luchon are published ; and besides the detail of accurate and well-contrived chemical processes, they contain matter interesting to the medical man, to the naturalist, and even to the general reader. He resided at the above-named baths in the Pyrenees, whilst he was employed in analyzing the waters. The project of the French government was not carried farther than the analysis of these waters, so that the public employment of Bayen now ceased. He returned to Paris, and made the analysis of different minerals which he had collected, chiefly during his residence in the Alpine region of the Pyrenees ; amongst them is the marble of Campan, of which there are two varieties, the red and the green. These are brought from that country to Paris, where they make a distinguished figure in ornamental architecture, as may be seen in the columns of the palace of Great Trianon, in the interior of the church of St Sulpice, and in other great buildings. These analyses are published in the Memoires presentes a V Academic par divers Savans, commonly called Memoires des Savans Etrangers. He made most accurate experiments on the oxides of mercury, to show that oxidation arises from the absorption of a portion of the atmospheric air, and that the existence of the phlogiston of Stahl could not be proved. Lavoisier was present when the account of these experiments was read, and was employed at the same time in examining the metallic oxides, and it was Lavoisier that brought the subject into a clearer light, and demonstrated the nature of oxygen, and the composition of the atmosphere. Bayen published an analysis of tin and pewter. In consequence of the writings of some German chemists, fears had arisen amongst the public, that the use of these metals in culinary vessels was pernicious. Bayen showed that these fears were without any ground, if the pewter be of the legal standard, and be not fraudulently mixed with too great a portion of lead. His mode of analyzing minerals required a long time; he exposed the mineral, without being redu-

B A Z ced to powder, to the action of sulphuric acid at the Bayen temperature of the atmosphere; after this action had i! continued for a length of time, he got by lixiviation l_^et?curs‘ the sulphates formed by the combination of the acid, with the different component elements of the stone. He did not make use of the trituration of the stone to an impalpable powder, nor its fusion with caustic potash, which facilitate the subsequent action of acids, and which are used with so much advantage in the processes of modern chemists. The account he has published of his analysis will, nevertheless, be instructive to the chemical student, although the excellent and expeditious methods of Klaproth and Vauquelin are those that should be followed in practice. Fie enjoyed good health till sixty, and died at the age of seventy-six, in the year 1801. He was a man of sound judgment, of strict integrity, and acquainted with several other branches of knowledge besides that which he particularly cultivated. There is a collection of his works, entitled, Opuscules Chimiques, 1798> 2 vols. 8vo. (y.) BAZEEGURS, a tribe of Indians, inhabiting different parts of the peninsula of Hindostan. The appearance and manners of mankind are so much diversified in the various countries where they dwell, that animated controversies have been excited, whether all have had a common origin ; or whether they have sprung from Protoplasts, whose conformation, at the beginning of the world, w’as dissimilar. Some maintain, that, in consequence of the changes produced by situation, climate, and circumstances, the present generations may possibly exhibit figures and proportions altogether different from those that distinguished their ancestors thousands of years ago; while others hold that no such differences could appear, unless they had actually formed a part of the original conformation of a race. The partisans of either theory have appealed to that uniformity of features and customs known to be continued among tribes, who preserve their own descent pure and unmixed with others, of which the Jews constitute a striking example ; and a case something similar, though not equally prominent, is that of the Bazeegurs. This class of people is recognised by several appellations, as Bazeegurs, Panchperee, Kunjura, or Nuts; they follow a mode of life, distinguishing them from the Hindoos, among whom they dwell; they also abstain from intermixing their families with them, and from any intercourse by which they can be united. The name Bazeegur is said to signify a juggler; some etymologists find a probable derivation of conjuror from Kunjura, which might certainly find a corroboration, from the similarity of professions. In India, they are dispersed throughout the whole country, partly in wandering tribes, partly adhering to fixed residences^ but the greater proportion lead a nomadic life. The Bazeegurs are divided into seven casts, Charee, History: Athbhyeea, Bynsa, Purbuttee, Kalkoor, Dorkinee, and Gurgwar ; but are the same people, intermarrying as such, and avoiding alliances with other tribes. According to their own traditions, they descend from four brothers, who, finding it difficult to provide for their numerous followers, resolved to separate, and

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Bazeegtirs. to direct their course respectively to each quarter of the world ; in consequence of which, one of them, named Sa, arrived in Bengal from Gazeepour or Allahabad. He took up his abode at Hoogly, and having governed his tribe peaceably during many years, died at Uncourpoor, whither his posterity still repair to offer up their prayers to his manes. Sa left three sons who succeeded each other, and the succession having afterwards regularly passed through several generations, at length devolved to Munbhungee, about fifteen or twenty years ago. At the same time, some of the casts considered a woman called Toota as the chief of the whole; but the power ascribed to the chief seems merely nominal, scarcely amounting to restraint, and not at all to coercion. Munbhungee only resisted the entrance of any of the people, acknowledging the superiority of Toota, to seek a livelihood in the territory occupied by his own sect; and the latter were under the same prohibition with respect to the places frequented by her and her dependents. Besides those who are united into sets or casts, there are individuals who wander about endeavouring to gain a precarious livelihood. It is not evident, although the Bazeegurs are certainly distinguished by their manners and customs from the natives of Hindostan, that their features discriminate them as a separate race. Some of their women are reputed to be very beautiful, and are thence sought iifter in those temporary alliances common in the East. The manners of the Panchperee are somewhat different from those of the Bazeegurs; and some of the sects are more civilized than others. It has already been observed, that they are not in the exclusive occupation of any district in particular, but their villages or respective quarters are found in the same places as those of the Hindoos or British settlers. The Panchperee form neat little encampments in the upper provinces ; their huts are small and regular, and each is surrounded by a small inclosure or court-yard, generally disposed in such a manner that the whole hamlet, formed of portable matting, obtains a kind of circumvallation by means of them. Religion. The Bazeegurs, more especially distinguished by that name, are the most civilized of the whole ; they are Mahometans in food, apparel, and religion. The Panchperee profess no system of faith in preference, adopting that of any village indifferently, whither their wanderings may guide them. Some traverse the country as Mahometan Fakeers, and live on the ill directed bounty of devotees ; and a particular association among them, of bad repute or abject superstition, has been accused of sacrificing human victims. Notwithstanding their ignorance of the established religions, they seem to venerate a female deity, Kali, probably the sanguinary goddess of the Hindoos, and may perhaps in this way seek to purchase her protection. The Bazeegurs are circumcised, and have priests to officiate at their marriages and funerals, but their knowledge of the prophet Mahomet is very imperfect, for they can give little account of him, except that he was a saint. They seem to acknowledge an omnipotent being, and con-

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ceive that all nature is animated by one universal Bazeegurs. spirit, which the soul, as being part of it, will rejoin after death. At the birth of their children, some Bramin, supposed an adept in astrology, is called in to aid them in choosing a propitious name. Among the Panchperee, the marriage ceremony Manmr?. is commenced by the bridegroom repairing to the hut of his elect, and calling aloud for her to be delivered to him. A near relation, guarding the door, resists his entrance, and rudely pushes him away, while he is the object of taunts and jocularity; but when his patience is supposed to have been sufficiently put to the test, the bride is brought out. Both receive an exhortation from the priest to practise mutual kindness, and the bridegroom, marking the bride’s face with ochre, declares her his wedded wife, and she, on her part, does the same in return. The little fingers of their hands are now joined, and u §cene of merriment, from which the bride alone is exempted, commences. But this consists chiefly in the progress to intoxication, for all these people are addicted to the most immoderate use of spirits; and after copious libations, a cavalcade, formed of the two parties, whose little fingers are again joined, their parents and friends, departs for the hut of the bridegroom. Before the door there are some enigmatical ceremonies performed; the mother of the bridegroom advances with a sieve containing rice, paint, and grass, with which the foreheads of the couple are touched, after being waved around them; and the bride is led into the house, before which there stands a small fresh branch of the mangoe tree in an earthen pot of water. The meaning of these ceremonies is not well understood; but it is to be observed, that the origin of most of the customs of the modern races of mankind, are lost in the darkness of antiquity. Some of the peasantry in Britain have various ceremonies both at marriages and funerals,—such as breaking a cake above the head of the bride, or strewing flowers on the bier of one deceased, which have descended from remote ages, and arose from sources at this day unknown. When these ceremonies are completed among the Bazeegurs, a new scene of mirth is resumed; and towards evening, for the whole day from the breaking of dawn is thus occupied, the bride is conducted to her own hut, when those who are able retire; but the majority, and in general the bridegroom among them, pass the night in a state of insensibility on the neighbouring plain. From the earliest period they are accustomed to intoxicating draughts; even infants of five or six months old are supplied with spirits, though their mothers suckle them during five or six years; and it is not uncommon to observe several children of different ages hanging on their mother, and struggling to extract their scanty portion of nourishment, which is gradually diminished by her own insatiable propensities to the same beverage. Many of the sects are very indiscriminate in food ; scarce any thing is rejected ; dead horses, jackals, and bullocks, are alike acceptable; and it has been suspected that they can even enjoy a repast of human flesh. However, this fact is not authenticated, and if analogical reasoning may be admitted here, we should be inclined to

166 13 A Z Bizeegnrs. deny it, because there is no proof that any tribe, however savage, is addicted to anthropophagy, it dwelling among a more civilized people. OcciipaThe chief occupation of the Bazeegurs seems to tiuus. consist in feats of address and agility to amuse the public, in which both males and females aVe equally skilful. Hie former are extremely athletic, and the women are taught dancing, which, instead ot the graceful motions seen in the north, there consists principally in a display ot lascivious gestures. Most, if not all, the men are jugglers, tumblers, and actors, in which they are very adroit. The people of each set, or dramatis persona?, are hired out by a sirdar, or manager of a company, for a definite period, generally- one year, after which they are at liberty to join any other party. But no person can establish a set of actors without permission from the Nardar Boutah, a chief of the Bazeegurs, who receives a proportion of the profits, and a tribute or tax from each female, somewhat analogous to what was called milk-money, a revenue levied by the Holy See from licences to prostitutes. On the return of a party from an excursion, this money is paid to the Nardar Boutah, who convenes his people, and they continue feasting until the whole is expended. Should any of the managers be suspected of giving an unfair account of his profits, a court is assembled, where the accused must undergo the ordeal of applying his tongue to a piece of red-hot iron. It thus appears that these tribes have a kind of civil government among themselves; that each of five sets, at Calcutta at least, has a sirdar or ruler, and that the whole are subject to the Nardar Boutah. These sirdars and the chief apparently constitute a court for the trial of infringement of their regulations, which may be followed by punishment. Thus if, on application of the red-hot iron, the suspected manager be burnt, he is declared guilty of a fraud, which is expiated by a fine, and, if it be an aggravated offence, by the additional punishment of having his nose rubbed on the ground. The same penalty is attached to disclosures to strangers of matters which it is the interest of the tribe to conceal. The fine is generally converted to liquor; but should the offender he either unable or unwilling to discharge it immediately, he is banished from all society ; or he is universally execrated, and even his wife and children avoid him. He soon finds compliance indispensable, and although the Bazeegurs pique themselves on their honesty, it is conjectured that on such occasions they do not entertain many scruples in acquiring what is so essential to avert the indignation of their fellows. The mulct being paid, is converted to the general behoof, and affords a new opportunity for gratifying the strong propensities implanted in these people for ardent liquors. All differences among this set are the subject of reference either to apunchcat or a general assembly; but, before commencing the business, both plaintiff and defendant must provide a quantity of spirits proportioned to the importance of the case. The party non-suited ultimately bears the whole expence, and the assembly is regaled with the beverage produced by the litigants.

b a z Some of the Bazeegurs are owners of land, which Bazeepr?. they entertain a great desire to obtain, but they are ' never cultivators. They are collected, as already observed, into various associations in different parts of India. The dancing girls, however, have no regular and settled habitations ; they dwell merely in temporary huts, erected near the place of their exhibitions. The duration of their lives is supposed to be much abridged by the course of life which they lead, particularly from the violent exercises practised from early youth, and habitual indulgence in intoxicating draughts. Both males and females undergo such a regular progress of debauchery, that few live beyond forty, and many do not attain their thirtieth year. But, from the pursuits of the females being productive to their parents, their marriages are deferred to a later period than is usual in India. There prostitution is free from that odium and contempt which it incurs in Europe, and those females who are considered so unfortunate and depraved by us, are under the special protection of the laws. The female Bazeegurs who are taught singing and dancing only, are under no greater personal restraint than the common dancing girls of Hindostan ; but the chastity of those whose particular department is tumbling, is strictly enjoined until their place be supplied by others more youthful. When this substitution comes, they join the companies of dancers alone; and the men, though quite aware of their incontinence, do not scruple to select wives from among them. But, after marriage, a total change of conduct is expected, and it is said that such expectations are commonly realized. Nevertheless, among the Pancbperee, the fidelity of those employed in different vocations in the towns becomes suspected, if they have not returned to their homes when the cry of the jackal is heard, and their husbands are by no means disposed to overlook the offence. It does not appear, however, that they have either the power or the inclination of the Hindoos, who sometimes, in such cases, decoy their own daughters to a lonely place for the purpose of perpetrating a barbarous murder on them, as the punishment of their indiscretion. The Bazeegur parents and husbands are content with slighter expiations ; but if the paramour be not of their own particular cast, the incontinence of the female is judged a much more grievous fault. The females now alluded to are those who do not attend the juggling exhibitions of the men, or their feats of activity ; they practise physic, cupping, and perform a kind of tattowing on the skin of the Hindoos of their own sex, called Godna. As the men, besides their usual occupations, collect medicinal herbs, and a certain bud, the latter is dried, and the former prepared by their wives as curatives, especially of the complaints of their own sex : thus they find employment in the towns, in such vocations, or by the sale of trinkets, though both afford but a precarious subsistence. Some tribes also exhibit wild beasts to the vulgar, or offer mats fabricated by themselves for sale. Before the establishment of the British government in Bengal, the Bazeegurs were subject to the arbitrary exactions of a tax-gatherer whom they greatly dreaded, and the

B E A 167 B A Z Bazcpgius apprehension of the renewal of that officer’s powers course are motives to more fancy.” He first became Beattie, ^ !1 . has proved a considerable impediment to investigat- acquainted with English versification through Ogilby’s translation of Virgil. ing their manners and customs. By their father’s death he had been thrown, while A general coincidence in the mode of life, the vocations, manners, and language of all the different yet of tender age, on the care of his elder brother, sects of these people, determine them as belonging David Beattie ; who, observing his natural endowto the same race. The distinctions seen among them ments, afforded him, notwithstanding his own limited are too trivial to admit of their being considered of means, every aid in his power towards a liberal eduseparate and independent origin. They are different cation; and in the year 1719? placed him at Mafrom all the other tribes dispersed throughout Hin- rischal College, Aberdeen ; where he soon atterdustan ; and have two dialects also peculiar to them- wards obtained a bursary, or exhibition. Here he selves, the one most probably a jargon, which is had the advantage of pursuing his studies under spoken only among the public performers; the other, Dr Thomas Blackwell, author of the Life of Hoin common use, among the whole. The Bazeegurs mer, Dr Gerard, and other eminent men. In adare supposed to present many features analogous to dition to his academical course, he began at this the Gipsies scattered over Europe and Asia, where time to instruct himself in the Italian language; they subsist as a distinct race from all the other inha- and appears to have had a strong predilection for bitants of the countries frequented by them. Both Metastasio. In 1753, he was appointed schoolmaster of Fordun, the Bazeegurs and Gipsies have a chief or king ; each has a peculiar language, bearing some reciprocal a small village at the foot of the Grampian mounanalogy, and different from that of the people among tains, where he likewise performed the duty of prewhom they reside, and this analogy is so decided, centor, or parish clerk, usually attached to that ofthat it is difficult to deny, that with both it has had fice in Scotland. Here he indulged the propensities a common origin. In India, and in Europe, they of the youthful poet, and frequently wandered during are equally an itinerant race; their pursuits, in so a whole night in the fields, chewing “ the food of far as modified by the manners of countries distant sweet and bitter fancy;” and it was from a height from each other, are alike; for the discrepancies they in this neighbourhood that his eye first caught a exhibit, may reasonably be ascribed to an insen- glimpse of the ocean. From the scenery ot this sible acquisition of. the habits of those near wdiom secluded spot, he appears to have derived, as might the various tribes of mankind dwell. They are be expected, many of those images which he afterequally indifferent as to the quality of the food serv- wards transferred into his poetical compositions; ing for their subsistence; and equally ignorant of and, certainly, no exertion of the inventive powers systematic religious principles. All preserve the can furnish representations equal to these immediate strictest adherence to their own sect, and sedulously copies from nature. Such is that picture in the abstain from intermixtures or intermarriages with small poem, which he calls Retirement. those of every nation; and where infringements of “ Tliy shades, thy silence, now be mine, these rules are seen, they are to be ascribed more Thy charms my only theme ; to necessity than inclination. Another resemblance, My burnt the hollow oiiff, whose pine which has probably been lost in the lapse of time, is Wavts oVr the vloomy sin am; "Whence th* scared owl on pinions gray supposed to consist in the three-stringed viol, introBreaks from ihe rustling boughs. duced into'Europe by the jugglers of the thirteenth And down the lone vale sails uwaj century, which is exactly similar to the instrument 10 more profound repose." now used in Hindostan. Separate and disjoined, these analogies may not carry conviction of the identity of the European Gipsies with the Indian Ba- Such also, among many others in the Minstrel, arezeegurs, but, on uniting and combining the whole, it those beautiful pictures contained in the 20th and does not seem unlikely, that if Asia is their original 21st stanzas of the first canto. In this recluse place, Beattie wras discovered and country, or if they have found their way from Egypt to India, they may also have emigrated farther at a noticed by Mr Garden, afterwards Lord Gardensperiod of remote antiquity, and reached the boun- town, then Sheriff of the county, and by Lord Monboddo. In 1757, he became a candidate for the sidaries of Europe. (s.) BEATTIE (James, LL.D.), a distinguished mo- tuation of usher in the Grammar-school of Aberralist and poet, was born on the 25th October 1735, deen. He was at this time foiled in the competiat Laurencekirk, then an obscure hamlet, in the tion ; but, next year, on occasion of a new vacancy, accept the office. Lastly, he county of Kincardine in Scotland; near which place he was requested to f his father rented a small farm. He received his was removed, in 17 iO, to the Professorship of Moral early education at the common school of the parish ; Philosophy and Logic in the Marischal College. Here of which it is recorded, that Ruddiman had been he passed the remainder of his life, occupied in the teacher in it about forty years before. His ac- zealous discharge of his professional duties, and in quirements are said to have been interrupted at literary pursuits. Here, too, he possessed all the adthis time by want of books; a difficulty which has vantages of a congenial society, in the company of excited commiseration in more instances than that Dr George Campbell, Dr Reid, Dr Gerard, and of Beattie, but which is so little able to control other men of genius and learning, who then adorned natural genius, that it seems almost an incitement the university of Aberdeen. His first publication was a small collection, entitlerX to its exertions; as “ all impediments in fancy’s

B E A J6f3 B E A Beattie. Original Poems and Translations, which was printed cess of the work, a second edition of it was called for Beattie. •_j-y “' jn Ijfio or lygi. Of many of the pieces contained in 1771. Mr Beattie visited London in the same in this little volume he was afterwards ashamed; and year, and again in 1773. On the last of these ocnot only omitted them in the subsequent selections casions, he received some flattering marks of public which he published, but endeavoured, as far as pos- notice and distinction. He had the honour of being sible, to obliterate all traces and recollection of them. admitted to a private and long interview with their Of these lesser pieces, The Hermit is best known ; Majesties ; received, from the University of Oxford, and, though it cannot be considered as a finished an honorary degree of Doctor of Laws, at the same Composition, is full of pathos and beauty. In The time with Sir Joshua Reynolds ; and was afterwards Battle of the Pigmies and Cranes, translated from the requested by the latter to sit for his portrait. The Latin of Addison, he has displayed a greater com- reputation of his Essay, and still more, perhaps, the mand of terse and happy expression than in most of motives and general character of the author, likewise procured for him, about this time, a yearly pension his original pieces. Mr Beattie was married, in to Miss Mary of L.200 from the Crown. In the course of the same year, 1773, he published Dun, daughter of Dr James Dun, rector of the Grammar-school at Aberdeen. This connection, at first the first part of his Minstrel, of the Progress of Geevery way auspicious for his happiness, proved, in nius ; to which he added a second part in 1774-- His the sequel, a source of the deepest distress. For, in object, as described by himself, was “ to trace the the course of a few years, Mrs Beattie, whose mother progress of a poetical genius, born in a rude age, had laboured under a similar malady, showed une- from the first dawning of fancy and reason, till that quivocal symptoms of mental disorder, which termi- period at which he may be supposed capable of appearing in the world as a Minstrel; that is, as an nated in a state of confirmed insanity. In the year 1770, Mr Beattie published his Essay itinerant poet and musician; a character which, acon the Nature and Immutability of Truth, in opposi- cording to the notion of our forefathers, was not tion to Sophistry and Scepticism. His design was, to only respectable, but sacred.” It appears from his “ prove the universality and immutability of moral letters, that he little anticipated the favourable resentimentand his motives for the undertaking are ception which this poem obtained from the public; sufficiently evident from the title which he has pre- a doubt which was probably founded on the want of fixed to the book. He appears to have been parti- incident and variety of character, in the composition. cularly encouraged to the prosecution of this task by Its merit, however, was quickly acknowledged ; and the opinions of Dr John Gregory and Dr Blacklock. by it the author’s reputation, as a poet and a man of A general outline of the work, which appeared in genius, was raised to its height. On occasion of a vacancy which occurred soon most of the journals previous to its publication, was prepared by the latter. His original intention, as after in the chair of Natural and Experimental Phi. expressed by himself in one of his letters, was, “ first, losophy at Edinburgh, it was proposed that Dr Beatto have considered the permanency of truth in ge- tie should become a candidate ; to which step he neral and, secondly, to have applied the principles was strongly urged by some of his friends, particularly Lord Hailes. And, about the same period, he which he should have established “ to the illustra tion of certain truths of morality and religion, to received various offers of preferment in the English which the reasonings of Helvetius, of Mr Hume in his church. These plans of promotion, however, he Essays, and of some other modern philosophers, successively declined, considering the situation which seemed unfavourable.” Of this plan, the former part he held as best adapted to his abilities, and affording tmly was completed. It is well known that, in the him the greatest opportunities of usefulness. His execution of it, the author did not spare the opinions reluctance to accept a chair in the university of of those whom he considered as the enemies of reli- Edinburgh arose partly, indeed, from the remaining gious and moral truth ; and particularly treated the effect of those heats which controversial metaphysics writings of Mr Hume without reserve or qualifica- had produced. “ I am so great a lover of peace,” tion. The friends of the latter took up arms in re- he says in a letter to one of his friends on this occaturn, representing the Essay as a piece of personal sion, “ and so willing to think well of my neighbours, and unprovoked hostility ; and, some time after, the that I do not wish to be connected with one person opinions which it contained were canvassed in a more who dislikes me.” Between the years 1780 and 1793> he published public manner, and with much severity, in an Examination by Dr Priestley. These attacks, or retalia- his Elements of Moral Science, and various other tions, were met by Beattie with the same firmness works, moral and critical, which are well known, which he had displayed in the original publication of and deservedly popular. He enjoyed the acquainthis sentiments ; nor would he ever consent to abate ance and friendship of many distinguished characeither the plainness or spirit with which he had ex- ters, in different classes of society. Among his litepressed them. rary correspondents in England were Bishop PorIn proportion to the censure which this publica- teus, Mrs Montague, Scott the poet of Amwell, and tion called forth from a certain number of persons, Mr Gray. He was entrusted by the latter, in 1768, was its favourable reception with a different class. with superintending an edition of his poems, printed It was the means of gaining for its author the unso- by Foulis. licited good offices of George Lord Lyttleton, Dr During the latter period of his life, Dr Beattie exJohnson, Hurd Bishop of Worcester, Percy Bishop perienced a new train of domestic calamities, which, of Dromore, and many others. From the great sue- added to the unfortunate situation of Mrs Beattie, 4

B E A Beattie, gradually undermined his health, and impaired his intellectual powers. The first and severest of these trials was the loss of his eldest son, James Hay Beattie, who died in 1790 ; in whose society he had found one of his greatest enjoyments, and who had already been associated witli him in the Professorship of Moral Philosophy, at the early age of 19.* Some years after, his only remaining son, Montague Beattie, likewise died, after a short illness. This event he intimated to one of his friends, by a letter written on the same day, in the terms of calm and unaffected resignation. But his mind had been violently shaken, even before this blow ; and, when he looked on the dead body of his son for the last time, he gave way to the scene, and exclaimed, “ Now I have done with this world.” Its first effect was the loss of memory respecting his deceased son. Yet it was found, that, by the mention of what the latter had suffered during his sickness, his recollection could usually be recalled. He continued to discharge his duty as Professor; but, notwithstanding some returns of a more vigorous intellect and fancy, he did not from this time resume his studies, and seldom answered the letters which he received. He was attacked with palsy in 1799, and afterwards sustained repeated shocks, the last in 1802. He lingered till the 18th of August 1803, when he expired at the age of 68. A particular Account of his Life and Writings, by Sir William Forbes of Pitsligo, who had long been his friend and confident, was published in 1806, in which are to be found some interesting selections from his private correspondence. The character of Dr Beattie is delineated in his writings; of which the most prominent features are purity of sentiment, and warm attachment to the principles of religion and morality. His dispositions were gentle and modest, and he possessed great tenderness of heart. H6 was laborious in his literary pursuits,' yet fond at all times of conversation, and society. Towards the latter period of his life he was subject to an irritability of nerves, by which his temper was sensibly affected; and though, to appearance, his bodily frame was robust, he had impaired his strength by excess in study. He possessed considerable talents both for music and drawing. .... His abilities as a writer may be said to have already undergone that ultimate test which is to be found in public opinion; and it has ranked him high as a moralist, a critic, and a poet. His Essay on Truth became a very popular book, particularly in England, and has gone through many editions. It must be confessed, that this work is not without considerable faults as a philosophical composition. Its « leading doctrine has been thus stated by himself; “As we know nothing of the eternal relations of things, to us is, and must be truth, which we feel that we must believe; and that to us is falsehood which we feel that we must disbelieve. I have shown that all

B E A genuine reasoning does ultimately terminate in cer. tain principles which it is impossible to disbelieve, and as impossible to prove; that, therefore, the ultimate standard of truth to us is common sense, or that instinctive conviction into which all true reasoning does resolve itself.” It is now generally admitted that, in the illustration of this doctrine, which is conformable in substance to that of Reid, Dr Beattie has fallen into some errors, or at least ambiguities, which the former has been enabled in a greater degree to avoid. What constitutes the chief defect of the Essay is a want of that strictness and precision, which a discussion of the metaphysical parts of the subject necessarily requires. He has used tire term common sense with more latitude, and in a greater variety of significations, than is consistent with exact or conclusive reasoning; and he has stated some propositions too generally, and without the limitations which they seem t*o require. Notwithstanding this imperfection of the work, when considered strictly as a logical treatise, it is certain that many of the fundamental doctrines delivered in it carry with them an irresistible weight, which subsequent inquiry and discussion have tended, not to diminish, but increase. It may justly be considered as an example, in probable reasoning, of that indirect but conclusive mode of proof, which, in mathematical science, is usually termed reductio ad absurdum; a form which has been frequently and successfully employed by Dr Reid, for similar purposes. A reference to the sources of knowledge possessed by mankind in general, and to their common or universal sentiments, is an appeal regarding certain acknowledged facts, as an ingredient and ground-work of science. Nor is it to be supposed that, in these cases, philosophy surrenders her judgment to the popular opinion ; but only, that the conclusions of the soundest and the most improved reason are conformable to the dictates of our faculties, as they are exercised by the majority of mankind. The materials of knowledge possessed by the philosopher and the vulgar are the same; it is in the extent of the inferences which are drawn from them, in their combination, and in the uses to which they are applied, that the disproportion is to be found. In their reasoning on mixed subjects, and in the power of remote calculation, men differ infinitely; in their immediate judgments they differ very little. It is undeniable also, with respect to the style of this work, that Dr Beattie has fallen into an error, by using, on various occasions, a greater keenness of expression than is at all suited to the argumentative parts of his subject. An author may, indeed, be moved by a commendable feeling of indignation, to commence the task of writing, whatever be the subject of discussion. But he who attempts to conduct a train /of reasoning, while under the immediate influence even of a just passion, engages in too difficult a matter, and foregoes many advantages. The truth is, that the metaphysical speculations of

* An interesting Account of his Lfe and Character, with a small collection of his compositions, in prose and verse, was printed by Dr Beattie in the year 1800. VOL. 11. part 1. y

169 Beattie,

170 Beattie.

B E A B E A Berkeley and Hume had proceeded so tar in con- poetry; and the subsequent depression of tone in Beattie ft tradicting the ordinary apprehensions and feelings ot both is a necessary result of this lofty preparation. But the criticism is more just when applied to the mankind, as to prove, in the clearest manner, even of Thomson than to the Minstrel. to men of science, the impossibility of obtaining work Dr Beattie's style is classical, and always perspicucertain knowledge, by any exercise of the human intellect, altogether abstracted from the in- ous. He was never weary of retouching what he formation of matter, and the employment of our wrote, the chief secret of good composition, withother faculties ; and those consequences with regard out which, at least, no composition can be rendered complete. He deserves, above all, that which is the to morality, religion, and the social state, which ap- greatest praise of an author, that no one can read peared to flow as a necessary result from the speculative principles, particularly of Mr Hume, roused his works with a candid mind, and rise from the pein a large class, both of the learned and unlearned, rusal unimproved. The following is a list of Dr Beattie’s writa sense of repugnance and opposition proportionally strong. Dr Beattie was among the first who endea- ings:—Poems, first published in 1760.—Essay on voured to resist the current of these opinions. His Truth, 1771 Minstrel, 1771, 1774.—Essays, viz. book was polemical; and that warmth of languagej On Poetry and Music—On Laughter and ludicrous which he has not studied to repress, must be as- Composition—On Classical Learning, 1776*—Dis~ cribed to these circumstances, if it cannot be defend- sertations, viz. On Memory and Imagination—On Dreaming—On the Theory of Language—On Fable ed by them. But the objections in question are not applicable and Romance—On the Attachments of Kindred— to any of his other works. It is impossible here to and Illustrations of Sublimity, 1783.—Evidences of enter into a farther detail of these various publica- Christianity, 1786.—Elements of Moral Science, 1790, tions. His Elements of Moved Science, and his dif- 1793. Fie likewise published, in 1790, an edition of ferent critical and philological treatises, are composi- Mr Addison’s papers in the Tatler, Spectator, Gitardtions of a very pleasing character; and it was chiefly ian, and Freeholder, and of his treatise on the Christby them that his reputation was established in other ian Religion, with his Life by Tickell, and some ori(ee.) countries. Some of his books were early translated ginal Notes, Edinburgh, 4 vols. 8vo. BEAUMARCHAIS (Pierre Augustin Caron into the Dutch and other languages. A French translation of his Essays on Poetry and Music was print- de) appears to have been one of those persons who, ed at Paris in 1798. But it is chiefly as the author from restlessness of disposition and singularity o of the Minstrel that Beattie is known, and will con- character, obtain, in their own age, more celebrity tinue to be admired. This poem, or rather poetical than they are entitled to from their merit or talents. fragment, for the design was not completed, stands He was born at Paris in 1732, and was the son of a fully confirmed in the public favour; and it is suffi- clockmaker, who brought him up to his own trade. cient to say, that, in beauty both of sentiment and From his earliest youth, however, he discovered imagery, it stands in the first class of poetical com- an inclination for literature, together with a repositions. It would be difficult perhaps to select, markable talent for music. His proficiency in that from the body of English verse, any single passage art procured him an introduction to the French court, where he was employed to teach the prinwhich excels this stanza in the first part: cesses, daughters of Louis XV. to play on the gui“ O iiow can’st thou renounce the boundless store tar. At their concerts, which he attended, he beOf charms, which Natuie to her votary yields! came acquainted with the banker Duverney, by whom The warbling woodland, the resounding shore. he was instructed in business, and placed in a situaThe pomp of groves, tlm garniture * of fields. tion which was likely to lead to fortune. BeaumarAll that the genial ray of morning gilds, Ami all that echoes to the song of even, chais first attracted public attention by his drama of All that the mountain’s sheltering bosom shields. Eugenie, which was published in 1767 ; but he was And all the dread magnificence of heaven ; chiefly indebted for the notoriety he obtained, to the O how can’st thou renounce, ami hope to be forgiven!” various law-suits in which he became involved after the It has been objected to the second part of the death of his patron Duverney. Having commenced Minstrel, that it contains too much philosophy. But, an action against the Count de la Blache, the grandthough the instruction conveyed in it is frequently nephew of Duverney, for payment of a trifling balance addressed to the understanding, it is never abstruse, of an account which was due to him by his deceasand the lessons are those of a poet not less than of a ed patron, and the suit having been removed from moralist. Like the Castle of Indolence, it is, in Aix to Paris, M. Goezman, one of the judges of the scope and design, a didactic piece. Both commence Parliament Maupeou, which was then very unpopular in the highest strain of descriptive and pathetic in the capital, was appointed to report and decide

* It is remarkable that this word should have been objected to by Gray, in his Critique, communicated to the author previously to the publication of the Minstrel. His reluctance to admit a term, which could only be rendered objectionable by being ranked with none but those of the highest and purest class in poetry, would of itself be a sufficient tribute to the diction of this beautiful passage. But Gray does ample justice to- the whole stanza: “ This,” he exclaims, “ is true poetry ; this is inspiration.”

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Beaumar- on its merits. Beaumarchais suspecting that he vyas chais. excluded from the presence of Goezman by the influence of the Count de la Blache, and thus prevented from explaining the merits of his case, bribed certain dependents of the judge in order to be admitted to an interview. The cause, however, was decided against him before he could obtain an audience, and the whole of the bribe not having been returned, along correspondence took place, by which Goezman was at length so much exasperated, that he instituted a prosecution against Beaumarchais for an attempt to corrupt him in his judicial capacity. Beaumarchais was acquitted of the charge, while Goezman was found liable to him in damages, and vyas farther convicted of subornation and falsehood in hi» attempts to substantiate the accusation. The decision of Goezman having been rescinded, and the principal cause remitted to the Parliament of Aix, where it had originally depended, Beaumarchais again became involved with the Count de la Biache, in a litigation which originated in the calumnies and undue influence by which the Count attempted to overpower his adversary. In this dispute, Beaumarchais also pi evailed; but the chief advantage which he acquired from these various processes was the astonishing interest and admiration which were universally excited in France by the Factions ox Memoires which he wrote m his defence , in which the most logical and convincing argument is diversified with the bitterest sarcasm, the keenest raillery, and the relation of incidents as strange and amusing as those which are met with in romance. These able and lively productions, however, procured him many enemies, as they discovered him to be a man of a most resentful and calumnious disposition. He also lost a good deal of the reputation he had acquired, from being involved in a new process, in which he found the advocate Bergasse a more formidable opponent^ than Goezman or La Blache ; and his new JS'lcmoo cs wanted the spirit and gaiety to which his former ones were indebted for their popularity. Though occupied with these processes, and various liteiary pursuits, Beaumarchais did not neglect the improvement of his fortune. He engaged in various speculations, of which the most profitable was his project of supplying the Americans with arms and ammunition during the war with this country. Having thus gained a considerable fortune, he built a magnificent viha in the laubouig St Antoine, which he embellished with much taste, and at great expence. He afterwards lost some part of the money he had acquired by an expensive and ill-executed edition of the works of Yoltane ; and neither the early support which he gave to the principles of the French Revolution, nor his importation of fire-arms for the use of the hiench forces, were sufficient to preserve his property fiom confiscation, or his person from proscription. The sufferings and dangers which he experienced during this period, have been detailed by him in a work entitled, Mes Six Epogues, which is written with considerable force and interest. After he had endured every species of accusation and persecution, and

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m Beaumarhad passed some time as an exile from his native chais. country, he returned to France when the storms of the Revolution had subsided into a more settled tyranny, and having recovered possession of his villa in the Faubourg St Antoine, he remained there till his death, which happened suddenly in the year 1799. The moral character of Beaumarchais seems to have been far from unexceptionable. He was remarkable for extraordinary indiscretion, restlessness, and ambition, an overweening conceit of his own talents, and an undisguised contempt for others. With these defects, it is not wonderful that hi* conduct should have formed the subject of some absurd calumnies. La Harpe mentions, that these were propagated to such an extent, that it was at one time reported, that he had made away, by poison, with his two wives whom he had successively married for their fortunes—a report, on which Voltaire is said to have remarked, “ ce Beaumarchcus n'est point un enipoisonneur—il-est tr op dr ole. Even the journey which he undertook to Spain, in oidei to vindicate the honour, and secure the happiness of a sister, and which seems to have been the most praiseworthy action of his life, wTas made the subject of invidious misrepresentations, from w'hicli he lias vindicated himself in one of his Mcmoires against La Blache and Goezman. Besides his Memoires, Beaumarchais is the autnor of various dramatic productions, which made a gieat noise, and gained him considerable reputation in 1 ai is at the time they appeared. His Eugenie, of which the plot is founded on astory in the DiableEoiteux, and hi> Deux Amis, which hinges on the embanassment and perplexity of a merchant on the verge of insolvency, are serious sentimental comedies, written in imitation of Diderot’s Pere de Famille. Eugenie, wdiich was the most successful of the tw o, is rather a 10mance carried on by dialogue, than a drama. It possesses little pathos or interest, and the only emotion felt in its perusal, is a certain degree of curiosity concerning the event of the story. 1 he incidents in Les Deux Amis are flat and insipid, and as it is not sustained by the charms of versification, it fails almost entirely of theatrical effect. Beaumarchais obtained more success in his dramatic career, when he quitted the imitation of Diderot, anci following the natural gaiety of his own genius, represented the lively and entertaining character of Figaro, in two successive pieces, Le Ear bier de Seville and La Folk Journee, ou le Manage de Figaro. The first of these comedies merely turns on the assistance which the Count Ahnaviva receives from Figaro, the Bar bier de Seville, in his stratagem to carry off Rosine by duping an old guardian, by w hom she was strictly watched, and wdio intended to marry her himself. The Mariage de Figaro principally hinges on the scheme devised by the Count Almaviva, of marrying a beautiful attendant of his countess to Figaro, with designs which seem to have been suggested by some scenes in the Casina of Plautus, Both pieces are full of lively dialogue, dramatic movement, and ingenious jeux de theatre. The author, however, had at first great difficulty in getting the Mariage

172 B E A B E A Beaumar- de Figaro represented; and the curiosity and ex- the developement of the character. In La Mere Beaumar. chais pectation of the public were excited to the highest Coup able, he has also introduced, under the name of chais II Beauty, pitch, previous to its appearance. It continued to Begearss, his old opponent the advocate Bergasse. ^Beauty. be acted twice a-week for two years, and produced Indeed, he admits in his preface, que Begearss nest' immense profits both to the author and the come- pas de son invention et quil Va vu agir. dians. To a reader of the present day, the chief Most of the plays of Beaumarchais are preceded interest of the Mariage de Figaro arises from the by prefaces, in which he has vindicated them against distress experienced bj' the countess, on finding her- objections, and pointed out their beauties ; but, as he self forsaken b}7 her husband, and the engaging, neither possessed much learning nor taste, his literary though not very moral, character of the page Che- pleadings were not so happy as his judicial ones. Inrubin ; but in France its popularity might be partly deed, the great secret of Beaumarchais’ success was owing to the numerous sarcasms both on the political the perceiving and availing himself of the tone and and judicial administration of the country. This was spirit of the times. The vogue in which the Fere de evidently one of the author’s chief objects, as he Famille then was, secured applause for his Comedies boasts in his preface, qiiil a forme son plan de foqon Larmoyantes. The unpopularity of a parliament, ena y foire entrer la critique d'une foule d'abus qui trusted with the administration of justice, procured a desolent la societe. Beaumarchais has introduced favourable reception for his Memoires ; and the rising Figaro a third time, in his last drama, La Mere Cou- clamour against the government of the country, gave pable ; and it is generally supposed that by this cha- additional zest to the sarcasms of the Mariage de Firacter, in all the three dramas, he intended to repre- garo. Of consequence, Beaumarchais, during his sent himself. Figaro, it is true, is originally a bar- life, was more celebrated than respectable, and the ber, and afterwards a valet; but he is also a poet, a reputation he enjoyed in his own age was greater musician, and great intriguer, while the freedom than that which he is likely to preserve with poswhich he uses with his master gives full scope for terity. (m.)

BEAUTY. JBeAUTY,—that property in objects by which they only give instances of their occurrence; and that are recommended to the power or faculty of Taste— one who had never seen them could learn nothing the reverse of Ugliness—the primary or most gene- whatever from these pretended definitions. Complex ral object of love or admiration. ideas, on the other hand, and compound emotions, Necessary These, we confess, are rather explanations of the may be always defined, and explained to a certain imperfec- word than definitions of the thing it signifies ; and extent, by enumerating the parts of which they are tion of defi- can be of no value, even as explanations of the word, made up, or resolving them into the elements of which nition, till it be settled except only to those who understand, without ex- they are composed :—and we may thus acquire, not whether our planation, all the other words they contain. For, if only a substantial knowledge of their nature, but a sense of the curious inquirer should proceed to ask, “ And practical power in their regulation or production. Beauly be what is the faculty or power of Taste ?” we do not It becomes of importance, therefore, in the very State.0^tlie a simple , see at present what other answer we could give, than outset of this inquiry, to consider whether our sense sensation or otherwise. that it was that of which Beauty was the object; or of Beauty be really a simple sensation, like some of n‘' P by which we were enabled to discover and to relish those we have enumerated, or a compound or deriwhat was Beautiful. It is material, however, to ob- vative feeling, the sources or elements of which serve, that if it could be made out, as some have al- may be investigated and ascertained. If it be leged, that our perception of Beauty was a simple sen- the former, we have then only to refer it to the sation, like our perception of colour ; and that Taste peculiar sense or faculty of which it is the object; was an original and distinct sense, like that of seeing and to determine, by repeated observation, under or hearing; this would be truly the only definition that what circumstances it occurs :—But, if it be the latcould be given, either of the sense or of its object— ter, we have to proceed, by a joint process of obserand all that we could do in investigating the nature vation and reflection, to ascertain what are the priof the latter, would be to digest and enumerate mary feelings to which it may be referred; and by the circumstances under which it was found to pre- what peculiar modification of them it is produced sent itself to its appropriate organ. All that we can and distinguished. We are not quite prepared, as say of colour, if we consider it very strictly, is, that yet, to exhaust the whole of this important discusit is that property in objects by which they are re- sion, to which we shall be obliged to return in the commended to the faculty of sight; and the faculty sequel of our inquiry; but it is necessary, in order of sight can scarcely be defined in any other way to explain and to set forth, in their natural order, the than as that by which we are enabled to discover the difficulties with which the subject is surrounded, to existence of colour. When we attempt to proceed state here, in a very few words, one or two of the most farther, and say that Green is the colour of grass, and obvious, and, as we think, decisive objections against Red of roses or blood, it is plain that we do not in the notion of Beauty being a simple sensation, or the any respect explain the nature of those colours, but object of a separate and peculiar faculty.

173 B E A U T Y. Beauty. The first, and perhaps the most considerable, is the recognised to be the same, when they are again per- Beauly. want of agreement as to the presence and existence ceived in another; and the objects in which they rst reason 0f Beauty in particular objects, among men whose are thus perceived, are at once felt so far to resemainst(the organjzation js perfect, and who are plainly possess- ble each other, and to partake of the same nature. auty be- ed of the faculty, whatever it may be, by which Thus snow is seen to be white, and chalk is seen to be i a peeu- Beauty is discerned. Now, no such thing happens, we white ; but this is no sooner seen, than the two subv quality, jmagjne, or can be conceived to happen, in the case stances, however unlike in other respects, are felt at once to have this quality in common, and to resemble an ot er s m e ^ ofa° y ^ t P^ sensation, or the exercise of any each other in all that relates to the quality of colour, other distinct faculty. Where one man sees light, itinci use or all men who have eyes, see light also.—All men al- and the sense of seeing. Now, is this felt, or could iculty,— low grass to be green—and sugar to be sweet, and it even be intelligibly asserted, with regard to the it those ice to be cold,—and the unavoidable inference from quality of Beauty ? Take even a limited and specific 10 have an Faculty y apparent disagreement in such matters necessa- sort of Beauty,—for instance the Beauty of Form. not re-" rily is-, that the party is insane, or entirely destitute The form of a fine tree is beautiful—and the form gnise this 0f the sense or organ concerned in the perception, of a fine woman,—and the form of a column, and a ality in With regard to Beauty, however, it is obvious, at first vase, and a chandelier. Yet how can it be said that e same sight, that the case is quite different. One man sees the form of a woman has anything in common with jects. it perpetually, where to another it is quite invisible, that of a tree or a temple ? or to which of the —or even where its reverse seems to be conspicuous. senses by which forms are distinguished, does it apNor is this owing to the insensibility of either of the pear they have any resemblance or affinity ? The matter, however, becomes still more inexparties—for the same contrariety exists where both are keenly alive to the influences of the Beauty they tricable when we recollect that Beauty does not berespectively discern. A Chinese or African lover long merely to forms or colours, but to sounds, and would probably see nothing at all attractive in a belle perhaps to the objects of other senses; nay, that in all of London or Paris,—and undoubtedly, an elegans for- languages and in all nations, it is not supposed to marum spectator, from either of these cities, would dis- reside exclusively in material objects, but to belong cover nothing but deformity in the Venus of the Hot- also to sentiments and ideas, and intellectual and tentots. A little distance in time produces the same moral existences. Not only is a tree Beautiful, as effects as distance in place;—the gardens, the furni- well as a palace or a waterfall; but a poem is Beauture, the dress, which appeared beautiful in the eyes tiful, and a theorem in mathematics, and a contrivance of our grandfathers, are odious and ridiculous in in mechanics. But if things intellectual and totally ours. Nay, the difference of rank, education, or segregated from matter may thus possess Beauty, how employments, give rise to the same diversity of sen- can it possibly be a quality of material objects ? Or sation. The little shopkeeper sees a Beauty in his what sense or faculty can that be, whose proper office roadside box, and in the staring tile roof, wooden it is to intimate to us the existence of some property lions, and clipped boxwood, which strike horror into which is common to a flower and a demonstration, a the soul of the student of the picturesque,—while valley and an eloquent discourse ? The only answer which occurs to this, is plainly Suggest ion he is transported in surveying the fragments of anthat their cient sculpture, which are nothing but ugly masses of enough a bad one; but the statement of it, and of its Agreeablemouldering stone, in the judgment of the admirer of insufficiency, will serve better, perhaps, than anything ness ruay be neatness. It is needless, however, to multiply in- else, to develope the actual difficulties of the subject, their comstances, since the fact admits of no contradiction. and the true state of the question with regard to them. mon quality But how can we believe, that Beauty is the object It may be said, then, in answer to the questions we of a peculiar sense or faculty, when persons un- have suggested above, that all these objects, however doubtedly possessed of the faculty, and even in an various and dissimilar," agree at least in being Agreeeminent degree, can discover nothing of it in objects able, and that this Agreeableness, which is the only where it is distinctly felt and perceived by others quality they possess in common, may probably be the Beauty which is ascribed to them all. Now, to with the same use of the faculty ? This one consideration, we confess, appears to us those who are accustomed to such discussions, it refuted, by conclusive against the supposition of Beauty being a would be quite enough to reply, that though the general t onsiiierareal property of objects, addressing itself to the Agreeableness of such objects depend plainly enough tions. power of Taste as a separate sense or faculty,—and upon their Beauty, it by no means follows, but quite seems to point irresistibly to the conclusion, that the contrary, that their Beauty depends upon their our sense of it is the result of other more elementa- Agreeableness ; the latter being the more comprery feelings, into which it may be analyzed or resolv- hensive or generic term, under which Beauty must rea ^t^e 'ed. A second objection, however, if possible of still rank as one of the species. Its nature, therefore, is finite va- greater force, is suggested, by considering the pro- no more explained, nor is less absurdity substantially ety of ob- digious and almost infinite variety of things to which committed, by saying that things are Beautiful, bec s t0 ! this property of Beauty is ascribed, and the impos- cause they are Agreeable, than if we were to give iabt ^of sibility imagining any one inherent quality which the s^me explanation of the sweetness of sugar ; for eamy can belong to them all, and yet, at the same time, no one, we suppose, will dispute, that though it be mstbe possess so much unity as to be the peculiar object very true that sugar is agreeable because it is sweet, eld to be- of a separate s. nse or faculty. All simple qualities it would be manifestly preposterous to say that it that are perceived in any one object, are immediately was sweet because it was agreeable. For the bene-

B E A U T Y. fit, however, of those who wish or require to be more all material Beauty is perceived ; and yet the Beauty B< auty. regularly initiated in these mysteries, we beg leave which discloses itself to these two separate senses, and plainly depends upon qualities which have no to add a few observations. and more In the first place, then, it seems evident, that sort of affinity, is supposed to be one distinct qualiparticularly. Agreeableness, in general, cannot be the same with ty, and to be perceived by a peculiar sense or faculBeauty, because there are very many things in the ty ! The perplexity becomes still'greater when we highest degree Agreeable, that can in no sense be think of the Beauty of poems or theorems, and endeacalled Beautiful. Moderate heat, and savoury food, vour to imagine what qualities they can possess in and rest, and exercise, are Agreeable to the body; common with the agreeable modifications of light or but none of these can be called Beautiful; and of sound. It is in these considerations undoubtedly that the In wlmt the among objects of a higher class, the love and esteem of others, and fame, and a good conscience, and health, difficulty of the subject consists. The faculty of D|ffi the origi- impression they make upon the sense—and that our force or intensity ;—and, in the next place, one al and in- perception of Beauty is, in these instances, a mere whose office it is, almost exclusively, to make us acquainted with the existence and properties of those or anic sensa Jeaut^of g b°n. Now, we have already stated, that Colours.0 would be something quite unexampled in the his- external objects which are naturally interesting to tory either of mind or of language, if certain physi- our inward feelings and affections. This peculiarcal and bodily sensations should thus be confound- ity makes it extremely probable, that ideas of emoed with moral and social feelings with which they tion should be associated with the perceptions of

BEAUTY. 192 In the first place, we would ask, whether there is Beaoiy. Beauty, this sense, but extremely improbable, that its naked and unassociated sensations should in any case be any colour that is beautiful in all situations ? and, ^^vx/ eaut classed with such emotions. If the name of Beauty in the next place, whether there is any colour that® y°f is not beautiful in some situation ? With regard to were given to what directly gratifies any sense, such as that of tasting or smelling, which does not make the first, take the colours that are most commonly Association us acquainted with the nature or relations of out- referred to as being intrinsically beautiful—bright and alone, ward objects, there could be less room for such an ex- soft green—clear blue—bright pink, or vermilion. planation. But when it is the business ot a particular The first is unquestionably beautiful in vernal woods sense or organ to introduce to our knowledge those ob- and summer meadows ;—and, we humbly conceive, is jects which are naturally connected with ideas of Beautiful, because it is the Natural sign and concoemotion, it is easy to understand how its percep- mitant of those scenes and seasons of enjoyment. tions should be associated with these emotions, and Blue, again, is beautiful in the vernal sky;—and, an interest and importance thus extended to them, as we believe, for the sake of the pleasures of that belong to the intimations of no other bodi- which such skies are prolific ; and pink is beauly organ. But, on those very accounts, we should tiful on the cheeks of a young woman or the be prepared to suspect, that all the interest they pos- leaves of a rose, for reasons too obvious to be stated. sess is derived from this association ; and to distrust We have associations enough, therefore, to recomthe accuracy of any observations that may lead us mend all these colours, in the situations in which to conclude that its mere organic impulses ever they are beautiful; but, strong as these associations produced any thing akin to these associated emo- are, they are unable to make them universally beautions, or entitled to pass under their name. This tiful,—or beautiful, indeed, in any other situations. caution will appear still more reasonable, when it is Green would not be beautiful in the sky—nor blue considered, that all the other qualities ot visible ob- on the cheek—nor vermilion on the grass. It may jects, except only their colours, are now admitted to be said, indeed, that, though they are always rebe perfectly indifferent in themselves, -and to possess cognised as beautiful in themselves, their obvious no other Beauty than they may derive from their as- unfitness in such situations counteracts the effect of sociations with our ordinary affections. There are their Beauty, and make an opposite impression, as no forms, for example, even in Mr Knight’s opinion, of something monstrous and unnatural; and that, that have any intrinsic Beauty, or any power of accordingly, they are all beautiful in indifferent sipleasing or affecting us, except through their asso- tuations, where there is no such antagonist principle— ciations, or affinities to mental affections, either as in furniture, dress, and ornaments. Now the fact, in expressive of Fitness and Utility, or as types and sym- the first place, is not so ;—these bright colours being bols of certain moral or intellectual qualities, in but seldom and sparingly admitted in ornaments or which the sources of our interest are obvious. Yet works of art; and no man, for example, choosing to the Form of an object is as conspicuous an ingredient have a blue house, or a green ceiling, or a pink of its Beauty as its Colour, and a property, too, which coat. But, in the second place, if the facts were seems at first view to be as intrinsically and inde- admitted, we think it obvious, that the general Beaupendently pleasing. Why, then, should we persist ty of these colours would be sufficiently accounted in holding that colours, or combinations of colours, for by the very interesting and powerful associations please from being naturally agreeable to the organ under which all of them are so frequently presented of sight, when it is admitted that other visible quali- by the hand of Nature. The interest we take in feties, which seem to possess the same power of pleas- male beauty,—in vernal delights,—in unclouded skies, ing, are found, upon examination, to owe it entirely —is far too lively and too constantly recurring, not to stamp a kindred interest upon the colours that are to the principle of association ? The only reason that can be assigned, or that ac- Naturally associated with such objects, and to make tually exists for this distinction, is, that it has been us regard with some affection and delight those hues supposed more difficult to account for the Beauty of that remind us of them, although we should only Colours, upon the principles which have accounted meet them upon a fan, or a dressing-box, the lining for other Beauties, or to specify the particular asso- of a curtain, or the back of a screen. Finally, we ciations by virtue of which they could acquire this beg leave to observe, that all bright and clear coquality. Now, it appears to us that there is no such lours are naturally typical of cheerfulness and purity difficulty; and that there is no reason whatever for of mind, and are hailed as emblems of moral qualiholding that one colour, or combination of colours, ties, to which no one can be indift'erent. With regard to ugly colours again, we really are is more pleasing than another, except upon the same grounds of association which recommend particular not aware of any to which that epithet can be safeforms, motions, or proportions. It appears to us, ly applied. Dull and dingy hues are usually menthat the organic pleasures of the eye are extremely tioned as in themselves the least pleasing. Yet these few and insignificant. It is hurt, no doubt, by an are the prevailing tints in many beautiful landscapes, excessive glare of light; and it is in some degree and many admired pictures. They are also the gratified, pei'haps, by a moderate degree of it. But most common colours that are chosen for dress,—for it is only by the quantity or intensity of the light we building,—for furniture,—where the consideration of think that it is so affected. The colour of it, we take Beauty is the only motive for the choice. In fact, it, is, in all cases, absolutely indifferent. But it is the shaded parts of all coloured objects pass into the colour only that is called Beautiful or otherwise ; tints of this description:—nor can we at present reand these qualities we think it very plainly derives collect any one colour, which we could specify as in itself disagreeable, without running counter to the from the common fountain of association.

193 BEAU T Y. Beauty, feelings and the practice of the great mass of man- such associations ; and it seems to us an irresistible Beauty. ^ ^Y^’' kind. If the fact, however, were otherwise, and if proof of this, that these laws of harmonious colouring certain muddy and dull colours were universally al- are perpetually and deliberately violated by great lowed to be disagreeable, we should think there could multitudes of persons, who not only have the perfect be no difficulty in referring these, too, to natural asso- use of their sight, but are actually bestowing great ciations. Darkness, and all that approaches it, is pains and expence in providing for its gratification, naturally associated with ideas of melancholy,—of in the very act of this violation. The Dutch trader, helplessness, and danger;—and the gloomy hues who paints over the outside of his country-house with that remind us of it, or seem to draw upon it, must as many bright colours as are to be found in his share in the same associations. Lurid skies, too, it tulip-bed, and garnishes his green shutters with blue should be observed, and turbid waters, and unfruitful facings, and his purple roof with lilac ridges,—not swamps, and dreary morasses, are the Natural and only sees as well as the studied colourist, who shudmost common wearers of these dismal liveries. It is ders at the exhibition, but actually receives as much from these that we first become acquainted with them; pleasure, and as strong an impression of Beauty, and it is needless, therefore, to say, that such objects from the finished/wst/fOMs, as the artist does from one are necessarily associated with ideas of discomfort, of his best pictures. It is impossible, then, that these and sadness, and danger; and that the colours that combinations of colours can be naturally or intrinsiremind us of them, can scarcely fail to recal some cally offensive to the organ of sight; and their Beauty or ugliness must depend upon the associaof the same disagreeable sensations, lauty of Enough, however, and more than enough, has been tions which different individuals may have happened ixfid or said about the supposed primitive and independent to form with regard to them. We contend, hownibined Beauty of separate colours. It is chiefly upon the ever, for nothing more; and are quite willing to allow ours ' intrinsic Beauty of their mixture or combinations that the associations which recommend his staring that Mr Knight and his adherents have insisted ;— tawdriness to the burgomaster, are such as could and it is no doubt quite true, that, among painters and not easily have been formed in the mind of a diligent connoisseurs, we hear a great deal about the harmony and extensive observer of nature, and that they and composition of tints, and the charms and difficul- would probably be reversed by habits of reflection ties of a judicious colouring. In all this, however, we and study. But the same thing, it is obvious, may cannot help suspecting that there is no little pedant- be said of the notions of beauty of any other dery, and no little jargon; and that these phrases, when scription that prevail among the rude, the inexpeused without reference to the practical difficulties of rienced, and uninstructed;—though, in all other inthe art, which must go for nothing in the present stances, we take it for granted, that the Beauty question, really mean little more than the true and which is perceived depends altogether upon assonatural appearance of coloured objects, seen through ciation, and in no degree on its power of giving a the same tinted or partially obscure medium that com- pleasurable impulse to the organ to which it addresses monly constitutes the atmosphere. In nature, we itself. If any considerable number of persons, with know of no discordant or offensive colouring, except the perfect use of sight, actually take pleasure in what may be referred to some accident or disaster certain combinations of colours,—that is complete that spoils the moral or sentimental expi’ession of proof that such combinations are not Naturally ofthe scene, and disturbs the associations upon which fensive to the organ of sight, and that the pleasure all its Beauty, whether of forms or of hues, seems to of such persons, exactly like that of those who disus very plainly dependent. We are perfectly aware, agree with them, is derived not from the sense, but that ingenioui persons have been disposed to dog- from associations with its perceptions. With regard, again, to the effect of broken masses Effects of matize and to speculate very confidently upon these subjects ; and have had the benefit of seeing various of light and shadow, it is proper, in the first place, Light and learned treatises upon the natural gamut of colours, to remember, that by the eye we see colour only ; ^‘aaow. and the inherent congruity of those that are called and that lights and shadows, as far as the mere orcomplementary, with reference to the prismatic spec- gan is concerned, mean nothing but variations of trum. But we confess we have no faith in any of tint. It is very true, no doubt, that we soon learn those fancies; and believe, that, if all these colours to refer many of those variations to light and shade, were fairly arranged on a plain board, according to and that they thus become signs to us of depth, and the most rigid rules of this supposed harmony, no- distance, and relief. But, is not this, of itself, sufbody, but the author of the theory, would perceive ficient to refute the idea of their affording any the smallest Beauty in the exhibition, or be the least primitive or organic pleasure ? In so far as they are offended by reversing their collocation. mere variations of tints, they may be imitated by unWe do not mean,- however, to dispute, that the meaning daubs of paint on a pallet;—in so far as laws of colouring, insisted on by learned artists, will they are signs, it is to the mind that they address produce a more pleasing effect upon trained judges themselves, and not to the organ. They are signs, of the art, than a neglect of these laws; because we too, it should be recollected, and the only signs we have little doubt that these combinations of colour have, by which we can receive any correct knoware recommended by certain associations, which ren- ledge of the existence and condition of all external der them generally pleasing to persons so trained and objects at a distance from us, whether interesting or educated ;—all that we maintain is, that there are not interesting. Without the assistance of variety no combinations that are originally and Universally of tint, and of lights and shadows, we could never pleasing or displeasing to the eye, independent of distinguish one object from another, except by the VOL. II. part i. bb

beauty. 394 Beauty, touch. These appearances, therefore, are the per- at all events, an indifferent spectacle; and, if pre- Beauty, petual vehicles of almost all our interesting percep- sented to us without actual offence to our senses, or tions ; and are consequently associated with all the any call on our active beneficence, may excite a symemotions we receive from visible objects. It is plea- pathetic emotion, which is known to be far from unsant to see many things in one prospect, because delightful. Many an attractive poem has been writsome of them are probably agreeable; and it is plea- ten on the miseries of beggars ; and why should sant to know the relations of those things, because painting be supposed more fastidious ? Besides, it the qualities or associations, by means of which they will be observed, that the beggars of the painter are interest us, generally depend upon that knowledge. generally among the most interesting of that interestThe mixture of colours and shades, however, is ne- ing order ;—either young and lovely children, whose cessary to this enjoyment, and consequently is a sign health and gaiety, and sweet expression, form an affecting contrast with their squalid garments, and the of it, and a source of associated interest or beauty. Opinion of Mr Knight, however, goes much farther than this ; neglect and misery to which they seem to be destinMr Knight, and maintains, that the Beauty which is so distinctly ed,—or old and venerable persons, mingling someUiat the pgjj. jn many pictures of objects in themselves disa- thing of the dignity and reverence of age with the broken spirit of their condition, and seemipg to x’emany pic- greeable, is to be ascribed entirely to the effect of proach mankind for exposing heads so old and white tures de- the brilliant and harmonious tints, and the masses of pends main- light and shadow that may be employed in the re- to the pelting of the pitiless storm. While such picly on the presentation. The filthy and tattered rags of a beg- tures suggest images so pathetic, it looks almost like intrinsic gar, he observes, and the putrifying contents of a a wilful perversity, to ascribe their Beauty entirely Beauty dunghill, may form beautiful objects in a picture ; to the mixture of colours which they display, and to of their Colours. because, considered as mere objects of sight, they the forgetfulness of these images. Even for the may often present beautiful effects of colouring and dunghill, we think it is possible to say something,— shadow; and these are preserved or heightened in though, we confess, we have never happened to see the imitation, disjoined from all their offensive ac- any picture, of which that useful compound formed companiments. Now, if the tints and shades were the peculiar subject. There is the display of the the exclusive sources of our gratification, and if this painter’s art and power here also ; and the dunghill is gratification was diminished, instead of being height- not only Useful, but is associated w ith many pleasing ened, by the suggestion which, however transiently, images of rustic toil and occupation, and of the simRefuted, must still intrude itself, that they appeared in an plicity, and comfort, and innocence of agricultural 1st, By life. We do not know that a dunghill is at all a Facts in- imitation of disgusting objects, it must certainly fol- disagreeable object to look at, even in plain reality— consistent low, that the pleasure and the beauty would be much with it;— enhanced if there was no imitation of any thing what- provided it be so far off as not to annoy us with its and, ever, and if the canvas merely presented the tints odour, or to soil us with its effusions. In a picture, and shades, unaccompanied with the representation however, we are safe from any of these disasters; and, of any particular object. It is perfectly obvious, considering that it is usually combined, in such dehowever, that it would be absurd to call such a col- lineations, with other more pleasing and touching relection of coloured spots a beautiful picture; and membrancers of humble happiness and contentment, that a man would be laughed at who should hang we really do not see that it was at all necessary to up such a piece of stained canvas among the works impute any mysterious or intrinsic Beauty to its of the great artists. Again, if it were really pos- complexion, in order to account for the satisfaction it. sible for any one, but a student of art, to confine wdth which we can then bear to behold Having said so much with a view7 to reduce to its the attention to the mere colouring and shadowing of any picture, there is nothing so disgusting but just value, as an ingredient of Beauty, the mere orwhat might form the subject of a beautiful imitation. ganical delight which the eye is supposed to derive A piece of putrid veal, or a cancerous ulcer, or the from colours, we really have not patience to apply rags that are taken from it, may display the most the same considerations to the alleged Beauty of The Beauty brilliant tints, and the finest distribution of light and Sounds that are supposed to be insignificant. Beaushadow. Does Mr Knight, however, seriously think, tiful Sounds, in general, we think, are Beautiful fromt(0m Asso, that either of these experiments would succeed ? association only,—from their resembling the natural ciation. Or, are there, in reality, no other qualities in the tones of various passions and affections,—or from their pictures in question, to which their beauty can be being originally and most frequently presented to us in ascribed, but the organic effect of their colours ? scenes or on occasions of natural interest or emotion. We humbly conceive that there are ; and that far With regard, again, to successive or coexistent less ingenuity than his might have been able to de- sounds, we do not, of course, mean to dispute, that there are such things as Melody and Harmony, and tect them. 2dly, By a There is, in the first place, the pleasing associa- that most men are offended or gratified by the violabetter and tion of the Skill and Power of the artist,—a skill and tion or observance of those law’s upon which they more natural Expla- power which we know 7nay be employed to produce depend. This, however, it should be observed, is a nation of unmingled delight ; whatever may be the character of faculty quite unique, and unlike anything else in our the inthe particular effort before us. But, in the second constitution ; by no means universal, as the sense of stances on place, we do humbly conceive that there are many Beauty is, even in cultivated societies, and apparently which he interesting associations connected with the subjects withheld from wdiole communities of quick-eared sarelies. which have been represented as purely disgusting. vages and barbarians. Whether the kind of gratificaThe aspect of human wretchedness and decay is not, tion, which results from the mere musical arrangeJO

BEAUTY. 195 tural object of love, pity, admiration, or awe. The Beauty, Beauty, ment of sounds, would be referred to a sense of Beauty, or would pass under that name, if it could be pre- interest of material objects, therefore, is always the sented entirely detached from any associated emotions, same ; and arises, in every case, not from any physiappears to us to be exceedingly doubtful. Even with cal qualities they may possess, but from their associthe benefit of these combinations, we do not find, that ation with some idea of emotion. But, though maevery arrangement which merely preserves inviolate terial objects have but one means of exciting emothe rules of composition, i£ considered as Beautiful; tion, the emotions they do excite are infinite. They and we do not think that it would be consonant, are mirrors that may reflect all shades and all either to the common feeling or common language of colours ; and, in point of fact, do seldom reflect the mankind, to bestow this epithet upon pieces that had same hues twice. No two interesting objects, perhaps, no other merit. At all events, and whatever may be whether known by the name of Beautiful, Sublime, thought of the proper name of this singular gratifi- or Picturesque, ever produced exactly the same cation of a musical ear, it seems to be quite certain, emotion in the beholder; and no one object, it is that all that rises to the dignity of an emotion in the most probable, ever moved any two persons to the pleasure we receive from sounds, is as clearly the very same conceptions. As they may be associated gift of association, as in the case of visible beauty,— with all the feelings and affections of which the huof association with the passionate tones and modula- man mind is susceptible, so they may suggest those tions of the human voice,—with the scenes to which feelings in all thfiir variety, and, in fact, do daily exthe interesting sounds are native,—with the poetry cite all sorts of emotions—running through every to which they have been married,—or even with gradation, from extreme gaiety and elevation, to the the skill and Genius of the artist by whom they have borders of horror and disgust. Now, it is certainly true, that all the variety of been arranged. leauty of Hitherto we have spoken of the Beauty of exter- emotions raised in this way, on the single basis of I" mmaterial nal objects only. But the whole difficulty of the association, may be classed, in a rude way, under the tbjects re- theory consists in its application to them. If that denominations of Sublime, Beautiful, and Picturlelame0 1)6 once atl)ustecl> tJie Beauty of immaterial objects esque, according as they partake of awe, tenderness, jurces. can occasion no perplexity. Poems, and other com- or admiration; and we have no other objection to positions in words, are Beautiful in proportion as they this nomenclature, except its extreme imperfection, are conversant with Beautiful objects—or as they and the delusions to which we know that it has given suggest to us, in a more direct way, the Moral and occasion. If objects that interest by their association social emotions on which the Beauty of all objects with ideas of Power, and Danger, and Terror, are to depends. Theorems and demonstrations are Beauti- be distinguished by the peculiar name of Sublime, ful, according as they excite in us emotions of admi- why should there not be a separate name also for ration for the Genius and intellectual Power of their objects that interest by associations of Mirth and inventors, and images of the magnificent and bene- Gaiety,—another for those that please by suggestions ficial ends to which such discoveries may be ap- of Softness and Melancholy,—another for such as are plied ;—and mechanical contrivances are Beautiful connected with impressions of Comfort and Tranquilwhen they remind us of similar Talents and ingenui- lity>—and another and another for those that are rety, and at the same time impress us with a more di- lated to Pity, and admiration, and love, and regret, rect sense of their vast Utility to mankind, and of and all the other distinct emotions and affections of the great additional conveniences with which life is our nature i* These are not in reality less distinguishconsequently adorned. In all cases, therefore, there able from each other, than from the emotions of is the suggestion of some interesting conception or awe and veneration that confer the title of Sublime emotion associated with a present perception, in on their representatives ; and while all the former are which it is apparently confounded and embodied— confounded under the comprehensive appellation of and this, according to the whole of the preceding Beauty, this partial attempt at distinction is only deduction, is the distinguishing characteristic of apt to mislead us into an erroneous opinion of our accuracy, and to make us believe, both that there Beauty. ]onseHaving now explained, as fully as we think neces- is a greater conformity among the things that pass juences of gary, the grounds of that opinion as to the nature of under the same name, and a greater difference beTheory, i}eauty which appears to be most conformable to the tween those that pass under different names, than is a wor( or two as to tIie really the case. We have seen already, that the raestablish10 truth—we tlave only t0 * he identity necessary consequences of its adoption upon several dical error of almost all preceding inquirers, has lain in supposing that every thing that passed under the )f the Beau-other controversies of a kindred description. P the first lace t ien we conceive tha iabhm P > ^ ’ t it esta- name of Beautiful, must have some real and inheindthepic.blishes the substantial identity of the Sublime, the rent quality in common with every thing else that :uresque, * Beautiful, and the Picturesque ; and, consequently, obtained that name: And it is scarcely necessary puts an end to all controversy that is not purely for us to observe, that it has been almost as general verbal, as to the difference of those several qualities. an opinion, that Sublimity was not only something Every material object that interests, without actual- radically different from Beauty, but actually oppoly hurting or gratifying our bodily feelings, must do site to it; whereas the fact is, that it is far more so, according to this theory, in one and the same man- nearly related to some sorts of Beauty, than many ner,—that is, by suggesting or recalling some emotion sorts of Beauty are to each other; and that both are or affection of ourselves, or some other sentient being, founded exactly upon the same principle of suggesting and presenting, to our imagination at least, some na- some past or possible emotion of some sentient being.

196 Beauty.

B E A Upon this important point, we are happy to find our opinions confirmed by the authority of Mr Stewart, who, in his Essay on the Beautiful, already referred to, has observed, not only that there appears to him to be no inconsistency or impropriety in such^ expressions as the Sublime Beauties of nature, or of the sacred Scriptures ;—but Has added, in express terms, that, “to oppose the Beautiful to the Sublime, or to the picturesque, strikes him as something analogous to a contrast between the Beautiful and the Comic—the Beautiful and the Tragic—the Beautiful and the Pathetic—or the Beautiful andthe Romantic. Secondly, The only other advantage which we shall specify To put an as likely to result from the general adoption of the

pute^abont theory we have been endeavouring to illustrate, is, the Stand- that it seems calculated to put an end to all these ard of 1'aste. perplexing and vexatious questions about the Standard of Taste, which have given occasion to so much impertinent and so much elaborate discussion. If things are not Beautiful in themselves, but only as they serve to suggest interesting conceptions to the mind, then every thing which does in point of fact suggest such a conception to any individual, is Beautiful to that individual; and it is not only quite true that there is no room for disputing about tastes, but that all tastes are equally just and correct, in so far as each individual speaks only of his own emotions. When a man calls a thing Beautiful, however, he may indeed mean to make two very different assertions ; — he may mean that it gives him pleasure, by suggesting to him some interesting emotion ; and, in this sense, there can be no doubt that, if he merely speak truth, the thing is beautiful; and that it pleases him precisely in the same way that all other things please those to whom they appear beautiful. But if lie mean farther to say that the thing possesses some quality which should make it appear Beautiful to every other person, and that it is owing to some prejudice or defect in them if it appear otherwise, then he is as unreasonable and absurd as he would think those who should attempt to convince him that he felt no emotion of Beauty. All tastes, then, are equally just and true, in so far as concerns the individual whose taste is in question ; and what a man feels dbtincliy to be beautiful, is Beautiful to him, whatever other people may think of it. All this follows clearly from the theory now in question : But it does not follow, from it, that all tastes are equally good or desirable, or that there is any difficulty in describing that which is really the best, and the most to be envied. The only use of the faculty of Taste, is to afford an innocent delight, and to aid the cultivation of a finer morality ; and that man certainly will have the most delight from this faculty, who has the most numerous and the most powerful perceptions of Beauty. But, if Beauty consist in the reflection of our affections and sympathies, it is plain that he will always see the most Beauty whose affections are warmest and most exercised,—whose imagination is the most powerful, and who has most accustomed himself to attend to the objects by which he is surrounded. In so far as mere feeling and enjoyment are concerned, therefore. it seems evident, that the best taste must be that which belongs to the best Affections, the most

U T Y. active Fancy, and the most attentive habits of Obser- Beauty, vation. It will follow pretty exactly too, that all ^ men’s perceptions of Beauty will be nearly in proportion to the degree of their sensibility and social sympathies; and that those who have no affections towards sentient beings, will be just as insensible to Beauty in external objects, as he, who cannot hear the sound of his friend’s voice, must be deaf to its echo. In so far as the sense of Beauty is regarded as a mere source of enjoyment, this seems to be the only distinction that deserves to be attended to; and the only cultivation that Taste should ever receive, with a view to the gratification of the individual, should be through the indirect channel of cultivating the affections and powers of observation. If we aspire, however, to be creators, as well as observers of Beauty, and place any part of our happiness in ministering to the gratification of others-—as artists, or poets, or authors of any sort—then, indeed, a new distinction of Tastes, and a tar more laborious system of cultivation, will be necessary. A man who pursues only his own delight, will be as much charmed with objects that suggest powerful emotions in consequence of personal and accidental associations, as with those that introduce similar emotions by means of associations that are universal and indestructible. To him, all objects of the former class are really as beautiful as those of the latter—and, for his own gratification, the creation of that sort of Beauty is just as important an occupation: But if he conceive the ambition of creating beauties for the admiration of others, he must be cautious to employ only such objects as are the natural signs, or the inseparable concomitants of emotions, of which the greater part of mankind are susceptible; and his taste will then deserve to be called bad and false, if he obtrude upon the public, as beautiful, objects that are not likely to be associated in common minds with any interesting impressions. For a man himself, then, there is no taste that is either bad or false ; and the only difference worthy of being attended to, is that between a great deal and a ver} little. Some who have cold affections, sluggish imagina.ions, and no habits of observation, can with difficulty discern Beauty in any thing; while others, who are full of kindness and sensibility, and who have been accustomed to attend to all the objects around them, feel it almost in everything. It is no matter what other people may think of the objects of their admiration ; nor ought it to be any concern of theirs that the public would be astonished or offt-nded if they were called upon to join in that admiration. So long as no such call is made, this anticipated discrepancy of feeling need give them no uneasiness ; and the suspicion of it should produce no contempt in any other persons. It is a strange aberration indeed of vanity that makes us despise persons for being happy—for having sources of enjoyment in which we cannot share :—And yet this is the true account of the ridicule, which is so generally poured upon individuals who seek only to enjoy their peculiar tastes unmolested.—For, if there be any truth in the theory we have been expounding, no taste is bad for any other reason than because it is peculiar—as the objects in which it deli

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Beauty lights must actually serve to suggest to the individual II those common emotions and universal affections upon Becc'tna. tjie sense of Beauty is everywhere founded. The misfortune is, however, that we are apt to consider all persons who make known their peculiar relishes, and especially all who create any objects for their gratification, as in some measure dictating to the public, and setting up an idol for general adoration ; and hence this intolerant interference with almost all peculiar perceptions of beauty, and the unsparing derision that pursues all deviations from acknowledged standards. This intolerance, we admit, is often provoked by something of a spirit of proselytisrn and arrogance, in those who mistake their own casual associations for natural or universal relations; and the consequence is, that mortified vanity dries up the fountain of their peculiar enjoyment, and disenchants, by a new association of general contempt

BECCARIA (Cesar Bonesana, Marquis of), author of the well known treatise on Crimes and Punishments, was born at Milan in the year 1735. His early studies were carried on in the College of the Jesuits at Parma. He possessed a quick apprehension ; but, being naturally taciturn, and inclined to reflection, he seldom communicated the progress of his ideas, and was with difficulty prevailed upon to complete his exercises. It is related, as another peculiarity of his disposition, that he never received praise from his teachers without betraying evident marks of pain and humiliation. These unusual indications of a susceptible mind, which, outstripping the course of his instructors, delighted in its own pursuits, and derived little complacency from a sense of its actual attainments, gave him, to common observers, a certain air of slowness, and even of stupidity ; and characterized his features and deportment during the whole of his life. Having left the college at the age of seventeen, he applied himself, with unremitting diligence, to the study of Mathematics, and the Philosophy of Man. His understanding appears to have been very early capable of embracing the most general views, and his breast to have been warmed by those benevolent wishes for the enlargement of human happiness, the sincerity and the strength of which are often so severely tried by the events and passions of maturer life. His propensity to the study of Jurisprudence, and Political Philosophy, was first excited or confirmed by the Lcttres Persannes of Montesquieu; a production capable, indeed, of alluring a less enthusiastical mind than that of Beccaria. But his industry, in the pursuit of knowledge, appears to have been chiefly stimulated by the patriotic and honourable desire of diftusing instruction among his countrymen, particularly the inhabitants of Milan, whom he represents, in one of his letters, as abandoned to a state of lamentable and universal ignorance. In

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or ridicule, the scenes that had been consecrated by some innocent but accidental emotion. Beccaria. As all men must have some peculiar associations, all men must have some peculiar notions of beauty, and, of course, to a certain extent, a taste that the public would be entitled to consider as false or vitiated. For those who make no demands on public admiration, however, it is hard to be obliged to sacrifice this source of enjoyment; and, even for those who labour for applause, the wisest course, perhaps, if it were only practicable, would be, to have two tastes,—one to enjoy, and one to work by,—one founded upon Universal associations, according to which they finished those performances for which they challenged universal praise,—and another guided by all casual and individual associations, through which they looked fondly upon nature, and upon the objects of their secret admiration. (GG*)

the prosecution of these laudable designs, he fortunately possessed the confidence, and was encouraged by the protection, of Count Firmiani, then governor of that part of the Austrian dominions ; an accomplished nobleman, who, with comprehensive views of policy, concurred in every plan which was calculated for improving the state of the provinces, and the condition of their inhabitants. Beccaria first appeared as an author in the year 1762, when he published some observations on the Derangement of the Currency in the Milanese States, and a plan for its amendment. Soon after this he established a small literai'y society at Milan, in concert with some associates of character and sentiments similar to his own; among others, Alessandro and Pietro Verri, who likewise contributed at that time, by their talents and public spirit, to distinguish the reign of Maria Teresa in Lombardy. * Assisted by these friends, and countenanced by Firmiani, he commenced a periodical publication under the name of the Caffe ; a plan said to have been suggested to them by the celebrity of Addison’s Spectator, and the general belief of its influence on the opinions and taste of the people of England. Various papers, contributed by the members of this society, on subjects of literature, ethics, and physical science, were published during the years 1764< and 1765. But by far the most remarkable production to which this society gave rise, and that by which the reputation of Beccaria has been chiefly perpetuated among other nations, was the treatise on Crimes and Punishments {Dei Delitti e Delle Pene). This essay is said to have been undertaken at the earnest solicitation of Count Alexander Verri, who then discharged the functions of Protector of Prisoners {Protertore de' Carcerati) at the Court of Milan. It was wu-itten at the house of his brother, Peter Verri, w'here the meetings of the society were held; and in concert with him the author, every evening, revised

* A small publication which appeared about that time, under the title of Thoughts on Happiness, was written by the former. His literary pursuits were, soon after, suspended by his appointment to a public situation.

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198 Beccaiia.

B E C and corrected what he had written during the day. In this manner the work was completed within two months, and was printed in the course of the year 1764*> with the mark of the Lucca press. * In this small but noted work, the author appears as the advocate of reason and sound policy, no less than of humanity. It was his purpose, by examining the foundation, the objects, and consequently the boundaries of penal law, to expose the inefficacy, as well as injustice, of many provisions in the judicial code of his own country, and in those ot other European nations; and which, derived from remote times, and established under a different order of society, had been perverted and debased during successive ages of barbarism. The authority of positive institutions formed almost the only basis of law, even in countries the farthest advanced in civilization; and that authority was in many of them drawn too servilely from the Roman system. Montesquieu had already thrown many penetrating glances at the foundation and structure of these ancient fabrics ; but it was still reserved for others to scrutinize them more closely, and to draw forth, and present to general view, those direct inferences which that examination suggested. In no part were the existing codes more defective and vicious, than in the department of the criminal law; and it was to this, accordingly, that Beccaria’s attention was exclusively directed. Nor does he offer the work as a general system, or theory, even-of penal law; in which light it would be found every way imperfect; but only as an attempt to analyze parts of a system which he found actually existing. Among the most prominent of those points to which his reasoning is applied, are, the due proportion between crime and punishment, and the violations of that proportion, whether by unnecessary severity of punishments, or the want of a scale and distribution of them suited to the amount and danger of particular offences—the inconsistency of certain rules then established on the subject of legal Evidence—Secret Accusations—Fictitious Crimes —the use of Torture as an instrument for the discovery of truth—Imprisonment not authorized by law, or of uncertain duration—and the sale of offices of justice, along with other vices in the constitution of the courts. In treating these various topics, he seldom deduces his argument from remote sources, or pursues it to refinements. That some propositions are advanced in the course of the work, which are of a questionable nature, cannot be denied ; and there are particular illustrations which have an exclusive reference to certain forms of government then existing in the Italian states. But, in general, the author reasons on few and acknowledged principles, and makes his appeal to the universal feelings

BEG of mankind. As one of the most important conclu- ^aria. sions which result from his reasoning, or rather as concentrating a number of these conclusions, he closes his book with the following proposition:— “ In order that a punishment may not be an act of violence, of one, or of many, against an individual member of society, it is essential that it should be public, prompt, and necessary, the least possible in the given case, and determined by the law.” His style, in this work, with exception of one or two passages, where he intentionally addresses himself only to the lesser number, is uniformly perspicuous, and, like that of all his other writings, though often eloquent, is unadorned. He employs, in some parts of it, that species of ridicule which, on a similar occasion, had been used with so great effect by Montesquieu. Thus, while treating the subject of Torture, he proposes, among others, the following query, in the form of a mathematical problem : “ The force of the muscles, and the sensibility of the nerves, of an innocent person being given, it is required to find the degree of pain necessary to make him confess himself guilty of a given crime ? Peculiar traits are to be found, likewise, in other passages, of the writer’s dispositions and train of sentiment. Thus having, in a later edition, modified, under that part which relates to fraudulent Bankruptcy, some sentiments which he had originally expressed, but which, on reflection, appeared to himself too severe, he adds, in a note, “ I am ashamed of what I formerly wrote on this subject. I have been accused of irreligion, without deserving it; I have been accused of disaffection to the government, and deserved it as little ; I was guilty of a real attack upon the rights of humanity, and I have been reproached by nobody.” If many of the views exhibited in this work are now divested of novelty ; and if, through the general adoption of them by the most cultivated nations, we are led to forget that they were once hidden, or excluded, such is the fate of all improvement, as well as of all discovery. Nor does it detract from the true character of this interesting performance, that in some enlightened countries, and in the more propitious climates of political liberty, many ot the important doctrines which it inculcated were already recognised in the systems of the law. f Beccaria was among the first by whom these principles were publicly avowed, under a government in whose institutions they had no place, and over whose judicial administration they exercised no influence; and, when the age and country in which he wrote are considered, the boldness of his statements-is not less to be admired than the justness of his reasoning. It is his honourable distinction, likewise, and that of

* These particulars, communicated in a letter of Count A. Verri to the Abbate Isidore Bianchi, in 1802, are repeated by the latter in his Elogio on Pietro Verri. . ,K •j- In the most favoured countries of liberty, however, the reception of some of these principles had been comparatively recent. Of others, the establishment seems even yet to be remote. _ That work which has tended most to diffuse a knowledge of the progress and spirit of the English laws, viz. the Commentariel of Sir William Blackstone, was not published till the close of the year ; although his plan of delivering a public lecture on the judicial system of his country was formed m 1753. The professorship at Oxford, which gave full effect to that plan, was instituted by Mr Viner, in 1758.

EEC Beccaria. the friends who shared his labours and his views, to have preserved, in the prosecution of those objects, an unblemished loyalty towards their prince; and, while combating, with manly perseverance, the errors which prevailed in fundamental principles of the legislation, to have abstained from all attacks which&might either directly weaken the authority of the laws, or disturb the administration of the government. According to the just exposition given by the author himself, the true tendency of such a work is not to lessen the power of the law, but to increase its influence, inasmuch as opinion has a greater command over the minds of men than force. It has iiequently been repeated, indeed, that national manners must precede laws; and, in the only allowable sense of that maxim, the same might be said, perhaps, with equal truth, of opinions. But the authority of this dictum, and the extent to which it may be followed, are not unfrequently mistaken. An important distinction is apt to be overlooked, between those general laws, which, as they are founded in permanent principles of our nature, admit of being drawn from the first springs, but which have been disturbed by ignorance, or a barbarous policy, or the temporary dominion of some prevailing passion—and those artificial or secondary arrangements, which the circumstances and stages of political society may equally render necessary in times of knowledge, and tranquillity, and civilization. It is to the latter class only that the maxim referred to can have any just application. But it may well be questioned, whether, in any case whatever, the popular feeling and opinion should be allowed to precede, by any considerable interval, the act of the legislatuie. It seems, on the contrary, to be a valuable secret in legislation, and one of its most important ends, to seize the proper moment for accomplishing that union. Above all, it is expedient, in those branches of the law, which are interwoven with, and derive their support from, the moral feelings, that a legislatoi should seek to anticipate every better tendency of public sentiment. Through want of a well-timed interference in such cases, many advantages are relinquished, as well in the concoction and fiame of the laws themselves, as in that silent influence, which a well directed system of jurisprudence carries into the opinions and habits of a community. Of the prospects which Beccaria himself entertained as to the probable influence of his work, a judgment may be formed from the sentence of Loid "Bacon, which he prefixed to some of the editions. « it is not to be expected in any difficult undertaking, of whatever kind, that the same person who sows the seed should also i*enp the harvest; but there must, of necessity, be a preparation, and gradual progress to maturity.” The book was received in foreign countries with avidity, and procured for its author an immediate and high reputation. “ Never,” says a writer in the Biographic Universelle, “ did so small a book produce so great an effect.” The medal given by the Academy of Bern was instantly bestowed upon Beccaria ; and the Empress Catherine II. invited him to St Petersburgh, with the offer of an honourable sta-

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tion at her court; a proposal which was partly the ^tcccaria.^ means of procuring him a similar distinction at home. Of the reception which the work obtained in France, particularly among the literary societies of Paris, evidence is afforded by the correspondence of the Baron de Grimm. “ This book,” he writes in a letter, dated 1st August 1765, is by M. Beccaria, a Milanese gentleman, who is said by some to be an Abb6, by others a lawyer, but wdio, I answer for it, is one of the best heads at this moment in Europe.” “ You will not find in the Milanese philosopher, he elsewhere observes, “ either the pitch or compass of genius which characterize the writings of the President Montesquieu; but you will discover a mind that is luminous, profound, correct, and penetrating.” And he justly adds, that his is one of the few precious books qui font penser. It was translated into French by the Abbe Morellet in 1766; and Voltaire, soon after, published a commentary upon it, under the assumed title of un Avocat de Bcsangon. With respect to the former production, the translator took some liberties with the method and distribution of the work, which were not altogether warrantable. Voltaire’s commentary is written in the light style peculiar to him ; and was, evidently, intended as a vehicle for certain opinions of his own, with which the spirit and object of ihe original publication are entirely unconnected. But the circumstance itself sufficiently marks the impression which that publication had made, and the prominence of the views which it developed. It was rapidly translated into various other languages ; its maxims became a species of current coin through a great part of Europe; and the sanction of the author’s reasoning was thought not unworthy of being resorted to in British tribunals. Although followed by many others, Beccaria’s was the first work of note, in which the application of a milder and more sound system of penal jurisprudence was explicitly enforced. Nor would it be at all extravagant to refer some of the great improvements, which, from this era, were successively introduced into the written laws of different European monarchies, to the direct influence of the opinions thus generally diffused. Many such enactments, at least, were, from this time, promulgated in a tone more consonant than heretofore with the dictates of humanity and equitable rule. Of this description were, among others, not only the urbarium, or regulations concerning villanage, issued in 1764, by the Empress Maria Teresa, but also the more extended designs which took effect, at a somewhat later period, in the various reformed codes, published by the Empress Catherine, the Emperor Joseph II., the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and the Danish Government under the administration of the late Count Bernstorf. At one period, a storm seemed to be preparing against the Marquis in his own country, by those who probably intended, in this form, a service to the government: but it was soon dispersed by the authority of the government itself. Beccaria had considered it his duty to communicate to Count Firmiani the offers which had been made to him by the Empress Catherine ; and the intelligence wras traps-

200 B E C Beecaria. mitted by the viceroy to his own court. The eonduct of Prince Kaunitz-Ritsberg, on the occasion, is highly honourable to that minister, and to his sovereign. Instead of treating the communication as a matter of no account, he makes it the subject of a long dispatch, and of repeated instructions. In one of these papers, dated 27th April 1767, after requiring particular information respecting the personal character of Reccaria, he adds, “ Supposing his good qualities to preponderate, it would be desirable that the country should not lose a man whose fund of knowledge is so considerable, and who, as appears from his book, possesses a mind habituated to reflection, above all, in our present penury of thinking and philosophical men; besides that it would do little honour to the whole administration, to be anticipated by foreigners in the due estimation of talents.”* Nor were these merely empty professions ; but were almost immediately followed by an imperial order, for establishing, in the Palatine College at Milan, a Professorship of Public Law and Economics, under the title of Scienze Camerali. To this chair, expressly endowed for him, by a distinction so honourable, the Marquis was appointed on the 1st of November 1768, and commenced the duties of it in the month of January following. From the preliminary discourse (prolusioTie) which he pronounced on this occasion, and in which he briefly sets forth the objects of the institution, and some of his own leading opinions regarding them, it appears that the only instructions which he received from the regency, on his appointment, consisted in an order to deliver his discourses in the vulgar tongue; an injunction of which the motives are so honourable to that government, in common with all the circumstances attending this transaction. His lectures, which he received a special permission to deliver in his own house, attracted much notice. They were not published during his life; but have since appeared, under the title of Elementi di Economia Pubblica, in the compilation of the Scrittori Classici Italiani di Economia PoUtica, printed at Milan, jAs he had, in his former work, set out with stating the object of municipal law to be “ the greatest happiness of the greatest number,” so here the same universal principle serves him for a guide; and he

B E C assumes it as the aim of public economy u to pro- Beecam. vide, with peace and safety, things necessary and convenient for the whole community.” He classes the objects of Political Economy under five heads; Agriculture, Manufactures, Commerce, Finance, and Policy; comprehending, under the latter, those laws and institutions which have a respect to the Sciences, to Education, to Police, in the modern sense of that word, and to the various means of Public Defence and Security. The design was not completed; no trace, at least, appears in the work published under the above title, relative to the subjects of Finance or Public Policy, j; In estimating the value of these speculations, it is no less necessary, than in the case of the former work, to consider them with a reference to the state of science at the time, rather than to the present extension of knowledge in this department. Under the first three divisions, he enters at considerable length into some of the most interesting discussions which have arisen in this wide field; particularly as to the principles of public policy in regard to Agriculture, to the Commerce of Grain and Foreign Commerce generally, and to Money and Exchange. $ In perspicuity of language, and distinct and patient illustration, the style of these discourses bears a considerable resemblance to that of the Wealth of Nations; but the coincidence between the two works, in some general and fundamental doctrines, is still more remarkable and interesting. Beccaria does not appear to have adopted the particular theory of the French Economists, which was developed about that time ; although his practical doctrines on some of the most important points were conformable to the conclusions afforded by that system. || Among other inferences, to which the course of his reasoning leads him, as it were by many different roads, may be noticed one, which he has himself ventured to state as a general proposition; and which marks the caution as well as enlargement of his mind, in subjects of complicated inquiry. “ Every restriction on freedom,” he observes, “ whether in the case of Commerce, or any other, ought to be a result from the necessity of preventing an actual disorder, not the effect of a purpose or aim at amelioration.” And he has repeated the same doctrine under different views, in various other passages.

* The originals of these dispatches are among the state papers in the public archives of Milan. f The editor states that this publication was made from a copy of the discourses, transcribed for the author himself, when he visited Paris in 1776. j; Some of the others, too, are treated rather briefly. He has, himself, defended this method of teaching by the following just and striking observations, in that part of the work where he discourses of Interest: “ But woe to the teacher who would say all that is to be said, and leave nothing to the penetration of the ^earner. What is heard slips away and vanishes from the hearer’s mind, unless he has an opportunity of opposing the reaction as it were, of his own intellect, to the impressions of his instructor; and more light is thrown upon a science by one process of exact reasoning which we carry on for ourselves, and it is more deeply and firmly rooted in us by that single operation, than by many and repeated trains of reasoning conducted by another.” § Under the head of Agriculture, he proposes the scheme of an Experimental Farm to be carried on at the public expence, as a school of that science, and enters into some detail of its objects and regulations. || Mirabeau’s Tableau Economique had already appeared in the publication entitled La Philosophic Rurale ; as well as various papers of Quesnai. For example, “ The operations of Economics amount only to not permitting, and most frequently to letting alone.”

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On all these subjects, he exercises, without ostentation, the privilege of examining and judging for himself; and in doing so, although he expresses himself with plainness and energy, * he is never dogmatical. He observes this further dictate of a sound philosophy, to refrain as long as possible from any very general conclusions; and, although he appears to have disengaged his mind from the power of common and hereditary notions respecting political economy, he does not, by a transition too often made, substitute dangerous or extravagant positions in their place. He is even more distinguished by the temperate use which he makes of his liberty, than by the independence which secured him from the chain. During the same period in which he pursued these labours, lieccaria undertook another literary task of a very different description; and commenced an In~ qairy into the Nature of Style, A first part of this Inquiry was published in 1770 ; but the author does not appear to have prosecuted his intention ; and only one detached portion of the remainder was found among his papers. £ The apology which he makes for this apparent deviation from his usual objects of pursuit, drawn from a consideration of the connection subsisting between the study of the fine arts, aiyjf that of moral and political science, affords a pleasing proof of the natural expansiveness of his mind. § His scientific and literary studies w^ere now to be interrupted, however, by new and more flattering marks of distinction from his government. By an imperial order of the 29th April I77I5 he was appointed a member of the Supreme Economic Council ; on the suppression of which, he was transferred to the Magistracy of State ; and, lastly, by a despatch of the 17th January 1791, was named one of the Board for Reform of the Judicial Code, civil and criminal. His activity and usefulness in the discharge of these great trusts are best proved by the circumstance, that some of the most important matters in those different departments were committed to his direction, and regulated by his counsels. The most remarkable of his state papers were, various Ordir jiances relative to the grain ; a very important Despatch transmitted to the Court in 1771, which gave rise to the reform of the public money in 1778 ; a Plan proposed in 1780, for effecting an uniformity in the weights and measures ; and certain Proposals, in 1786, founded on the tables of the population. His writings of this description are characterized by their method, perspicuity, and precision. It deserves to be noticed, respecting his scheme for the equali-

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zation of measures, that, of the different natural Beccaria. bases for exact measurement, he explicitly x'ecommends that which may be obtained from the celestial bodies; and, in the application of it, proposes to employ the decimal method of division ; being the same system which was afterwards adopted by the late Government of France. || In the year 1776’, Beccaria made a journey to France, in company with his friend Alessandro Verri. He remained at Paris for about three weeks, which he passed chiefly in the society of D’Alembert, and other eminent men of letters ; and, on his return, he visited Voltaire. This journey seems to have been the only considerable incident which, during a period of twenty-five years, diversified his manner oflife, or interrupted his official duties. He died of apoplexy, in the year 1798* According to the eijjtor of his Elementi, in 1804, his death was unnoticed by his country, and his tomb remained without a name. Beccaria was twice married. He was steadfast in his friendships ; modest, but tenacious of his opinions. He took pleasure in the society of literary men, and avoided that of the great. It is related of him, that the King of Naples, wffiile at Milan, twice attempted to visit him at his house; but that the Marquis found means, on both occasions, to escape the honour intended for him by his Majesty. His exertions in the service of the public, and, above all, his earnest endeavours to promote, by every means, the cause of science, and a liberal system of education, formed the chief feature of his life. On the latter topic, he has made many forcible and eloquent appeals, in the course of his different writings; and some passages of this description, winch are interspersed in his discourses of Political Economy, are not less to be admired for their intrinsic excellence, than they are interesting from the circumstances in which they were written, and the contrasts which they indirectly exhibit. One trait of his constitutional disposition, or confirmed habit, has been recorded, as furnishing a remarkable exception to the general vigour of his intellectual character ; that, notwithstanding the force with which he combated the prejudices and unreasonable apprehensions of other men, he was himself subject, when left alone, to an unconquerable timidity. We are not told whether this tendency was ascribed to early habits and a faulty education, or supposed to be the consequence of some sudden and fatal impression, which remained indissolubly associated with certain outward circumstances, or in what other manner it was formed and perpetuated. On a superficial view, it seems to denote a mind radically

* “ Con un non fanatico vigore,” as he has himself somewhere expressed it. But on occasions where he conceived that there might be a danger of inflaming the passions, he has claimed the tribute due to him for employing a style, “ beyond the reach of the uninformed and impatient multitude.” Ricerche in'orno alia Natura della Stile. | This additional chapter is given in the edition printed at Milan an I8O9. § In no part of his writings is the enlargement of his comprehension, as well as soundness of his judgment, more to be remarked, than in the Treatise on the State of the Currency, which was his first publication, and written at the age of twenty-seven. || In the mathematical calculations connected with this subject, he was assisted, as he himself states, by Frisi, Professor of Mathematics at Pisa ; and in the mechanical part by his brother Annibale. VOL, 11. part 1. cc

B E C 202 Beccaiia. weak. But this is not a necessary or a just inference. ‘ ^ J The fact is, indeed, singular, and deeply impressive; but, in truth, it only serves as a new example to prove how mixed is the nature ol our frame ; how imperfectly the understanding acts upon the will, and the will upon the mortal part; how many things appear to be within the jurisdiction ol our reason, which, nevertheless, are superior to its control. This is not the place to engage in a more particular examination of the spirit and scope ol Beccaria s writings. He is said to have expressed, at least during the early part of his life, too unqualified an approbation of the works of Helvetius, and others belonging to the same school of philosophy. On this score, some excuse may, perhaps, be found for him in the attractions which the style of the author now mentioned possesses for a youthful and ardent mind. It is to be observed, likewise, that, when he expressed this admiration for the productions alluded to, the Systeme de la Nature had not yet made its appearance. Nor is it to be supposed that he could be insensible to the notice, and the applause, of such men as then held the stations of greatest eminence in the scientific world. Yet, whatever temptations he may have been exposed to from the influence ol some of his literary associates, it is consolatory to reflect, that, neither in the works which he. himself gave to the public, nor in those which have been brought to light since his death, are sentiments to be found which have a tendency to subvert any one foundation of private or of public good. His labours were beneficent, and their natural fruits, the dissemination of useful knowledge, the increase of industry, and the improvement of social order. But he was not to witness the spectacle which ensued, or to be an observer of that moral crisis, of the results of which it may be questioned, if, hitherto, they have less disturbed the calculations of the friends of humanity, than baffled the counsels of its foes. Some farther information, with respect to Beccaria’s publications, will be found in the Notizie, prefixed to his Economia Pubblica (Scrittori Classici Italiani, Tom. XI.); in the 4th volume of the Biographic Universelle, printed at Paris in 1811, and in the 4th and 5th volumes of the Correspondance par le Baron de Grimm. In the compilation first mentioned are contained (besides his Elementi), republications of his Relctzione della Riduzione delle Misure di lunghezza all' Uniformita, per lo stato di Milano ; of his Prolusione letta nett* apertura della nuovo cattedra de scienze earnerali; and of his inquiry Del Disordine e De’ Rimedi delle Monete. In T the same collection is likewise to be found a paper w ritten by him for the periodical work called II Caffe ; viz. Tentativo Analitico sui Contrabbandi, being an attempt to apply the algebraical method to certain subjects of political economy. A new edition of Morellet’s French translation of the Treatise on Crimes and Punishments was published by M. Roederer in 1797 ; and a version of the same treatise into modern Greek, by Coray, was published at Paris in 1802. (ee.) BECCARIA (Giambattista), a very ingenious and industrious electrician and practical astronomer, was born at Mendovi, the 2d of October 1716,

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and entered the religious order of the Pious Schools Beecsrn. in 1732. He became a professor of experimental physics, first at Palermo, and then at Rome, and was appointed to the same situation at Turin in 1748 : he was afterwards made tutor to the young Princes de Chablais and de Carignan, and continued to reside principally at Turin for the remainder ef his life. In May 1755, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, to which he afterwards communicated several papers, relating to his favourite pursuits. Fie died 27th May 1781. 1. The most voluminous and most important of his works, entitled Del! Elettricismo Artificiale e Naturali) appeared at Turin, 1753, 4to ; and was reprinted in 1772. It was translated into English, and published, with the original engravings, under the title of A Treatise upon Artificial Electricity, and an Essay on the Mild and Slow Electricity of the Atmosphere. 4. Lond. 1771* 2. Risposta ad una Lettera intorno al suo Elettricismo. 4. Milan, 1753. 3. Lettere delV Elettricismo Atmosferico Ed. 2. 4. Turin, 1758. 4. Experimenta et Observationes quibus Electricitas vindex late constituitur atque explicatur. 4. Graz. The accurate and elaborate experiments, related in these works, have obtained for their author the warm and repeated encomiums of the scientific historian Dr Priestley, and the approbation and friendship of other contemporary philosophers ; although it must be confessed, that amidst the multitude of important facts recorded in them, we sometimes observe a want of clearness of arrangement and closeness of reasoning ; nor must we attempt to claim for Beccaria either the originality of a Franklin, the mathematical precision of an xEpinus, the enlarged views of a Cavendish, or the neatness and inventive talent of a Volta. The most remarkable novelties, which deserve to be distinguished among our author’s experiments and opinions, relate to the limited conducting power of water, to the electrification of the air and smoke, to the velocity of electricity, to the reduction of metals by its powers, to the illumination of the solar phosphori by the spark, to the light excited by the motion of the air, and to a variety of meteorological phenomena, especially lightning, storms, rain, waterspouts, and atmospherical magnetism. The resistance exhibited by water to the passage of the electric fluid is demonstrated by the luminous appearance of its path, while it passes through more perfect conductors without producing light; as well as by the explosion of glass tubes containing water, through which the spark is taken; and this experiment is extended to the construction of an eleetricai water gun, which is said to have carried a small bullet with considerable force. Father Beccaria observed, about the same time with Mr Canton, that the air surrounding an electrified body was capable of becoming electric by slow degrees, and that it also parted slowly with its electricity ; and, by means of some property of this kind, he produced the appearance of a luminous atmosphere about an electrified ball, to which another was presented, in a partial vacuum. The smoke of

EEC eccaria. colophony, surrounding an electrified body, enabled it to give longer sparks, but this smoke was little attracted by the body when the heated spoon containing the colophony was insulated. Respecting the velocity of electricity, he relates some experiments, which amply deserve to be confirmed or confuted. He found the effect of a spark occupy at least half a second in passing through 500 feet of wire, and 6^ through a hempen cord of the same length, although, when the cord was wetted, it passed through it in 2 or 3 seconds. It is well known, that, in the earlier experiments of Watson, a shock was transmitted through a much longer circuit of wire, without occupying any perceptible interval of time in its passage. Many of the metals were revived from their oxyds, and mercury was reproduced from cinnabar by the powers of electricity ; and our author fancied that he had discovered a common principle in the different metals, as several of them gave the same colour to the surface of the glass to which they were attached. The brilliancy of the electric light was demonstrated by the permanency of its effect on the solar phosphori; and this subject was afterwards pursued by various experiments of Canton, and others. The light often exhibited by the air rushing into a vacuum, is attributed by Beccaria to the friction of the air^tgainst the sides of the glass. It may be remarked, that the phenomenon is, in all probability, of the same kind as the appearance of light observed long ago in the air-gun by its first inventor, Ctesibius of Alexandria. With respect to atmospherical electricity, Beccaria’s researches were most laborious and extensive, and he made a great variety of experiments illustrative of the nature of lightning, and of storms in general; showing, for instance, the facility with which small bodies are forced into the course of the electric current, as light clouds are made to assist in conveying a stroke of lightning, and proving that evaporation, and the deposition of vapour, are always accompanied by electrical changes. Thunder-storms, in general, he attributes to terrestrial electricity, and supposes the clouds to be merely the channels by which the fluid is carried from one part of the earth’s surface to another, the equilibrium having been first disturbed by chemical changes within the earth; and it must be confessed, that this opinion is, in some measure, encouraged by the frequent connection which is observable between these phenomena, and those of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Waterspouts, he assures us, on the authority of several eyewitnesses, may certainly be dispersed by pointing swords and knives at them; and, with respect to conductors erected for safety, though he appreciates their utility very highly, he thinks that every large building should be furnished with more than one or two. The electricitas vindex, so often mentioned, is the electricity made sensible in one body by the removal of another which has been situated near it,—a property which afterwards led to the elegant inventions of the electrophorus and the condenser of Wilke and Volta. Our author appears to be somewhat disposed to exaggerate the importance of electrical changes as the causes of other atmospherical phenomena, and, in particular, to overrate the intimacy of the connection of electricity with magne-

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tism. The appearance of the aurora borealis he at- Beccaria. tributes to the circulation of electricity through the higher regions of the atmosphere, and he was well aware of the magnetical changes which usually accompany this remarkable occurrence. 5. His papers in the Philosophical Transactions are all in Latin. The first is entitled, Experiments in Electricity, in a Letter to Dr Franklin. (Ph. Tr. 1760, p. 514.) These experiments relate principally to the subject of electrical attractions and repulsions, which the author attempts to reduce to the effect of currents of air displaced by the immediate action of the electric fluid. He supposes the air between two bodies, in dissimilar states, to be rarefied by the interchange of their electricity, so as to produce the appearance of attraction; and when the bodies are in similar states, he imagines the air interposed to be the immediate object of their apparently mutual repulsion. The paper is accompanied by a note of Dr Franklin, explanatory of the apparatus employed. 6‘. An Account of the double Refractions in Crystals. {Phil. Trans. 1762, p. 486.) The double refraction of rock-crystal had been observed by Huygens. Beccaria seems to have imagined, that it was not discoverable when the surfaces concerned were parallel to each other; but later observations have shown, that his observations were defective in this respect, at the same time that they have confirmed his conjecture respecting the existence of a similar property in almost all crystallized substances. 7. Novorum quorundam in re Electrica Experimentorum Specimen. {Phil. Trans. 1766, p. 105.) In this paper, our author defends the simpler theory of Franklin against Mr Symmer’s doctrine of the existence of two separate electric fluids. He also enumerates a great variety of cases of the excitement of positive or negative electricity by the friction ot different substances with glass, hareskin, a silk stocking, sealing-wax, and sulphur. 8. A second paper, with the same title, appeared in the Philosophical Transactions for 1767* P* 297It contains an account of a repetition of experiments on the modification produced in the charge of two or more glass plates, by separating them, and by removing and replacing their coatings. These investigations were principally suggested by the well-known observations of the Jesuits, made at Pekin many years before, and by some subsequent experiments of Mr Symmer. The author calls the effect an oscillation of electricity; it depends on the same causes as the “ vindicating electricity," which he has elsewhere described. 9. De Atmosphcera Electrica libellus. {Philosophical Transactions, 1770, p. 277-) The phenomena of induced electricity are here discussed, but not with great precision ; the author adverts, however, to the Newtonian demonstration of the equilibrium of the force of a gravitating substance, distributed through the surface of a sphere, with respect to a particle within it, and gives somewhat clearer views of the theory of electricity than his former works had exhibited, but still falls far short of the perfection which fEpinus had attained more than ten years before. 10.. A short Letter to Mr John Canton, on his nexv of corresponding signals is arranged, and kept up with the light-keepers at the rock. Three of the light-keepers are always at the light-house, while one is ashore on liberty, whose duty it is for the time to attend the signal room ; and wdien the weanher will admit of the regular removal of the lightkeepers they are six weeks at the rock, and a fortnight ashore with their families. The attending vessel for the Bell Rock, and the Attending light-houses of the Isle of May and Inchkeith, in the Vessel. Firth of Forth, is a very handsome little cutter of about 50 tons register, carrying upon her prow a kk

, BEL 258 Bell Rock model of the Bell Rock light-house, and is appro11 priately named the Pharos. She is stationed at Ar*>eta»C 18 hroath, and is in readiness to proceed for the Rock ^ ' at new and full moon, or at spring-tides, carrying necessaries, and the light-keeper on leave, to the Rock, and returning with another. This vessel is navigated by four men, including the master, and is calculated for carrying a boat of 16 feet keel, or of sufficient dimensions for landing at the Rock in moderate weather. The master and mate are kept in constant pay, and have apartments in the establishment ashore; the former, acting as a superintendent, has the charge of the buildings and stores kept at Arbroath. Expence, of The expence of the Bell Rock light-house, and its ♦his Light- establishment, in a general way, may be stated to house. have amounted to about L. 60,000. The undertaking does much honour to the exertions of the Commissioners of the Northern Light-houses, and is even creditable to the age which has produced it; especially when it is remembered, that it was commenced and completed amidst the difficulties and demands of a war, unparalleled in the history of our eountry. (HH*)

BEL

trace the first settlement of this country; and the Beloochistan. descent of its inhabitants can only be imperfectly ascertained by analogy and conjecture. As the natives have no written language, their historical annals are merely traditional, and therefore entitled to little credit. The Belooches ascribe their own origin to the earliest Mohummudan invaders of Persia, and are very desirous of being supposed to be of Arabian extraction; but the latter part of this supposition derives no confirmation from their features, their manners, or their language, which do not bear the slightest similitude to those of the Arabs. There can be little doubt, however, that they originally came from the westward ; of which there is strong evidence in the affinity between the Belooehekee and Persian languages ; and their institutions, habits, and religion, seem to indicate that they are of Toorkuman lineage. It seems highly pi’obable, indeed, that, during the frequent sanguinary revolutions to which the monarchy of the Seljukide Tartars was subject, some of these barbarians had been forced to wander over the country in quest of newr settlements ; and that a portion of them had found refuge in the mountainous districts of Beloochistan. But, besides the Belooches, there are other distinct tribes of inhabiOur readers will perceive, that the account wre tants in Beloochistan, whose peculiar habits and have given of this Edifice is, necessarily, of a very shades of character, we shall afterwards take an opgeneral nature; but the public,, we believe, will soon be portunity of describing. These are the Brahooes, gratified with an ample Historical Account of the Nor- apparently a race of Tartar mountaineers, who setthern Light-houses, including a full detail of the whole tled at an early period in the southern parts of Ada, operations connected with the Bell Rock light-house, but whose history is extremely obscure and uninteand the Carr Rock Stone-Beacon, illustrated with resting ; the Dehwars, clearly a Persian colony, numerous plates, showing the progressive stages of whose original settlement cannot be traced; and the these works, by Mr Stevenson ; and we are happy to Hindoos, who appear to have been the first settlers learn, that the Commissioners of the Northern Light- in the upper part of the Brahooick mountains, on houses, from a conviction of the utility of the de- their being expelled from Linde, Lus, and Mukran, sign, have, as a Board, liberally expressed their de- by the armies of the Caliphs of Bagdad. This last sire to promote the intended publication of Mr Ste- tribe appears to have constituted the governing venson, whose name, as an Engineer, is so credit- party, at the earliest period of which any thing apably connected with these two important national un- proaching to authentic information has been obtained. The Brahooes and Belooches, however, gradertakings. GeographiBELOOCHISTAN, a country of Asia, situate dually spread over the country ; and the Hindoo cal Sitna- on power was at length subverted by a revolution, which n0rth-west coast of the Indian peninsula. It placed the ancestors of the present Khan of Kelat s Boundaries * bounded on the north by Affghanistan and Seistan; upon the throne. ~ ’ on the west, by the Persian provinces of Kirman and The precise period at which this revolution took Laristan ; on the south, by the Indian Ocean ; and, on the east, by a part of Sinde and Shikarpoor. In place, cannot be accurately ascertained; but it is general, it may be said to comprehend all that space probable that two centuries have not elapsed since within the 25th and 30th degrees of north latitude, that event. The last rajah of the Hindoo dynasty and the 58th and 68th degrees of east longitude ; found himself compelled to call for the assistance of and its whole superficial extent may be computed at the mountain-shepherds, with their leader, Kumbur, 550 geographical miles in length, and 300 in breadth. in order to check the encroachments of a horde of History. Of the early history of this portion of the Asiatic depredators, headed by an Affghan chief, who infestContinent, little or nothing is known. The poverty ed the country, and even threatened to attack the and natural strength of the country, combined with seat of government. Kumbur successfully performthe ferocious habits of the natives, seem to have ed the service for which he had been engaged ; but equally repelled the friendly visits of inquisitive stran- having, in a few years, quelled the robbers against gers, and the hostile incursions of invading armies. whom he had been called in, and finding himself at The Greeks, from whom we derive the earliest in- the head of the only military tribe in the country, he formation relative to the western frontiers of India, formally deposed the rajah, and assumed the reins of are almost entirely silent with respect to this moun- government. The history of this country, subsequently to the tainous and inhospitable tract; and scarcely any notice of it occurs for many centuries posterior to the accession of Kumbur, is involved in the same obMacedonian invasion. Hence it is impossible to scurity as during the Hindoo dynasty. It would ap-

jBejll rock light Horse uriuxti a (tALE from thf Northeast.

pea te ami*

259 BELOOCHISTAN. geloochis. pear, however, that the sceptre was quietly trans- was stipulated that the king was to receive the cousin tan. mitted to the descendants of that chief, who seems to of Nusseer Khan in marriage; that the khan was have persevered in a peaceable system of govern- pay no tribute, but only, when called upon, to furment, until the time of Abdoolla Khan, the fourth nish troops to assist ther royal armies, tor which he in descent from Kumbur; who, being an intrepid and was to receive an allow ance in cash, equal to half ambitious soldier, turned his thoughts towards the their pay. Subsequently to this period the khan frequently disconquest of Kutch Gundava, then held by different petty chiefs, under the authority of the Nuwwabs of tinguished himself by his gallantry and judgment, in the wars carried on by the monarch of Caboul, and, Sinde. After various success, the Kumburanees, at length, as a reward for his eminent services, the king bestowed possessed themselves of the sovereignty of a consi- upon him several districts, to hold in perpetual and derable portion of that fruitful plain, including the entire sovereignty. Having succeeded in quelling chief town, Gundava. It was during this contest, a dangerous rebellion, headed by his cousin behethat the famous conqueror, Nadir Shah, commonly ram Khan, this able prince at length died, at an excalled Thamas Koolee Khan, advanced from Persia treme old age, after a happy and prosperous reign, to the invasion of Hindoostan; and while at Kanda- in the month of June 1795, leaving three sons and har, he dispatched several detachments into Beloo- five daughters. He was succeeded by his eldest chistan, and established his authority in that pro- son, Muhmood Khan, the present chief of Kelat, then vince. Abdoola Khan, however, was continued in a boy about fourteen years old. During the reign the government of the country by Nadir’s orders; of this prince, who is described as a very humane but be was soon after killed in a battle with the and indolent man, the country has been distracted forces of the Nuwwabs of Sinde. He was succeed- by sanguinary intestine broils; the governors of seed by his eldest son, Hajee Mohummud Khan, who veral provinces and districts have withdrawn their abandoned himself to the most tyrannical and licen- allegiance; and the dominions of the khans of Ketious way of life, and completely alienated his sub- lat have so gradually diminished, that they now jects by his arbitrary and oppressive system of taxa- comprehend only a small portion of the provinces tion. In these circumstances, Nusseer Khan, the se- which were formerly subject to Nusseer Khan. The territories of the last-mentioned prince are Principal cond son of Abdoolla Khan, who had accompanied ie the victorious Nadir to Delhi, and acquired the fa- comprised under the following divisions :—1. ^f Bdoochisvour and confidence of that monarch, returned to provinces of Jhalawan and Sarawan, and the district Kelat, and was hailed by the whole population as of Kelat. 2. The provinces of Mukran and Lus. their deliverer. Finding that expostulation had no 3. The province of Kutch Gundava and district of effect upon his brother, he one day entered his apart- Hurrund Dajel. 4. Kohistan, or the Belooche ment, when the prince was alone, and stabbed him country, west of the desert. 5. The desert. 6. The to the heart. As soon as the tyrant was dead, Nus- province of Sinde. The features of this extensive tract of country Mountains, seer Khan mounted the musnud, amidst the universal joy of his subjects, and immediately transmitted vary considerably; but, in general, it may be dea report of the events that had taken place to Nadir scribed as extremely mountainous. A stupendous Shah, who was then encamped near Kandahar. The range, to which the appellation of the Brahooick shah received the intelligence with satisfaction, and mountains has been assigned, and which seems to be dispatched a furman, by return of the messenger, the primitive root of all the others, springs abruptly appointing Nusseer Khan, Begienbeg of all Beloo- to a conspicuous height out of the sea, at Cape Mowaree (or Monze), in north latitude 25°, east longicbistan. This event took place in the year 1739Nusseer Khan proved an active, politic, and war- tude 66° 58', whence it takes a north-easterly direclike prince. He took great pains to re-establish the tion for 90 miles. There it projects a ridge, east by internal government of all the provinces in his do- north, the base of which is washed b) the river Inminions, and improved and fortified the city of Ke- dus, at the fort of Sehwan. From the separation of lat. On the death of Nadir Shah, in 1747> he this arm, in latitude 25° 45' to that of 30°, the priacknowledged the title of the king of Caboul, mitive body runs due north, marking the western Ahmed Shah Abdalli. In 1758, he declared him- limits of Sinde, Kutch-Gundava, and a part of Seeself entirely independent; upon which Ahmed Shah weestan; and from thence it once more regains its dispatched a force against him, under one of his original inclination to the north-east, and decreases ministers. The khan, however, levied his troops, and in magnitude and elevation so rapidly, that, in the totally routed the Affghan army. On receiving in- course of 40 miles, it sinks to a level with the hills telligence of this discomfiture, the king himself inhabited by the Kaukers and other Affghan tribes, marched with strong reinforcements, and a pitched with which it becomes incorporated. To the westbattle was fought, in which Nusseer Khan was worst- ward, the Brahooick mountains send forth many ed. He retired in good order to Kelat, whither he collateral chains, some of which extend the whole was followed by the victor, who invested the place length of Beloochistan, and join the mountains of with his whole army. The khan made a vigorous Persia; others elongate southerly till they touch defence ; and, after the royal troops had been foiled the sea, or come within a few miles of it, and then in their attempts to take the city by storm or sur- either take the inclination of the coast, or subside in prise, a negociation was proposed by the king, which the low and barren plains in its vicinity ; while the terminated in a treaty of peace. By this treaty, it main body, or rather its western face, stretches

26*0 B E L O O C Beloochis- away north-west by north, to the 28th degree of ,north latitude, where it meets the south-eastern cor^ ' ner of the sandy desert, about the 64th degree of east longitude ; and from thence it inclines with a northern aspect, between the north-east and north points of the compass, to Nooshky, in latitude 30° north; from which place it runs more easterly, till at length it gradually sinks, like the eastern front, to a size of equality with the Affghan hills. Besides the Brahooick chain, there are several other ranges of mountains, extending in vaiious directions and ramifications throughout Beloochistan, but all of them inferior to the former in magnitude and height. This stupendous chain is believed to have attained its greatest altitude at Kelat; from which city, according to the natives, whatever route he may pursue, a traveller must descend ; but the descent is so very trifling, for a long way on either side of that capital, Rivers. that it is not perceptible by the eye. Throughout the whole of this country, there are no rivers of such size or importance as to merit particular notice. In general, they have a broad and deep channel from the coast, until they reach the mountains or stony hills, where they become contracted into narrow and intricate water-courses, that are quite dry during the greater part of the fair season ; and, in the wet one, swell to terrific torrents, which run off in the course of a few hours after the rain that has filled them ceases. City of The principal city of this country is Kelat, the KeJat. capital of the whole of Beloochistan. This city stands on an elevated site, on the western side of a well-cultivated plain or valley, about eight miles long and two or three broad; a great part of which is laid out in gardens and other inclosures. The town is built in the form of an oblong square, three sides of which are encompassed by a mud wall, 18 or 20 feet high, flanked, at intervals of 250 paces, by bastions, which, as well as the wall itself, are pierced with numberless loop-holes for matchlock-men. The defence of the fourth side of the city is formed by the western face of the hill, on which it is partly built, being cut away perpendicularly. On the summit of this eminence stands the palace of Muhmood Khan, chief of Kelat, and nominal Beglerbeg of Beloochistan, commanding a distinct view of the town and adjacent country. That quax-ter of the hill on which the khan’s residence is erected has been inclosed by a mud wall, with bastions ; the entrance to it is on the south-western side; and here, as well as at the city gates, which are three in number, there is constantly a guard of matchlock-men. Within the walls, there are upwards of 2500 houses, and the number of those in the suburbs probably exceeds one-half of that amount. These houses are built of half-burnt brick, or wooden frames, and plastered over with mud or mortar. In general, the streets are broader than those of native towns, and most of them have a raised pathway on either side, for foot-passengers, and an uncovered kennel in the centi’e ; the latter of which is a gi’eat nuisance, from the quantity of filth thrown into it, and the stagnant rain-water that lodges there. The upper stories of the houses frequently project across the streets, and' thereby render the part beneath them gloomy and

H I S T A N. wet. This seems a very rude attempt to imitate the Beloodiis. tan bazars of Persia and Caboul. The bazar of Kelat is extensive, and well furnished with every kind of goods; all the necessaries of life may be procured daily at a moderate price. The town is supplied with delicious water from a spring in the face of a hill on the opposite side of the plain, whence it meanders neai’ly through the centre of it, having the town and subux-bs on one side, and on the other the gardens. It is a remarkable property of this spring, that the waters, at their immediate issue from the smaller channels, possess a considerable degree of tepidity, until after sun-rise, when they suddenly become exceedingly cold, and remain so during the day. We have no data from which we can fonrx an ac- Inliabitauts. curate computation of the total amount of the population of Beloochistan. The inhabitants are divided into two great classes, distinguished by the appellations of Belooche and Bi'ahooe; and these two are again subdivided into an infinite number of tx'ibes, which it were tedious and unnecessary to enumerate. The most remarkable distinctions between these two classes consist in their language and appearance. The Belooche, or Beloocheekee language partakes considerably of the idiom of the modern Persian, although greatly disguised under a singularly corrupt pi'onunciation. The Bi'ahooekee, on the other hand, has nothing analogous to the Persian idiom. It appears to contain a great number of ancient Hinduwee words, and, as it strikes the ear, bears a strong resemblance to the dialect spoken in that part of India called the Punjaub. With regard to external appearance, the contour of these two classes seems to differ, in most instances, as much as their language. The Belooches, in general, have tall figures, long visages, and raised features ; the Brahooes, on the contrary, have short thick bones, with round faces and flat lineaments. The Belooches are a handsome active race of Belooclies. men, not possessing great physical strength, but inured to changes of climate and season, and capable of enduring every species of fatigue. In their habits they are a pastoral people, and much addicted to predatory warfare, in the course of which they do not hesitate to commit every kind of outrage and cruelty. The lawless excursions in which they frequently engage are called Chupaos, and are almost always conducted under the immediate orders of their chiefs. The depredators are usually mounted on camels, and furnished with food and water, according to the distance they have to go. When every thing is prepared, they set off, and march incessantly till within a few miles of the point where the chupao is to commence, and then halt in a jungul, or some unfrequented spot, to rest their camels. On the approach of night they mount again; and as soon as the inhabitants have retired to repose, they begin their attack by burning, destroying, and carrying off whatever comes in their way. They never rest for one moment during the chupao, but ride on, at the rate of eighty or ninety miles a day, until they have loaded their camels with as much pillage as they can possibly remove. If practicable, they make a circuit, which enables 6

261 B EL 0 0( ; HI STAN. Beloochis- them to return by a different route from the one a kind of striped stuff called Soosee, and puckered Beloochis* t*115- they came. This plan affords them a double pro- round the ancles. On their heads they wear a small spect of plunder, and also tends to mislead those who silk or cotton quilted cap, fitted to the shape ot the skull, over which, when in full dress, they place a go in pursuit of the robbers. Notwithstanding their predatory habits, the Be- turband, either checked or blue, and a kummurbund looches are proverbial for their hospitality. Among or sash, of the same colour, round their waists. In them pilfering is considered a most despicable act; winter, the chiefs and their relatives appear in a tuand when they once promise to afford protection to nic of chintz, lined and stuffed with cotton; and the any person who may solicit or require it, they will poorer classes, when out of doors, wrap themselves labita- die before they fail in their trust. Their usual habi- up in a surtout made of cloth, manufactured from a ions. tations are Ghedans or tents, made of black felt or mixture of goats’ hair and sheep’s wool. The wocoarse blanket, stretched over a frame of wicker- men’s dress is very similar to that of the men; their work, formed from the branches of the tamarisk. trowsers are preposterously wide, and made of silk, An assemblage of these ghedans constitutes a Toomun or a mixture of silk and cotton. A Belooche sol- a ons or village, and the inhabitants of it a Kheil or society, dier carries a matchlock, sword, spear, dagger, and ' « P ‘ of which there may be an unlimited number in one shield, besides a multiplicity of powder-flasks, primtribe. These kheils are commonly discriminated by ing-horns and pouches. They are all capital markssorpe appropriate title, such as the Umeeree kheil, men, and in battle avoid, as much as possible, coming the Noble Society, Daodee kheil, David’s Society, to close combat. Their best warlike weapons are of &c. These titles, however, they frequently change foreign manufacture. At Kelat, there is an armoury with their places of residence. Some of the Beloo- for the manufacture of matchlocks, swords, and ches, particularly the Nharooe clans, prefer mud spears ; but the workmanship is very indifferent. The principal amusements of the Belooches are Amusehouses to tents, and even live in forts; nor is it unnlerlt ’’• common, in the western parts of Beloochistan, to shooting, hunting, and coursing; for which latter find one half of the keil residing in ghedans and the purpose they bestow a vast deal of attention in the Reception other in huts. When a visitor arrives at a toomun, training of their greyhounds. Firing at marks, cudifVisitors. a carpet is spread in front of the door of the Mihman gelling, wrestling, and throwing the spear, are likeKhanu, or house for guests, of which every village wise favourite diversions among them, and neighhas one ; the Sirdar or head of the kheil immedi- bouring kheils frequently cope with each other at ately appears, and he and the stranger having em- these exercises. Their funeral and marriage cerebraced, and mutually kissed hands, the followers of monies, being in a great measure such as are prethe latter successively approach, and the sirdar gives scribed and regulated by the Koran, are similar to them his hand, which they press to their foreheads those of all other Moosulmans, and therefore merit and lips. The parties then sit down, on which the no particular notice. With regard to religion, the Religion. chief addresses the stranger, and asks him, four Belooches are, with a very few exceptions to the several times, how he does, to which the other an- westward, Soonee Moosulmans. The Brahooes, or second great class of the natives Brahoo€s. swers in the usual complimentary terms; he then inquires, in the same manner, for his family and of Beloochistan, are a still more unsettled and wanfriends, and even for the health of his followers who dering nation than the Belooches. They reside in are present, to whom the visitor turns, as if to ap- one part of the country during the summer, and peal for information: they all nod assent to being in emigrate to another for the winter season; and even good health; and the ceremony concludes by the change their immediate places of abode many times new-comer making an equal number of inquiries for in the year, for the sake of pasturage for their the welfare of the family, kheil or society, followers flocks. The Brahooes are distinguished for activity, strength, and hardiness ; inured alike to the cold of and friends of the sirdar. Food. The food of the Belooches consists of wheaten and the mountainous regions of Beloochistan, and the barley cakes, rice, dates, cheese, and milk, which last heat of the low plain of Kutch Gundava. They are they prefer in a sour state ; soup made from dholl very laborious in husbandry, and other domestic ocor peas, and seasoned with red pepper and other cupations ; and those who reside in the vicinity of heating herbs, and flesh-meat whenever they can the plains to the southward of Kelat, cultivate procure it. The vegetables most esteemed by them large tracts of land, and dispose of the produce for are onions, garlic, and the leaves and stalk of the exportation to the Hindoos of Kelat, Bela, and Khozassafoetida plant, which they roast or stew in butter. dar. This, and the sale of the cheese and ghee made They usually limit themselves to one or two wives, from the flocks, with a few coarse blankets, carpets, and their chiefs to four; but this depends altogether and felts, constitute their only traffic. They are Women. Upon choice. They treat their women with atten- famous for having voracious appetites, and devour tion and respect, and are not so scrupulous about a great quantity of flesh in a half dressed state, their being seen by strangers as most other Moosul- without bread, salt, or vegetables. The Brahooes mans. They keep a great number of slaves ot both are as faithful in adherence to their promises, and sexes, captured during their chupaos, who are treated as hospitable as the Belooches: They are more htess. with liberality and kindness. J he common cross of quiet and industrious ; ahd although they are esteemthe Belooches is a coarse white or blue calico shirt, ed superior to the other inhabitants of Beloochistan buttoning round the neck, and reaching below the in personal bravery, and the endurance of privations knee; their trow'sers are made of the same cloth, or and hardships, yet their habits are decidedly averse

262 B E L O 0 C H I S T A N. Bdoochis- irom that system, of rapine and violence pursued by ministration of justice was vested in the person at Beloocli their neighbours. A Brahooe always dresses in the the head of the government. The Sirdar, however, ♦an. same style; whether it be summer or winter, his has the power of adjusting petty quarrels, thefts, whole clothing consists of a loose white shirt, a and, in short, disputed points of every description, pair of trowsers of the same texture, and a felt cap. among the inhabitants of a kheil, or society ; but in 1 he shepherds sometimes wear a covering of white ail cases of importance, an appeal lies, in the last felt, made so as to wrap round the body, and come instance, to the Khan at Kelat. to a peak above the crown of the head; this habit hi A register of the Belooche army, drawn up dur- Army, 1 used as a defence against rain or snow. The -do- ing the reign of Nusseer Khan, exhibits an aggremestic life of the Brahooes is extremely simpler gate of 250^)00 men, but the number was probably j The men employ themselves in field labour, in which, exaggerated. At present the same documents comif necessary, they are assisted by the women ; but prise a list of 120,000 troops, after excluding ail the in general the latter are engaged in attending to the revolted provinces and districts; but it is believed, household aftairs. The dress of the women consists that Muhmood Khan could not, on the greatest emerof a long shift and pair of trowsers, both of cotton gency, muster more than half that number of fightcloth; and after they arrive at the age of puberty ; ing men. His total revenues, in their present reduced Revenuthey wear over the former a kind of stays, made to state, may be estimated at 350,000 rupees annually, lace behind, and decorated in front with ridiculous a large portion of which is paid in produce. In devices of birds or animals, worked in coloured Nusseer Khan’s time, the revenue exceeded 30 lacks worsted. In religion, the Brahooes are all Soonnitte of rupees. The duties levied at Kelat are extremeMoossulraans. All their tribes intermarry with each ly moderate. Horses or cattle pay nothing whatother, except the Kumburanees, regarding whom ever throughout the Belooche territories; but there there is a peculiarity which does not attach to any is a species of land-tax, payable from all cultivated of the other tribes ; that of being divided into three grounds. The exports from Kelat are, at present. Exports j distinct gradations of rank, the Ahmedzgees,Khanees, very trifling ; its imports are iron, tin, lead, steel, Imports and Kumburanees. The first consists of the family copper, indigo, beetel-nut, cochineal, sugar, spices, of the prince; the Khanees are of the secondary silks, keemkhab, gold-cloth, chintz, and coarse woolrank, of whom there are between twenty and thirty ; lens from India. and the Kumburanees include the remainder of the The climate of Beloochistan is extremely various Climate 1 tribe ; although, in general, the term is applied to in the different provinces. The soil, in general, is Soil, the whole body. exceedingly stony. Of the province of Kutch Hindoos. Besides the Belooches and Brahooes, there is a Gundava, however, the soil is rich and loamy, and considerable number of Hindoos resident at Kelat, so very productive, that, it is said, were it all prowho are principally engaged in mercantile specula- perly cultivated, the crops would be more than suftions, and are much respected both by the govern- ficient for the consumption of the whole of Beloochisment and people. Their religion is tolerated ; and tan. Gold, silver, lead, iron, tin, antimony, brim- Metals fl Dehwars. they have a pagoda at Kelat. The Dehwars, or stone, alum, sal-ammoniac, and many kinds of mineral Mineral: Dehkans, constitute the only remaining class of the salts and saltpetre, are found in various parts of the population, which seems worthy of particular notice. country. The precious metals have only been disThey are to be recognised in different districts of covered in working for iron and lead, at mines near the country under various names ; quiet and harm- the town of Nai, about 150 miles south south-west less in their disposition, and addicted to agricultural of Kelat. The different other minerals, above enupursuits. Their colloquial language is common, merated, are very plentiful. The gardens of Kelat Fruit*, pure Persian ; from which fact their origin may be produce many sorts of fruit, which are sold at a very deduced, although no traces of their first settlement moderate rate, such as apricots, peaches, grapes, have been discovered. almonds, pistachio nuts, apples, pears, plums, curGovernThe fluctuation of power renders it difficult to rants, cherries, quinces, figs, pomegranates, mulbera Laws ^ define nature of theKhan, government at ries, plantains, melons, guaivas, this colony was bounded on the east by the Devil's Creek, and on the west by Abarry Creek, which separated it from Demerary, its breadth being then 30 miles. But when Surinam surrendered to the British in that year, a negocia10

B E R Berbice. tion was entered into between the Governors of these two colonies, by which Surinam conceded to Berbice the tract of country between the Devil’s Creek, and the river Courantine ; thus increasing its breadth to about 45 miles. The sea coast, extending nearly 50 miles, and the west bank of the Courantine, were immediately surveyed, and laid out into regular allotments. The extent of this colony was farther enlargexl by the British, who cleared and embanked from the sea the whole line of coast between the Demerary and the Courantine, forming upon it a carriage-road 60 feet broad, with six-foot parapets on each side for the convenience of travelling. Face of the Previously to this improvement, the face of this Comitry. country resembled that of the rest of Guiana. On the shores there was a border of low ground, between high and low-water marks, covered with mangrove. When the tide flowed, this border had several feet of water over it; and when it ebbed, it presented an inaccessible mud-bank. This is now rendered dry and productive. Behind this border of mangroves, at the distance of 400 or 500 paces, commence low, level, swampy savannahs, formed by the rains, which are prolonged in the direction of the coast, with a depth more or less considerable, according to the distance of the mountains. This part of the colony was almost entirely neglected by the Dutch, who fixed their principal plantations in the more elevated and interior part of the county. Climate. The year, here, is divided into two dry and two wet seasons ; light showers begin to refresh the land about the middle of April; the rain increases till the middle of June, when it falls in torrents; at the beginning of July, these heavy rains begin to decrease ; and in August, the long dry season begins, and continues till November. December and January constitute the short and rainy season; and February and March the short dry season. The land winds prevail during the two wet seasons, and are unhealthy; in the dry season, the air is refreshed, by regular, diurnal sea-breezes. The temperature of this colony is not so great as might be expected from its latitude; the thermometer very seldom rises to Ql degrees; in general, during May, June, and July, it varies between 83 and 84; the lowest degree is about 75* The weather always changes very gradually. Rivers. There are two rivers in this colony ; the Berbice, and the Canje. The former runs from south to north, and discharges itself into the Atlantic Ocean. The coast on each side of it forms a bay at its entrance, which is nearly a mile in width, having a small island in the middle, called Crab Island, from the number of land-crabs on it; the entrance is protected by three forts, but they are of little use, as Berbice must, from its situation, always follow the fate of Demerary. Without the entrance of the river is a bar of sand, over which, at high tide, there is sel-

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dom more than 16 feet of water; but within, the water is of sufficient depth, and the river is navigable, for ships of burden two hundred miles fiom its mouth. On account of the bar, however, few^ vessels rendezvous here, but anchor off the poit of Demerary. The river Canje is narrow, but deep, running at first nearly from south to north, but afterwards diverging to the east, till it falls into the Berbice about a mile from the sea. It is navigable for colonyschoc nets 30 miles up At its head are immense falls, and about 40 miles below, there is a creek which connects it with the Courantine. In this route, and by means ol this creek, or island, dispatches are brought from Surinam to Berbice by the Indians. I he water on all the coast of Berbice is brackish. I he iain-\\ater, which lodges in the low parts of the forests, called bush-water, is collected by the Indians for the purposes of drinking and cooking. I he forests are extensive, and contain many very large trees. Di Pinckard describes an enormous tree of the Tonquin Bean, the body of which rose perpendicularly to the height of between 70 and 80 feet, before it threw out a single branch. The only towns in this colony are Old Amsterdam, Towns, and Fort Nassau, or New Amsterdam ; the formei is said, by Bolingbroke, to J)e 50 miles up the river Berbice, but Dr Bancroft places it at 100 miles from the mouth. The inconveniences attendant on this situation of Old Amsterdam were so numerous and obvious, arising chiefly from the uncertain and intiicate navigation of the river, that, in the year 1766, when Dr Bancroft visited Guiana, it was resolved to remove the seat of government to a point of land on the eastern shore of the Berbice (about a mile from its entrance), formed between that river and the Canje. So slow, however, were the Dutch in their opeiations, that New Amsterdam, for so this town was called, was scarce begun, in the year 179fi> when Berbice capitulated to the English. Under the greater activity of the conquerors, New Amsterdam soon assumed the size and appearance of the capital of the colony. It lies on the south side of the Canje; and the houses extend up the banks of the Berbice about a mile and a half, facing the water. The Dutch, in laying out the town, paid particular attention to health and convenience. Round each allotment there are trenches, which fill and empty themselves every tide, so that all the filth is carried off before it stagnates and becomes unwholesome. Each lot contains a quarter of an acre of land; a free circulation of air, as well as ground for a kitchen-garden, is thus secured to the inhabitants. The houses are very long and narrow, and not more than a story and a half high, with galleries on each side, to protect them from the sun. "Those inhabited by the Dutch are thatched with troolie * and plantain leaves, which they prefer to shingles on account of coolness; but

* The troolies are perhaps the largest leaves that have been hitherto discovered ™ th^mMafe Fach leaf is lunnorted bv a single stem, which arises immediately from the root, and becomes the m S ribt re eaf Te e s«eL a;e hard and strong, and about three inches -^TuMv eSc Each leaf is from 20 to 30 feet in length, and from 2 to 3 feet in breadth. They will effectually exclude the most violent rains, and last for many years.

B E li Berbice. the English shingle their houses, from their dislike '-*m^(^***' of the insects and vermin which the troolie and plantain leaves harbour. The government-house and colonial offices are built of brick, in the European style, and with considerable pretensions to architectural taste and magnificence. Estates. Before Berbice surrendered to the British, in 1796, almost all the plantations were at a distance from the coast, considerably up the banks of the Berbice and the Canje ; but within a very short time after the colony came into our possession, the plantations were greatly extended. The west coast was first cultivated; and in the year 1799> that to the eastward of the river Berbice, as far as the Devil’s Creek, was cleared and cultivated. This part was surveyed and cut into two parallel lines of estates, with a navigable canal between them, for the convenience of water-carriage. Behind the second row of estates, the river Canje runs, both the banks of which are cultivated with sugar, coffee, and plantains. ' The estates are distinguished as follows: those on the line facing the sea are the coast estates; the second line consists of the canal estates ; and the remainder are called the Canje estates. Besides these, there are valuable and extensive plantations on each side of the Berbice, stretching, as has been already Produce, mentioned, nearly 300 miles from its mouth. The principal and most valuable produce of the colony are sugar, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, cotton, and the arnotta, or roucou shrub. This last was, for a considerable time after the settlement of the colony, cultivated almost exclusively by the Indians, they macerated its seed in the juice of lemons, in which the gum of the manna tree had been dissolved, aud thus obtained the celebrated Indian pigment, or crimson paint, with which they adorn their bodies. The roucpu is now cultivated by the Dutch and English planters, as a dyeing stuff. Cotton thrives best, and is principally cultivated on the coast estates. The sugar plantations are deemed the most valuable. Negroes Agriculture, and all other labour in Berbice, is and ’ almost wholly performed by negroes. On an estate, which, on an average, produces annually 140,000 cwt. of coffee, and 10,000 cwt. of cocoa, there are generally 200 slaves employed, calculated Indians. tlm value of from L. 50 to L. 100 each. The Indians who inhabit this part of the South American coast, consist of four tribes ; from these, particularly, the tribe of the Arrowaucs, the inhabitants derive some assistance, as a few of them reside on almost every plantation, and are employed in various services, particularly in hunting and fishing. They have no animals domesticated, nor any grain or roots, except the cassada, brought into cultivation; a small species of deer, which something resembles the hare, and the armadillo, are their favourite food. They scald off the fur of the deer, cut the body in pieces, and stew it in cassada juice, seasoning it very highly with capsicum. The weapons they employ are the common bow and arrow, and the poisoned arrow, which they blow from a tube. Their accuracy and skill in using both these is surprising. With the common arrow, which is formed of a reed nearly six feet long, they can hit a chicken with tolerable certainty at nearly 100 yards distance. The

B E 11 poisoned arrow they can shoot from a tube of about Berbice. seven feet in length, to the distance of eight or ten yards, with great accuracy; and, at 12 or 14 feet distance, they seldom fail in striking the edge of a penknife stuck on the back of a chair. The plants from which this poison is extracted are’not known. Mr Bolingbroke states, that the negro population Population, of Berbice was doubled within ten years after it came into possession of the English ; and that, in 1805, it amounted to about 40,000, besides 1000 free people o£ colour, and 2500 whites. From the papers, relative'to the British West Indies, ordered by the House of Commons to be printed in 1815, it appears that, in October 1811, the population of Berbice must have decreased very considerably, if Mr Bolingbroke’s estimate be correct; since, at that time, it consisted of Whites _ . . . 550 Coloured - ’ 240 Blacks 25,169 Total

25,959

A capitation-tax on the white and black inhabi-Taxes, tants, an excise on every fifty pounds of sugar made, a weighage-toll of about 2 per cent, on all imports and exports, and a tonnage-duty of three florins pellast on the burden of ships, are the principal sources of the revenue of the colony. In October 1811, there was only one private dwelling hired as a church for the use of the Dutch. The salary of the curate was 7000 stivers, that of the clerk and sexton 500 each, and that of the churchwarden 375. These sums were raised by a tax of one stiver per acre, with the exception of the Coromantine coast of the colony, which, in the return to Parliament, is represented as consisting of 80 estates, at 500 acres each. The imports and exports were,— Exports an indigo; but they were restricted from exporting the ,JL S produce of their plantations to any port not within the province of Holland. In 1763, an insurrection happened among the slaves of Berbice, which was quelled chiefly by the assistance of the Indians, and the English from Barbadoes. In 1796, the colony capitulated to the British; but it was restored to the Dutch by the peace oi Amiens. In 1803 it was again reduced, and its possession was confirmed to Britain by the peace of Pai’is. In consequence of the Lords of the Treasury learning that the loss of slaves on the Crown estates from the year 1803 to 1810, had been at the rate of 26 per cent, they appointed, in 1811, commissioners for the management of these estates, who were especially directed and empowered to maintain and protect the negroes, and to reward and encourage industry among them. By an act of the British Parliament, passed in the 56th of George III. (1816), cap. 9L Berbice is placed on the same footing in relation to the regulations of trade, as the British West India Islands. The subjects of the King of the Netherlands, who are proprietors in Berbice, may import into it from the Netherlands the usual articles of supply for their estates, but not for trade ;—wine imported for the use of their estates, to pay a duty of 10s. per ton. The Dutch proprietors may export their produce, but not to Britain; both exports and imports to be in ships belonging to the Netherlands,—the duties to be the same as those payable by British proprietors. See Pinckard's Notes on the West Indies, 2d edition, Vols. I. and II.—Bancroft’s Essay on the. Natural History of Guiana.—Bolingbroke’s Voyage to Demerary.—Tuckey’s Maritime Geography, Vol. IV. — Baron Sack’s Account of Surinam. (c.) BERKSHIRE. As the article on this county, in the original work, is inaccurate and imperfect, nearly in the same respects as we have remarked the account of Bedfordshire to be, we shall follow the same plan here, as we did in the supplementary article on that county. Extent and This county extends from 51.19 to 51.48 north Boundaries, latitude, and from 0.34.30 to 1.43 west longitude. In shape it is very irregular, the whole northern side being figured by the windings of the Thames, which, taking a southern course from Oxford, almost cuts this county asunder at Reading, and renders its whole western part much broader than its eastern. A part of Wiltshire, detached at a considerable distance from the rest of that county, lies in the neighbourhood of Woking and Reading surrounded by Berkshire ; and two Berkshire parishes lie on the north side of the Thames, surrounded by Oxfordshire. It is bounded on the north by Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire, from which it is separated by the Thames ; on the east by Surrey ; on the south by Hampshire ; and on the west by Wiltshire. At the north-west corner it just touches upon Gloucestershire. Its greatest length, from Old Windsor to the county cross, near Hungerford, is 42 miles. Its greatest breadth from Witham, near Oxford, to the borders of Hampshire, south of Newbury, 28] miles; and its narrowest, from the Thames by Reading, to the borders of Hampshire, in a direct south line, only VOL. 11. part 1.

B E R 273 7 miles. It is 207 miles in circumference. The area Berkshire, assigned to it in the original work is much too large. According to the agricultural report, the number of acres in it is only 438,977- According to the returns respecting the poor-rates, 476,170 ; and, according to Dr Beeke, 469,500. The chalk stratum crosses quite through the Strata, whole of this county, but it is only in the western part of it that it is so elevated as to possess the name and character of Downs, and to be chiefly used as a sheep-walk. The Thames, entering the chalkhills at Streatley, crosses them obliquely from thence onwards, leaving their more elevated part on the north of the river in Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire, so that the eastern part of that stratum in Berkshire, is sufficiently covered with soil to be used in tillage-husbandry. To the south of the elevated part of the chalk ridge is a vale, which, beginning about the middle of Wiltshire, continues almost in a straight line from thence to the Eastern Sea, having in it the Channel of the Kennet, from Hungerford almost to Reading, and that of the, Thames from Bray in Berkshire to the sea. Besides the great chalk stratum of the kingdom, which crosses Berkshire, there is a line of moderately elevated hills, which extend from Oxford to Farringdon. The substratum of this line is, for the most part, calcareous stone, of various degrees of hardness; being part of the same stratum, which, with a few interruptions, crosses the kingdom in a north-eastern direction, from the west of Dorsetshire, nearly parallel to the great line of chalk, and a few miles distant from it. Gently descending from this elevated line of country, is the vale of Berkshire, which crosses the country from the parish of Shirenham on the west, to Cholsey on the eastern boundary. Next to this vale on the south are the chalk-hills already mentioned. The natural divisions of the Natural county, which are as follows, are strongly marked, as Divisions, might appear from our account of its surface: 1. The vale, as it is emphatically termed, or the vale of Berkshire, or the White-horse Vale, which, crossing the country from Shirenham to Cholsey, is bounded on one side by the Thames, and on the other by the White-horse hills, a continuation of theChiltren range. 2. The Chalky-hills, which run nearly through the centre of the lower part of the county. 3. The vale of Kennet; and. 4. The forest, which nearly occupies the whole of the eastern part, commencing on the east of the Loddon, and extending the breadth of the county to Windsor. The prevalent soils in this county are light and Soils, calcareous: the soil of the vale of Berkshire is a gray calcareous loam, probably of more tenacity than any other soil in the county ; it is evidently formed by vegetable earth and chalk; of course easily cultivated at all seasons, and very productive. On the sides of the vale of Kennet is, for the most part, a reddish earth, more or less mingled with chalk and flints ; in the vale- itself, the prevading soil is gravel, but with some very fertile corn-land, or deep loam, easily cultivated. The whole course of the river Kennet is through a bed of peat, from Hungerford to Reading. The mode and cause of the formation of this peat are very evident. In the town mm

274 . B E R . Berkshire, of Reading, the Kennet passes between two hills; '*c*!^.'m***/ and it would appear, that formerly the channel between them could not have been sufficiently low to carry the waters off, and prevent them from forming a morass in its whole extent, for about 25 miles above this obstruction. To the south of this river, near Hungerford, a tract of poor gravel and clay commences ; at first, for several miles it is very narrow ; but in the eastern part of the county it becomes very wide. It is everywhere ferruginous, and in most places very barren. The southern boundary of the county everywhere passes through this line of coarse land. In the forest division there is gravel, day, and loam; the list in the centre, and the two former in the southern parts; the substratum of nearly the whole of Berkshire is calcareous. Climate. The climate of this county is mild and dry, except on the elevated line of chalk, where it is rather cold and piercing. We are not aware of any meteorological observations that have been made in the county. Rivers. The principal rivers are the Thames, the Kennet, the Loddon, the Ock, the Lambourn, and the Auborn. The Thames enters this county about a mile south from Lecklade, and forms its boundary during a course of more than 100 miles ; in its progress watering the towns of Abingdon, Wallingford, Heading, Maidenhead, and Windsor, besides several villages ; it is navigable as high as St John’s Bridge, near Lecklade. In its course through Berkshire, it produces pike, trout, and various other common fish, besides carp and tench, which are supposed to be brought thither by floods. 1 he Kennet, having divided this county from Wiltshire for about two miles, enters it at Hungerford. At Newbury, where it is joined by the Lambourn, it becomes navigable, and flowing thence through rich meadows to Reading, it there unites with the Ihames. Its course through Berkshire is nearly thirty miles. The trout of this river have long been celebrated lor their size and flavour; it produces also pike, perch, eels, cray-tish, chub, roach, and dace. The river Loddon, which rises near Aldershot in Hampshire, becomes a boundary between that county and Berkshire at Blackwater. After continuing so lor eight miles, it enters Berkshire at Swallowfield, and falls into the Thames near Wargrave ; its course in the county being about twelve miles. The Ock, which rises near Uffington, falls into the Thames at Abingdon ; its pike are remarkably fine. The Auborn rises ' in Berkshire, but afterwards becomes a boundary between it and Hampshire; beyond Hede-end, it again enters the county, and falls into the Kennet a little below Wasing ; its whole course is about seventeen miles. The Lambourn rises among the hills in the vicinity of the town of the same name, and, as has been already mentioned, falls into the Kennet near Newbury. Canals. The Wiltshire and Berkshire canal commences on the banks of the Isis near Abingdon, and, passing through Wantage, Chippenham, and Mielksham, joins the canal from the Kennet to the Avon, at Trowbridge. From this canal, collateral cuts are made to Wantage, Caine, and Chippen5

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ham. The Kennet and Avon canal begins a little Berkshire, above Newbury, and runs parallel with the Kennet to Kintbury, where it crosses the river twice. It afterwards crosses it in three other places during its course to the head of the river. From Crofton to Barbage it goes through a tunnel Sf miles long. After crossing the Avon thrice, it proceeds by the side of it till the junction with it is completed. The entire length, from Newbury to Bath, is 60 miles; with 176 feet rise, and 369 feet fall. This county does not produce many rare plants ; Botany, among those which occur the least frequently are Myrica gale, sweet willow, Dutch myrtle; Monotropa hypopithys, bird’s-nest; Asarum Europeeum, asarabacca, found by Dr Abbot in the beech-wood between Henley and Maidenhead ; Antirrhinum monspessulanum, growing abundantly on the chalky banks of Henley hill; and Lycopodium selago, and L. inundatum, fir club-moss, and marsh clubmoss, in a bog on Upton Common. The pro- Newbuiy bable origin of the peat found in the Vale of Ken- f'eatnet has already been noticed in our account of that x-iver. It is found on both sides of the Kennet for several miles above and below the town of Newbury. Tiie stratum lies at various depths below the surface of the ground, and varies in thickness from 1 to 8 or 10 feet; gravel is usually found underneath it. Horns, heads, and bones of various animals, have been found in it. According to the analysis of Sir H. Davy, it consists of Oxyde of iron Gypsum Muriat of sulphur and potash

48 52 20 100

The mineralogy of Berkshire presents very little that is interesting. Oyster-shells are found in the sand strata near Reading ; and in one place in the vicinity of that town, a stratum of fuller’s earth. Landed property is very much divided in this Landed county; the largest estate not exceeding L.l 0,000 Property. per annum ; and very few amounting to L.5000. Property is least divided in the lower part of Berkshire. By far the greatest portion of the land is freehold. Leases on lives, and leases renewable every seven years, are not unfrequent. A few estates are held by leases of 1006 years. The farms are very various ira respect to size ; but in general they are small. According to Dr Beeke, on the supposition that there are 469,500 acres m the county, they are distributed in the following manner :— Arable land, about Meadows and dairy land Sheep walks Other dry pastures, parks, &c. Wastes, chiefly barren heaths Woods, copses, &e. Space occupied by buildings, fences, wood, rivers, &c. -

255,000 72,000 25,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 273500 469,500

B E It Berkshire. From this statement it will be seen, that a large proportion of the land in Berkshire is under the Produce of plough. Wheat and barley are very extensively culirable land. tivated, and are produced of the very best quality. The flour which comes to the London market from Reading and its vicinity is deemed little if at all inferior to that which is produced from the wheats of Essex and Kent; between 20,000 and 30,000 sacks are sent annually to the metropolis. The malt of Berkshire, particularly that made at Reading, Newbury, and Wallingford, is equally celebrated for its goodness; it is principally sent to London and Bristol. At Wallingford alone, upwards of 120,000 bushels are made annually. On the grass lands in the vale of White-horse, are many good dairy farms, on some of which peculiarly rich cheeses are made. The Berkshire breed of sheep are very similar in Sheep. size, form, and qualities, to the breed of Dorsetshire and Wiltshire. Besides this native breed, there are kept on the sheep farms the Wiltshire, Dorset, South Down, and a few of the Bagshot-heath breed. The whole produce of wool in this county is estimated at 4150 packs. The swine of Berkshire have long Hogs. been noted for the smallness of their bone and their disposition to fatten quickly. They are now common in most parts of the kingdom, and are generally preferred at the distilleries, being good either for pork or bacon. Agriculture. The agriculture of this county presents nothing else peculiar or deserving of notice, except the Newbury peat, which, when burnt, affords an excellent manure, and is very extensively used as such, not only in this but in the neighbouring counties. Woodland. The south and east sides of Berkshire have a large proportion of woodland ; the most common kind of wood is hazel, occasionally mixed with oak, beech, ash, and alder. The chief quantity of timber is at the eastern extremity of the county, in and about Windsor forest, in the Vale ofKennet, and by the Windsor banks of the Thames, Windsor forest was formerly Forest. of much greater extent than it is at present. According to Norden’s map of it, taken in the year 1607, its circuit was 77^ miles, exclusively of that part of it which extended into Buckinghamshire. The present circuit of it, according to Rocque’s map, is about 56 miles ; but it will probably be soon much lessened, in consequence of the act of Parliament lately passed, by which commissioners are appointed to dispose of parts of it to the proprietors of neighbouring lands. Windsor great and little parks are in the forest. The former is embellished with some rich forest scenery. In it his Majesty had two large farms, one of which was conducted on the Norfolk, and the other on the Flemish system of husbandry. On the south-east side of Windsor little park was formerly a venerable tree, immortalized by Shakespeare, and since known by the appellation of Herne’s Oak. Berkshire was formerly one of the principal seats Manufactures. of the clothing-manufacture, which flourished particularly in the towns of Abingdon, Newbury, and Reading. In the middle of the seventeenth century, this manufacture was carried on to a considerable extent; but it declined soon afterwards, and for se-

275 B E R veral years has been wholly discontinued. In the Berkshire, vicinity of Newbury there is a large paper-mill; and in the town itself, a small manufactory of serge. There is another paper-mill at Bagnor ; a manufacture of sacking at Abingdon, and a few other trifling manufactures in other parts ol‘ the county. The only one, however, which deserves particular notice, is the copper manufacture at the Temple Mills, in the parish of Bisham. In the early part of the last century, when they were employed for making brass and copper pans and kettles, they were known by the name of Bisham Abbey Battery Works. The manufactures now carried on at these mills are confined to the roiling of copper sheets, for various purposes; the rolling of copper bolts, for the navy and merchant service, and the hammering out copper pans and bottoms for distilleries. During full employment, from 600 to 1000 tons of copper are manufactured here. These mills are said to be the most powerful and complete in the kingdom. There are many very great markets in Berkshire ; Markets. Abingdon, Reading, Newbury, Wallingford, and Windsor, have great corn-markets. Ilsley is celebrated for its sheep-market, which is supposed to be the largest county market in England; it commences on the Wednesday in the Easter week, and continues to be held every alternate Wednesday till Midsummer; 20,000 sheep have been sometimes sold in one day ; the annual average is upwards of 250,000, comprising lambs. Oakingham market is remarkable for its abundant supply of poultry, which is principally bought for the supply of the metropolis. At Farringdon is the principal market for bacon and hams ; 4000 swine are said to be slaughtered annually here, between November and April, for the supply of London and Oxford. Berkshire affords many specimens of Saxon ar- Arclritecchitecture, the most remarkable of which are Aving-,ure* ton Church, and the Nave of Windsor Church; the churches of Uffington, Englefield, and Farringdon, and the Chapel at Little Farringdon, exhibit some striking specimens of the early Gothic. One of the most complete and splendid specimens of the later style of Gothic architecture, is St George’s Chapel at Windsor. In the year 1776, the poor-rates of this county Poor-rates, amounted to the sum of L. 39,933, 9s- 3d.; in the year 1783, they had increased to L. 49,866, 10s. 8d.; and in the year 1803, to L. 96,860, 19s* 10^d.: in this year the rate was at 4s. lid. in the pound. Of the sum thus collected, L. 82,604 was expended in the maintenance of the poor; there were relieved, in and out of workhouses, 22,588 poor people, at the rate of L. 3, 12s. lOd. annually, for each person relieved. The number relieved in the workhouses was 1169, at the rate of L. 12, 6s. 5^d. per head; the number relieved at their own houses was 21,419, at the rate of L. 3, 2s. 10.^d. per head. The total money raised by rates was 17s* 9d* per head, on the population at that time. Twenty-one persons in a hundred were relieved. There were 47 Friendly Societies, containing 2843 members ; and there were 305 children in the Schools of Industry. By the last return to Parliament, 192 parishes in Berkshire

276 B E R Berkshire (31 not having made any return) paid, in the year en< n r^ £

ie 21st

Bei thoud ^ of March 1815, L. 125,710, Os. 4£d. . —r_' f° poor’s-rates, and other parochial rates. Population. The population of this county, at the time of the Norman survey, amounted to between 40,000 and 50,000. In the year 1700, it was estimated at 75,000. The number of inhabited houses, in 1800, was 20,573, of uninhabited houses 622, and of inhabitants 109,215. Of these 52,821 were males, and 56,394 females ; 38,155 were chiefly employed in agriculture, and 16,921 in trades, manufactures, or handicraft. In 1811, the number of inhabited houses was 22,104; of families inhabiting them, 24,051 ; houses building, 129; uninhabited, 563; families employed in agriculture 13,409, on land, the annual rent of which was L. 407,186; families employed in manufactures and trade 7584, the amount of their annual profits being L. 272,582 ; families not included under these two heads 4058 ; males 57,360 and females 60,917. Total population 118,277* The number of people to a square mile was 744; the annual proportions of baptisms were one to 34 persons; of burials, one to 53; and of marriages, one to 144. Historical During the civil war in the seventeenth century, Notices. this county was frequently the scene of action between the contending parties. In September 1643, the first battle of Newbury was fought, in which the celebrated Lord Falkland lost his life. In October 1644, a second battle was fought near Newbury; in each of them, both parties claimed the victory.—See Mavor’s Agricultural Report of Berkshire ; Beauties of England and Wales, Vol. I.; Lyson’s Magna Britannia ; Smith’s Map of the Strata of England, and Memoir. (c.) BERTH OUT) (Ferdinand), Chronometer-maker to the French Admiralty, member of the Institute of France, and of the Legion of Honour, was born in the county of Neufehatel in 1727* His father’s profession was that of architect, and the son was intended to be bred to the church, but, having shown a taste for clock-w ork, an experienced workman in that art was got to instruct him in its principles, and young Berthoud was afterwards sent to Paris to improve in the knowledge and practice of the art he had thus commenced. He settled in Paris in 1745, and applied himself to the making of chronometers, an art which was then in its infancy. A chronometer is an accurately made watch, whose chief peculiarity consists in a piece of mechanism intended to render the number of vibrations of the balance equal in equal times, at all the degrees of temperature to which the instrument is exposed ; and the chronometer being a portable instrument, which can be used on ship-board, is by this mechanism made to move at a constant rate;—say at the rate of mean solar time, so that it shows what hour it is at the meridian of Greenwich, if the chronometer, at the commencement of the voyage, wras set to Greenwich time, whilst the observation of the height of the sun or of a star gives the hour, angle, and the hour at the place where the ship is: the difference between these two times is the longitude of the ship. Fleurieu and Borda, by order of the French Government, made a voyage from La Rochelle to

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the West Indies and Newfoundland, for the pur- Berthoud pose of trying the chronometers of Ferdinand BerII. thoud, and found that they gave the longitude with ' only a quarter of a degree of longitude of error, after a cruize of six weeks. Satisfactory results were also obtained from his chronometers in the expedition of Verdun, Borda, and Pingre, which was appointed to try them, together with those of Le Roy. An account of this expedition is published. Sully, an English watch-maker established in Paris, was the first who, in that city, attempted the construction of chronometers for finding the longitude; this he did in 1724. In 1736, the chronometers of the English artist, Harrison, were tried at sea. In France there were no chronometer-makers of note, from the first attempts of Sully, till Pierre le Roy and Ferdinand Berthoud, between whom there was some discussion about the priority of their discoveries and improvements. Ferdinand Berthoud’s chronometers were long the most esteemed of any in France. Louis Berthoud, the nephew and successor of Ferdinand, has improved upon the machines of his uncle, and has made them generally of a smaller size, so as to become more portable. And many farther improvements have been made by the English chronometer-makers. Ferdinand Berthoud was regular in his habits of life; he retained the use of his faculties to the last; and died, of hydrythorax, at his country-house, in the Valley of Montmorency, in 18075 having attained the age of 80. The principal published works of Ferdinand Berthoud are, Essai sur PHorlogerie, 1786..2 vols. in 4to ; two Tracts on Chronometers, 1773; De la Mesure du Temps, 1737? in 4to; Les Longitudes par la Mesure du Temps, 1775, in 4to; a Tract on Chronometers, 1782, in 4to ; Histoire de la Mesure du Temps par les Horloges, 1802, 2 vols. in 4to; VArt de conduire el de regler les Pendules, et les Montres, 1760, in 12mo. In this tract directions are given for regulating clocks and watches suited to general readers; it has gone through several editions. (y.) BERWICKSHIRE, a county in the south-east Situation, of Scotland, bounded by East-Lothian on the north, the German Ocean on the east, Mid-Lothian on the north-west, Roxburghshire on the west and southwest, and by the Tweed, which separates it at first from Roxburghshire, and afterwards from England, and by the township of Berwick on the south and south-east; is situated in the 56th degree of north latL tude, its central parts two degrees west from London ; and contains 446 square miles or 285,440 acres, Extent, of which more than a third is cultivated, or fit for cultivation. It has usually been described as consisting of Bivisions, three great'divisions, Lammermoor, Lauderdale, and the Merse, of which the boundaries are by no means accurately defined (see article in the body of the work); but for every useful purpose, Lauderdale may be held as included in the other two divisions, and the greater part of it as belonging to Lammermoor. This mountainous district, on which Ber- Lamnierwickshire meets with East-Lothian, commences atnioor* St Abb’s Head on the north-east of the county, and passes into Mid-Lothian on the north-west. That

/( B E R Berwick- part of it which belongs to Berwickshire is in many number of people in its different stages, is shared Bemick1 shire. places from 1000 to 1500 feet above the level of the with the inhabitants of the opposite bank as far as, sea ; but as it sinks towards the low grounds of the it forms the boundary; but nearer the mouth of the Merse, for the most part by an easy declivity, and river the fishery is by far the most productive. The is intersected by several small valleys through which fish are sent to Berwick, where they are pickled, its streams flow, it contains a considerable extent dried, or, more generally of late, packed in ice and of good pasturage, with many smaller tracts of arable shipped for the London market. The fishery on the land. This whole range, however, and particularly coast employs about a hundred men with twenty the higher parts, covered with heath ancl the coars- boats, at eight small fishing stations. Herrings visit est grasses, is, general^ speaking, very barren ; and this coast occasionally. No seams of coal worth working have been found Minerals, both the climate and the soil are unpropitious to vegetation in a greater degree than its elevation alone in this county; and this necessary article is procurwould lead one to expect. The gradual rise of the ed partly by sea, but chiefly by a most expensive mountains and their continuity afford little natural land carriage from the south side of the Tweed, and shelter ; and it is only in particular spots, themselves from the Lothians. A few veins of limestone, which somewhat sheltered, that trees can be made to grow have been discovered in the inland parts, cannot be to any height. The winters, therefore, are more worked with advantage owing to the want of coal; severe and protracted, cultivated crops more pre- and the immense quantity of lime required by its carious, and the pastures much less rich and ver- spirited system of -agriculture, must also be brought dant, than at the same altitude on the hills around from a distance, and from almost the same quarters. Cheviot, on the opposite side of the Tweed; which Clay-marl, found along the banks of the Whitadder springing suddenly and separately from their bases and Blackadder, w as once extensively employed as in a conical form, protect one another in every di- a manure, but has for many years been superseded rection. This extensive district is accordingly chief- by lime. Shell-marl, discovered in small quantily occupied with the hardy coarse woolled mountain ties in many places, is worked to some extent in the sheep, and yields but a small revenue to its proprie- western parish of Merton. Sandstone of different colours, some of it of a very fine grain, occurs tors, and to its thinly scattered husbandmen. The Merse. The Merse, the other great division, comprises all in different parts, particularly at Dryburgh, on the the low lands of the county. From the Tweed the Tweed ; from whence, it is probable, stones had country rises gradually towards Lammermoor; and been procured for the beautiful structure of Melrose the sea coast on the east is also high, bold, and pre- Abbey. The outer pier of the harbour of Eyemouth cipitous, being accessible only at Eyemouth, Gold- is built without cement, of a coarse pudding-stone, ingham and a few other places. The general appear- found in a rocky promontory contiguous ; and has ance, therefore, of this district, when viewed from some withstood, for almost 40 years, the fury of the Gercommanding eminence, is that of an unbroken plane, man Ocean, w ithout any apparent waste—A mineslightly inclined towards the south, surrounded on ral spring in the parish of Edrom, about a mile from all other sides by high grounds; but on which, when the towm of Dunse, and known by the name of the seen nearer, there is perceived a considerable di- Dunse Spa, was at one time in much repute, but versity of surface ;—hills rising from gently undulat- has been almost entirely neglected for many years. In a general view of Berwickshire, its agricul- Agriculture, ing swells, of which that on which Home Castle stands is among the most conspicuous, and wind- ture is by far the most prominent object. At a ing vales, along which the Whitadder, Blackadder, distance from a crowded population—without coal Leader, and a number ot smaller streams, urge their and lime—having a rocky coast, which confines its course to the Tweed. The whole of this tract, com- exports and imports to one or two places* 10 or 12 puted at about 170 square miles, well cultivated, and miles from the centre of the county,—and enjoying generally fertile, inclosed and subdivided by white- no peculiar advantages in soil or climate,—there are' thorn hedges, sheltered by thriving plantations, and certainly few districts, at all accessible to cultivaadorned by many seats and pleasure-grounds, and tion, less favourably situated. Yet almost the whole still more, everywhere, by excellent farm-houses, of the Merse is cultivated in the best style of modern presents a scene of peaceful industry and of rural husbandry, and there are few, if any, districts of the prosperity, which is not perhaps exceeded on so same extent in Britain, where the most approved large a scale in any part of Britain ;—forming a management of arable land is so skilfully and sucstriking contrast to the habits of plunder, and the cessfully combined with that of live stock and pasturgeneral wretchedness by which, till the union of tne age. The leading feature in the husbandry of the British crowns, the inhabitants of this, as of all the south-east of Scotland is, the alternation of corn border districts, had never ceased to be distin- with pulse, herbage, or roots ; or what is commonly called, white and green crops; but the farmers of Berguished. Waters. The rivulets already noticed, with the Eye and a wickshire, adopting this course invariably, have renfew others, are all too inconsiderable to merit any dered it more productive, and better suited to their particular description; and the I weed, by which soil and climate, by reserving their cultivated herbthe county is for the most part bounded on the south, age, red and white clovers, with ryegrass, from the rising in another district, and discharging itself into plough, for two or more years, so that above half the sea three miles beyond its limits, can haruly be the cultivated land is always depastured by sheep Fisheries, said to belong to Berwnckshire. Ihe salmon-fishery and cattle. The sheep in the lower parts of the on this river, a source of employment to a great county are almost universally of the New Leicester B

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B E R 278 Berwick- variety ; and the short-horned breed of cattle, introshire. duced from the north of England, are now spreading fast over all its better pastures. Farms are of all sizes, from 40 to 1000 acres and upwards ; but the more common size, in the Merse, is from 400 to 600 acres. All the farm-houses, out-buildings, and cottages recently erected, are most substantial, convenient, and well-situated, and contribute greatly to the beauty of the landscape. Rental. The valued rent of Berwickshire is L.178,S66, 8s. bg^d. Scots ; and the real rent, as assessed to the property-tax for the year ending April 1811, was, for the lands, L.231,973, 2s. 7d.; and for the houses, L.8,152, 17s. 6d. Sterling. About a third part of the valued rent is held under entail. In 1795, the rental was estimated at L.112,000; so that it had more than doubled in sixteen years. It is universally paid in money ; and the farms are held on leases for a term of years ; here, as in every other part of Scotland, nineteen years being the most common period. The manufactures of this county are quite inconManufactures. siderable ; that of paper, made at two extensive works, being almost the only one that affords an article for exportation. There are bleachfields, breweries, cornmills, and other small establishments for the home supply ; and some of the millers are in the practice of purchasing grain, which they send chiefly to Berwick, and Dalkeith in Mid-Lothian, after converting Commerce, it into flour, meal, or shelled barley. The commerce of the district is, therefore, necessarily confined to the export of raw produce, and the import of coals, lime, timber, iron, groceries, &c. Yet the value of the corn exported, of which the greater part

B E II is carried to Berwick, and of the cattle and sheep Berwick, driven to Edinburgh, and to Morpeth, and other s'’'lemarkets in England, must amount to a very large sum ; the stationary live stock alone having been estimated, several years ago, at near half a million of pounds Sterling. Berwickshire having been the scene of incessant Antiquities, warfare between the Scots and English for many ages, still exhibits traces of military stations and ruins of fortifications, which time and the progress of cultivation is fast obliterating. But the most interesting remains of antiquity are the nunnery of Coldingham and Dryburgh Abbey, proofs, not more, perhaps, of the piety, than of the oppression of our ancestors. The deep glen, called the Pease, in the north- Pease east angle of the county, on the road from Edin-Budge, burgh to Berwick, has been celebrated in history as one of the natural defences of Scotland. The bridge which has been thrown over it consists of four arches ; and its romantic situation, and stupendous height of 123 feet from the small stream below, render it an object of some curiosity to travellers. Berwickshire is divided into thirty-one parishes. There is no large town in it, and but a few villages of any extent. (See the Encyclopaedia.) It is one of the few Scottish counties in which regular assessments are made for the poor. In 1808, the average Poor’s number in three parishes was one in fifty-five of the Rate, inhabitants. The rate, imposed equally upon landowners and tenants, amounted to Std. on the pound of rent. The following tables exhibit a summary of the Population, population returns for 1800 and 1811:

1800. HOUSES.

PERSONS.

By how many Families occupied. 5965

6835

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273

OCCUPATIONS.

Persons chiefly em Females. ployed in Agriculture.

14,094 16,327||

6396

Persons other chiefly em- All Persons not ployed in comprised Trade, Ma- in the two nufactures, preceding or Handi- classes. craft:. 3343

19,767

Total of Persons.

30,621

1811.* HOUSES.

PERSONS.

By how many Families occupied. 5730

6867

OCCUPATIONS.

Families chiefly emMales. Females. ployed in Agricul-

308

14,466 16,313

3124

Families chiefly employed in Trade, Manufactures, or Handicraft. 2013

AH other Fatnilics noi comprised Total of in the two Persons. preceding classes. 1730

30,779

* The population of the parish of Stitchell, which lies partly in the shire of Roxburgh, is not included in this abstract of the returns for 1S11. " (A.)

BET BETEL, a substance compounded of different ingredients, which is chewed in the east in the same way as tobacco is used in other parts of the ts univer- world, but to much greater extent. All individuals, ileonwithout exception of age or sex, begin at an early Betel.

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S accustom themselves to betel, and it gradually becomes an article of such necessity, that those acquainted with the usages of the eastern nations affirm, they would more readily dispense with their ordinary quantity of food than with it. Europeans also, who have resided long in Ceylon or India, contract the same habit, and enjoy chewing of betel equally with the natives. Betel, or pawn, as it is denominated in Bengal, consists of part of the fruit of the areca palm, wrapped in the leaves of a kind of pepper plant called betel, smeared with a little shell lime ; and its name betel-nut is thence derived, from what q'he areca'palm is a tree growing 40 or 50 feet reduced, ^jgj^ a straight round stem six or eight inches in diameter, covered with a smooth ash-coloured bark, marked with parallel rings. All the leaves, which are only six or seven in number, spring from the top ; they are six feet long, declining downwards from a stalk of considerable length. The fruit or nut is covered with a green shell or skin, thin, brittle, and of the consistence of paper ; it is of an oval shape, the size of a small egg, and resembles a nutmeg despoiled of its husk. When ripe, it appears in clusters of a reddish colour, forming a beautiful . contrast with the vivid green of its leaves, and then falls off to sow itself in the ground. The betel plant is a species of vine, bearing a leaf, somewhat resembling ivy ; it is called Piper betel by botanists, and is of the same genus as the Piper nigrum of Linnaeus. Its culture, which is carefully attended to, is managed in the same manner. Poles are planted in the earth, around which the betel twunes itself, and as it runs up, the poles acquire greater height also. It is a creeping plant, seeking support from stronger vegetables, but it is said not to be destructive of them, like some other plants of a similar nature. Particular regard is paid to the cultivation of areca and betel throughout the countries of which they are natives, as we shall afterwards explain. Some years ago, it was found, on enumeration, that the number of trees, probably meaning the areca only, in Prince of Wales’s Island, amounted to 342,110. The lime used with the nut is called chunam, and is obtained from the calcination of shells, as producing the finest kind. But the fresh nut must be avoided ; ft then contains a white viscous matter, insipid to the taste, and occasioning delirium, like ebriety from wine, but losing this property when dried ; and it is employed either boiled or raw. The latter has undergone no change ; the former is cut in slices, boiled with a small quantity of terra japonica,ax\ composed a work, in two volumes octavo, entitled (Euvres Chirurgicales de Dessaidt, ou Tableau de sa Doctrine, et de sa Pratique dans le Traitement des Maladies Externes : a work in which, although he professes only to explain the ideas of another, he developes them with the clearness and copiousness of one who is in perfect possession of the subject which he treats. He was now at liberty to pursue the full bent of his genius, and soon arrived at those comprehensive and masterly views of Physiology, which, when afterwards developed in his writings, gained him so much applause. Undisturbed by the storms which agitated the political world, he pursued with steadiness the course he had meditated, and directed his more immediate attention to Surgery, which it was then his design to practise. We meet with many proofs of his industry and success, at this period, in the Recueil de la Societe Medicate d'Emulation, an association of which Bichat was one of the most zealous and active members. Three memoirs which he communicated, were published by the Society in 1796; the first, describing an improvement in the instrument for trepanning ; the second, detailing a new process, which he devised for the ligature of polypi; and the third, in the distinction to be observed in fractures of the clavicle, between those cases requiring the assistance of art, and those in which its interference would be of no avail. In 1797? we find him undertaking the arduous task of instructing others, which he commenced by a course of anatomical demonstrations. Not expecting any great number of pupils, he had hired a small room for the purpose; but his merit as a

teacher soon attracted a crowd of auditors ; he was obliged to enlarge his theatre, and was also encouraged to extend the plan of his lectures, and to announce what had hitherto never been attempted by one so young and inexperienced, a course of operative surgery. If the boldness of the enterprise was calculated to excite surprise, his success in the execution of it was still more astonishing. His reputation was now fully established, and he was ever after the favourite teacher with the students who resorted to the capital. In the following year, 1798, he gave, in addition to his course on Anatomy and operative Surgery, a separate course of Physiology. But the exertion of speaking, which these numerous courses of lectures, all of which he conducted at the same time, required, was more than his frame could bear; and a dangerous haemoptysis, with which he was seized in the midst of Ids labours, obliged him to interrupt them for a time, and warned him that there are limits to human strength. But the danger was no sooner passed, than the lesson seems to have been disregarded; for we find him plunging into new engagements with the same ardour as before. He had now scope in his physiological lectures for a fuller exposition of his original views in the animal economy, which were no sooner made known to his pupils, than they excited much attention in the medical schools at Paris; and he was induced to publish them in a more authentic form. Sketches of these doctrines were given by him in three papers contained in the Memoirs of the Societe Medicale d'Emulation. The first is on the synovial membranes ; in which he gives a more clear description of the organ that secrets synovia, a fluid, the origin of which had been a matter of much controversy. The next contains an account of the membranes of the human body in general, which he considers a* part from the organs they invest and support, and which they serve to supply with vessels; and regards as performing offices in the economy distinct from those of the organs with which they are so connected. His last memoir relates to the symmetry, which is so remarkable a feature in all those parts of the body that are the instruments of the animal functions, and which establishes so exact a similarity between the limbs and organs of sense on each side of the body ; while, on the other hand, no such regularity can be traced in the forms and dispositions of the viscera, which, like the heart, the stomach, liver, and other organs of assimilation, are subservient to the vital functions. He even assumes this difference as the foundation ot a marked distinction between these two classes of functions; the one, being common to all organized beings, he denominates organic ; the other, as exclusively pertaining to animality, he denotes by the name of animal functions. The doctrines contained in these memoirs were afterwards more fully developed in his Traite sur les Membranes, which appeared in 1800, and which immediately drew the attention of the medical world both at home and abroad. Some time previous to this, he gave to the public a small work, in which he endeavoured to bring together, in a condensed form, the lessons of Dessault relative to the

diseases of the urinary passages; in the notes to this Bichat volume, we may perceive the germ of many ot those ^ views which were peculiar to Bichat. His next publication was the Recherches Physiclogiques sur la Vie et sur la Mart, in 1800, which consists of two distinct dissertations. In the first, he explains at still greater length than he had previously done, his classification of functions, and is at pains to trace the distinction between the animal and organic functions in all its bearings. In the second, he investigates the connection between life and the actions of the three central organs, the heartf lungs, and brain, on which its continuance so essentially depends. But the work on which he bestowed the most attention, and which contained the fruits of his most profound and original researches, is the Anatomic Generate, which was published in four volumes octavo in 1801. It is founded on his classification of the parts of the body, according to their intimate structure ; in order to establish which, he decomposes the animal machine, not merely into the larger pieces of which it is formed, but into the organic elements that constitute them. Of these elementary parts or textures, as he terms them, into which every organ may be ultimately analyzed, he enumerates twenty-one different species. He conceives each of these textures to possess a peculiar modification of vitality, from which it derives those properties that distinguish it from dead matter, and that give rise to all the phenomena of the animal economy, both in a healthy and diseased state. Before Bichat had attained the age of eight-andtwenty, he was appointed physician to the Hotel Dieu, a situation which opened an immense field to his ardent spirit of inquiry. In the investigation of diseases, he pursued the same method of diligent observation and scrupulous experiment, which had characterized his researches in physiology. He learned their history, not from books, but by studying them at the bedside of his patients, and by accurate dissection of their bodies after death. He engaged in a long series of examinations, with a view to ascertain the exact changes induced in the various organs by diseases, which he conceived, in every instance, primarily to affect some one of their constituent textures, while the rest did not suffer any change, unless by the supervention of some other disease. In the prosecution of these inquiries, he had, in less than six months, opened above six hundred bodies. As intimately connected with the practical exercise of the healing art,' he was anxious also to determine, with more precision than had hitherto been attempted, the effects of remedies on the body. It must be confessed, that our knowledge of the operation of remedies is, for the most part, extremely vague and conjectural; and it appeared to him an object of great importance to rescue this branch of science from the uncertainty in which a multitude of points relating to it were still involved, by applying to it the same methods of inductive reasoning as have, in other sciences, been attended with so much success. The basis of the inquiry was to be laid by collecting a sufficient number of facts to admit of their being compared and generalized. A large hospital could

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%ati°n 5 an(i Bichat eagerly availed himself of ’ the opportunities which his appointment at the Hotel Dieu now afforded him, of instituting on these subjects a series of direct experiments on a very extensive scale. He began by giving singly different medicinal substances, and then watching attentively the phenomena that ensued. He then united them in various ways, first joining two together, then three, and so proceeding to more complicated combinations ; and observed the particular changes in their mode of operating, which resulted from their being thus combined. So wide a range of experiments, it is evident, could not have been conducted without assistance ; and he selected forty of his young pupils to aid him in collecting the requisite observations. He had already, in this way, procured a vast store of valuable materials for his course of Lectures on the Materia Medica, the completion of which was unfortunately prevented by his untimely death ; but a great part of the facts were subsequently published in the inaugural dissertations of his pupils. Latterly, he had also occupied himself with framing a new classification of diseases. During these arduous vocations, he never lost sight of his.anatomical pursuits, and had commenced a new work on the subject, in which the organs were arranged according to his peculiar classification of their functions, under the title of Anatomic Descriptive' He lived only to publish the two first volumes of this work. It was, however, continued on the same plan, and completed in three volumes more, by Messrs Buisson and Roux, who had been his most active assistants, and who appear to have been perfectly master of his ideas on the subject. His death was brought on by a fall from a staircase at the Hofei Dieu; and although the accident did not at first appear serious, it excited so great a degree of fever, that his frame, already exhausted by excessive labour, and enfeebled by constantly respiring the tainted air of the dissecting-room, in which he had latterly passed the greater part of his time, sunk under the attack. He died July 22, 1802, universally regretted by his pupils, and attended to the last by the widow of his benefactor, from whom he had never been separated. Every tribute of respect was paid to his memory ; his funeral was attended by above six hundred of his pupils, and by a number of the Physicians in Paris. His bust, together with that of Dessault, was placed at the Hotel Dieu by order of the First Consul, in joint commemoration of the man under whose fostering protection so bright a genius was first brought before the public, and of the pupil who nobly emulated the fame of so great a master. We cannot, indeed, refrain from admiration, when we contemplate all that Bichat has done in his profession in so short a period of time, nor sufficiently lament that a career so auspiciously begun, should, at the age of thirty, have been so suddenly and prematurely terminated. (w.) BILFINGER (George Bernard), born 23d January 1693, at Canstadt in Wurtemburg, acquired ^considerable celebrity as a Philosopher and Statesman. His father was a Lutheran minister. By a singularity

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of constitution, hereditary in his family, Biifinger Bilfinjifr, came into the world with twelve fingers on his hands, and twelve toes. An amputation happily corrected this deformity. Biifinger, from his earliest years, discovered the greatest inclination to learning, and made himself remarkable by his fondness for meditation. He studied in the schools of Blanbeuern and Bobenhausen, and afterwards entered into the Theological Seminary of Tubingen. The works of Wolf, v/hich he studied in order to learn Mathematics, soon inspired him with a taste for the Wolfean Philosophy, and that of Leibnitz ; a passion which made him neglect, for some time, his other studies. Returning to Theology, he wished, at least, to try to connect it with his favourite science of Philosophy, and in this spirit composed a tract, entitled, De Deo, Anima, et Mundo. This work, filled with new ideas, met with great success, and contributed to the advancement of the author, who was appointed soon after to the office of Preacher, at the Castle of Tubingen, and of Reader in the school of Theology: but Tubingen was now become too small a theatre for him. He obtained from his friends, in 1719, a supply of money which enabled him to spend some time at Halle, in order to pursue the lessons of Wolf, and after two years of study, he returned to Tubingen, where the Wolfean Philosophy was not yet in favour. He found his protectors there cooled, saw his lectures deserted, and perceived himself shunned, from the dislike of his new doctrines: his ecclesiastical views also suffered from it. This unpleasant situation lasted almost four years, when he received, by the intervention of Wolf, an invitation to go to Petersburg, where Peter I. wished to appoint him Professor of Logic and Metaphysics, and member of his new Academy. He was received in this city, where he arrived in 1725, with the consideration due to his abilities. The Academy of Sciences of Paris having proposed, about this time, the famous problem, on the cause of Gravity, Biifinger gained the prize, which was a thousand crowns. The reputation of this success was spread abroad among all the learned of Europe. All the journals repeated it; and the Duke Charles Edward of Wurtemburg, finding that the author of this admired Memoir was one of his subjects, hastened to recal him into his dominions. The court of Russia, after having made some useless attempts to detain him, granted him a pension of four hundred florins, and a present of two thousand, in reward of an invention relative to the art of fortification. He quitted Petersburg in 1731. Returned to Tubingen, Biifinger soon excited considerable attention in that quarter, both by his own lectures, and by the changes which he introduced in the school of Theology. The whole University prospered under his care; and this establishment is conducted to this day according to his excellent regulations. Without overturning any thing in the foundation of Theology, he succeeded in applying his system of Philosophy to this science, exhibiting, it is said, in his deductions, and in his proofs, a method, a justness, and a clearness, which bespoke a mind long exercised in deep and rigorous investigations. The Duke Charles Alexander, who succeeded

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ilfmger. Edward, had already had occasion to appreciate his talents, and put them to use. At the time when he carried on the war in Servia, he maintained a regular correspondence with Bilfinger, wTho had long been known as an able Engineer, and had, indeed, made some improvements of value in the received system of Fortification. After his return to Tubingen, he had frequent conversations writh the Professor on different subjects of administration, and appointed him, in 1735, Privy-Counsellor. This nomination was not a simple honorary title. Bilfinger saw himself raised at once to a power almost unlimited. He resisted some time a promotion, which he did not think himself qualified to sustain. In accepting office, his first care was to acquire all the knowledge necessary to the discharge of its duties. He employed almost two years in assiduous labour to instruct himself thoroughly in the statistics of the country, in considering its political situation, its constitution, its interests, and became, at the end of all this study, one of the most enlightened ministers that his country had yet produced. Bilfinger was placed in a situation too elevated not to excite jealousy and hatred. He felt it, and wished to quit the ministry ; but the court refused to .receive his resignation, soon after the tender of which, the Duke died. Bilfinger experienced from his successor all the consideration and all the friendship which he had experienced in the beginning of his career. Received into a confidence without bounds, he had the power to realize, without obstacle, those plans of administration with which the most enlightened patriotism had inspired him. Wurtemberg still feels the happy influence of his ministry. Commerce, public instruction, agriculture, were protected and ameliorated by his cares. The culture of the vine, of so much importance in this country, was one of the principal objects of his attention. We ought not to forget that he was the original author of that strict union which has long united Wurtemberg and Prussia, and of the importance to which the hereditary Prince of Wurtemberg was raised at the court of Berlin. In 1737, the Duke nominated him President of his consistory, and Secretary of the grand Order of the Chace. He was also Curator of the University of Tubingen, and member of the Royal Academy of

B I L SOS Bilfinger. Berlin. All his time was consecrated to some serious occupation, with the exception of one hour in the evening, which he employed in making and receiving visits. His greatest enjoyment was in cultivating his garden. A warm and strong friend, he gave many proofs of gratitude to those protectors, who had generously assisted him in his studies. He has been reproached with being irascible; but in spite of some slight blemishes, the memory of Bilfinger will be always dear to his countrymen, and honoured by all Germans. Wurtemberg reckons him among the greatest men which she has produced, and proposes him as a model to her statesmen and her men of letters. He was never married, and left no issue. He died at Stuttgart the 18th of February 1750. His works, besides various Papers published in the Memoirs of the St Petersburg and Paris Academies of Science, are: 1. Disputatio de Harmonia prcestabilitd, Tubingen^, 1721, in 4to. 2. De Harmonia Anhii et Corporis Humani maxime prcestabilita Commentatio Hypothetica, Francfort on the Main, 1723, in 8vo. This work was inserted in the Expurgatory Index at Rome in 1734. 3. De Origine et Permissione Mali, prcecipue Moralis, Commentatio Philosophica, ibid. 1724, in 8vo. 4. Specimen Doctrines Veterum Sinarum Moralis et Politicce, Francf. 1724, in 4to. 5. Dissertatio Historico-cataptrica de Specula Archimedis, Tubingen, 1725, in 4to. 6. Dilucidationes Philosophicee de Deo, Animfi Humana, Mundo, et Generalibus Rentm Affectionibus, ibid. 1725, in 4to. 7. Bilfingeri et Holmanni Epistolce de Harmonia Preestabilitd, 1728, in 4to. 8. Disputatio de Natura et Legibus Studii in Theologia Thetici, ibid. 1731, in 4to. 9. Disputatio de Cultu Dei Rationali, ibid. 1731. 10. Notes Breves in Ben. Spinosee Methodum Explicandi Scripturas, Tub. 1732, in 4to. W.De Mysteriis Christianee Fidei Generatim Spectatis Sermo, Recitatus 1732, Tubingen, 1732, in 4to. 12. Elementa Physices, Leipzig, 1742, in 8vo. 13. La Citadelle Coupee, Leipzig, 1756, in 4to. See Biographic Universelle, Tom. IV,

(z.)

504

BILLS OF MORTALITY. Bills of RlLLS OF MORTALITY" are abstracts from paMortahty. regjsters, showing, as their name imports, the numbers that have died in any parish or place during certain periods of time, as in each week, month, or year ; and are, accordingly, denominated weekly, monthly, or yearly bills. They also include the numbers of the baptisms during the same periods, and generally those of the marriages. What has been advanced on this subject, under the head Mortality, bills of, in the Encyclopedia, appears to have been taken from Dr Price’s Observations on Reversionary Payments ; and is designed principally, to explain the method of constructing Tables of Mortality from such Bills, which shall exhibit the law according to which human life wastes at every age, and shall enable us to determine readily, the probability of its continuance from any one age to any other; a subject which will be treated in this Supplement under the head Mortality, law of. Objects of -p]ie objects of the present article are these :— this Article. to give a brief history of the principal things that have been done in this way, which may suffice for such as are not disposed to go further into the subject, and may, at the same time, indicate the best sources of information to those who take more interest in it. As both mortuary registers and enumerations of the people are much more valuable when combined than when separate, we shall also notice some of the principal enumerations, the results of which have been published. We shall then point out some of the principal defects in most of the published registers and enumerations ; and, lastly, shall submit some forms, according to which, if enumerations be made, and registers kept, they will be easily convertible to useful purposes. iffistory. The ancients do not appear to have kept any exact mortuary registers, at least no account of any registers of that kind, with the ages of the deceased, have come down to us; and although, in the Roman Census, first established by Servius Tullius, both the ages and sexes of the people were distinguished, we have no exact account of these particulars in any one of their enumerations. Indeed, the principal object of the census among that warlike people, was the levying of men and money for the purposes of conquest; the duration of human life appears to have occupied very little of their attention, and their proficiency in the science of quantity was not sufficient either to show them what the necessary data were, or to enable them to draw just inferences from them, had they been in their possession. A good account of what the ancient Romans did in this way, with references to the original authorities, may be found in ihe Italian translation of M. •Demoivre’s Treatise if Annuities on Lives, by Gaeta

and Fontana, which was published at Milan, in 8vo, Bills of in the year 177C. (Discorso Preliminare, Parte 2 ) Mortality. The keeping of parish registers commenced in England in the year 1538, in consequence of an injunction issued in that year by Thomas Cromwell, who, after the abolition of the Pope’s authority in this kingdom, in the reign of Henry VIII., had been appointed the King’s vicegerent in ecclesiastical affairs. Some parish registers in Germany appear to have commenced with the sixteenth century ; and in the Gbttliche Ordnung of Sussmilch (T. 3. S. 23.), we are informed, that at the time of Lord Cromwell’s injunction, they had already old registers of that kind, both at Augsburgh and Breslaw. However, the extracts he has given from the Augsburgh registers do not go back further than the year 1501, nor those for Breslaw beyond 1555. About the beginning of the seventeenth century, such registers appear to have been established in most parts of Europe ; but it was not until the year 1662 that they began to attract public notice, and to be considered as the sources of valuable and interesting information. In that year, John Graunt, a citizen of Lon- Mr Grauat. don (afterwards an officer in the trained bands of the city, and a Fellow of the Royal Society), published his Natural and Political Observations on the Bills of Mortality, principally those for London. The London bills, or accounts of baptisms and burials, appear to have been occasioned by the plague, and to have been begun in the year 1592, a time of great mortality. They were afterwards discontinued, but wrere resumed in 1603, after the great plague of that year. They have ever since been continued weekly, and an annual bill also has been regularly published. In 1629, the number of deaths by the different diseases and casualties, were first inserted in them, also the distinction of the sexes; and these have been continued ever since. But it is in the totals only of the baptisms and burials that the sexes are distinguished in these bills. They do not show how many of each sex died of each disease, neither have they, since 1728, when the distinction of the ages of the dead was first introduced, shown how many of each sex died in each interval of age, but only the total number of both sexes. This book of Graunt’s, although the first, is also one of the best that have been published on the subject. It contains many judicious observations on the imperfections of the bills, on the proportions of the deaths from different diseases and casualties, and on their increase and decrease, with the probable causes of such fluctuations. He also observed, that “ the more sickly the years are, the less fecund or fruitful of children also they be.” Besides the London bills, he gave one for a country parish in Hampshire, in the first edition of his

BILLS OF M Bilk of book; and, in an appendix to the later editions, two Mortality, others, one for Tiverton, the other for Cranbrook in Kent, with a few observations on foreign bills. He almost always reasons justly from his data ; but, as these were very imperfect, in his endeavours to draw more information from them than they could supply, he has sometimes fallen into error. Even in this enlightened age, when a much greater proportion of the people devote a portion of their leisure to the acquisition of knowledge than in Graunt’s time, subjects of this kind have but few attractions for the generality even of reading men, who cannot endure the fatigue of thinking closely for any length of time. The author, accordingly, expected his readers to be rather select than numerous, and was ambitious of that distinction, as appears by the motto he prefixed to his work, ZVom, me ut miretur Turba, laboro, Contentm panels Lectoribus. The book wras, however, favourably received by the public, and went through five'editions in fifteen years, the two first in 4to, the three others in 8vo; the last of them, published in 1676, two years after the author’s death, was edited by his friend, Sir William Petty, who, in consequence of having sometimes spoken of this edition as his own, has by some writers been erroneously considered as the author. Graunt’s observations, like all others of a similar kind, by showing the usefulness of parish registers and bills of mortality, contributed to form a taste for these inquiries among thinking men ; and, consequently, to improve both the registers and the bills derived from them ; so that, from his time, the subject has been continually cultivated more and more. Parish registers, in most parts of Europe, have been kept with more care; and a succession of works of considerable merit have been published on the subject, containing an important part of the natural and political history of our species, and affording valuable materials for the science of political economy. The principal of these works we proceed to give a short account of, in the order of their publication. As the ages at which the deaths took place were not inserted in the London bills till 1728, Captain Graunt could not avail himself of that important information, but made a fruitless attempt to determine the law of mortality without it. Or Halley The Breslaw bills appear to have been the first wherein the ages at which the deaths took place were inserted, and the most important information which Bills of Mortality can afford, was first drawn from them by Dr Halley ; who, in 1692* constructed a table of mortality for Breslaw from these bills for the five preceding years, and inserted a paper on the subject in the Philosophical Transactions, No. 196. Dr DaveIn 1699, Dr Davenant, in An Essay upon the pronantand hahle Methods of making a People Gainers in the utrtgory Ballance of 'Trade, published some extracts from Natural and Political Observations and Conclusions upon the State and Condition of England, by permission of their author, Gregory King, Esq. Lancaster herald, who had completed them in l6’96', though VOL. II. PART II.'

0 R T A L I T Y. 305 they still remained in manuscript; and the whole of Bills of this very curious production was published by Mr Mortality. ^ Chambers at the end of his Estimate in 1802. Mr King derived his information from the poll-books; from actual observations in particular places ; from the assessments on marriages, births, and burials ; and from the parish registers. Many of his conclusions agree surprisingly well, considering the time he wrote, with those which are the results of a hundred years of further observations and inquiries. He had access to much better data than Graunt, and his conclusions are more accurate; but he does not explain so fully how he arrived at them. From the publication of Davenant’s essay, above M. Kcrsementioned, nearly forty years had elapsed without boom, any thing further being done in this way, when M. Kerseboom published an essay, in the Dutch language, on the probable number of people in Holland and West Friesland, w'hich he deduced from the Bills of Mortality (Hague, 1738, 4to) ; and two others in 1740 and 1742 : an account of the first of these three essays may be seen in the Philosophical Transactions, No. 450, and of the two others in No. 468. In 1742 was published the first edition of the ee- j. p. Siisslebrated work, entitled Die Gbltliche Ordnung in den milch. Verdnderungen des menschlichen Geschlechts aus der GebuH, dem Tode und der Fortpfanzung dcsselben erveiesen von Johann Peter Siissmilch. The second edition appeared in 1761, enriched with the materials which had been laid before the public through various .channels in the interim; the third in 1765, and in 1775 a fourth edition of the two volumes of Sussmilch was published by Christian Jacob Bau-j.Baumanm mann, to which this editor himself added, in 1776, a third volume, consisting of additions to the other two, and remarks upon them, with many new tables, and a copious index. The last edition of this work was published in 1798, but it does not appear to have been augmented or improved since 1776. It contains long dissertations on every thing not mathematical connected with the subject, and, besides original information, includes the substance of all the other publications on it previous to 1776; with an immense collection of materials, which, when borrowed, are often better arranged and rendered more convenient for reference, than they will be found to be in the works they were extracted from; besides, the original sources of information are always referred to, and these advantages, with that of a full index, render it a valuable work for occasional reference. The three thick 8vo volumes contain upwards of 2300 pages, closely printed with a small type, and the tables alone occupy 330 pages. In 1746 was published the Essai of M. Depar-M. Deparcieux, which has been already mentioned in the his- cieux. torical introduction to the article Annuities in this Supplement: information much wanted on this subject, was there given in a very clear and popular manner, and the work no doubt contributed greatly to the advancement of the science. It probably had some influence in promoting the establishment of what is called the Tabellvarket in Sweden, which Qq

BILLS OF M 0 R T A L I T Y. 306 Hills of took place in 1749, anti of which we shall have oc- more than adequate to supply any waste of that kind, Bills of Moitality. casj0n to take further notice presently. and that the real obstacle to the increase of the peo- Mo>iality. In 1750 appeared, in 8vo, Neva Observations va- pie, is the limited means of subsistence. This had 1 r ' tural, moral, civil, political, and medical, on City, been observed by Dr Halley in his Further ConsiTown, and Country Bills of Mortality ; to which are derations on the Breslaw Bills of Mortality (Phil. added, large and clear Abstracts of the best Authors Trans. 1693), though it there also appears, that he who have written on that subject ; with an Appendix had not sufficiently considered the mode of its opeof the Weather and Meteors, by Thomas Short, M.D. ration : this was first fully illustrated by Dr Franklin which he had “ had on the anvil” for eighteen years, in his excellent Observations on the Increase of Manas he informs us in the Preface to his History of Air, kind, Peopling of Countries, &c. written in PhiladelWeather, &c. This author, with incredible labour, phia in 1751, the same year in which Mr Morris’s collected extracts from the mortuary and baptismal pamphlet was first published. The author also pointregisters in a great many market-towns and country ed out in that pamphlet, material defects in the Bills parishes in England, chiefly in the northern counties, of Mortality, and proposed a better method of keepin almost every variety of soil and situation, and re- ing them, not only in London, but throughout the duced them into tables in various ways, so as. to kingdom. This gave occasion to a paper by Mr James Dodson, which was inserted in the Philoso- Mr Dodson. enable him to draw useful inferences from them. He informs us that Lord Cromwell’s injunction in phical Transactions for that year (1751), wherein he 1538 was but little regarded in many places till the showed the importance of their being so kept as to year 1559, when another was issued for the same afford the means of valuing annuities on lives, and purpose by Queen Elizabeth; nevertheless, he had proposed other alterations which appeared to him procured several exact country registers, commen- calculated to fit them for the purpose. Nieolaas Struyck of Amsterdam, who, in his Tn-Nicolaas cing with 1538, and continued, without one chasm, tr,i c for more than two hundred years ; and the registers traduction to General Geography, published there in S y k before 1644, he considered to be much more valuable 1740, had inserted (Gissingen over den staat van’t than afterwards, on account of the increase of dis- Menschelyk Geslagt) Conjectures on the State of the senters from that time. He likewise procured both Human Species; published at the same place in the numbers of families and of souls in seven of the 1753, a quarto volume, the first half of which is asmarket-tow ns, and fifty-four of the country parishes, tronomical, the other (216 pages) is entitled (Nader for which he had registers; and thus arrived at sa- Ontdekkingen noopens den staat van het Menschelyk tisfactory information on several points, which, till Geslagt J, Further Discoveries concerning the State of then, had been very imperfectly understood. But the Human Species. It contains statements of acthe sexes w^ere not distinguished in his enumera- tual enumerations of the people in many Dutch viltions ; neither wrere the ages, in any of the enume- lages, principally in North Holland, wherein the rations or registers he has given accounts of, except sexes are distinguished, and the numbers in childin the London Bills of Mortality, and what he has hood, celibacy, marriage, and widowhood ; but with taken from Dr Halley, respecting those for Bres- respect to their ages, it is only stated for each sex, how many were under ten years, and how many of law. Although Dr Short took so much trouble in col- the unmarried were above that age; except in two lecting materials, and has generally reasoned well instances, wherein the number of each sex is given upon them, he has shown but little skill, and does in each interval of five years of age, from birth to not appear to have taken much pains in communi- the extremity of life : they amount altogether to cating his information to his readers; so that it costs 2728, of whom not one was above the age of 85, them considerable labour to find what they want, es- and only four above 80. He generally gives, for each place, the names and pecially in his tables; and when found, to underprofessions or occupations of the persons who made stand it. Mr Morris. In 1751 was first printed a tract by Corbyn Mor- the enumeration, and the precise day on which it ris, entitled, Observations on the growth and was made; or if it occupied the parties more days present state of the City of London, with the most than one, those on which it was commenced and convenient and instructive tables of the London bills completed are given; a practice which shows a laudthat have been printed: they contained the annual able solicitude about particulars, and a title to our baptisms and burials from the year 1603, the num- confidence, the want of which we have great cause ber of annual deaths by each disease from 1675, and to lament in too many other writers. Extracts from many parish registers are also given; of each age from 1728; all brought down to the year 1750. This tract was reprinted in 1758, with a con- in these, too, the ages are seldom noticed; but in a tinuation of the tables to the end of 1757; these few cases they are given very minutely, especially in also contain useful annual averages and proportions. that of Westzaandam, for which, the numbers who Mr Morris’s observations are generally very judici- died in each interval of five years of age, from birth ous, but he was one of those authors who appear to to the extremity of life, are given; also the number have laboured under much misconception with re- in each year of age under fifteen, the number in gard to the evils to be apprehended from the mor- each month of the first year of age, even the numtality of London, and wdiat they considered to be its ber that died in the first hour from birth, in the first baneful effects in drawing recruits from the country. twenty-four hours, and in each day of the first week These writers did not perceive, or did not sufficiently of their age. During a term of nineteen years, the consider, that the natural procreative power is much whole number of deaths thus registered was 3328 ; 1

307 MORTALITY. different parishes, and more extensive districts, under Bids of Bills of but the sexes were not distinguished under fifteen Mortality. years of age, which Struyck himself lamented. The 5 years of age, between 5 and 10, and in each in- Mortality, work also contains much information respecting the terval of 10 years, from thence to the age of 100; population and parish registers of Amsterdam, Haar- during different periods of from 10 to 40 years, or lem, &c. with some accounts of other countries, and more, generally ending about the year 1760 ; but in these the sexes are not distinguished. of other works on the subject. In all cases, he has given the general results of )r Birch. In 1759 was published, at London, in 4to, A Colhis tables, and the proportions they aftord, very dislection of the Yearly Bills of Mortality, from 1657 1758 inclusive, together with several other Bills of an tinctly stated ; and among these results, the increase earlier date; to which were subjoined Captain Graunt’s of the population during the preceding 60 years, Observations ; Another Essay in Political Arithmetic, to which his researches were generally limited, is by Sir William Petty; the Observations of Corbyn clearly ascertained. The work also contains many interesting tables, in Morris, Esq.; and A Comparative View of the Diswhich the rate of mortality, and the produce of niaeases and Ages, with a Table of the Probabilities of Life for the last thirty years, by J. P. Esq. F. R. S. nufacturing labour, are compared with the contemThis is a valuable compilation, and has been gene- poraneous prices of grain, in various places, generalrally attributed to Dr Birch, the Secretary and His- ly for periods of 20 years each. In the same year was published, at Yverdon, in M. JVluret. torian of the Royal Society ; the preface is very ju8 vo, the work entitled Memoire sur I’etat de la Podicious, and contains a good deal of information. For the following history of this publication, the pulation, dans le Pays de Vaud, qui a obtenu la prix author of the present article is indebted to the propose par la Societe ceconomique de Berne. Par M. Muret, premier Pasteur a Vevey, et Secretaire de la kindness of Dr Heberden :— “ The bills were collected into a volume by his Societe (Economique de Vevey. The Pays de Vaud contains 112 parishes, and the father, the late Dr Heberden. He procured likewise, observations from several of his friends, rectors population at that time was about 113,000 souls. of some large parishes, or others likely to give him M. Muret wrote for information to all the clergymen information ; particularly from Bishop Moss, Bishop in the country, who made him returns of the numGreen, Bishop Squire, and Dr Birch. These, to- bers of baptisms and burials in their respective pagether with some of his own remarks, were thrown rishes, for different periods, from 10 to 40 years, in into the form of a preface ; and the whole was com- many of which both the ages and sexes were dismitted to the care of Dr Birch. To make the cal- tinguished ; and from about two-thirds of them he culations which appear at the end of the book, Dr obtained also the numbers of marriages and families Heberden employed James Postlethwayt, Esq. a actually subsisting ; also the -number of souls, “ or at least’ of communicants,” in their parishes: but very distinguished arithmetician.” neither the ages nor sexes were distinguished in any M. Mesfa the year 1766, this branch of knowledge was «ance. enriched with new materials, of more value than all of the enumerations of the living. This performance does much credit both to the that had previously been laid before the public. These were contained in three publications, of which author’s industry and judgment, but it has also mawe shall first notice the Recherches sur la Popidation terial defects. He gave upwards of 50 tables, by des generalites d' Auvergne, de Lyon, de Rouen, et de which he intended to show the probabilities and exquelques Provinces et Villes du Royaume. Par M. pectations of life till five years of age, and at every Messance, Receveur des Tailles de l Election de Saint fifth year after that, in different parishes and places, under various circumstances of soil and situation, Etienne. Most of the political writer's in France, for some and for people of different habits and occupations ; years previous to the date of this publication, had also for the two sexes separately. These must have asserted confidently that the kingdom was depopu- cost him a good deal of labour, and would have been lated, but without producing any proofs. The ob- extremely valuable had they been correct; but, unject of M. Messance was, to enable his readers to fortunately, he did not understand the construction judge of the merit of such assertions, and to pro- of such tables, and they are not to be depended nounce less vaguely on a subject in itself so interest- upon. He also took considerable pains to determine ing, the knowledge of which can only be obtained by the rates of mortality among married and single woa great number of facts and actual observations. men, considered separately, and thought he had The work, accordingly, is filled with tables, exhibit- proved that it was less among the married; but the ing the results of actual enumerations ol the people, proofs he adduced were not conclusive. Some of and of extracts from the parish registers. Jhey his observations on the state of the population, and show, for each sex, how many _were under 14>, the plans he recommended for increasing it, also or in celibacy above that age ; those in the states of show, that he did not understand the principle on marriage and of widowhood ; and the number of do- which its progress depends. It is with much reluctance that we make, on so mestic servants. The numbers of families are also respectable an author, remarks which apply equally stated; and the enumerations of the ecclesiastics, properly classed, are given separately ; but no other to almost all his predecessors in these inquiries ; but information respecting the ages of the living is given this we consider to be rendered necessary, by the than that mentioned above. A great many state- Memoir generally, and the Tables in particular, havments are also inserted of the numbers that died in ing been praised for their extreme accuracy, in a BILLS

OF

308 BILLS OF Bills of very good abridgment of them, inserted in the seMortality. cond volume of a book, entitled De Re Rustica, or the Repository, 8vo, London, 1770. The disadvantages of her soil and climate necessarily keep Sweden thinly peopled in comparison with the countries which, in these respects, are more happily circumstanced; and since the year 1748, the state of the population has been an object of anxious solicitude with the government; which, in 1749? established what, in this country, would probably be called a Board of Population (but is there denominated Tabellvarket), for reducing into convenient forms the extracts from the parish registers, and the returns from the magistrates of the numbers of the people, which the governors of the different provinces are required to state to the commissioners appointed for these purposes. The extracts from the registers are made and transmitted annually, but the enumerations only once in three years. Printed forms, with proper blanks, distinguishing the ages and sexes, both of the living and the dead, with the diseases the deaths were occasioned by, are distributed throughout the country, to enable the people to make these returns correctly and uniformly ; and the information thus acquired, respecting the state of population and mortality, is much more correct and satisfactory than what has been obtained in any other place of considerable extent; but from causes which we have not room to explain here, the results were not laid before the public until some years after the returns were made. M. WiU'gen- M. Wargentin, wTho was one of the Commissioners tin. of the Tabellvarket, inserted in the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockhohri, for the years 1754 and 1755, papers on the usefulness of annual registers of births and deaths in a country ; which, like all his other productions, were written with much judgment and modesty : but, to illustrate the subject, he was generally under the necessity of borrowing materials from the writings of others; as, at that time, he was only in possession of the results of the Swedish returns for the single year 17t9- In the same Transactions, for the year 1766, he inserted a paper on the mortality in Sweden, wherein iie gave tables exhibiting the number of the living of each sex in each interval of age, in the years 1757> 1760, and 1768 ; also the number of annual deaths of each age and sex during a period of nine years, commencing with 1755, both for all Sweden and Finland, and for Stockholm separately; with other interesting results of the registers and enumerations, and many judicious observations upon them. This paper of M. Wargentin’s is more valuable than all that had previously been published on the subject; it is also to be found in the French abridgment of the Stockholm Transactions, in the eleventh volume of the Collection Academique (par tie e hanger e), which abridgment was also published separately, at Paris, in 1772. In 176’7, Dr Short published, in 4to, A Comparative History of the Increase and Decrease of Mankind, in which the tables are printed more intelligibly, and there is more information respecting foreign Bills of Mortality, than in his Neiv Observations. The first edition of Dr Price’s Observations on Dr Price.

MORTALITY. Reversionary Payments appeared in 177L and Bills 0f contained “ observations on the expectations of Mortality, lives, the increase of mankind, the number of inhabitants in London, and the influence of great towns on health and population,” which had been published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1769? and added considerably to the information on those subjects which had been previously before the public ; also observations on the proper methods of constructing tables of mortality, mentioned at the commencement of this article, and which we shall have occasion to notice again. In the Philosophical Transactions for the years Dr Hay. 1774 and 1775, were inserted two excellent papersSartL by Dr Haygarth of Chester, wherein he gave the Bills of Mortality for that city, for the years 1772 and 1778 respectively, in a form calculated to exhibit, at one view, the most useful and interesting information such bills can afford without calculation, and presenting to the calculator data that are essential to the solution of the most important questions respecting the state of the population. Three papers by Dr Percival (also of considerable merit) Dr Pereira!, appeared in the same Transactions about this time, relating principally to the population of Manchester and its neighbourhood. In 1778 was published, at Paris, in 8vo, the workM. Mohean. entitled Recherches ct Considerations sur la Population de la France, par M. Moheau. This book is agreeably written, in a way entirely popular, and will probably be perused with more pleasure, therefore, also with more profit, by the generality of readers, than any other on the subject of population. It contains a great number of tables, for many of which he was indebted to other writers, especially to M. Messance; but he has also given many that are original, derived from the Bills of Mortality and actual enumerations of the people, though, without explaining in a satisfactory manner how he obtained his information, which, if it be correct, must have cost great labour. In his preface he says, “ il est tel page de ce livre qui a coute necessairement deux mois de travail, et un volume de chifres.” The fourth edition of Dr Price’s Observations on Reversionary Payments appeared in 1788, and contained much new and valuable information on these subjects, as has already been observed in the historical introduction to the article Annuities in this Supplement. In 1786 was published, at Petersburgh, in the Acts yjt Krafft. of the Academy of Sciences there, for the year 1782, an essay by M. Krafft, on the marriages, births, and burials, at St Petersburgh, during a period of 17 years, from 17b4 to 1780, preceded by a general exposition of the uses such tables might be applied to, if the observations they record were extended over entire governments in Russia. This paper contains seventeen tables, which show the number of deaths at each age, and by each of the principal diseases, together with the numbers of marriages and baptisms ; the numbers in each case, being given foxeach of the 17 years separately, as well as for the whole term; and the sexes are always distinguished ; as are likewise foreignei-s from the native Rtissians. 10

\ BILLS OF M 0 R T A L I T Y. 30f) Bills of These tables would have been rendered very va- Carlisle and its neighbourhood. M. Nicander was a ,F'l'V* loi^lnable, had they been accompanied by statements of Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at N the numbers of the living of each sex in the dilfer- Stockholm, also one of the Commissioners of the ~ ent intervals of age ; but for want of this informa' Tabellv'drket, and their secretary. We are sorry to tion, it is difficult to apply them to any useful pur- announce his death, which took place in the summer pose, and many of the inferences M. Krafft has drawn of 1815. In the year 1800 was published, at Paris, in M Mourgue from them are very uncertain. i Hey. During a period of nine years, commencing with 8vo, under the title of Essai de StaiistUjiie, a meam. 1779, and ending with 1787? Dr Heysham of Carlisle moir by J. A. Mourgue, on the births, markept accurate registers of the births, and of the riages, and deaths, that took place in Montpellier deaths at all ages, in the two parishes which compre- during a period of 21 years, ending with 1792, with hend that city and its environs; also the diseases the ages at which the deaths happened, the sexes or casualties winch the deaths at each age were oc- are also distinguished, and the population of the casioned by ; and the sexes were in all cases dis- place appears to have been nearly stationary. The tinguished. These excellent registers were kept tables and observations of M. Mourgue appear to be with great care and skill on the plan of Dr Hay- more valuable than any others relative to the popugarth above-mentioned, and included all dissenters lation of France, that have yet been published, exwithin the two parishes. Dr Heysham published cept those of M. Deparcieux, which related only them from year to year as they were made, and ac- to select orders of the people. This memoir was companied them with valuable observations on the read at a meeting of the French National Institute in state of the weather and diseases in each year. Their 1795, and printed in the Mem. des Sav. Etr. an. I f. An enumeration of the people in Spain was made Spanish lievalue was greatly enhanced by two enumerations of the. people within the two parishes, the one made in by royal authority in the years 1768 and 1769? and gistcis. January 1780, the other in December 1787> in both again in 1787 ; a minute account of this last was of which the ages were distinguished, but not the printed at Madrid, showing for each province sepasexes of each age, though the totals of each sex rately, the numbers of parishes, cities, towns, v;lwere. These documents, printed in convenient lages, Ac. Ac. with the number of people in each forms, with further infm-mation respecting them, class according to their ranks, professions, occupaand many useful tables deduced from them, may be tions, &c. and the monastic orders of both sexes were particularly distinguished : to these •was prefound in Mr Milne’s Treatise on Annuities. [r Butoiu In the third volume of the Transactions of the fixed a summary of the census of 176’8 and 1769. American Philosophical Society, published in 1798, In these two enumerations, the ages of the people were inserted Observations on the ‘probabilities of were not distinguished with sufficient minuteness ; the duration of human life, and on the progress of they only showed how many were under 7, between population in the United States of America, contain- 7 and 16', 16 and 25, 25 and 40, 40 and 50, and ed in a letter from Mr Barton, which had been read above 50. In both enumerations, together with the to the Society in March 1791 ; also a postscript to ages, the distinction of the sexes was given; in the that letter, read in December following; the returns first, the married were only distinguished from the of an actual enumeration of the people in the United single; but that of 1787 showed how many of each States having been made in the mean time. The sex, and in each interval of age, were in the states of information there given from the parish registers is celibacy, marriage, and widowhood. A third enumeration of the people in Spain and of little value. In the enumerations, the sexes were distinguished, but not the ages, except the numbers the Spanish possessions in Europe and Africa, inof free white males under and above sixteen ; but cluding the Canary Islands, was made in 1797; and even that information with regard to the population a full account of it, occupying nearly 50 large tables, of America is very interesting, whether we contrast was printed at Madrid in 1801. The distinction of the early with the more recently settled counties, or the ages in this enumeration was still not sufficiently the whole of the United States with the population of minute; under 40 it was the same as in the two preceding, but after that age, the number of the Europe. tl.Nicanln the years 1799, 1800, and 1801, M. Nicander living in each interval of 10 years to 100 was given, !er ' inserted eight different memoirs among those of the and the number above 100. No information from the parish registers in Spain lloyal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, exhibiting the state of population and mortality in all was given in any of these cases ; although satisfactoSweden and Finland, from the year 1772 to 1705 ry extracts from them all, distinguishing the ages inclusive. These contain a great number of tables, and sexes of the deceased, or even from those only which present the most interesting results of the which could be most depended upon, during the ten Tabellv'drket during that period ; the ages and sexes, years that intervened between the two last enumeraboth of the living and the dead, are distinguished tions, would have rendered the results of these inwith sufficient minuteness, and the number of deaths comparably more valuable, provided that the popuof each sex by every disease is given, ihe informa- lation of the places for which correct registers were tion in these papers is much more complete and sa- given, could be distinguished from the rest. Those tisfactory than any other yet collected respecting to whom the superintendence of these measures were the state of the population ot a whole kingdom, or entrusted in Spain, seem to have been well aware of even of any particular part of it, it we except the this, and to have actually entered upon the formation observations of Dr Heysham, which were confined to of these necessary supplements to the enumerations,

mortality. 310 B I LLS 0 F Bills of as appears by the following passage extracted from the distinction of the sexes, which has not been Bills 0f Mortality, introduction to the printed statement of the last made, would be a material improvement; and it Mortality, might also be useful to state, what year the Board census :— “ Interin que seforman las tablas necrologicas, las consider to be the limit between childhood and de nacidos y casados, en que entiende el ministerio de adultage. If, in addition to this, the number of the Estado, y que son muy utiles para valuar casi geome- people in each interval of age within the city and iricamente el total de la poblacion del Reyno, debe- liberties, be determined at regular intervals, as every mos contentarnos con las noticias que nos proporcionen 5th or lOtli year, and the registers of deaths, with the diseases and ages, be regularly continued for selos censos executados por el metodo que el presente. But the author of this article has not yet succeeded veral such periods, the annual births of each sex bein his endeavours to procure further information as ing also given, they cannot fail to become very valuable. to these tables of births, deaths, and marriages. In pursuance of an act of Parliament (41st Geo. ObservaDrHeberIn 1801 were published (in 4-to), Observations on 0 n ,!ie , n *' ‘ the Increase and Decrease of different Diseases, and III. cap. 15.), an enumeration of the people in Great ^ "-s°1 ., particularly of the Plague, by William Heberden ju- Britain was made in 1801: also returns of the bap- p^‘^n °' nior, M.D. F. R. S. containing some tables, chiefly tisms and burials in England and Wales, during the Ads. deduced from the London bills. In the advertisement year 1700, and every tenth year after that till 1780, prefixed to this valuable tract, we are informed that then for every year to 1800 inclusive, with the numit had been intended to be subjoined to a new edition ber of marriages in each year from the commenceof the Bills of Moitality ; which edition, however, ment of 1754 to the end of 1800. Large and clear was not published. We are also indebted to the abstracts of the answers and returns to this act were Acis. same ingenious physician for other interesting obser- printed by order of the House of Commons in 1802, vations on the mortality in London, inserted in the and occupy more than 1000 pages folio. In 1811, Philosophical Transactions off the Royal Society (for another act (51st Geo. III. cap. 6.) was passed, “ for 1796)5 and in those of the London College off Phy- taking an account of the population of Great Britain, and the increase or diminution thereofin consesicians, Vol. IV. Dr Willati. In the same year (1801) was published (in 12mo) quence of which, returns were that year made to another valuable work, entitled, Reports on the Dis- Parliament, of the number of persons in every part eases in London, particularly during the years 1796, of Great Britain ; also of the numbers of baptisms, 17975 1 798, 17995 and 1800, by Robert Willan, burials, and marriages in England and Wales, during M. D. F. A. S. part of which had been previously in- each of the preceding ten years; very satisfactory serted in some periodical publications; the author’s abstracts of these were also printed by order of Parobservations were made both on the Bills of Morta- liament, in 1812, with some preliminary observations, lity, and on the cases that occurred in his own prac- in which corrections of the preceding returns are given. The sexes were distinguished both in these enutice. merations and extracts from the registers, but the In reading the writings of the physicians who have treated these subjects, it is impossible not to regret, ages in none of them; and the proportions of males that they have been so little attended to by the me- to females among the living are not to be depended dical profession in general, and that Bills of Mortali- upon, a number of males in the army and navy, which ty have not been more generally kept in such a way, it is difficult to estimate, not being natives of Great as to throw the lights which they alone can, on the Britain, nor usually resident there. The returns of causes of the increase and decrease of different dis- baptisms and burials were also defective, but few reeases, and of the great differences that are found be- gisters of dissenters having been included in them. . These abstracts are, however, with respect to the tween the degrees of mortality in different situations, objects they extend to, more minute and satisfactory, and among different classes of the people. The information of this kind already before the public than any other accounts of the same kind that have clearly shows, that the general causes which tend to been published; and it is very desirable that such shorten life do also embitter it; and that where the returns should continue to be made, and abstracts of people are the most happy, useful, and respectable in them printed at regular intervals ; for nothing is so their several stations, there also, cceteris paribus, well calculated to show the influence of different they are the longest lived. And these inquiries, we causes on the prosperity of a nation, as the compathink, are of more importance to governments, and rison of the different states of the population, and better worth their attention, than statesmen are ge- the rate of its progress or declension, under different circumstances : besides, the value of the abstracts we nerally aware of. In the sixth volume of the American Philosophical already have, will be much enhanced by the publiTransactions, published in I8O95 two tables were cation of others of a similar kind hereafter. It is much to be regretted, that no information as given, showing the number that died of each disease in each interval of age, during the years 1807 and to the ages of the living, or those at which the deaths 1808 separately, in the city and liberties of Phila- took place, was required by either of the acts above delphia, which were communicated by the Board of referred to ; nor any encouragement or facility afHealth ; the numbers both of adults and of children foi’ded to those who might be disposed to collect who died in each month of each of these two years, such information; and, consequently, that none was are also given; and it is modestly added, that any given in the returns. Without better regulations for the keeping of morsuggestions for further improvements will be thankfully received. We therefore beg to suggest, that tuary registers than those at present in force, with-

311 M O R T A L I T Y. ( Bills of out such as should extend to dissenters of every de- assuming any number of births, as 1000 or 10,000, Iblb f tfortalily. nomination, it v.-ould probably be better not to re- it is easy to show how many would die in each year Mort.liiy quire returns of the ages of the deceased from all of their age ; and, consequently, how many would parts of the kingdom ; for defective or inaccurate survive that year ; which numbers of survivors and returns would only mislead, and, not to mention the of annual deaths, when arranged in the order of the difficulty and expense of procuring returns of the ages, constitute the desired table of mortality, by ages of all the living, they would be comparatively of w'hich all the most important questions respecting the duration of human life may be easily resolved. little use, where those of the dead were wanting. For want of understanding the principles upon But if government were to print forms for making returns both of the numbers of the living and of the which the proper construction of such tables deannual deaths in proper intervals of age, throughout pends, most of the writers on this subject, many of the extent of life ; only sending such forms along them men of great merit and industry, have taken with those now' in use, to such as should apply for much pains to little purpose, and aftei excessive lathem,—then, persons who take an interest in such bour, have arrived at false conclusions. Hardly any inquiries, and have the means oi making correct re- of them appear to have been aware of the necessity turns, might do so with advantage. And a summa- of obtaining the number of the living, as well as of ry of all of that kind made from different parts of the the annual deaths in each interval of age, or that kingdom, would convey much important information. that would greatly enhance the value of Bills of MorReturns also, from such places only as were similar- tality, by extending tbeir useful applications. Dr Price’s Essay on the proper Method of conly circumstanced, might be collected into as many summaries as there were material varieties in the cir- structing Tables of Mortality, already twice mencumstances ; and thus would afford the means of de- tioned in this article, was intended to show how such termining the different modifications of the law of tables might be constructed from registers of the mortality, which different circumstances produce. If deaths only at all ages ; but the hypotheses he prothe diseases that occasioned the deaths were also in- ceeded upon can hardly obtain in any real case; and serted, the greater prevalence of particular diseases even if they did, his method would only determine in some circumstances than in others, wmuld be ap- the number of the living in the place, at every age ; parent, with their effects, and the probable means of therefore, if it r could be put in practice (which it never can), it w ould only supersede the necessity ot preventing them, or lessening their mortality. But, the population enumerated must always he pre- actual enumerations ; and, with the numbers so obcisely that which produces the deaths, registered ; the tained, we should have to proceed as above. That Essay of Dr Price was an amplification of what grand desideratum being, to determine the number oj' annual deaths at each age, which takes place among a Mr Simpson had previously advanced on the subject, with his accustomed accuracy, and contains many just given number of the living at the same age. Ir Milne. Mr Milne’s Treatise on Annuities and Assurances observations on the defects of the tables ol mortality was published in 1815, and contains clear ab- that had previously been published ; but so far as it stracts of the most important statements of this contributed to induce a belie! that the determination kind that have been published since Dr Price’s time; of the number of the living in every interval of age, these will, we believe, be found to be much more by actual enumeration, was not necessary to the convaluable than any thing of the kind that was extant struction of accurate tables, it must have done harm. What is here stated will be found demonstrated in when that ingenious author wrote, whose work has been generally referred to for the best information the third chapter of Mr Milne’s Treatise on Annuities. on such subjects. fbserva Of all the statements derived from bills of mortaWe come now to the ions on the lity and enumerations of the people, which we have BILLS

OF

SImentioned, only those for Sweden and Finland, and Dr Heysham’s for Carlisle, have been given in the ality. proper form, and with sufficient correctness to afford the information, which is the most important object of them all,—that which is necessary for determine ing the lawr of mortality. To effect this, it is only necessary to know the mean number of the living and of the annual deaths, in sufficiently small intervals of age, throughout the extent of life, for a period of time sufficient to allow of the accidental fluctuations arising from more or less fruitful years, and other causes, compensating each other : such periods, probably, should not be less than eight or ten years; but the necessary length will depend upon the climate, the numbei o t e people, their general modes of life, and their political circumstances. ' , These data being obtained, it is not difficult to determine the proportion of the annual eai is o ie number of the living in each year of age. I ben,

FORMS SUBMITTED FOR BILLS OF MORTALITY AND FECUNDITY. It is desirable that a bill should be published for each year separately, to show how the rates, both ol mortality and fecundity, vary with the circumstances of the people in different years ; and, from these yearly bills, nothing is more easy than to derive others for longer periods. According to the form A, the births of botn sexes in each year will be distinguished, and the born alive from the still-born ; the number of marriages will also be given. In this, and all other cases where those who undertake the formation of such bills are either unable or unwilling to distinguish all the particulars indicated, the reasons for the omissions should be inserted in the spaces set apart for the numbers omitted. But,

BILLS OF MORTALITY. 312 laills of where the still-born are not distinguished as such, of the people, calculated to distinguish the numbers Kills of Mortality. tjiey should be omitted entirely, and the number of in the different states of childhood, celibacy, mar- Mortality, births stated should be that of the children born riage, or widowhood ; nor the ranks, or professions, or occupations of the people. All these things are alive. The numbers of deaths of the two sexes in each curious, and of some use, although, if we except the interval of age, during any year, may, as they are diseases which the deaths of each sex at the different collected from the registers, be conveniently dis- ages were occasioned by, they are of little value in posed according to the form B ; the intervals be- Comparison with the information the forms here given tween 5 years of age and 100, being each 5 years ; are calculated to convey. And it is of so much imand the number dying at each age above 100 should portance that that information should be given corbe particularly specified. It would, indeed, be much rectly, that we would willingly forego these minor better to give a separate statement of the number of objects, to avoid dividing and fatiguing the attention each sex dying in each year of age above 90 ; for of those who undertake the more important part of the whole number is never very great, and any error the task, which is of itself sufficiently laborious. And those who may be disposed to keep registers, committed at the greater ages, in constructing a table of mortality, affects all the preceding numbers in the and form bills and enumerations, on a scale so much extended as to include all these particulars, or most table. But some persons, who would hot take the trouble of them, and have also the requisite qualifications, of forming bills of mortality in which the ages are to will find no great difficulty in preparing the most be so minutely distinguished, might yet be willing to convenient forms of tables for the purpose. Several furnish them with the requisite care, according to forms of that description, with references to others, the form b, which might still be very useful; and, will be found in Mr Milne’s Treatise on Annuities indeed, from 20 to 60 years of age, intervals of 10 A. years each might do very well. The value of Bills of Mortality would be greatly enhanced, by inserting in them the contemporaneous Males. Females. Both. During the year 18 wages of labourers in agriculture, and of the workmen employed in the more common kinds of trade and manufacture carried on among the people they Born alive, 449 431 880 relate to ; also the prices of the necessaries of life Still-born, 13 22 9 which persons of these descriptions consume the most of; together with any thing uncommon in the Whole number born, 462 440 902 seasons or the crops, and every material change in the circumstances of the people. Number of Marriages, 26T. Enumerations. The number of the people in the several intervals B. of age, which we have stated above to be of so much importance, may be disposed in tables exactly simiBetween the Ages of lar to B or b, recommended for the deaths ; but it is not necessary that the duration of life should be di5 110 15 95 vided into the same intervals for the living as the 6 |& \& & above dead. It is always desirable that the intervals should, 10{l5 20 ^>1 too 100 in both cases, be small; but yet not so small, as, by Malesi210 152 4 881 the increase of labour, to occasion the numbers be_10 959 ing determined with less exactness, or to deter many j Fern. -180 149 14 1840 from engaging in the work. Such intervals should Both 1890 301 not, however, exceed fen years. When the bills are given for a certain period, if b. there be but one enumeration of the people, it should be made at the middle of the period ; if two, at its Between the Ages of extremities; and if more than two, it is desirable that they should be made at equal intervals of time 5 102030,40j50 95 throughout the period. j&j& & above wcSo We give no forms here of Bills of Mortality and 10 2030 40 5060 100 100 H Fecundity, designed to distinguish legitimate from il- Males 417 42| 0- 881 legitimate children, or the mortality or fecundity of Fern. 395 47| 2' 959 each month of the year, nor the number of women 2 1840 delivered annually at the different periods of life, nor Both 8I2J89I" the diseases the deaths wrere occasioned by. Neither See Mortality, Law of, in this Supplement, (u.) are the forms here recommended for enumerations

B L AC lack Sea. BLACK SEA, or Euxine Sea, Pontus Eitxinus of the ancients, is a large inland sea, bounded on the (umlanes.west j,y Roumelia, Bulgaria, and Bessarabia; on the north by Russian Tartary ; on the east by Mingrelia, Circassia, and Georgia ; and on the south by Anatolia. It is entered from the Mediterranean through the channel of the Dardanelles, the ancient Hellespont, the Sea of Marmora, Propontis, and the channel of Constantinople, Thracian Bosphorus ; and it is connected with the Sea of Azoph, Palus Mceotis, by the strait between the Crimea and the isle of Taman, the ancient Cimmerian Bosphorus, known by the various modern names of the Strait of Caffa, of Yenikale, and of Taman. ogressive Till within the last thirty years, the extent of the i0 grapliy. Black Sea, and the position of several of its principal capes, gulfs, and ports, were very imperfectly ascertained. Soon after the commencement of the French Revolution, the National Institute sent M. Beauchamp to examine this sea, and especially its southern shores. In this enterprise he was much impeded by the jealousy of the Turks ; nevertheless, he ascertained that Cape Kerempe, Carambis, was placed in the charts too far to the south ; that the Gulf of Sansoun, Amisenus Sinus, was deeper than represented; and that Tribizond, Tarabagan of the Turks, Trapezus, was five or six leagues further to the west than it appeared in the charts. Recent travellers have discovered that even the Parisian charts are inaccurate. According to Dr Clarke, the Isle of Serpents, Ulan-Adassi of the Turks, Fidonisi of the modern Greeks, the ancient Leuce, lies 15 minutes, and the port of Odessa 27 minutes, too far towards the north (Clarke’s Travels, I. 653) ; and Mr Macgill ascertained, from two very good observations of his own, compared with those of some captains who had navigated this sea, that, in the French charts, even Cape Kerempe is not accurately placed, it being set down 15 miles too far north, while Cape Aria, or Careza, Criu-Metopon, in the Crimea, is placed 22 miles too far south. This, of course, makes a difference in the width of the sea at this place of 27 miles (Macgill's Travels, I. 195). dent. According to the best authorities, which Mr Arrowsmith has followed in his maps of this sea, it lies between 41 and 46| degrees of north latitude, the bottom of the bay of Sansoun penetrating nearly to the 40th degree, and Cape Kerempe stretching out nearly to the 42d ; and between 28 and 41^ degrees of east longitude from Greenwich^ This will give for its breadth, from Cape Baba in Anatolia to Odessa, about 380 miles ; and for its length, from the coast of Roumelia to the mouth of the Phasis, 932 miles. The Black Sea, however, may be considered as divided into two parts, by Cape Aria on the south of the Crimea, and Cape Kerempe on the coast of Paphlagonia, the former lying in about 44^, and the latter in about 42 degrees of latitude. Both these capes being high land, vessels sailing between them can discover the coast on either side. The circumference of the Black Sea is about 3800 miles. auie. It derives itg modern name either from the dense fogs which frequently cover it, or from the dangers of its navigation arising from these fogs i the sudden VOL. II. PART II.

K SEA. 313 and violent storms to which it is exposed ; and the Black bea. shallows hitherto unnoticed in any chart. The origin of its ancient name is given in the Encyclopcedia, under the article Euxine. The opinion of the ancients, that the Black Sea Foimcr was formerly much more extensive than it is at pre-®tate> sent, and that it did not originally communicate with the Mediterranean, is embraced by many modern authors of note, particularly Tournefort, Buffon, Pallas, and Dr Clarke, and seems to be confirmed by several circumstances. Immense strata of limestone, consisting almost entirely of mineralized sea-shells, may be traced the whole way from the Black Sea towards the north, as far as the 48th degree of latitude ; and Pallas, in the third and seventh volumes of his Travels, has pointed out traces of its former extent over all the desert of Astracan and Jaik. The evidences derived from the appearance of the present coast of this sea, are still less equivocal in support of the diminution of its waters. Pliny expressly states, that Taurica, the Crimea, was not only once surrounded by the sea, but that the sea covered all the champaign part of it. Now, there are layers of marine shells all the way from the mouths of the Dnieper to those of the Don ; and if we suppose the waters of the Black Sea to be restored only to the level of these layers, the Crimea will appear again an island. The alluvial nature of more than threefourths of the soil of Crimea Proper to the north, the numerous salt lakes and marshes, and the remains of marine productions of various kinds which are found there, sufficiently confirm the latter part of Pliny’s statement. The ancients believed that the communication be- Bursting of tween the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, and the the Tliraconsequent diminution of the waters of the former, c*an B°swas effected by the bursting of the Thracian Bos- ^ lon 3' phorus, at the period of the deluge which inundated Greece ; and this tradition is confirmed by a reference to existing natural phenomena. The cliffs and hills at the mouth of the Bosphorus, are composed of enormous pebbles, which appear to have undergone the action of fire, and afterwards to have been rounded by long contact in water. On the points of the European light-house, there are immense rocks of hard and compact lava; and the rock of which the Cyanean Isles consist, appears to have been more or less modified by fire, and to have been cemented during the boiling of a volcano. On the Asiatic side of the strait, a little to the east of the Anatolian light-house, there is a range of basaltic pillars, exhibiting very regular prismatic forms. From the consideration of all these observations, and comparing events recorded in history with the phenomena of nature, Dr Clarke considers it more than a conjectural position, “ that the bursting of the Thracian Bosphorus, the deluge mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, and the draining of the waters, which once united the Black Sea to the Caspian, and covered the great oriental plain of Tartary, were all the consequence of earthquakes caused by subterranean fires, described as still burning at the time of the passage of the Argonauts, and whose effects are visible even at this hour.” (I. 680.) It is proper to mention., fc r

B L A C K S E A. 314 Black Sea. that Olivier does not coincide with other naturalists into it those of a part of Russia and Poland. The Klaek s(lti respecting the former extent of the Mack Sea, 01 Phasis collects those of Mingrelia; and the Sangaris, and Kisil Irmak, Halys, part of those of the bursting of the 1 hracian Bosphorus. The north and west coasts of this sea have un- Anatolia. Changes in In the Black Sea are found the tunny fish, which its Coasts. dergone, and are still undergoing, considerable^ changes : the southern coast, consisting chiefly of enters it to spawm ; sturgeon, sterlet, porpoise, maccalcareous rocks, is nearly in the same state in karel, soal, turbot, whiting, &c. It abounds with which it was in the time of the ancients. Accord- a species of sea-worm, four or five inches long; its ing to Valerius Flaccus, the gulf's and bays in the head is like an arrow, and its body consists of a north and west coasts were extremely deep; most whitish mucilage: these worms are very destructive of these are now all either entirely filled up, or to ships. We shall begin our survey of the coasts and ports Coasts acd much contracted. In proof that the Black Sea and this sea, at its entrance from the Bosphorus, and the Sea of Azoph are still sustaining a diminution of proceed along its western shores. Off each point of their waters, it may be stated, that ships which formerly sailed to Taganrock and the mouths of the of the entrance of the Bosphorus from the Black Don, are now unable to approach either the one or Sea is a group of rocky islets, which retain their the other; that the Sea of Azoph has become so ancient name, Cyanean Islands, These have been shallow, that, during certain winds, a passage may already described. From the Bosphorus to Karabe effected by land from Taganrock to Azoph, Kerman, which lies within a few miles of the souththrough the bed of the sea; and that the isthmus ernmost branch of the Danube, the coast is lined connecting the Cyanean Isles with the Continent, by the mountainous ridge of Balkan, Hcemus, which which does not appear to have existed in the time terminates at Cape Emeniah, Hcemi extrema. The of Strabo, appears to be increasing. On the south- valleys between these mountains form little coves, ern coast of the Black Sea, there is, as tar as we where vessels are laden with the timber of Haemus know, only one instance of a recession of the waters: for Constantinople. The forest of Belgrad, which the channel which formerly divided the village of takes its name from a village near Constantinople, Amasrah, Amastris, is now filled up, and forms a extends along the south-west corner of the Black Sea, for about 100 miles. Incada, Thenias, lies on Inauta low isthmus. A rapid current, which generally flows at the rate this coast in 41° 52’ north latitude. On the north Currents. of a league an hour, the influence of which is felt side of the harbour there is good anchorage ; it is at the distance of ten miles from land, when it be- only exposed to winds from the east and south-east, gins to take another direction, sets from the Black and is sufficiently spacious to contain a fleet; a Sea into the Bosphorus. Sometimes, how^ever, the heavy sea, however, enters it, when those winds long continuance of a strong south-vyest wind effec- blow to which it is exposed: Its chief export is tually counteracts this current. I he Black Sea, charcoal to Constantinople. At the head of the from its particular form, being like a basin, into Gulf of Foros, which is bounded on the south by which many large rivers pour their streams, is. full Cape Emeniah, is four or five leagues wide, and of currents, particularly in summer, when the riveis runs into the land nearly the same distance, is Burgos, Bnrgps. are increased by the melting of the snows : when which exports a considerable quantity of wool, iron, strong winds act against these currents, a high corn, butter, cheese, &c. to Constantinople. There Winds. sea is produced. North-east winds pie vail fiom are several roads in this gulf fit for the largest ships. On the coast of Bulgaria is Varna, at the mouth Coast ami June to August inclusive ; the most prevalent winds, at other seasons of the year, are from the south of a river, which forms a large lake and extensive marshes; hence provisions are sent to Con- ° Climate. and south-west. The general climate of the Black stantinople. Kara-Kerman, Jstropolis, is a large Sea is cold and humid ; the winters are long and frequently very severe, but the navigation is free village on the beach; several shoals lie off it, which of impediment from ice till the beginning of No- oblige vessels to anchor a league to the south. Its vember, and often much later. I be quantity of principal export is corn. From Kara-Kerman to Actiar, in the Crimea, the fresh water conveyed into this sea renders it brackcoast is very low, and the shoals formed by the riish, and liable to freeze with a moderate degree of cold. It is calculated by some authors, particularly vers run off a considerable distance. The Danube Moutlis of Tournefort (II. 404), and the Abbe Barthelemy empties itself into the Black Sea, between Bulgaria ( Voyage d'Anacharse, Tom. I. c. 1), that what it re- and Bossarabia, by seven mouths, among swampy ceives is much more than what it discharges into the islands and shifting banks. The most frequented Mediterranean. Dr Clarke, however, is of opinion, that mouth is 100 fathoms wide and S fathoms deep ; the rivers which fall into the Black Sea and the Sea of its stream runs out at the rate of three miles an hour. Azoph, do not communicate more water than flows So great is the extent over which the waters of this through the canal of Constantinople ; hence he con- river diffuse themselves, from the shallowness of the cludes, that, admitting the effect of evaporation, the sea, that at the distance of three leagues from its mouth the water is almost sweet, and within one level of the Black Sea insensibly falls (I. 628). league it is perfectly fit for use. A very singular The Black Sea receives a considerable portion of Rivers. the fresh waters of Europe, as well as of Asia appearance takes place in the mouths of the DaMinor. The Danube collects the waters of a great nube ;—the porpoise, which every where else exhipart of Germany, Hungary, Bosnia, Servia, &c. bits a dark colour, is there perfectly white ; hence, The Dniester, Bog, Don, and Dnieper, discharge as soon us the Greek mariners descry the white potS

315 BLACK SEA. ick Sea. poise, they have no doubt that they are in the cur- these rivers ; its harbour is perfectly secure, but Black Sea.^ ' *“v ' rent of the Danube, although in 30 fathoms water, the little trade it formerly possessed, has been drawn and many leagues distant from its mouth. Oppo- away to Odessa. Opposite to Ockzakoff is Kinburn, ! pents site the mouths of this river is Serpents Island, al- which, before the building of Cherson, was intended 3 md. ready noticed. Kilia*nova, belonging to Austria, is by the Russians as the principal depot for the mera port of small consequence, at one of the mouths; chandize sent from the provinces bordering on the it might, however, be rendered highly important, Dnieper. The extension of the Russian dominions Oheison. by vending the productions of Hungary, if the na- on the west, has caused even Cherson, on the right vigation of the river were not obstructed by the bank of the Dnieper, to be superseded by Odessa. jealousy of the Turks. Yet corn, hemp, and other articles of exportation, { ists and The Russian province of Cherson is divided from are so much cheaper, and more plentiful here, that 3 tsof Bossarabia by the Dniester Tyras. A bank before many foreign vessels still prefer this port, though < rson. jt forms two channels ; that on the west, called the they are obliged first to perform quarantine, and unchannel of Constantinople, is 150 fathoms broad ; and load their cargoes at Odessa. The Dnieper is five that on the east, called the channel of Ockzakoff, 80; miles wide at Cherson, but only vessels that draw neither have more than eight feet water. Akerman, six feet can ascend to it. The Russians, however, on the south bank of this river, has some export have a large arsenal here, and build line-of-battrade in corn, wool, wine, wood, hides, and butter. tle ships, which are floated down the river on I :ssa. Between the Dniester and Dnieper stands Odessa, machines, and afterwards conveyed to Ockzakoff * the most flourishing port in the Black Sea. It owes to be equipped. Nicolaef, on the Bog, a fine river, its prosperity, not so much to any natural advantages, without bar or cataract, with deep, still wrater, is as to the wise administi-ation of the Duke of Riche- the station for vessels when built, and here they lieu, while he was governor of this province. It is are laid up to be repaired. It has extensive marine situate close to the coast, which is here very lofty, arsenals, being the seat of the Russian marine admiand much exposed to the winds, especially to the nistration on the Black Sea. The southern coast of the Crimea is lofty and east. In order to render it a safe and commodious port, the Duke caused a harbour to be formed, in precipitous; the mountains beginning at Balaclara,l1’ which ships of no small burden may ride secure from Symboli, and extending to Caffa, Theodosia. Some every storm. He also built a large mole, extending of these are celebrated in antiquity, and are no half a werst into the sea; several smaller ones, and a less remarkable for their formation and appearance. handsome quay, one werst and a half long. The The mountain Tchedirdagh, Trapezus, rises rapidly roads without the port are safe in summer, and the from the coast about Alusta to the height of 1200 anchorage good. Odessa labours under the want of or 1300 feet; it exhibits a mass of limestone very a navigable river, and a great scarcity of fresh wa- compact, of a grey colour, and according to Pallas, ter. In the year 1805, 595 vessels were entered at upon friction, slightly foetid. The remarkable headthis port, of which 27 were under the English flag; lands of the Crimea are Cape Tarchanskoi, called 264 were Austrians, owned by the merchants of by the Tartars Aya-Burun, or the Sacred PromonTrieste, but employed as the carriers of Spain and tory, probably the Parthenium of Strabo ; one of the Portugal. In the year 1816, up to the 28th of June, loftiest mountains in the Crimea, terminating ab498 ships had entered Odessa, bringing merchan- ruptly in the sea, and forming the west point of the dize to the value of one and a half million of rubles, Peninsula. It consists of marble. On the south besides a very large quantity of specie. During the point is Cape Aida, Criu-Metopon, formerly nosame period, there sailed 246 ships laden with Rus- ticed. The first port of note on the west coast of the ^of!st sian produce, to the amount of 15,220,000 rubles, u including above 324,000 quarters of wheat. The Crimea is Kosloff, or Eupatoria, from which, in 1793j principal imports are wine, chiefly French, some 176 vessels were freighted with corn, salt, and learum, raw silk, coffee, sugar, oil, soap, sulphur, fruit, ther ; but at present, its commerce is nearly annihilinen cloth, &c. but all in very limited quantities. lated. Sevastopel, formerly Actiar, Ctenus, is the The great article of export is wheat, which, however, chief station of the Russian Black Sea fleet, no merin the opinion of Mr Macgill, is very far inferior to chant ship being allowed to enter it, except in disthat of Taganrock, being soft, and apt to heat; be- tress. The natural advantages of this harbour are sides this, grain, rye, barley, oats, tallow, and tallow very great. The largest vessels lie within a cable’s length of the shore. The harbour is divided into candles, beeswax, iron, hemp, &c. are exported. leDnieThe Dnieper, Borysthenes, which separates the three coves, something resembling that of Malta. t> Russian provinces of Cherson and Taurida, forms, The principal branch runs east, and is terminated by near its mouth, a shallow and marshy lake, two and the valley and little river of Inkerman. Here the a half miles broad, a-breast of Ockzakoff, but more fleets of the world might ride secure, and have conat the confluence of the Bog. The entrance is al- venient anchorage ; and in any of the ports, vessels most closed by shifting sand banks, between which, find from 21 to 70 feet depth of water, and good id Bog. there is seldom more than five feet water. The Bog, anchorage. On a tongue of high land between the Hypanis, falls into the gulf of Leman, or estuary ot two southern creeks stands the Admiralty and storethe Dnieper. There is a very small island opposite houses. The great bay of Actiar also bears the the mouth of the latter river, almost inaccessible on name of the Roads, and here the Russian fleet is fre- Balaclar?. account of its perpendicular cliffs of rock and clay, quently at anchor. The port of Balaclara is sepackzakoff. Ockzakoff is a small port, lying at the junction of rated from that of Actiar by a narrow peninsula. It

316 BLACK Black Sea. is one of the most remarkable in the Crimea, appearing from the town landlocked by high precipitous mountains. Its entrance is so extremely narrow, that only one ship can pass at a time ; but within the port, it. is three quarters of a mile long, and 400 yards broad ; it.is secure in all weather from storms; and ships of war of any burden may find in it sufficient depth of water. The mountains which surround it are of red and white marble, and the shore in some parts is covered with gold coloured mica, in a state of extreme division. This port is closed against the vessels of all nations, not excepting Caffit. Prussians, to prevent smuggling. Caffa lies on a bay, capable of containing several hundred merchant vessels, but exposed to the east and southwest. It formerly carried on the most extensive trade in the Black Sea; but it is now of very little consequence. Kertchi, Ponticapium, on a peninsula, Chersonesus Cimmeria, stretching into the strait of Taman, and Yenikale, at the extremity of the same peninsula, are small ports chiefly inhabited by fishermen. Coast of The coast of Anatolia, on the Black Sea, extends Anatolia, to the Kesil-Irmak, which falls into this sea a little to the west of the Gulf of Sansoun. It is lined by high mountains, terminating in lofty promontories. It is steep and clean, with numerous little coves, into most of which small rivulets fall. The most remarkable headlands are Cape Kili-Mili, east of Erekli; Cape Kerenipe, the north point of Asia Minor, very high land, with breakers off it; and Cape Indjee, a low point to the west of Sinope. The principal rivers on this coast, besides the Kisil-Irmak, Malays, and the Sakaria, Sangarius, already noticed, are the Falios, Bettceus, and the Barthin, Parthenius. The only port of consequence is Sinope, strongly situate on the narrow and low isthmus of a rocky peninsula. The mole which formed its port is nearly in ruins. The depth of water is 12 feet. There is, however, a good road for the largest ships ; and Turkish vessels of war are built here. Sinope is the nearest port on the Black Sea to Angora, the only place hitherto known that supplies the fine goats’ hair. The coast from the Kisil-Irmak to Vona is named Coast of lloum by the Turks. The chief places are Sansoun, Roum; Amisus, on the Jekyl Irmak, which falls into the deep Gulf of Sansoun. Fatsa, Polemonium, at the mouth of the Sidemus, Budjiah and Vona, Boona, on the Cape of the same name. of the LaFrom Vona, the coast takes the name of the tribes ziens. that inhabit it. The Laziens, Lazi, occupy the coast from Vona to the Batouni. The principal Trebizond. port on this coast is Trebizond. Though it can receive only small vessels, it has a considerable trade. One hundred and fifty or two hundred small craft annually sail to Taganrock, with nardek, a marmalade of grapes, and beckmiss, a syrup made for the use of the distilleries there. Coast of the Next to the Laziens, the Gurions occupy the Guiions. coast, as far as the Itioni, Phasis. At its mouth this river is 60 fathoms deep, and half a league broad ; but a small island lies in the midst of its channel. The only port in the country of the Gurions is Poti, to which the merchants of Georgia re-

S E A. sort ; the Mingrelians occupying the country of Black Sea. the ancient Colchi. In this tract there is no port of consequence. The Abasses occupy the coast from Isgarur to the Strait of Yenikale, as far as Anaffa. iln=!elia> This coast is very elevated, the Caucassian mountains approaching close to the sea. Near Sondjuk is a very lofty promontory called Varda. From Anaffa to the Straits, the coast is low. Some small vessels are built at Anaffa by the Turks. The Ku-The Knbjm, ban, Hypanis, receives most of the waters of the western side of Caucasus. Near its mouth it divides into two branches, one of which falls into the Sea of Azoph, and the other into the Black Sea. The marshy isle of Taman is formed by it. On this island is Fana Jona, a place of some trade. The commerce of the Black Sea, in ancient times, History of was successively in the possession of the Phoenicians, the Com- . Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. From the last it passed to the Greeks of the Lower Empire ; from S(,a> ’ c them to the Venetians and the Genoese. Caffa was the principal city of the commerce of the Genoese with the east; and the port at which was deposited all the merchandize which had been transported to the Black Sea. By the capture of Constantinople in 1453, this commerce was nearly destroyed; and by the capture of Caffa, in 1476, it was completely annihilated. One of the favourite objects of Peter the Great wras to obtain a share in the commerce of this sea, which the subjects of the Porte alone were permitted to navigate. In l699> succeeded in subduing Azoph and the country round it; but, by the unfortunate battle of Pruth, in 171L he was compelled to relinquish his conquests. Flis successors, and especially Catherine II. aimed at the same object. This enterprising sovereign, by the treaty of Kainardgy, in 1774, and afterwards by the treaty of Jassy, in 1791, completely accomplished her object ; the Turks being obliged to surrender a part of Lesser Tartary and the Crimea, to allow the Russians to establish a navy in the Black Sea, and to permit their flag a free passage through the Dardanelles. In 1784, the Porte granted the privilege of navigating the Black Sea to the Court of Vienna. No other European nation obtained this privilege, though the French carried on a considerable trade under the Russian and Imperial flags, till after the conquest of Egypt by the French, when a treaty was concluded between the French government and the Porte, by which the latter granted the free navigation of this Sea. At the peace of Amiens, the navigation was opened to the Prussian, Spanish, Neapolitan, Dutch, Ragusan, and English merchant flags; and all these nations were allowed to have resident Consuls in the Turkish ports of this Sea. The English, however, by secret treaties with the Turks, in the reign of James I. and Charles, were granted the navigation of this Sea; and, in 1799> R was again granted. Soon after the peace of Amiens, the commerce of this Sea increased considerably : so that, in 1803, 815 vessels entered the Russian ports from the Mediterranean. Most of them came in ballast, and returned with corn. Of these 815 vessels, there were,

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L A Destination. Loaded at. Flags. 186 Trieste 552 Odessa Austrians 210 Taganrock 144 Messina Russians 103 Caphalonia 23 Caffa Ragusans 72 Genoa Ionian Islands 19 Kosloff 57 Leghorn 7 Serastopil French 26 Corfu 4 Cherson English 24 Barcelona Hydriots 19 Marseilles 815 Spaniards 10 Naples 8 Malta 7 Tchesme 4 Zante 155 sailed with out de815 claring their destination, on account of the war.

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A

sn

pally byTrebizond, all the above articles, except Black Sea ship-timber. From Mingrelia, and the country of gjasting. 421 the Abasses, principally by Sudjuk and Anaffa, 329 slaves, timber, box-wood, wool, silk, furs, butter, 18 hides, wax, honey, &c. The trade to these coasts If) is entirely carried on by a few Greeks of Constan15 tinople, and is very insignificant. 7 See Essai sur le Commerce, &c. de la Mer Noire., 6 Paris, 1805; Oddy’s European Commerce, p. 169; 3 Clarke’s Travels, Vol. I. 4to edition; Macgill s Travels in Turkey, &c. Vol. I.; Coxe’s Travels, iio Vol. III. 8vo edition; Tuckey’s Maritime Statistics, Vol. II. “ (c-) BLASTING, is a term used by the Engineer and Miner, to denote the application of the explosive force of gunpowder, in opening or rending rocks, indurated clay, consolidated earth, and the walls ot old buildings. In quarrying sandstone, consisting of regular layers, the work is performed chiefly by means of the pick, the ivedge, the hammer, and the pinch or lever ; recourse being seldom had to the more violent and irregular effects of gunpowder. But for many kinds of limestone, and for From these 815, the 210 which loaded at lagan- greenstone and basalt, blasting is always resorted to ; rock ought to be deducted, in order to give an ac- and some of the rocks called primitive, such as gracurate view of the commerce of the Black Sea at nite, gneiss, and sienite, could scarcely be torn this period. ^ .. . c asunder by any other means. The Russian exports from and imports to this fcea At what period blasting with gunpowder was first were, in resorted to as a power in mechanics, is uncertain. Gunpowder was applied to military engines in 1330, Exports. Imports. but there is reason to believe that its application 1802 3,000,000 rubles 2,055,000 to the peaceful arts is of a much later date. It 1804 5,000,000 4,200,000 may seem strange at this day to propose the expan1805 7,400,000 5,356,000 sive or explosive force of gunpowder as a new mechanical power ; but when the lever and the wedge In the year 1802, 36 vessels, and 266 small craft, become ineffectual to the purposes of the artificer, were employed by Russia, in the coasting trade ot he must naturally attach a high value, and be disthis Sea. There is also a considerable trade be- posed to give an elevated term, to that instrument tween the Russian ports and Constantinople and or means by which he is enabled, in a very simple Smyrna, carried on entirely by Greek vessels under manner, to effect his purpose, and overcome the Russian colours. . greatest obstructions to his operations. One could nssian In 1807, the Russian Black Sea fleet consisted almost, therefore, wish it dignified with such a title leet. of 12 sail of the line, 4 frigates, 7 brigs and cutters, as the explosive power. and 18 small craft; and the Black Sea flotilla conThis agent is no less simple in its application, sisted of 40 gunboats and 80 falconets. than it is powerful in its effects. It is considerrincipal The principal articles of commerce afforded by the rticles of countries on the Black Sea, are wheat, rice, tobacco, ed as the result of the sudden extrication of a permanently elastic Jluid by the ignition of the gunommerce. hides, tallow, iron, hare-skins, honey, wax, and yel- powder, the extricated gas occupying perhaps 1000 low grains for dyeing, from Roumeha and Bulgana, times more space than the grains of the powby the ports of Varna and Burgos. The same ar- der. Some authors are of opinion, that the pow-ticles, with the addition of wool, butter, hemp, der contains only atmospheric air in a state of masts, ship-timber, and pitch, from Moldavia and great condensation, and that, when this fluid is Wallachia, by Rudjuk and Galatz on the Danube. set at liberty, being at the same time highly raFrom Bessarabia, by Ovidopel, and from the pro- rified by the heat, from the inflammation of the vince of Cherson, by Odessa, Akerman, and Person, powder, it produces the wonderful effects already corn, oak-timber, hides, tallow, tar, shagreen, wax, mentioned. By others, it is supposed that the honey, hemp, sail-cloth, and wool. From the Cri- air contained in the nitre of the gunpowder is amea, by the ports of Actiar, kosloff, and Caffa, coin, bout 244 times denser than atmospheric air, and wool, wax, honey, dried and salted hides deer- that, when exploded, it produces an effect proporskins, morocco-leather, sheep-skins, salted and dried tioned to its condensation ; the elastic fluid expandfish, potash, felt, caviar, wine, silk, and sa.tpetre. ing with a velocity which has been calculated at the From Anatolia, by the ports of Erekh, Amasrah, rate of about 10,000 feet per second ; and its presand Sinope, hides, dried fruits, linens, linen-thread, sure or force, when thus expanding, having been eswax, honey, hemp, copper, and ship-timber. From timated as equal to a thousand atmospheres, or as a the countries of the Laziens and Gunons, prmci-

[ack Sea.

318 B L A S T I N G. Blasting, thousand times greater than the atmospheric pres- have been deprived of innumerable advantages and Blasting, sure upon a base of the same extent. If we apply accommodations. ^ this product to the pressure of the atmosphere, or at When a perforation or hole is to be made in a Method of the rate of 14f pounds to the square inch, we shall find that the elastic fluid of gunpowder, at the mo- rock for the purpose of blasting with gunpowder, the Bating ment of explosion, exerts a force equivalent to 6| prudent quarrier considers the nature of the rock, Rocks‘ tons upon the square inch of surface exposed to its and the inclination or dip of the strata, and from these force ; and that with a velocity which even the ima- determines the calibre, and the depth and direction gination can hardly follow. Count Rumford, indeed, of the bore or recipient for the gunpowder. Acestimated this force at 10,000 atmospheres; but we cording to circumstances, the diameter of the hole have rather followed the calculations of Hutton, varies from half an inch to inches, the depth from whose opportunities of experiment, connected with a few inches to many feet, and the direction varies the Military College of Woolwich, have been unques- to all the angles from the perpendicular to the horizontal. The implements for the performance of this tionably great. The progress of quarrying and blasting rocks operation are rude, and so extremely simple and fahas, of late years, made great advancement in this miliar, as hardly to require description; and the country. In Europe, the art of mining was long whole operation of boring and blasting rocks is so chiefly confined to Sweden and Germany ; but, since easily performed, that, in the space of a few weeks, the disappearance of our thickly wooded forests, and an intelligent labourer may become an expert quarthe universal introduction of pit-coal for fuel, and of rier. The tools are few in number, and, as just said, cast-iron in the arts, Britain has made rapid strides are simple in their construction. The chisel, or to improvement in the art of Mining, and now rivals jumper, as it is technically called, varies in its length her Continental neighbours. Here we may allude to and other dimensions according to the work to be the Coal works of Northumberland and Durham, of performed, and its edge is more or less pointed to Cumberland and the western counties of England suit the hardness or tenacity of the rock to be bored. and Wales. We may also notice the great extent of If the cylindrical hole to be drilled is of small diathe like works in the south-eastern and south-western meter and of no great depth, or the work fixed to a districts of Scotland. Much of this kind of work confined position, as often happens, the operation of is done with the pick and shovel; but without the aid boring is performed by a single person ; with one of the expansive force of gunpowder, these operations hand he manages the chisel or jumper, which he must have been of a very limited extent. Other keeps constantly turning, and with the other he works, of no less magnitude than those of Coal strikes the jumper with a hammer of 6 or 8 lb. Mines, have been executed in Great Britain, almost wreight. But when the hole is of larger dimensions, wholly by the force of gunpowder, particularly in and of a depth exceeding a foot, it generally beCanal and Road-works. To illustrate more fully the comes the business of one man, in a sitting posture, use of gunpowder in mining operations, we may to hold and direct the jumper,—to keep it constantly mention the extensive works in Tunnelling, for pre- turning,—to supply the hole with water, and ocserving the level of canals through mountainous casionally to clean it out; while two and even districts of country, instead of forming Locks, or three men, with hammers of 10 or 12 lb. weight, following a circuitous line of navigation. The strike successive blows upon the jumper, until the bold attempt of blasting rocks, under such cir- rock is perforated to the desired depth. To prevent cumstances, was, in this country, reserved for Mr annoyance to the quarriers from the squirting up of Brindley, Engineer upon the Duke of Bridge- the water, a small rope of straw or hemp is simply water’s canals. In 177fl> this celebrated Engineer twisted round the jumper, and kept resting on the completed the first navigable tunnel, at Hare- orifice of the hole. When the perforations are to castle in Staffordshire, which is upwards of one mile be made to a greater depth than about SO inches, it in length. Since that period, many other works is now common to use a chisel or jumper, varying in of a similar nature, and even of much greater ex- length from 6 to 8 feet, pointed at both ends, having tent, have been executed in various parts of Europe. a bulbous part in the middle for the convenience of By the art of blasting, immense excavations have holding it; it thus becomes a kind of double jumper, been made upon the Great Canal in Sweden. In and is used without a hammer, with either end put France, a tunnel of about seven miles in length has into the hole at pleasure. When a bore of consilately been made ; and, in our own country, at Sap- derable depth is to be made, after the hole has been perton, on the canal joining the rivers Severn and perforated a few inches with the common jumper, Thames, and at Marsdenhill, there is a tunnel, up- the quarriers lay it and their hammers aside, and wards of three miles in length, forced entirely collect round the long jumper, in a standing posthrough rock, by the use of gunpowder. We ture, and lay hold of it by the bulbous part, lifting may also instance the great national work of the and letting it drop into the hole by its own graCaledonian Canal. In all of these works, in road- vity ; in this manner, by the successive strokes or making, and many others intimately connected with falling of the long jumper, a hole to the depth of five the prosperity of commerce, the extension of the feet and upwards is perforated, with much ease to arts, our domestic comfort, and national importance, the workmen, and with wonderful expedition. When it is most evident, that, but for the simple process of the boring of the hole is completed, the debris and applying the expansive force of gunpowder, we must moisture are then carefully cleaned out, and a proper

BLASTING. 319 BlastiniT. charge of powder is put into it. In practice, there pence of the copper, and its being more liable to Blasting, is no very precise rule for the charge or quantity of twist and break, it has by no means come into gegunpowder, this being regulated at the discretion of neral use. The hole being now fully charged with the powthe quarrier, according to the tenacity and mass of the rock to be removed ; and these circumstances der and wadding, the pricker is drawn out. The having been previously considered, in the dimensions small tubular space, which it leaves, is sometimes of the bore, it is customary to fill it in the proportion wholly filled with powder, but with a view to save that expensive article, it is now common to insert of about one half with gunpowder. The charge being introduced into the cylindrical wheaten or oaten straws filled with powder. These hole bored or drilled in the rock, a long iron called straw tubes may be joined so as to reach any necesthe pricker is inserted amongst the powder, to be sary depth; the lower straw always terminating in afterwards withdrawn when the priming powder is the root part where a natural obstruction occurs, introduced. While this rod remains, the process of or it is artificially stopped with clay, to prevent ramming or stemming the hole is performed by for- the powder from being lost. The lower part of cing burnt clay, fragments of pounded brick, stone, or the priming straw is pared quite thin, so as to inany other substance less liable than another to produce sure the inflammation of the charge of powder in sparks of fire on being struck with iron. After a layer the hole. This being done, a s/otu match, consistor stratum of such matter has been pressed down ing generally of a bit of soft paper, prepared by dipupon the powder, the remaining depth of the hole is ping it into a solution of saltpetre, is carefully apfilled with pounded stone or earthy matters of any plied to the priming powder. When this match is/ kind, forced down with an iron punch or rammer of touched with fire, the quarriers give the alarm to all such dimensions that it nearly fills the hole, but around, to retire to a sufficient distance, so as to having a groove in it to receive the pricker; the avoid accident from the expected explosion. This rammer being flat at the end which enters the hole, commonly takes place in about a minute. The the fragments of stone are pounded by it round the priming first explodes, attended only with flame; a pricker, which must be occasionally turned to pre- short interval of suspense commonly ensues; the vent it from being too firmly fixed, and thereby pre- eyes of the byestanders being anxiously directed tovented from being drawn. This wadding or matter, wards the spot; the rock is instantly seen to open, laid immediately over the powder, is gently forced when a sharp report, or a detonating noise, takes down at first, to prevent, as much as possible, the place, and numerous fragments of stone are observdanger of premature explosion; but as the hole is ed to spring into the air, and fly about in all direcmore and more filled up, the quarrier strikes down tions, from amidst a cloud of smoke. The quarrier the stemmer with more violence and less care, and then returns with alacrity to the scene of his operaconsolidates the wadding as much as possible, with a tions. When blasting with gunpowder is carried on view to produce a greater effect by the shot. In in coal-pits or in sinking wells, where the workmen this operation consists the chief danger attending cannot get speedily out of the reach of the shot, or the process of blasting with gunpowder ; for it must in any situation where adjoining houses, &c. may be be obvious, that, unless the utmost care be taken in in danger of being injured, it is common to load forcing down the first portions of the wadding above or cover up part of the rock to be blasted, with a the powder, there is great danger of such a collision quantity of furze or brushwood, to prevent the fragtaking place, between the stemmer and the pricker, or ments of blasted rock from being driven to a disbetween either of these and the rock or sides of the tance. The simplicity of this operation, so important to Use of Sand hole, as may elicit a spark of fire, and produce unintentioned explosion. From this cause, indeed, the most our means of quarrying or prying into the bowels ofin Blasting, unfortunate and distressing accidents have sometimes the earth, is, perhaps, one cause of so little attention happened to quarriers. A recent case occurred un- having been paid to it by persons of science; vrhile der the notice of the writer of this article, from the personal risk attending it may have also operwhich an experienced workman lost the sight ot ated, in some measure, to prevent particular inboth eyes, and had his legs and arms much shattered. quiries regarding it. It was an extremely natural It is necessary, as before noticed, frequently to turn conclusion for the quarrier to suppose, that the the pricker during the process of stemming the shot, more firmly the shot was rammed home, the more in order to prevent its being so bound by the wad- powerful would be the effect of the explosion. This, ding as to prevent its being withdrawn; and it has we know, was long the conviction of military Enbeen known that, by the friction produced in the gineers ; and was also a principle invariably adopted mere act of turning it unguardedly, the shot has by miners, to the great personal hazard of the artibeen fired oft". To prevent accident in this way, ficer. In many places, this notion still prevails, and copper prickers, or, to save expence, prickers com- we cannot enough lament the force, and stubbornposed partly of copper and partly of iron, have been ness of custom in this instance; as it has been fully introduced, instead of those formed wholly of iron. established, that a wadding of loose sand, or of any The copper pricker is certainly much less liable to earthy matter in a dry state, answers all the purposes accident; but notwithstanding that this fact is self- of the firmest ramming or wadding. Now, as it is in evident, and has been clearly established in quar- the operation of ramming, that accidents most comries where copper and iron prickers have been monly befall the quarrier, and which the use of the used at the same time, yet, from the greater ex- copper pricker cannot altogether prevent, it is not

blasting. 320 Blasting. a little surprising, that the use of sand does not manner the wadding is effected, prbvided that the Blasting, atmospheric air is not in immediate contact with the "“^become universal. powder; as otherwise the fluid appears to divide, To the common-labourer, indeed, it naturally seems somewhat paradoxical to say, that particles and its effects to be lost in space, without being apof loose sand can produce an effect equal to stem- plied chiefly at the bottom • of the hole, where the ming a shot with an iron punch and hammer; but greatest execution is wished to be done. It maybe noticed, that although the use of sand for those who are better informed, should insist on the use of sand, whereby the person of the quarrier blasting in mining operations is by no means general, would be much less exposed, and much time and yet so much of this practice has obtained, that the trouble would be saved. It may be noticed, that quarrier is now only at pains to ram an inch or two in several works this is observed, particularly at of the lower wadding firmly home; the upper parte Lord Elgin’s extensive mining operations at Charles- are done loosely, with little attention either to the employed, or to the ramming of it; he merely town in Scotland, where much attention is paid to stuff consolidates it in such a manner, that the broken the security and comfort of the artificer, as well as particles shall not fall into the charge amongst the to every thing interesting to science. Hie practice powder, when he withdraws the pricker. In so far, of using loose sand instead of pounded stone ramthis is a saving of time; but unfortunately he still med with force, has been in use at these w orks foi se- undergoes much personal risk, the chief danger beveral years (it is believed since about the yeai 1810). ing in ramming at first, or in the turning or withThe writer of this article has also had considerable opportunities of trying the accuracy of these state- drawing of the pricker, where the wadding is firm. ments, as to the efficiency of sand, at the extensive When sand is used immediately above the powder, quarrying operations which lately became necessary both the pricker and the rammer are wholly unne; the 'primed straw being inserted into the in cutting down a part of the Caltonhill, in foiming cessary powder, the sand is poured into the hole, and the the new approach to the city of Edinburgh, where upwards of 100,000 cubic yards of rocky matters shot is ready for the match. A difficulty occurs in were removed, and gunpowder to the value of near- the use of sand, which, though easily surmounted, it ly L. 1000 Sterling, was expended, chiefly in blast- may be proper to notice in this place. When the hole perforation in the rock happens to be horizontal, ing rock, consisting of whinstone, or greenstone, or or at more than an angle of 45° from the perpendimuch traversed by calcareous spar. Hie holes at this work were bored of various dimensions, both as cular, the priming straw is apt to be injured in filling to calibre and depth, and also at all the angles of the hole with sand, an evil to which the pricker is inclination, from the perpendicular to the horizon- not liable ; but this is easily got over by inserting the tal. Trials were here made with holes from three priming straw into a small cylindrical tube of sheetto seven or eight feet in depth, and of a diameter iron or copper, while the sand is gently pressed into from an inch to two and a half inches in dia- the hole; the small tube which is open at both meter j when it was invariably round, that when ends is afterwards withdrawn. By this means, the the powder was wadded with sand, the effect in tear- operation of the horizontal shot is rendered not less ing or blasting the rock was as great as wdien the sure, and is attended with no more expence, and little more trouble, than when the bore is perpendimore commonly followed method, of ramming with cular. pounded stone was adopted. In the judgment of It has been supposed by some, that a more com- inflamma, the Contractors, the fragments of rock had a greater of tlw tendency to fly to a distance when sand only was em- plete inflammation of the powder would take place, tion ow if it were ignited at the bottom of the hole ; but it ployed ; but there was as great a bulk of the rock raised by the shot ivadded with sand as by that which was has been found by experience, that this is not essenrammed in the usual way; and in practice it was tial. It even appears from experiment, that gunfound that the shots with sand were not more liable powder is more fully inflamed by applying the fire the top, for in firing Ordnance, considerable to fail, or blow, without doing execution, than those near quantities of the uninflamed grains of the powder which were rammed. It is a fact perhaps as curious and interesting as any connected with the subject, have been collected, by placing a piece of cloth at a from the gun, and allowing the shot to pass that in both ways the shots fail, and at times blow distance out, without producing any effect, or being occa- through it. Quick-lime, suddenly slacked, has been suggested, Use of sioned by any apparent cause. Reasoning fi om the simultaneous effects of the sudden extrication of the as a mode of rending rocks ; but this process would Qnickime * elastic fluid of gunpowder, whether a wadding of in practice be found very defective. In some situations where the explosive effects of gunpowder could loose sand or of firmly pounded stone be employ ed, trial was made of gunpowder without any wadding, not be applied with safety, as in the interior of a but the effect produced by this method was rather to building, or for such like purposes, this mode may shake or rend the upper part, near the orifice of the be resorted to with good effect. Blasting with gunpowder, under water, is neces- Blasting hole or surface of the rock, than at the bottom of the hole. This fact, however, favours the conclu- sarily performed in various operations of the Engi- der Watei* sion that the explosive force of gunpowder is in pro- neer, particularly in the excavation of the foundaportion to the surface upon which it acts ; and that tions of piers, and in deepening the entrances of the effect is so instantaneous, that it seems a matter harbours. This is performed by inserting the charge not essentially connected with the operation, in what of powder into the perforated rock, by means of a 4

B L A astiug case or cartridge made of tm-plate.

The lower part

l Uhinc rna of his operation over the top of the screen. This densed in a cavity, required a considerable time to screen is not soldered to the vessel, but is held fast by its foot being placed between the lid of the ves- escape through a small aperture made to give it issue* contrived the apparatus represented at fig. 12., which sel and the top of the close chamber F. Two rests acts as a blow-pipe. This apparatus^ consists of a for supporting the operator’s arms project one from strong plate copper box perfectly air-tight, three each side of the vessel; upon these the arms are inches in width and height, and four in length, a conplaced when any substance is held to the flame. densing syringe to force air into the box, and an adThese rests are wrapped round with woollen list or jutage Dwith a stop-cock at one end of the box, by leather, so as to be more convenient for leaning which the issue of the air is regulated. The piston upon. The whole of the apparatus, including the rod of the condensing syringe works through collars lamp and case, weighs only three pounds and a half. of leather in the cap, which has an aperture in the When it is to be used, the vessel is fixed to a table side, and a screw (N) connected with a stop-cock, or bench, by means of a leather strap buckled to which may be made to communicate with a jar, two loops, which are on the sides of the vessel op- bladder, or gazometer, containing oxygen, hydrogen, posite to each other ; the strap; is passed under the or other gases. When this communication is made, table or bench. The long flat cotton wick is pre- and the condenser worked, the gas contained in the ferred by some glass-blowers to the usual round cot- jar or bladder is thrown into the box, and issues ton wick. The lamp is filled with tallow, which through the adjutage upon the flame of a lamp melts after the lamp has been lighted for some time, placed near it. When the apparatus is worked with and then it burns as freely as oil, and with a less common air, a few strokes of the piston fills thc^ offensive smell. When not in use, the tallow be- chamber with compressed air. When the cock of comes solid, and is more conveniently carried about the adjutage is opened, the air issues with great vethan oil: hogs’ lard also does well for burning in this locity in a small stream, and when directed on the lamp. Some glass-blowers mix cocoa-nut oil, which is flame of a lamp, produces a jet of flame as the comsolid, at the temperature of the climate of Britain, mon blow-pipe does, but with more precision and rewith hogs’ lard, and find it to answer well in the lamp. gularity. The force of the stream of air is easily^ The lamp is placed within another vessel, marked K, adjusted by opening more or less the stop-cock of which supports it at a proper height, leaving a space the adjutage ; and, when the box has been modebetween all round, to receive any tallow that may rately charged, the stream will continue to issue unirun over the edge of the lamp. A wire bent at the formly for twenty minutes; when the strength of the end is convenient for trimming the wick, and form- blast begins to decline, it will be restored by working it into a channel through which the stream of ino- the syringe. The apparatus is very portable, and air is to be directed. It is convenient to have seve- not liable to injury. It is made by Mr Newman, the ral lamps with wicks of different thicknesses, name- inventor, with a lamp adapted to it, so as to pack up ly, one to hold two flat cottons of about one inch in a box not more than six inches in length, and four and a quarter broad, another to hold four, a thud to inches in width and height, enough of space being hold six, or as much common wick-yarn as is equal left for other small articles : others he makes in boxes to those wicks in bulk, and glass adjutages of differ- somewhat larger, so as to contain also a selection of ent sized apertures to suit the different sized wicks. chemical tests. See Journal of Science, edited at See Transactions of the Society for Encouraging the Royal Institution, No. 1. . Arts, Vol. XXXI. „ rxr i u Sir Humphrey Davy having discovered that the exa™*" The Eolipile, fig. IE, Hate XXXIV. has been ap- plosion from oxygen and hydrogen gases would not gen and Eolipilci plied to act as a blow-pipe. It is a hoi ow vessel of communicate through very small apertures, Mr Chil- qrogen. brass, sometimes made in form of a srpall kettle, some- dren proposed to him to employ Newman’s blow-pipe times in form of a ball of two inches in diameter with for effecting a combustion of a mixture of oxygen and a tube of brass that screws into it. 1 he tube is to be hydrogen gas, issuing from a small aperture, dhis screwed off in order to pour m alcohol by a small Sir Humphrey did, and found that the flame profunnel; and then the tube being replaced, and heat ap- duced the most intense heat, which instantly fused boplied to the bulb, the vapour of the alcohol issues x x VOL. II. PART II.

346 B L O B L O Rlow-pipe. dies of a very refractory nature. Dr Clarke, Professor white enamel. Flint fused rapidly into a white frothy Blow-p^ of Mineralogy at Cambridge, having consulted Sir enamel. Blue sapphire melted into greenish glass || P* Humphrey on the subject, proceeded to expose a balloons, ramified singularly. Foliated talc fused ,!?lowinggreat variety of mineral substances to the flame, for into a greenish glass. Peruvian emerald melted the purpose of observing its effects upon each of them. into a transparent and colourless glass, without bubThe tube of glass through which the mixture of the bles. Lapis lazuli fused into a transparent glass, two gases is to issue, is cemented on the pipe of with a slight tinge of green. Pure foliated native issue of Newman’s blow-pipe. The tube at first used magnesia, from America, is the substance the most by Dr Clarke was 3 inches in length, and the dia- difficult of fusion ; it is, however, at last reduced to meter of its cavity ytjth of an inch. The end of the a white opaque enamel. Agalmatolite of China fuses tube was constantly breaking during the experiments, into a limpid colourless glass. Iceland spar is next owing to the sudden changes of temperature, until in difficulty of fusion to the native magnesia; it does at last he usually worked with a tube only one inch at last melt into a limpid glass, and, during the proand three-eighths in length. When the current of cess, gives an amethyst-coloured flame as strontian gas is feeble, from the gas in the reservoir having does; the fusion of pure lime and of all its comcome nearly to the same degree of density as the pounds, is attended with a flame of the same colour. surrounding air, or from the current being suppres- Diamond first became opaque, and then was gradually sed in the beginning of an experiment, then the volatilized. Gold fused along with borax, on a piece flame has a retrograde movement, passing up the ca- of tobacco-pipe, was nearly ail volatilized. Platina pillary cavity of the tube about half an inch, and, wire, gtyth of an inch diameter, melted the instant after splitting the end of the glass tube, the flame it was brought into contact with the flame of the gas; goes out of itself; so that, even in this case, there the melted platina ran down in drops, and the wire is no danger of explosion. In order to try the ef- burnt as iron wire does in oxygen gas. Brass wire fects of an explosion, four pints of a mixture of the burnt with a green flame, differing from the green two gases were condensed into the chest, which was flame that salts of copper give. Copper wire melted all that the syringe could force into it. The glass rapidly without burning. Iron wire burnt with briltube was taken off, so that the diameter of the nose- liant scintillation. Plumbago melted into a bead pipe, by which the gas was to issue, was about one- which was attractable by the magnet. Blend or eighth of an inch. A burning spirit-lamp was placed native sulfuret of zinc melted, and metallic zinc apat this aperture, and the stop-cock being opened bv peared in the centre of the melted mass. Metalloid means of a long string attached to it, the whole gas oxide of manganese, crystallized in prisms, was reexploded with a report like that of a cannon ; the duced to a metallic state—See Dr Clarke’s Account chest was burst, the stop-cock driven out, and one of his Experiments, in the Journal of Science, edited end of the chest was torn off and thrown against the at the Royal Institution, October 1816. (y.) wall of the room. This shows the danger of using BLOW-PIPE, in Anatomy, a straight hollow the apparatus with too large an aperture, and the tube of brass, of an elongated conical form, six inches necessity of ‘employing a capillary tube. in length, and open at both ends. The aperture of the Br Clarke’s When the mixture of the two gases is to be em- large end is three-tenths of an inch in diameter, that Experiployed in Newman’s blow-pipe, the chest is first exmeiite. hausted of air, and then the gaseous mixture in a of the smaller end is of the size of a needle’s point. It is used for blowing air into the collapsed vessels bladder, screwed on at N, is to be forced into the of the dead subject, in order to know the course of chest by the condensing syringe. The proportions these vessels. (Y.) of the two gases, which Dr Clarke found to produce BLOWING of a Fire-Arm, is when the vent or the greatest heat, are, two volumes of hydrogen and touch-hole is run or gullied, and becomes wide, so one of oxygen gas. The intensity of the heat is that the powder will flame out. much greater when the gases are pure; the oxygen BLOWING-MACHINES, in the arts and maprocured from manganese does not produce nearly nufactures, and in domestic economy, are instruso great a heat as that got from the hyper-oxymu- ments for producing a continued current of air, prinriate of potass. The intensity of the heat may be cipally for the purpose of facilitating the combustion regulated, by allowing the gas to issue in a more or of fuel. The first idea of such a machine was doubtless copious stream, which is done by turning the less derived from the lungs, which we are constantly stop-cock. The heat, Dr Clarke thinks, is greater in the habit of using for the purpose of blowing, but than that produced by the largest galvanic batteries. more especially in the simple and useful application Most substances hitherto tried, are fused by it, so of the blow-pipe. that it is difficult to find supports for holding the Of these different machines, the common bellows Common subject of experiment to the flame. The supports bears the greatest resemblance to the lungs, and was, Belfows* employed by Dr Clarke were, charcoal, platina, a in all probability, the first contrivance for artificial piece of tobacco-pipe, black lead. Lime, strontian, blowing. In the first instance, this instrument might and alumine, were fused. The metal of strontian was be a simple bag, capable of distension by a mechanical got, and retained its lustre for some hours. The alka- force, the air being drawn in and pressed out of the lies were fused and volatilized almost the instant same aperture in the manner of breathing. The first they came in contact with the flame. Rock-crystal improvement upon this simple form would be, to adfused into a transparent glass full of bubbles. Quartz mit the air by a valve opening inwards when the gave the same result. Opal fused into a pearly bellows wrere distended, the blast outwards being

BLOW PIPE.

PLATE 111/1

iar • B L 0 W I N G-M A C H I N E S. 347 plies air to the upper cavity, while the upper board BlowingSlowing- from another aperture. This improvement consists jacbines. jn the air being admitted at a wider aperture, which is constantly pressing uniformly upon the air in Machines, fills the bellows in less time than would be perform- it. Although this is a considerable improvement ed through the small pipe through which the air upon the single bellows, it does not completely obshould escape. The blast, in this state of the ma- viate the irregularity of the blast. So long as the chine, is not continuous, but in puffs, at intervals of lower board is not in action, the pressure on the uptime required for the air to enter the bellows through per board being uniform, the blast is the same. Evethe valve; the blowing interval being to the filling ry time, however, the bottom board rises to force interval as the areas of the apertures. This irregu- the air into the upper cavity, an extra pressure is lar blast was for some time remedied by employing given to the air in the upper cavity, and a temporary two bellows which blew alternately, the blowing on puff is produced. In the application of bellows to one taking placer while the other was filling. This the smith’s forge, the continued blast was of less inconvenience w as but partially remedied by this importance than in the blast-furnaces applied to contrivance. The invention of what are called dou- the smelting or refining of ores. The single belble bellows must have been considered a valuable ac- lows are at present almost exclusively employed by quisition in the art of blowing. Previous to describ- anchor-smiths and cutlers, while the blacksmith and ing these, it will be necessary to give a description most others use double bellows, which are doubtless better for all purposes. of single bellows above mentioned, In France and other parts of the Continent, bel-'^oodeu 1 nee ingle Bel- I dloss, however, to say more than re- lows have been formed entirely of wood, instead ofBellow5, iwl fer the reader to common domestic bellow's, which are in every respect the same as the single bellows the flexible sides of leather, which serves to increase first used. The leather nailed to the upper and and diminish the capacity. The wooden bellows conlower boards is prevented from collapsing, when the sist of two boxes, each open on one side, the one boards are separated by a hoop of wood contained being just capable of containing the other ; the outer within, performing the office of the ribs in the ster- box being placed with the mouth upwards, the other num of animals, without which the breathing would is made to descend into it, with the mouth downnot be performed. The lower board contains the wards ; the latter being capable of moving up and valve which admits the air. When the two boards down, while the other remained fixed. In the botare separated, the air lifts the valve in entering the tom of the fixed box is a valve like the common cavity. When full of air, the closing of the boards bellows, and a pipe on the same level, to let out the of causes the air within to close the valve to prevent blast. The change of capacity, by the motion r this box, causes the blast, and with less w aste of its return in that direction, and compels it to escape at the pipe, the mouth of which is called the nozle power than that occasioned by the bending of the leather in the common bellows. This advantage is, or nose-pipe. tOTble In order to conceive the construction of the dou- however, probably more than compensated by the loss lellow’. ble bellows, we have only to take a third board ex- of air, from the box not fitting on the sides. See a actly of the shape of the other two, and connect it description of this and some other blowing-machines, with the lower board by a piece of leather similar to under Pneumatics, in the Encyclopcedia Britanthat of the single bellows, making two cavities ex- nica. The common smith’s bellows have lately been con- Circular actly similar, and separated by the lower board of ov s structed of a circular form. The boards of these bel' ‘ the single bellows, which now becomes the middle lows are round, and the moveable boards parallel to board of the double bellows. The third board we shall now call the lower board. This latter has a the horizon and to each other. We have given a valve in it exactly similar to the first, which still re- view of this construction in Plate XXXV. figures 4. and 5. A is the biast-pipe, B the moveable lower tains its place in the new construction. board, C the fixed board, into which the pipe is inThe middle board is now fixed in a horizontal position, the pipe being placed to the fire to be blown. serted, and D the upper moveable board, on which The lower board is held down by a weight, which is placed a weight, to regulate the strength of keeps the lower cavity constantly full of air. The the blast. Motion is given to the lower board by top board has a weight laid upon it which presses the lever L, and the chain H working on the rolall the air out of the upper cavity through the ler It. The form of these bellows being cylindrical, the pipe* weight required to give a given pressure and strength The machinal action by which the blowing is perof blast will be easily determined. If the diameter formed, is, first, to lift up the lower board. This 1 foot, the area will be 113.19 inches. The most forces the air from the lower into the upper cavity, be convenient and proper blast for smith’s bellows is the valve in the middle board preventing its return. about | lb. upon the inch, or from that to £ lb. The The weight on the upper board now presses the air upper board, in this case, would require a weight of with a uniform blast through the pipe. During this to give a blast equal to half a pound upon an time the lower board descends, which fills the lower 56.5 cavity with air from the atmosphere. 1 his again lises, inch. This pressure would give a velocity equal to and gives its contents to the upper cavity, and thence about 207 feet a second. If the diameter of the through the nose-pipe. Hence we see that inegular nose-pipe be changed, the number or length of the puffing blast which belongs to the single bellows is strokes, or both, must be changed, in order that the density of the blast here confined to the lower board only, which sup- pressure and the corresponding 6

B L 0 W I N G-M 548 Blowing- may remain the same. If the number and length of Machines.^ t}ie Were kept up, and the aperture diminished, at the same time that the capacity of the bellows will not admit of enlargement, the pressure and density of blast will be increased, although no additional weight is laid on. This frequently happens in the smith’s bellows when he makes an increased effort to blow after the upper cavity is full. It is much better, however, not to exert the bellows in this way when a stronger blast is required, but to produce the effect by an additional weight. A very strong blast is found to be very injurious to the iron when welding heats are required, and still more so in working steel. It is much better that an increase of air, which is frequently wanted, should be furnished by increasing the aperture, supposing the power to be at the time adequate to keep up the increased supply. Bellows should therefore be so constructed that the pressure may be uniform, and not immediately under the control of the workman. When he wishes to quicken his heat, he should have the means of increasing the aperture by a circular plate turning on an axis at right angles, to the length of the pipe, as seen in fig. 9. When in the position ab, the whole area is filled; when in that of cd, the air passes in its full quantity. The index being placed at any intermediate points, ef, will let in any proportionate quantity required. The aperture might be made to change, by the increase of power upon the machine, and thus made to regulate itself. Several simple Contrivances of this kind may be applied by any one skilled in machinery. New Blow- These improvements would render the common ing-Ma. leather bellows, of the form above given, very useful utiines. por smiths. The irregular blast occasioned by their present construction is found to be very injurious to the iron, both as to its quality and economy. This is abundantly shown in the use of some blowingmachines lately invented, which have the advantage of a uniform blast, and at the same time much softer, being produced by a small pressure. These blowing-machines are also found to answer very well for melting cast-iron, the soft blast having less tendency to destroy the carbon the quantity of air being compensated by increasing the aperture. One of these machines is the invention of Mr Street, for which he has taken out a patent. It consists of a barrel-shaped vessel, from 4 to 5 feet in diameter, and of a length more or less proportionate to the work it has to perform. This cylinder is supported on two bearers by the two ends of its axis like a barrel churn. The cylinder is divided into two equal parts by a plane in the direction of its length, fitting the two ends and the upper side, water-tight, and extending downward to a small distance from the opposite side. This septum is in a perpendicular position when the cylinder is at rest. When this vessel is partly filled with water, and js made to pass through a certain space on its axis, the air which occupies the upper part of the vessel will be compressed on one side by the water, which flows from one side of the septum to the

A C H I N E S. other, and will become in the same degree rarified Blowing, on the other, from a contrary cause. If, however, Machine*, in this situation, a valve be made to open inwards from the atmosphere on the rarified side, and another to open outwards on the condensed side, two equal and contrary currents will be established, one inwards, and the other outwards. On the returning stroke both these valves wrill shut, and the other two sides will be put in the same situation with the first cavities. If, now, two similar valves to the last be introduced, two similar currents will be produced. If the two valves at which the air escapes from the machine, one on each side the septum, be made to communicate with one cavity from which a nosepipe proceeds, while the other two valves communicate with the asmosphere, every stroke will discharge a quantity of air through the nose-pipe from one cavity, and introduce the same volume of air from the atmosphere into the other cavity. These strokes are produced by the oscillating motion of the machine, the limit of its vibrations being about a quarter of the circle or 90°. These alternate puffs of air are first propelled into a vessel containing water to regulate the blast. This vessel is divided into two portions by a septum, which passes from the close cover at the top nearly to the bottom. When the air is forced into the cavity, which is close at the top, it expels the water under the septum at the bottom into the open cavity, so as to keep a constant head in the latter, compressing the air in the former. From this air-chest, a nose-pipe proceeds to the fire, and the air escapes from it with a uniform velocity so long as the same column of water in the chest is preserved. This description answers to the first machine of the inventor ; he has since taken out a second patent; the specification of which is given in the Repository of Arts, Vol. XXVIII. p. 193. We shall here give a description of this machine, with the patentee’s improvements. See Plate XXXV. figs. 1, 2!, and 3. Fig. 1. is a longitudinal section of this machine, AB is the cylinder resting upon the axis ab and cd* which are supported on the uprights gg. The oscillating motion is given to it by a rod working upon the pivot p, the other end of which is connected with a crank of such a length as to cause the cylinder to move through an arch of 90 degrees. The vessel is filled with water to the height ws. The part CBD (fig. 2.) is cut off from the rest of the cylinder by two planes meeting at c, and continuing down to the axis x, so as to work upon itsconvex surface. These planes extend the whole length of the cylinder, and are then divided transversely into three cavities GHI, as seen in fig. 1. The cavity G is for the reception of the external air, and is called by the patentee a receiving box. The cavity H is open to the atmosphere, the periphery of the cylinder being removed in that part. The cavity I is appropriated to the air which is driven out of the machine, through the valves tt and qq (fig. 3.), which open alternately on each side. The cavity G is divided longitudinally in the middle, forming two cavities, m and n, fig. 2., two valves, earn! f fig. 1., 10

349 B L O W I N G-M A C H I N E S. Itlowingleast of the capacity of the cylinder, inverted in a Machines. ©pen into each, one from the end of the cylinder, ilotfinSreservoir of water, and stand near to the bottom, i he Jacliincs. and the other from the cavity H. Each of the ca- pipe N is inserted into the bottom, which is now vities m and n communicate with the body of the cy- uppermost; the height of the water in the reservoir linder by the holes hh in the dividing planes. The must be equal to giving the required pressure to the cavity I has no division, as it receives the air from both sets of exit valves, which escapes at the pipe When the air is forced into the inverted vessel by p the machiner, the water descends in this, and rises The axis av works within the axis ab and cd, and in the reservoir, which now gives a pressure to the is rendered air-tight by a stuffing-box within the continued air equal to the difterence oi the height latter. This axis will have the effect of remaining of the water in the inverted vessel and the reservoir at rest, while the cylinder is in motion, there being The surface of the reservoir should be the greatest no other force exerted to turn it than the friction ot possible, in order that it may be raised in the least the stuffing-box. The use of this axis is to support degree by the water which comes from the mvei e and turn a swing valve MV, which is made of rolled vessel, which will have the effect of keeping the blast iron, strengthened by ribs connected with the axis. more uniform. f This valve is a plane, which would, exactly sweep The water regulator is certainly the best ioi the interior surface of the cylinder without touching smiths’ bellows, for refinaries, forges, and perhaps it If the axis vx be held fast, the valve will retain the common melting furnace, but they have been its perpendicular position, while the cylinder per- found very objectionable in the blowing o large forms its vibrating motion. The water would also re- blast-furnaces. The air in the common blowingmain at rest, with the exception of the motion which engine, which has been already described under its friction and the compression of the air occasions. Pneumatics in the Encyclopedia, undergoes a When the machine moves from D (fig. 3.), till tne great increase of temperature, during lts PassaS^ plane DC comes very near to the surface of the wa- through the machine, often as much as 40 or 50 ter tos the valves qq open, and a volume of air equal degrees. The heated air has the effect of carryto the space DCS will be expelled through the ca- ing a greater quantity of water along with it into vity I (fig. 1.), along the pipe P, during the time the the furnace, which destroys a larger quantity ot valves in the cavity m (fig. 2.) have opened to admit carbon than the same bulk of common air, withthe same volume of atmospheric air on the returning out producing an adequate portion of heat. A stroke. The point B is carried the contrary way, great part of the heat of the air is doubtless proby which another portion of air opens the valves tt duced by the friction of the piston of the blowing to pass through the pipe P, while the same vo- cylinder, which, in this construction, has a very tight lume of air from the atmosphere enters the cavi- wadding. In the blowing-machine above described, ty w, which in its turn is forced through the exit the water would doubtless be an objection in blastfurnaces, but, as its little friction would not heat the Va ThVuSe of the swing valve MV will now be ob- air like the common blowing cylinder used in blastvious. If it did not exist, every time the air was furnaces, the objection would be less fornudab e. compressed on one side, the water wmild be de- Air must doubtless give out some heat by its depressed on that side, and the coraPres1SIonti°nf ^ateJ crease of volume, just as it will absorb the heat by would be limited by the increased column of water rarification, as is experienced in exhausting the on the other side. This valve, however, prevents receiver of an air-pump. The converse of this is the water from immediately changing its situation, equally shown in the little instrument employed to no more escaping from one side of the valve to he kindle tinder by condensing the air within it. other than what can pass between the edges The heat by the friction of this piston, is probab y valve and the cylinder, which, in the ^rt space^ much more than by the condensation of the air; the one stroke, can be only a very small quantity. This latter is obviated in the machine above described, may be considered as a great improvement upon and in another blowing-machine lately introduced, of the^first machine, which we have before described. which we shall give a description. The patentee further intends occasionally g This machine, in its general appearance, does not this swing valve a contrary motion to that of he cy- seem to have any advantage over the common blowlinder and thus still more increase the blast. Ur, ing cylinder, but in practice it is found superior. g in the use of a very small blast, the valve may be It resembles in some degree the common smith s left at liberty, and merely prevent the too great agita- bellows of the Chinese, which consists of a squa tion of the water, which, in the original n^chine was wooden trunk, in the form of a parallopipedon. A considered as an objection. Iwo of th^e machmes board is made to fit its cross section, pretty nearly, are frequently used together, and worked by cranks to which is attached a long rod by which the bomd which make an angle of f The one to oc- is pushed backwards and forwards like a piston. At make the strong part of the blast o one end of the trunk is a valve opening inwards to adcur with the weak part of the °t er* precise- mit air, and at the same end is a pipe with a valve The rt-irt I of the exit pipe PL, must be precise OP TheUUcSdaSbove alluded to having ly l the centre of motion. The part L «rka >n a .tnffimr Dart or a ground socket connected with the blance to this, is the invention of a Mr Vaugtia , The latter should communicate with a who has fitted up several of them for to under ies, and regulator which the patentee does "ct describe, but which m much approved. The writer ot this 3 recommends one of water. This may

3,50 33 L 0 Wowing- tide has taken a drawing from one of these machines ^ac lines, employed to melt Cast-iron at the Phcenix Foundry in Sheffield. Figs. 6. and 7. are two views of the machine. ABCD is a square box formed of pieces of cast metal, screwed together by hinges. Two of these are placed side by side, as may be seen in the end view, fig. 7. MQ is a piston fitting the square box, which is drawn backward and forward by the rod EF, which works horizontally on the wheels tur by the spear G, which communicates with the crank of a wheel at a distance. The piston MQ, which is the most ingenious part of this machine, is enlarged in fig. 8. to render it clearer. The body of the piston is a cast-iron plate about one-half inch thick, with a socket in the middle to receive the rod. The diameter of this plate is about one-fourth of an inch less than that of the box. Two pieces of wood, v n, are cut diagonally, in order to place the pieces of leather, 11, between them. These leathers, with the wood, are firmly fastened to the plate by bolts, such as o- h. This leather extends about two inches beyond the wood : their slight elasticity keeps them iii contact with the metallic surface, which is not required to be very smooth. When the piston moves towards the end of the box, towards which the leather projects, the leather claps close to the surface, rendering it air-tight, while the leather on the other side of the piston becomes loose, and has no friction. These leathers will be contrarily acted upon, when the piston acts the contrary way. The projecting curved pipes, HI, form a communication between the box where the piston works, and the air-chest N. When the piston moves from B to D, the valves F and V open, while L and S are shut. The air contained in the box is now forced through the valve R into the chest N, and from thence along the blastpipe P. In the returning stroke, which is the whole length of the box, the valves R, V, and K, are shut, while L and S open. The air is forced through H to N, and then through P. Two of these work at the same time by two cranks, which cause one to be in full blast at the time the other is returning the stroke; so that, with due management, the four puffs produced by two * 'double strokes may be made to succeed each pther at equal intervals, which almost amounts to a steady blast. The inventor recommends four of these boxes all to work together, which would produce eight puffs in the time of one double stroke, which, if divided into equal intervals, would produce a sufficiently uniform blast for any purpose. When the leathers of the piston are rubbed with black lead, the friction almost amounts to nothing. The leather acts so easy to the surface, and is so flexible, that it may be very easily raised with the fingers. This could not be the case, if it were applied in the same way in a cylinder; and this is a sufficient reason for using the square box instead of the cylinder. This machine makes 70 strokes in one minute * the nose-pipe, where the blast enters the furnace,' is 2-J- inches in diameter. When the length of stroke

B L O is the greatest, at the above speed, it furnishes blowing. about 1200 cubic feet minute. Machines This machine steers clear of the objection of the li water, and, from its small friction, will have less Bo5alc"nd, tendency to heat the air. Its original cost is also less than any other machine yet constructed, in the situations where it has been adopted, it gives the highest satisfaction. The first construction of Street’s bellows, above described, was only fitted for some smiths’ fires, w here a very soft blast was required. In their improved state they may be employed for most purposes. All the calculations relative to bellows will be easily made, by the following rules and formula : First, get the space or capacity formed by one stroke of the machine, call this c, cubic feet. Then get the number of strokes jser minute, which call n. The area of the nose-pipe, in feet, call (a), d lie piessure on the air to be discharged, whether by a column of water or by a weight, call p. v— the velocity which the air escapes with. . r— the resistance, in pounds, wdiich the blast will give. Then cn —q the quantity discharged in one minute ; and v ——— in one minute, or - for « 60 a one second. Then since the resistance is equal to a column of the fluid of the area a, and twice the height to give the velocity,

— p.

The weight of 14

cubic feet of air being equal to 1 lb. The energy of air in blowing fires, is as the quantity, and inversely as the space it occupies. For if the same quantity of air be consumed in half the space, the intensity of the heat, or the temperature of that particular place, will be double. Hence it is found, that the same quantity of air, by weight, in winter, will produce a greater effect on a blastfurnace than in summer, merely from the difference of density. The great difference in produce of iron m the cold and hot seasons of the year, is a fact notorious with iron masters. /T>) BOGALCUND, a district of the province of General Gundwana m Hindostan, in the 25th degree of north ileacriptiou. latitude, and 82d of east longitude ; bounded on the west by the British possessions in Bundelcund; on the east by the small territory of Manwas ; and watered by the rivers Soane, Bichanuddy, and Behennuddy. The exact dimensions of this country, so far as we know, are not ascertained, but they appear to be considerable. Part of at is fertile and well cultivated ; the chief crops are wheat, barley, and different kinds of pease, all in tolerable quantity ; nevertheless, very little grain, exceeding their own necessities, is raised by the natives, they have also numerous herds of black-cattle, and large flocks of sheep. I he whole surface is traversed by good roads. Its access from Allahabad, to which it was annexed by Aurengzebe, is by a pass called Sohagee Ghaut, long, steep, and difficult, having at its extremity a redoubt m a strong position. From hence Bogalcund appears

BLOWING MACHINE S.

PLATE XXXV. Fv-l-

BOG I .alcimd- like a great table and, without any descent, and the traveller is conducted by a good road to the capital. ] abitants. Gundwana is inhabited by various tribes, who seem to receive the generic name of Goands. Their manners and civilization are different, and in various stages of advancement; some, particularly the mountaineers, are rude and savage. They go almost naked, if not entirely so; practise gross superstitions ; and dwell in villages consisting of a few huts in places almost inaccessible. But those in the lower and fertile parts of the country are more cultivated, and sufficiently courteous to strangers. The inhabitants of Bogalcund are called Bogals, Bogheleis, or Boghels, synonymes used indifferently; but it is not evident whether they should be considered a distinct race from the Goands of Gundwana. They are reported to have migrated hither from Guzerat many centuries ago, and gradually enlarging their confines by an encroachment on those of their neighbours, expelled a tribe of mountaineers from Shewah, which their chief was induced, by the excellence of its situation, to select for his own residence. It is not unlikely they are of Tartar origin. As this is one of the northern countx-ies of India, whose history and statistics are extremely obscure, very little can be said of the manners, customs, and conditions of its inhabitants. They consist of five different tribes, acknowledging the same government, but without admitting an equal control, or paying the like obedience to it. Part, or the whole, profess the Mahometan religion, and many temples are to be seen in the territory. Three of the tribes follow a practice, too general in the east, of destroying their infant daughters, which must inevitably restrict the population. The Bogals are skilful in agriculture ; and they have many fine tanks, or artificial ponds, conveniences of greater importance in India, and of infinitely greater size than Europeans are wont to conceive. These are generally situate on a declivity, three sides being built up with much art and labour, and the fourth serving as a natural embankment. The agricultural skill of the inhabitants results, in a great measure, from the nature of the government. Here the feudal system prevails, and many of the lands are held by military tenure. The forces have no pay, but, in lieu of it, certain lands are assigned for their subsistence. Their influence is thence very great, and there is not an officer among them without one or two villages for his support. The country is thus partitioned among innumerable feudatories, who find it their interest to promote agriculture in order to provide more amply for their own subsistence. It is common with the peasantry to change T their abode at intervals of three or four years, for the purpose of tilling the ground whereon their cottages stood. The traces of villages recently abandoned are, therefore, frequently to be seen, and would indicate declining prosperity, did not their renewal in other places, as often presented to view, prove the reverse. . ,. , . The chief town of Bogalcund is Rewah, which is large and populous. It is situate on the small river

BOG

351

Bichanuddy, rising twenty miles to the east, and joined by the Behanuddy just above the town. The united stream runs immediately under a large fort in the capital, which includes the houses of the most wealthy and respectable inhabitants, and where the Rajah resides. In the neighbourhood are some memorials of the slain, who lately fell in a great battle, wherein the Bogals w^ere victorious against an invadipo' enemy. Rewah stands in lat- 2T 37 north, and 81° 25' east longitude ; distant 126 miles north-east of Benares. This district is under the government of an inde- Governpendent Rajah, who is said to be the Maher-Rajah, ment. or sovereign of several neighbouring territories; and although the Rajah of Bundelcund is himself quite independent, and infinitely the more powerful of the two, it is necessary for him to be invested by the Rajah of Bogalcund, wherein we find another analogy to feudal principles. His revenues are very small, principally owning to the subdivisions ot the district; for it has sometimes excited astonishment that the sovereign of so fertile a territory should be so poor. He receives an inconsiderable tribute from the Rajahs acknowledging his superiority, land-rents, and customs on merchandise passing through the caAli Bahauder, a Mahratta chief who holds a powerful command in the army of the Peshwa, oi Head of the nation, threatened Bogalcund with invasion about the year 1794 or 1795, to levy contributions from the Rajah, which he was little enabled to afford. But he was beloved by his subjects, and Ali Bahauder having put his menaces in execution, he raised an army of about 3000 men to oppose him. The enemy advanced with 6000 men, carrying every thing in his course, until arriving within two miles of the capital. rlhere he was encountered, and totally defeated by the Rajah, with the loss of his General and his cannon. The invader vowed to revenge the destruction of this army, and the death of his General. He again collected a powerful force, and invaded Bogalcund a second time, in the year 1795; but the Rajah, then aged and incapable of the exertion necessary to resist so active an enemy, puichased peace by concessions. Either at this time or previously, he engaged to pay Ali Bahauder L. 14,500 Sterling,—a stipulation which he proved totally unable to perform, and a neighbouring Rajah, wdio had become security for the payment, r and required hostages lor bis indemnification, afteiw ards obtained the cession of a valuable district in Bogalcund, probably from having been obliged to fulfil bis part of the engagement. But this was not the only calamity; for a supervening scarcity in the succeeding season followed the depredations of Ah Bahauder’s troops. The natural fertility of the soil, however, and importation of various commodities from Misapour, contributed to relieve the inhabitants, and the country began to recover speedily from the disasters it had been exposed to. Nevertheless, its dismemberment, at no distant period, was anticipated, from the growing poverty and declining power of the Rajah, though the nature of the soil, and the state of agriculture, were both sufi*-

352 BOG Bogalcmid ficient to support a numerous population. le

n uence

ie

Former-

Bohaddin ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Rajahs of Bogalcund was vvery considerable in Indian affairs, and they have been known to afford an asylum to powerful Princes, whom temporary adversity exiled from their own dominions. Here the illustrious Emperor of the Moguls, Ackber, was born in the year 1542. On occasion of a usurpation of the empire, his father, Plumayoon, retired from Delhi; and his mother, when -pregnant, was, for greater security, sent to a strong fortress, where, tradition reports, she was almost immediately taken in labour. But the Astrologers of the day having previously determined that future felicity would attend the child who should be born at a certain moment, she was suspended, during two hours, by the legs, in order to retard the period of delivery, and then being taken down, the great Ackber saw the light. More recently, when his descendant, Shah Aulum, was dispossessed of the throne of Delhi, in the course of last century, by tbe invasion of another potentate, he sought refuge with Ajet Sing, the Rajah, of whom we have already spoke; and here, also, between the years 1750 and 1760, one of his wives was delivered of a prince, whom she called Ackber, in commemoration of his ancestor, and who lately survived at the capital, Delhi, which was restored to him. But the future greatness of the latter Prince being of less importance, his mother probably escaped the cruel experiment to which the parent of Ackber was subjected. (s.) BOHADDIN, or, more properly, Boh-a-Eddyn, an eminent Arabian Writer and Statesman ; is better known in the East under the appellation of IbnSjeddad, the son of SjeddacL He was born at Mossul, in the year 539 of the Hegira. (1145 A. D.) He early became eminent in the study of the Koran, and of the traditions and controversies founded on it, as well as that of Jurisprudence. At twenty-seven, he obtained the place of Repeater or Lecturer at Bagdad; and, soon after, a Professor’s chair, in a College, founded at Mossul. In 1187> he made the pilgrimage to Mecca, and then proceeded to visit Jerusalem and Hebron. In passing through Damascus, he was sent for by Saladin, who was then employed in the siege of Kancab. The Sultan seems to have been pleased with the interview; and, his Secretary Omad-Eddyn-Isfahamy, a man of great learning and eloquence, advised him, after completing his pilgrimage, to present himself again before Saladin. Our author had observed, as he himself mentions (Vita Saladini, ch. v.), that the whole soul of the Monarch was engrossed by the war which he was then waging against the enemies of the faith ; and, that the only mode of acquiring his favour was, by urging him to its vigorous prosecution. He, therefore, composed a treatise on the Lam and Discipline of Sacred War; * and made a collection, of all the passages in the Koran and the books of traditions, in which, the extermination of infidels was recommended and enforced. This work, on his return, he presented to Saladin, who received both it and the author with peculiar favour. Bohaddin, from this time, remain-

B O H ed constantly attached to the person of the Sultan, Bohaddin. and was employed in various important embassies and departments of civil government. That Prince seems also to have sought, by the friendship of so eminent a doctor, to exalt the reputation for sanctity, of which he was extremely ambitious. Often while riding through the ranks, Bohaddin rode by his side, and read to him passages out of the Koran or its interpreters, to which Saladin lent more apparent attention than to the arrangements of the army. Our author was now appointed to two important posts; those of Judge of the Army, and Judge of Jerusalem. In this latter capacity, an incident occurred, which he adduces to prove the impartial justice exercised by the Sultan. A merchant presented himself at the tribunal of Bohaddin, and complained, that he had been unjustly deprived of a large sum of money. On being asked the author of the injury, he replied, “ the Sultan himself.” Here the Judge deemed it expedient to suspend proceedings, until the case was laid before the royal defendant. Saladin, on learning the circumstances, denied the truth of the charge ; but said, that the man should have justice. Accordingly, he was introduced into his presence; the Sultan descending from his throne, placed himself in the posture of a defendant; and each pleaded his own cause before Bohaddin. The latter decided (on just grounds as he alleges) in favour of Saladin; and even hinted, that the temerity of the plaintiff merited some portion of chastisement. The Sultan, however, dismissed the person not only unpunished, but with the present of a handsome robe, and a large sum of money. Bohaddin continued in favour with Saladin during the whole of that Monarch’s life, and boasts, that he often obtained ready admission, while the principal officers and generals were waiting in vain for an audience. After the Sultan’s death, he was active in securing the throne to his son, Melik-al-Dhaker. That prince created him Cadhi of his capital, Aleppo, which gave Bohaddin an opportunity of founding in that city a College, of which he himself was the principal Professor. Under his auspices, the sciences, which had greatly declined in Aleppo, soon rase to more than their former lustre. Melik-al-Dhaker dying, left his son, Melik-al-Aziz, a minor, and Bohaddin obtained the principal sway in the Regency. This gave him an opportunity of introducing learned men at court, and loading them with honours. As the prince, however, approached to manhood, he attached himself to more youthful counsellors; Bohaddin, then, though he still retained his offices, found it expedient to retire from court, and devote himself entirely to the pursuits of learning. Even after he was unable to go to college, he continued to give lectures in his own house ; and he persevered in these learned labours till the age of ninety, when he died, on the 29th October 1235. (Hegira 633.) Bohaddin wrote sevei’al works on Jurisprudence and Moslem Divinity ; but, the only one that can be interesting to us is his Life and Actions of Saladin ; which, with several other pieces connected with the

BOM Bohaddin same subject, was published by Albert Schultens, at II Leyden, in 1732, accompanied by a somewhat inom ay. ejegant Latin translation; also by notes, and a ^^'Geographical Index. This work aiFords a favourable specimen of the historical compositions of the Arabs. Neither Bohaddin, however, nor any of his contemporaries, can enter into competition with those great historians, who have adorned the better ages of European literature. They display no philosophical views nor accurate discrimination of character; but confine themselves chiefly to a mere chronological record of events. The work of Bohaddin is written with some spirit; and, at the same time, is free from that verbose and empty inflation which deforms the composition of some of his contemporaries. Whatever relates to Saladin, breathes, of course, the highest tone of panegyric; yet, the enthusiasm with which every thing about him is narrated, and the anecdotes which the author, from his own personal knowledge, is able to communicate respecting that extraordinary character, give his work a great degree of interest, (b.) BOMBAY. The account of Bombay in the Encyclopeedia, contains several interesting particulars relative to its soil, climate, and the manners of its inhabitants, and we propose, in the present article, to add such farther information as we have collected from the works of recent observers. Bland. The Island of Bombay, which is the seat of Government for the western part of India, is situate in lat. 18° 36' N. and Ion. 72° 56' E. Its length, from north to south, is 6| miles, and its breadth, near the fort, is about a mile. It is separated from the mainland by an arm of the sea, and it forms, in conjunction with the adjacent islands of Colabah, Salsette, Butcher’s Island, Elephanta, and Caranjah, a large, commodious, and well sheltered harbour. The north side of the harbour is partly formed by the Island of Colabah, which is separated from Bombay by a small creek, fordable at low water, and is about 2^ miles long. Near its southern extremity stands the light'house,—a building of a circular form, rising from the sea to the height of 150 feet, and shewing its light at the distance of 21 miles. The Island of Salsette, which is about 20 miles long and 15 broad, is separated from Bombay by a narrow arm of the sea. Over this strait a causeway was constructed in 1805, which, by improving the communication with the mainland, is of infinite service to the surrounding country, with the produce of which Bombay is supplied ; but it is said to have had a prejudicial effect on the harbour. Butcher’s Island is nearly opposite to Bombay Castle, at the distance of three miles; and about two miles from this, and still fronting the fort, is the inconsiderable, but celebrated, Island of Elephanta. The two small Islands of Henery and Kenery, lie at the entrance of the harbour. Town of The town of Bombay is nearly a mile in length, Bombay, from the Apollo Gate to that of the Bazar, and about a quarter of a mile broad in the widest part, from the Custom-house across the green to Church Gate, which is nearly in the centre, between the Apollo and the Bazar Gates. There are likewise two gates towards the eea, having commodious VOL. II. PART II.

B A Y. 353 wharfs, and cranes built out from each, with a land- Bombay, ing-place for passengers. Between these gates is Bombay Castle,—a regular quadrangle, built of hard and durable stone, and having the advantage, in one of the bastions, of a large reservoir of water. The fortifications are numerous, and they have been improved in proportion as the place has risen into greater importance from its increasing trade. They have lately received a considerable accession of strength from Dunganee Hill, which commanded the town, having been included within the fort; and towards the sea they are extremely strong, the harbour being completely commanded by ranges of batteries placed one above another. But on the land side, its means of resistance are not so formidable ; nor is this of much moment, as an enemy once landed, would find no difficulty in possessing himself of the place. A bombardment would, in a few hours, lay the town in ashes; and were the houses, which are lofty and made of combustible materials, once on fire, the troops could no longer preserve their station on the ramparts. Indeed, it is probable, that the destruction of the magazines would be the consequence of the conflagration of the adjacent buildings. In the centre of the towm is a large open space, called the Green, around which are many large and well-built handsome houses; Here is also the church, which has an extremely neat and light appearance ; and, on the left of the church-gate is the Government-house, which is a showy edifice, but liable to the inconvenience of having the largest apartments in both floors a passage-room to the others. On the right of the church-gate is the Bazar, which is crowded and populous. Here the native merchants reside, and at the entrance to the street stands the Theatre, which is a handsome building. In the year 1803, this part of the town was greatly injured by a destructive fire, which destroyed nearly three-fourths of the Bazar, together with the barracks, customhouse, and many other public buildings, besides property of immense value belonging to native merchants. The flames spread with such rapidity, that the magazine was endangered ; and, in order to preserve the town from total destruction, many houses in the neighbourhood of the castle were battered down with artillery. Since this period, the town has been rebuilt on an improved plan, at the expence of the Company. Bombay is the only principal settlement in India Docks and where the rise of the tides is sufficient to admit the Ship-build, construction of docks on a great scale. The highestin8, spring tides rise to the height of 17 feet, and the height of the ordinary tides is 14 feet. Inconsequence of these natural advantages, the dry-dock of Bombay has scarce its equal for size and convenience; having three divisions, with a pair of strong gates to each, so that it is capable of receiving three ships of the line at the same time. Near this dock is a convenient place to heave down several ships at once, and this operation is well executed, and with great expedition, by the Persees, who are generally accounted excellent ship-carpenters. Here is an excellent rope-walk, equal to any in England, with the exception of the King’s yard at Portsmouth,

B 0 M B A Y. k where cables and all sorts of lesser cordage are ma- Bengal and Madras, who, having adopted a differ- Bombay, nufactured. It has also a covering, to protect the ent method of cleaning their cotton, have sold it to workmen from the heat or inclemency of the wea- greater advantage in the market of Canton than the ther. The dock-yard is large and well contrived, merchants of Bombay ; and unless the latter adopt having ample supplies of naval stores deposited in the same method of preparing their commodity, it is the warehouses, together with large quantities of probable that this lucrative branch of trade will decline. timber, for repairing and building ships, and for- It is about thirty-five or forty years since the cottonges for all kinds of smith’s work. With all these trade from Bombay to China was first established. Afe advantages, Bombay claims a distinguished rank that period, a great scarcity of provisions having ocas a naval arsenal, and within these few years curred in China, the cultivation of cotton was remany merchant ships of from 600 to 1300 tons, stricted by an edict of the government, and grain partly for the country trad'e and partly for the ser- was ordered to be raised in its stead. Hence a great vice of the Company, have been built in its docks, demand arose in the Chinese market for cotton» which, in beauty of construction, good workmanship, which has continued ever since to increase. But and durability, are superior to any other class of the general inattention of the Bombay merchants to merchant ships in the world. Bombay is the only the quality of the commodity, and the many frauds port in any of the British possessions out of Europe which have been practised upon the Chinese, have at which a ship of the line was ever built; and it de- induced them to resume the cultivation of cotton, serves to be recorded that the Minden, a 74 gun- for the purpose of having wfithin themselves the neship, was launched from its dock-yards in 1810. It cessary supply of this useful article. On this account has also added several frigates to the British navy. the demand from China may be rather considered as All these vessels are built of Malabar teak, which is precarious. In stowing and packing the cotton, great esteemed superior to any in India. Lhe deak foiests, dexterity is displayed. It is pressed down by means from which supplies of wood are derived, lie along of a screw, worked by a capstan, to each.bar of which the western side of the Ghaut mountains, and other there are 30 men, amounting on the whole to 240 to contiguous ridges on the north and east of Basseen ; each screw. Hemp is packed in the same manner, the numerous streams which descend from them af- but it requires to be carefully laid in the press; its fording water-carriage for the timber. The docks fibres being liable to be broken if they are bent. Bombay carries on a considerable trade with Eubelong to the Company, and the King’s ships pay a monthly rent for repairs. They are entirely occu- rope, and with different parts of America. The impied by Persees, who are esteemed remarkably skil- ports from Europe are principally articles for the ful and assiduous. Bombay, thus possessing, in use of the natives and Europeans; consisting mostly the skill of its workmen, the excellence of its tim- of the finer articles of European manufacture ; the ber, and the superiority of its docks, all that is ne- produce of other countries for re-exportation, piece cessary for a naval arsenal, may be considered as a goods, and treasure. The value of goods importstation of the first importance to the British power ed from London, from May 1811 to April 1812, was 20,58,942 rupees, equal to L. 231,630. The vain India. lue of the following exports to London, during Cfemmerce. From its position, Bombay commands an extensive the same period, was 15,37,800 rupees, equal to commerce with the countries situate in the Persian and Arabian gulfs, and with the western coast of L. 173,000, viz. India. It carries on, also, a valuable t^ade with the Sicca Rupees* eastern parts of India, the Islands in the eastern Sarat manufactures 3,183 ocean, and with China. Of the trade with C hina, Produce of Madeira 39,880 the staple commodity is cotton-wool. I he other ar15,834 Mozambique ticles consist of sandal-wood and pepper, the produce 62,957 — Bengal of Malabar and other adjacent countries ; gum-S 54,142 — Penang and Eastwards drugs, and pearls, from Arabia, Abyssinia, and Per81,169 — Malabar and Canara sia ; elephants’ teeth, cornelians, and other produce 14,678 . — Persian Gulf of Cambay ; sharks’ fins, birds’ nests, and other 4,01,603 — Arabian Gulf articles from the Maidive and Lackadive Islands. 12,683 — Cashmere The ships generally arrive at Canton in June or 49,450 — Gujrat July, and lie there until December or January. 1,10,650 — Piece-goods In 1808, the quantity of cotton brought to Bombay for re-exportation amounted to 85,000 bales, of 375 9,41,282 pounds each, which is partly procured from the Treasure 5,89,018 country on the Nerbuddah, and from Gujrat and Horses 7,500 Cutch. The quantity, however, is not usually so large; and in this trade, Bombay has been late15,37,800* ly rivalled by the competition of the merchants of

* A Lack is 100,000, which, at 2s. 3d. per rupee, is L.50,000 Sterling. When any sum amounts to more than^OO 000 rupees, the usual mode of numeration is to divide the lacks from the remaining part of the sum thus, 15,37%0, which is 15 lacks, thirty-seven thousand eight hundred rupees.

BOMBAY, Bombay.

The following is a Table of the estimated Value in Rupees of the Exports and Imports to and from other places. Imports. Sicca Rupees. From Madeira 70,360 From Brasils (of which there was treasure to the amount of 13,57,650) 15,18,400 From the Isle of France, of which cloves composed two-thirds 5,34,183 From China, consisting of articles for the use of the natives and Europeans, manufactures, piece-goods, treasure 40,64,654 From Manilla, half of which consisted of sugar 2,29,350 From Pegu From Prince of Wales Island, and the Islands to the Eastward 4,99,886 From Bengal, consisting of raw silk, piecegoods, sugar, groceries, grain 27,70,051 From the Coast of Coromandel 80,771 From Ceylon * 1,14,331 From Malabar and Canara, grain, manufactures, piece-goods 30,01,139

To Brasils To the Isle of France To China To Manilla To Pegu

Sicca Rupees, 43,334 2,63,403 57,17,522 78,837 6,458

To Prince of Wales Island

7,54,560

To Bengal To Coast of Coromandel To Ceylon

4,25,615 1,87,464 67,048

From Cutch and Sinde 3,26,668. From Persian'Gulf, grain, manufactures, piece-goods, treasure, horses 21,40,740 From Arabian Gulf, merchandise, treasure, horses 9>44,292 From East coast of Africa 1,37,386 From Surat, grain, manufactures, piecegoods, treasure • 10,30,336 From Gujrat, &c. piece-goods, treasure, 51,11,636 The whole value of the imports for 1811-12, amounted to 16,970,626 Treasure * 3,737,084 Horses 239 875 20,947,585

To Malabar 17,66,193 To Goa and Concan, consisting generally of the produce imported from other countries 51,29,222 To Bassein, &c. 2,96,179 To Cutch and Sinde, consisting chiefly of Chinese goods - ■ 11,11,227 To the Persian Gulf, merchandise imported from other countries 19,48,205 To the Arabian Gulf, merchandise and European goods 3,64,731 To the East coast of Africa 46,449 To Surat, manufactures of other countries, treasure 19,07,032 To Gujrat 39,53,572 The whole value of exports, for 1811-12, Merchandise 14,550,642 Treasure 3,027,963 Horses 229,473 Rupees 17,808,100

In pounds Sterling, these imports amount to L.2,356,603

In pounds Sterling, these exports amount to L.2,003,411

Bombay is estimated to contain 220,000 inhabitants, of whom nearly three-fourths are Hindoos. The other fourth is composed of persons from almost every Asiatic nation. The number of Persees is estimated at 8000, there is nearly the same number of Mahometans, and there are 4000 Jews. The Portuguese are also to be found in considerable numbers. The Persees rank next to the Europeans, and carry on, many of them, extensive commercial transactions. They are the brokers and factors of Europeans, and have a concern in most of the foreign speculations of European mercantile houses. They are a rich, industrious, and active body of men, and contribute greatly to , he prosperity of the settlement, and are treated by the government with great favour and indulgence. For the protection which they enjoy, they are exceedingly grateful, and openly express their conviction that they could not

obtain the same advantages in any other part of the East. They are the descendants of the ancient Persians, who fled from the persecution of Shah Abbas in the sixteenth century, when he expelled the worshippers of fire from his dominions, and compelled them to seek an asylum in other countries. The Persees at Bombay appear to be quite domesticated in their new residence, in which they have purchased valuable properties. Besides the Persees, many considerable Portuguese, American, and Hindoo merchants reside at Bombay, who have acquired valuable property, and have the reputation of great integrity. There are likewise some Bonah merchants, or Mahometan Jews, who carry on a great trade with Guzzerat, and other places to the northward. All those different classes of inhabitants live happily together, and enjoy great prosperity under the mild and equitable rule of the British government.

From Goa and the Concan, grain, manufactures, piece-goods 20,40,364 From Bassein and adjacent villages 3,63,682

luhabitanls.

Exports#

355 Bombay.

B 0 M I? A Y. The Company's naval force at Bombay consists of they seem to be better adapted to the climate, and Hominy, fifteen fighting vessels, besides armed boats, advice- have the advantage of the most beautiful and picCompany’3 t,oatS) an(l other craft; and to man this navy, a re- turesque views ; the Island of Bombay being broken v ,val gular establishment of officers and seamen is main- by several beautiful hills, either covered with cocoa^0rCe’ tained. The western coast of India, from the shores nut tree groves, or villas of the inhabitants. I he of the Persian Gulf to Goa, is infested by swarms of only English church in Bombay is in the fort. There pirates, who are distinguished, particularly those in are numbers of Portuguese and Armenian churches the northerly tracks, by courage, address, and by both within and without the walls, and there are three habits of extreme ferocity. It is to protect the or four synagogues, with many temples and mosques. Bombay, from its situation, might he supposed to climate, country trade against the depredations of these banbe healthy, but this is said not to be the case; the ditti, who have haunted those seas since the time of Alexander the Great, that the Company finds it ne- liver complaint being more fatal and frequent here cessary to maintain this naval force. Out of 104 than in any part of India. A land breeze sets in every evening, which is described as being peculiarmarine covenanted servants of the Company, Bombay ly noxious, and is frequently followed by a fever, employs 93.. „ . ~ and by a loss of the use of the limbs. I his breeze Annv. In 1811, the regular army of the Company at Bombay, including all descriptions of force, amount- is mentioned by Lord Valentia, to have been chilcold at the time he visited Bombay. But he ed to 20,988 men. The officers amounted in num- lingly attributes its deleterious effects not merely to this ber to 549, and their pay and allowances to cause, but to the noxious vapours with which it is L. 171,450. In the same year, the civil servants tainted in its passage over the rank vegetation which of the Company on the Bombay establishment, amounted to^ and their pay and allowances to springs up in the marshy parts of the hay immediately after the rains. Moderate living affords the L. 174,238. Productions 'phg Island of Bombay scarcely produces any ar- best security for health; the extremes of intempeof the ticles of food, which have to be imported from va- rance and over abstemiousness being equally injurious. The travelling distance from Bombay to Calcutta Distance rious parts of India, and which are consequently 1300 miles; to Delhi 965 ; to Hyderabad 480; to clliet from cother much dearer here than in the other presidenctes. is Madras 770; to Poonah 98 ; to Seringapatam 620 ; ‘liesConsiderable quantities of rice and other grain are and to Surat 177 miles. annually imported. The prices are continually flueBombay was first settled by the Portuguese, to History and tuating, from the state of the market, which is under the superintendence of the police. Potatoes, which, whom it was ceded in 1530; having been before de-Settlement, though recently introduced, are now produced in pendent on one of the native chiefs. In l66l, it the greatest abundance in this quarter of India, are was ceded by the Crown of Portugal in full sovebrought to the Bombay market from Gujrat, from reignty to Charles II. by the treaty ot marriage conwhich also is procured cheese, which is hard and cluded with that power, when he espoused the Inill flavoured. The only vegetable for which Bom- fanta. In order to take advantage of this acquisition, bay is celebrated is the onion, which is esteemed and to make it a profitable dependence on the Crown, excellent. All other vegetables are scarce and dear. a fleet was dispatched under the command of the The Bazar mutton is, when well fed, thought to Earl of Marlborough in 1662, to receive formal possession of the Island and its dependencies. Some be as good as the English. Kid is always good, and doubts arising, however, as to the construction of there is abundance of poultry, which is^ not^ good, however, unless it is fed on purpose. The fish are the treaty, the Viceroy refused to surrender the excellent, but those of a larger size are not plenti- Island, on which the Earl of Marlborough returned ful. The prawns are uncommonly fine ; and though to Europe, after having left the troops, amounting 500 men, in the Island, where most of them died. the Island is too small to furnish great abundance of to In 1664 a treaty was concluded by this nobleman’s game, the red-legged partridge is not uncommon, successor with the Viceroy of Goa, in which the and snipes are sometimes seen. The frogs heie are former renounced all pretensions to the dependencies large, and are sometimes eaten by the Chinese and of Bombay, and accepted of the cession of the Portuguese. _ , , Island alone, which the English accordingly received A court of justice is held at Bombay by a in 1665; the troops who had survived the ravages 3 B VOL. II. PART II.

378 B O T ANY. Botany, of another illustrious disciple of Linnaeus, the cele- that it is notorious they could not generally be ap- Botany, brated Thunberg, who has, now for many years, plied to practice by Fabricius himself, he having, in filled the professorial chair of his master, with credit the common course of his studies, been chiefly reto himself and advantage to every branch of natural gulated by the external appearance of the insects he science. The rare opportunity of examining the described. This external appearance, depending on plants of Japan, and of studying at leisure the nume- the form and texture of their wings, and the shape rous and beautiful productions of the Cape of Good of their own peculiar organs, the antennae, affords Hope, as well as of some parts of India, have thrown in fact the easiest, as well as the most natural, clue in the way of Professor Thunberg a greater number to their arrangement and discrimination. As we presume to criticise the systematic errors of genera, if not species of plants, than has fallen to the lot of most learned botanists; except only those of great practical observers, it cannot but occur to who have gone round the world, or beheld the novel our recollection how very few persons have excelled scenes of New Holland. These treasures he has in both these departments. Ray, Linnaeus, and percontemplated and illustrated with great advantage, haps Tournefort, may be allowed this distinction. so far as he has confined himself to practical botany. We can scarcely add a fourth name to this brief caWe lament that he ever stepped aside to attempt talogue. The most excellent practical botanists of any reformation of an artificial system. It is painful the Linnaean schoql have been such as hardly beto complain of the well-meant, though mistaken en- stowed a thought on the framing of systems. Such deavours of so amiable and candid a veteran in our was the distinguished Solander, who rivalled his prefavourite science; but what we conceive to be the ceptor in acuteness of discrimination, and even in interests of that science must form our apology. We precision and elegance of definition. Such is another cannot but be convinced, and the experience of eminent man, more extensively conversant with others is on our side, that discarding those principles plants, more accurate in distinguishing, and more of the Linnaean system which are derived from the ready in recollecting them, than almost any other situation of the several organs of impregnation, and person with whom we have associated. Yet vve making number paramount, has the most pernicious have heard this great botanist declare, that however and inconvenient effect in most respects, without he might confide in his own judgment with regard to being advantageous in any. This measure neither a species, or a genus of plants, he pretended to form renders the system more easy, nor more natural, but no opinion of classes and orders. Men of so much for the most part the reverse of both. W e have experience know too much, to be satisfied with their elsewhere observed, {Introduction to Botany, ed. 3. acquirements, or to draw extensive conclusions from 358,) that the amentaceous plants are of all others what they think insufficient premises. Others, with most uncertain in the number of their stamens, of a quarter of their knowledge, find no difficulty in which Linnaeus could not but be aware. “ Even building systems, and proceed with great alacrity, the species of the same genus, as well as individuals till they find themselves encumbered with their own of each species, differ among themselves. How un- rubbish ; happy if their doubts and uncertainties will wise and unscientific then is it, to take as a primary afford them a tolerable screen or shelter ! But we mark of discrimination, what nature has evidently here anticipate remarks, which will come with more made of less consequence here than in any other propriety hereafter. We return from the considercase!” When such plants are, in the first place, sfet ation of the labours of particular botanists, to that apart and distinguished, by their monoecious or dioe- of the diversities of nature and circumstance. While it is remarked that in the cold regions of cious structure, which is liable to so little objection or difficulty, their uncertainty with respect to the the north, the skill of the deep and learned botanist secondary character is of little moment; their ge- is chiefly exercised on the minute and intricate crypnera being few, and the orders of each class widely togamic tribes, we are not to infer that Nature is not constructed as to number of stamens. Linnaeus, every where rich in beauty and variety. Mosses doubtless, would have been glad to have preserv- and Lichens afford inexhaustible amusement and ed, if possible, the uniformity and simplicity of his admiration to the curious inquirer, nor are more plan; but if he found it impracticable, who shall gorgeous productions entirely wanting. Even Lapcorrect him ? Such an attempt is too like the en- land boasts her Pedicularis Sceptrum, never seen tomological scheme of the otherwise ingenious and alive out of her limits, and Siberia offers her own able Fabrieius. The great preceptor having arrang- beautiful crimson Cypripedium, to console for a ed the larger tribes of animals by the organs with moment the miserable banished victims of Imperial which they take their various food, and which are caprice. Kotzebue, though ignorant of botany, did therefore accommodated to their several wants, and not pass this lovely plant unnoticed, even in the indicative of even their mental, as well as constitu- height of Ins distress. The authoress of the pleasing tional, characters, Eabricius his pupil would neces- little novel called “ Elizabeth,” has represented in a sarily extend this system to insects. But nothing just light the botanic scenery of that otherwise incan be more misapplied. Feeding is not the busi- hospitable country; yet it must be allowed that its ness of perfect insects. Many of them never eat rarities are not numerous, except perhaps in those at all, the business of their existence through the microscopic tribes already mentioned. Let us in imagination traverse the globe, to a New Ho!whole of their perfect state, being the propagation of their species. Hence the organs of their mouth country where the very reverse is the case. From lead to no natural distinctions, and the characters the representations, or accounts, that have been given deduced therefrom prove, moreover, so difficult, of New Holland, it seems no very beautiful or pie-

S79 BOTANY. Many. turesque country, such as is likely to form or to in- the labour and zeal of those who, by arduous journies Botany, spire a poet. Indeed the dregs of the community and painful researches, supply us with the riches of which we have poured out upon its shores, must every country in succession. We do not, indeed, enjoy probably subside, and purge themselves, before any them in perfection, but w;e can study and investithing like a poet, or a disinterested lover of nature, gate at leisure their various beauties and distinctions. can arise from so foul a source. There seems how- We can compare them w’ith our books, and profit by ever to be no transition of seasons, in the climate it- the acuteness of former observers. We can perpeself, to excite hope, or to expand the heart and tuate, by the help of the pencil or the pen, whatever fancy; like a Siberian or Alpine spring, bursting at is novel or curious. We can preserve the plants once from the icy fetters of a sublime though awful and flowers themselves for subsequent examination, winter. \et in New Holland all is new and wonder- and return to them again and again in our closet, ful to the botanist. The most common plants there when winter has fixed his seal on all the instruction are unlike every thing known before, and those and pleasure afforded by the vegetable creation which, at first sight, look like old acquaintances, abroad. Yet let not the sedentary botanist exult in are found, on a near approach, to be strangers, his riches, or rejoice too heedlessly in the abundance speaking a different language from what he has been of his resources. A plant gathered in its native used to, and not to be trusted without a minute in- soil, and ascertained by methodical examination, is quiry at every step. more impressed on the memory, as well as more je of The botany of the Cape of Good Hope, so well dear to the imagination, than many that are acquired od Hope. illustrated by Thunberg, and with whose treasures he with ease, and named by tradition or report. The scattered a charm around the couch of the dying labours of its acquisition and determination enhance Linnaeus, most resembles that of New Holland. its value, and the accompaniments of delightful At least these countries agree in the hard, rigid, scenery, or pleasing society, are recollected, when dwarfish character of their plants. But the Cape difficulties and toils are forgotten. has the advantage in general beauty of flowers, as The western continent is, with respect to Botany, America. well as in a transition of seasons. After the dry almost a world in itself. There exists, indeed, a time of the year, when every thing but the Aloe general affinity between the plants of North Ameriand Mesembryanthemum tribes is burnt up, and ca and those of Europe, and many species of the during which innumerable bulbs are scattered by arctic regions, are the same in both ; but there are the winds and driving sands, over the face of the few common to the more temperate climates of each. country, the succeeding showers raise up a new and A considerable number communicated by Kalm to most beautiful progeny from those bulbs. The fa- Linnaeus, which the latter considered as identified milies of Ixia, Gladiolus, Iris, Antholyza, Oxalis, with certain well-known plants of our quarter of the and many others, then appear in all their splendour. world, prove, on more accurate examination, to be Some of them, the least gaudy, scent the evening corresponding, but distinct species. Instances ocair with an unrivalled perfume, whilst others dazzle cur in the genera of Carpinus, Corylus, Quercus, as the beholder with the most vivid scarlet or crimson well as in the Orchis tribe, and others. These points of resemblance are found mostly among the vegehues, as they welcome the morning sun. The lovely Floras of the Alps and the Tropics table productions of the eastern regions of North Ipine and ropical contend, perhaps most powerfully, for the admira- America. Mexico, and what little we know of the otany. tion of a botanist of taste, who is a genuine lover of intermediate space, abound with different and pecunature, without which feeling, in some degree of liar productions. So, in South America; Peru, perfection, even botany can but feebly charm. Of Guiana, Brasil, &c. have all their appropriate plants, r r one of these the writer can speak from experience ; of which w e know as j et enough to excite our curiosity, rather than to satisfy it. Whatever has hitherof the other only by report; but he has had frequent opportunities of remarking, that the greatest enthu- to been given to the world respecting American bosiasts in the science, have been alpine botanists. tany has had one considerable advantage. Each The expressions of Haller and Scopoli on this sub- Flora has been founded on the knowledge and exject go to the heart. The air, the climate, the perience of some one or more persons, long resident, charms of animal existence in its highest perfection, and in a manner naturalized, in the countries illusare associated with our delight in the beauty and trated. Those regions commonly comprehended under profusion of nature. In hot climates, the insupport- the name of North America, have afforded materials able languor, the difficulty of bodily exertion, the for the Flora Boreali-Americana of Michaux, and usual ill health, and the effects of unwholesome in- the more complete and correct Flora Americce Sepstead of salutary fatigue, are described as sufficient tentrionalis of Pursh. Michaux, Wangenheim, and to counterbalance even the pleasure which arises Marshall, have particularly illustrated the trees of from the boundless variety, and infinite beauty, of those countries. But all these works have been enthe creation around. The flowery trees of a tropi- riched by the communications and assistance of men cal forest raise themselves far above the human who had much more extensive and repeated opporgrasp. They must be felled before we can gather tunities of observation than their authors, except their blossoms. The insidious and mortal reptile Mr Marshall, could have. Such are the venerable twines among their boughs, and the venomous insect John Bartram, the Reverend Dr Muhlenberg, stings beneath their shade. We who enjoy the pro- Messrs Clayton, Walter, Lyon, &c. The Mexican ductions of these climates in peace and safety in our Flora has received, for a long course of years, the gardens, may well acknowledge our obligations to attention of the able and learned Mutis, who long

B O T A N Y. 380 Botany, corresponded with Linnaeus, and whose countrymen yet, as a first attempt, it deserves our thanks. In Botany, preparetl the sumptuous Flora Peruviana ; speaking of Indian botany, shall w?e withhold our ^ each of the authors of which has repeatedly tra- homage from that great and sublime genius Sir Wilversed, at various seasons,' the rich and interesting liam Jones ? who honoured this study with his cultiregions, whose botanical treasures make so splendid vation, and, like every thing else that he touched, reand novel an appearance in those volumes. Of fined, elevated, and elucidated it, with a beam of those treasures, we have still more to learn from the more than mortal radiance. No man was ever more unrivalled Humboldt. The French botanist Aublet, truly sensible of the charms of this innocent and eleafter having gained considerable experience in the gant pursuit ; and whenever he adverted to it, all Mauritius, resided for many years in Cayenne and the luminous illustrations of learning, and even the his pen. Guiana, for the purpose of studying the plants of magic graces of poetry, flowed from But we must extend our viewr beyond the utmost South Seas, those countries, of which his work, in four quarto volumes, gives so ample a history and representa- bounds of India, and of the then discovered world, to trace the steps of those adventurous circumnavigators tion. All the writers just named have been practical who sought out, not only new' plants, but new counbotanists. They have generally excelled in specnic tries, for botanical examination. The names of Banks discrimination, nor have they neglected the study of and Solander have, for nearly half a century, been generic distinctions. Any thing further they have in every body’s mouth. Their taste, their knowscarcely attempted. It is remarkable that they have ledge, their liberality, have diffused a charm and a all followed, not only the Linna^an principles of de- popularity over all their pursuits; and those who finition and nomenclature, but the Linnaean artificial never heard of botany before, have learned to consystem of classification. This same system was sider it wuth respect and admiration, as the object to chosen by the veteran Jacquin, in his wrell-known which a man of rank, riches and talents, devotes his work on West Indian plants, entitled Stirpium Ameri- life and his fortune ; who while he adds, every seacanarum Historia, as w7ell as by Browme in his His- son, something of novelty and beauty to our gardens, to the West Indies, and is tory of Jamaica; not to mention Swartz, in his has given the Bread-fruit r Flora Indies Occidentalis, who only wanders a little ever on the w atch to prompt, or to further, any r out of the w ay, to adopt some of Thunberg’s altera- scheme of public advantage. With the recollection tions. We cannot but observe, that in the very de- of such men must also be associated the names of partment of botany in which he has most signalized the learned Forsters, father and son, of Sparrmann, himself, and with which he is most philosophically and of Menzies, who have all accomplished the conversant, the Orchidece, he totally rejects the ideas same perilous course, and enriched their beloved science. The cryptogamic acquisitions of the latter of Thunberg. East Indies. ^ we novv turn our eyes t0 the oriental wrorld, we in New Zealand, prove him to have attended to that shall find that the seeds of Linnaean botany, sowm by branch of botany with extraordinary success, and at Koenig, have sprung up and produced successive the same time evince the riches of that remote country. harvests among the pious missionaries at Tranque- Indeed, it appears that any country proves rich, unbar, who still continue to interweave a sprig of der the inspection of a sufficiently careful investigascience, from time to time, among their amaranthine tor. The labours of these botanists have all been wrreaths which are not of this world. India too has conducted according to the principles and classificalong possessed a practical botanist of indefatigable tion of Linnaeus. Forster, under Sparrmann’s ausexertion and ardour, who has thrown more light up- pices, has judiciously pointed out, and attempted to on its vegetable riches, with the important subject remedy, defects that their peculiar opportunities enof their qualities and uses, than any one since the abled them to discover, but with no invidious aim. days of Rheede and Rumphius. It is scarcely ne- They laboured, not to overthrow or undermine a cessary to name Dr Roxburgh, whose recent loss we system, which they found on the whole to answer deeply lament, and whose acquisitions and learned the purpose of readily communicating their discoveremarks are given to the world by the munificence ries, but to correct and strengthen it for the advanof the East India Company, in a style which no tage of those who might come after them. It is prince has ever rivalled. That enthusiastic admirer much to be lamented that, except the Nova Genera of nature, Colonel Hardwicke, and the learned bota- Plantarum> we have as yet so short and compendious nist Dr Francis Buchanan, have also contributed an account of the acquisitions made in their voyage. greatly to increase our knowledge of Indian botany. To the technical history of these, however, the The latter has enjoyed the advantage of investigat- younger Forster has commendably added whatever ing, for the first time, the remote and singular coun- he could supply of practical utility, and has thus try of Nepaul; so prolific in beautiful and uncom- given us all the information wdthin the compass of mon plants, that few parts of the world can exceed his means. it, and yet meeting, in several points, not only the Long since the voyages of these celebrated natuFloras of. the lower regions and islands of India, but ralists, the same remote countries have been visited, those of Japan, China, and even Siberia. The only in our own days, by two learned botanists more essystematic work on East Indian plants, is the Flora pecially ; these are M. La Billardiere, and Mr Indica of Burmann, which is classed according to Brown, Librarian of the Linnaean Society. The the Linnaian artificial method. We cannot but wish former has published an account of the Plants of it were more worthy of the system or the subject; New Holland, in twro volumes folio, with fine en-

BOTANY. 381 Kotany. gravings; the latter has favoured the botanical and while in France, he almost planted, or at least Botany, world with one volume of a most acute and learned greatly advanced, a Linnaean school 4n that kingdom. Prodromus of his discoveries. As his voyage was He had scarcely resumed his professorial office at made at the public expense, we may trust that the home, when he was unexpected!}' taken off, by an government will consider itself bound to enable him acute disease, in his forty-second year. Of the tato publish the whole of his acquisitions, in such a lents and performances of his successor Thunberg, manner as to be generally useful. His own accura- who still with honour fills the chair of the Budbecks cy of observation, illustrated by the drawings of the and the Linnaei, we have already spoken. Dr inimitable Bauer, cannot fail to produce such a work Swartz is the Bergian professor of Botany at Stockas, we will venture to pronounce, has never been holm. The Transactions of the Upsal Academy, equalled. M. La Billardiere has disposed his book founded by the younger lludbeck, are continued ocaccording to the system of Linnaeus, a rare example casionally ; and those of the Stockholm one, whose in France, where any thing not French usually comes foundations were laid by Linnaeus, are published rebut ill recommended. Mr Brown, on the other gularly. Both are from time to time enriched with hand, has written his Prodromus, at least, on the botanical communications, worthy of the pupils of principles of classification established by the cele- so illustrious a school. A veteran in botanical science, brated Jussieu, the great champion of a natural sys- Professor Retzius, still presides at the University of tem of his own. On this subject we postpone our Lund. The worthy and accurate Afzelius, well remarks for the present. Before we can enter on known in England, who accomplished a hazardous the subject of natural classification, it is necessary to botanical expedition to Sierra Leone, is the coadjuconsider the state and progress of botany, for some tor of Professor Thunberg ; and the difficult subject years past, in the schools, and among the writers, of of Lichens, under the hands of Dr Acharius, is become so vast and so diversified, as to be almost a Europe. [ botanists of Sweden has continued to maintain her long esta- science of itself. Denmark has alway possessed some acute and °f | Sweden; blished rank in the several departments of natural ma,k; science, nor has Denmark been behind-hand with learned botanists, and has, more than most other her neighbour and ancient rival. The son and suc- countries, been supplied with dried specimens of cessor of the great Linnaeus endeavoured to follow plants, as an article of commerce, from her West or his father’s steps, and was ambitious of not being left East Indian establishments. Oeder, the original auvery far in the rear; a commendable aim, which his thor of the Flora Danica, and Muller its continuashort life, to say nothing of his talents or experience, tor, have distinguished themselves ; but their fame is disabled him from accomplishing, fie completed, inferior to that of the late Professor Vahl, who stuand gave to the world, the unfinished materials died under the celebrated Linnaeus, and who is the which his father had left, for a Supplement to his author of several excellent descriptive works. He Species Plantarum and Manlissre, and having en- undertook no less than a new Species, or, as he enriched the book with many communications of Thun- titled it, Enumeratio, Plantarum, an admirable perberg and others, as well as a number of original formance, cut short by his death at the end of the remarks, he felt a strong desire, not altogether un- second volume, which finishes the class and order Tripardonable, of being thought the principal author of andria Monogynia. It is almost superfluous to menthe work. AU uncertainty on this subject, where- tion, that Afzelius and Retzius, as well as Vahl, in ever other helps fail, is removed by the original ma- all they have given to the world, have followed the nuscript of the Supplementum Plantarum in our pos- system of their great master. The Flora Danica, session. Ehrhart superintended the printing of this chiefly a collection of plates, with few synonyms and work, and made some alterations in the manuscript, no descriptions, has come forth, from time to time, traces of which are perceptible in the affected Greek for above fifty years past, in fasciculi, without any names, given to some species of Carex, Mespilus, order, and is still incomplete. It was undertaken by &c., as well as in their sesquipedalian specific cha- royal command, and, in a great measure, at the soveracters. But he had introduced his own new genera reign’s expense ; though regularly sold, except some of Mosses ; which the younger Linnaeus thought so copies presented to certain distinguished men, as alarming an innovation, that he ordered the sheet Linnaeus. After the example of Denmark, Sweden, &c. Rus-of Riwsia; which contained these matters to be cancelled. We are possessed of a copy, which shows the genera in sia has been desirous of promoting, throughout its question to be almost all well founded, and what are vast dependencies, an attention to natural knowledge. now, under Hedwig’s sanction, generally i*eceived, Nor was any country ever more fortunate in the posthough by other names. The descriptions ot session of an active and intelligent naturalist. The Ehrhart are precise and correct, though his termi- celebrated Pallas successfully devoted a long life to nology is exceptionable, full of innovations, and these pursuits, and to the communication of his discrabbed expressions. Two years, almost immediate- coveries and observations. He prompted the Emly preceding the death of the younger Linnaeus, press Catharine to oiler an unlimited sum for the . were spent by the latter in visiting England, France museum, library, and manuscripts of Linnaeus ; but, and Holland, and were employed to very great ad- fortunately for their present possessor, the offer was vantage, in augmenting his collection ot natural pro- made too late. A Flora Rossica, on the most magductions, as well as his scientific skill. During this nificent scale, was undertaken by Pallas, his Imperial tour, he attached himself strongly, through the me- mistress proposing to defray the cost of the whole dium of his old friend Solander, to Si* Joseph Banks; undertaking, not merely for sale, but for gratuitous

BOTANY. 382 Botany, presentation, on the most princely scale, to all who ble publication of Host on grasses, is conducted on ’had any taste or ability to make use of the book. the plan of Jacquin’s works His Synopsis of AusThis well-intended munilicence was the cause of the trian plants is an excellent Flora, disposed according ruin of the project. Half of a first volume was be- to the Sexual System, as is the more ample 'Teniastowed as the Empress intended. But the second men Florce Gcrmanicce of the celebrated Dr Roth, part, instead of following the destination of the first, one of the best practical European botanists, and got into the hands of interested people, who defeat- more deeply versed than most others in cryptogamic ed the liberal designs of their sovereign, misapplied lore. The best Linnman Flora, as far as it goes, that her money, and by the disgust and disappointment the world has yet seen, we speak it without any exwhich ensued, prevented the continuance of the work. ception, is the Flora Germanica of Professor SchraThose who wished to complete their sets, or to ob- der of Gottingen, the first volume of which, comtain the book at all, were obliged to become clandes- prising the first three classes of the sexual system, tine purchasers, buying, as a favour, what they ought was published in 1806. The correct distinctions, to have received as a free gift; and w ere moreover, well-digested synonyms, and complete descriptions of like the writer of this, often obliged to put up with this work, are altogether unrivalled. If the whole imperfect copies. In like manner the intentions of should be equally well executed, for which the longthe great Mr Howard, respecting his book on pri- est life would be scarcely sufficient, it must ever be sons, were rendered ineffectual, by the disgraceful the standard book of European botany. Its descripavarice of certain London booksellers, who imme- tions of grasses are worthy to accompany the exquidiately bought up, and sold at a greatly advanced site engravings of the same tribe from the hand of price, the whole edition, which its benevolent author Leers, published at Herborn in 1775, which excel had destined to be accessible to every body at an every other botanical representation that we have exunusually cheap rate. These examples, amongst amined. They will bear, and indeed they require, others, show that it is the most difficult thing in the the application of a magnifying-glass, like the plants world to employ patronage, as well as gratuitous cha- themselves. The purchaser of this little volume must rity of any kind, to real advantage, except under the however beware of the second edition, whose plates guidance of the most rigorous discretion. “ All are good for little or nothing. The name of Schrathat men of power can do for men of genius,” says der has long been distinguished in Cryptogamic BoGray, if we recollect aright, “is to leave them at tany. In this pursuit, the industrious and accurate liberty, or they become like birds in a cage,” whose botanists of Germany, shut out from extensive opsong is no longer that of nature and enjoyment. portunities of studying exotic plants, have had full The great and the affluent may foster and encou- scope for their zeal and abilities. In this field the rage science and literature, by their countenance, Leipsic school has distinguished itself. Here the their attention, and a free, not overwhelming, libe- great Schreber first began his career with some of rality. But when princes become publishers of the most perfect cryptogamic works, especially on books, or directors of academies, they generally do the minute genus Phascum. Here the same author more harm than good. They descend from their published his excellent Flora Lipsiensis, his laboristation, and lose sight perhaps of their higher and ous practical work on Grasses, and finally his impeculiar duties, which consist in promoting the gene- proved edition of the Genera Plantarum of his friend ral prosperity, peace, and liberty of their subjects, Linnaeus. But, above all, Leipsic is famous for beunder the benign influence of which, every art, ing the residence of Hedwig, whose discoveries, x-escience, or pursuit, that can be beneficial to man- lative to the fructification and generic characters of kind, is sure to flourish without much gratuitous as- Mosses, form an era in botanic science. Under the hands of such an observer, that elegant tribe displays sistance. «f GenuaSeveral of the immediate scholars of the illustri- itself with a degree of beauty, variety and singularity, ny; ous Swedish naturalist were planted in different parts which vies with the most admired herbs and flowers, of Germany. Murray, to whom he entrusted the and confirms the Linnaean doctrine of impregnation, publication of that compendious volume, entitled, which the more obvious organs of the latter had Systema Vegetabiliiim, and who printed two succes- originally taught. Nor must we, in speaking of sive editions of the work, was seated as Professor at cryptogamic plants, neglect here to recordfthe names Gottingen. Giseke was established at Hamburgh, of Weis, \Y eber, Mohr, Bchmidel, Esper, and espeand, after the death of Linnaeus, gave to the world cially Hoffmann ; the plates of the latter, illustrating ' such an edition as he was able to compile, from his the Lichen tribe, are models of beauty and correctown notes and those of Fabrieius, of the lectures of ness. His Flora Germanica is a most convenient their late preceptor, on the Natural Orders of Plants. and compendious manual, after the Linnaean system. H is ideas on this subject Linnaeus himself always con- Fungi have been studied in Germany with peculiar sidered as too imperfect to be published, except in the care and minuteness. The leading systematic auform of a sketch or index, at the end of his Genera thor in this obscure tribe, Persoon, was indeed born, Planlarum. The venerable patriarch, Professor Jac- of Dutch parents, at the Cape of Good Hope ; but quin, still survives at Vienna, where he, and his wor- he studied and published at Gottingen. Two writthy son, have enriched botany with a number of ers, of the name of Albertini and Schweiniz, have splendid and useful works. They have given to the published the most minute and accurate exemplifipublic several labours of the excellent practical bo- cation of this natural order, in an octavo volume, at tanist Wulfen, and others, which might, but for their Leipsic, in the year 1805, comprising the Fungi of encouragement, have been lost. The highly valua- the district of lsTiski in Upper Lusatia. If their fi4

383 BOTANY. Botany, gures are less exquisitely finished than Persoon’s, or in their generic characters. Indeed it may be said, Botany, less elaborately detailed than Schrader’s, their de- that if they were able to establish good genera without them, and, after the example of their leader, scriptions make ample amends. The German school of botany has, for a long pe- merely preferred the more obvious and distinct orriod, been almost completely Linnaean. This how- gans, when sufficient for their purpose, their conduct ever was not always the case, for, in the earlier part was justifiable. If generic principles be natural and of his career, the learned Swede was attacked more certain, it matters not on what parts of the fructifirepeatedly and severely from this quarter of the cation they are founded; nor is the inflorescence, or world than any other ; his ridiculous critic Sieges, even the herb or root, rejected by sound philosobeck of Petersburgh excepted, who would not admit phers, but because they are found to lead only to the doctrine of the sexes of plants, because the pol- unnatural and uncertain characters. It is therefore len of one flower may fly upon another, and his pu- extremely to the honour of Linnaeus, Gsertner and rity could not bear the idea of such adultery in Na- Jussieu, that their conceptions of genera are almost ture. Numerous methods of arrangement appeared entirely the same. They meet in almost every point, in Germany, from the pens of Heister, Ludwig, however different the paths by which they pursue Haller, and others, and even Schreber adopted a their inquiries. Their labours illustrate and confirm system like some of these in his Flora above men- each other. Even Tournefort, who conceived so tioned. It would be to no purpose now to criticise well, on the whole, the distinctions of genera, which these attempts. They cannot rank as natural sys- he could but ill define, receives new strength from tems, nor have they the convenience of artificial their knowledge, which does not overturn his imperones. Part of their principles are derived from Lin- fect performances, but improve them. The accurate nseus, others from Rivinus. Their authors were not student of natural genera cannot fail to perceive, extensively conversant with plants, nor trained in that where Gaartner differs from Linnaeus, which is any sound principles of generic discrimination or but in a very few material instances, such as his nucombination. They set off' with alacrity, but were merous subdivision of the genus Fumaria, and his soon entangled in their own difficulties, and were distribution of the compound flowers, it arises from left by Linnaeus to answer themselves or each other. his too intent and exclusive consideration of one part We here mention these learned systematics, for of the fructification, instead of an enlarged and comlearned they were thought, by themselves and their prehensive view of the whole. In other words, he pupils, merely because they will scarcely require neglects the Linnaean maxim, that “ the genus animadversion, when we come to canvass the great should give the character, not the character the gequestion of natural and artificial classification, they nus.” Such at least appears to us the case in Fuhaving had no distinct ideas of a difference between maria. In the syngenesious family, being so very the two. Hedwig used frequently to lament, that natural in itself, the discrimination of natural genera his preceptor Ludwig had never perfected his sys- becomes in consequence so difficult, that Gaertner tem of arrangement; but from what he has given to and Linnaeus may well be excused if they do not the world, we see no great toom to suppose he had entirely agree, and they perhaps may both be satisany thing very excellent in reserve. Unexecuted fied with the honour of having collected materials, projects are magnified in the mists of uncertainty. and disposed them in different points of view, for the We have ventured elsewhere, in a biographical ac- use of seme future systematic, who may decide becount of Hedwig, to remark, that even that ingeni- tween them. However exact Gaertner may have ous man “ did not imbibe under Ludwig, anything been in discriminating the parts of seeds, we believe of the true philosophical principles of arrangement, him mistaken in distinguishing the vitcllus as a sepathe talents for which are granted to very few, and rate organ, distinct in functions from the cotyledons. are scarcely ever of German growth.. We mean no His readers will also do well, while they profit by his invidious reflections on any nation or people. Each generally excellent principles, not to admit any of has its appropriate merits, and all are useful toge- his rules as absolute. T!% may serve as a clue to ther in science, like different characters on the the intricacies of Nature, but they must not overrule her laws. Still less is our great carpologist to theatre of human life.” Germany may well dispense with any laurels ob- be implicitly followed in physiological doctrines or tained by the very secondary merit of speculative reasonings; witness his feeble and incorrect attack schemes of classification, when she can claim the on Lledwig’s opinions, or rather demonstrations, rehonour of having produced such a practical observer specting the impregnation of Mosses. His criticisms as Geertner. This indefatigable botanist devoted of Linnaeus are not always marked with that candour himself to the investigation of the fruits and seeds of which becomes a disinterested lover of truth and plants. Being eminently skilled in the use of the nature, nor can we applaud in general his changes pencil, he has, like Hedwig, faithfully recorded, of nomenclature, or of terminology; especially when what he no less acutely detected. 'I he path he he unphilosophically calls the germen of Linnaeus, struck out for himself, of dtdineating and describing the ovarium, a word long ago rejected, as erroneous in detail, with magnified dissections, every part of when applied to plants. These however are slight the seed and seed-vessel of each genus within his blemishes, in a reputation which will last as long as reach, had never been explored before in so regular scientific botany is cultivated at all. Botanists can and methodical a manner. Botanists of the Linnaean now no longer neglect, but at their own peril, the school are justly censurable for having paid too Pit- parts which Gaertner has called into notice, and to tie attention to the structure of these important parts, the scrutiny of which, directed by his faithful guid-

584 BOTANY. Botany. aRce, the physiologist and the systematic must often, own, intended to be mere consonant with nature Botany, than the Linnacan sexual method. We can scarcely in future, recur, of Prussia; We shall close this part of our subject with the say that it is so, on the whole ; nor is it, on the other mention of the Berlin school, where Gleditsch, who, hand, constructed according to any uniformity of in 1740, repelled the attacks of Siegesbeck on Lin- plan. The number of the stamens, compared with nmus, was Professor, and published a botanical sys- that of the segments of the corolla, or its petals, retem, founded on the situation, or insertion, of the gulate the characters of several classes, and those stamens; the subordinate divisions being taken from are artificial, Others are assumed as natural, and the number of the same parts ; so that it is, in the are for the most part really so, but their characters latter respect, a sort of inversion of the Linnaean are frequently taken from Linnaeus, even from his method. In the former, or the outline of its plan, artificial system,r as the Cruciate?, and the Apetala\ the system of Gleditsch is in some measure an anti- Lord Bute has w ell said, that Haller was a Linnman cipation of that of Jussieu, Berlin has of late been in disguise. His classification however was merely much distinguished for the study of natural history, intended to answer his own purpose, with respect to • pnd possesses a society of its own, devoted to that the Swiss plants; for he was not a general botanist, pursuit. Its greatest ornament was the late Profes- nor had he a sufficiently comprehensive view of the sor Willdenow, who if he fell under the lash of the subject to form a general system, or even to be more accurate Afzelius, is entitled to the gratitude aware of the difficulties of such an undertaking. of his fellow-labourers, not for theoretical specula- He ought not therefore to be obnoxious to criticism tions, but for the useful and arduous undertaking of in that view. His method has served for the use of a Species Plantnrum, on the Linnaean plan, being in- his scholars, as the Linnsean one serves English bodeed an edition of the same work of Linnaeus, en- tanists, by way of a dictionary. Some such is neriched with recent discoveries. This book, left un- cessary ; and those who should begin to decide on the finished at the end of the first order of the Crypto- merits of a system, before they know plants, would gamia, by the death of the editor, wants only a ge- most assuredly be in danger of appearing more neral index to render it sufficiently complete. The learned to themselves than to others. We cannot Musciy Lichenes, and Fungi, are systematically treat- exculpate Haller from some degree of prejudice in ed in the separate works of writers devoted to those rejecting real improvements of Linnaeus, which arc particular, and now very extensive, subjects, from independant of classification; such as his trivial or whom Willdenow could but have been a compiler, specific names, by which every species is spoken of With the Filices, which he lived to publish, he was at once, in one word, mostly so contrived as to assist practically conversant, His insertion of the essential the memory, by an indication of the character, apgeneric characters, throughout these volumes, is an pearance, history, or use, of the plant. What did useful addition, and now become necessary in every the great Swiss botanist substitute in the place of similar undertaking, this contrivance l A series of numbers, burthensome #f Holland j Little can be said of Holland in this review of to the memory, destitute of information, accommothe botanical state of Europe for a few years past. dated to his own book only, and necessarily liable The Leyden garden has always been kept up, espe- to total change on the introduction of every newcially during the life of the late Professor David Van discDvered species ! At the same time that he reRoyen, with due care and attention; we know little jected the luminous nomenclature of his old friend of its fate in the subsequent convulsed state of the and fellow-student, who had laboured in the most country. Botany has long been on the decline at ingenuous terms to deprecate his jealousy, he paid a Amsterdam, though we are indebted to that garden tacit homage to its merit, by contending that the for having first received, and afterwards communi- honour of this invention was due to Rivinus. In cated to other countries, such acquisitions of Thun- this he was not less incorrect than uncandid, the berg in Japan as escaped the perils of importation. short names of Rivinus being designed as specific Switzer- The botany of Switzerland may, most commo- characters, for which purpose Haller knew, as well diously, be considered in the next place, Here, in as Linnmus, they were unfit. Useful specific chahis native-country, the great Haller, after a long re- racters he himself constructed on the plan of Linna?sidence at Gottingen, was finally established. Its us, with some little variation, not always perhaps for rich and charming Flora has been illustrated by In’s the better, as to strictness of principle, but often classical pen, with peculiar success. Every body is strikingly expressive. Here, as in every thing conconversant with the second edition of bis work, pub- nected with practical botany, he shines, The most lished in 1768, in 3 vols. folio, and entitled, FJistoria rigid Linnaean, whose soul is not entirely shrivelled Stirpium Jndigenarum Helvetic?, with its inimitable up wuth dry aphorisms and prejudice, must love engravings, of the Orchis tribe more particularly. Haller for his taste and enthusiasm, and the Flora of But few persons, who have not laboured with some at- Switzerland as much for his sake as its own, No tention at the botany of Switzerland, are aware of the wonder that his pupils multiplied, and formed a band superior value, in point of accuracy, of the original of enthusiasts, tenacious of even the imperfections of edition of the same work, published in 1743, under their master. The line of demarcation is now no the title of Enumeratio Methodica Stirpium Helvetia) longer distinctly drawn between them and the equalJndigenanm- This edition is indispensable to those ly zealous scholars of the northern sage. The amiwho wish fully to understand the subject, or to ap- able and lamented Davall strove to profit by the lapreciate Haller’s transcendent knowledge and abili- bours of both. The Alpine botanists of France and ties, These works are classed after a system of hi^ Italy have served to amalgamate the Swedish and

535 BOTANY. Botawv. Bolany. the Helvetian schools. The Flora of Dauphiny by of Cochinchina, and of the neighbourhood of CanVillars is nearly Linnaean in system, and the prin- ton, are classed and defined in the Linnaean manner, ciples of the veteran Bellardi of Turin are entirely with valuable descriptions and remarks. It is unso; though he has been, in some of his publications, doubtedly a disgrace to the possessors of such a obliged to conform to the method of his late precep- country as Brasil, that they have not derived from tor, the venerable Allioni, who in spite of all remon- thence more benefit to the world, or to themselves, strance, had the ambition of forming a system of from its natural productions. But they are satisfied his own. His Flora Pedemontana is disposed ac- with what the bowels of the earth afford, and they cording to this system, an unnatural and inconveni- neglect its more accessible, though perhaps not less ent jumble of the ideas of Rivinus, Tournefort, and valuable, treasures. The jealousy, and innumerable others. This work is also faulty in the neglect of restrictions of their government, render what they specific definitions, so that its plates and occasional possess as useless to all the world as to themselves. descriptions are alone what render it useful; nor A genius of the first rank in natural science, as well would it perhaps, but for the uncommon abundance as in every thing which his capacious mind embraced, has arisen in Portugal, and has been domesof rare species, be consulted at all. We may glance over the botany of Italy, to whose ticated in the schools of Paris and London, the amiaf Italy boundaries we have thus been insensibly led, as the able and learned Correa de Serra, now a traveller in eye of the traveller takes a bird’s-eye view of its the United States of America. What little impulse outstretched plains from the summits of the Alps. has been given to literature in Portugal, and partiWe may pass from Turin to Naples without meeting cularly the foundation of a Royal Academy of with any school of distinction. The northern states Sciences, is owing to him ; and though his name has are not without their professors and patrons of bo- chiefly appeared in the ranks of botanical science in tany, nor are their nobles destitute of taste, in vari- an incidental manner, no one possesses more enous branches of natural knowledge. The names of a larged and accurate views, or more profound knowCastiglione of Milan, a Durazzo and Dinegro of Ge- ledge, of the subject. noa, and a Savi of Pisa, deserve to be mentioned with In the extensive, though incomplete, review which English and honour, for their knowledge and their zeal. The unfortunate Cyrillo, and his friend Pacifico, at Naples, were we have undertaken of the recent history of botani- French bc 100 ^ practical botanists. There is also a rising school, of cal science, the individual merits of particular wrigreat promise, at Palermo. But since the time of ters have chiefly hitherto been detailed and comScopoli, Italy has contributed little to our stock of pared. The most difficult part of our task perhaps information; nor are the latter publications of this still remains; to contrast and to appreciate the influeminent man, while he resided at Pavia, commensu- ence and the merits of two great and rival nations, in rate in importance or merit with those earlier ones, the general school of scientific botany; to consider the Flora, and Fntomologia, Carniolica, which have the causes that have led to the particular line which immortalized his name. Scopoli, who at first adopt- each has taken, and to compare the success, as well ed a system of his own, had the sense and liberality, as to calculate the probable future consequences, of in his second edition, to resign it, in favour of what their respective aims. England and France have, his maturer experience taught him to prefer, the sex- from the time of Ray and Tournefort, been competitors in botanical fame, because each was ambitious ual system of Linnaeus. of Spain Spain and Portugal claim our attention; the for- of supporting the credit of the great man she had and Portu- mer for being the channel through which the gar- produced. This contest, however, as far as it regal. dens of Europe have been, for some years past en- garded theoretical speculations, has entirely subriched with many new Mexican and Peruvian plants ; sided on the part of Ray’s champions. In practical and likewise as the theatre of the publication of science, likewise, the admirers of Ray and of Tournesome important books, relative to the botany of those fort have shaken hands, like those of every other countries. In speaking of American botany, we have school. On the subject of system, the question is mentioned the Flora Peruviana, whose authors, Ruiz greatly changed; for though a phoenix has arisen and Pavon, rank deservedly high for their industry from the ashes of Tournefort, its “ star-like eyes,” and knowledge. The late Cavanilles, resident at darting far beyond all former competition, have been Madrid, has also communicated to the learned world met, if not dazzled, by a new light, rising in full much information, from the same source. Spain glory from the north; a polar star, which has been seems anxious to redeem her reputation, which suf- hailed by all the nations of the earth. The Linnaean system of classification, with all its England, fered so much from the neglect, or rather persecution, of the truly excellent but unfortunate Dombey, concomitant advantages of nomenclature, luminous who, like many other benefactors of mankind, was technical definition, and richness of information, was allowed to make all his exertions in vain, and finally planted, like a fresh and vigorous scyon, in the faperished unknown, in the diabolical hands of English vourable soil of England, already fertilized with acslave-dealers at Montserrat. Portugal is most dis- cumulations of practical knowledge, about the middle If we may pursue the metaphor, tinguished at home by the labours of a learned be- of the last century. T nedictine, Dr Felix Aveilar Brotero, author of a the ground w as entirely cleared for its reception ; Flora Lusitanica, disposed after the Linnsean me- for all previous systems had been of confined and thod, reduced entirely to principles of number ; and local use ; the alphabetical index having become the abroad by the valuable work of Father Loureiro, resource of even the most learned ; and the pupils entitled Flora Cochinchinensis, in which the plants of Ray, being held to his method of classification, 3c VOL. II. PART II.

386 BOTANY. Botany, rather by their gratitude for his practical instruc- aided by some concomitant circumstances, and the Botany, '"^’’’V'^tion, than any other consideration. Accordingly we adventitious acquisition of two or three men of sinhave, in our own early progress, before they were gular talents and accomplishments, became improved. all, as at present, swept off the stage, found them A happy mixture of literature and taste, for many rather contending for his nomenclature, imperfect as years distinguished this city, above its rivals in opuit was, because they were habituated to it, than for lence and commercial prosperity. Such Norwich his system, of which, it was evident, they had made has been in our memory, and if its splendour be little use. Hence the first attempt in England, to gone by, a taste for mental cultivation, originating reduce our plants to Linnaean order, made by Hill, in many of the before-mentioned causes, still rewas chiefly a transposition of Ray’s Synopsis into mains, and is fostered by the novel pursuits of chethe Linnaean classes, the original nomenclature being mistry and natural history, on which some arts, of retained, while the specific names of the Species great importance in the manufactory of the place, depend for improvement. WTe trust the reader will Plantarum were rejected. Hill’s imperfect performance was superseded, by pardon this digression from the subject more immethe more classical Flora Anglica of Hudson, com- diately before us, to which we shall now return. posed under the auspices and advice of the learned Some of the more learned students of English and ingenious Stillingtieet, in which the botany of plants, among the lovers of botany in Norwich, had England assumed a most scientific aspect, and with long been conversant with the works of Ray, and which all the knowledge of Ray was incorporated. even the Historia Muscorum of Dillenius. They Noiwich. the same time, the principles of theoretical bota- were prepared therefore to admire, and to profit by, ny, and the philosophical writings of the learned the philosophical writings of Linnaeus. Hence oriSwede, were studied with no ordinary powers of ginated the Elements of Botany> published in 1775, discrimination and judgment, in a small circle of by Mr Hugh Rose ; who was aided in the underexperienced observers at Norwich. A love of flow- taking by his equally learned friend, the Reverend ers, and a great degree of skill in their cultivation, Henry Bryant, of whose acuteness and botanical had been long ago imported into that ancient com- skill no better proof is wanting, than his having found mercial city, with its worsted manufacture, from and determined, nine years before, the minute Tillcea Flanders; and out of this taste, something like the muscosa, for the first time in this island. Numerous study of systematic botany had sprung. These pur- pupils were eager to improve themselves by the assuits were mostly confined to the humblest of the sistance of such masters, and amongst others the community, particularly among the then very nume- writer of these pages imbibed, from their ardour and rous bodies of journeymen weavers, dyers, &c. To- their friendly assistance, the first rudiments of a purwards the middle of the eighteenth century, several suit that has proved the happiness and the principal of the opulent merchants seem to have acquired, by object of his life. their intimate connection with Holland, not only the London became, of course, the focus of this London, above-mentioned taste for horticulture, but likewise science, as well as of every other. Of the English Cambridg, an ambition to be distinguished by their museums of Universities, Cambridge most fulfilled its duty, jnaHdOxfo natural curiosities. The former sometimes extended rendering its public establishments useful to the ends itself, from the flowery parterre, and the well-ar- for which they were founded and paid. The names ranged rows of tulips, hyacinths, carnations, and au- of Martyn, both father and son, have long mainriculas, into no less formal labyrinths, or perhaps a tained a distinguished rank in botany, and the latter, double pattern of angular or spiral walks, between for many years, has inculcated the true principles of clipped hedges, exactly alike on each side of a broad Linnaean science, from the professor’s chair. A bogravel walk. Such was the most sublime effort of tanic garden was established, by a private individual, the art within the compass of our recollection. Dr Walker, about the period of which we are speak“ Grove” could by no means be said to “ nod at ing. A Linnaean Flora Cantabrigiensis, by Mr Relgrove,” for the perpendicular and well-trimmed han, has renewed the celebrity of that field, in structure was incapable of nodding ; but that “ each which Ray had formerly laboured ; and there has alalley should have a brother” was an indispensable ways existed a little community of Cambridge botapart of the design. Greenhouses of exotic plants, nists, though fluctuating and varying, according to except oranges and myrtles, were at this time circumstances. At Oxford, botany, so vigorously scarcely known; and the writer well recollects hav- established by Sherard and Dillenius, slept for forty ing seen, with wonder and admiration, above forty years under the auspices of the elder Professor Sibyears ago, one of the first African Geraniums that thorp, at least as to the utility of its public foundaever bloomed in Norwich. If, however, the progress tions. Yet even there the science had many indiviof natural science was slow in this angle of the dual cultivators, and if others were forgotten, the kingdom, the wealthy manufacturers, become their name of a Banks ought to render this school for ever own merchants, found it necessary to acquire a celebrated. The younger Professor Sibthorp well knowledge of various foreign languages, in order to atoned for the supineness of his father and predecarry on their wide-extended commerce. In learn- cessor. He published a Flora Oxoniensis, and exing French, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, and German, tended his inquiries into the classical scenes of they unavoidably acquired many new ideas. Their Greece, finally sacrificing his life to his labours, and sons were sent to the continent, and it were hard, sealing his love of this engaging study by a posthuindeed, if many of them did not bring home much mous foundation, which provides for the publication that was worth learning. The society of the place, of a sumptuous Flora Graca, and the subsequent es-

BOTANY. Botany, tablishment of a professorship of Rural Economy. author. Travelling botanists were dispatched, unEdinburgh, under the auspices of the late worthy der the patronage of the affluent, to enrich cur garProfessor Hope, became distinguished for the culti- dens from the Alps, the Cape of Good Hope, and vation of botany, as a branch of medical educatio-n. the various parts of America. Every new acquisiThe physiology of plants was there taught, more as- tion was scrutinized, and received its allotted name siduously than in almost any other university of Eu- and distinction, from the hand of the correct and rope ; and the Linnaean principles were ably enforced classical Solander, who one day was admiring with and illustrated, not with slavish devotion, but with Collinson, Fothergill, or Pitcairn, the treasures of enlightened discrimination. Nor must the dissent- their respective gardens, and another labouring with ing Academy at Warrington be forgotten, where the the distinguished Ellis, at the more abstruse deterdistinguished circumnavigator Forster, of whom we mination of the intricate family of marine produchave already spoken, was settled. Here many young tions, whether sea-weeds, corallines or shells. His naturalists were trained. The neighbouring family own acquisitions, and those of his friend and patron, of the Blackburnes, possessed even to this day, of in the fairy land of the South-Sea Islands, the haone of the oldest and richest botanic gardens in zardous shores of New Holland, or the nearly fatal England, have steadily fostered this and other groves and swamps of Java, were at the same time branches of natural knowledge. The same taste has recorded by his pen, as they were gradually perpespread to Manchester, Liverpool, and the country tuating by the slow labours of the engraver. To around. Westmoreland, Northumberland and Dur- this band of zealous naturalists the younger Linnaeus ham have their sequestered practical botanists, in was, for a while, associated, as well as the excellent every rank of life. Scenes celebrated by the corre- and zealous Broussonet, who though not unversed in spondents of Ray are still the favourite haunts of botany, devoted himself most particularly to the more these lovers of nature and science, who every day uncommon pursuit of scientific icthyology. The Banksian school, altogether intent upon pracadd something to our information, and to the celetical botany, had adopted the Linnaean system as the brity of other parts of the same neighbourhood. LonJon We must now concentrate our attention to the most commodious, while it pursued and cultivated School. London school, which, for about forty years past has the Linnaean principles, as the only ones which, by maintained a rank superior to most other seats of their transcendent excellence, could support the botanical science; the more so perhaps for its being science of botany on a stable foundation. In these founded in total disinterestedness, both with respect Dr Solander was, of course, well trained ; and, havto authority and emolument. Truth alone, not sys- ing added so wide a range of experience to his thetem, has been the leading object of this school; un- oretical education, few botanists could vie with him, biassed and gratuitous patronage its support; and a who had, as it were, caught his preceptor’s mantle, genuine love of nature and of knowledge its bond of and imbibed, by a sort of inspiration, a peculiar taunion, among persons not less distinguished from each lent for concise and clear definition. Abstract prinother b}r character and opinion, than by their different ciples of classification, or even such outlines of napursuits, and various ranks of life. The illustrious tural arrangement as Linnaeus had promulgated, Banks, from the time when, after his return from his seem never to have attracted Solander. In following celebrated and adventurous voyage, he devoted him- the chain of his ideas, discernible in the materials self to the practical cultivation of natural science for he has left behind him, one cannot but remark his the advantage of others, as he had long pursued it singular inattention to every thing like botanical affor his own pleasure and instruction, has been the finity, to which the artificial sexual system was, with head of this school. Here he fixed the amiable and him, entirely paramount. The genera which, for learned Solander, for the remainder of his too short extemporaneous use, he named with the termination life. The house of this liberal Mecaenas has ever oides, comparing each with some well-known genus, since been, not only open, but, in a manner, at the till a proper appellation could be selected, are seldom entire command of the cultivators and admirers of thus compared because of any natural affinity, nor this and other branches of philosophy ; inasmuch as scarcely any external resemblance, but because they his library and museum have been devoted to their agree with such in their place in the artificial system, free use; and his own assistance, encouragement and or nearly perhaps in technical characters. A great information are as much at their service, as if his botanist therefore, it is evident, may exist, without fortune and fame had all along depended on their that vaunted erudition in a peculiar line, which some favour. With such an establishment as this, aided would have us consider as the only road to knowby the perpetual resources of the numerous public ledge and to fame. We allow that this sort of eruand private gardens around, botany might well flou- dition is now, since the attention it has received rish. The liberal spirit of the leaders of this pursuit, from Linnaeus, Jussieu, and pthers, become indisgave a tone to the whole. The owners of nurseries, pensable to a good theoretical or philosophical bothough depending on pecuniary emolument for their tanist, as is the study of carpology, in consequence support, rivalled each other in disinterested commu- of the labours of Gaertner; we only contend that it is nication. The improvement of science was the lead- possible to know plants extremely well without either^ The learned Dryander, less skilled than his predeing object of all. One of this latter description took his rank among the literary teachers of botany. cessor as the coadjutor of Sir Joseph Banks, in a Lee’s Introduction was much approved by Linnaeus, practical acquaintance with plants, exceeded him in whose system and principles it ably exemplifies, and theoretical lore and ingenious speculation, and far who became the friend and correspondent of its excelled every other man in bibliographic informa-

387 Botany,

388 BOT Botanr. tion, as well as in the most precise fastidious exactness relative to every subject within the wide extent of his various knowledge. He furthered, upon principle, and with unwearied assiduity, every object of the noble establishment to which he was devoted; but he, like Solander, now sleeps with his fathers, and his place is supplied by a genius of British growth, who unites talents with experience, and theoretical skill, in the most eminent degree, with practical knowledge. Although it is almost superfluous to name the most eminent disciples of the London school of botany, it might seem negligent to pass them over without some particular mention. The ardent and ingenious Curtis has left a permanent monument behind him, in the Flora Londinensis, to say nothing of the popular Botanical Magazine, continued by his friend Dr Sims. The Flora Scotica of Lightfoot first offered, in a pleasing and familiar garb, the botanical riches of that part of the island to its southern inhabitants. The lynx-eyed Dickson, so long and faithfully attached to his constant patron, has steadily traced, through all its windings, the obscure path of cryptogamic botany, with peculiar success. No more striking instance can be pointed out, to prove how totally the most consummate practical skill, even in the most difficult part of botany, is independent of theoretical learning. Even those who profit by the certain aids supplied by the discoveries of Hedwig, can with difficulty keep pace with this veteran in their pursuits, who, with conscious independence, neglects all those aids. Museum Just at the time when the school, whose history ^“Jwe are endeavouring to trace, had most firmly esta" Wished its credit and its utility, a great additional weight was given to England, in the scale of natural science, by the acquisition of the entire museum, library and manuscripts of the great Linnaeus and his son, which came amongst us, by private purchase, in 1784-, after the death of the latter. Hence our nomenclature has been corrected, and our knowledge greatly augmented. These collections have necessarily been consulted by most persons, about to publish on the subject of natural history, and a reference to them, in doubtful cases, secures a general conformity of sentiment and nomenclature, among the botanists of Europe, Asia and America. We are seldom obliged to waste time in conjecturing what Linnaeus, or the botanists with whom he corresponded, meant, for we have before us their original specimens, named by their own hands. An entire London winter was devoted to the almost daily labour, of comparing the Banksian herbarium throughout, with that of Linnaeus, and to a copious interchange of specimens between their respective possessors, who, with the aid of Mr Dryander alone, accomplished this interesting and instructive comparison. Hence the Hortus Kexvensis of the lamented Aiton, which was at that period preparing for publication, became much more correct in its names, than it, or any other similar performance, could have been, without this advantage. It could scarcely be imagined that Sweden would, unmoved, thus let the botanical sceptre pass from her ; but it is much to the honour of the nation, that ail her naturalists have .ever preserved the most friendly intercourse with us,

ANY. particularly with the person who deprived them of Botany, this treasure. They have not merely pardoned, but publicly sanctioned, the scientific zeal which prompted him to this acquisition, by associating him with all their learned establishments, without any solicitation on his part. The institution of the Linnaean Society at London Linnaeau in 1788, especially under that name, must be consi-SoCiety* dered as a triumph for Sweden in her turn. By this establishment the intercourse of science is facilitated ; essays, which might otherwise have never seen the light, are given to the world; and a general taste for the pleasing study of nature is promoted. Learned and worthy people are thus made acquainted with each other, from the remotest corners of the kingdom, and their information enriches the common stock. The state has given its sanction to this rising establishment. Its publications and its members are spread over the Continent, and other similar institutions have borrowed its name, imitated its plan, and paid respect to its authority. Yet it is not in the name alone of Linnaeus, that the members of this society place their confidence ; still less do they bow to that name or to any other, at the expense of their own right of private judgment. Their Transactions are open to the pupils of every school, and the observations of every critic, that have any prospect of being useful to the world. The writer of each communication, must, of course, be answerable for the particulars of his own performance, but the Society is responsible for each being, on the whole, worthy to be communicated to the public. The possession of the very materials with which Linnaeus worked, his own specimens and notes, enable us very often to correct mistakes, even of that great man, many of which would be unaccountable without the means of thus tracing each to its source. At the same time, the acquisition of materials to which he never had access, tends to improve and augment the history of what he had left imperfect. His language, his definitions and characters were, for some time, held so sacred, that they were implicitly copied, even though manifestly inapplicable, in some points, to the objects to which they were referred. Synonyms were transcribed from his works by Rose, Hudson, Curtis, and even Gaertner, (we assert it on the positive proof of errors of the press, copied in the transcribing), without reference to the original books, to see whether such synonyms, or their accompanying plates, agreed with the plant under consideration. The example of Dr Solander first led the writer of this to avoid such a negligent and unfaithful mode of proceeding; yet he has ever considered as sacred the very words of Linnaeus, where they require no correction. They are become a kind of public property, the current coin of the botanical realm, which ought not, with impunity, to be falsified or adulterated. To them we hope to be pardoned if we apply the words of the poet, “ The solid bullion of one sterling line, Drawn to French wire, would through whole pages shine.” Of this it is needless to quote examples. We must be every day more and more sensible of the value «f

339 BOT A N y. being a general picture of the whole. From what ' Botany, the Linmean style, in proportion as the number of ^ those who can attain it is evidently so very small. w'e have said, the zeal with which this lovely science By the light of our master alone can the science, has been cultivated in England, will sufficiently apwhich he so greatly advanced and refined, be pre- pear. Nor have public lectures, or botanic gardens, served from barbarism, while long and tedioue, loose been neglected, in order to render the knowledge of and feeble, ill-contrasted and barbarously-worded botany as accessible as possible, and to diffuse a taste definitions, press upon it from various quarters. New for its pursuit. The popularity of the study has, at terms are invented to express old ideas ; names and least, kept pace with the means of instruction. 1 he characters are changed for the worse, to conceal the garden and green-house, the woods, fields, and even want of new discoveries ; and students are often de- the concealed treasures of the waters, are now the terred from adopting real improvements, because resource of the young and the elegant, who in the enjoyment of a new sense, as it were, in the retirethey know not which guide to prefer. Praclical From the combined effects of the various causes ment of the country, imbibe health, as well as knowstudy of which we have endeavoured to trace, the study of ledge and taste, at the purest of all sources. France alone now remains to be considered, in or-1'ranee, Endaod'.11 botany in England has, for a long period, been al- der to finish the historical picture which we have unmost entirely practical. To determine the particular species intended, in every case, by Linnaeus; to dertaken, of the state of botanical science in Europe. distinguish and to describe new ones ; to improve To do justice to this part of our subject, we must scientific characters, and to correct synonyms ; these turn our attention to times long since gone by, or have been the objects of our writers ; and hence we shall scarcely render intelligible the state of many publications of great utility, especially a num- affairs at present. The great Tournefort, by the force of his charac- Toumefort. ber of critical and descriptive essays, in the Transactions of the Linnaean Society, not unworthy of the ter, his general and particular information, the school which gave them birth, have enriched the ge- charms of his pen, and the celebrity which his name neral stock of knowledge. These are the sound gave to his country, through the popularity of his fruits of skill and investigation, the solid advantages botanical system, was so firmly established, in the of real information, applied to practical use. They ideas of the French, as the Grand Monarque of boare independent of theoretical speculation, and will tany, that they would have as soon allowed the greatstand unshaken, amidst any possible changes of sys- ness of Louis XIV. to be questioned, as that of this tem. On such principles the Flora Britannica has distinguished philosopher. So beneficial was this been attempted, and continued as far as the present partiality, in some respects, that it gave an unpreceunsettled state of some of the latter orders, of the dented impulse and popularity to the science; so dislast class, will allow. Such impediments, which de- advantageous was it in others, that it placed a formipend on the difficulties of systematic discrimination, dable barrier in the way of all improvement. Vailamong the Lichens especially, it is hoped will soon lant, the able and worthy pupil of Tournefort, has be removed. Meanwhile the English Boiany of the never been forgiven for speaking, on some occasions, same writer, illustrated by Mr Sowerby’s expressive too freely of his master’s defects. Hence his own and scientific figures, has finished its course, and merit has been kept in the background. The docformed so nearly complete a body of local botany, trine of the sexes of plants was discountenanced as as, we believe, no other country has produced. In long as possible, because it was proved by Vaillant, this the liberal contributions of numerous skilful ob- after having been rejected by Tournefort. Neverservers, from the Alpine heights of Scotland to the theless, when the good seed of science is once sown, shores and circumambient ocean of the south, are it can hardly be totally suffocated by the impedipreserved and recorded ; evincing a degree of gene- ments of prejudice and ignorant partiality. Practical ral inquiry and acuteness, which hardly any nation zeal sprung up by the side of speculative jealousy, can rival. The memory of several benefactors to and the tares withered, while the profitable plants the science, otherwise in danger of passing away, is flourished. Some botanists followed the steps of embalmed in this national work, which serves at once Tournefort to the Levant, exploring afresh those as their botanical testament, and the monument of countries which he has forever rendered classic their fame. Some of our botanists of the present ground. Others visited America, which they traday have thrown great light on several of the most versed in different directions. The indefatigable obscure departments of the science; witness Mr Plumier performed three separate voyages to the Sowerby’s work on English Fungi ; the labours of western world, and though his discoveries have, in a the learned Bishop of Carlisle on Carices, and, in great measure, suffered shipwreck from tardy and conjunction with Mr Woodward, on luci; of Mr imperfect patronage, as a great part of his collections Dawson Turner on the latter tribe, and on the Musci did, by the accidents of nature, yet something of of Ireland ; but especially Mr Hooker’s inimitable value remains. His FUices are enough to insure display of the British JungcttnannirB. Nor shall the his perpetual remembrance, and his Nova Genera contributions of a Winch or an Abbot, a Y\ ithering, are the basis of our knowledge of generic differKnapp, Stackhouse or Velley, nor the more splen- ences in West Indian plants. Most of all has did labours of the indefatigable Lambert, be forgot- been distinguished, among the French botanists ten. Each, in one way or other, has enlarged the who succeeded the times of Tournefort and Vaillant, bounds of science, or rendered it easier of access. the family of the Jussieus. One of these investi-Jussieus, We cannot, in the compass of our present undertak- gated the prolific regions of Peru, and discovered ing, pay the tribute due to every individual, our aim some things which no succeeding traveller has ga-

BOTANY. 590 Botany. thered ; other branches of this family, besides being crimination. When Le Monnier botanized in Chili, Botany. 'eminent in medical science and practice, have pur- in the company of the astronomers with whom he sued the study of botany with no ordinary success, was associated, he soon found, like Dr Garden in on the most philosophical principles. Of these the South Carolina, that the classification of Tournefort most eminent are the celebrated Bernard de Jussieu, was no key to the treasury of a new world. He the contemporary of the earlier days of Linnaeus; however made his remarks and collections, and and his nephew Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, the studied them subsequently under the auspices of pride and the ruler of systematic botany at present a more comprehensive guide. The Marechal de in France. The views and the performances of these Noailles, a great cultivator of exotic trees and shrubs, great men lead us to a new branch of our subject, corresponded with the Swedish naturalist, and enwhich indeed we have had in our contemplation deavoured to recommend him to the notice of the from the beginning of this essay, the exposition of lovers of plants in France. Meantime Gerard and the principles of a natural scheme of botanical clas- Gouan in the south, both introduced themselves to sification, as hinted, and imperfectly sketched, by the illustrious Swede, and promulgated his principles Linnaeus, and brought to the perfection of a regular and discoveries, though only the latter adopted his classification. Villars we have already noticed as system by the Jussieus. Previous to our entering on this detail, and the the author of a Linnaean Histoire des ’pinnies de Linnecan School in remarks to which it will give rise, we must con- Dauphine. He died lately, Professor of Botany at liance. clude all that belongs to the former part of our Strasburgh, where he succeeded the very able and Linnaeans, undertaking, by giving some account of those philosophical Hermann, one of the truest r botanists who have formed and maintained a Lin- who had imbibed all the technical st} le of the Swenaean school in France. We must shelter our- dish school, as well as its accuracy of discrimination. selves under the broad banner of truth when we ob- We may now safely announce Hermann as the real serve that these have, till very lately, been almost author, in conjunction perhaps with Baron Born, of the only French botanists that have supplied us that ingenious but bitter satyr the Monachologia, in with any practical information ; and their labours which the several species of monks are affectedly dishave been useful in proportion as they have com- criminated, and their manners detailed, like the animendably shaken off the prejudices of their prede- mals in the Linnaean Systema Natura. This ludicessors. Of this last proposition Duhamel is a wit- crous performance has long since appeared in a, not ness, though we may perhaps excite some surprise very exact, English translation, and was rendered in classing him among Linnaean botanists. His pre- into French by the late M. Broussonet. As we are face to his Traite des Arbres sufficiently shows how led again to name this amiable man, too soon lost to fearful he was of being taken for such, and yet how his country, after experiencing every vicissitude of he was held by vulgar prejudice alone, to the no- revolutionary peril and alarm, we cannot help dismenclature, or rather the generical opinions of Tour- tinguishing him as one most zealous in the cultivanefort. He tells us, while he adopts these, that his tion and diffusion of Linnajan learning, a taste for judgment went with Linnaeus, whom he follows in all which he chiefty imbibed in England. He had no new discoveries. The plan of his book, confined to indulgence for those prejudices, which cramped the hardy trees and shrubs, justifies his use of an alpha- talents of his countrymen, and prevented their debetical arrangement, in preference to any system, riving knowledge from any quarter where it was to unless he had thought sufficiently well of Tourne- be had. He recommended the younger Linnaeus to fort’s to prefer that. But he has prefixed to his their personal acquaintance and favour, which serwork, as a practical method of discovering scientifi- vice he also rendered, a few years after, to the percally what it contained, no other than a sexual clas- son who now commemorates his worth, and who will sification. His practical botany was so limited, ever remember, with affection and regret, his many being entirely subservient to his great objects, of virtues, his agreeable converse, and his various and forest planting and vegetable physiology, that he extensive acquirements. The intimacy which subsisted between this enhad no attention to spare for the consideration of methodical systems. Accordingly he tells us, that thusiastic naturalist and the distinguished botanist some such is necessary for the use of botanists, es- L’Heritier, confirmed, if it did not originally impecially of those who explore the productions of fo- plant, in the mind of the latter, that strong bias reign countries, but whether the method of Ray, which he ever showed for the Linnaean principles of Tournefort, Boerhaave, Van-Royen, Linnaeus, or botany. According to these his numerous splendid Bernard de Jussieu be adopted, is of no importance. works are composed. He moreover imbibed, if we Six years before Duhamel’s work came out, Dalibard mistake not, from the same source, a peculiar prehad published, in 1749> his Flora Parisiensis Pro- ference for uncoloured engravings of plants, instead dromus, according to the Linnaean system. of the coloured ones which had long been in use. It has always appeared to the writer of this, from the It cannot be denied that the merit of these last is conversation and writings of French botanists, that the very various, and sometimes very small. They do, judgment of the learned Le Monnier, and the coun- nevertheless, present to the mind a more ready idea tenance of his patron the Duke D’Ayen, afterwards of each species, than a simple engraving can do, nor Marechal de Noailles, first established the reputation is the latter less liable to incorrectness. When of Linnaeus in France ; not so much possibly for the plates are taken from the delineations of such ex*ake of his system, as his discoveries, his commo- quisite artists as L’Heritier employed, they have a dious nomenclature, and his clear principles of dis- good chance of excellence ; but the engravings of &

BOTANY. 391 Botany. Cavanilles, done after miserable drawings, though ones, which, to foreigners, would have made all the dif- Botany, they deceive the eye by their neat finishing, are ference, between a commodious and an unintelligible really less exact than many a rude outline. Colour- disposition of his work. In the detail of his perfored plates, it executed with the uniformity and scien- mance, he has great merit, both with respect to tific exactness of Mr Sowerby’s, or the characteristic clearing up obscure species, or describing new ones, effect of Jacquin’s, speak to the eye more readily and he had the advantage of access, on many occathan most engravings. The art of printing in sions, to Commerson’s collection. Lamarck’s Flore colours, practised formerly in England with small Franyoise, is arranged after a newr analytical method success, w'as revived at Paris by Buliiard, and is car- of his own. This book however is valuable, inderied to the highest perfection in the recent publica- pendent of its system, as an assemblage of practical tions of Redoute and Ventenat, which leave hardly knowledge and observation. We have only to reany thing to be w ished for, with respect to beauty or gret a wanton and inconvenient change of names, exactness. Many of the works of L’Heritier have which too often occurs, and which is not always for remained imperfect, in consequence of the political the better ; witness Cheiranthus hortensis, instead of convulsions of his country, and his own premature the long established incanus of Linnaeus; Melamdeath. The learned and worthy Desfontaines, who pyrum violaceum, which is not correct, for nemotravelled in Barbary, has been more fortunate in the rosum, which is strictly so, and which preserves an completion of his labours. His elegant Flora Allan- analogy with the rest of the species. tica, in 2 vols. 4to, with finely engraved uncoloured We shall now undertake the consideration of the plates, is classed and modelled on the plan of the principles that have been suggested, and the atLinnaean school. Such also is the plan of the works tempts that have been made, respecting a of that distinguished botanist La Billardiere, who, besides his account of New Holland plants, has pubNatural Classification of Plants. lished five elegant decades of new species from Syria. That scientific horticulturist M. Thouin, likewise a The sexual system of Linnaeus lays no claim to the Sexual Sys. most excellent botanist, though he has scarcely merit of being a natural arrangement. Its sole aimtem* written on the subject, is a correct pupil of the is to assist us in determining any described plant by Swedish school. His general spirit of liberal com- analytical examination. The principles on which it munication, and his personal attachment to the is founded are the number, situation, proportion, or younger Linnaeus, led him to enrich the herbarium connection, of the stamens and pistils, or organs of of the latter, with the choicest specimens of Com- impregnation. These principles are taken absolutely, raerson’s great collection, destined otherwise to have with the sole exception of their not being permitted remained in almost entire oblivion. A singular fate to divide the genera, that is, to place some species has attended the discoveries of most of the French of a genus in one part of the system, and others in voyagers, such as Commerson, Sonnerat, and Dom- another, though such may differ in the number, situabey, that, from one cause or other, they have scarce- tion, proportion, or connection of their stamens or ly seen the light. So also it has happened to those pistils; those characters being possibly artificial, of Tournefort, Sarrazin, Plunder, and others, whose while the genera are supposed, or intended, accordacquisitions have long slept in the Parisian museums. ing to a fundamental law independent of all systems, Happily there seems to have arisen of late a com- to be natural assemblages of species. We need not mendable desire to render them useful by publication, here explain the mode in which Linnaeus has proand thus many fine plants, known merely by the vided against any inconvenience in practice, resultslight and unscientific appellations of Tournefort, ing from such anomalies of nature herself. and therefore never adopted by Linnaeus, "have reBut though this popular system of Linnaeus does cently been clearly defined, or elegantly delineated. not profess to be a natural method of classification, The journeys of Olivier and Michaux towards the it is, in many points, incidentally so, several of its east have enriched the Paris gardens, and been the classes or orders whose characters are founded in means of restoring several lost Tournefortian plants. situation, proportion, or connection, being more or We believe however that the English nurseries have less perfectly natural assemblages ; nor can it be proved the most fertile source of augmentation to denied that, on the whole, it usually brings together the French collections, as appears by the pages of as many groups of natural genera, as occur in most all the recent descriptive writers in France. systems that have been promulgated. This fact We dare not presume to arrange the indefatigable would be more evident, if the various editors of this and very original botanist Lamarck among the Lin- system, those who have added new genera to the neean botanists of his country, but we beg leave to original ones of Linnaeus, or, in general, those who mention him here, as one who has thought for him- have any way applied his method to practice, had self, and whose works are the better for that reason. properly understood it. They would then have perHis severe and often petulant criticisms of the ceived that its author had always natural affinities in Swedish teacher, made him appear more hostile than view; his aim, however incompletely fulfilled, ache really was, to the principles of that great man. cording to our advanced knowledge, having conBeing engaged in the botanical department of the stantly been, to place genera together in natural afEncyclopedic Methodique, he was obliged to con- finity or progression, as far as their relationship form to an alphabetical arrangement; but he surely could be discerned. At the same time he uses an might have chosen the scientific generic names for analytical method, at the head of each class in his that purpose, instead of barbarous or vernacular Systema Vegetabiliam, in which the genera are dis-

B O T A NY. 392 Botany, posed according to their technical characters. Mur- artificial, cannot be concealed. Part of the objec- Botany, ray, in compiling the fourteenth edition of that work, tions, to which the sexual system was originally has been inadvertent, respecting this essential part of liable, have been obviated. We mean what concerns its plan. Indeed it is probable that he was not the last class but one, Polygamia. Dr Forster obcompetent to judge of the affinities of the new served, in his voyage round the world, that this class genera, introduced from the Supplementum, or from was subject to great exception, on account of the the communications of Jacquin, Thunberg, &c. \et trees of tropical climates, so many of which are surely he might have perceived the affinity of Banksia constantly or occasionally polygamous ; that is. each to Protea, rather than to Ludwigia or Oldenlandia ; individual frequently bears some imperfect flowers, and indeed Linnaeus himself ought to have discovered male or female, along w ith its perfect or united ones. the relationship of the latter to Hedyotis, if he did Such a circumstance reduces any genus to the class not detect their identity, instead of inserting it be- Polygamia; and on this principle Mr Hudson, tween two such strict allies of each other as Ludwi- thinking perhaps that he made a great improvement, gia and Ammannia. To pursue these remarks would removed our Ilex Aquifolium, or Holly, thither, be endless. It is hardly necessary to indicate the though Ilex is well placed by Linnaeus in the fourth present essay has ventured natural classes, or orders, of the Linntean system, class. The author of the r such as the Tetradynamia, Didynamia, Diadelphia, to propose a scheme, w hich is adopted in his Flora Syngenesia; the Triandria Digynia, Gynandria Britannica, for getting clear of this difficulty. He Diandria, &c. Except the first-mentioned class, considers as polygamous such genera only as, bewhich, if Cleome be removed, is strictly natural and sides having that character in their organs of imentire, the others are liable to much criticism. We pregnation, have a difference of structure in the are almost disposed to allow, what we know not that other parts of their two kinds of flowers. Thus any one has yet observed, that the system in ques- Atriplex has, in its perfect flowers, a regular spreadtion is the more faulty in theory, for these classes ing calyx, in five equal segments ; in the attendant being so natural as they are. Each order of the female ones a compressed one, of two leaves, subseDidynamia presents itself as a natural order, though quently much enlarged. The genera thus circumstanced are so very few, the character of that class, derived from the proportion of the stamens, serves to exclude several genera as far as we have discovered, that possibly the of each order, and to send them far back, into the class might, but for the uniformity of the system, second class. If all ideas of natural affinity be dis- be abolished. We cannot indeed tell what future carded from our minds, there is no harm whatever in discoveries may be made; and its character, on the this; but if the Didynamia claims any credit, as a above foundation, is sufficiently clear and permanent; class founded in nature, the above anomaly is a de- for flowers of an essentially different configuration, fect. So, still more, under the same point of view, can hardly vary into each other. The orders of the is the Diadelphia, or at least its principal order De- last class of the Linnaean system, Cryptogamia, are candria, liable to exception. This order consists natural, and preserved, all nearly the same, by every entirely of the very natural family of Papilionacece. systematic projector. The original appendix to this They are characterized as having the ten stamens system, the Palmce, would be a great blemish therein two sets. Now it happens that there are many in, as an artificial arrangement: for such an arrangepapilionaceous genera, indeed a great number of ment ought to be so formed as to admit every thing, such have been discovered since Linnaeus wrote, on some principle or other. But this stumblingwhose ten stamens are all perfectly distinct. These block is now removed. The palm tribe were placed therefore are necessarily referred to the class De- thus by themselves, merely till their fructification candria, and they come not altogether amiss there, should be sufficiently known. Now they are found because they meet, in that class, some concomitant to agree well with some of the established classes genera, which though, like them, leguminous, are and orders, where they meet with several of their less exactly, or scarcely at all, papilionaceous. But natural allies. Whatever advantages might accrue to the practi- Natural the greatest complaint lies against some genera of the Diadelphia Decandria, for having the stamens cal study of botany, from the convenience and faciall really combined into one set, so as in truth to lity of his artificial system, Linnaeus was from the na;lls< answer to the technical character of the preceding beginning intent on the discovery of a more philosoclass, Monadelphia. There is mostly indeed some phical arrangement of plants, or, in other words, the indication of a disunion upward, where they, more classification of nature. This appears from the 77th or less perfectly, form two sets ; and some of them aphorism of the very first edition of his Fundamenta are so nearly diadelphous, that their complete union Botanica, published in 1736, where he mentions his at' the bottom may easily be overlooked; others, design of attempting to trace out fragments of a nahowever, have onl}7 a fissure along the upper side of tural method. In the corresponding section of his their common tube, without any traces of a separate Philosophia Botanica, he, fifteen years afterwards, stamen or stamens. The papilionaceous character performed his promise; and the same Fragmenta, as of the corolla therefore, in such cases, is made to he modestly called them, were subjoined to the 6th overrule that of the particular mode of union among edition of his Genera Plantarum, the last that ever the stamens, and is in itself so clear, as seldom to came from his own hands. The interleaved copies be attended with any difficulty ; but the incorrect- of these works, with his manuscript notes, evince ness of principle in the system, in the point before how assiduously and constantly he laboured at this us, as being neither professedly natural, nor exactly subject, as long as he lived. He was accustomed to

BOTANY. 393 Botany, deliver a particular course of lectures upon it, from the number or the absence of the cotyledons, or Botany, time to time, to a small and select number of pupils, lobes of the seed, is the great hinge of all the prowho were for this purpose domesticated under his fessedly natural modes of arrangement that have been roof. W hat this great botanist has himself given to attempted. We shall for the present not enter on the world, on the subject under consideration, is in- the consideration of this principle, as it will more deed nothing more than a skeleton of a system, con- properly be explained when we examine the system sisting of mere names or titles of natural orders, of Jussieu. Linnaeus did not consider it as absolute, amounting in his Philosophia to 67, besides an ap- for he told Giseke that he knowingly admitted into pendix of doubtful genera; and that number is, in his 11th order some plants that are monocotyledothe Genera Plantarum, reduced to 58. nous, with others that are dicotyledonous. The reaUnder the title of each order, the genera which son of this was the only secret he kept from his pucompose it are ranged according to the author’s pil, nor could the latter ever dive into it, though he ideas of their relationship to each other, as appears afterwards endeavoured to learn it from the younger by some of his manuscript corrections; and some of Linnaeus, who knew nothing, neither did he, as the orders are subdivided into sections, or parcels of Giseke says, much care, about the matter. W'e hope genera more akin to each other than to the rest. to be able to throw some light upon this mystery, He ingenuously avowed, at all times, his inability to when we come to the order in question. define his orders by characters. He conceived that The want of any avowed principle of distinction, they were more or less connected with each other, precludes all criticism of these natural orders of Linby several points of affinity, so as to form a map, naeus, as a regular system ; we can therefore only rather than a series. The experienced botanist, who take a cursory view of them as they follow each other, peruses the above-mentioned Fragmenta, will in most with such indications of their characters as Giseke cases readily imbibe the ideas of their author, as to has recorded, or as we may ourselves be able to the respective affinities of the genera. In some few trace. A great part of the substance of the lectures, instances,, as the Dumosce, where he avows his own published by him, consists of remarks on the genera doubts, and the Holemcere, where he is unusually of each order, as to their mutual distinctions; with paradoxical, it is more difficult to trace the chain of numerous botanical and even economical matters, his ideas. Such however was all the assistance he which do not all come within the compass of our thought himself competent to afford. His distin- present consideration. What wre have to lay before » guished pupils Fabricius and Giseke fortunately took the reader is not, in any manner, forestalled, by notes of his lectures on natural orders; and by the what he will find in the fourth volume of the Encycare of the latter, to whom Fabricius communicated clopedia, above cited, which is taken from a diffewhat he had likewise preserved, their joint acquisi- rent source. tions have been given to the public, in an octavo voOrder 1. Palme. “ An entirely natural, and Linnaeus's lume at Hamburgh, in 1792. Nor was this done very distinct order.” This tribe of plants, stationed e5(Positioii without the permission of their venerable teacher, by nature within the tropics, is considered by Lin-0*11^ who told Giseke by word of mouth, when they took naeus as the original food of man ; still supplying the1*1 n CrS’ leave of each other, that “ as he loved him, he had place of corn to the inhabitants of tropical counlaboured with pleasure in his serviceadding, that tries. Palms are the most lofty of plants, and yet “ Giseke was at liberty to publish, whenever he it is a matter of doubt whether they ought to be pleased, any thing that he had retained from his own called trees or herbs. They do not form wood in instructions.” concentric circles, year after year, like our trees, Linnaeus, according to a conversation with Giseke, though they are extremely long-lived. The author recorded in the preface of the volume edited by the of the sexual system was, as we have just mentioned latter, declined to the last any attempt to define in in speaking of that system, but little acquainted at words the characters of his orders. His reason for first with the structure of the flowers of palms, or this appears in his Classes Plantarum, where he just- the number of their stamens or pistils. His predely remarks, that no certain principle, or key, for any cessors in the establishment of genera of plants, such definition can be proposed, till all the orders, Tournefort and Plumier, had published little or noand consequently all the plants, in the world are thing illustrative of this tribe. Fie had himself seen known. He has however so far expressed his opi- no more than three or four species in fructification, nion, in the work last quoted, as to point out the nor had he any other resource, in founding genera, situation of the seed itself, with respect to other than the plates of the Ilortus Malabaricus, (excellent parts, and the situation and direction of its vegetat- indeed, but not delineated with any particular view ing point, or corculum, as most likely to lead to a of this kind,) and the less complete representations scheme of natural classification. Hence the system of Rumphius. The growth of these plants is quite of Caesalpinus stood very high in his estimation. He simple. Each terminates in a bud, of a large size, also, in the conversation above-mentioned, divides called the heart, or by voyagers in general the cabhis own orders into three sections, or classes, Mono- bage, of the palm. When this is cut off, the tree coti/ledones, comprising the first ten orders, with the dies, though the growth of many centuries. This 15th: Dicotifledones, (with two or more cotyledons), bud has a gradual and nearly continual vegetation, the 11th to the 54th order, inclusive, except the unfolding its leaves, which Linnaeus rather incorrect15th; and Acotyledones, order 55th to 58th, with a ly terms fronds, one after another in succession, not hint that the last, or Fungi, ought perhaps to be al- all at any particular season. The bud therefore is together excluded. This distribution of plants, by perennial, not, as in our trees, annual, nor can it, for vol. ir. part ii. 3D

BOTANY. 394 Botany, this reason, be renewed. Fresh buds, in time be- three in each fruit. Hence, while the fructification Botany, coming trees, are furnished from the generally affords sufficient materials for discriminating genera, creeping, perennial, and deeply descending roots. Linnaeus observes that no common character, excluWhat have commonly been denominated the branch- sively descriptive of the whole order, can be foundes of Palms, Linnaeus very properly declined calling ed upon it. The reader will find the essential chaso, because they never increase by producing lesser racters of his genera in our Yol. IV. 288. His Zabranches. He objected to calling them leaves, “ be- mia, concerning which he avowed considerable doubts, cause they are each attended by no separate annual chiefly because it wanted a spatha, is now, by combud, neither have they the texture ot ordinary leaves, mon consent among botanists, removed either to the nor do they wither and fall off at any particular sea- Ferns, or to an intermediate order between them and son.” He adopted the term frond, which he always the Palms, to which also Cycas belongs. The techused when he could not decide whether the part in nical characters which have induced this alteration, question were a branch, leaf, or stem. We cannot are confirmed by circumstances attending the habit but think these are truly leaves, though it must be and qualities of these genera. At the end of his proper Palmce, Linnaeus subconfessed they differ from the generality of such, in being destitute of any line of separation by which joins, in a distinct section, throe genera, which he they are capable of falling, or being thrown off, from was doubtful whether to leave there, or to establish the stem. In this they agree with the foliage of as a distinct order. These are Stratiotes, HydrochaMusci and Jnngermannice; there being a perfect ris, and Valisneria. He remarks in his lectures that continuity of substance throughout. The hardened “ they have a spatha extremely like the palms; a catorn fibres, or rather vessels, which remain on the lyx of three leaves, and a corolla of three petals ; stems of palms, where the leaves have once been, are leaves perennial and evergreen, folded when they precisely the same as what occur in various mosses; first come forth. Hydrocharis cannot be separated and something similar may be observed in many lilia- from Stratiotes, nor Valisneria from Hydrocharis. ceous plants and their allies, which approach to the They produce their leaves crowded together at the base, like Ferns. Although their strict affinity with nature of palms. In describing the fructification of this order, Lin- the larger Palms of India cannot be demonstrated, naeus considered as belonging thereto, what we they ought nevertheless to be associated therewith. should presume to be rather the inflorescence. They are all aquatics, whence we may presume that Hence the great branching flowerstalk retains, in a India may afford some aquatic palms, smaller than technical sense, the name of spadix, derived from the others, which may prove a connecting link bethe ancients; and its ample containing sheath is de- tween the latter and the plants of which we are nominated a spatha. The latter is reckoned a kind speaking.” Giseke points out several palms, in variof calyx, as the former a sort of branched common ous authors, which though but imperfectly ascertainreceptacle. Linnaeus strengthens his terminology in ed, confirm this conjecture of his preceptor. Linthis case, by tracing an analogy between the spatha naeus in his own copy of the Genera Plantarum, enof palms, and the glume of grasses. We doubt riched w’ith his manuscript notes, to which we shall whether any such particular analogy exists. Nei- often refer, has marked this section, or appendage, ther does his other comparison, of the part in ques- of his Palmce, as distinguished by “ an inferior fruit, tion to the sheath of a Narcissus and its allies, at with many seeds.” He has moreover added 4 genera all, as far as wre can judge, elucidate or contirm his to this assemblage, Pandanus, Bromelia, Tillandsia, principle. He surely swerves in these instances, as and Burmannia. Giseke has amply illustrated the well as in his generic distinctions of the umbellife- order of Palmce, by observations of his own, or those rous plants, from the correctness of an axiom, on of various writers; but the most solid acquisitions to which botany as a philosophical science depends, our knowledge, in this interesting tribe, are derived that generic characters, and much more those of from the labours of Dr Roxburgh, in his Plants of' classes and orders, should be exclusively derived Coromandel. Order 2. Piperita. “ The plants of this order from the parts of fructification. Surely a very slight consideration of the flowers and fruits of the Palmce, have an acrid flavour, wdience the name.” They afas we have become acquainted with them since the ford no common character to discriminate the order, time of Linnaeus, will abundantly satisfy any person, except possibly the elongated receptacle and sessile that they afford clear characters, on which to found anthers, but some amentacece have the same. They a sufficient number of distinct and very natural ge- consist of Zostera, Arum and its allies, Orontium, nera. Even that author, in the lectures before us, Acorns, Piper, and Saururus. The last is removed records that some genera have a three leaved calyx, by Linnaeus in his manuscript to his 15th order. Order 3. Calamari.*. “ These are closely reothers none at all; some have a corolla of three, others one of six, petals; most have six stamens, lated to the true grasses, and have almost the same some three, others nine, while the Nipa of Thunberg kind of leaves. Their seed is solitary and naked ; has only one. The germens are three in some, soli- stamens three; style one, not unfrequently three-cleft glume is of one valve (whereas tary in others, and the style and stigma are subject at the summit. Their ? to like diversity in different genera. The fruit is in most grasses have tw o valves), except Schcenus, which some, as the Phoenix dactylfera, or Date, a single bears several valves irregularly disposed, though in drupa, in others composed of three ; in some, like other respects so near the rest of its order, as scarcethe Cocoa, a nut with a coriaceous coat. The seeds ly to be distinguished without accurate examination are mostly solitary, but in several instances two or of the parts alluded to. The stem of these plants is

S95 botany. Botany. 3otany. a culm, mostly triangular, rarely round, often leaf- usually simple, unless in consequence of cutting less, or nearly so. Leaves rather rigid and rough. away the flowering part; in the Indies most culms Flowers often disposed in an imbricated manner. are branched. The leaves are mostly alternate, Seed in a few instances surrounded with bristles. always undivided, and generally flat on both sides, When these are extended into a kind of wool, hang- with a rough edge, and either smooth or hairy ing out beyond the scales, such a character marks surface. Each leaf stands on a sheath, which emthe genus Eriophorum.” Linnaeus asserts that “ Scir- braces the stem, and is crowned with a membrane, pus differs from Carex, in having all the flowers sometimes termed ligula, closely embracing the united, whereas in the latter some scales are accom- stem, to hinder the admission of water. The sheath panied with stamens only, others with pistilsbut springs from a knot, and (with its membrane) answers he forgot the tunic, or arillus, of the seed, which the purpose of a stipula.” “ The fructification of Grasses differs so much makes the essential and clear character of Carex. He mistakes also in supposing the stamens are al- from that of other plants, that it was supposed imways three in this order; in several instances they are possible to reduce them to scientific order. They but two, in a few they are solitary. Much has been w'ere first distinguished into Corn and grasses ; but done respecting the genera and species of this order such a distinction is founded merely on the compaby Rottboll. Vahl, Brown, Schrader, and others. ratively larger seeds of the former, on which we deLinnaeus has made a manuscript correction in the pend for food, as small birds do on the very minute Calamarice, excluding from thence Typha and Spar- seeds of the latter. Ray was the first botanist who ganium, which he would remove to the preceding undertook a regular examination of grasses. He order, principally, it seems, because he judged the distributed them according to their outward appearlatter to be very closely allied to Zostera ; as well ances, but distinctive characters failed him. Neither as on account of its anthers, but we can trace no was Tournefort, however great a botanist, equal to resemblance in those to the Piperitce. On the con- the arrangement of this tribe. Monti followed Ray, trary they and their filaments agree with the Cala- but investigated such only as were natives of Italy. maricB. The stamens of Typha indeed are some- John Scheuchzer, first induced by Sherard, paid a what different, and Mr Brown, in his Prodromus most laborious attention to this subject, collecting Flora; Novce Uollandice, has anticipated this altera- grasses from all quarters, and describing them with the greatest exactness; but he was deficient in techtion of Linnaeus. Order 4. Gramina. “ The true grasses compose nical terms, and his very long descriptions are nearas peculiar a family as the palms. They are the ly all alike, till he arrives at the flowering part. The most common plants in the world, making about a terms which he uses are folliculus for the corolla, sixth part of the vegetable kingdom, especially in gluma for the calyx, locusta for the spikelet containopen situations. There they multiply, and extend ed in the latter. After him Micheli contrived a new themselves by their creeping roots, prodigiously. In method, dividing grasses according to their spikelets, confined and woody places they scarcely creep, but which he observed to be either compound or simple. stand erect. They are the most important of all He subdivided them by their flowers being united or vegetables, for this reason, that they are the chief separated; and subjoined an order of plants “ akin support of such animals as depend on vegetable food. to grasses,” which really do not belong to them. If They make the verdure of our summers, and the their sexes be attended to, the arrangement of grasses riches of rustic life. Their leaves are not easily becomes less difficult. They are either monandrous, hurt by being trampled on, and though the severity diandrous, triandrous, or hexandrous. The two latof winter may wither and fiide them, so that in the ter have either united, monoecious or polygamous early spring no appearance of life remains, yet they flowers.” “ The inflorescence in this order of plants is either revive. The solicitude of the Author of Nature, for spiked or panicled. Their spike, properly so called, the preservation of this important tribe of vegetables, appears from their flowering stems being rendered consists of several flowers, placed on an alternately unfit for the food of cattle, that nothing may hinder toothed rachis, or stalk. If such a rachis be conthe perfecting of their seeds. Besides, the more ceived perfectly contracted, it will become a toothed they are cut and ill-treated, the more vigorously common receptacle, as in compound flowers, so that they grow, propagating themselves proportionably grasses may thus be distinguished into simple and under ground ; and in order that they may be en- compound. Or if we imagine all the flowers to be abled to thrive any where, their narrow’ leaves are so sessile on one common base, such grasses as are procontrived, as to insinuate themselves between the perly spiked will have a scaly receptacle, the rest a divisions or branches of other herbs, without any naked one, according to the analogy of the syngemutual impediment. There are very few grasses nesious class ; and by this means the corn family agreeable to our palate. For the most part they are may be separated from the rest, for they are scaly. “ The calyx is a husk of two valves, one proceedinsipid, like pot-herbs; a very small number being fragrant. None are nauseous or poisonous. Grasses ing from within the base of the other, like the claw are the most simple of all plants ; having scarcely of a crab. These husks are concave, and truly the any spines, prickles, tendrils, stings, bracteas, or si- leaves of the plant in miniature. The calyx contains one, two, or more, florets, which are constructmilar appendages to their herbage.’ “ Their stem is termed a culm, being hollow, com- ed in the same manner, of two leafy husks, called by posed of joints which are separated by impervious Linnaeus petals, to distinguish them from the former. knots. In our quarter of the world the culm is Within the petals, the receptacle bears two very

306 BOTANY. I'otany. minute, roundish, pellucid, extremely tender, wither- Iris involute; in not a few Commclina ovate ; in Botany, ing scales, often invisible without a magnifier, which Xyris and various kinds of Eriocaulon awl-shaped. Micheli termed petals, Linnaeus nectaries. Stamens Fulcra, or appendages, are scarcely to be found in generally three, in a few one, two, or six, with capil- this order. The calyx is a spatha, though but of a lary filaments, and oblong incumbent anthers, whose spurious kind, being mostly a large concave valve, lobes become separated at each end. Micheli er- resembling a halved sheath in Iris ; most beautiful roneously imagined those which have six stamens, in Commelina, where it is heart-shaped. In Sisyrin* to bear, as it were, doubled flowers. The germen chium however this part is more perfectly bivalve. is superior, with two styles, sometimes raised on a Corolla generally of six petals; though in Iris so common stalk or elongated base, and they are usually united by their claws, as to constitute a monopereflexed to each side, being either longitudinally talous corolla. In Commelina and Tradescantia the hairy, or tufted at the summit only. Seed univer- petals are very distinct, but the three inferior being sally solitary, without a capsule, Lygeum only hav- ruder in texture, and smaller, resemble a calyx. ing a nut, of two cells, which is very singular. A Style with three stigmas, except some Commelince. few have a simple style, as Zea, Nardus, and Lygeum. Pericarp a capsule of three cells and three valves, The seed is occasionally coated by the petals, which with many seeds; generally inferior, but not so in closely enfold it, and are almost united with it, wit- Commelina, Tradescantia, and Callisia. Hence it ness Hordeum and Avena (to which examples in- follows that this order affords no certain mark, on dicated by Linnaeus we may add Briza). “ Many which a distinctive character could be founded.” Order 7. Orchide^e. “ Orchis is a most ancient grasses are furnished with an awn, arista, mostly rough, like a prominent bristle, inserted into the generic appellation, alluding to the testicular shape back of the outermost petal, either at the bottom, of the roots, in many plants of this family, which middle, summit, or a little below the latter. This have, at all times, been believed to possess a stimuappendage is either straight, or furnished with a lating, or aphrodisiacal virtue. All the Orchidece joint, and twisted backward, or simply recurved ; in might be comprehended in one genus, in which light some it is woolly; in several it is accompanied by also the Umbellatcc, Semiflosculosce, Papilionacece, hairs at the base of the corolla. The use of these might each likewise be considered. But the science parts is to attach the ripe seeds to the coats of ani- would be overwhelmed in confusion by such extensive genera, which it is therefore found necessary to mals, that they may be the more dispersed.” “ Although grasses are destitute of spines proper- subdivide. “ Many Or chide re have a tuberous fleshy root; ly so called, a few have their leaves longitudinally involute, in such a manner that their rigid perma- not properly to be termed bulbous, because its fibresnent points have all the properties of thorns, as in are thrown out from the top, or crown, whereas true Spinifex, and some Festucce. Their foliation is, bulbs produce their fibres from the base. These for the most part, involute, but in some instances, as tubers, or knobs, are mostly in pairs; some of them Bactylis glomerata, it is folded. This character has globose and undivided, others palmate, like the hand. not as yet received sufficient attention, but ought to One of these tubers, from whence the plant of the be noticed in future, as it may throw great light present year has come, being exhausted, will swim on the distribution of the family of plants in question. in water; the other, destined to blossom next seaVery few indeed are furnished with setaceous leaves.” son, is so solid as to sink. In the palmate kinds, Order 5. Tripetaloide^. “ Scheuchzer and the former is vulgarly called the hand of the Devil, other authors have referred Juncus and its allies to the latter the hand of God. Ophrys corallorrhiza Grasses, under the title of Graminibus ajjines. In however has a threadshaped, branched, and jointed truth, they are so similar to grasses, as scarcely to root; that of O. bifolia is perfectly fibrous. In other be distinguishable without fructification. The ge- genera, particularly Epidendrum, the root consists nera are Juncus, ApJiyllanthes, Triglochin, Scheuch- of clusters of fibres.” “ The stem is solitary and herbaceous, except in zeria, Elegia and Restio in the first place, then Flagellaria, Calamus, Butomus, Alisma and Sagittaria.” several kinds of Epidendrum, quite simple, often Linnaeus, in his manuscript, has hinted, that the leafy. In some however there is merely a leafless, three latter may possibly belong to the above-men- radical flowerstalk, generally round, though not so tioned section at the end of his Palmce ; see Ord. 1. in Ophrys Loeselii and paludosa. The leaves are Order 6. Ensat^e. “ So called from the form of simple, alternate, undivided, sheathing the stem; their leaves, resembling a sword, being perfectly sometimes wanting, as in Orchis abort km. Appensimple, almost linear, alternate, mostly converging dages none at all, except bracteas. Inflorescence by the margins, often cloven longitudinally, so that terminal, either spiked or racemose. Fructification the edge of one leaf embraces the other, thus con- irregular, and very singular, for it is impossible to say stituting what is termed equitant foliage. The root what is calyx, and what corolla ; nor is this point of in many cases is oblong and fleshy, lying flat on the much importance, nature having placed no limits ground, or creeping. But some species of Iris are between them. There are five petals; besides a truly bulbous, like Crocus, Ixia, Antholyza, &c. nectary, which makes, as it were, a sixth. These Stem, in these genera, simple, erect, zig-zag; but five seem to constitute an upper lip, the nectary an in Commclina, especially the annual kinds, it is under one. Or it rnay be said that the corolla is branched, as in Tradescantia. Crocus and Bulbo- composed of three outer, often ruder, petals; and Codium have no stems. Leaves usually sword-shaped; three inner, the lowermost of which ought rather to very rarely quadrangular; in the bulbous species of be denominated a nectary. This last is various in 7

botany. 397 able number there;) both Indies abound with Boiany. Botany, different genera, having its appropriate figure and dimensions, while the rest of the petals are more singular ones, especially with Epidendra. Their fauniform. Sometimes the middlemost of the five pe- vourite soil is a spongy, moist, friable, rich, but not tals, composing the upper lip, (like that of a ringent manured, earth, in rather shady situations. The ^ or helmet-shaped flower,) is more erect and dilated; species of Epidendrum are all, perhaps, parasitical, their roots into the bai’k of aged trees.” but I have received some species from the Cape of insinuating “ Orchidece are extremely difficult of culture.” Good Hope, in which these petals are united to each other, and elongated at their common base in- We refrain from transcribing the ideas of Linnaeus to a spur. Such will constitute a new division or on this subject, as it is now known that some of genus, of this family, as it stands in the Species these plants may be propagated by seed, and that Plant arum, many of which have a spur from the several succeed very well in our stoves, among the base of the lower lip, or nectary. The petals how- rotten bark of trees, accompanied by fresh vegetable ever do not afford sufficient distinctions, for genera mould. Our wild Orchises are best removed when or species. The former are determined by the nec- in full bloom, vrhen the mould should be entirely tary, which is for that purpose principally to be re- cleared away from their roots, and the latter planted garded. There is indeed no occasion to advert to immediately in fresh sifted soil from their native any other part than the flower of these plants, for place of growth, with moderate subsequent waterdistinguishing either genera or species. Vaillant ing. Thus treated they will come up and flower for successive years in the same pot. therefore, and Seguier, have contented themselves many Order 8. Scitamine^e. “ These nearly approach with delineating their various flowers alone. c( The stamens consist of two anthers, nearly the Orchidece in aspect. The name of the order is without filaments, very singular, and peculiar to this an ancient word, synonymous with aromatic, and anorder, concealed in a double pouch or hood, but swers to the whole of the tribe, except Musa, Helitheir pollen has not been ascertained. They aie^« conia, and Canna.” (The two former certainly do not to this order, and the last but imperfectly.) New, m the Encyclopcedia, and the same ville. l thts Supplement, for an account of its pre- population of 300,000 Indians, div.ded into parishes, and governed solely by the Jesuit parish priests. BOUGAINVILLE (Lotus Antoine be), a ce- No other Europeans but the Jesuits were admitted lebiated Circumnavigator, was born in Paris in into the country, in order that the work of confat er was a Notar ^ of Paris. . and one the version might not be frustrated by bad example. Sheriffs of the city TheyJ parents of of younoThe produce of the labour of the Indians was deBougainville wished him to practise as a Lawyer livered into the hands of the Jesuits, who furnished and for this purpose, he was received Advocate them with food and clothing. For this purpose the in the Parliament of Paris; but his own inclina- Jesuits had warehouses filled with European and tion was averse to the profession, and he entered American merchandise, and also a number of slaves. into the army in the corps of musketeers. They had schools for instructing the Indians in muHe associated much with Clairaut and D’Alembert sic, painting, and other arts. The Spanish governwho happened to live in his neighbourhood, and ment having determined on the suppression of the from this intercourse he derived his knowledge of Jesuits, took every precaution to prevent their being Algebra and Fluxions. At the age of twenty-five informed of the intended measure; and they were he published his treatise on the Integral Calculus, arrested and sent to Europe without any attempt at intended as a supplement and continuation of L’Ho- resistance on their part. pital’s treatise Des infiniment petits. Bougainville, in Bougainville passed the Straits of Magellan, and his pieface, declares, that all he has done in this anchored for a week at Otaheite, where the English work, is to place, in a systematic order, the formulae navigator Wallis had touched eight months before. of different mathematicians. A young man of Otaheite joined the expedition, and He was raised to the rank of Major in the Picardy was taken to Paris, where he staid thirteen months. regiment. He went to London as secretary to the On his way back to his native country he died of the French embassy, and was chosen a Member of the small-pox. Royal Society. In 1756, he went to Canada as The numerous rocks and other dangers made BouCaptain of dragoons, and having distinguished him- gainville turn off to the north-east, and prevented him self in the war against England, was rewarded by from continuing a westerly course, so as to pass the cross of the order of St Louis. through the channel which separates New Holland After the peace, the French government having from New Guinea. These two Islands, in his general conceived the project of planting a colony on the chart, are laid down as forming one, although he Falkland Islands, Bougainville undertook to begin possessed some information of the existence of the this establishment at his own expence. The Falk- channel. Two years after, namely in 1770, Captain land Islands, to which Bougainville gave the name of Cook sailed through this channel, so dangerous by Malouines (that is, St Malo Islands), are in 51° south its coral reefs. latitude, and 10n of longitude to the east of the meThe expedition having now crossed all the meriridian of Cape Horn. Fish js abundant on their dians of the Pacific Ocean, and suffering from the shores, and there is peat or turf for fuel, but no scurvy in consequence of scarcity of food, came wood. Bougainville began the settlement by land- to anchor in the Gulf of Cajeli, a settlement of the ing some families of French Canadians. The number Dutch East India Company in the agreeable Island of settlers was increased afterwards to 150. of Borou, one of the Moluccas. The Governor liThis colony excited the jealousy of the Spanish berally supplied the wants of the expedition. He government; and-the government of France agreed lived splendidly in a house built in the Chinese style, that it should be given up to the Spaniards, the Spa- and judiciously adapted to the warmth of the clinish government undertaking to indemnify Bougain- mate ; his wrife and daughters wore the Chinese dress. ville for the expence he had been at in forming the “ Sa maison etoit la notre,” says Bougainville ; “ a* establishment. toute heure on y trouvoit a boire et a manger, et ce As a consolation to Bougainville for the loss of genre de politesse en vaut bien un autre pour qui his’ colony, he was appointed to command the surtout se ressentoit encore de la famine.” It was Frigate La Boudeuse of 26 eight pounders, and the the beginning of September, and the expedition transport L Etoile, to go on a voyage of discovery shortened their stay at Borou, in order to take adround the world. He took with him Commergon vantage of the latter part of the easterly monsoon, as Naturalist, and Verron as Astronomer. which carried them to Batavia ; from thence they This was the first voyage round the world per- proceeded to the Isle of France. Commer^on reformed by the French. Since the first circumnavi- mained at the Isle of France, that he might from gation by Magellan under the Spanish Government thence proceed to examine the botany of Madagasin 1519, and that of Drake under Queen Elizabeth car, as did Verron, for the purpose of observintr the S jn 1577, eleven other circumnavigations of the world transit of Venus. had been performed, part of them by the Dutch, and In 1769, the expedition arrived at St Malo, after part by the English, and also several voyages of dis- a voyage of two years and four months, with the covery had been made in the Pacific Ocean, without loss of only seven men out of upwards of 200. circumnavigation. Bougainville’s account of the voyage is written The expedition commanded by Bougainville was with simplicity, and in a temper which inclined him Botany Bay

424 B O U Boufrain- to view objects on the humorous side. His courage, the good humour with which he maintained subor„ I' dination, and his attention to the health and comforts . of the crew, are everywhere conspicuous. jjie art 0f making astronomical observations at sea was not so much improved as it is now, and especially the methods for ascertaining the longitude were very defective. In consequence of this, Bougainville’s charts are erroneous, and particularly in the longitudes. Neither did he remain long enough in any place to make particular surveys. Bougainville’s life was an active one, so that little of it could be devoted to study. On his return to France, his time was passed in the company of the highest circles in Paris. He had the command of a ship under He Grasse and H Bstaing ; and, in April 1781, when the French fleet was beaten, he rallied some of the beaten ships, and brought them into St Eustachio. After the peace, by which the independence of the United States of America was secured, Bougainville returned to Paris. The Academy of Sciences was at that time composed of pensioned members, and of associates who had no salary ; Bougainville solicited and obtained the place of Associate of the Academy. He had a project of making a voyage of discovery towards the north pole. As this did not meet with support from the French Government, he sent his plan to Admiral Phipps; Phipps, however, followed a different course from that proposed by Bougainville, but he only got to the 80th degree of north latitude. Recourse was had to Bougainville in order to repress the mutinous disposition of the sailors in the French Navy, before the breaking out ot the Revolution ; but his efforts were ineffectual. He had the rank of Vice-Admiral in 1791- In 1792, he escaped almost miraculously from the massacres of Paris, and went to live on his estate in Normandy. He was much attached to the Government, which was then falling. He lived on his estate for some time ; it was the only part of his fortune that the Revolution had left him. He was chosen a Member of the Institute at its first formation, and, in consequence, returned to reside in Paris. He succeeded Borda as Member of the Board of Longitude. In his old age, under the government of Bonaparte, he enjoyed the dignity of Senator, was created a Count, and Member of the Legion of Honour. He retained his good-humoured liveliness and Lis mental faculties to the last, and died in 1811, aged 82. He was married, and bad three sons who served in the French army. He was always eager to promote science; and he conducted himself during the Revolution, in such a manner as to obtain the respect of all parties. His eloge is written by Delambre in the Memoirs of the Institute. (y.) BOUGUER (Peter), an eminent French Mathematician, was born in 1698. His father was King’s Professor of Hydrography at Croisic in Lower Britany, one of the best Hydrographers of his time, and author of an excellent Treatise on Navigation. Young Bouguer was bred to Mathematics from his

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infancy, and made rapid progress in that science, flongner, A t an early age he was appointed to succeed his 's^v^ father in the chair of Professor of Hydrography, after having undergone a strict examination in Mathematics, so as completely to satisfy his examiners. In 1727, he gained the prize given by the Academy of Sciences of Paris, for his paper On the best Manner of forming and distributing the Masts of Ships. He got two other prizes from the Academy in the course of four years ; the one was bestowed on him for his Dissertation On the best Method of observing the Altitude of Stars at Sea; the other, for his paper On the best Method of observing the Variation of the Compass at Sea. These papers are published in the Prix de V Academic des Sciences. In 1729, he published a work entitled Essai d'Optique sur la Gradation de la Lumiere; the object of which is to define the quantity of light which is lost by passing through a given extent of the atmosphere. He finds the light of the sun to be 300 times more intense than that of the moon. He was soon after made Professor of Hydrography at Havre, whereby he had the advantage of being nearer Paris than before; and he was chosen associate Geometer of the Academy of Sciences, a place which did not require residence in Paris. In this place he was the successor of Maupertius. Afterwards, he was promoted in the Academy to the place of pensioned Astronomer, and came to reside in Paris. It w’as resolved in France to send an expedition to South America for the purpose of measuring a degree of the meridian near the equatoi*. From that measurement, compared with the length of a degree of the meridian in other latitudes, the deviation from sphericity in the figure of the earth might be known. The Academy made choice of four of its members to proceed on this voyage; they were Godin, Bouguer, and de la Condamine, for the geodetical operation, and the younger Jussieu for observations in Natural History. Bouguer and his fellow-travellers sailed from La Rochelle in 1735, and it was ten years before he returned to France. The account of his operations during the expedition is given by him in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, 1744, and in a separate work, entitled La Figure de la Terre determinee par les observations de MM. Bouguer et de la Condamine. There is likewise an account of this expedition published by Don George Juan and Don Antonio de Ulloa, two scientific naval officers, who accompanied the expedition by order of the Spanish Government. The length of a portion of the meridian w as measured on the ground by means of a base and a set of triangles. Then by observing the altitude of the s of Orion which passed near the zenith, simultaneously at the two ends of the meridian line that had been measured, that line was found to contain 3° 7' of latitude. A star near the zenith was employed, to the end that the observation might not be affected by refraction; e of Orion passed the meriaian in the zenith near the middle of the line measured, so that the distance of that star south of the zenith of the northern extremity of the line was 1° 25' 46"; and its distance

B O U ?oiigner. north, of the zenith of the southern extremity of the was 1° 41' 13" ; the sum of these two numbers making 3° 7'. The altitude was taken by zenith sectors of a long radius. The ground on which these operations were performed was elevated 12,000 feet above the level of the sea, and 4200 feet above the neighbouring city of Quito, and situate in a plain extending from north to south, between the two ridges of the Cordillera. The northern extremity of the arc was on the equator. The length of the degree resulting was 56,767 toises; but this was the degree of a curve circumscribed round the earth at the height of 12,000 feet above the level of the sea; and the length of the degree at the level of the sea deduced from this, with some other corrections, is 56,753 toises. This length of the degree of the meridian at the equator was compared with the degree of the meridian measured in France, with the degree measured in Lapland, and with the degree of longitude deduced in the south of France. From this comparison it was concluded, that the equatorial diameter of the earth is to the polar diameter as 179 t0 178> and that the equatorial radius of the earth was about eight leagues longer than the polar. Since the time of Bouguer, degrees have been measured in different climates, with more accurate instruments than he possessed; but the precise proportion of the equatorial and polar diameters of the earth is not yet finally ascertained. Bouguer makes the excess of the equatorial diameter above the polar to be -y-fg; Sir Isaac Newton made it T|-g; Laplace, calculating from the lunar motion, ; Melanderhielm and Svanberg, from a degree measured anew in Lapland in 1783, compared with the degree measured in the province of Quito, 3-}^. Bouguer found a the seconds pendulum -^00 ^ne shorter at the summit of Pichincha than at the level of the sea ; that is, the force of gravity was less by one 1200th part at that elevation. He made some observations on the limit of perpetual snow, a subject which has been elucidated, since his time, by the researches of Humboldt, Von Buch, Wahlenberg, and others. At the equator, the limit of perpetual snow is at 14,760 feet above the sea; a height equal to that of Mont Blanc. In Mexico, in the latitude of 19° 20', it is at 13,800 feet, according to Humboldt. In latitude 28° 15', where the Peak of Teneriffe is situate, it is supposed to be 11,700 feet: the Peak is only 11,454 feet, and has no perennial snow. On Etna, in latitude 37° 30', the edge of the perennial snow is at the height of 9000 feet. On Mount Caucasus, in latitude 42° 30', the limit is at 9900 feet; whilst on the Pyrenees, in latitude 42° 45', it descends to 8400 above the sea; and on the Swiss Alps, in latitude 46°, to 8220 feet. In Iceland, in latitude 65°, the edge of the perennial snow is at the perpendicular height of 2892 feet from the sea. In Lapland, in latitude 67°, where the summers are warmer than in Iceland, though the winters are colder, the perennial snow does not descend so low, attaining only to 3300 French feet from the sea, as Von Buch and Wahlenberg ascertained by barometrical observations. When the latitudes are the same, a solitary mountain will have the edge of the perennial snow von. 11. part 11.

425 B O U higher than a mountain surrounded by others, on Bouguer. account of the warm winds from the neighbouring plains. A mountain in an inland situation will have the border of the perennial snow higher than a mountain in the same latitude, and situated in an island ; the summers which reduce the limits of the snow being warmer in the inland situation. When the mass of perennial snow is large, glaciers are formed, which descend below the limit of perennial snow. Chimbora50 has 5400 feet of its height covered with perpetual snow, according to Humboldt. Bouguer thought he could perceive that the clouds do not ascend higher than 2400 feet above the summit of Chimbora50. If there were mountains whose height reached beyond the greatest height to which the clouds attain, all the part of the mountain above the region of the clouds would be free from snow, although exposed to intense cold. On Bouguer’s supposition of the height to which the clouds ascend, the upper limit of snow at Chimbora50 would be at the height of 22,200 feet above the sea; and the distance between the upper limit of snow and the lower limit would be there about 7800 feet. Bouguer, whilst he was at the equator, made observations to ascertain the obliquity of the ecliptic, which he found to be 23° 28' 28". He also made some experiments on the deviation of the plumbline from the vertical, occasioned by the attraction of a neighbouring mountain, a phenomenon afterwards investigated by Dr Maskelyne, on the mountain Schehallien. The number of Bouguer’s papers contained in the printed Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, is a proof of the assiduity with which he performed his duty in the Academy. His Heliometer is described in the Memoirs of the Academy for 1748. It is an object-glass Micrometer, and its essential parts consist of an astronomical dioptric Telescope, with two object-glasses of the same focal length, placed side by side. When this instrument is directed to the sun, each object-glass gives an image of that luminary ; and the object-glasses are so placed that the limbs of the two images touch when the diameter of the sun is greatest, and when the diameter is less, there is an interval between the limbs of the two images. Some experimenters maintained that the plumbline had a diurnal oscillation; Bouguer showed that it remains at rest. He employed, for this purpose, a Telescope attached to the end of a chain 187 feet long, suspended within the dome of the church of the Hospital of Invalids at Paria; the Telescope w as directed to a distant mark, so that any motion in this long pendulous system might be seen by the deviation of the wires of the Telescope from the mark. The particulars of this experiment are to be found in the Mem. de VAcademic des Sciences, 1754. In the volume for 1739 mid 1749, there are papers of his on the astronomical refraction in the torrid zone, particularly in cases where the star is seen at more than 9O0 from the zenith, in consequence of the observer being in a high situation. In the volume for 1747, he proposed a log of a new construction for measuring a ship’s way. In the same collection, there are papers of his on 3H

426 B O U Bousuer the lengtli of the pendulum, on the form of the prow Boulton.

suffers least resistance in passing through the water, and on a variety of other subjects. He bestowed great pains on his works, and his health at length became impaired by a sedentary life, and too constant application to scientific pursuits. He died in 1758, aged sixty. His disposition was naturally mild, and the dissensions that arose between him and his fellow traveller de la Condamine caused him great vexation. He was impressed, from his earliest years, with a conviction of the truths of Christianity. By economy he liad acquired a moderate fortune, a part of which he bequeathed to the poor. The following is a list of his principal works:

Traitc. d'Optique sur la Gradation de la hmiere, 1729 and 1760. Entreticns sur la cause de VInclinaison des orhites des Planetes, 1734-; another edition in 174-9. Traite de navire, de sa construction, et de ses mouvemens, 1746, 4to. La Figure de la terre determin.ee, par les Observations de Mess. Bouguer, et de la Condamine, envoyes par ordre du roy au Perou ; Par M. Bouguer, 1749, 4to.* Nouveau Traite de Navigation, coutenant la Theorie et la Pratique du Pilotage, 1753. A new edition by de la Caille, 1761. Solution des Principaux Problemes sur la Manoeuvre dcs Vaisseaux, 1757. Operations faites pour la Verification du degre du meridien entre Paris et Amiens ; Par Mess. Bouguer, Camus, Cassini, et Pingre, 1757. After his return from South America, he was Editor of the Journal des Savans. Some of his paers in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences have een mentioned in this article; his Eloge is contained in the volume for 1758. (y.) BOULTON (Matthew), a Manufacturer and practical Engineer of great celebrity; son of Matthew Boulton, by his wife Christian, daughter of Mr Peers of Chester; was born at Birmingham the 14th of September 1728, and died in August I8O9. He was educated at a neighbouring grammar school, kept by Mr Ansted of Deritend, and was called early into active life upon the death of his father in 1745. The various processes by which the powers of the human mind have given facility to the artist in rendering the different forms of matter obedient to his command, afforded ample scope for the exercise of his inventive faculties, in improving the manufactures of his native place. His first attempt was a new mode of inlaying steel; and he succeeded in obtaining a considerable demand for the products of his manufactory, which were principally exported to the Continent, and not uncommonly reimported for domestic use, as of foreign manufacture. In 1762, his fortune being already considerable, he purchased a tract of barren heath in the neighbourhood of Birmingham, with a single house on it, and there founded, at the expence of L. 9000. the manufactory which has been so flourishing, and so ‘well known under the name of Soho. His, workmen

b o u were at first principally employed in the imitation of Boulton, or moulu, and in copying oil paintings with great accuracy, by means of a mechanical process which was invented by a Mr Egginton, who afterwards distinguished himself by various works in stained glass. Mr Boulton, finding the force of horses inadequate to the various purposes of his machinery, erected, in 1/67j a steam-engine, upon the original construction of feavery, which, notwithstanding the inconvenience of a great loss of steam from condensation, by its immediate contact with the water raised, has still some advantages from the simplicity of the apparatus which it requires, and has even lately been found to succeed w^ell upon a small scale. But Mr Boulton’s objects required a still more powerful machine, and he had the discernment to perceive that they might be very completely attained by the adoption of the various improvements lately made in the steam-engine by Mr Watt of Glasgow", who had obtained a patent for them in 1769, the privileges of which were extended, in 1775, by an act of Parliament, to a term of 25 years. Mr Boulton induced this ingenious and scientific inventor to remove to Birmingham. They commenced a partnership in business, and established a manufactory of steam-engines, in which accurate execution kept pace so well with judicious design, that its productions continued to be equally in request with the public after the expiration of the term of that legal privilege, which at first gave the proprietors the exclusive right of supplying them; and which had been confirmed in 1792 by a decision of the Court of King’s Bench against some encroachments on the right of the patentee. It was principally for the purpose of carrying on this manufactory with greater convenience, that the proprietors established an iron-foundry of their owm at Smethwick, in the neighbourhood of Soho. In 1785, Mr Boulton was made a Fellow of the Royal Society, about the same time with Dr Withering, and several others of his scientific neighbours. In 1788, he turned his attention to the subject of coining, and erected machinery for the purpose, so extensive and so complete, that the operation was performed with equal economy and precision ; and the coins could not be imitated by any single artist for their nominal value,; each of the stamps coining, with the attendance of a little boy only, about eighty pieces in a minute. The preparatory operation of laminating and cutting out the metal, is performed in an adjoining room; and all personal communication between the workmen employed is rendered unnecessary, by the mechanical conveyance of the work from one part of the machinery to another. A coinage of silver was executed at this mint for the Sierra Leone Company, and another of copper for the East Indies, besides the pence and halfpence at present in circulation throughout England, and a large quantity of money of all kinds for Russia. In acknowledgment of Mr Boulton’s services, and in return for some specimens of his different manufactures, the Emperor Paul made him a present of a valuable collection of medals and of minerals. Mr Boulton obtained, in 1797, a patent for a mode of raising water by impulse, the specification of it

B O U Boulton which is published in the ninth volume of the Reper-

B O 17 427 gular positions,—all these, in M. Bory de St Vincent’s Bom bon. Bombon. ^0!'{ ^r^s’V; \45. It had been demonstrated by Da- opinion, indicate terrible physical revolutions in forbeinoulli, in the beginning of the last century, mer times. The northern mountain is entirely volthat water flowing through a pipe, and arriving at a canic, and the phenomena present themselves in an part in which the pipe is suddenly contracted, would extraordinary state of frequency and activity. This have its velocity at first very greatly increased ; but no writer not only conceives both these mountains to practical application of the principle appears to have be originally volcanic, but the whole Island to have been attempted, until an apparatus was set up, in been thrown up by the action of subterraneous fire. 1102, by Mr Whitehurst, for Mr Egerton of Oulton, The two mountains appear to him also to have forin Cheshire ; consisting of an air-vessel, communi- merly composed only one, having an intermediate cating with a waterpipe by a valve, which was forced summit higher than that of either now is. The volopen by the pressure or rather impulse of the water, canic agitations, however, having hollowed the inwhen its passage through the pipe was suddenly ternal part of this great mass, the exterior crust fell stopped by turning the cock, in the ordinary course in, and reduced the Island to the shattered state ot domestic economy; and although the pipe, which it now exhibits. To a great extent, indeed, through which the water was forced up, was of mo- it is divided into two portions by an immense holderate height, the air-vessel, which was at first made low, bordered with perpendicular walls of rock, of lead, was soon burst by the “ momentous force,” which, after running parallel for seven or eight as Mr Whitehurst very properly terms it. The ap- miles, form an arch and unite. At the foot of the paratus had excited much attention in France, un- volcano is found an immense tract of what the inder the name of Montgolfier’s hydraulic ram, and habitants call Brule “ burnt country supposed to Mr Boulton added to it a number of ingenious mo- have been formed by the lava spreading into a spedifications ; some of which, however, are more cal- cies of fiery lake, and then consolidating into the culated to display the vivid imagination of a projec- present surface. It is destitute of all vegetation tor, than the sound judgment of a practical Engineer, whatever; its colour is of the gloomiest black, the which had in general so strongly characterized all surface broken by holes, crevices, and innumerable his productions. asperities of every description. These, joined to He died, after a long illness, in possession of con- its hard and brittle consistence, render it impossiderable affluence, and of universal esteem, leaving sible to be trod without the severest injury to the a son and a daughter to profit by the wealth and re- feet. Those of our traveller’s attendant negroes spectability which he had acquired. He was buried were almost torn to pieces; and his own, though deon the 24th of August at Handsworth, near Soho, fended by strong shoes, were wounded in several attended by a procession of 600 workmen, and by places. a numerous train of his friends and acquaintance. The streams of Bourbon are mere mountain tor{Monthly Magazine, Oct. 1809, p. 368.) (i. j.) rents, which descend from steep to steep, and throw' BOL RBON, Isle of. In the Encyclopcedia will themselves into the sea. In their descent, they dig be found a pretty full account of the discovery and for themselves deep ravines, bordered by lofty, alsettlement of this Island. There has since appeared most perpendicular walls. The largest river, howthe work of M. Bory de St Vincent, which, though ever, that of St Denis, has not a longer course than intitled A Voyage to the four principal Isles of seven or eight miles. These deep and foaming torAfrica, is, in fact, almost entirely occupied by a rents, the rude surface of the ground, and the pervery detailed account of Bourbon. In 1811, also, pendicular rents by which it is everywhere broken, an officer attached to the British expedition against render travelling through Bourbon a most arduous that Island, published an Account of its Conquest, undertaking, M. Bory de St Vincent was assured, with an Appendix on its Present State. From these that his plan of reaching the two principal peaks was materials we are enabled to make some important altogether impracticable; but his enterprise, and additions to the information formerly communicated. love of science, enabled him to surmount all the inItruehue The physical structure of this Isle being the point tervening difficulties. ms^w' which the produce would amply compensate them for the loss of its former wealth. The descendants of the original settlers in the interior of Brasil, have generally sunk into a deplorable degeneracy of manners. They are unfitted for active life by their education, their habits, and still more by their hereditary prejudices. Perpetually indulging in prospects of fancied wealth, they neglect the means by which alone their hopes can be realized. They are listless and indolent, passing whole days in perfect inactivity, and leaving every trade to be occupied by mulattoes or negroes. Every where throughout Brasil there are large tracts of unoccupied land, which may be obtained by making proper application to government, and may be afterwards held as freehold property. Other excellent lands are possessed by many indolent, persons, who are either unwilling or incapable of turning them to any advantage. These may be bought at very low prices, and they afford every possible encouragement to enterprising settlers. Many districts abound with iron ore and limestone; there is excellent clay for making bricks,—wood in abundance for every purpose, and water at command. As an example of the profits which may be gained by farming in Brasil, Mr Mawe mentions having met with an industrious Priest, who, having obtained possession of a farm, which he diligently cultivated, had in the course of four years rendered it worth L. 400,—although he possessed only L. 8—per annum, his salary as a clergyman, with which to hire negroes for the cultivation of his property. Maize, beans, cassava root, which is generally eaten as bread by all ranks, are very generally cultivated. In many parts wheat and other European grain is reared; and where the farmer has planted a sufficient supply of food for the consumption of the farm, he grows coffee, and, if he has the means, he prepares for growing and manufacturing sugar. The farm-houses are generally miserable hovels of one story; the floor is neither paved nor boarded, and the walls and partitions are formed of wicker-work plastered with mud. The kitchen is a filthy room with an uneven muddy floor, interspersed with pools of water; the fire-places are formed by the rude contrivance of three round stones; and as there is no proper chimney, the place is always filled with smoke, which vents itself through the door and other apertures, leaving all within black and dirty. In more remote parts of the country, the same habits of indolence prevail. The people, says Mr Mawe, to whose researches we are indebted for much valuable information respecting this interesting country, “ seemed to act as if the tenure by which they held their lands was about to be abolished; all around them had the appearance of make-shift; their old houses fast hastening to decay, bore no marks of repair about them; wherever a bit of garden ground was inclosed, it appeared overrun with weeds; where coffee-trees, planted in former years, still existed, the present occupiers were too indolent t#

436 • -BRA Brasil, gather the fruit; no inclosures were made for pasturage; a few goats supplied the little milk that was consumed, and cow’s milk was rarely to be procured.” v Gold and Brasil has long been celebrated for the gold and Diamonds, diamonds with which it abounds; but so watchfully was this precious produce formerly guarded by the jealousy of the Portuguese Government, that no foreigner was ever permitted to penetrate into the interior; and, in consequence, no satisfactory information could ever be procured respecting those valuable productions. Lately, however, and more especially since the emigration of the loituguese Royal Family to the Brasils, this policy has been relaxed; and we are indebted to Mr Mawe, who was freely permitted to visit both the goid and the diamond mines of the interior, and to examine eve.y part of the works connected with them, for many curious details respecting this branch of domestic industry, by which the inhabitants aie dinwn iiom every other pursuit. In the beds of almost all the rivers which have their rise in the interior of Brasil, gold is found in abundance, and the nearer the source ol the liver, the soil always proves to be the richer in mineral wealth. It is known that the head waters of all those streams which have their source in the provinces of Minas Geraes or of Goias, and which, tunning south-west, fall into the Parana, a branch of the great river Plata, or turning to the north-east, are carried by the Rio Francisco to the Atlantic, are rich both in gold and diamonds. Almost all the towns in the interior of Brasil, were established by adventurers in pursuit of gold, and they will be found, accordingly, to be situated near the sources of the great rivers, fhe town of St Paul is situated on the western declivity of the chain of mountains which run along the coast near the source of the river Tiete, which, running west, falls into the Parana. Villa Rica is, in like manner, situated near the source of the Paraiba, which falls into the Atlantic, and on the sources of all the other rivers, towns have been established by adventurers drawn to these remote and unfrequented regions by their eager searches after gold. The village of Paracatu is established on the sources of the Rio Francisco, between 300 and 400 miles north-west from Rio Janeiro; its population is estimated at 1000 souls; and it will soon be more numerous, as the rumoured discovery of some rich mines lately found in its vicinity, has already tempted many families to remove to it. Farther to the west, we meet with the head waters of the rivers Toccantins, and with those of the river Aragua, as we advance into the province of Matto-Grosso. There is every - reason to believe that those unexplored regions abound in untouched treasures both of gold and diamonds. The town of Villa Boa is situated on the eastern waters of the river Aragua, in the province of Goias, and is 80 leagues to the west of Paracatu, from whence there is a good road. Several other villages have also been established, at no great distance, for the purpose of collecting the gold which is found in the channels of those mountain streams.

S I L. In various other parts of the Capitania, gold wash- Brasil, ings are established, at some of which gold is found of a very fine quality. Diamonds have been collected in some parts, which are more brilliant in their appearance than those found in the diamond districts of Cerro do Frio, but are not generally of so pure a water. It is known that the river Das Mortes, which belongs to the Capitania of MattoGrosso, and flows in a large stream into the Aragua from the west, is auriferous; and, according to the experience of those most skilled in the nature of the country, the smaller streams which descend from the higher grounds, must be still more productive of gold. Some mining works were at one time established in these remote districts, which were abandoned, not from any scarcity of gold, but because the few inhabitants who had settled in the country, being far removed from the road, and in the midst of a swamp inhabited by savages, could neither be conveniently supplied with arms for their defence, nor with implements for their trade. Farther to the west is found the river Cuiaba, and the other head waters of the river Paraguay, all of which produce gold. The mines of Cuiaba are established on the river of this name, and near the town of Cuiaba, which is large, and is estimated to contain 30,000 inhabitants. They were discovered in the year 1718, and were long celebrated for the quantity of gold which they produced, which has been calculated at 20 arrobas (500 lbs.) annually. The metal is also said to be of an extremely fine quality. The head waters of all the other great rivers, such as the Chingu, the Topayos, and the Madera, which rise in this Capitania, and flow into the Amazons, are found to produce gold. On the^ river Arinos, which is a western branch of the Topayos, some establishments for collecting gold were begun in 1747. But they were afterwards abandoned, chiefly in consequence of the bangers to which the adventurers were exposed from the tribes of warlike Indians by which this country is infested. The inveterate hostility of the native tribes to the Portuguese, tends greatly to obstruct the progress of new settlements ; as a body of adventurers must be collected sufficiently numerous to protect themselves against their savage enemies, before any settlement can be begun; and, even in this case, being in a state of perpetual watchluiness and alarm, their attention is continually distracted from agriculture or mining, to the more necessary business of war. But where the country is known to abound in gold or diamonds, adventurers soon crowd from all quarters to gather the rich harvest; the barbarous inhabitants are driven back into the desert; towns and villages arise; roads are opened; and the country around quickly assumes the appearance of cultivation and improvement. The gold which is collected in Brasil, is found either in deep valleys or in the channels of rivers. It is generally contained in a loose marl-like stratum of rounded quartose pebbles and adventitious matter, called cascalhao, which rests upon granite, and is covered by earthy matter of variable thickness. Sometimes the gold is found covered by the soil at

—vi

BRASIL. Brasil, the depth of 20 feet, while at other times, on many of float, while others are found as large as peas, and not ^“V^the hills where water can be collected for washing, unfrequently much larger. This operation is superparticles of gold appear in the soil at little greater intended by overseers, as the result is ot considerable depth than the roots of the grass. importance.” At the gold washings of Villa Rica, the bed of There is another mode of separating the gold eascalh'ao was on the margin of the river; and Mr from the cascalhao, which is described in the followMawe found the workmen engaged in cutting away ing manner: “ Two planks about ten or twelve inches the bank to the depth of, at least, 10 feet, before broad and about twelve or fifteen feet in length, are they could reach the vein containing the gold which laid in the ground, forming an inclined plane, slopwas incumbent on the rock. The substance they had ing one inch in twelve ; two other planks, of similar to cut through was clay, so strong that, though falls dimensions, are fixed in the same direction at the of water were precipitated upon it, and negroes were lower end, forming a second inclined plane, with a constantly working it with hoes of various kinds, it fail of six inches from the former. On their sides was with difficulty removed. Nor was this the only are boards placed edgewise, and staked down to the impediment; for, by the continual washing down of ground, so as to form long shallow troughs, the botmud from the higher grounds, the cnxcalhao was toms of which are covered with hides tanned with five feet lower than the bed of the river, so that the hair on, having the hairy side outwards, or, in when the pits were sunk to its depth, they were defect of these, with rough baize. Down these soon tilled with water, which had to be drawn off by troughs is conveyed the water containing the oxide of iron and the lighter particles of gold ; the latter means of machinery. old Waffi- When the stratum which contains the gold is substance precipitating in its course is entangled by gs. found at a distance from the rivers, it is dug up and the hair. Every half hour the hides are taken up, carried to a convenient place, where it is washed, for and carried to a tank near at hand, formed ot four the purpose of separating the earth and other walls, say five feet long four broad and four deep, materials from the gold. The method of wash- and containing about two feet depth of water. I he well beaten, ing it is simple, and the following account of it is hides are stretched over this tank and 7 given by Mr Mawe, who was freely permitted to then dipped, and beaten repeatedly , until all the visit the different gold-washings established in the gold is disentangled, after which they are carried back and replaced in the troughs. Ihe tanks are country. “ Where water” (he observes) “ of sufficiently locked up at night, and well secured, ihe sediment high level can be commanded, the ground is cut in taken from them being light, is easily washed away steps, each twenty or thirty feet wide, two or three by the hand, in the manner before described, leavbroad, and about one deep. Near the bottom a ing only the black oxide of iron, called esmeril, and trench is cut to the depth of two or three feet. On the gold, which is so fine that mercury is used to each step stand six or eight negroes, who, as the sepai’ate it.” In all those various operations of digging up the water flows gently from above, keep the earth continually in motion with shovels, until the whole is cascalhao, of removing it to a convenient place, and, reduced to liquid mud, and washed below. The finally, of washing away the earth from the gold, a particles of gold contained in this earth descend to great deal of time and labour is wasted which might the trench, where, by reason of their specific gravity, be saved by adopting some very simple contrivances. they quickly precipitate. Workmen are continually In removing the earth, for example, to the place it is to be washed, not a cart or a wheelbaremployed at the trench to remove the stones and where 7 and clear away the surface,—which operation is row is used. The whole is transported in bowls, much assisted by the current of water which falls which are carried on the heads of poor negroes, who into it. After five days washing, the precipitation have frequently, w'lth these heavy burdens, to climb in the trench is carried to some convenient stream, up steep ascents, where various methods might be to undergo a second clearance. For this purpose adopted with little trouble or contrivance, to abridge wooden bowls are provided, of a funnel shape, about this unnecessary labour. The hydraulical apparatwo feet wide at the mouth, and five or six inches tus, in use for draining off the water, is cumdeep, called gamellas. Each workman, standing in bersome and expensive. In many cases, ordinary the stream, takes into his bowl five or six pounds pumps w'ould answer the purpose better, as they can weight of the sediment, which generally consists of be made at little trouble and expence, are easily reheavy matter, such as oxide of iron, pyrites, ferru- paired, and can always be ready to work at an hour’s ginous quartz, &c. of a dark carbonaceous hue. They notice. It is singular, that this very common and admit certain quantities of water into the bowls, simple machine should be utterly unknown in those which they move about so dexterously, that the pre- parts. The method practised in washing the cascalcious metal, separating from the inferior and lighter hao in bowls, is extremely tedious, and might be substances, settles to the bottom and sides of the easily shortened. Great advantages would also be vessel. They then rinse their bowls in a larger ves- derived from the use of properly constructed mills sel of clean water, leaving the gold in it, and begin for breaking down the hard substances which conagain. The washing of each bowltul occupies from tain gold, and which might then be washed in the five to eight or nine minutes ; the gold produced is same manner as the softer matter. We are informextremely variable in quantity, and in the size of its ed by Humboldt, that, in the silver mines of Mexiparticles; some of which are so minute that they co, this operation is executed with admirable skill.

43

BRAS I L. and with great advantages.* The hardest substances, mountains that run north and south, and are gene- KrasiJ. previous to their amalgamation, are reduced to a rally considered to be the highest in Brasil. Thev'^V* tine powder; by which process every particle of tract of country termed the diamond ground, exthe precious metal which they contain is carefully tends about 16 leagues from north to south, and extracted. Those who are employed in washing about 8 leagues from east and west. Nearly in the for gold in Brasil, are exposed to various dis- middle of it stands the town of Tejuco, 400 miles advantages from the scarcity and high price of north of Rio Janeiro, in a straight line, but nearly iron; and owing to this circumstance they are double that distance by the winding roads of the frequently in want of the most ordinary tools. This mountains. It contains about 6000 inhabitants, fact strikingly illustrates the indolence and w^ant and is chiefly supported by the diamond workfr of enterprise wdiich generally prevails in this coun- in its neighbourhood. The most considerable of try. A blind pursuit after gold seems to be the ex- these is situated on the head waters of the riclusive occupation of all classes, in favour of which the ver Jijitonhonha, a branch of the Rio Grande, while most valuable resources of the country are neglected. others are established on the Rio Veiho, a branch of Jn many parts iron-ore is produced in abundance, and the Francisco, and on the 'other numerous small there is little doubt that, if any spirited individual streams which have their rise in this mountainous were to devote his attention to this branch of indus- region. The river Jijitonhonha, where the diamond try, he would not only facilitate the acquisition of works are established, is about as wide as the Thames the precious metals, but he would more rapidly ac- at Windsor, and is in general from three to nine quire wealth, than if he were directly seeking after it feet deep. The cascalhao consists of nearly the same materials as that which contains the gold, and by establishing gold-washings. The particles of gold being separated, by washing, it has to be dug from the bottom of the river, which, from the stratum in which they are found, are for this purpose, is diverted into a new channel. brought to the nearest, mint, where a fifth part is When Mr Mawe visited these works, they were taken for the crown. The remainder undergoes working at a bend of the river, from which the 'water a process of amalgamation with mercury, and is af- was diverted by means of a canal cut across the terwards poured into an ingot, which being sent to tongue of land round which it held its course ; an the assay master, he ascertains its weight and fine- embankment formed of stveial bags of sand, being ness, and puts upon it the public stamp, when it carried quite across the old channel, just below the is delivered to the owner for circulation. The head of the canal. After this operation, the deeper operation of melting seldom occupies more than parts of the river are laid dry by means of pumps, ten minutes ; and those who deliver into the and, the earth being removed, the cascalhao is dug mint any quantity of gold dust, may reckon on up and removed to a convenient place for washing. having it returned to them for circulation in This fatiguing work was until lately performed by less than an hour. The gold is of different qualities. the unassisted labour of the negroes, who carried Some of the bars which are in circulation are so the cascalhao in bowls on their heads, and in many eslow as 16 carats, while others are as fine as ^3^ tablishments this mode of working still prevails. Two carats, which is within one-half carat of what is de- inclined planes have been since contrived, along which, nominated pure gold. The standard is 22 carats by means of a water-wheel, two carts are set in motion, fine, and gold exceeding this standard receives a one of which descends empty by one inclined plane, premium in proportion to its fineness. Gold of a while the other, loaded with cascalhao, is drawn to low standard is generally of a pale colour, which is the top of the other. At some of the diamond ascribed to the mixture which it contains of silver, works, on the same river, the cascalhao is conveyed to the place for washing by different and more implatina, or some other metals. Diamond washing for diamonds is another favourite proved machinery, and railways are even constructed employment in Brasil, and, being esteemed too on some parts of the uneven ground. The cascalhao, lucrative a branch of business for individuals to when it is carried from the bed of the river whence enjoy, is now prosecuted by the state as a royal it is dug, is laid down in heaps, containing apparentmonopoly. The district of Cerro do Frio, or of the ly from five to fifteen tons each ; and they calculate cold mountains, in which the diamond works are es- in digging as much during the rainy season, as will tablished, is situated on the highest ridge of those give full employment to all their hands during the mountains; which, running nearly parallel with the months which are not subject to rain. Into all the coast of Brasil, rise to their height at the distance of various parts of the works erected for washing the about 300 miles in the interior, and divide the streams cascalhao, water is distributed by means of aquewhich fall into the Atlantic by the Rio Doce and ducts, constructed with great ingenuity and skill. the Rio Grande, from those which, running west- The following is an account of the mode of washing ward into the Rio Francisco, are carried to the north for diamonds, as it was observed by Mr Mawe, by that river, and fall into the Atlantic about the which appears to be highly curious and interesting. 11th degree of south latitude. It is at the sources “ A shed is erected in the form of a paralleloof these streams that the diamond works are situat- gram, 25 or 30 yards long, and about 15 wide, ed. This district consists of a range of rugged consisting of upright posts, which support a roof 438 ”rasil.

* Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain, Vol. III. p, 256.

BRASIL. 43$ thatched with long grass. Down the middle of the given. During my stay at Tejuco, a stone of IG^Brad!. area of this shed, a current of water is conveyed carats was found; it was pleasing to see the anxious through a canal,_ covered with strong planks, on desire manifested by the officers that it might prove which the cascalhao is laid two or three feet thick heavy enough to entitle die poor negro to his freeOn the other side of the area is a flooring of planks’ dom, and when, on being delivered and weighed, it from four to five yards long, imbedded in clay, ex- proved only a carat short of the requisite weight, all tending the whole length of the shed, and having a seemed to sympathize in his disappointment.” ^lope from the canal, of three or four inches to a dhe flat pieces of ground which lie on each side yard. This flooring is divided into about twenty of the river, are generally equally rich throughout compartments or troughs, each about three feet then whole extent, and the officers employed in the wide, by means of planks placed upon their edge. works are enabled to calculate the value of the places Ihe upper ends of all these troughs (here called ca- unworked from the parts adjoining. The substances noes) communicate with the canal, and are so form- which are considered the best indications of diaed that water is admitted into them between two monds are bright, bean-like, iron-ore; a slaty flintplanks that are about an inch separate. Through like substance, resembling Lydian stone, of fine texthis opening, the current falls about six inches into ture ; black oxide of iron in great quantities; roundtie trough, and may be directed to any part of it, ed bits of blue quartz ; yellow crystal, and various or stopped at pleasure by means of a small quantity other materials, entirely different from any substance of clay, for instance, sometimes water is required found in the adjacent mountains. Diamond washonly from one corner of the aperture, then the re- ings have been established on the river Jijitonhonha, maining part is stopped ; sometimes it is wanted and the neighbouring streams for many years, and from the centre, then the extremes are stopped; great quantities of the finest stones have been coland sometimes only a gentle rill is wranted, then the lected. These vary extremely in size, some being clay is applied accordingly. Along the lower ends so small that four or five are required to weigh one of the troughs, a small channel is dug to carry off giuin, and consequently there are sixteen or twenty J the water. to the carat. It is calculated that only two or three On the heap of cascalhao, at equal distances, stones of from 17 to 20 carats are found in the course are placed three high chairs for the officers or over- of a-year, and not once in two years is there found seers. After they are seated, the negroes enter the throughout all the diamond washings a stone weightroughs, each provided with a rake of a peculiar ing 30 carats. Mr Mawe mentions, that during form and short handle, with which he rakes into the the five days in which he was employed visiting trough about 50 or 80 lbs. weight of cascalhao. The these works, the number of diamonds found awater being then Jet in upon it, the cascalhao is mounted only to forty, the largest of which weighspread abroad, and continually raked up to the head ed only four carats, and was of a light green co0 of the trough, so as to be kept in constant motion. lour. This operation is performed for the space of a quarThe diamond district was first explored by some ter of an hour ; the water then begins to run clearer, enterprising miners from Villa do Principe, which isS’ ^ having washed the earthy particles away, the gravel- about 60 miles south-east from Tejuco. Their Diamond* like matter is raked up to the end of the trough : af- search was after gold, which they sought for on the ter the current flows away quite clear, the largest banks of the rivulets in the neighbourhood of stones are thrown out, and afterwards those of infe- Tejuco, and not suspecting that they contained rior size, then the whole is examined with great care diamonds, they were not aware of the value of these for diamonds. When a negro finds one, he imme- stones when they were first discovered. Nor was it diately stands upright and claps his hands, then ex- until they were sent to Europe that their worth was tends them, holding the gem between his fore-finger accurately ascertained. Immediately on this disand thumb; an overseer receives it from him, and covery, the Portuguese Government erected Cerro deposits it in a gamella or bowl, suspended from the do Frio into a distinct district, which was placed centre of the structure, half full of water. In this under its own peculiar laws and regulations; and the vessel all the diamonds found in the course of the ucrative trade of searching for diamonds being proday are placed, and at the close of work are taken hibited to all individuals under the severest penalties out and delivered to the principal officer, who, after was constituted a strict monopoly for the benefit of the’ they have been weighed, registers the particulars in crown. But in this, as in most other cases, the power a. book kept for that purpose. of the Government was counteracted by the fraud and When a negro is so fortunate as to find a dia- cunning of its subjects. By means of the intrigues mond of the weight of an octavo (I7I carats), much and misrepresentations of interested individuals goceremony takes place ; he is crowned with a wreath vernment was prevailed on to farm these territories of flowers, and carried in procession to the admini- to a company, who were bound only to employ a cerstrator, who gives him his freedom, by paying his tain number of negroes, or to pay a certain sum for owner for it. He also receives a present "of new each negro employed over the quantity agreed for. clothes, and is permitted to work on his own ac- Under cover of this lease, every species of fraud count. When a stone of eight or ten carats is found, and corruption was practised. About double the the negro receives two new shirts, a complete new stipulated number of negroes was employed, and the suit, with a hat and a handsome knife. For smaller agents of Government were bribed to connive at this stones of trivial amount, proportionate premiums are fraud. Seasonable presents were also made in order

Brasil,

BRASIL. otherwise, the mules are unloaded, and all the bag- Brasil. to secure influence at court; and, by such arts, the gage subjected to the strictest scrutiny. If, in the farmers of these valuable works were continues m course of these examinations, a negro is suspected their lease until about the year 1772, when Govern- of having swallowed a diamond, he is confined to a ment resolved to appoint its own officers to superin- bare room until the truth can be ascertained. These tend this valuable branch of its revenue. Under this buildings are all provided with strong cells for the new system of management, abuses, however, stn confinement of suspected persons. In the managecontinued ; and the establishment was run in debt to nient of the works many precautions are adopted to foreigners, who advanced a considerable sum to prevent the negroes from embezzling diamonds. carry it on, on condition of receiving, as security, all They work immediately under the eye of their overthe diamonds which it produced. This debt still re- seers, who sit on a seat raised above them for the mains unpaid, and there are other incumbrances purpose of watching them, and, at the word of comfrom which it is not likely that the establishment ml mand from the overseers, they instantly move into ever be freed while it continues under the manage- each other’s troughs, so that no collusion can posment of the state. According to the information ot sibly take place. Mr Mawe, “ the expences of these works amounted, Notwithstanding the strictness of the police, howduring a period of five years, horn 1801 to 180() in ever, and the severity of the criminal law, there is elusive, to L.204,000 ; and the diamonds sent to the no doubt that a contraband trade, both in gold and treasury, at Rio Janeiro, during the same period, diamonds, is carried on in Brasil to a great extent; weighed 115.675 carats. The vahie of the gold and the present plan upon which the diamond found in the same period, amounted to U. 17,-300 works are managed, is calculated to give every Sterling, from which it appears that the diamonus ac- facility to this forbidden traffic. Owing to the petually cost Government 33s, gd. carat. Ihese cuniary embarrassments of the establishment, the years were esteemed singularly productive; the mines Intendant has never been able to purchase a stock of in general do not yield to Government more than negroes to carry on the work, and he is, in conse20,000 carats annually.” . ,, ,, quence, obliged to engage the negroes of others. ConseAll the gold collected in Brasil being liable to pay The hiring out of negroes to the diamond works has queiicesof a fifth share to the crown, the temptation to evade the Royal go he a tax has given rise to a contraband trade long been the favourite occupation in Tljuco, in Monopoly. ^ • ecious commodity, and various precautions which rich and poor engage with equal eagerness to the full extent of their capital; and numbers of perhave been adopted to prevent the injury thence sons are supposed to re.-ide in Tejuco with no other arising to the revenue. But the temptation is even view than to place their negroes in this profitable greater to carry on an illicit trade in diamonds than employment. There is no apparent reason lor this in gold, because, in the one case, it is only the royal anxiety among all classes to hire out the industry or fifth which the smuggler gains by evading the regu- their negroes, seeing that the pay is small, the lalations of the state, while, in the case ot diamonds, bour hard, the maintenance poor, and the treathe gains the whole value of the article which he me it not always the most gentle. It is conjectured, succeeds in conveying clandestinely away. I he n- therefore, with great probability, that the real object resistible temptation which this monopoly holds out is to gain access to these works tor the purpose o to illicit trade, is met by regulations of correspond- purloining some portion of their precious produce; ing strictness and severity. For the security ot the and it is certain, that by whatever means they are revenue, the country has been subjected to a most procured, the market is supplied with large quantities vexatious system of military police, and the unhappy both of contraband gold and diamonds. Use great offender, who is detected in the heinous crime ot value and small bulk of these articles, hold out such illicit trade, is doomed to experience, in a cruel and temptations, and, at the same time, such facilities tor hopeless captivity, or in transportation to the Atrican secreting them, that no laws, however strict, can colonies, the utmost vengeance of his rapacious rulers. possibly counteract those strong inducements to illiThe more effectually to counteract the projects ot cit trade. . , the smugglers, the diamond district is placed under In this view, the policy of imposing so heavy a peculiar regulations. On all the various roads leadtax on gold may well be questioned; and, in reing to it, registers or military posts are established, gard to the monopoly of diamonds, there can be in which is stationed an officer with twenty horse no doubt that it is botn impolitic and tyrannical. soldiers under him. These are continually patrolling There is something mean and rapacious in the printhe roads. Whenever they observe a stray passen- ciple of those measures, ol which the object is to ger they instantly ride up to him, questioning him as upon all the most valuable produce of the to his business and the purposes of his journey, and seize country; and Government, having set the example, he must satisfy them as. to all these particulars be- can hardly expect that its subjects will be outfore he is allowed to pass. They are authorized to in the practice of avarice and fraud. In stop all travellers without distinction, and to done this, as in all other cases, the sagacity and address search, with the utmost rigour, those whom they suspect of concealing gold dust or diamonds. All of individuals will prove an overmatch for the viopersons passing with mules are ordered to stop at lence of power. Harsh and cruel laws may be pas; ed; these registers, and to deliver their passports to a but, while the inducement to violate them consoldier for the inspection of his commanding-officer, tinues, adventurers will be found to run all risks; incur the who, if he is satisfied that there are no grounds of and though individuals may occasionally trade will floususpicion, allows them to proceed. But if he judges penalties of the law, the contraband 10

Bi-asi!. '

i pressive I tem of ’ cation,

441 B R A S I L. of immoveable property, and of 5 per cent, upon the Brasil, rish in proportion to the bounty held out by the regulations of the state. The colonial policy of sale of all moveable. Rum, whether for exportation Europe seems generally to have been founded on or home consumption, pays a duty of from 15 to 20 the most false calculations. Even in respect to re- per cent. Cotton payk a 10th, and, on its exportavenue, a moderate tax on several articles of general tion, pays an additional duty of l^d. per lb.; and consumption would, in a flourishing community, be all goods imported are liable at the custom-house to far more productive than this monopoly established an ad valorem duty of 15 per cent. There is also in Brasil. The authors of these devices for cramp- a tax imposed at Pernambuco for lighting the streets ing industry seem to imagine, that, for the diamonds of Rio Janeiro, while its own streets are in total which are exported by private adventurers, no va- darkness. The produce of these duties is expended luable equivalent is received in return. They make in the support of the civil Government, in which, no calculation of the additional capital which they owing to the excessive multiplication of offices with bring into the country ; of the increase thus made inadequate salaries, peculation and bribery prevail as not only to escape punishment, to the fund for maintaining productive industry ; to such an extent, and of the general vigour diffused by a free trade but even an} great degree of public reproach. The roads in the interior are generally indifferent. Interior over every department of an industrious community. They do not reflect, that an improving commerce, The common mode of travelling is by mules, by which Commerce, cherished and protected by an enlightened govern- means are transported to the towns on the coast ment, would soon pour into the treasury, as the cotton, sugar, coffee, grain, and the other produce cheerful gift of a free and a flourishing people, a far of the country. In return are procured iron, steel, ampler revenue than can ever be extorted from them salt, woollens, cottons, common and finer earthenware, and glass. In the towns of the interior Mr by all the miserable devices of tyranny, There are various other duties imposed on the Mawe saw all sorts of English goods, which were by transit of commodities into the interior, which are no means dear. both oppressive and impolitic. They generally take The most remarkable incident in the recent his- Seltlement he place at the crossing of ferries, and are laid on ac- tory of Brasil is the emigration to its capital of the of t Court cording to the weight of the goods passing, without royal family of Portugal from Europe. In the long m lia!;1 * any regard to their bulk or value. All heavy arti- wars which have been recently concluded between cles, in consequence, pay high, while woollens, cot- France and Britain, it was obviously the interest of tons, and other light goods, pay only about 8 or 10 the minor powers, such as Portugal, to preserve a per cent. Iron, which is in great request in the in- strict neutrality. But this was rendered difficult, terior, pays an enormous duty, of nearly 100 per as well as by the inveterate hostility of the two nacent. This is the case also with salt, which, being ab- tions at war, as by the preponderating power which solutely necessary in this country for the subsistence both had acquired on their respective elements of of the cattle, the effect of the tax is to discourage land and sea. Portugal, from her situation, was enbreeding, and is, in this view, most injuidous to the tirely exposed to the vast military power of France; interests of agriculture. A duty of per lb. is al- and it was well understood, when France had gainso imposed on all commodities which pass into the ed the undisputed ascendancy in Europe, that the mining districts, and a new tax has lately been laid inferior states could only hope to purchase a nominal on the rents of houses. We are informed, that the independence by acceding to, and rigorously exeweight of the taxes presses most severely upon the cuting within their territories, the system devised by poorer classes, and the same remark seems appli- Bonaparte, for the proscription of the British trade. cable to other parts of the country. A tenth in The Court of Portugal, terrified by the menaces of kind is raised upon cattle, poultry, and agricul- so powerful a state, agreed, about the end of the ture, and even upon salt. This belonged, in for- year 1807, though with reluctance, to adopt that mer times, to the clergy; but as, in the infancy of harsh system ; but delaying, under various pretences, Brasil, it was inadequate to their support, they peti- to seize the property and persons of British mertioned Government to have it commuted into a fixed chants, which was prescribed as an indispensable stipend. This petition was acceded to. In the condition of her alliance with France, the French meantime, by the improvement of the country, the ambassador quitted Lisbon, which was the prelude tithes begun greatly to increase in value to the pro- to more decisive measures. A French army was difit of the Government, and to the loss of the church, rected to march against Portugal, and there being and the clergy now complain grievously of this no resistance, it was rapidly advancing to the capiagreement, by which, for a temporary advantage, tal. In the meantime, war had been declared such a valuable revenue was surrendered. For the against England by the Court of Lisbon, a fleet had due collection of the public revenue, the country is been fitted out, and all the severe measures dictated parcelled out into extensive districts, and the taxes by France against Britain had been agreed to; but of each district are farmed out to the highest bidder. the secret connections of Portugal with this country These again dispose of their farm in small shares to were but imperfectly disguised by this affected hosunder farmers, who oppress and plunder the people tility ; and it had accordingly no effect in retarding for their own private emolument. Besides a tithe the march of the invading army. In this emergenof all the cattle, which is levied on estates in the in- cy, it was resolved by the Court to escape the terior, meat in the shambles pays a duty of about danger by embarking for Brasil, under the protec25 per cent. Fish pays a 10th, and afterwards a 15th. tion of Sir Sidney Smith, whose squadron was at A duty of 10 per cent, is imposed on every transfer that time blockading the mouth of the Tagus. 3 K VOG. II. part n.

442 ERA Brasil. This revolution was announced to the people by a royal decree. A council of regency was established, the public archives and treasure were embarked, the royal family followed, and on the ipth November 1806, the Portuguese fleet, joined by the English squadron, finally departed from Europe, and arrived at Bahia on the 19th January following. The royal family were received with eveiy demonstration of attachment and respect; and the inhabitants of Bahia even offered to contribute a large sum of money in order to build a suitable palace for their reception, provided they would agree to reside in that place. Rio Janeiro, however, was thought more suitable for the residence of the Prince, and this capital, to which the court of Portugal soon afterwards removed, now became the seat of the Portuguese monarchy. Effects of In considering the emigration of the royal family tjie EmiportUgal to Brasil, some speculative writers have thfcourt indulged in the most fanciful anticipations of imof Porlu- provement from this event. They seem to have imagal. gined, that the presence of the Supreme Government of Portugal in its colonies wmuld revive the languishing industry of these countries ; that it would remove the corruptions and abuses of their domestic administration ; and that, by opening to them a free trade, it would enable them, in some degree, to rival the North American States in their rapid advances to wealth and improvement. But in order to realize those pleasing expectations, it would have been necessary that the Portuguese government, which was feeble and corrupt in Europe, should have totally changed its character in removing to Brasil, and this unhappily does not appear to have been the case. Abuses and corruptions still prevail in that country; the administration of justice is not amended ;—the royal monopolies for the sale of ivory, Brazil wood, diamonds, gold dust, gunpowder, tobacco, and snuff, are upheld in all their rigour ; and, in general, the government is regulated upon the same principles as before. All the advantages of this translation of the government from the mother country to the colonies, seem therefore to be comprised in the commercial treaty connected with the measure; the effect of which is to open all the ports of Brasil to the vessels and produce of Great Britain, on payment of a duty of 15 j)er cent. The former system of restraint being removed by this treaty, there will thus be a greater stimulus to improvement of every sort; and industry, freed from the pernicious restrictions under which it formerly laboured, will be excited to new and active exertions by a higher price for its produce. These effects have accordingly, to a certain degree, taken place. We are informed by Mr Koster, who quitted Pernambuco in April 181 l,and returned in the end of December in the same year, that, during this short interval, he observed a remarkable change for the better in the aspect of the place, and of the adjacent country. The houses had been greatly improved,— the ladies, in imitation of some families who had arrived from England and Portugal, began to walk abroad during the day,—the English fashions in clothes had become general among both sexes,—the equipages had assumed a gayer appearance,—a greater number of country resideuces had been

S I L. built,—lands had risen in price,—labour was in re- Brasil, quest,—and the adjacent grounds, which had been covered with brushwood, were now cleared, and were laid out for building and for gardens. Before Mr Koster quitted the country, in 1815, various other local improvements had been carried into effect; all which clearly indicate, that the free trade and the unrestrained intercourse with strangers, had diffused a general spirit of amelioration throughout this hitherto languishing community. Owing to particular circumstances? the opening of the trade to the Brasils was not attended with the same beneficial consequences to Great Britain. At the period when this took place, all British goods were excluded from the Continent of Europe, by the edicts of France ; the home-market was, in consequence, overstocked, and the British merchant was. naturally anxious to find an outlet for his unsaleable produce. In these circumstances, the market of Brasil was suddenly thrown open, and such immense* quantities of British goods were immediately poured into it, that it was completely overstocked. Prices fell proportionably ; the goods were sold cheaper than they could have been bought or even manufactured at home; and, at last, they were accumulated in such excess, that the warehouses were not adequate to contain them. In many cases they were exposed on the quays to waste and peculation, or they were left to rot in warehouses ill-adapted for their reception. The loss and ruin consequent on these rash speculations, gave rise to numerous bankruptcies at home; and thus the commercial embarrassments of the country were rather aggravated than relieved by the opening of this new market for its produce. There can be no doubt, however, that a free intercourse with this extensive country, must ultimately create an increased demand for the manufactures' of Britain, and must, in this view, be of permanent benefit to her commerce. The military force of Brasil is composed of regu- Military lar troops and militia. The regular army, which ge- fo'ce* nerally amounts to about 8000 men, is extremely ill regulated. It is badly clothed and poorly paid, and, owing to the disadvantages of the service, has to be recruited by impressment, a power which, under this despotic government, is exercised with the grossest partiality. The cavalry regiments which patrole the mining districts, are, however, highly respectable, both in point of discipline and equipment. The militia amount to upwards of 30,000 men ; and to this service all are liable, with the exception of the first rate nobility. The population of Brasil has been differently es- Population* timated. According to M. Beauchamp, it amounted in 1806 to 800,000 Europeans, 1,500,000 negroes, and to from 800,000 to 900,000 civilized Indians. This, however, appears to be an exaggeration. Sir George Staunton computes the number of whites at 200,000, and the blacks at 600,000; and some authors make the whole amount only to 420,000. Histoire du Brasil, par M. Alphonse de Beauchamp. 3 tomes 8vo. 1815. .Mawe’s Travels into the Interior of Brasil, bio, 1812. Koster’s Twac/s m Brasil, 4to. 1816. (°*)

BRA Crass. BRASS, in Chemistry and Manufactures, an alloy of copper and zinc. This name, however, has not been exclusively applied to the alloy of these metals ; for the gun-metal, which has been also called brass, is an alloy of copper with tin. The same alloy, with more tin, is used in machinery, and is preferred to the alloy of copper and zinc, on account of its greater hardness. ferent It appears from the analysis of the brass of the ' ids. ancients, that it was an alloy of copper and tin. A small portion of tin gives to copper great hardness, and renders it capable of bearing much greater resistance. A larger portion of tin gives increased hardness, but is less fitted to bear a straining resistance, on account of its brittleness. Its elasticity is very great, which fits it for bells. In this state it is called bell-metal; with a still greater proportion of tin, it forms an alloy employed for the mirrors of reflecting telescopes. The alloy of copper with tin is easily distinguished from that with zinc from the agreeable colour of the latter, which varies with the proportions of the metals. Pinchbeck has the least proportion of zinc. Common brass has more zinc, and the gold-coloured alloy called Prince’s metal, contains a still greater proportion of zinc. An alloy of copper with a very large proportion of zinc is used for the common white metal buttons. roportions These various alloys of copper with tin and zinc Alloys, forming the different kinds of brass, are to be considered as chemical compounds, and, of course, governed by the same laws of definite proportions which belong to the more conspicuous compounds. On these principles, which cannot be doubted, we have an unerring rule for uniting these and other metals in the best proportions, the weights of their atoms being previously known. See the article Atomic Theory in this Supplement. The weight of the atom of copper being 8, tin 7-35, and zinc 4; the following table will exhibit the proportions of the various alloys, expressed in atoms, and their proportions by weight, the third column pointing put the colour and character of the resulting compound. CZ and T are to represent the atoms of the metals respectively. COMPOUNDS OF ZINC WITH COPPER. Glwracter and Colour of the ComAtoms. Proportions pounds. by Weight. c+z C + 2Z C+3Z C + 4Z C + 5Z C+6Z 2C+ Z 3C-f Z

1 to 2 The best proportions for common brass. 1 to 1 The alloy called Prince’s Metal, of a beautiful gold colour. 2 to 3 Of a paler yellow, very little malleable. 1 to 2 Still of a lighter colour, and not malleable. 2 to 5 Yellowish white and brittle. 1 to 3 Very brittle, nearly white. 4 to 1 A very malleable brass used in watch-work. 6 to 1 An alloy much harder than copper and inclining to its colour.

B

E

A

COMPOUNDS OF TIN WITH COPPER. Atoms. T+C 2T + C 3T+C 4 T+C T+2C T + 3C T+4C T+5C T+6C T+7C T+8C T+9C

443 Brass.

Proportions Character and Colour of the Compounds. by Weight 11 to 12 A very brittle and rather white alloy. 11 to 6 Still more brittle and more white. 11 to 4 Very white, used for speculums. 11 to 3 Coarse-grained and too brittle for any purpose. 11 to 24 A yellowish alloy, very hard and sonorous. 11 to 36 Bell metal. 11 to 48 A very hard alloy used for some culinary vessels. 11 to 60 Softer but not malleable. 11 to 72 Still increases in softness and of a yellower colour. 11 to 84 Used for some purposes in machinery. 11 to 96 An alloy used for cannon. 11 to 108 More common for cannon and machinery, and used for bronze statues.

Hitherto the proportions of these alloys have depended upon the caprice of workmen, obtained by numerous trials ; and what confirms the law of definite proportions, is proved by the necessity of adhering to such fixed proportions, ascertained by trials. By attending to the stages of composition pointed out in the above table, the most striking and proper compounds will be produced, without the trouble of trying. Any proportions intermediate will, doubtless, be marked by defective colour, irregular crystallization, or imperfect malleability, in such as are expected to be so. Although the most direct way of forming these different kinds of brass is by immediately combining the metals together, one of them, which is most properly called brass, was manufactured long before zinc, one of its component parts, was known in its metallic form. The ore of the latter metal was cemented with sheets of copper, charcoal being present. The zinc was formed and united with the copper, without becoming visible in a distinct form. The same method is still practised for making brass, which we are about to describe. The materials used in making brass are, copper in Bras#small rounded masses produced by passing the melt- making', ed metal through an appropriate vessel into water, in which state it is called shot copper, and calamine, an ore of zinc. This latter substance is a carbonate of zinc, often containing some oxyd of iron, w hich gives it a reddish appearance. As it is chiefly found with lead, the lumps frequently contain more or less gailena, which requires to be separated by the same means employed for purifying lead ore. The calamine is first reduced to powder, and the lead is then separated by washing. When the calamine is separated, reduced to powder, and sifted, it is heated upon the hearth of a reverberatory furnace. This expels the volatile matter, which is principally water *

444 Brass.

B II A What remains is principally ai1(l carbonic acid. oxyd of zinc, abounding with some earthy matter, and probably much carbonic acid, which is not all expelled by the heat. The calamine thus prepared, charcoal powder, and copper, are the materials to be operated upon. The proportion in which they are mixed together, are equal weights of copper and prepared calamine, and -jL their weight of powdered charcoal. This mixture, intimately blended, is compressed into a crucible of the form of fig. 3. Plate XXXVI.* One of these crucibles holds about 100 lbs. of brass, when the process is finished ; but as this consists of the pure copper and zinc, the pot, when charged, will contain of copper 66.3 lbs., of calamine 63. lbs., and of charcoal powder 13 lbs. When the crucible is filled, the contents should be covered with a mixture of clay sand and horse-dung, in order to defend the metals and charcoal from the action of the air. When this covering is strictly attended to, less charcoal powder might be employed, and a larger dose of the other ingredients might be put in its place, but it is generally the most defective part of the process. Having charged the pots, we will now describe the furnace which has to receive them. Fig 1. Plate XXXVI.* is a plan of the furnace. The part AB is taken at the level EF, showing the opening into the furnace on the ground floor at a and b : c and d are horizontal flues leading to the chimney^ and can be cut off from the same by the dampers seen in the dark part of the flue. CD, in the same figure, is a plan on the level GH, where the pots rest upon the cast iron plate on bottom x, y. Fig. 2. is an elevation and section of the same furnace. AB shows a front view of the pyramidal chimney, and the archway opening into it. CD is a section of the same, through the middle of the fire-place II. R,P,Q, is a vaulted passage going across the building, and open at both ends, for the admission of air, which passes through the openings in the arch, through the fires. The bottom of the furnace is not a common grate, but a thick plate of cast metal, perforated with holes for the air to pass through ; one hole being between each pot, as they are seen arranged in fig. 1. at I, I, and also in the section at .r, y. When the pots are placed upon the plate, the fire is not placed immediately upon them, as it would not only derange them, but it would displace the covering. To prevent this, the pots are first covered by some dried heath, or common brambles. This lying pn the pots, defends them for a time, wdien the fuel is thrown in. By the time the brambles are consumed, the coal will have coked upon the pots, and will act as a defence for the rest of the process. The fire is kept up from twelve to twenty hours at the Cheudle Brass Works in Stalfordshire, where these drawings were taken from. They cast twice in the twenty-four hours. The melted brass, after the refuse is skimmed off, is cast into ingots, if sold for melting over again, and into plates, if intended to be rolled into sheets, or made into wire. The plates are cast between large blocks of Cornwall stone. The lower stone is fixed, and the face made even and smooth, by filling up the recesses of the ruff stone with fine sand. The ti

B R E upper stone is similarly prepared, and is suspended Brasj over the fixed one. The height and breadth of the II place to receive the metal is limited by iron barsf™"ffll laid on the lower stone. The upper stone is then let down upon the bars. The lower stone is a little longer than the upper one, and projects to the front. Being a little higher in that part, it forms a lip, or mouth-piece, to pour the metal into. The flat sides of the cast plate are therefore bounded by the surface of the stones, and the edges of the same by the bars above-mentioned. The ingot moulds are recesses in blocks of cast-iron, open on one side. The most certain and correct method of forming brass and the other compounds expressed in the table above-given, is by immediately uniting the metals in given weights. It should, however, be observed, that it w’ill be found difficult to introduce zinc into melted copper. The best way of uniting it with copper, in the first instance, will be to introduce the copper in thin slips to the melted zinc, till the alloy requires a tolerable heat to fuse it, and then to unite this alloy with the melted copper. (x.) BREAD-FRUIT. Among the more valuable products of the warmer climates and the fertile islands of the southern Pacific Ocean, is to be ranked the bread-fruit, or Artocarpus incisa of botanists. Nature has favoured the tropical regions, and those countries in their vicinity, with inexhaustible quantities of the choicest vegetables, while the inhabitants of the north are restricted to shrivelled berries and meagre roots; and, if they have obtained a supply, always precarious, of some of the finer fruits, it is the result of patience, skill, and industry. Ever since Europeans frequented the Eastern History j world in commercial enterprise, it is probable thatits disc0 they were acquainted with the bread-fruit. How,very* indeed, could its properties be unknown to Quiros, who visited Otaheite so long ago as the year 16'06.? Yet the English navigator Dampier seems the first of the Europeans whose notice was particularly directed towards it, during his circumnavigation in the year 1688 ; and he expresses himself in these words: “ The bread-fruit, as we call it, grows on a large tree, as big and high as our largest apple trees. It hath a spreading head, full of branches, and dark leaves. The fruit grows on the boughs like apples; it is as big as a penny-loaf, when the wheat is at five shillings the bushel. It is of a round shape, and hath a thick tough rind. When the fruit is ripe, it is yellow and soft, and the taste is sweet and pleasant. The natives of Guam use it for bread. They gather it, when full grown, while it is green and hard; then they bake it in an oven, which scorcheth the rind, and makes it black; but they scrape oft' the outside black crust, and there remains a tender thin crust; and the inside is soft, tender, and white, like the crumbs of a penny-loaf. There is neither seed nor stone in the inside, but all of a firm substance like bread. It must be eaten new, for if it be kept above twenty-four hours, it becomes dry and eats harsh and choaky; but it is very pleasant before it is too stale. This fruit lasts in season eight months in the year, during which time the natives eat no other sort of food of bread kind. I did never see of this fruit any where but here (Guam). The natives told us that

Published by AGonstable *£ Cc.Edin’Wn.

Jiruf* by WAr'chibcdcLEdzn?

E R E A D-F R U I T. 446 ead-finit; there is plenty of this fruit growing on the rest of West Indian Islands, several dishes are made of it; Bread-fruit* the Ladrone Islands, and I did never hear of it any- either by thus baking it in an oven entire, when it is'-**V'*fcr where else.” The bread-fruit, however, is found in considered to equal or surpass any kind of bread; still greater profusion, and in equal perfection, by adding water, or the milk of the cocoa nut, by on many of the groups of islands scattered through- boiling it, or forming it into a paste. This last is out the South Pacific Ocean; nor is it confined to accomplished by taking the fruit before attaining them exclusively, but their soil and climate seem to complete maturity, and laying it in heaps, closely correspond more' intimately with the conditions of covered up with leaves, where it undergoes fermentation, and becomes disagreeably sweet. The core its vegetation. fferent There are two leading species of this plant, which being then draw n out, the fruit or pulp is thrown ecics. are characterized by the presence or absence of into a paved excavation, and the whole covered up seeds ; the latter being the preferable kind, and with leaves, whereon heavy stones are laid: it unthat which is cultivated more carefully for its pro- dergoes a second fermentation, and becomes sour, duce. The natives of the South Sea Islands maintain, after which it will suffer no change for a long time. however, that eight different species, or rather varie- A leaven may be thus formed of it, which is baked ties, may be distinguished, and for which they have as occasion requires. In the Island of Nukahiwa, the following names: Patteah, Eroroo, Awanna, an agreeable beverage can be obtained from it, and Mi-re, Oree, Powerro, Appeere, Rowdeah. The in the West Indies it can be baked like biscuit, and leaf of the first, fourth, and eighth, differs from that will keep nearly as long. The fruit is in greatest of the rest; the fourth being more sinuated, and the perfection about a week before beginning to ripen, eighth having a large broad leaf, not at all sinuated. which is easily recognised by the skin changing to a In the first, also, the fruit is rather larger, and of a brownish cast, and from small granulations of the more oblong form, while in the last it is round, and juice. Jn the West Indies, it is soft and yellow when not above half the size of the others. European ob- ripe, and is ir .aste and smell like a very ripe melon. servers, however, do not seem, in general, disposed Hogs, dogs, and poultry then feed on it readily. Besides this, the bread-fruit-tree proper, there is one to recognise these as essential distinctions, although that has been long known in India and the Eastern they admit other varieties. As Dampier observes, the bread-fruit is a large Islands, of which the fruit contains from forty to an tree, growing to the height of forty feet or more. It hundred farinaceous seeds, in appearance resembling is thick in the stem, and has a luxuriant foliage. The chesnuts. These when roasted or boiled are more trunk is upright, the wood soft, smooth, and yellow- grateful to many persons than the bread-fruit, and ish ,• and wherever the tree is wounded, a glutinous the negroes are very fond of them. The external fluid exudes. The branches form an ample head, al- characters of the tree are scarcely to be distinguishmost globular; the leaves are eighteen inches long, ed from those of the other, and the chief distinction and eleven broad, resembling those of the oak, or lies in the fruit, which attains nearly the size of that the fig tree, from their deep sinuosities. The younger we have described, and is covered with prickles like leaves, like all the more tender plants of the tree, a hedgehog. It grows from the seed with rapid veare glutinous to the touch. The male-flowers are getation, and attains larger dimensions than the among the upper leaves, and the female flowers at proper bread-fruit-tree. The natives of those islands producing this useful Its other the ends of the twigs. But it is the fruit which uses * constitutes the value of the plant, and this is a very vegetable, collect it without the smallest trouble ; they have only to climb the tree to gather the fruit. large berry, according to botanists, with a reticulated surface, resembling a cocoa-nut or melon in size and Nor is this the sole purpose to which it is converted, form, nine inches in length. It is filled with a white for they have a method of fabricating cloth from the farinaceous fibrous pulp, which becomes juicy and bark; the leaves are substituted for towels, and the yellow when the fruit is ripe ; and the edible portion wood is employed in the construction of their boats lies between the skin, which is green, and a core in and houses. A kind of cement and birdlime is also prepared by boiling the juice exuding from the bark the centre, which is about an inch in diameter. ?tlas During a considerable portion of the year, the in cocoa-nut oik d to a bread-fruit affords the chief sustenance of the SocieIt appears that there are other vegetables of this its cuHiva; at ex- ty Islanders. It is prepared after different fashions, class, producing fruit of inferior quality, but on don. and its taste depends in a great measure on the mode that account receiving less attention. The breadof preparation. It is insipid, slightly sweet, some- fruit proper is of easy cultivation in its native soil. what resembling wheaten bread mixed with Jerusa- In some of the Islands it seems an indigenous prolem artichokes, and some compare it to a cake made duct, and springs from the root of old trees, without of flour, egg, sugar, milk, and butter. In general, any care; in others, it requires simply to be put into it is cut into several pieces, and roasted or baked in the earth. The trees flourish with greatest luxua hole made in the ground, which is paved round riance on rising grounds; and it has been remarked, with large smooth stones ; and then it resembles a that where the hills of the Sandwich Islands rise alboiled potatoe, not being so farinaceous as a good most perpendicularly in a great variety of peaks, their one, but more so than those of ordinary quality. steep declivities, and the deep valleys intervening, are The stones are previously heated by a fire, kindled covered with trees, among which the bread-fruit is in the excavation, and the bread-fruit, being wrapped particularly abundant. It has also been observed, that in a banana leaf, is laid upon them, and covered with although we are accustomed to consider Otaheite as leaves and hot stones. In Otaheite, and in the of the greatest fertility in this plant, the trees of.

B R F, A D-F R U I T. 4-R) Kread.frnif. the Sandwich Islands produce double the quantity lected. The vessels sailed in August 1791, reached Rr?ad-fmit of fruit. Though nearly of the same height, the Van Diemen’s Land in February 1792, and anchored branches begin to shoot out much lower from the at Otaheite in February following. Here they retrunk, and with greater luxuriance. In Otaheite, mained above three months, and obtained even a they are propagated by suckers from the root, which greater store of plants than formerly; for there were are best transplanted in wet weather, when the now 1281 pots,and tubs, whereas the first number earth forms balls around them ; then they are not of the bread-fruit-trees, in 1789, did not exceed 887. liable to suffer from removal. This valuable plant is Captain Bligh, in returning, made a dangerous voywidely diffused in the Southern and Eastern Isles, age through Endeavour Straits, the exploring of and it is generally found throughout the great Paci- which was part of his former instructions, and anfic Ocean. It grows on Amboyna, the Banda chored at Coupang in the Island of Timor, where he Islands, Timor, and the Ladrones; but it is more substituted many other plants for those that had ' specially the object of care and cultivation in the died. He then sailed for the West Indies, and, Marquesas, and the Friendly and Society Islands, touching at St Helena, landed some bread-fruit where it vegetates in uncommon luxuriance and pro- plants, and took on board those of different species. The object of his voyage was at length completed fusion. Attempts to The great utility of the bread-fruit as an article of by reaching the Island of St Vincent’s in January transplarrt subsistence for mankind, has, at different times, led 1798, where he committed 544 plants, of which were bread-fruit, to the care of Dr Anderson, Wi'sVln t0 speculations on the possibility of naturalizing it in 333 (jies, " places where it is not of spontaneous growth. M. Superintendent of the Botanical Garden, and substide Poive, the philosophic Governor of the Mauritius, tuted for them 467 td different species, designed for succeeded in introducing it there, and in the Isle of his Majesty’s garden at Kew. In the next place, Bourbon, whither it was conveyed by M. de Sonnerat Captain Bligh landed 623 plants, of which 347 were from Lugon in the Philippine Islands. Being found bread-fruit, at Port Royal in the Island of Jamaica, in the greatest luxuriance under the same latitudes and replaced them with a farther collection for the as the British West India Islands, and in a climate King, .with which he arrived in England on the not dissimilar, Government deemed the transmis- 2d of August 1793. Five years and eight months sion of it thither, both as practicable without much had thus been occupied in accomplishing the dedifficulty, and as promising a future store of subsist- sirable purpose of these two expeditions. But it ence for the inhabitants. An expedition was therefore belonged especially to Britain, by whom a famifitted out, with particular care, under the command liar intercourse with the southern Islanders was first of Captain, then Lieutenant Bligh, who sailed in the opened up, to effect an object of so much importBounty store ship, for the South Seas, in December ance. Nevertheless, some have been found inclined to 1787. This vessel was prepared so as to receive a great many bread-fruit and other plants, which would challenge the wisdom of so difficult and expensive have proved a valuable acquisition to the colonists an experiment; both because the expectations of of the West Indies, and some which were expected those who looked for an inexhaustible source of to succeed under the culture of the curious in Great subsistence wrere not speedily realized; and beBritain. The Bounty arrived in safety at Otaheite, cause the places the best adapted for its culture althe principal place of her destination, and took on ready possess another vegetable, the plantain, which board 1015 bread-fruit plants, besides a great va- is much more grateful to the negroes, for whom the riety of different species of other plants, and after bread-fruit was principally designed. It has been remaining twenty-three weeks, which were busily argued, that the bread-fruit-tree requires consideroccupied, set sail on the 4th of April 1789. But able care in cultivation, that its progress to maturity it is unnecessary to say more of the expedition, is slow, though in Britain it would appear extremely which was rendered totally abortive by a mutiny rapid. Three years are required to reap the fruit; ensuing three weeks subsequent to its departure ; the plantain demands no care, while it produces its the cause of which still remains in obscurity. The crop in fifteen months; thus giving it a decided Captain and eighteen adherents were barbarously preference in the opinion of the Colonist, who js alturned adrift in an open boat, wherein they suffered ways impatient for a return. Further, that wherincredible hardships, and after a navigation of 3600 ever any vegetable, already relished by the inhabimiles, reached the Island of Timor, having lost only tants of a district, is completely established, they one of their number, who was murdered by the sa- will always reject what they think less agreeable. vages of an intermediate Island. Notwithstanding These arguments have certainly had considerable the unfortunate result of this voyage, the object was weight; probabiy, however, from not duly apprecistill kept in view, and a new expedition planned ating the difficulties attendant on such an experiwith still greater precaution than the former; and ment as the naturalization of plants. But were we it has been said that his present Majesty, King to take a retrospect of all the obstacles which have George III. took a lively interest in conferring so opposed the cultivation of many species of grain important a benefit on a distant part of his people. and fruits at present not uncommon in Britain, it Captain Bligh having arrived in England, was ap- would be very evident that success has resulted only pointed to the command of the Providence and As- from the most patient and laborious attention. Posistance, two vessels specially fitted out as before ; sitive conclusions on this subject, are perhaps as yet and part of their complement consisted of two gar- premature. deners, to take the management of the plants colIn the year 1777> a premium was offered by the

447 BREADFRUIT. I ad-fruit. Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Manu- farther, he had, in the course of the subsequent Bread-fi int. • factures, to any individual who should bring the year, 371 on the point of land, of which no less than ■^'~***s bread-fruit plant from the South Sea Islands in a 319 plants were in a flourishing, and some of them state of vegetation to the West Indies, and the gold in a productive state. He transmitted specimens of medal was awarded, in 1793, to Captain Bligh accord- the fruit to England preserved in vinegar, as it will ingly. That Society, with the laudable design of not keep above two days after being taken from the promoting its culture, continued to offer further pre- tree ; as also of the dried leaves and blossom. Other miums for the greatest number of plants raised in correspondents, nearly about the same time, sent spethe British settlements; and in consequence a silver cimens of cakes made from the bread-fruit converted medal was awarded to Dr Anderson, Superintendent to flour, which were extremely well flavoured; and it of the Botanical Garden at St Vincent’s in 1798; seemed that a dry nutritious food, resembling Tapiand, in 1802, the gold medal to the Honourable Jo- oca in appearance and quality, might be prepared seph Itobley, Governor of the Island of Tobago. from it. The vegetation of this plant is very rapid# From the course adopted by these two Cultivators, Ten of those committed to the care of Dr Anderson, the history of the bread-fruit has received much elu- in 1793, were about tw o feet high, and half an inch cidation, and we shall comprise it in a few observa- in diameter; and he observed, that, in the year 1798, tions, most of the trees in the Botanical Garden at St VinI nit of Mr Robley received three plants from Dr Ander- cent’s were above 30 feet high, and the stem two feet ti e at- son in June 1793, which he planted in very deep above the ground was from three feet to three and a t pts. rich soil, and paid them every attention, in hopes of half in circumference. From the remarks he was procuring shoots. They flourished exceedingly, enabled to make in this interval on the varieties of produced fruit in 1795, and continued to do so un- the tree in the Botanical Garden, it appeared that til autumn 1801, after which we have no notices re- the fruit came out in succession during the greater specting them. Being disappointed of obtaining part of the year, but less of it between November suckers, Mr Robley applied to Dr Anderson, who ad- and March than at any other time. The number vised him to lay bare some of the uppermost roots, produced by a single tree wras very great, being often and to wound them very deeply ; and having follow- in clusters of five and six, and bending the lower ed these directions in October 1800, they almost im- branches to the ground. According to the different mediately began to put forth shoots in abundance. varieties, the fruit was of various shapes and sizes, In December, 120 fine plants were thus obtained, weighing from four to ten pounds, some smooth, which Mr Robley placed in baskets containing about others rough and tuberculated. When taken from a gallon of good rich loose soil, and deposited them the tree before maturity, the juice appeared of the in the shade, in the vicinity of water. With this ele- consistence and colour of milk, and in taste somement also they were refreshed when the weather re- what similar. It issued for above ten minutes in an quired it. Baskets were preferred to pots for the uninterrupted stream, and thickened into a glutinous plants, from being lighter and more easily removed. and adhesive substance. Three months were requirLikewise, because when deposited in the place where ed to bring the fruit to perfection, which, as above they were ultimately to remain, the baskets would remarked, is about a week before it begins to ripen. speedily rot, and not repress the growth of the plant, Besides the Otabeitan bread-fruit, Captain Bligh left which would then extend its roots. European Culti- some of the East India bread-fruit in the Botanical vators would do well to attend to the beneficial use Garden. But this proved of infinitely inferior quaof baskets, for it too often happens that a tender plant lity, and a very indifferent substitute for it. It w as is wounded in removing it from a pot, or that the ill-shaped, of a soft pulpy substance, and, like the earth surrounding it is so deranged and displaced, other, wanting seeds, and propagating itself by suckthat no subsequent care can preserve it from destruc- ers springing from the root. A species of fruit, bearing considerable analogy to Bread-fruit tion. Encouraged by the successful issue of these 6 N*™previous experiments, Mr Robley prepared a point of those above rdescribed, is found on the Nicobar “fh' ai s an s land of loose sandy soil, bounded by a salt lagoon Islands, but w e are unacquainted with the degree ^* ^ * ^ ‘ and the sea, for receiving a large plantation. When of attention it has received, either for the purpose of the tide filled, brackish water was to be found every- illustrating its natural history, or for economical uses. where at the depth of two feet and a half from the It is not less beneficial, however, to the natives. The surface ; but it had been observed in some of the tree producing this fruit vegetates promiscuously South Sea Islands, that bread-fruit-trees grew in with others in the woods, but preferring a humid full vigour, though brackish water bathed their roots, soil. Its trunk is straight, thirty or thirty-five feet and the point was otherwise defended from the en- in height, and from ten inches to two feet in circumcroachments of the sea by an artificial bank. The ference. The roots spring from it above the surland being ploughed and harrowed twice, was divided face, and do not penetrate deep into the earth. The into beds stretching across from the sea to the la- leaves are disposed like the large calyx of a flower; goon : the beds were 27 feet in breadth, and the they are three feet long and four inches broad, of a plants put into the earth in the middle of each, dark green hue and tenacious substance. A long and exactly at the distance of 27 feet asunder time elapses before the tree produces fruit, not less —thus leaving a large space for their vegeta- than about the period of human life. It then forms tion. Mr Robley’s expectations were not disappoint- at the bottom of the leaves, from which it proceeds ed. In August 1801, he had 153 plants in a flou- as it is enlarged, and, when nearly ripe, it changes rishing condition ; and, prosecuting the object still from green to yellowish colour. This is the proper

448 B R E A K W A T E R, Kread-truit period for gathering it, when its weight is between which cost them more regret than the useless and ex- Iheaki>ter Itrlak- 30ieantl 40 pounds. The exterior surface is cut oft', and pensive projects for that port ever could be worth), ^ ' water. ^ fruit is boiled in earthen pots covered with leaves, that while the whole line of their coast, bordering during several hours, on a slow fire ; when, becom- on the English Channel, presented only sandy ing soft and friable, the preparation is sufficient, and shores with shallow water, or an iron-bound coast the fruit is then exposed to the air, and is next, form- bristled with rocks, Nature had lavished on their ed into a mass not unlike maize, either in taste or “ eternal rival” of the opposite coast, the incalcucolour. It may be preserved a long time, but expo- lable advantages of a succession of deep and comsure to the atmosphere occasions acidity. The plant modious harbours, or of safe and extensive roadproducing this fruit, however, is not of the same ge- steads, inviting their possessors to commerce and nus as those above described, although its fruit is navigation, and placing in their grasp “ the sceptre converted to similar uses, but is rather a kind of and the sovereignty of the seas.” M. Curt obpalm which it might be useful to naturalize in the serves, that “ the misfortunes of La Hogue, which all eastern possessions of Britain. (s.) the talents of Tourville could not prevent, taught BREAKWATER, is any obstruction of wood, Louis XIV., that, in completing the defence of his stone, or other material, as a boom or raft of wood, frontiers by land, he had too much neglected his sunken vessels, &c., placed before the entrance of a frontiers on the sea ; that this great prince, however, port or harbour; or, any projection from the land profiting by experience, soon discovered that Enginto the sea, as a pier, mole or jetty, so placed as to land owed the superiority of her marine to the milibreak the force of the waves, and prevent their tary establishments which she possessed in the Chanaction on ships and vessels lying at anchor within nel.” With a view of securing to France similar them. Thus, the piers of the ancient Piraeus and of advantages, the Marechal de Vauban was directed Rhodes ; the moles of Naples, Genoa, and Castella- to visit the coasts of Normandy, for the purpose of mare; the piers of Ramsgate, Margate, Folkstone, adopting measures for placing in security, against Howth, and the wooden-dike de Richlieu, thrown hostile attacks, all such bays, harbours, and inlets, as across the port of Rochelle, may all be denominated were favourable for the disembarkation of troops; Breakwaters. In French it is sometimes called and to furnish plans of such works as he might judge Baitre d’Eau ; a name which appears to have been to be necessary, not only for military, but for naval applied to the mole at Tangier, a work com- purposes. Among other projects, he reported that menced in 1763, under the direction of Lord Ti- the roadstead of Cherbourg possessed the means of viot, Sir J. Lawson, and Sir Hugh Chohnley, and attack, of defence, and of protection; that it was finished, or rather discontinued, in 1776, after very capable of exerting an influence on maritime having cost this nation the sum of L. 243,897, war, and in their commercial relations with the 5s. 4^d. The term Breakwater, however, has, of northern powers; that it was the spot on which the late years, been considered as more peculiarly ap- head-quarters should be established on the coast of propriate to large insulated dikes of stone, whether the Channel; and, in short, that it wras a central adof regular masonry or sunk promiscuously in rough vance post with regard to England. He moreover masses, so placed, as to form an artificial island reported, that it might be made a port for the safe across the mouth of an open roadstead, and thereby, retreat of a squadron crippled by stormy weather, from obstructing and breaking the waves of the sea, or beaten by an enemy, or even for the reception of to convert a dangerous anchorage into a safe and a victorious fleet with its prizes. By thus convertcommodious harbour for the reception of ships of ing the present exposed roadstead of Cherbourg into war or merchantmen. a -safe and protected anchorage for a fleet of men of Of this description of dike, for creating an artifi- war, France, Tie said, would be able to watch the cial harbour on a grand scale, fit for the reception of motions of England; to oblige her at all times to ships of war of the largest class, there are two re- keep a corresponding fleet in the Channel; and to markable examples in the Breakwater of Cherbourg menace her shores with invasion of which she at all and that of Plymouth,—the one after thirty years of times stood so much in dread. almost uninterrupted labour still very far from being Opinions, however, being divided between the adcompleted; the other, in the course of about four vantages of La Hogue and Cherbourg, Louis XVI., years, in a much more forward state, and if neces- immediately after the conclusion of the American sary, capable of being completed in the course of War, issued his directions to M. de Castries, Secretwo years. tary of State for the Marine, to appoint a special BreakBreakwater of Cherbourg. In M.de Cessart’s commission, to consider and report which of these water of Description des Travuux Hydrauliques, will be two roadsteads combined the most advantages, and Cherbourg. foun(j a very minute and laborious detail of all the was, in all respects, preferable for constructing a preparatory operations, the progress and the expence port and naval arsenal capable of receiving and of constructing the Breakwater of Cherbourg, up equipping from 80 to 100 vessels of war of different to the period of the Revolution. But the history of descriptions. The Commissioners had little hesitathis great undertaking is summarily stated in a re- tion in deciding upon Cherbourg, because, by means port made to the National Assembly in 1791, by M. of a Breakwater, it would be capable not only of adde Curt, in the name of its Committee of Marine, mitting a fleet to ride securely at anchor when thus concerning the Marine Establishment of Cherbourg. sheltered from the sea, but also of affording them Its History. It had always been a source of considerable an- protection against any attempt of an enemy. It was noyance to the French (and more particularly since added, that Cherbourg was an admirable place for the demolition of the works and basin of Dunkirk, watching Portsmouth, without appearing to have

B R E A K W A T E R. iire.ik- once recollected what an excellent anchorage Spit- a depth of 40 to 42 feet of water at the lowest ebb, vvaler. head was for watching Cherbourg. and the closing up the entrance of the port ol RoDirections were accordingly given to M. de Caux, chelle, which is only 740 toises in length, and the Commanding Officer of Engineers at Cherbourg, depth of water only five or six toises. 4. 1 hat the to commence, as a preparatory measure, with the upper part of the projected dike, being exposed to construction of a fort on the Island of Pelee, and the violent action of the sea, the stability of that another on Du Hornet, according to plans given part could not be depended on ; and besides, a dike in by Vauban in 1()79 ; by these works the road- covered at high spring-tides with 18 feet water w ould stead would be flanked on the right and lel’t. The not fulfil the twm indispensable conditions—smooth interval, however, being found too great to afford water, and protection against an enemy. These arsufficient protection to all the ships that might re- guments were deemed conclusive, and the plan of quire to be anchored in the roadstead, M. de Caux M. de la Bretonniere was abandoned. In 1781, M. de Cessart, Inspector-General of presented a plan to the Minister at War for constructing an intermediate fort in the sea, which Bridges and Embankments, received directions to should be casemated, and sufficiently large to con- prepare a plan that should cover a fleet of 80 to tain all the buildings necessary for a garrison. The 100 ships of war in the roadstead of Cherbourg, from surrounding walls were proposed to be sunk in cais- the attack of an enemy, and protect them against sons of 6000 feet square at the base, and 52 feet the elements. M. de Cessart was fully aware that, to high. The top of the platform was to be 80 feet raise a barrier in front of this roadstead, and in the high from the bottom of the sea, and the area of its middle of the sea, capable of resisting the impetuosisurface 1000 square toises. This plan, however, was ty of the weaves, and repelling the enterprises of the not considered to give sufficient shelter to a fleet enemy, was no ,easy task. “ Nothing,” says he, “ that from the winds and waves, and new projects were 1 had ever performed, or that I had ever read of, in ancient or modern history, appeared to me to be w orthy called for by the Government. In 1777, M. de la Bretonniere, Capitaine de Vais- of being placed in comparison with the grandeur of seau, one of the commissioners who had been named this project.” He suggested, as the preferable and only to report on the comparative merits of the two road- mode of answ ering the purpose of producing smooth steads of Cherbourg and La Hogue, had addressed water in the roadstead, that, in the place of one cona memorial to the Minister of Marine, in which he tinued dike or mole, a number of large masses, seexpatiated, at great length, on the numerous advan- parated from each other, of a circular form, with an tages held out by the former, and particularly with elevation greatly inclined, should be substituted ; in regard to the security of the anchorage. He pro- short, a series of truncated cones, which, touching posed to construct, at the distance of a league in the each other at their bases, might present to the sea at sea, a stone dike of 2000 toises in length, leaving the surface, alternate obstacles and openings, and three open passages into the roadstead it was in- thus interrupt and break down the waves previous tended to cover; one in the middle, and one at each to their entering the harbour. He also considered extremity. This dike, like that which was sunk be- that, as these openings at the surface would not exfore Rochelle, was proposed to have as its nucleus ceed 72 feet, a sufficient barrier would be formed a number of ships filled with masonry, floated off against the passage of an enemy’s vessel; and that, and sunk in proper situations, and afterwards to be if necessary, in time of war, it might be rendered cased with large sunken stones, to the height of 50 still more secure by placing strong chains of iron feet above the bottom of the sea. The reason as- across the intervals, it was proposed to construct signed for sinking the stone vessels was the supposi- these conical caissons, of wood, the number of which tion that an under current might cause so much to cover a front of 2000 toises would amount to 90, motion at the bottom of the sea as would derange which, at 360,000 livres for each cone, would cause the level, and work away the loose stones ; so little a total expence of 32,400,000 for the whole. The appears at that time to have been known of the in- number, however, was afterwards reduced to 64, creasing tranquillity of the waves of the sea, in pro- and the time estimated for completing the work 13 years. Each cone was to be 150 feet in diameter at portion to the increasing depth of water. On this plan the commissioners observed, 1. That the base, and 60 feet in diameter at the top. and in order to construct a dike of 2000 toises in length, from 60 to 70 feet in heighth, the depth of water with sloping sides proportioned to its height, there at spring-tides, in the line in which they were intendwould be required so great a number of old ships as ed to be sunk, varying from about 56 to 70 feet. could hardly be collected in all France in less than They were proposed to be sunk without any bottoms ten years ; and, if purchased from foreigners, the in them, by which the upward resistance of the water expence would be enormous. 2. That the assem- acting on a base wdiose surface was equal to bling and employing the necessary number of sea- 17,678 square feet, would be avoided. The caissons men would be next to impossible, but, if possible, floated off by casks, attached to their inner and outer highly impolitic, when, just at the close of a mari- circumference, being towed to the spot where they time war, commerce felt a pressing want of their ser- were destined to be sunk, were then to be filled with vices ; whereas it might be practicable, and would be stones to the tops, and left for a while to settle; advantageous, to employ the military for some time after which the upper part, commencing with the before disbanding them. 3. That no comparison line of low water, was to be built with masonry laid would hold good between the roadstead of Cher- in pozzolana, and encased with stones of granite. This plan of a stone dike or Breakwater being bourg with an opening to the sea of 3600 toises, and 3L VOB. II. PART II.

449 —,

450 Breakwater,

BREAK laid in detail before the Minister of Marine, it was deemed proper, on a subject so entirely novel, and of such great national importance, to consult the ablest men in France, before any steps should be taken for carrying it into execution. The details were accordingly submitted to the four commissioners, M. de Borda, a naval officer and Member of the Academy of Sciences ; M. de Fleurieu, Capitaine de Vaisseau, and Director of Ports and Naval Arsenals, afterwards Minister of Marine; M. Peronnet, Member of the Academy of Sciences, Chief Engineer of Bridges and Embankments ; and M. de Chezy, Inspector and Director of the School of Engineers. They recommended that, in the first instance, an experimental cone should be constructed, and floated off. Instead, however, of 60 feet in height, the cone made at Havre was only 36 feet; the circumference of its base 472 feet, and having a slope of 60 degrees; the upper circumference was 339 feet. Within the exterior cone, and at the distance of 5 feet 10 inches from it, was an interior and concentric cone, bound together by beams of wood, pointing to the common centre, each being the section of the radius. The frame of each cone was composed of 80 large upright beams, 24 feet long and 1 foot square. On these were erected 80 more, of 14 feet in length, making in the whole 320 of these large uprights; the machine was then planked, hooped, and firmly fixed together with iron bolts. The cone at Havre being completed, the next operation was to tow it off to the particular spot where it was to be sunk. Being open at the bottom, it was found necessary to attach to the lower circumference 284 large casks, part to the exterior and part to the interior cone; besides 50 casks, attached by lines of equal lengths, from the bottom of the inner circle, to float towards the centre, and thus assist in keeping it upright and steady. It was easy enough, by these means, to float off a vessel of this kind. M. de Cessart observes, that the force of 7200 pounds produced by a capstan, was found sufficient to draw it on the water, to a distance equal to the length of its own diameter, or about 25 toises, in two minutes. “ The success of the experiment made at Havre,” says M. Curt, “ had inspired such veneration for the conical caissons, that those persons who had been most disposed to object to the plan, were now obliged to be silent.” The result of the experiment at once decided the Government to commence operations at Cherbourg. M. de Cessart was appointed director of the works, with four Engineers to assist him. A permanent council, consisting of Commanders in Chief, Directors, Engineers, &c. was ordered to reside, for six summer months, at Cherbourg, and the other six in Paris; and a considerable body of troops were marched down to the neighbourhood, to furnish a competent number of artificers and labourers, to be employed on this great national undertaking. In 1783, the buildings were commenced for lodging the principal officers of the civil and military departments, and their respective establishments; a naval yard marked out and inclosed,—roads of communication opened with the forts,—and at Becquet, about a league to the eastward of Cherbourg, a small harbour was dug out for the reception of about 80

WATER. vessels, which were to be employed in transporting Breakthe stones from thence by sea. water. On the 6th June 1784, the first cone was floated off and sunk, and the second on the 7th July following, in presence of 10,000 spectators, assembled on the shores and quays of Cherbourg; but before the cavity of the latter could be filled with stones, a storm, in the month of August, which continued five days, entirely demolished the upper part of this cone. In the course of this summer the quantity of stones sunk within the cavities of the two cones, outside their bases, and in the intermediate space, amounted to 4600 cubic toises, or about 65,000 tons. In 1785, three more cones were completed and sunk at irregular intervals ; and, at the end of that year, the quantity sunk amounted to 17,767 cubic toises, or about 250,000 tons. In 1786, five additional cones were completed and sunk; one of them in presence of the King; and the quantity of stones, thrown within them, and deposited on the dike connecting the cones, amounted, at the end of this year, to 42,862 cubic toises, or 600,000 tons. In 1787, five more cones were sunk and filled with stones, making, in the whole, fifteen ; and the distance between the first and fifteenth cone was 1203 toises, and the quantity of stones deposited within these cones and the connecting dike, at the end of this year, amounted to 71,585 cubic toises, or more than 1,000,000 tons. The violent gales of wind that were frequent in November and December, carried away all the upper parts of the five cones which were sunk this year. In 1788, three more were sunk, but the upper parts of the first two were carried away as the others had been; the height of the third was, therefore, reduced, so as to be, when sunk, on a level with low water; but this cone was upset and soon went to pieces. The enormous expence, and the delay that had been occasioned in completing and sinking these eighteen cones, exhausted the patience of the Government, so that, in the following year, 1789? it caused the three cones, then on the building slips, to be sold for whatever they would fetch. The total quantity of stone that was sunk within the cones, and on the intermediate dike, from the year 1784 to the end of December 1790, being seven years, amounted to 373,359 cubic toises, or about 5,300,000 tons. These 18 cones being sunk at irregular distances from each other, some being '25 toises, and others at 300 toises from centre to centre, occupied a line of 1950 toises in length. The distance of the first cone from the Island Pelee, on the east, was 510, and of the eighteenth to Fort Querqueville on the west 1200 toises; so that the whole entrance or opening of the roadstead of Cherbourg was originally 3660 toises, more than one-half of which was now imperfectly covered by the breakwater. The expence of this great undertaking was not, we suspect, accurately known, and could not, probably, be ascertained. M. de Cessart estimates the eighteen cones alone, at 6,231,407 livres, or about L. 260,000; and the total expence incurred between the 1st April 1783 and the 1st January 1791> he states as under:

451 B R E A K W A T E R. The slope of the side next to the roadstead was UrtakbreakLivres. c water. The value of the materials of the found on examination to sustain itself unaltered at ^. cones an angle of 45 degrees, but the slope on the side v ^ 2,462,369 9 6 The value of the workmanship 1,560,560 9 9 next to the sea, whose base was three for one of The conveyance and sinking of height, had given way to the depth of fourteen feet stones 14,880,074 2 5 below the low water mark ; and the materials being Incidental expences for buildings, composed of small stones, were washed away, and magazines, &c. 2,359,489 0 had formed themselves into a prolonged slope of Contingent expences 395,926 1 one foot only in height for ten feet of base, which was therefore concluded to be the natural slope made Making the general total 21,658,420 0 0 by the sea when acting upon a shingly shore ; a or L.900,000 Sterling. In this estimate the extra conclusion, however, too vague to be correct, as the pay to the troops and seamen employed, would not slope occasioned by the action of the sea must deappear to be included ; for M. de Curt, in his re- pend on the nature of the materials against which it port to the National Assembly, states the total ex- acts, and the force and direction of the acting pence to have amounted to 32,000,000 livres, or power. A sandy beach, for instance, has invariably L. 1,300,000 Sterling; and that a farther sum would the most gradual slope, gravel the next, shingles the be required of 879>648 livres, to bring the top of the next, and large masses of rock or stone, the most predike to an uniform height, namely, a little above the cipitous. At the present time, the stones of the level of the surface, at low water, of ordinary tides. breakwater, by constant friction, have worn away The number of people employed was prodigious. the sharp angles, and it has been found that the To enable M. de Cessart to complete and sink five base on the side next to the sea is on the average cones a-year, he found it necessary to employ 250 fully eleven for one of perpendicular height. carpenters, 30 blacksmiths, 2C0 stone-hewers, and It was proposed, therefore, to cover the side with 200 masons,—in all 680 artificers. The number of a coating of stone 12 feet thick, to consist of blocks quarrymen, and others, employed in transporting of 12, 15, 20, and 30 cubic feet, or from one to two 174,720 cubic toises of stone for the 64 cones ori- tons each, which casing was to be carried to the ginally intended, or 13,650 yearly, was estimated at height of 12 feet above the high water mark of the 400 workmen, 100 horses, 30 drivers, 24 chasses- highest spring-tides; the size of the stones to inmarees, each carrying seven cubic toises, or about crease towards the summit, so as to be capable of 98 tons, with 100 seamen; making an aggregate, for resisting the percussion of the waves, which is there this service, of 526 men, and for the whole operation the strongest. It was calculated that this covering from 1200 to 1500 artificers and labourers, to which of 12 feet thick on both sides would require for each toise in length 70 cubic toises of stone, and were actually superadded about 3000 soldiers. A very considerable part of the expence might that the whole length of the dike would consequenthave been saved by dispensing altogether with the ly require 136,500 cubic toises, which, by deducting cones, all of which burst, as might have been ex- for the vacant spaces between the stones, would be pected from the superincumbent weight of a deep co- reduced to 113,750 cubic toises of stone, or about lumn of water, pressing the stones within against one million and a half of tons. It was farther caltheir sides. The 9th cone, which was sunk in 1786, culated, that the expence of quarrying, the transport went to pieces in 1800, after standing fourteen years; to the quays, the loading, conveyance, discharging another reached the duration of five years; six re- machinery, together with the commissioners, clerks, mained on an average about four years ; and all the &c. would cost for each cubic toise deposited on the rest went in pieces within a year from the time of dike the sum of 55 livres, which for 113.750 cubic toises, would amount to 6,256,250 livres, and, adding their being sunk. The failure of the cones, and the breaking out of for contingencies 600,000 livres, the total estimate the Revolution, put an entire stop, for some time, to amounted to 6,856,250 livres. The machinery employed for thus casing the all operations at Cherbourg. The attention, however, of the National Assembly was speedily called breakwater may be seen in Plate XXXVII., in which, Fig. 1. Represents a section of a lighter on which to what they considered to be an object of great national importance. In 1791 they directed their it is erected. AZX is an elevated deck or platform. Committee for the Marine to make out a detailed Y, three rollers of six inches diameter. report of the operations that had already been carTK, two beams or sheers, moving on trunnions in ried on. On this report being given in by M. de Curt, in the name of the Committee, it was read and grooves at T. S, hooks to hold the sheers at the proper angle of approved by the Assembly, and funds to a certain extent decreed, to complete the undertaking on a inclination. L, the axle of the windlass or wheels B, round new plan proposed by M. de Cessart. The principal feature of this plan was that of casing over the sur- which the rope of the pullies passes. The wheels face of the dike as it then stood with large blocks are 12 feet in diameter. Fig. 2. A chasse-mar6e laden with blocks of stone. of stone ; and to carry the height of the breakwater E, the block and its hook laying hold of an iron along the whole of its extent, so far above the high water mark of spring-tides, as to render it capable of chain round a stone. F, the stone hoisted to the platform AZ, (fig. 1.) receiving batteries on the summit, at the middle, and when the brace is unhooked at S; the hoisting conat the two extremities.

452 Breakwater.

BREA K W A T E R. tinued until the Summit K of the sheers is brought more valuable, as a convenient port of retreat in case Break, of accident; but it had no dock-yard, nor means of vvater. t0 y, w]ien they rest against the frame which supports the windlass; the stone F is then lowered upon giving to a ship a large refit or repair. He might have the rollers as at M, from whence it is pushed for- thought too, as w'e believe most of our naval officers ward by men to the inclined plane, off which it is do, that a fleet of ships, riding at anchor behind the breakwater, are easily attackable by fire-ships, as the rolled into the water upon the side of the dike. It was calculated that, by employing a certain same wind which carries a vessel in at one entrance number of these machines, 34,090 toises might be will carry her out at the other, and the course would deposited in one year, reckoning only six working lie directly through the centre of the fleet at anchor. months, or 5682 toises per month, or that 487 su- Besides, it might be possible, in certain winds, under perficial toises of the dike might be covered in one sea- the lee of the centre part of the breakwater, to bomson, and the whole completed in four years. Very little bard a fleet at anchor in the roadstead within it. He determined, therefore, to establish a large progress, however, had been made at the commencement of the war in 1803. At that period the centre of dock-yard at Cherbourg, not merely for repairing, the dike only had been brought above the high water but also for the construction of the largest class of mark, in which was placed a battery and a small garri- ships of war; to dig a basin that should contain 50 son of soldiers, the whole of which were swept away or 60 sail of the line; to construct dry-docks and by a heavy sea, occasioned by a tremendous gale of slips for building and repairing, and to make it a wind in the year 1809, when all the buildings which naval port of the first rank. In 1813, this basin was had been erected on this part of the breakwater, the completed at an expence, as Bonaparte is said to have men, women, and children which composed the gar- asserted when on board the Northumberland, and rison, together with several workmen, were washed which has since been confirmed, of L. 3,000,000 Steraway; at the same time, two sloops of war in the ling. A wet-dock of the same magnitude, commuroadstead were driven on shore, and dashed in pieces. nicating with it, was then commenced, and is now in This disaster was such as might have been expected. progress. The only description that we have been able to The effect of sinking large stones upon the small ones, already rounded by constant attrition, could find in print of this great work, which took ten years not be otherwise ; the latter acting as so many rol- in carrying into execution, is contained in a short lers, carried out the former even beyond the extre- letter from M. Pierre-Aime Lair, Secretary to the mity of the base, to which the breakwater had natu- Society of Agriculture and Commerce of Caen, who was present at the ceremony of opening and conserally been brought by the action of the sea. At present small spots only are visible above the crating the great basin, in presence of the Empress surface of the sea at low water of spring-tides, and Maria Louisa, the 27th August 1813. He describes no where such spots exceed three feet in height; the this basin to be excavated out of a rock of granite intermediate spaces are from 3 to 15 feet below the schist, or gneis, the density and hardness of which surface; and, taking the average, the whole dike, increased as the workmen descended from the surfrom one end to the other, may be about four feet face. He compares it to an immense trough dug below the surface of low water at the spring-tides. out of a single stone, and capable of containing many Near the middle, however, there is about 100 yards millions of cubic feet of water. We now know, howwhere the height rises to 18 or 20 feet above high ever, that Mr Lair is mistaken; that it is not one water, but it exhibits only a shapeless mass of ruins. mass of rock, but rock and gravel mixed; that In one spot a large heap of stones has been accumu- the whole of the sides are cased with a well conlated, as if to try how much weight might safely be structed wall of red granite; and that a noble quay, trusted upon it, before the attempt be made to re- built of the same material, and extending between build the fort. The largest of the stones in this mass the two forts of Galet and Hornet, separates the bamay be about four tons, and they descend to the sin and wet-dock from the sea. The dimensions of the new basin he states to be size of 200 or 300 pounds. Of the remainder of the dike, very few parts are about 900 feet in length by 720 in width, and the visible at low water; and, at this moment, the great- average depth 55 feet from the edge of the quay; er part is four feet below the surface of low water; and as this edge is five feet above the high water it is sufficiently high, however, to break the force of mark of the equinoctial spring-tides, the depth of the waves, and to make the port of Cherbourg a safe an- water in the basin is then 50 feet, and the mass of water, after making allowance for a slope of the solid chorage in some winds for about 40 sail of the line. On the renewal of the war, after the rupture of sides inward in an angle of 45° from the height of the treaty of Amiens, Bonaparte began to bestow a about 25 feet, amounts to about 30 millions of cubic greater share of attention on the navy of France; and feet; and that it is calculated to contain about 30 though, for a time, the unparalleled victory of Tra- sail of the line. We have reason to think that it is falgar checked his efforts, it did not induce him to considerably larger; about 1000 feet by 770 feet, and abandon them. His plans w’ere vast, and, at,the pe- consequently contains a surface of about 18 acres, riod of his fall, were in rapid progress towards their which, at three per acre, will contain 54 sail of the completion. He had determined on a fleet of 200 line, and the adjoining wet-dock, when finished, an sail of the line, and the noble port of Antwerp equal number. The latter is at this time about twogave him every facility for ship-building. For the thirds completed, and from 300 to 400 men are embetter security in forming a junction of his two great ployed in blasting the rock and building granite walls. fleets of Brest and Antwerp, Cherbourg now became The dike or breakwater seems to be abandoned; the

BREAK W A T E R. 453 ipak- works having long been stopped, and the stone-ves- without the dock-yard, nearly ready for launching, Bieakater ' sels going rapidly to decay. The French officers Le Zelandais of 80, the first line of battle ship laid say, indeed, that it has occasioned the roadstead to down at Cherbourg, and the Duguay-Trouin of 74 become shallower, by the deposition of sand that has guns ; and in the roadstead were Le Polonais and taken place. Le Courageux. In the centre of the same side of The entrance canal leading from the outer har- the basin, with two slips on each side of it, a noble bour into the basin is at right angles to the latter, and dry-dock was cut out (or built rather) of solid graits direction ENE. Its dimensions are as under: nite, in which ships of the largest class might be Feet. In. built or repaired. Its dimensions were, Feet. In. Width between the two moles in the direcLength, 230 tion of their axis, ] 96 8 Width, 74 Width at its opening into the basin, 308 8 Depth, 26 6 Length from the axis of the moles or piers to the line of wall forming the side of the basin, 274 0 Thus the ships built on the four slips may be launched into the basin, and at once docked out of it. But few store-houses, or other buildings necessary The basin, having no gates, is said to be excavated to the depth of nine feet below the bottom of the for a naval establishment, are yet erected ; but there canal, the former having, as before mentioned, 50 feet is an ample space laid out for every purpose that can water, and the latter only 41 at high spring-tides, be required to make Cherbourg one of the first nawhich, as they ebb 20 feet, would leave only 21 feet val arsenals in Europe; and a narrow canal, between in the passage or canal at low water. This inequali- the walls of Fort du Hornet and the wall of the wetty, we presume, is intended to keep the ships afloat dock, leads to a most convenient space for mastin the basin at low water, when the depth in the ponds and mast-houses. The fortifications for the protection of the ancanal is not sufficient for that purpose; but after so much expence incurred in digging the basin, one chorage in the roadstead, and the new naval arsenal, would suppose a little more might have been ex- are, 1. Querqueville. 2. Fort du Hornet. 3. Fort pended in digging the canal to the same depth, so du Galet. 4. Fort Royal, on Isle Pelee. Fort as to let ships pass into and out of the basin in all • Royal, and Fort du Hornet, have circular faces tostates of the tide; an advantage of the utmost im- wards the sea, with each two tiers of guns, and turportance for speedily securing their ships in the rets above them ; the former mounts about 80 guns, basin, when in danger of an attack from the enemy the latter 65, and Querqueville about 30 guns. The principal channel from the road to the sea is in the roadstead, or of speedily putting to sea and escaping the vigilance of a blockading squadron. at the western end of the breakwater, which, for No reason is assigned for leaving the basin without large ships, is not more than half a mile in width ; gates; but we suspect that Mr Lair is again mis- and this want of space will always make it difficult taken, and that the passage has depth of water suf- for ships of the line to work out; but, on the other ficient for ships of the largest class to run into the hand, a fleet may push out to the westward in southbasin at all times of the tide. But even here they erly winds, which lock up the English ports in the do not lie in safety; for the wide entrance facing the Channel. The eastern channel is a very indifferent one; and, NE. is covered only in that direction by the Isle Pelee, so that the water in the basin partakes of the from the position of the Isle Pelee and the main, is swell in the road, which is sometimes so great as to likely to become worse, from the accumulation of make it necessary to apply 10 or 12 cables to hold sand, which the French officers say is actually the case. Such, as are here described, were the mighty preships steady in the basin. Another serious inconvenience is likely to arise from parations of that extraordinary man for the destructhis particular construction of the basin. Whatever tion of the naval power of Great Britain, and, with silt or mud is carried in by the tides must be depo- it, of the national glory, pride, and prosperity; which, sited there, and cannot possibly escape. The quan- whether elated with success, or depressed by revertity is probably not very great in the water of the ses, he never attempted to conceal as being the Channel opposite to Cherbourg, but, higher up, to- object nearest to his heart; and he had sufficient wards Ostend, it is very considerable. When we cause for his hatred, well knowing that it was Engtook possession of that port, it was found that, in land, and England’s navy, that opposed the only obthe course of the Revolutionary war, the harbour, stacle between him and the subjugation of the world by neglect, was filled up with six or seven feet of to his dominion. To give the greater eclat to this grand undertakmud. Several pieces of cannon are intended to be mount- ing, he sent the ex-Empress Maria Louisa to be preed on the two piers, to protect the entrance into the sent at the opening of the basin. When the time basin. On one of them is likewise placed a light- arrived for the water to be let in, and the dam broken house, and on the other a Semaphoric telegraph. down, her approach was announced by flourishes of Four slips of granite, for building large ships, were warlike music and numerous discharges of artillery. at this time constructed on the southern side of the “ Cries of joy,” says M. Lair, “ were mingled for a basin; and on each of them was a ship of the line long time with the thunder of the batteries. Her in progress, LTnflexible of 118 guns, Le Centaure Majesty took her place in the pavilion which had of 80, Le Jupiter and Le Genereux of 74 guns been prepared for her, when the Bishop of Contaneach. Two other ships of the line were on the stocks ces, surrounded by his clergy, advancing towards

BREAKWATER. 454 Break- her, pronounced an address suitable to the occasion. other ports, there being none at Torbay ;—in short, Breakwater. After the ceremonies and customary prayers, he turn- this open and exposed bay bore so bad a character water, ed round towards the basin, and blessed this work of among naval officers, that Lord Howe used to say, man. It is delightful to see a nation consecrating it would one day be the grave of the British fleet. It is, besides, an object of the first importance to by religious rites an event so memorable, and causing the divinity to intervene in all its grand undertak- the efficiency of every naval arsenal, to have a safe ings.” He speaks with rapture on the gratification and commodious roadstead in its neighbourhood, like he derived from seeing men born on the shores of that of Spithead to the harbour and dock-yard of the Tiber, and on the banks of the Guadalquiver, Portsmouth. Here those ships which may have gone working under the direction of French engineers, at through a course of repair or refitment, or those new the establishment of a port in the channel, formida- from the stocks, may assemble and complete their ble to the English navy; and suffers no expression of final equipment for sea; and here, also, ships returnregret to escape him at the idea of these poor Italian ing from sea may safely lie at their anchors, till the and Spanish prisoners of war being compelled to la- wind and tide may serve them to go into harbour. But, bour in chains at a work, for which they were neither in Plymouth Sound, ships coming out of Hamoaze, paid, nor in which they could take the least possible or ships going into that harbour, had no such security ; by the rolling sea that set in, they were exposed interest. Breakwater in Plymouth Sound, is a work of to the double danger of parting their cables, or strikBreakwater in a similar nature to that of Cherboux-g, but constructed ing against the hard and rocky bottom, either of Plymouth on sounder principles, with less machinery, and fewer which would be almost certain destruction. Sound. It was most important, therefore, to render Ply- its History, people. Compared in extent and dimensions with that of Cherbourg, it is only in the ratio of about one mouth Sound, if possible, by any means, and almost at any expence, a safe roadstead for ships of war. To asto four. There is no port and harbour on the south-west certain the practicability^of this measure, Mr Rennie, coast of England possessing so many advantages as the Civil Engineer, and Mr Whidby, the Master AtPlymouth,—none so well situated for assembling and tendant of Woolwich Dock-yard, were sent down by equipping a fleet to watch the movements of the ene- Lord Howick, at the suggestion, we believe, of Lord my in the harbour of Brest. Its dock-yard may be St Vincent (Earl Grey), in the year 1806, with direcconsidered as the second in the kingdom in point of tions to examine and report, whether by any, and by size, convenience, and effective strength; the margin what means, a sufficient shelter might be given to inof which stretches along the magnificent harbour of sure a safe anchorage for a fleet of ships of the line. Hamoaze, a noble expanse of water, nearly land-lock- The report w as favourable; and several plans were ofed, of a capacity sufficient for mooring safely a hun- fered for sheltering this sound, so as to render it cadred sail of the line in excellent anchoring-ground, pable of containing in safety at their anchors, above and in water that carries its depth to the very quays 50 sail of the line. Nothing, however, was done or atof the yard. On the opposite or eastern side of the tempted, notwithstanding all the increased and mighty Sound, and at the distance of about three miles from preparations of the enemy, till Mr Yorke presided at Hamoaze and the dock-yard, is another sheet of ■wa- the Board of Admiralty; when one of his first meater, called Catwater, not quite so deep, nor so well sures was to carry into execution this grand and imsheltered as Hamoaze; but, since the progress made portant national object,—the most important that, in the Breakwater, forming a safe and commodious perhaps, was ever undertaken for the glory and the harbour for merchant vessels of every description. safety of the British navy. The delay that took These two harbours open into Plymouth Sound and place can only be explained by the frequent changes Cawsand Bay, in which ships employed in the block- of the Board of Admiralty, which, we believe, have ade of Brest, or those refitted in Hamoaze, have been been fatal to many important measures for the beneaccustomed to assemble and prepare for putting to fit and advantage of this great bulwark of the nation. sea. But the very exposed situation of Plymouth Of the plans proposed for sheltering the sound, Sound, and the heavy swell that almost constantly one was to throwr a pier from Staddon point to the rolled in, especially when the wand blew fresh from Panther rock, of 2650 yards in length ; another, to the south-west to the south-east, made it so inconve- construct a pier from Andurn point to the Panther, nient and so unsafe an anchorage for ships of the of 2900 yards ; and a third, to carry a pier from the line, that, of late years, the fleet employed in block- same point to the Shovel rock, being only 900 yards. ading Brest, has been in the practice of bearing up, The objection that was urged against throwing when driven from its station, for the more distant an- out piers from either of these points, and abutting chorage of Torbay, though little better with regard against the shore, was principally grounded on the to security, and worse in every other respect, than certain effect they would have of changing the curPlymouth Sound. It is, for instance, a more ineli- rent of the flux and reflux of the tide to the oppogible rendezvous for the western squadron, in the site side of the sound; and of increasing its strength chance of the fleet being caught there by an easter- and velocity on that side, while it left all calm on ly wand, and unable to get out, when it is the most the other; the inevitable consequence of which would favourable wind for the enemy to put to sea; in the be, a deposition of mud or silt in the calm part or danger to which the ships are liable when so caught eddy, which, in process of time, would shallow the at an anchorage, so open and exposed; in the incon- water, already not too deep, to such a degree as to venience, the delay, and the expence of obtaining the unfit it for the reception of large ships of war. necessary supply of stores and provisions from the Besides, of the three passages for large ships into 4 V

•eakater -

BREAKWATER. 455 Plymouth Sound from the sea, the two best are and the summit 10 yards, at the height of 10 feet Breakthose on the two sides ; the worst was that in the above the low water of an ordinary spring-tide; that watei. middle. Either of the plans, therefore, which pro- is, the dimensions of the Breakwater, in those places, posed piers to be thrown from the mainland, must should be 40 feet high, 30 feet across the top, and have destroyed one of the best passages, and left the 210 feet wide at the foundation. worst open, which was nearest to the anchorage beThe surrounding shores of Plymouth Sound and hind the proposed pier. The middle passage might, Catwater were next examined, with a view to deterin fact, be almost considered as shut up against very mine from what quarter materials for this great unlarge ships by the St Carlos and the Shovel rocks ; dertaking could most conveniently be obtained, as whereas, if this middle passage should be shut up al- to quality, cheapness, and celerity of conveyance. together, it would rather serve to deepen, by giving On the west or Cornish side of the sound, nothing an increased velocity to the tide, which would scour appears but hard granite; at the head of the sound out the bottom, than to shallow, the two side pas- and in Catwater, on the Devonshire side, all is marsages. ble and limestone. In Catwater alone, it was estiOn these considerations, Messrs Rennie and Whid- mated, on a rough calculation, that 20 millions of by proposed, that an insulated pier or Breakwater tons might be procured in blocks fit for the work, should be thrown across the middle of the entrance which was about ten times the quantity that would into the sound, having its eastern extremity about probably be wanted. The time required for the 60 fathoms to the eastward of St Carlos rock, and completion of the work, would depend on a variety its western end about 300 fathoms west of the Sho- of circumstances. It is obvious that, if the two sides vel, the whole length being about 1700 yards, or of the sound had furnished proper materials for the close upon a mile; stating, with confidence, that such purpose, the time would considerably have been a Breakwater might, with every chance of success in abridged, as, in that case, when the wind was easterits favour, be constructed; and that it would give ly, vessels might deposit stones on the eastern end shelter to ships in the sound, without any danger of of the Breakwater, and in westerly winds, on the lessening the depth of water. western extremity, and the work would thus be proThe middle part of the Breakwater was proposed ceeding with an uninterrupted progress; whereas, if to be carried in a straight line for the length of 1000 the stone was to be brought from one point, and that yards ; but they recommended that the length of point on the shore of Catwater, a strong southerly 350 yards at each end should have an inclination to- and south-westerly wind, those most prevalent in this wards the straight part, in an angle of about 120°. country in the winter months, would generally imSee the figure, Plate XXXVIII. These inclined pede and frequently render it impossible for vessels ends would not only give shelter to a greater extent of to go off with their cargoes. the sound, but would, in a greater degree, prevent Catwater, however, having many advantages, and the rushing in of the tide from agitating the water especially for the convenience of loading the vessels, at the anchorage, than if the two extremities were and the facility of procuring blocks from the quarleft in the same straight line, and at right angles ries of any size, was considered, on the whole, as enwith the direction of the current into the sound. titled to the preference over any other place. BeIt was also proposed, in order to cover the sound sides the quarries here being in the neighbourhood more effectually, that a pier should be thrown from of villages, lodgings and conveniences would be afAndurn point towards ftie principal Breakwater, of forded for the workmen; and, on the whole, it was about 800 yards in length, with the same inclined calculated that the work might be completed from point of 120° as the head of the Breakwater. This hence at a cheaper rate, and perhaps in less time, pier, however, does not appear to have been thought than from situations much nearer to it, but much necessary, and might have been in some respect in- more exposed to the wind and waves. jurious to the sound. It might, however, have made An estimate of the expence could not be made Bouvisand Bay a good anchorage for frigates and with any degree of accuracy, as no correct section of smaller vessels, and given them the advantage of a the bottom had been taken. Supposing, how ever, the fine stream of fresh water, which falls into that bay. great Breakwater to be 1700 yards in length, 30 feet It was recommended, as the most practicable and in width at the top, when carried 10 feet above low best mode of constructing this great work, to heap water of spring-tides, with a slope on the southern together promiscuously large blocks of stone, which or sea side, of three horizontal to one perpendicular, were to be sunk in the line of the intended Break- and, on the sound or land side of one and a half howater, leaving them to find their own base, and take rizontal to one perpendicular, it was calculated that their own position; and it was conceived that stones the whole mass of stone required, would be about of the weight of one and a half to two tons each two millions of tons. If then 100 sail of vessels of would be sufficiently large to keep their places, with- 50 tons burthen each were employed in carrying out being rolled about by the tremendous swell which, stone, and that each vessel was to carry only 100 in stormy weather, is thrown into Plymouth Sound, tons a week, the quantity deposited in one wreek, and thus avoid the inconvenience and loss of time wrould amount to 10,000 tons, or say 500,000 tons a and labour which the French experienced at Cher- year; and, at this rate, the Breakwater would be bourg, by throwing down small rubble stones. It completed in four years; but making allowance for was thought, that, in those places where the water time lost in preparations, contingent delays and unwas 5 fathoms or 30 feet deep, the base of the favourable weather, and deductions in the quantity Breakwater should not be less than 70 yards broad, of stone for the shallow parts over wffiich the line 0/

BREAKWATER. 456 Break- the breakwater was carried, the completion of the and seriously considered, that Mr Yorke determined Break, water. work nljght safely be calculated within the period of to carry into execution this great undertaking. The water* principal objection started against it was that it'^V^ six years. Nor would the building of the pier from Andurn might cause the anchorage in the Sound to be depoint, if so determined, increase the time of comple- stroyed in the course of time by the deposition of tion. If carried from the shelving rocks within the mud and silt along the whole eddy within it. There point, leaving a passage between them, the pier would does not, however, appear to be any solid ground require about 360,000 tons of stone, which, by em for this objection. The water brought by the tides ploying about 30 vessels, might be deposited in three from the sea is at all times perfectly clear and transparent, and that which proceeds from Hamoaze and years. It was recommended by the gentlemen above men- supplied by the Tamar and the Tavy, is almost tioned, that the great Breakwater should be begun wholly free from any alluvial matter, these rivers on the Shovel and extended on both sides ot it, as, holding their course through a fine granite soil. The by so doing, the effect produced on the sound would fact is sufficiently proved by the circumstance of be observed as the work proceeded; and that buoys no deposition taking place in the recesses of Hamoshould be placed along the line, so that the whole of aze along the dock-yard wall, which lead into the the vessels employed might, if necessary, deposit docks, nor in the numerous eddies that are caused their cargoes at the same time without interrupting by the projecting jetties and salient angles of that wall. Another objection started against the undereach other. The rough estimate for completing this great na- taking was that, by the diminished quantity of water tional work, made on the grounds above stated, was thrown in by the tide into Hamoaze and Catwater, the Sound would gradually fill up and these harbours as follows: be destroyed. No perceptible alteration, however, Estimate of the Probable Expence of a Breakwater has as yet taken place in the height of the water in and Pier for the Sheltering of Plymouth Sound Hamoaze, or in the strength or set of the titles. A rock of limestone, or rather gray marble, si-Commence and Bouvisand Bay. tuated at Oreston, on the eastern shore of Cat-™^01^ water, consisting of a surface of 25 acres, was pur2,000,000 tons of limestone, in chased from the Duke of Bedford for the sum of blocks, from 1^ to 2 tons weight each, for the great L.10,000; quays for shipping the stone were erectbreakwater, at 7s* 6d. per ton, L.750,000 0 0 ed in front of it; iron railways leading from the quarries to the quays were laid down ; ships were 360,000 tons in the pier, prohired by contract to carry off the stone, and others posed to be built from Andurn point, at 7s. 126,000 0 0 built at the dock-yard. Mr VV’hidby was appointed to superintend the work. The quarries w^ere opened Contingencies, say at 20 per cent, on the whole, 175,200 0 0 on the 7th August 1812; the first stone deposited on the 12th of the same month; and, on the 31st Total for the Great Breakwater, L.l,051,200 0 0 March 18 IS, the breakwater made its first appearance above the surface of the Sound at low water of the spring-tide. The system of quarrying the stone Estimate of the Probable Expence of a Cut-Stone Pier and Two Light-houses to be built on the top is conducted with admirable skill, and stones of the proper size obtained with less waste of small rubble of the Great Breakwater. than might be expected. In working these quarries an extraordinary phenomenon was discovered in the 42,000 cubic .yards of masonry, very body of the great mass of this old marble rock. in the out and inside wails of L.44,700 0 0 At the depth of 65 feet from the summit of the rock, the pier, at 27s. and 25 from the margin of the sea, a cavity, or ra62,000 cubic yards of rubble fillther a nodule of clay was discovered, of 25 feet long ing between the out and inside 18,600 0 0 and 12 square, or thereabouts, in the midst of which walls, at 6s. were found several bones of the rhinoceros, in a Paving the top of the pier with more perfect state, and containing less animal matter large blocks of stone, 8500 square yards, 22,950 0 0 in them, than any fossil bones that have yet been Two light-houses, with reflectors, dug out of rock or earth. and argand lamps, 5,000 0 0 The vessels employed for carrying off the large Madiinerj Contingencies 20 per cent. 28; 6.50 0 0 blocks of stone, are of a peculiar construction, a-erajiloyed. dapted to convey, with -ease, masses of marble L.l 19,900 0 0 weighing from three to five tons each. These great Breakwater, 1,051.200 0 0 blocks of marble are placed on trucks at the quarries, and run down from thence, on iron railways, to Total Estimate of completing the quays, against which the vessels lie with their the works, L.l, 171,100 0 0 sterns. The two stern ports are made sufficiently large to receive the trucks with the stones upon It was not before the opinions of the best En- them. Each truck is passed separately through the gineers, men of science, and naval officers eminent port-hole, on an inclined plane, and run to the forein their profession, had been collected, compared, part of the vessel, in the hold, on an iron railway*

BREA K W A T E R. Break- I he two sides of the hold of the vessel are calculat- by hinges. This moveable deck, when raised, as at water. ed each to contain eight of these loaded trucks, X, allows the stones to come out of the hold ; and, ^ which, at five tons on each truck, gives 80 tons of when down, as at Y, serves to convey the empty stone for one cargo. The stones thus placed on the truck from the port to the deck, in order to make trucks remain till the vessel arrives at the point in room for another stone. the line of the Breakwater where they are to be deD Is a common windlass for heaving the tracks posited. By means of a crane on the deck of the out of the hold up the inclined plane B. vessel, the two trucks nearest to the two stern ports C The hinges of the typing-frame. are then drawn up the inclined plane, and run upon len vessels of this construction, for carrying large a frame on moveable hinges, called the typing.frame; masses of stone, built in the King’s Yards, and fortyby the falling of this frame, in the manner of a trap- three hired by contract, averaging about fifty tons door, the stone or stones are discharged from the each, are employed in conveying stones from the trucks on the slope of the Breakwater; but the typ- quarries. The contractors’ vessels are not of the ing-frame remains, by means of a catch, in the posi- same construction as those in the immediate employ tion in which it is left at the moment of discharging of government; they carry stones of less weight, the stones, until the empty truck is pulled up by the which are hoisted out of the hold by a chain and crane to the after-part of the deck, from whence it windlass, and thrown overboard. A load of fifty is run forwaid to make room for the second pair of tons is discharged from one of these vessels in about loaded trucks in the hold. The catch being now three hours. By all these vessels, the quantity of disengaged, the typing-frame returns to its former stone deposited in 1812 was 16,045 tons ; in 1813 position, ready to receive the next pair of loaded 71,198 tons; in 1814, 239,480 tons; in 1815 trucks, and so on till the whole sixteen have been 264,207 ; and in 1816 up to 12th August, 206,033 discharged, and the light trucks run upon the deck tons ; at which time, the total quantity of stone sunk, of the vessel, ready to be run out at the quay, and amounted to 896,963 tons; and at the conclusion of from thence to the quarries, to take in fresh loads of the year to upwards of 1,000,000 tons. stone. In this manner a cargo of 80 tons may be Of this quantity, the proportions of the different discharged in the space of 40 or 50 minutes. The sizes of the blocks deposited are nearly as folvessels are placed in the proper places for deposit- lows : ing the stones by means of buoys, and the exact line of the Breakwater is preserved, by observing Tons. Of one ton each stone and under lights or staves placed at a distance on the shore. 423,904 — one to three tons each 309,706 The following description, referring to Plate — three to five tons each 150,593 XXXIX., will convey an accurate idea of these excel- — five tons and upwards 12,760 lent vessels for the purpose they were constructed. Fig. 1. Shows the stern of the vessel, in the act The original contract price for quarrying the of depositing the stones. The runner R being hooked stone was 2s. 9d. per ton, and the original contract to the fore-part of the truck, raises it up, and by that price for conveying it to the Breakwater 2s. lOd.^er means tips the stone overboard. When the stone is ton, since which the former has been reduced to in the act of being drawn up out of the hold, on the 2s. 5d., and the latter to Is. lOd. per ton. The cost inclined plane B (fig. .3.), the runner is hooked to of each ton of stone sunk in the Breakwater, includthe fore-part of the truck, and lashed down to the ing the building of quays, purchase of land, salaries, after.end, over the stone, which prevents the latter and every other expence, according to the nearest from sliding off the truck, in its progress up the in- calculation that can be made, amounts to about clined plane. The empty trucks are, for the most 8s. l|d., which, upon the whole quantity deposited, part, lodged on the fore-part of the deck, and some gives the total sum expended up to 12th August placed on an edge against the side of the vessel. 1816, equal to L. 364,000. And as the work may Fig. 2 Shows the stern of the vessel when loaded, be considered as more than half completed, it will with the ports up, or closed. be finished considerably within the original estimate, Fig. 3. A longitudinal or sheer-section of the ves- and, if parliament had thought fit to grant the sel, when loaded, with the trucks on one side of the money, within the time. hold and deck, showing the number which the vesThe greatest quantity of stone sunk in any one sel usually stows on each side. The stones being week was 15,379 tons ; and the part of the Breakfrequently longer than the trucks, the number car- water, at the above mentioned date, above the level ried in the hold must be proportioned accordingly. of low water spring-tides, was in length 1100 yards. In bad weather it is unsafe to send many trucks on The length completely finished to the height of three deck ; and, in general, not more than four are sent feet above the level of the highest spring-tides, and into the Sound, in that way, at one time ; the a- thirty feet wide at top, was at the same time 360 mount of the cargoes, therefore, vary according to feet. The large stones of the upper part of the circumstances, from 40 to 65 tons; the largest Breakwater are deposited to any nicety by means of a vessel constructed for the purpose, having the stone hitherto deposited being about eight tons. The after-part of the deck, under the tiller, is di- same sheer or slope at the bow with the side of the vided into two parts, length ways, and made to move work, so that by a projecting beam or mast, the largest up and down ; the fore-parts are secured to a beam stones can be taken out of the vessel, and placed on VOL. II. PART II. 3M

457 Breakwater .

BREAKWATER. 4oS Break* the opposite side, or middle, or any other part of the six feet higher than the usual height of spring-tides. Break.. The Jasper sloop of war, and the Telegraph schoonwater. , Breakwater. being anchored without the cover of the BreakThe small establishment, and the quick manner er, water, were driven to the head of the Sound, and with which this great work has been carried on, both lost; a collier deeply laden, and under its form a curious contrast with the multitudes employ- cover, rodebut out the gale. No damage was sustained ed on the Breakwater of Cherbourg, the time occuany of the shipping in Catwater; but it was the pied by that undertaking, and the parade and osten- by general opinion, from former experience, that, if no tation with which it was conducted. Breakwater had existed, the whole of the ships thereThe whole establishmentTor carrying on the 1 lyin must have been wrecked, and the storehouses and mouth Breakwater is as follows : magazines on the victualling premises, and most of the Persons. buildings on the margin of the sea, been entirely swept away. Till this tremendous gale, the Breakwater had A* superintendent, with proper officers and 10 not sustained the slightest damage from the heavy seas clerks, to keep and control the accounts that, through the winter, had broken against it with Warrant officers and masters of the ten stone unusual violence, not a single stone having moved vessels in the immediate employ of the 21 from the place in which it was originally deposited; public 90 but after the hurricane above-mentioned, and the Seamen and boys to navigate these vessels high tide which accompanied it, it was found that the Seamen employed in the superintendents’ ves45 upper stratum of the finished part, extending about sels, the light vessel, boats’ crews, &c. 200 yards, and 30 yards in width, had been displaced, Masons, blacksmiths, carpenters, sailmakers, 39 and the whole of the huge stones, from two to five and labourers, employed at Oreston tons in weight each, carried over and deposited on 205 the northern slope of the Breakwater. In no other In the immediate pay of Government 170 part could it be discovered that a single stone had Seamen employed in the contractors’ vessels been displaced. Quarrymen, labourers, &c. employed at OresS00 The want of a harbour, or any place of safety to Proprief ton by the contractors which ships can resort in bad weather, or in distress, of a Bre Total establishment 675 between the ports of Plymouth and Portsmouth, led to the suggestion of Portland Roads being convertBeneficial The result of this great work has completely an- ed into a secure harbour by means of a Breakwater. Results of swered the expectation of its warmest advocates. It was estimated that the construction of such a stone tliis Great The good effects of it were, indeed, very sensibly dike, extending from the north-east part of Portland Work. felt at the end of the second year, when about 800 Island, about two miles and a quarter in length, coyards of the central part, where the water was shal- vering an anchorage of about four square miles, and lowest, were visible at low water spring-tides. The completely sheltering the pier, harbour, and bathing swell was then so much broken down and destroyed place of Weymouth, would require about four milat the head of the Sound, that the fishermen were lion tons of stone, five years to complete it, and an no longer able, as heretofore, to judge of the wea- expence of about six hundred thousand pounds Sterther outside the Sound; and ships ot all sizes, and, ling. The capstone alone, which covers the Portamong others, a large French three-decker, inn in land stone, and which, not being marketable, is not with confidence, and anchored behind the Break- only useless, but a great incumbrance, would be sufwater. Since that, near 200 sail of vessels of all de- ficient to complete this great undertaking; and the scriptions, driven in by tempestuous weather, have, at elevation of the quarries, being 300 feet above the one time, found safe shelter within this insulated level of the sea, would admit of the stone being sent mole, where a fleet of 25 to 30 sail of the line may, down on rail-ways to the water side, without the aid at all times, find a secure and convenient anchorage, of either engines or horses ; and, on this account, with the additional advantage of having a stream of would be deposited at less than one fourth part of excellent w'ater from a reservoir constructed above the expence which is incurred at the Plymouth Bouvisand Bay, capable of containing from ten to Breakwater. Such a secure anchorage in this situatwelve thousand tons, or a quantity sufficient to wa- tion, in which the largest fleets, either naval or merter 50 sail of the line. This water is brought down cantile, would ride at anchor in all winds, and the in iron pipes to Staddon Point, opposite to the an- most stormy weather, in perfect security, is not unchorage, where it is intended to build a jetty from worthy the consideration of the public; and, perwhich the water will descend through the pipes into haps, in the present increased state of our populathe ships’ boats. The whole expence of this most tion, and the difficulty of finding employment for the useful appendage to the Breakwater is calculated at labouring poor, there can be no truer policy than that of carrying on great national works of public about L. 16,000. During the wdnter of 1816-7, the gales of wind utility, were it only for the sake of encouraging inwere more frequent and tremendous than had been dustry, instead of expending an equal, or probably a known for many years; and, on the night of the iqth far greater sum, for the support of idleness and the January, such a hurricane came on as had not been encouragement of vice, in those parochial buildings, (k.) remembered by the oldest inhabitant. The tide rose too frequently miscalled twor^-houses. 10

BREAKWATER.

PLATE XXXVII.

F.iup'ca'ed. by W,7.xArchibaldKdiThburah/.

B RE AK WAT E R

PLATE XXXVIII.

S K E Trif of PLYMOUTH S Ol’ NI) .

v m out own

I'K .JXS! F. R S' K SECTION of the. FINISHED V-IR T of the /I K K .1K h’.l T E It ■ High Water Spring Tides. ~M".. ‘ P. I "ly/Keapy/.P.0. , I*ow D° J)° IN

BREAKWATER.

PLATE XXXIX.

B R E BRECONSHIRE, or Brecknockshire, in South Wales, is divided from Radnorshire by the mhiies ]ren *ver other artificial. basis Its uiu.m gt,hWisye295 miles, theboundaries breadth of are its southern 34>, and its circumference rather more than 100. tent. It contains nearly 500,000 acres of land, not onehalf of which are either in a state of cultivation, or adapted to it. Its form is irregularly triangular, narrowing towards the northern extremity. It is divisions. vided into six hundreds; and contains the county town, Brecon, and three market-towns besides, Crickhowel, Biulth, and Hay. There are in it one hundred and eleven parishes, and places paying parochial rates, according to the last returns to Parliament respecting these rates. :e of the Breconshire is one of the most mountainous lintiy counties in Wales ; and the Van, or Breckaock ; I Soil. Beacon, is one of the loftiest mountains. Ridges of hills which form the separation of this from most of the adjacent counties, shelter it in such a manner as to render it temperate. It appears from observations made in the year 1802, with a rain guage, that 26| inches of rain fell at Brecon. There is a considerable variation, not only in the surface of the country, but also in the nature of the strata. In the hundered of Biulth, the soil is remarkably argillaceous, and the water does not sink sufficiently deep ; in the Vale of Usk, on the contrary, it is too porous to retain the necessary moisture. In general, the soil of the vales consists of a light loam, lying on a deep bed of gravel; the soil of the hills, for the most part, is argillaceous. The principal river, next to the boundary one of the Wye, is the Uske, which, taking its rise from the black mountain, in the western side of the county, on the border of Caermarthenshire, flows across it, through a fine valley, to the south eastern angle, passing the town of Brecon. A little to the east of the town of Brecon is a considerable lake, well stored with fish, out of which a rivulet runs to the Wye. The Brecon Canal unites with the Monmouth Canal eight miles and a half from Newport, and one mile from Pontypool; it crosses the river Avon, is carried through a tunnel 220 yards in length, passes the town of Abergavenny towards the river Uske, and proceeds parallel with that river to Brecon, being 33 miles in length, with 68 feet rise to Brecon. From the fall of this canal from Brecon to the Bristol Channel, it appears, that Brecon is 411 feet 8 inches above the level of the sea. < ricul. The agriculture of this county is superior to that 1 e ‘ of most of the other counties of Wales, and appears to have begun to improve about the middle of the last century, as the Breconshire Agricultural Society was instituted in 1775, being one of the first associations of the kind in the Island. I he mode of culture on the good soils is conducted in the best manner ; but where the land is naturally poor, the tillage is very bad. In the Vale of Uske, the Norfolk rotation is followed with skill and success ; and tolerably abundant crops of barley, clover, wheat, and turnips are obtained. The Highland farmers, in general, are too poor to attempt any material improvements. In the vales the farms seldom exceed 150 or 200 acres ; the rents are high ; in the neighbourhood of Glazbury and Hay, nearly 4Qs. the cyfair,

459 B R E which is about one-third less than the statute acre; the poorest grounds do not let for more than four or five shillings the cyfair. The principal exports of the county are wopl, butter, and cheese; of the former, a considerable quantity is spun and knit into stockings in the hundred of Biulth, and in different parts of the Highlands; the stockings are bought by hosiers, and carried to the English market. Some sheep, a few horned cattle, and a considerable number of swine, are frequently driven to Worcester, London, Bristol, &c. The cattle and horses are small, but the former have been much improved by intermixing the Glamorganshire and Herefordshire breeds ; and the latter by the introduction of the Suffolk Punch sort. A considerable number of otters frequent the rivers, the furs of which form another branch of the exports of this county. The principal manufactures are flannel, linsey-Mamifacr woolsey, and other coarse cloths. These manufac- turfcS> tures are not so flourishing as they were formerly ; as, from the latter end of the sixteenth, to the beginning of the eighteenth century, considerable fortunes were acquired in Brecon and its vicinity, by the manufacture of woollen cloths. At present, the workmen confine themselves, almost entirely, to weaving what is spun by private families, into what is called hannergive, raw cloth. Latterly, several forges and iron founderies have been established near the borders of Glamorganshire, which abound with coal and iron-ore; and these have succeeded extremely well. The profits of the mines for the year ending 5th April 1813, according to the returns under the Property Act, were L. 2254, and of iron works L. 1006. The poor and other parochial rates of this county, poor-rates, in the year ending Easter 1803, amounted to the sum of L. 12,200, 7s. 8^d. In the year ending the 25th of March 1815, there was paid in parochial rates the sum of L. 20,307> 3s. lOd. In the year 1801, the population amounted to p0pUial;0tt> 31,633 inhabitants; of whom 14,346 were employed in agriculture, and 4304 in various trades and manufactures. In 1811 there were Inhabited houses Families inhabiting them Houses building ... Uninhabited houses Families employed in agriculture Do, in trade, &c, Do. not comprehended in the preceding classes Males Females » « Total population Total population in 1801 Increase

*

-

7555 7919 97 354 4667 2239 1013 18,507 19,228 375735 31,633 6102

See Jones's History of i?reco«.vAm’.-—Malkin’s South Wales.—Agricultural Report of South Wales. (c,)

460 BREWING. corruptus.,, {De Moribus German, c. 23.) Pliny Brewing, gives us some details respecting beer, though they are by no means satisfactory. He distinguishes it by the name of cerevisia or cervisia, the appellation by which it is always known in modern Latin books. This liquid does not appear to have come into general use in Greece or Italy ; but in Germany and Britain, and some other countries, it appears to have been the common drink of the inhabitants, at least as early as the time of Tacitus, and probably long before. It has continued in these countries ever since, and great quantities of beer are still manufactured in Germany, the Low Countries, and in Britain. The first treatise published on the subject, as far as we know, was by Basil Valentine. This treatise, according to Boerhaave (for we ourselves have never had an opportunity of seeing it), is both accurate and CHAP. I. elegant. In the year 1585, Thaddaeus Hagecius ab Hayck, a Bohemian writer, published a treatise entitled De Cervisia ejusque corificiendi ratione, naHISTORY OF BREWING. tura, viribus et facultatibus. This little treatise, No notice is taken of beer or ale in the books consisting only of 50 pages, is written with great of Moses, from which it is probable that they were simplicity and perspicuity, and gives as accurate a unknown till after the death of this legislator. All description oi" the whole process of brewing as any the ancient Greek writers agree in assigning the treatise on the subject which we have seen. In the honour of the discovery of beer to the Egyptians, early part of the eighteenth century, Mr Combrune, whose country, being annually inundated by the who, we believe, was a practical London brewer, Nile, was not adapted for the cultivation of vines. published a book entitled The Theory and Practice Herodotus, who wrote about 450 years before the of Brevoing. This book has gone through many commencement of the Christian era, informs us, that editions, and we believe is still reckoned the standthe Egyptians made their wine from barley, because ard book on the subject. But the attempts made in it to give a rational theory of brewing are far from they had no vines. ’ Oivp S’ sx xgidtuv crc-TroirjfAsvtjj gio'flai ov yug dipt snSi sv rri d/xmXor Herodoti, satisfactory. Nor can any stress be laid upon the Lib. ii. c. 78. Pliny says that this liquid in iEgypt experiments which it contains on the colour of malt, was called zythum (Plinii Hist. Nat. Lib. xxii. c. 25). according to the temperature at which it is dried. The same name was given to it by the inhabitants of The fact is, that malt may be rendered brown, or Galatia, who, according to Diodorus Siculus, were even black, by exposure to a very low heat; while unable to cultivate grapes .on account of the coldness it may be exposed to a very considerable temperaof their climate. Beer was distinguished among the ture without losing its colour. The writer of this Greeks by a variety of names. It was called oivov article has seen malt exposed on the kiln to a heat xgiOmv (barley wine) from its vinous properties, and of 175° without losing its colour, or without losing from the material employed in its formation. In the power of vegetating when put into the ground; Sophocles, and probably in other Greek writers, it is and he has reason to believe that these properties distinguished by the name of figvrov. Dioscorides would have remained unaltered had the temperature describes two kinds of beer, to one of which he been raised still higher. It is not the degree of gives the name of fydov and to the other xovg/xi; heat applied, but the rapidity with which it is raised, but he gives us no description of either sufficient to that darkens the colour of malt. If the heat, at enable us to distinguish them from each other. first, does not exceed 100°, and if after the malt is {Dioscorides, Lib. ii. c. 79 tuid 80.) Both, he informs dried as much as it can be at that temperature, the us, were made from barley, and similar liquids were heat be raised to 120°, kept sometime at that temmanufactured in Spain and Britain from wheat. perature, and then raised gradually higher,—if we From Tacitus we learn, that, in his time, beer was continue to proceed in this manner, the temperature the common drink of the Germans ; and from his im- of the kiln may be elevated at least to 175° without perfect description of the process which they follow- in the least discolouring the malt. ed, it is not unlikely, or rather there can be no In the year 1784, Mr Richardson of Hull pubdoubt, that they were acquainted with the method lished his Theoretic Hints on Brewing Malt Liquors, of converting barley into malt. “ Potui humor ex and his Statical Estimates oj the Materials of Brew* hordeo aut frumento in quandam similitudinem vini ing, showing the Use of the Saccharometer. These 6

Brewing. As this important art has been, in a great measure, overlooked in the Encyclopedia Britannica, and as nothing like a satisfactory account of it is to be found in any book on the subject, which we have seen, we consider it necessary for us to lay down the principles on which it depends, somewhat in detail. We shall, therefore, divide this article into five chapters. In the first, we shall take as short a view as possible of the History of the art; in the second, we shall give an account of the different kinds of Grain employed in Brewing; in the third, we shall treat of the process of Malting ; in the fourth of Brewing; and in the fifth, we shall give an account of the nature and properties of the different kinds of ale and beer manufactured by the brewer. The Explanation of the Plates will contain a description of the vessels used in a London porter brewery.

461 B II E W I N G. rewing. books are j-eprehensible, on account of the air of the seeds of Indian cbrn or Zea mais. In order to Brewing, ' mystery thrown about the subject, and the avowal convert it into malt, it is found necessary to bury it of the author, that he conceals certain parts of the for some time under the ground, and when germinaprocesses. If a brewer conceives he knows more ot tion has made sufficient progress, it is dug up and kilnhis art than his neighbours, and chooses to keep his dried. (See Philosophical Transactions, XII. 1065.) knowledge to himself, there is nothing to be said ; Mr Mungo Park informs us, that, in Africa, the Nebut if he publish a book upon the subject, and yet groes make beer from the seeds of the Holcus spica' persists in his concealment, he deserves no quarter. tus, and the process employed, as he describes it, His book, in such a case, can be looked upon in no seems to differ but little from the one followed in other light than a quack bill to advertise the good- this country. (See Park’s Travels, p. 63, 8vo ediness of his wares. Mr Richardson, however, de- tion.) Dioscorides assures us, that, in Spain and Briserves considerable praise for the saccharometer, tain, wheat was employed for the manufacture of which he appears to have been the first to bring beer. And the writer of this article has been inunder the notice of the brewer. This instrument is formed by a gentleman in the service of the East of material service, by making brewers acquainted India Company, that he has made beer from wheat with the strength of their worts, and consequently at Madras. We have ourselves seen oats employed with the proportion of soluble matter which is fur- for the same purpose in Great Britain; and in Gernished by the materials that they employ. Mr many and the North of Europe, we believe that it Richardson’s saccharometer, indeed, was not accu- is not uncommon to apply rye to the same purpose. rate, because it was founded on a wrong principle. But the material which answers this purpose best, The method which he took was to determine the and which is almost solely used for this purpose in weight of a barrel of pure watei*. The liquid being Great Britain, and we believe in every part of Euthen converted into wort, a barrel of it was weighed rope where beer is manufactured, is barley. Barley is the seed of the Hordeum vulgare, a plant Species of again, and the increase of weight was considered as iirRiVR Imc rnlfivnted from time immemorial, barley. the matter which the water held in solution. Mr chiefly for the manufacture of beer. There are Richardson did not seem to be aware that, when water dissolves the sweet portion of malt, its bulk is two species of hordeum under cultivation in Britain; altered. Therefore, the specific gravity of it does 1. The Hordeum vulgare, or barley in which the not indicate the quantity of solid matter which it seeds are disposed in two rows on the spike. Ihis holds in solution. A set of experiments made on is the species usually cultivated in England and in purpose, by dissolving determinate weights of the the southern parts of Scotland. 2. The Hordeum solid extract of malt, in given quantities ot water, is hexastichon, called in the south of Scotland bear, and necessary to determine the point. The same objec- in Aberdeenshire big. In this species, the grains tion applies to the saccharometer of Dring and Page, are disposed in two rows as in the other; but three and to various others in common use. That of seeds spring from the same point, so that the head Dicas is nearly correct, having been constructed of big appears to have the seeds disposed in six upon proper principles. But perhaps the best is one rows. Big is a much more hardy plant than barconstructed about twelve years ago by Dr 1 homson, ley, and ripens more rapidly. Hence it thrives better and used by the Excise officers in Scotland. It in- than barley in cold and high situations. On this acdicates the specific gravity of the wort; from which, count, it is sowm in preference in the Highlands and by means of a sliding rule which accompanies the northern parts of Scotland, where the climate is instrument, the weight of saccharine matter contain- colder than more to the south. We have been assured, that there is a third species of hordeum cultied in it is at once determined. One of the latest books on the subject which we vated in Scotland, in which the seeds in the spike have seen is entitled Practical Trtatise on Brewing are arranged in four rows. To this the term bear is and Distilling. This book was published in 4to, in exclusively confined by some. We have not ourthe year 1805. The author, whose name is Shan- selves had an opportunity of seeing this species, nor non, appears to have some practical knowledge of do we find it noticed by botanists. "Ihe trivial brewing; but he must have been quite illiterate, name tetrastichon might be applied to it. The grains of barley are much larger than those as he was totally unable to write either grammar or common sense. The book is a tissue of absurdi- of big, and the cuticle which covers them is thinties from beginning to end; and the impractica- ner. Indeed, the thickness of the skin of barley itbility of his proposed improvements is surpassed on- self varies according to the heat of the climate in ly by the absurdity of his theory, which consists of which it is cultivated, being always the thinner the scraps and sentences, taken out of chemical books, warmer the climate. Thus it will be found that the and tacked together, so as to have no meaning what- cuticle of Norfolk barley is thinner than that of Berwickshire or East Lothian barley. And it Norfolk ever. barley be sown in Scotland for several successive years, its cuticle is found to become thicker. CHAP. II. The specific gravity of barley is rather greater Its Specifis OF THE KIND OF CRAIN USED BY BREWERS. than that of big. The specific gravity of barley, Every kind of grain, with perhaps hardly an excep- tried in more than 100 different specimens, was found tion, may be employed for the purposes of the brewer. by us to vary from 1.S33 to 1.250, and that of big • In America, it is not uncommon to make beer with from 1.265 to 1.227. The average weight of a Wm-

BREWING. 463 Brewing, chester bushel of barley, was found to be 50.7 lbs. we shall find almost all the grains nearly of a size; Brewing, —\'**>*' avoirdupois, and the average weight of a bushel of though, in some cases, the grain constituting the big 46.383 lbs. The heaviest barley tried, weighed upper termination of the spike is rather smaller than 52.265 lbs. per bushel, and the heaviest big 48.586 the rest. These circumstances may strike the reader as too lbs. This big grew in Perthshire, and the season was peculiarly favourable. It was not absolutely minute and trifling to be stated in such detail; but free from a mixture of barley, as was ascertained by we shall find afterwards, that they will furnish us sowing a quantity of it; but the proportion of bar- with an explanation of some anomalous circumstanley was very small. The average weight ot a grain ces that occur when these two species of hordeum of barley is 0.6688 grain, or very nearly two-thirds are converted into malt. The value of barley (or its of a grain; the average weight of a grain of big is produce in alcohol) is rather improved, while big, 0.5613 grain. The average length of a gram of on the contrary, is deteriorated by malting it, at barley, from many thousand measurements, is 0.345 least 20 per cent. The constituents of the kernel of barley and big, Constitu. inch, while that of a grain of big is 0.3245 inch. as far as we are able to ascertain at present, are the ents* So that the average of both would give us very same. Barley has been subjected to an elaborate nearly the third of an inch, which it ought to do, according to the origin of our measures, as common- chemical analysis by Einhotf, who obtained from ly stated. The average breadth ot a grain of barley 3840 parts of barley-corns the following constiis 0.145 inch, while the average breadth of a grain tuents ; of big is 0.136 inch. The average thickness of a Volatile matter, - 430 grain of barley is 0.1125 inch, while the average Husk or cuticle, 720 thickness of a grain of big is 0.1055 inch. Ihus Meal, 2690 we perceive that the grain of big is smaller than the grain of barley in all its dimensions. 3840 Weight of To determine the relative weight of the skins of the Husk, barley and big, we made choice of three parcels of From the same quantity of barley-meal, he oh* grain, all excellent in their kinds, namely, Norfolk barley, Haddington barley, and Lanark big. The tained, weights of the whole grain, and of the cuticles of Volatile matter, 360 each of these, was as follows: Albumen, . 44 Weight of cuticle Weight of a Saccharine matter, 200 in grains. corn in grains. Mucilage, 176 0.110 or £ Norfolk barley, 0.6809 Phosphate of lime with mucilage, 9 0.123 or £ Haddington barley, 0.7120 Gluten, 135 0.125 or Jj Lanark big, 0.5408 Husk, with some gluten and starch, - 260 Starch, not quite free from gluten, 2580 From this we see, that there is little difference Loss, 76 between the weight of the skin of Norfolk and Haddington barley, but a very considerable one between 3840 Haddington barley and Lanark big. Hence it would seem that this difference is not owing to the climate The writer of this article has likewise extracted in which the barley vegetates, but rather to a differfrom barley, by means of alcohol, a small quantity ence in the nature of the two specie?. . Bulk. The bulks of these two species of grain to each of an oily matter, which has an asparagus green colour, and does not burn with the same readiness other, is as follows: as an oil. It has very much the appearance of olive oil coagulated, but its consistence is less, and Barley, 0.00217 cubic inch. its colour is darker. It has little smell, and its taste Big, 0.001777 cubic inch. resembles the flavour of spirits from raw grain. We . These quantities represent the average bulk of a have likewise found in big a quantity of nitrate of corn of each kind. Thus it appears that a grain of soda. Hence, it is likely, that this salt exists as a barley is rather more than ^th part larger than a common constituent of barley. We obtained it by grain of big. steeping big in water for two days, concentrating Finally, from a comparison of many thousand the liquid, and setting it aside in a dry place. Many corns of each species with each other, it appears rhomboidal crystals of nitrate of soda gradually that the inequality between the size of different make their appearance as the liquid evaporates. grains of big, is greater than between different We shall terminate this chapter by a Table, exhigrains of barley. Indeed, if we examine an ear of biting the most remarkable properties of a considerbig, when nearly ripe, we shall perceive that the able number of specimens of British barley and big, corns towards the bottom of the ear are smaller than as determined by the writer of this article. The those towards the summit and about the middle of different specimens are distinguished by the name of the ear. Several of these bottom grains are usually the county in which they grew. By the bushel in abortive, or consist only of skin, but this is not al- the table is meant the Winchester bushel of 2150.42 ways the case. In an ear of barley, on the contrary. cubic inches.

rewin?.

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TABLE OF PROPERTIES.

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B R E W I N G. till the end of the.war, and for six months after its Brewing, conclusion. In consequence of this very heavy tax, several regulations were imposed upon the maltster, with a view to facilitate the levying the duty, and OF MALTING. to prevent him from defrauding the revenue. The It is always customary to convert barley into malt most important of these are the two following: 1. before employing it in the manufacture of ale. Not The barley must remain in the cistern in which it is that this conversion is absolutely necessary, but that steeped with water for a period not less than 40 it adds considerable facility to the different processes hours. When the malt is spread upon the floor, the of the brewer. The writer of this article has several maltster is not at liberty to sprinkle any water upon times tried the experiment of making ale from un- it, or to moisten the floor. We shall now describe malted barley, and found it perfectly practicable. Se- the process of malting, as it is practised by the best veral precautions, however, are necessary in order to informed malt-makers in Great Britain. Malting consists of four processes, which followsucceed. The water let upon the ground barley in the mash-tun must be considerably below the boiling each other in regular order; namely, steeping, couchtemperature. For barley meal is much more apt to ing, flooring, and kiln-drying. 1. The steep is a square cistern sunk at one end Steeping, set than malt, that is, to form a stiff paste, from which no wort will separate. The addition of a portion of of the malt barn, lined with stone, and of a sufficient the chaff of oats serves very much to prevent this size to hold the whole barley that is to be malted at setting of the goods, and facilitates considerably the a time. The barley is put into this cistern, with the separation of the wort. Care must likewise be taken requisite quantity of pure water to cover it. It is to prevent the heat from escaping during the mash- laid as evenly as possible upon the floor of the cising, and the mashing must be continued longer than tern. Here it must remain at least 40 hours; but usual. For it is during the mashing that the starch in Scotland, especially when the weather is cold, it of the barley is converted into a saccharine matter. is customary to allow it to remain much longer. We This change seems to be owing merely to the che- have seen barley steeped in Edinburgh for 112 hours mical combination of a portion of water with the by one maltster, and by another usually 98 or 92 starch of the barley ; just as happens when common hours. It is the common practice to introduce the starch is converted into sugar, by boiling it with water into the cistern before the barley, and it is very dilute sulphuric acid, or any other acid. This usually once drawn off, and new water added during method of brewing from raw grain answers admira- the steeping. bly for small beer. Some years ago it was pracThree changes take place on the barley while in tised to a considerable extent by several brewers- of the steep. 1. It imbibes moisture, and increases in small beer in Edinburgh, and their beer was con- bulk. 2. Some carbonic acid gas is evolved, most sidered as greatly preferable to small beer brewed in of which remains dissolved in the steep-water. 3. A the usual manner. The practice was stopped by a portion of the husk or skin of the barley is dissolved, decision of the Court of Exchequer,—a decision, in consequence of which the steep-water acquires a which, in our opinion, proceeded upon arbitrary yellow colour, and contracts a peculiar smell, not grounds, and which was at all events detrimental to unlike that of moist straw. The quantity of moisture imbibed by the barley Moisture the public; for surely it is highly impolitic to prevent ameliorations in the manufactures, in order varies according to the goodness of the barley, and imbibed, to guard against any deficiency in the produce of the length of time during which it is allowed to rethe taxes. A wise government would have permit- main in the steep. But the general average may be ted the improvement, and would have levied the stated at 0.47 ; or 100 lbs. of barley, steeped the malt-tax in a different manner. In our trials the usual time, weigh, when newly taken out of the steep raw barley did not answer so well for making strong and dried, 147 lbs. English barley acquires more ale as for small beer. The ale was perfectly trans- weight than Scotch bax-ley, while Scotch barley acparent, and we kept it for several years without its quires greater weight than big. But big cannot running into acidity. But it had a peculiar flavour, bear to be steeped for so long a time as barley. The by no means agreeable. Probably a little practice swell of the grain in the steep obviously depends might have enabled us to get rid of this flavour, in upon the quantity of water absorbed; but it is not which case, raw grain would answer, in every respect, so great as that absorption, scarcely ever exceeding as well for brewing as malt does. one-fifth of the original bulk of the barley, while the A duty was first charged upon malt during the increase of weight amounts to nearly one-half of that troubles of Charles I.’s reign. But it continued of the original weight of the grain. The result of a very moderate till the war with Bonaparte began in good many trials by the writer of this article, gives 1802. It was then raised to the following sums per the bulk of 100 measures of different kinds of barley, Inorpaseof bushel : after steeping, as follows : Bulk, L. s. d. English barley 124 measures English malt 0 4 4 or 100 Scotch barley 121.1 Malt of Scotch barley 0 3 8^ or 84.85f> Scotch big 118. Malt of Scotch big 0 3 0| or 69 472 The greatest swell observed was from 100 to 183, Byt two shillings of this tax were to continue only which took place in barley from the County of Suf-

464 Brewing

465 BREWING. Brewing. fSlk ; the smallest was from 100 to 109, which took the case when its two ends can be easily squeezed Brewing, place in Perth big. together betw een the finger and the thumb, the wa> While the malt is in the steep cistern, it is repeat- ter is let off, and the gram allowed to drain. It is edly gauged by the Exciseman, and the duty on the then thrown out of the cistern upon the malt floor, malt is levied by what is called the best gauge, or where it is formed into as regular a rectangular heap that which gives the greatest bulk of grain. It is in as possible, which is called the couch. While in this his power likewise to determine the quantity of malt position, it is gauged by the exciseman ; and, it it in the subsequent processes, and if any of them ex- measure more than it did in the steep, he is at liberty ceeds the best gauge in the cistern, to levy the duty to charge the duty upon the quantity to which the by it. But these subsequent gauges are not suscep- grain now amounts. But, as the barley in the couch tible of the same precision as the gauges in the cis- cannot be rendered perfectly regular, it requires a tern, when the grain is surrounded on all sides by good deal of skill, and considerable attention, to gauge perpendicular wails. it with tolerable accuracy. On that account, the arbonic That carbonic acid is evolved during the steeping duty, we believe, is seldom levied from the couch cid evolv- grainj js obvious from the most simple experi- gauge. The grain is allowed to remain in the couch ments. If the steep-water be mixed with lime-wa- without any alteration for about 26 hours. 3. If we plunge a thermometer into the grain, and Sweating, ter, the whole becomes milky, and carbonate of lime is deposited. If the steep-water be agitated, it observe it from time to time, we shall find that the froths on the surface like ale. If it be heated, it barley continues for some hours w’ithout acquiring gives out carbonic acid gas, which may be collected any perceptible increase of heat. During this peover mercury. But we never were able to observe riod, the moisture on the surface of the corns grabubbles of gas extricate themselves from the grain dually exhales or is absorbed, so that they do not during the steep, except once or twice during warm perceptibly moisten the hand. But at last the therweather, w’hen the steep-water was allow'ed to re- mometer begins to rise, and continues to do so gramain rather too long without being changed. In these dually, till the temperature of the grain is about ten cases, something like a commencement of fermenta degrees higher than that of the surrounding atmotion, or perhaps of putrefaction, appeared to take sphere. This happens usually in about 96 hours place. But, in general, there is reason to believe, after it has been thrown out of the steep. It now that nearly all the carbonic acid evolved in the steep exhales an agreeable odour, which has some resemremains in solution in the water, or at least is extri- blance to that of apples. If we thrust our hand into cated from the water in an imperceptible manner. the heap, we shall find it to feel warm, wlple, at the From the observations of Saussure, it seems proba- same time, it has become so moist as to wet the ble, that the formation of carbonic acid in the steep hand. The appearance of this moisture is called is owing to the oxygen gas held in solution by the sweating by the maltsters, and it constitutes a remarkable period in the process of malting. We have reasteep-water. latter dis- The steep-water gradually acquires a yellow co- son to believe that a little alcohol is at this period ilvj’d by lour, and the peculiar-.^mell and taste of water in exhaled by the grain. If we examine the grains in the inside of the heap Sprouting

495 Brick.

B R I C K-M AKIN G. 490* swimming in water. Tdiis is a wnite earthy matter,^ Bfick. Brick. sien, which would run the bricks into each other, which constitutes a bed in that place, and was and destroy them entirely. Bricks made of mate- known in Italy by the name of Latte di Lwici* rials which have undergone complete fusion, would In more recent mineralogical books, it is distinguishbe greatly superior to common bricks. They would ed by the name of farina fossilis (bergmehl). Hauy perfectly resist the action of the weather, and would, considers it as a variety of talc, and Brochant, therefore, last much longer than common bricks. as a variety of meerschaum. According to the anaIn Sweden it is customary at some of the iron loun- lysis of Fabbroni, this substance is composed of deries, to cast the scoriae into bricks, which they employ in constructing their furnaces. Such tur55 Silica naces the writer of this article has seen; and he was 15 Magnesia assured bv the gentleman who had the charge ot the 13 Alumina works, that they answered fully better than common 3 Lime bricks. It would be easy to make any quantity ot 1 Iron such bricks in some of the large iron founderies ot 14 Water Great Britain. We are persuaded that such bricks might be brought into use for a variety of purposes 100 with great advantage, and might even constitute a lucrative article of manufacture. Bricks made from the scoriae of iron and copper founderies, would vie But it has been recently analyzed by Klaproth, who in beauty with marble and porphyry, and would pos- found its constituents, sess a smoothness of surface and a lustre .to which 79 Silica few marbles could reach. 5 ^Alumina Few parts of Great Britain are so well adapted tor 3 the making of bricks, according to the London plan, Oxide of iron 12 Water as the neighbourhood of Newcastle upon Tyne. 1 There the enormous heaps of small coal, which ai e o Loss no use whatever, would furnish abundance of fuel, 100 at a much cheaper rate, than even the London ashes; while the magnesian limestone that occurs in sue i plenty in the neighbourhood of Sunderland, would We see from this analysis, that this mineral is neither enable the briekmaker to give the clay the requisite a variety of talc nor of meerschaum. One would be degree of fusibility. _ disposed to consider it as a hydrate of silica. . For As bricks form an article of taxation, and furnish both the alumina and oxide of iron are present ins© a considerable revenue to Government, their size has small proportions, that we can scarcely consider been regulated by act of Parliament. Ihey must not them as in chemical combination. . . . be less than 8| inches long, thick, and 4 inches Considering the composition of this earth, it is wide. But for various purposes, they are made ot rather singular that it is capable of being agglutinatvery different and very considerable sizes. by a red heat. We rather suspect that the Fire-bricks are made in the same way as common ed Firabricks of Fabbroni, which swim in water, have but pricks. bricks. But the materials are different. The best very little strength. This, if it be the case, must clay for their composition is Stourbridge clay ; and, greatly circumscribe their utility. instead of sand, it is usual to mix the clay with a The colour of the London bricks is not red, as is quantity of old fire-bricks, or crucibles, or glass pots, the case with common bricks and tyles ; but a light reduced previously to powder. This mixture an- brownish yellow. This colour is more pleasing to swers the same purposes as sand, while it does not the eye than common brick red, and on that account communicate the tendency to fusion, when it comes the London bricks are preferred for building houses. in contact with various fluxes, that is communicated The brickmakers assign a curious enough reason for by siliceous sand. colour. According to them, their bricks are There is a kind of bricks mentioned by Pliny, as this Swimming kept as much as possible from the contact of air durIS ricks. used by the ancients, which were so light as to swim ing their burning. The consequence of this is, that li in water. Pitanse in Asia, et in ulterioiis Histo so panise civitatibus Maxilua et Calento, fiunt Lateres, the iron contained in them is not oxidized m great a degree as in common bricks. But this ode qui ciccati non merguntur in aqua. (Plinii Natur. Histor. lib. xxxv. c. 14.) Pliny does not mention of reasoning is far from exact. If air were excluded the part of the world in which the earth employed entirely, the bricks would not be burnt at all, bein the manufactures of these bricks was found; cause the fire would be extinguished. But if enough though in all probability, it could not be far from of air be admitted to burn the coal mixed with the the cities where the bricks are said by Pliny to have clay (which must be the case), that air must also act been made. He says that the material employed upon the iron, and reduce it to the state of peroxi e. was a kind of pumice stone. But it was quite un- Indeed, there can be no doubt, that the iron in the known to the moderns, till, in the year 1791, Fab- London yellow bricks, is in the state of peroxide, as broni found a substance at Castel del Piano, not far well as in the red bricks; for the peroxide of iron from Santa Fiora, situated between Tuscany and the gives various colours to bodies, according to cncumPapal dominions, which formed bricks capable of stances. We find bodies tinged with it, red, yellow,

B R I Brick and brown, according to the substances with which the oxide is combined. We ascribe the yellow coII, Bridge. lour of the London bricks to the ashes of the coals,

497 B R I Brick which, by uniting with the peroxides of iron, form a , II kind of yellow ochre. (j.) Bridge.

BRIDGE. The mathematical theory of the structure of bridges has been a favourite subject with mechanical philosophers ; it gives scope to some of the most refined and elegant applications of science to practical utility; and at the same time that its progressive improvement exhibits an example of the very slow steps by which speculation has sometimes followed execution, it enables us to look forwards with perfect confidence to that more desirable state of human knowledge, in which the calculations of the mathematician are authorised to direct the operations of the artificer with security, instead of watching with servility the progress of his labours. Of the origin of the art of building bridges a sketch has been given in the body of the Encyclopcedia ; the subject has been rediscussed within the last twenty years by some of the most learned antiquaries, and of the most elegant scholars of the age; but additions still more important have been made to the scientific and practical principles on which that art depends; and the principal information, that is demanded on the present occasion, will be comprehended under the two heads of physico-mathematical principles, subservient to the theory of this department of architecture, and a historical account of the works either actually executed or projected, which appear to be the most deserving of notice. The first head will contain three sections, relating respectively (I) to the resistance of the materials employed, (2) to the equilibrium of arches, and (3) to the effects of friction; the second will comprehend (4) some details of earlier history and literature, (5) an account of the discussions which have taken place respecting the improvement of the port of London, and (6) a description of some of the most remarkable bridges which have been erected in modern limes. Section I.—Of the Resistance of Materials. The nature of the forces on which the utility of the substances employed in architecture and carpentry depends, has been pretty fully investigated in the article Strength of the Efttyclopcedia; and the theory has been carried somewhat further, in the investigations of a late writer concerning Cohesion and Passive Strength of materials. Much, how’ever, still remains to be done; and we shall find many cases, in which the principles of these calculations admit of a more immediate and accurate application to practice than has hitherto been supposed. It will first be necessary to advert to the foundation of the theory in its simplest form, as depending on the attractive and repulsive powers, which balance each other, in all natural substances remaining in a permanent state of cohesion, whether as liquids, or as more or less perfect solids. VOL. II. PART II.

A. In all homogeneous solid bodies, the resistances to extension and compression must be initially equal, and proportional to the change of dimensions. The equilibrium of the particles of any body remaining at rest, depends on the equality of opposite forces, varying according to certain lawrs ; and that these laws are continued without any abrupt change, when any minute alteration takes place in the distance, is demonstrated by their continuing little altered by any variation of dimensions, in consequence of an increase or diminution of temperature, and might indeed be at once inferred as highly probable, from the general principle of continuity observed in the laws of nature. We may, therefore, always assume a change of dimensions so small, that, as in all other differential calculations, the elements of the curves, of which the ordinates express the forces, as functions of, or as depending on, the distances as abscisses, may be considered as not sensibly differing from right lines, crossing each other, if the curves be drawn on the same side of the absciss, in a point corresponding to the point of rest, or to the distance affording an equilibrium; so that the elementary finite differences of the respective pairs of ordinates, which must form, with the portions of the two curves, rectilinear triangles, always similar to each other, will always vary as the lengths of the elements of the curves, or as the elements of the absciss, beginning at the point of rest; and it is obvious that these differences will represent the actual magnitude of the resistances exhibited by the substance to extension or compression. (Plate XLII. fig. 1.) It wras on the same principle that Bernoulli long ago observed, that the minute oscillations of any system of bodies, whatever the laws of the forces governing them might be, must ultimately be isochronous, notwithstanding any imaginable variation of their comparative extent, the forces tending to bring them back to the quiescent position being always proportional to the displacements; and so far as the doctrine has been investigated by experiments, its general truth has been amply confirmed; the slight deviations from the exact proportion, which have been discovered in some substances, being far too unimportant to constitute an exception, and merely tending to show that these substances cannot have been perfectly homogeneous, in the sense here attributed to the word. When the compression or extension is considerable, there may indeed be a sensible deviation, especially in fibrous or stratified substances ; but this irregularity by no means affects the admissibility of any of the conclusions which will be derived from this proposition. B. The strength of a block or beam must be reduced to one half, before its cohesive and repulsive forces can both be called into action. We must suppose the transverse sections of the 3 ft

BRIDGE. 498 Bridge, body to remain plane and perpendicular to the axis, cohesive and repulsive resistances of the block, and Bridge, whatever the point may be to which the force is ap- the external force; and it is obvious that, as in all plied, a supposition which will be correctly true, if other levers, the external force will always be equal the pressure be made by the intervention of a firm to the difference of the other two forces depending plate attached to each end, and which is perfectly on the compression and extension, or to the mean admissible in every other case. Now, if the termi- compression or extension of the whole, which must nal plates remain parallel, it is obvious that the com. also be the immediate compression or extension of pression or extension must be uniformly distributed the middle, since the figure representing the forces throughout the substance, which must happen when is rectilinear. And the effect will be the same, whatthe original force is applied in the middle of the ever may be the intermediate substances by which block; the centre of pressure or resistance, collect- the force is impressed on the block, whether contied by the plate, acting like a lever, being then co- nued in a straight line or otherwise. When the force incident with the axis. But when the plates are in- is oblique, the portion perpendicular to the axis will clined, the resistance depending on the compression be resisted by the lateral adhesion of the different or extension will be various in different parts, and strata of the block, the compression or extension be.will always be proportional to the distance from the ing only determined by the portion parallel to the neutral point, where the compression ends and the axis ; and when it is transverse, the length of the extension begins, if the depth of the substance is axis will remain unaltered. But the line of direcsufficient to extend to this point; consequently the tion of the original force must always be continued forces may always be represented, like the pressure till it meets the transverse section at any point of of a fluid, at different depths, by the ordinates of a the length, in order to determine the nature of the triangle; and their result may be considered as con- strain at that point. centrated in the centre of gravity of the triangle, or D. The distance of the neutral point from the axis of such of its portions as are contained within the of a block or beam is to the depth, as the depth to depth of the substance; and when both extension twelve times the distance of the force, measured in the and compression are concerned, the smaller force transverse section. may be considered as a negative pressure, to be Calling the depth a, and the distance of the neusubtracted from the greater, as is usual when any tral point from the axis z, the resistances may be exother compound forces are supposed to act on a le- pressed by the squares of | a + z and £ a—z, which ver of any kind. Now, when the neutral point is are the sides of the similar triangles denoting the situated in one of the surfaces of the block, the sum compression and extension (Prop. B.); consequently, of all the forces is represented by the area of the the difference of these squares, 2 az, will represent triangle, as it is by that of the parallelogram when the external force (Prop. C.). But the distance of the plates remain parallel, and these areas being in the centres of gravity of the two triangles must aleither case equivalent to the same external force, it ways be f a; and, by the property of the lever, is obvious that the perpendicular of the triangle must making the centre of action of the greater resistance be equal to twice the height of the parallelogram, the fulcrum, as the external force is to the smaller indicating that the compression or extension of the resistance, so is this distance to the distance of the surface in the one case is twice as great as the equa- force from the centre of action of the greater resistble compression or extension in the other ; and since there is always a certain degree of compression or ! extension which must be precisely sufficient to crush ance; or 2 «Z : (£“ + *) = f : (^-f+f). r or tear that part of the substance w hich is immediately exposed to it, and since the whole substance and adding to this the distance of the centre of acmust in general give way when any of its parts fail, it tion from the axis, which must be^a — followrs that the strength is only half as great in the former case as in the latter. And the centre of gravity of every triangle being at the distance of one- — \ a — l3 z, we have 12z for the distance of the third of its height from the base, the external force must be applied, in order to produce such a com- force from the axis; whence, calling this distance pression or extension, at the distance of one sixth of aa the depth from the axis; and when its distance is greater than this, both the repulsive and cohesive iorces of the substance must be called into action, E. The power of a given force to crush a bl$ck is and the strength must be still further impaired. increased, by its removal from the axis, supposing its (Plate XLII. fig. 2.) direction unaltered, in the same proportion as the C. The compression or extension of the axis of a depth of the block is increased by the addition of six Hock or beam is always proportional to the force, re- times the distance of the point of application of the duced to the direction f the axis, at whatever distance force, measured in the transverse section. it may he applied. Since the compression or extension of the axis is We may suppose one of the inflexible plates, at- invariable, whatever the distance of the force may tached to the extremities of the block, to he con- he, that of the nearest surface must be as much tinued to the given distance, and to act as a lever greater, by the properties of similar triangles, as the held in equilibrium by three forces, that is, by the half depth, increased by the distance of the neutral

BRIDGE, Bridge- point, is greater than that distance itself, that is, in in the direction of one of its diagonals, is twice as to a the ratio of a + -> since z is to e as a to ] 2^; great as if the same force were applied in the direction (Prop. D.) and to \a as a to 6?y : and the strength is of the axis. This proposition affords a simple illustration of the reduced in the same proportion, as the partial compression or extension, by the operation of a given application of the preceding one. Calling the length of any portion of the axis x, beginning from tlm force, is increased. (Plate XLII. fig. 3.) F. The curvature of the neutral line of a beam at middle, and neglecting the obliquity, the distance oi any point, produced by a given force, is proportional the force may be called y — nx, and the compresto the distance of the line of direction of the force sion in the line of the force being everywhere as from the given point cf the axis, voliatever that direc12?/y . fluxion „ . IZnnxx, and. 1 _l —qs will be dx 4- dx tion may be. 'aa ' aa Since the distance z of the neutral point from the axis is inversely as y, the distance of the force, and the fluent x -4 which, when y — h a, becomes . the radius of curvature, or the distance of the inter^ aa ’ v z section of the planes of the terminal plates from the T-j-a;, which is twice as great as ify were always = 0. neutral point, must be to the distance z as the whole But if the breadth of the block were considerable, so length of the axis is to the alteration of that length that it approached to a cube, the compression would produced by the compression or extension, it follows vary according to a difterent law, each section paralthat the radius of curvature must be inversely as the lel to the diagonal affording an equal resistance, and distance y, and inversely also as the compression, the exact solution of the problem would require and the curvature itself must be conjointly as the T_ force and as the distance of its application. If the an infinite series for expressing the value of Jnx&x. direction of the force be changed, and the perpendicular falling from the given point of the axis on the K. If a solid bar have its axis curved a little into line of the force be now called y, the distance of the a circular form, and an external force be then applied force from the axis measured in the transverse sec- in the direction of the chord, while the extremities retion will be increased by the obliquity exactly in the tain their angular position, the greatest comprression same ratio as its efficacy is diminished, and the cur- or extension of the substance will ultimately be to the vature of the neutral line will remain unaltered ; al- mean compression or extension which takes place in though the place of that line will be a little varied, to 1 4^; a until at last it coincides with the axis, when the force the direction of the chord, cs 1 4- — a \5aa becomes completely transverse : and the radius of curvature of the axis will always be to that of the being the depth of the bar, and h the actual versed neutral line as the acquired to the original length of sine, or the height of the arch. We must here separate the actions of the forces the axis. (Plate XLII. fig. 4.) G. The radius of curvature of the neutral line is retaining the ends of the bar into two parts, the one to the distance of the neutral point as the original simply urging the bar in the direction of the chord, length of the axis to the alteration of that length ; or and the other, which is of a more complicated naas a certain given quantity to the external force : and ture, keeping the angular direction unaltered; and this quantity has been termed the Modidus of elasti- we must first calculate the variation of the angular situation of the ends, in Consequence of the bending city. of the bar by the first portion, and then the strain Mz Mew as is ob- required to obviate that change, by means of a force Or r ’. z = IVI and r = acting in the direction of the middle of the bar, while the ends are supposed to be fixed. If each half of vious from the preceding demonstration ; y being the bar were rectilinear, these two strains would obthe distance of the line of the force from the given viously be equal, and would neutralise each other in point, whatever its direction may be. the middle of the halves, which might be considered H. The flexibility, referred to the direction of the as the meeting of the ends of two shorter pieces, force, is expressed by unity, increased by twelve acting transversely or obliquely on each other, withtimes the square of the distance, divided by that of out any strain; the curvature produced by the whole the depth. strain being elsewhere as the distance from the line Making the alteration of the axis unity, the cor- joining these points. But, since the bar is supposed responding change at the distance y will be to 1 as to be curbed, it becomes necessary to determine the place of these neutral points, by calculating the z + 3/ to z, or as 1 - to 1, and will consequent- change of its angular position throughout its ex*tent. Considering, first, the middle of the bar as fixed, ly be equal to 1 + (Prop. D.) and calling the angular extent of the variable arc x, beginning from the middle, and the radius r, the orWhen the direction of the force becomes oblique, dinate y, or the distance of the arc from the chord, the actual compression of the axis is diminished, but will be rqx — b,b being the cosine of the whole arc ; its effect referred to that direction remains unalter- and the fluxion of the change of the angular situation, being as the strain and the fluxion of the arc ed. I. The total compression of a narrow block, pressed conjointly, will be expressed by prqx&x—pb&x, of

499

BRIDGE. 500 Bridge. which the fluent is pr^x -—pbx. In the second place, that which the bar would have undergone if it had Undue, been straight, and the force had been immediately "^VV/ the curvature derived from the force acting between applied to the axis; the actual change being greater the two halves, when the ends are considered as fix, , \6hh ed points, will be as r — r$x, and the fluent of the in the proportion otc 1 -f — ^ to 1. change of angular situation may be called qrx —The greatest strain will obviously be at the ends, qr\x; and at the end, when x becomes equal to c, where the distance from the line of direction of the the whole extent of the arc, these two deviations force is the greatest, the compression or extension must destroy each other, since the positions of the of the surface being here to that of the axis, as a middle and of the ends remain unaltered; consequent4 6y to a (Prop. E.) or as 1 + — to 1; consequently rc r c ,ly pr\c r — poc 7 — qrc — qr\c, r wiience u P— — — ^ » the compression or extension in the line of the ** r\c—be chord is to the greatest actual change of the substance and the exact propoi’tion ofp to ^ may be found, by \6hh 4A means of a table of sines. But when the arc is as 1 + rx:— 15 aa to 1 4 a . Thus if the depth a were 10 feet, and the height small, fc being equal to c — c3 + • * '7rc— or versed sine h = 20, the radius being very large, is ft rc3, and rlc—be — (r—b) c— ftre3; now r—b, the whole compression of the chord would be to the whole compression of a similar substance, placed in the versed sine of the arc, becomes ultimately | rc ‘2, the direction of the chord, as 5.267 to 1; and the and (r—b) c = ft rc3-, therefore^? \ q —ft ft ~ ft \ 1 ; compression at the surface of the ends would be to that is, the strain at the middle, expressed by pf the compression of the axis there as 9 to 1; and disremust be half as great as the strain at the ends"ex- garding the insensible obliquity, this compression may pressed by q : consequently, when the force is con- be considered as equal throughout the bar; so that sidered as single, the distance of the line of its direc- the compression at the ends will be to the comtion from the summit must ultimately be one-third pression of the chord as 9 to 5.26‘7, or as 17 to 10. Supposing, for example, such a bar of iron to unof the versed sine or height. dergo a change of temperature of 32° of Fahrenheit, Now if we call any portion of the chord x, we have for the corresponding value of y, the distance from which would naturally cause it to expand or contract in all its dimensions; then the length of the line of direction of this force, ^ (r2 — x1) d, about and for the fluxion of the compression or extension in the chord, ^being limited by the abutments, must now be supposed to be altered by an external force; and, at the extremities of the abutments, the the direction of the chord, dx ^1 -f which compression and extension of the metal will amount aa J to about ^00 ; a change which is equivalent to will be true for both portions of the bar, whether y the pressure of a column of the metal about 3300 2 2 be positive or negative; but y^ — r* — x -f ^ _1 feet in height, since M, the height of the modulus (r2 — a:2), and the fluent becomes x-f of elasticity, is found, for iron and steel, to be about 10,000,000 feet; and such would be the addition to — f rvx—ftx3 + d~x — 2d [r2 arc sine - — the pressure at one extremity of the abutment, and aa\ r its diminution at the other, amounting to about five tons for every square inch of the section, which X*/ (r*—o:2)]^. When the arc is small, call- would certainly require some particular precaution, to prevent the destruction of the stones forming the abutment by a force so much greater than they are ing the whole versed sine h, we have y xz ft h — capable of withstanding without assistance. Should “ 2t such a case indeed actually occur, it is probable that cf hx* 2 and^rzi^/x — — an(j tile fluent; is r _j the extremities would give way a little, and that the principal pressure would necessarily be supported 3 5 12 (hx nearer the middle, so that there would be a waste of x \ fthtx—but when x become materials in a situation where they could co-operate aa but imperfectly in resisting the thrust; an inconveequal to the semichord c, h being the expres nience which would not occur if the bar were made wider and less deep, especially towards the abutments. sion becomes c ft-—(— £l_ 4. ^ \ _ 4 aa\36r* 18r2 + 20r2/~ Section II.—Of the Equilibrium of Arches. 4»c5 Ifthtc 150V2””c + 25 c2 > wlllch shows the compression 0 We may now proceed to inquire into the mode of determining the situation and properties of the curve extension in the line of the chord, while e expresse of equilibrium, which represents, for every part of a

50 i BRIDGE. ridge, system of bodies supporting each other, the general and of the whole weight of each block. And if we Bridge, direction of their mutual pressure; remembering al- imagine the blocks to be divided into any number of ways that this curve is as much an imaginary line, as parts, by sections parallel to the ends, which is the the centre of gravity is an imaginary point, the forces only way in which we can easily obtain a regular rebeing no more actually collected into such a line sult, it is evident that the force exerted at any of than the whole weight or inertia of a body is col- these sections, by the external portions, must be suflected in its centre of gravity. Indeed, the situa- ficient to support the lateral thrust and the weight tion of the curve is even less definite than that of the of the internal portions; and its inclination must be centre of gravity, since in many cases it may differ such that the horizontal base of the triangle of a little according to the nature of the co-operation forces must be to the vertical perpendicular as of the forces which it is supposed to represent. In the lateral thrust to the weight of the internal reality, every gravitating atom entering the struc- portion; or, in other words, the lateral thrust reture must be supported by some forces continued in maining constant, the weight supported will be as some line, whether regular or irregular, to the fixed the tangent of the inclination. But calling the horipoints or abutments, and every resisting atom par- zontal absciss x, and the vertical ordinate y, the tantakes, in a mathematical sense, either positively or negatively, in transmitting a lateral pressure where gent of the inclination will be dw which, in the case it is required for supporting any part of the weight: dxi and when we attempt to represent the result of all these collateral pressures by a simple curve, its situ- of a parallelepiped, must be proportional to the disation is liable to a slight variation, according to the mdt/ direction in which we suppose the co-operating tance x from the contiguous ends; and x zs ; "d7 forces to be collected. If, for instance, we wished 2 to determine the stability of a joint, formed in a consequently xdxz=7ndy, and % x = my, which is the given direction, it would be necessary to consider equation of a parabola. It is usual in such cases to the magnitude of the forces acting throughout the consider the thrusts as rectilinear throughout, and extent of the joint in a direction perpendicular to its as meeting in the vertical line passing through the plane, and to collect them into a single result, and centre of gravity of each block; but this mode of it is obvious that the forces, represented by the vari- representation is evidently only a convenient compenous elementary curves, may vary very sensibly in dium. their proportion, when we consider their joint operaIf the blocks were united together in the middle, so tion on a vertical or on an oblique plane; although as to form a single bar or lever, the forces would be if the depth of the substance be inconsiderable, this somewhat differently arranged; the upper half of the difference will be wholly imperceptible, and in prac- bar would contain a series of elementary arches, tice it may generally be neglected without inconve- abutting on a series of similar elementary chains in nience ; calculating the curve upon the supposition the lower half, so as to take off all lateral thrust from of a series of joints in a vertical direction. If, how- the supports at the ends. ever, we wish to be very minutely accurate, we must With respect to the transverse strains of levers in attend to the actual direction of the joints in the de- general, it may be observed, that the most convenient termination of the curve, and must consider, in the way of representing them is to consider the axis of ease of a bridge, the whole weight of the structure the lever as composed of a series of elementary bars, terminated by a given arch stone, with the materials bisected, and crossed at right angles, by as many which it supports, as determining the direction of others extending across the lever, or rather as far as the curve of equilibrium where it meets the given two-thirds of the half depth on each side, where the joint, instead of the weight of the materials termi- centre of resistance is situated. The transverse nated by a vertical plane passing through the point force must then be transmitted unaltered throughout of the curve in question, which may sometimes be the whole system, acting in contrary directions at very sensibly less; this consideration being as neces- the opposite ends of each of the elementary bars sary for determining the circumstances under which constituting the axis ; and it must be held in equilirhe joints will open, as for the more imaginary pos- brium, with respect to each of the centres, considersibility of the arch stones sliding upwards or down- ed as a fulcrum, by the general result of all the corwards. But we may commonly make a sufficiently puscular forces acting on the longer cross arms; accurate compensation for this difference, by sup- that is, by the difference of the compression or posing the specific gravity of the materials producing extension on the different sides of the arms. the pressure, and the curvature of the line which This difference must therefore be constant; and in terminates them, to be a little increased, while the all such cases the strain or curvature must increase absciss remains equal to that of the curve of equili- uniformly, and its fluxion must be constant; but if brium intersecting the joints. the transverse force be variable, as when the lever L. If two equal parallelepipeds be supported each supports its own weight, or any further external at one end, and lean against each other at the other, pressure, the fluxion of the curvature must be proso as to remain horizontal, the curve of equilibrium, portional to it. Now the transverse force, thus esrepresenting the general effect of the pressure trans- timated, being the sum of the weights or other forces mitted through them, will be of a parabolic form. acting on either side of the given point, the addiThe pressure of the blocks, where they meet, will tional weight at the point will be represented by the obviouslybe horizontal, but at the other ends itwill be fluxion of the weight, or by the second fluxion of oblique, being the result of this horizontal pressure the strain or curvature, which is ultimately as the

B R I D G E. 502 B.idgp. fourtL fluxion of the ordinate. Also, the fluxion of (Prop. L.) The uniformity of the load implies Bridge. «**'/****' the strain being as the whole weight on each side, it that the superior and inferior terminations of the' follows that when the strain is a maximum, and its arch, commonly called the extrados and intrados, fluxion vanishes, the whole weight, or the sum of should be pai’allel: but it is not necessary that the positive and negative forces on either side, must either of them should be parabolic, unless we wish also vanish ; as Mr Dupin has lately demonstrated in to keep the curve exactly in the middle of the whole a different manner. structure. When the height of the load is very M. In every structure supported by abutments, the great in proportion to that of the arch, the curve tangent of the inclination of the curve of equilibrium must always be nearly parabolic, because the form to the horizon is proportional to the iveight of the of the extrados has but little comparative effect on parts interposed between the given point and the mid- the load at each point. A parabola will therefore express the general dle of the structure. The truth of this proposition depends on the equa- form of the curve of equilibrium in the flat bands of lity of the horizontal thrust throughout the struc- brick or stone, commonly placed over windows and ture, from which it may be immediately inferred, as doors, which, notwithstanding their external form, in the last proposition. The materials employed for may very properly be denominated flat arches. But making bridges are not uncommonly such, as to if we consider the direction of the joints as perpencreate a certain degree of lateral pressure on the dicular to the curve, it may easily be shown, from outside of the arch ; but as there must be a similar the properties of the wedge, that they must tend to and equal pressure in a contrary direction against a common axis, in order that the thrust may be the abutment, its effects will be comprehended in the equal throughout; and the curve must be perpendidetermination of the point at which the curve springs cular to them, and consequently circular; but the from the abutment, as well as in the direction of the difference from the parabola will be wholly inconcurve itself; so that the circumstance does not afford siderable. any exception to the general truth of the law. It is, Q. For a horizontal extrados, and an intrados terhowever, seldom necessary to include the operation minated by the curve itself which, however, is a supof such materials in our calculations, since their la- position merely theoretical, the equation of the curve teral pressure has little or no effect at the upper aa \ part of the arch, which has the greatest influence on is x — fmni, a the direction of the curve; and it is also desirable to avoid the unnecessary employment of these soft Since in this case w—y (Prop. M.) we have^dx materials, because they tend to increase the horizondw tal thrust, and to raise it to a greater height above = W — ; and wd^rr^f (dx)2; whence, multiplying the foundation of the abutment. both sides by d^, wehavewzd^d2^ rzz^dj^dx)2; and, We have therefore generally J'^Ax^znit =zm~^, taking the fluent, \m (dy)2=:^2(dx)2, and mfiz^y2, y—a when t w being the height of uniform matter, pressing on which must be corrected by making 2 2 2 the arch at the horizontal distance x from the ver- vanishes, so that we shall have mt = y —a , and tex, t the tangent of the inclination of the curve of yy— aa equilibrium, y its vertical ordinate, and m a quantity y—\/{a2-\-mt2). But since = m )’ proportional to the lateral pressure, or horizontal thrust. v' ; and x — \/ mnt. N. The radius of curvature of the curve of equili- dx = d?/ * {yy — ««) brium is inversely as the load on each part, and directly as the cube of'the secant of the angle inclination (# +-/[/—a2]) — y'rwHLa; whence all the to the horizon. The general expression for the radius of curvature points of the curve may be determined by means of a is r — ; and here, since mdy = dixJwdLX, dx table of logarithms. But such a calculation is by no means so immediately applicable to practice, as has gebeing constant, md?y = tv (dx)2 ; but dz being = nerally been supposed ; for the curve of equilibrium will always be so distant from the intrados at the (dz)S abutments, as to derange the whole distx-ibution of (1 +t2), andr= -(1 +t2) dxv/(i+^),dd^/ tv the forces concerned. R. For an arch qf equable absolute thickness and m being constant, r is inversely as the 2load tv, and directly as the cube of the secant -j-t ). The throughout its length, the equation is z=z\f(y2 — m2) same result may also be obtained from a geometrical consideration of the magnitude of the versed sine m of the elementary arc, and the effect of the obliquity of the pressure; the one varying as the square of The weight of any portion of the half arch being the secant, the other as the secant simply. ; but O. Consequently, if the curve be circular, the load represented by its length z, we have must be everywhere as the cube of the secant. P. Ij the curve qf equilibrium be parabolic, the d* = d^(x+ (!)*) = a* load must be uniform throughout the span.

,

idge.

_ dz and d^= y'fl _j. mm \

?dg ^ (zz +

BRIDGE. 503 It is also obvious, that if we subtract, instead of Bridge. of which the adding, one-sixth of the difference, we have ^ax;

fluent is .✓(**+«*), requiring no further correction than to suppose y initially equal to m; and we have Zzz^(g*

w2). Again, since da: = dxv'( 1 + — | \ mmj

we find in the same manner dx= x — mni, ^z

and V (mm + zz)

zz~\^——

4 curve of equilibrium will be my— 77 ax2 4- -I12 &r .

^ &x3, we

This expression will, in general, be found sufficiently accurate for calculating the form of the curve of equilibrium in practical cases ; and it may easily be made to comprehend the increase of the load from the obliquity of the arch-stones. The ordinate y, at the abutment, being given, the value of m may be deduced from it: and since at the vertex my is simply -getx2, the radius of curvature r will here be xx m 2y~ a T. If we divide the span of an arch into four equal parts, and add to the weight of one of the middle parts one-sixth of its difference from the weight of one of the extreme parts, we shall have a reduced weight, which will be to the lateral thrust as the height of the arch to half the span, without sensible error. The weight of the half arch being expressed by ax -f- \ bx3 when x is equal to the whole span, if we ^or

one of the middle parts, leaving \ ax +«^-r3> f°r the g extreme part, which gives ^^•r3 f°r the difference of the parts, and ^ of this, added to the former quantity makes it £ax +-j^6x3: but since my =|ax2-f- ^bx*.

dividing by mx, we have ^

iax+—bx3 ^ " —■■■

wc obtain a and thence r

’

=u ’

being previou6ly found by the propositio„.

fVhen the load is terminated by a circular or elliptical arc, no =z a nb —n (b^—x2), and my z=. x i / , » t /a \ ri nvi e\ . i (« + «o) &—h nb x ARC mxe ~h—f «6V(62-x2)4-

The whole load Jwdx is here ax + nbx — % nb2 arc sine ^| nx J (62—x2); and hence my = ^ ax~ + i w6x2 —

nb2x arc sine ^ -J* ^nb3

5 |n6V(62 —x2)+ £n(62—x2)2 —£H£3(Prop.M.)

have m -^=:ax + i hx3, (Prop. M.) and my -=.\ ax2

substitute x for ^ x, it will become ^ ex

B by i *’

^n(b2—x2)2 +3 nb3.

This curve will, therefore, in some cases, be identical with that of the preceding proposition. It is commonly called the catenaria, since it represents the form in which a perfectly flexible chain of equable thickness will hang by its gravity. S. If the load on each point of an arch be expressed by the equation to = a ^2> the equation for the

Since the whole load ^/rodx is here ax

anii dividin

And the radius of curvature at the vertex will again be

When the curve is circular, the axes of the

ellipsis being equal, n =2 1. If the extrados and intrados are concentric, the calculation requires us to take the difference between the results determining the weight for each curve : but it will commonly be equally accurate in such a case, to consider the depth of the load as uniform, at least when the joints are in the direction of the radii. X. The abutment must be higher without than withfn, by a distance, which is to its breadth, as the horizontal distance of the centre of gravity of the half arch from the middle of the abutment is to the height of the middle of the hey-stone above the same point. This proposition follows immediately from the proportion of the horizontal thrust to the weight, determined by the property of the lever; the one acting at the distance of the height of the arch from the fulcrum, and the other at the distance of the centre of gravity from the abutment, so as to balance each other; and the oblique direction of the face of the abutment being perpendicular to the thrust compounded of these two forces. The same rule also serves for determining the proper position of the abutment of a beam or rafter of any kind, in order that it may stand securely, without the assistance of friction. But for a bridge, if we calculate the situation of the curve of equilibrium, wTe obtain the direction of the thrust at its extremity more conveniently, without immediately determining the place of the centre of gravity. Y. In order that an arch may stand without friction or cohesion, a curve of equilibrium , perpendicular to all the surfaces of the joints, must be capable of being drawn within the substance of the blocks. If the pressure on each joint be not exactly perpendicular to the surfaces; it cannot be resisted with-

BRIDGE. 304 Bridge, out friction, and the parts must slide on each other: out, the crown will sink so much as to cause a rathis, however, is an event that can never be likely to pkl increase of curvature on each side in its immeoccur in practice. But if the curve, representing diate neighbourhood, which will bring the intrados the general pressure on any joint, be directed to a up to the curve of equilibrium, or even above it, the point in its plane beyond the limits of the substance, form of this curve being little altered by the change the joint will open at its remoter end, unless it be of that of the arch. The middle remains firm, besecured by the cohesion of the cements, and the cause the pressure is pretty equally divided throughstructure will either wholly fall, or continue to stand out the blocks, but the parts newly bent give way to the unequal force, and chip a little at their interin a new form. (Plate XLII. fig. 5.) From this condition, together with the determina- nal surface; but being reduced in their dimensions tion of the direction of the joints already mentioned by the pressure, they suffer the middle to descend (Prop. P.), we may easily find the best arrangement still lower, and are, consequently, carried down with of the joints in a flat arch ; the object, in such cases, it, so as to be relieved from the inequality of presbeing to diminish the lateral thrust as much as pos- sure depending on their curvature, and to transfer sible, it is obvious that the common centre of the the effect to the parts immediately beyond them, till joints must be brought as near to the arch as is these in their turn crumble, and by degrees the compatible with the condition of the circle remain- whole structure falls. (Plate XLII. fig. 6.) This explanation will enable us to understand ing within its limits; and it may even happen that the superincumbent materials would prevent the some observations and experiments which the late opening of the joints even if the centre were still Professor Robison has related as somewhat paranearer than this : but if, on the other hand, the doxical. He says, that an arch built “ of an exarch depended only on its own resistance, and the ceedingly soft and friable stone,” the arch-stones bematerials were in any danger of being crushed, it ing also too short, began to show signs of weakness would be necessary to keep the circle at some little by the stones chipping about ten feet from the middistance from its surfaces, even at the expence of dle, and that it afterwards split at the middle, and fifteen or sixteen feet on each side of it, and also at somewhat increasing the lateral pressure. When the curve of equilibrium touches the intra- the abutments. And in some experiments on modos of an arch of any kind, the compression at the dels of arches in chalk, he found, that “ the arch surface must be at least four times as great as if it always broke at some place considerably beyond remained in the middle of the arch-stones (Prop. E.), another point, where the first chipping had been and still greater than this if the cohesion of the ce- observeda circumstance which he has not succeedments is called into action. In this estimate we ed in sufficiently explaining. suppose the transverse sections of the blocks inflexible, so as to cooperate throughout the depth in reSection III,—-0/’ the Effect of Friction. sisting the pressure on any point; but in reality this cooperation will be confined within much narrower The friction or adhesion of the substances, emlimits, and the diminution of strength will probably ployed in Architecture, is of the most material conbe considerably greater than is here supposed, when- sequence, for insuring the stability of the works ever the curve approaches to the intrados of the constructed with them ; and it is right that we should arch. know the extent of its operation ; it is not, however, The passage of the curve of equilibrium through often practically necessary to calculate its exact the middle of each block is all that is necessary to magnitude, because it would seldom be prudent to insure the stability of a bridge of moderate dimen- rely materially on it, the accidental circumstances sions and of sound materials. Its strength is by no of agitation or moisture tending very much to dimimeans increased, like that of a frame of carpentry, nish its effect. Nor is the cohesion of the cements or of a beam resisting a transverse force, by an in- employed of much further consequence than as encrease of its depth in preference to any other of its abling them to form a firm connexion, by means of dimensions : a greater depth does, indeed, give it a which the blocks may rest more completely on each powrer of effectually insisting a greater force of ex- other than they could do without it; for we must ternal pressure derived from the presence of any oc- always remember, that we must lose at least half of casional load on any part of the structure ; but the the strength, before the cohesion of the solid blocks magnitude of such a load is seldom very consider- themselves, in the direction of the arch, can be callable, in proportion to the weight of the bridge. ed into action, and at least three fourths before the It is of some importance, in these investigations, joints will have any tendency to open throughout to endeavour to trace the successive steps by which their extent. the fabric of a bridge may commonly be expected Z. The joints of an arch, co?nposcd of materials to fail. Supposing the materials to be too soft, or subject to friction, may he situated in any direction the abutments insecure, or any part of the work to lying 'within the limits of the angle of repose, on be defective, and to afford too little resistance, the either side of the perpendicular to the curve of equilength of the curve of the arch being diminished, or librium ; the angle of repose being equal to the inits chord extended, it will become flatter, and, con- clination to the horizon at which the materials begin sequently, sink ; the alteration being by far the great- to slide on each other; and the direct friction being est, if other things are equal, where the depth is the to the pressure as the tangent of this angle is to the least, that is, near the crown or key-stone ; so that radius. if the curvature was, at first, nearly equal throughIt is obvious, that any other force, as well as thal

dOD bridge. Bridge, of gravity, wall be resisted by the friction or adhe- serves, that the arch was generally considered as the Bridge, sion of the surfaces when its direction is within the invention of Democritus, a Philosopher who lived limits of the angle at which the substances begin to some centuries before Christ, but that, in his opislide ; and it may be inferred from the experiments nion, the simplicity of the principle could not have of Mr Coulomb and Professor Vince, that this angle escaped the rudest architect; and, that long before is constant, whatever the magnitude of the force may Democritus, there must have been both bridges and be, since the friction is very nearly proportional to doors, in both of which structures the arch was comthe mutual pressure of the substances. The ten- monly employed. There do indeed appear to be dency of a body to descend along any plane being solitary instances of arches mftre ancient than the as much less than its weight as the height of the epoch assigned by Mr King to their invention. We plane is less than its length, and the pressure on the find arches concealed in the walls of some of the plane being as much less than the weight as the length oldest temples extant at Athens ; the cloacae are is greater than the horizontal extent, it follows, that, said to be arched, not at the opening into the Tiber when the weight begins to overcome the friction, the only, but to a greater distance within it than is likely friction must be to the pressure as the height of the to have been rebuilt at a later period for ornament; plane to its horizontal extent, or as the tangent of and the fragments of a bridge, still remaining at the inclination to the radius. Rome, bear an inscription which refers its erection This property of the angle of repose affords a very to the latter years of the Commonwealth. But it easy method of ascertaining, by a simple experi- seems highly probable, that almost all the covered ment, the friction of the materials employed: taking, ways, constructed in the earlier times of Greece and for example, a common brick, and placing it, with Rome, were either formed by lintels, like doorways, the shorter side of its end downwards, on another or by stones overhanging each other, in horizontal which is gradually raised, we shall find that it will strata, and leaving a triangular aperture, or by both fall over without beginning to slide ; and when this these arrangements combined, as is exemplified in happens, the height must be half of the horizon- the entrance to the treasury of Atreus at Mycenae, tal extent, a brick being twice as long as it is where the lintel has a triangular aperture over it, by broad : in this case, therefore, the friction must be which it is relieved from the pressure of the wall at least half of the pressure, and the angle of repose above ; and this instance serves to show how difi'erat least 30°; and an equilateral wedge of brick could ent the distribution of the pressure on any part of not be forced up by any steady pressure of bricks a structure may be, from the simple proportions of acting against its sides, in a direction parallel to its the height of the materials above it. Some other base. But the effects of agitation would make such old buildings, which have been supposed to be archa wedge totally insecure in any practical case ; and ed, have been found, on further examination, rather the determination only serves to assure us, that a to resemble domes, which may be built without very considerable latitude may be allowed to the centres, and may be left open at the summit, the joints of our materials, when there is any reason for horizontal curvature producing a transverse pressure, deviating from the proper direction, provided that which supports the structure without an ordinary we be assured of a steady pressure; and much more key-stone. And this has been suspected to be the in brick or stone than in wood, and more in wood form of the roofs and ceilings of ancient Babylon, than in iron, unless the joints of the iron be secured where Strabo tells us that the buildings were arched by some cohesive connexion. It may also be in- over or “ camerated,” for the purpose of saving timferred from these considerations, that the direction ber : and the bridge of Babylon, which must have of the joints can never determine the direction of been of considerable antiquity, is expressly said, by the curve of equilibrium crossing them, since the Herodotus, to have consisted of piers gf stone, with friction will always enable them to transmit the a road formed of beams of wood only. It may howthrust in a direction varying very considerably from ever be rejoined, that though’ a dome is not simply the perpendicular; although, with respect to any an arch, yet it exceeds it in contrivance and mechaparticular joint, of which we wish to ascertain the nical complication ; it generally exerts a thrust, and stability independent of the friction, it would be de- requires either an abutment, or a circular tie ; and it sirable to collect the result of the elements, of which is scarcely possible that the inventor of a dome should that curve is the representative, with a proper re- not have been previously acquainted with the congard to its direction. struction of a common arch. Besides the term camara, the Greeks had also psaeis, apsis, and tholus ; the last was particularly appropriate to Section IV.—Earlier Historical Details. circular domes ; but the variety of appellations seems The original invention of arches, and the date of to prove that the thing must have been perfectly their general adoption in architecture, have been familiar ; and the term psalis is supposed to have discussed with great animation by the late Mr King, been applied from the appearance of the wedged Mr Dutens, and several other learned antiquaries. arch-stones, viewed in their elevation, which could Mr King insisted that the use of the arch was not not have been observable in a dome of any kind. From these outlines of the origin of the art of more ancient than the Christian era, and considered its introduction as one of the most remarkable events building bridges, we may pass on rapidly to the accompanying that memorable period. Mr Dutens latest improvements which have been made, in Great appealed to the structure of the cloacae, built by the Britain, and on the Continent, in the practice of this Tarquins, and to the authority of Seneca, who oh- department of architecture. A very ample detail of 3 8 VOL. II. PART II.

506 B It I Bridge, the most important operations, that are generally reqUjre(\ to be performed in it, may be found in the numerous Reports of the ingenious Mr Smeaton, published since his death by the Society of Civil Engineers in London. They contain a body of information comprehending almost every case that can occur to a workman, in the execution of such structures ; and even where they have to record an accidental failure, the instruction they afford is not less valuable than where the success has been more complete. Respecting the general arrangement of a bridge, and the number of arches to be employed, in the case of a wide river, Mr Smeaton has expressed his approbation of a few wide and flat arches, supported by good abutments, in preference to more numerous piers, which unnecessarily interrupt the water-way. In a case where a long series of small arches was required. he has made them so flat, and the piers so slight, that a single pier would be incapable of withstanding the thrust of its arch: but in order to avoid the destruction of the whole fabric in case of an accident, he has intermixed a number of stronger piers, at certain intervals, among the weaker ones. Where several arches, of different heights, were required, he commonly recommended different portions of the same circle for all of them ; a mode which rendered the lateral thrust nearly equal throughout the fabric, and had the advantage of allowing the same centre to be employed for all, with some little addition at the ends to adapt it to the larger arches. He records the case of Old Walton bridge, in which the wooden superstructure had sunk two feet, so as to become part of a circle 700 feet in diameter, and the thrust, thus increased, had forced the piers considerably out of their original situation: a striking proof that the principles of the pressure of arches must not be neglected, even when frames of carpentry are concerned. Mr Smeaton particularly describes the inconveniences arising from the old method of laying the foundations of piers, which was introduced soon after the Conquest, and which is particularly exemplified in London Bridge. The masonry commences above low water mark, being supported on piles, which would be exposed to the destructive alternation of moisture and dryness, with the access of air, if they were not defended by other piles, forming projections partly filled with stone, and denominated sterlings; which, in their turn, occasionally require the support and defence of new piles surrounding them, since they are not easily removed when they decay ; so that, by degrees, a great interruption is occasioned by the breadth of the piers, thus augmented, requiring, for the transmission of the water, an increase of velocity, which is not only inconvenient to the navigation, but also carries away the bed of the river under the arches, and immediately below the bridge, making deep pools or excavations, which require from time to time to be filled up with rubble stones; while the materials, which have been carried away by the stream, are deposited a little lower down in shoals, and very much interfere with the navigation of the river. From these circumstances, as well as from the effects of time and

DG E. decay, it has happened, according to late reports, Bridge, that the repairs of London Bridge have often amounted, for many years together, to L. 4000 a year, while those of Westminster and Blackfriars Bridges have not cost so many hundreds. It is true, that the fall produces a trifling advantage in enabling the London water-works to employ more of the force of the tide in raising water for the use of the city; and this right, being established as a legal privilege, has long delayed the improvements, which might otherwise have been attempted, for the benefit of the navigation of the river. The interest of the proprietors of the water-works has been valued at L. 125,000; and it has been estimated that L. 50,000 would be required for the erection of steam-engines to supply their place; while, on the other hand, it is said that from thirty to forty persons, on an average, have perished annually from the dangers of the fall under the bridge. (Plate XLIII. fig. 7? 8.) But Mr Smeaton, as well as his predecessor Mr Labelye, appears sometimes to have gone into a contrary extreme, and to have been somewhat too sparing in the use of piles. It is well known that the opening of Westminster Bridge was delayed for two years on account of the failure of a pier, the foundation of which had been partly undermined by the incautious removal of gravel from the bed of the river, in its immediate neighbourhood; a circumstance which would scarcely have occurred if piles had been more freely employed in securing the foundation. The omission, however, did not arise from a want of a just estimate of the importance of pile^s in a loose bottom, but from a confidence, founded on examination as the work advanced, that the bed of the river was already sufficiently firm. Mr Smeaton directed the foundations of Hexham Bridge to be laid, as those of Westminster Bridge had been, by means of caissons, or boxes, made water-tight, and containing the bottom of the pier, completed in masonry well connected together, and ready to be deposited in its proper place by lowering the caissons, and then detaching the sides, which are raised for further use, from the bottoms, which remain fixed as a part of the foundations immediately resting on the bed of the river, previously made smooth for their reception, and sometimes also rendered more firm by piles and a grating of timber. By a careful examination of the bottom of the river at Hexham, Mr Smeaton thought he had ascertained that the stratum of gravel, of which it consisted, was extremely thin, and supported by a quicksand, much too loose to give a firm hold to piles, while he supposed the gravel strong enough to bear the weight of the pier, if built in a caisson. The bridge was a handsome edifice, with elliptical arches, and stood well for a few years ; but an extraordinary flood occurred, which caused the water to rise five feet higher above than below the bridge, and to flow through it with so great a velocity, as to undermine the piers, and cause the bridge to divide longitudinally, and fall in against the stream ; a circumstance so much the more mortifying to the eminent engineer who had constructed it, as it was the only one of his works that, “ in a period of thirty years,” had been known to fail. It was observed that some of the piers,

BRI Sridge. which had been built In coffer-dams, with the assistance of some piles, withstood the violence of the flood ; and it is remarkable, that the whole bridge has been rebuilt by a provincial architect with perfect success, having stood without any accident for many years. It seems, therefore, scarcely prudent to trust any very heavy bridge to a foundation not secured by piles, unless the ground on which it stands is an absolute rock ; and in this case, as well as when piles are to be driven and sawed off, it is generally necessary to have recourse to a coffer-dam. In the instance of the bridge at Harraton, for example, where the rock is nine feet below the bed of the river, Mr Smeaton directs that the piles forming the cofferdam be rebated into each other, driven down to the rock, and secured by internal stretchers, before the water contained within them is pumped out. In some cases, a double row of piles, with clay between them, has been employed for forming a coffer-dam ; but in others it has been found more convenient to drive and cut off the piles under water, by means of proper machinery, without the assistance of a cofferdam. Piles are employed of various lengths, from 7 to 16 feet or more, and from 8 to 10 inches in thickness, and they are commonly shod with iron. Smeaton directs them to be driven till it requires from 20 to 40 strokes of the pile driver to sink them an inch, according to the magnitude of the weight, and the firmness required in the work. He was in the habit of frequently recommending the piles surrounding the piers to be secured by throwing in rubble stone, so as to form an inclined surface, sloping gradually from the bridge upwards and downwards. In the case of Coldstream Bridge, it was also found necessary to have a partial dam, or artificial shoal, thrown across the river a little below the bridge, in order to lessen the velocity of the water, which was cutting up the gravel from the base of the piles. But all these expedients are attended with considerable inconvenience, and it is better to avoid them in the first instance by leaving the water-way as wide and as deep as possible, and by making the foundations as firm and extensive as the circumstances may require. The angles of the piers, both above and under water, are commonly rounded off, in order to facilitate the passage of the stream, and to be less liable to accidental injury. Mr Smeaton recommends a cylindrical surface of 60° as a proper termination ; and two such surfaces, meeting each other in an angle, will approach to the outline of the head of a ship, which is calculated to afford the least resistance to the water gliding by it. We find that, in the year 1769, the earth, employed for filling up the space between the walls of the North Bridge in Edinburgh, had forced them out, so as to require the assistance of transverse bars and buttresses for their support. In the more modern bridges, these accidents are prevented by the employment of longitudinal walls for filling up the haunches, with flat stones covering the intervals between them, instead of the earth, or the more solid materials which were formerly used, and which produced a greater pressure both on the arch and on

D G E. 507 the abutments, as well as a transverse thrust against Bridge, the side walls. For the inclination of the road passing over this bridge, Mr Smeaton thought a slope of ] in 12 not too great; observing that horses cannot trot even when the ascent is much more gradual than this, and that if they walk, they can draw a carriage up such a road as this without difficulty : and, indeed, the bridge at Newcastle appears, for a short distance, to have been much steeper. But it has been more lately argued, on another occasion, that it is a great inconvenience in a crowded city, to have to lock the wheel of a loaded waggon ; that this is necessary at all times on Holborn Hill, where the slope is only 1 in 18 ; while in frosty weather this street is absolutely impassable for such carriages : and the descent of Ludgate Hill, which is only 1 in 36, is considered as much more desirable, when it is possible to construct a bridge with an acclivity so gentle. Section V.—Improvements of the Port of London, From the study of Mr Smeaton’s diversified labours, we proceed to take a cursory view of the Parliamentary Inquiry respecting the improvement of the Port of London, which has brought forwards a variety of important information, and suggested a multiplicity of ingenious designs. The principal part of that which relates to our present subject is contained in the Second and Third Reports from the Select Committee of the House of Commons, on the improvement of the Port of London ; ordered to be printed 11th July 1799, and 28th July 1800. We find in these Reports some interesting details respecting the history of London Bridge, which appears to have been begun, not, as Hume tells us, by William Rufus, who was killed in 1100, but in 1176, under Henry II.; and to have been completed in 83 years. The piles are principally of elm, and they have remained for six centuries without material decay ; although a part of the bridge fell, and was rebuilt about 100 years after it was begun. Rochester, York, and Newcastle Bridges were also built in the twelfth century, as well as the Bridge of St Esprit at Avignon. About 50 years ago, the middle pier of London Bridge was removed ; the piles were drawn by a very powerful screw, commonly used for lifting the wheels of the water-works*; and a single arch was made to occupy the place of two. In consequence of this, the fall was somewhat diminished, and it was necessary partially to obstruct the channel again, in order that the stream should have force enough for the water-works ; but it was very difficult to secure the bottom from the effects of the increased velocity under the arch. Several strong beams were firmly fixed across the bed of the river, but only two of them retained their situations for any length of time ; and the materials carried away had been deposited below the middle arch, so as to form a shoal, which was only 16 inches below the surface at low water. The Reports contain also much particular information respecting Blackfriars Bridge, the piles for which were driven under water, and cut off level with the bed of the foundations, by a machine of Mr Mylne’s invention. The expense of Blackfriars Bridge, including the

BRIDGE, 508 Bridge, purchase ©f premises, was about L. 260,000; that of erected upon the arches of stone bridges. Or does the B —w tiie building only was L. 170,000. Westminster whole act as one frame of iron, which can only be de- *** Bridge, built in the beginning of the century, cost strayed by crushing its parts ? about L. 400,000. The distribution of the resistance of a bridge may The committee had received an immense variety be considered as in some measure optional, since it of plans and proposals for docks, wharfs, and bridges, may be transferred from one part of the structure to and many of these have been published in the Re- another, by wedging together most firmly those parts ports, together with engraved details on a very am- which we wish to be most materially concerned in it. ple scale. They finally adopted three resolutions re- But there is also a natural principle of adjustment, specting the rebuilding of London Bridge. “ l. That it is the opinion of this Committee, that by which the resistance has a tendency to be thrown where it can best be supported ; for the materials it is essential to the improvement and accommoda- being alw ays more or less compressible, a very small tion of the port of London, that London Bridge change of form, supposed to be equal throughout should be rebuilt upon such a construction as to per- the structure, will relieve those parts most which are mit a free passage, at all times of the tide, for ships the most strained, and the accommodation will be of such a tonnage, at least, as the depth of the river more effectual wfften the parts most strained unwould admit of, at present, between London Bridge still dergo the greatest change of form. Thus, if the and Blackfriars Bridge. “ 2. That it is the opinion of this Committee, that flatter ribs, seen at the upper part of the proposed supported any material part of its weight, an iron bridge, having its centre arch not less than structure, they would undergo a considerable longitudinal com6'5 feet high in the clear, above high-water-mark, pression, and being shortened a little, would naturalwill answer the intended purpose, and at the least ly descend very rapidly upon the more curved, and expense. “ 3. That it is the opinion of this Committee, that consequently stronger parts below, which would soon the most convenient situation for the New Bridge, will relieve them from the load improperly allotted to be immediately above St Saviour’s Church, and upon them ; the abutment would also give way a little, and be forced out, by the greater pressure at its upper a line from thence to the Royal Exchange.” In a subsequent Report, ordered to be printed part, while the lower part remained almost entirely 3d June 1801, we find a plan for a magnificent iron unchanged. It is, however, highly important that the work bridge of 600 feet span, which had been submitted to the Committee by Messrs Telford and Douglas. should, in the first instance, be so arranged as best to Mr Telford’s reputation in his profession as an en- fulfil the intended purposes, and especially that such gineer deservedly attracted the attention of the Com- parts should have to support the weight as are able mittee ; but many practical difficulties having been to do it with the least expense of lateral thrust,® suggested to them, they circulated a number of que- which is the great evil to be dreaded in a work of ries relating to the proposal, among such persons of these gigantic dimensions, the materials themselves science, and professional architects, as were the most being scarcely ever crushed, when the arch is of a form ; and the failure of an iron bridge, by likely to have afforded them satisfactory information. proper r the w ant of ultimate resistance of its parts to a comBut the results of these inquiries are not a little humiliating to the admirers of abstract reasoning and pressing force, being a thing altogether out of our of geometrical evidence; and it would be difficult to contemplation ; and it is obvious that the greater the find a greater discordance in the most heterodox curvature of the resisting parts, the smaller will be professions of faith, or in the most capricious varia- the lateral thrust on the abutments. We may, therefore, sufficiently answer this questions of taste, than is exhibited in the responses of our most celebrated professors, on almost every point tion, by saying, that the whole frame of the proposubmitted to their consideration. It would be use- sed bridge, so far as it lies in or near the longitudiless to dwell on the numerous errors with which nal direction of the arch, may occasionally cooperate many of the answers abound; but the questions will in affording a partial resistance if required; but that afford us a very convenient clue for directing our the principal part of the force ought to be concenattention to such subjects of deliberation as are really trated in the lower ribs, not far remote from the inlikely to occur in a multiplicity of cases; and it will trados. But it is by it© means allowable to calculate upon perhaps be possible to find such answers for all of them, as will tend to remove the greater number of a curve of equilibrium exactly coinciding with the the difficulties which have hitherto embarrassed the intrados; since, if this supposition were realized, we should lose more than three-fourths of the strength subject. of our materials, and all the stability of the joints Questions respecting the construction of a independent of cohesion, so that the slightest exterCAST IRON BRIDGE, OF A SINGLE ARCH, 600 FEET nal force might throw the curve beyond the limits of IN THE SPAN, AND 65 FEET IUSF.. (Plate XLIL the joint, and cause it to open. Nor can we always consider the curve of equilibrium as parallel to the %• 7-) intrados : taking, for example, the case of a bridge 1. IV/iat parts of the bridge should be considered like Blackfriars, the curve of equilibrium, passing as ivedges, wJiich act on each other by gravity and near the middle of the arch-stones, is, and ought to pressure, and vchat parts as weight, acting by gravity be, nine or ten feet above the intrados at the abutonly, similar to the walls and other loading, usually ment, and only two or three feet at the crown ; so

509 B R I D G E. Bridge, that the ordinates of this curve are altogether differ- from a circular or parabolic arc, in consequence of Bridge. a^S"***1 ent from the ordinates which have hitherto been the great inequality of the load on. the differentN considered by theoretical writers. It may be ima- parts^-and there seems to be no great difficulty in gined that this difference is of no great importance forming a firm connexion between a narrow bridge in practice ; but its amount is much greater than the and a wider abutment, without this inconvenience. difference between the theoretical curves of equili- The lateral strength of the fabric, in resisting any brium, determined by calculation, and the common- horizontal force, would be amply sufficient, without est circular or elliptical arches. the dilatation at the ends. Perhaps the form was With respect to the alternative of comparing the suggested to the inventor by the recollection of the bridge with masonry or with carpentry, we may say, partial failure of an earlier work of the same kind, that the principles on which the equilibrium of which has been found to deviate considerably from bridges is calculated, are altogether elementary, and the vertical plane in which it was originally situated : independent of any figurative expressions of strains but in this instance there seems, if we judge from and mechanical purchase, which are employed in the engravings which have been published, to have considering many of the arrangements of carpentry, been a total deficiency of oblique braces; and the and which may indeed, when they are accurately abutments appear to have been somewhat less firm analysed, be resolved into forces opposed and com- than could have been desired, since one of them bined in the same manner as the thrusts of a bridge. contains an arch and some warehouses, instead of beIt is, therefore, wholly unnecessary, when we inquire ing composed of more solid masonry, (Plate XLIII. into the strength of such a fabric, to distinguish the fig. 9.) thrusts of masonry from the strains of carpentry, the Question III. In what proportions should the laws which govern them being not only similar but weight be distributed from the centre to the abutments, identical; except that a strain is commonly under- to make the arch uniformly strong? stood as implying an exertion of cohesive force, and This question is so comprehensive, that a complete we have seen that a cohesive force ought never to be answer to it would involve the whole theory of called into action in a bridge, since it implies a gi'eat bridges ; and it will be necessary to limit our investiand unnecessary sacrifice of the strength of the ma- gations to an inquiry whether the structure, repreterials employed. If, indeed, we wanted to cross a sented in the plan, is actually such as to afford a mere ditch, without depending on the firmness of the uniform strength, or whether any alterations can be bank, we might easily find a beam of wood or a bar made in it, compatible with the general outlines of of iron strong enough to afford a passage over it, the proposal, to remedy any imperfections which unsupported by any abutment, because, in a sub- may be discoverable, in the arrangement of the presstance of inconsiderable length, we are sure of hav- sure. ing more strength than we require. But to assert There is an oversight in some of the official anthat an iron bridge of 600 feet span “ is a lever ex- swers to this question, from quarters of the very first erting a vertical pressure only on the abutments,” is respectability, which requires our particular attento pronounce a sentence from the lofty tribunal of tion. The weight of the different parts of the refined science, which the simplest workman must bridge has been supposed to differ so materially from feel to be erroneous. But, in this instance, the er- that which is required for producing an equilibrium ror is not so much in the comparison with the lever, in a circular arch of equable curvature, that it has as in the inattention to the mode of fixing it: for a been thought impossible to apply the principles of lever or beam of the dimensions of the proposed the theory in any manner to an arch so constituted, bridge, lying loosely on its abutments, would proba- at the same time that the structure is admitted to be bly be at least a hundred times weaker than if it tolerably well calculated to stand, when considered were firmly connected with the abutments as a bridge as a frame of carpentry. The truth is, that it is by is, so as to be fixed in a determinate direction. no means absolutely necessary, nor often perfectly And the true reason of the utility of cast iron for practicable, that the mean curve of equilibrium building bridges, consists not, as has often been sup- should agree precisely in its form with the curves liposed, in its capability of being united so as to act miting the external surfaces of the parts bearing the like a frame of carpentry, but in the great resist- pressure, especially when they are sufficiently extenance which it seems to afford to any force tending sive to admit of considerable latitude within the li. to crush it. mits of their substance. It may happen in many Question II. Whether the strength of the arch cases, that the curve of equilibrium is much flatter in is affected, and in ivhat manner, by the proposed in- one part, and more convex in another, than the circle crease of its width towards the two extremities or which approaches nearest to it; and yet the distance abutments, when considered vertically and horizontal- of the two curves may be inconsiderable, in compaly. And if so, what form should the bridge gradually rison with the thickness of the parts capable of cooperating in the resistance. The great problem, acquire ? The only material advantage, derived from widen- therefore, in all such cases, is, to determine the preing the bridge at the ends, consists in the firmness cise situation of the curve of equilibrium in the acof the abutments ; and this advantage is greatly di- tual state of the bridge ; and when this has been minished by the increase of horizontal thrust which done, the directions of the ribs, in the case of an is occasioned by the increase of breadth; while the iron bridge, and of the joints of the arch-stones, in curve of equilibrium is caused to deviate greatly a stone bridge, may be so regulated as to afford the

BRIDGE. 510 Bridge, greatest possible security ; and if this security is not its form, if the load were of necessity such as has Bridge, supposed. deemed sufficient, the whole arrangement must be been Question 4. What pressure tuill each part of the altered • Considering the effect of the dilatation at the bridge receive, supposing it divided into any given number of equal sections, the xveight of the middle ends in increasing the load, we may estimate the section being given- And on what parts, and with depth of the materials causing the pressure at the what force, will the whole act upon the abutments ? abutments as about three times as great as at the It appears from the preceding calculations, that crown ; the plan not being sufficiently minute to af- the weight of the “ middle section” alone is not sufford us a more precise determination ; and it will be ficient for determining the pressure in any part of quite accurate enough to take tv — a + (Prop. the fabric; although, when the form of the curve of S.) for the load, tv becoming = 3a when x is 300 equilibrium has been found, its radius of curvature at feet, whence 90,000 l> = 2a, and b = ^qqq a ^ " c the summit must give at once the length of a similar load equivalent to the lateral thrust; and by combining this thrust with the weight, or with the have nave then men 'iuu ,ny zz: _ —g ax“ -lt 54)0 000ax^ for the value direction of the curve, the oblique thrust at any part of the arch may be readily found. Thus, since of the ordinate. Now the obliquity to the horizon bein- inconsiderable, this ordinate will not ultimate- at the abutment u> = c -f- bx* ■=. 3a, and bx^ zz 2a, ly be much less than the whole height of the arch; , 1 « o 1 b x* , dy . and its greatest value may be called 64 feet; conse- we liave ^y ■= 2 m x^ +’ 12 m ? and dx the tangent ° d 1. If quently when x = 300, we have 64 w z= ^ a X of the inclination, becomes = — x 4- - — x3 m 3m 5 x 5 300 ax 2 ax 90,000 + £ a X 90,000, and the radius of curva.5333 ; conseSr 3 * 937*5 m 3m ture at the vertex r = — a = 937*5 feet, while the quently the horizontal thrust will be to the weight of the half arch as 15 to 8, and to that of the whole radius of the intrados is 725 feet, and that of a arch as 15 to 16. Now the arch is supposed to concircle passing through both ends of the curve of tain 6500 tons of cast iron, and together with the equilibrium, as we have supposed them to be situa- road, will amount, according to Professor Robison’s estimate, to 10,100 tons; so that the lateral thrust on ted, 735 feet. Hence, y being = x2 ^1 -f each abutment is 9470 tons; and since this is equal to the weight of 937*5 feet in length, of the thickness ——^— x2 |, we mayJ calculate the ordinates at dif- of the crown, the load there must be about 10 tons 270000 / ’ for each foot of the length. Hence, it appears, that ferent points, and compare them with those of the although the thrust, thus calculated, is greater than circular curves. the weight of a portion of equal length with the apparent radius at the crown, it is less than would be Distance x. Versed sine of Versed sine of Ordinate \j. inferred from the angular direction of the intrados the intrados. the circular arc. at the abutment: the inclination of the termination 1.34 50 1.73 1.71 of the arch being 24° 27', while that of the true 5.38 6.82 6.94 100 curve of equilibrium is 28° 4'; that is, about one13.00 15 43 3 50 15.66 tenth greater. 27.70 24.50 200 28.13 As a further illustration of the utility of this mode 43.81 41.01 250 44.42 of computation, we may take the example of an arch 64.00 64.00 300 65.00 of Blackfriars Bridge. The radius of curvature, as far as four-fifths of the breadth, is here 56 feet; and Hence it appears that, at the distance of 200 feet we may suppose, without sensible error, the whole from the middle, the curve of equilibrium will rise load to be that which would be determined by the more than 3 feet above its proper place; requiring continuation of the same curve throughout the a great proportion of the pressure to be transferred breadth. Now, the middle of the arch stones, at to the upper ribs, with a considerable loss of the distance of 50 feet from the middle of the strength, for want of a communication approaching bridge, that is, immediately over the termination of more nearly to the direction of the curve. If we the abutment, is about 12 feet above that terminachose to form the lower part of the structure of two tion, and at the crown about three feet above the inseries of frames, each about 4 feet deep, with diago- trados, so that we have only 31 feet for the extreme nal braces, we might provide amply for such an ir- value of y, while the whole height of the arch is 40; regularity in the distribution of the pressure ; but it and a being 6.58 feet, we find (Prop. U.) tny =13,510 would be necessary to cast the diagonals as strong as the blocks, in order to avoid the inequality of = 31m, whence m = 436, and 9?l— = r = 664; we 4 a tension from unequal cooling, which is often a cause of dangerous accidents ; it would, however, be also obtain the values of the ordinates of the curve much better to have the arch somewhat elliptical in as in the annexed table. 10

BRIDGE. Middle of the pressure to be supported at each point of the curve Arch-Stones. must obviously be equal to the weight of the mate10 FEET •76 •90 rials interposed between it and this new summit of 20 3.12 3.72 the curve. Now, in order to find where the thrust 25 5.13 6.12 is horizontal, we must divide the arch into two such 30 7.71 8.75 portions, that their difference, acting at the end of a 40 15.81 16.81 lever of the length of half the span, that is, of the 50 31.00 31.00 distance from the abutment, may be equivalent to Hence it appears that the greatest deviation is the given weight, acting on a lever equal to its disabout 30 feet from the middle, where it amounts to tance from the other abutment, to which it is a little more than a foot. But if we suppose this nearest; consequently this difference must be to the deviation divided by a partial displacement of the w eight as the distance of the weight from the end to curve at its extremities, as it would probably be in halt the span; and the distance of the new summit reality, even if the resistance were confined to the of the curve from the middle must be such, that the arch-stones, it would be only about half as great in weight of materials intercepted between it and the all three places; and even this deviation will reduce middle shall be to the weight as the distance of the the strength of the stones to two-thirds, leaving them weight from the end to the whole span ; and the tanhowever still many times stronger than can ever be gent of the inclination must everywhere be increasnecessary. The participation of the whole fabric, ed or diminished by the tangent of the angle at in supporting a share of the oblique thrust, might which the lateral thrust would support the weight of make the pressure on the arch-stones somewhat less this portion of the materials; except immediately unequal, and the diminution of their strength less under the weight, where the two portions of the considerable; but it would be better that the pres- curve will meet in a finite angle, at least if we supsure should be confined almost entirely to the arch- pose^ the weight to be collected in a single point. If, for example, a weight of 100 tons, equal to stones, as tending less to increase the horizontal thrust, which is here compressed by w = 436, implying the that ot about 10 feet of the crown of the arch, be weight of so many square feet of the longitudinal placed half-way between the abutment and the/ section of the bridge; while, if we determined it middle ; then the vertex of the curve, where the from the curvature of the intrados, it would appear thrust is horizontal, will be removed gJ feet towards the weight; but the radius being 937.5 feet, the to be only 56a = 368. In this calculation, the oblique direction of the joitfts, as affecting the load, has not been considered ; tangent of the additional inclination will be —— 937.5 but itseffectmaybe estimated by merelysupposing the specific gravity of the materials to be somev/hat increas- = and each ordinate of the curve will be ined. Thus, since the back of each arch-stone is about one-eighth wider than its lower end, the weight of the of the absciss, reckoning from the place materials pressing on it will be about one-sixteenth creased greater than would press on it, if it were of uniform of the weight to the remoter abutment; but between thickness; and this increase will be very nearly pro- the weight and the nearest abutment, the additional portional to to, the whole load at each part; so that pressure at each point will be 10 — 2.5 = 7.5 feet, it will only affect the total magnitude of the thrust, which, instead of 436, must be supposed to amount consequently the tangent will be and the addito about 463. If also great accuracy were required, 125 it would be necessary to appreciate the different specific gravities of the various materials constitut- tions to the ordinates at the abutments will be 450 375 ing the load ; since they are not altogether homo150 geneous; but so minute a calculation is not neces- and —, each equal to l£ foot, and at the summit sary in order to show the' general distribution of the 2 forces concerned, and the sufficiency of the ar- 150 , rangement for answering all the purposes intended. ffj-5 = which, being deducted, the true addition Question 5. What additional weight will the bridge sustain, and what will be the effect of a given to the height of the curve will appear to be-. weight placed upon any of the before mentioned sections ? But the actual height will remain unaltered, since When a weight is placed on any part of a bridge, the curve is still supposed to be terminated by the the curve of equilibrium must change its situation abutments, and to pass through the middle of the more or less, according to the magnitude of the key-stone; and we have only to reduce all the orweight; and the tangent of its inclination must now dinates in the proportion of 64.8 to 64. Thus, at 200 be increased by a quantity proportional to the addi- feet from the summit, the ordinate, instead of 24.50 tional pressure to be supported, which, if the weight 200 were placed in the middle of the arch, would always +. = 25.03, will be 24-72, so that the curve be equal to half of it; but when the weight is placed at any other part of the arch, if we find the point will be brought 2^ inches nearer to the intrados, where the whole thrust is horizontal, the vertical which, in the proposed fabric, would by no means

Bridge. Distance r.

Ordinate y.

511 Bridge.

B R I D G E. 5ic2 Bridge. diminish its strength; while, on the opposite side, be made in the form of an elliptical arch, What would Bridge, immediately under the weight, the ordinate 13 — be the difference in effect, as to strength, duration, convcnience, and expenses ? The question seems to suppose the weight of the — = 12.6 will be reduced to 12.45, and the curve materials to remain unaltered, and the parts of the 375 raised between six and seven inches, which is a structure, that would be expanded, to be made prochange by no means to be neglected in considering portionally lighter; which could not be exactly true, the resistances required from each part ol the struc- though there might be a compensation in some other ture. We ought also, if great accuracy were re- parts. Granting, however, the weight to be the quired, to determine the effect of such a weight in same under both circumstances, if the ordinate y at increasing the lateral thrust, which would affect in a the end be increased in the proportion of 64 to slight degree the result of the calculation; but it about 73, the curvature at the vertex will be inwould not amount, in the case proposed, to more creased, and the lateral thrust diminished in the same ratio, the 9470 tons being reduced to 8300. than one-eightieth of the whole thrust. It is obvious that the tendency of any additional The additional thrust occasioned by any foreign weight, placed near the middle of a bridge, is to weight would also be lessened, but not the vertical straighten the two branches of the curve of equili- displacement of the curve derived from its pressure ; brium, and that, if it were supposed infinite, it would and since the whole fabric might safely be made convert them into right lines; provided, therefore, somewhat lighter, the lightness would again diminish that such right lines could be drawn without com- the strain. The very least resistance that can be ing too near the intrados at the haunches, the bridge attributed to a square inch of the section of a block would be in no danger of giving way, unless either of cast iron, is about 50 tons, or somewhat more the materials were crushed, or the abutments were than 100,000 pounds. It is said, indeed, that Mr forced out. In fact, any bridge well constructed William Reynolds found, by accurate experiments, might support a load at least equal to its own weight, that 400 tons were required, to crush a cube of a with less loss of strength than would arise from some quarter of an inch, of the kind of cast iron called such errors, as have not very uncommonly been com- gun-metal, which is equivalent to 6400 tons for a mitted, even in works which have on the whole suc- square inch of the section. But this result so far exceeds any thing that could be expected, either ceeded tolerably well. Question 6. Supposing the bridge executed in the from experiment or from analogy, that it would be best manner, What horizontal force tvill it require, imprudent to place much reliance on it in practice ; when applied to any particular part, to overturn it, or the strength attributed to the metal being equivalent to the pressure of a column 2,280,000 feet in height, press it out of the vertical plane? If the bridge be well tied together, it may be con- which would compress it to about four-fifths of its sidered as a single mass, standing on its abutments; length, since the height of the modulus of elasticity its mean breadth being about 80 feet, and its weight (Prop. G.) is about 10,000,000 feet. The greatest 10,100 tons ; and such a mass would require a late- cohesive force, that has ever been observed in iron ral pressure at the crown of the arch of about 7000 or steel, does not exceed 70 tons for a square inch tons to overset it. Any strength of attachment to of the section, and the repulsive force of a homogethe abutments would, of course, make it still firmer, neous substance has not been found, in any other inand any want of connexion between the parts weak- stance, to be many times greater or less than the coer ; and since the actual resistance to such a force hesive. There cannot, however, be any doubt that must depend entirely on the strength of the oblique the oblique thrust, which amounts to 10,730 tons, connexion between the ribs, it is not easy to de- would be sufficiently resisted by a section of 215 fine its magnitude w'ith accuracy : but, as Professor square inches, or, if we allowed a load amounting to Robison has justly remarked, the strength would be about one-third only of the whole strength, by Si increased by causing the braces to extend across the section of 600 square inches; and since each foot of whole breadth of the half arch. The single ribs, if an iron-bar, an inch square, weighs three pounds, wholly unconnected, might be overset by an incon- and the whole length of the arch nearly a ton, the siderable force, since they stand in a kind of totter- 600 square inches would require nearly as many ing equilibrium ; and something like this appears to tons to be employed in the ribs affording the resisthave happened to the bridge at Wearmouth. Dr ance, upon this very low estimate of the strength of Hutton, indeed, mentions some “diagonal iron bars” cast iron. The doubts here expressed respecting in this bridge; but these were perhaps added after Mr Reynolds’s results, have been fully justified by its first erection, to obviate the “ twisting,” which some hasty experiments, which have been obligingly had become apparent, since they are neither exhi- made by the son of a distinguished architect: he bited in the large plates of the bridge, nor mention- found that two parallelepipeds of cast iron, one eighth ed in the specification of the patent. of an inch square, and a quarter of an inch long, Question 7* Supposing the span of the arch to re- were crushed by a force of little more than a main the same, and to spring ten feet lower. What ton. The experiments were made in a vice, and additional strength would it give the bridge ? Or, required considerable reductions for the friction. making the strength the same, What saving may be The mode of calculation may deserve to be explainmade in the materials ? Or, if instead of a circular ed, on account of its utility on other similar occaarch, as in the plates and drawings, the bridge shoidd ; sions. Supposing the friction to be to the pressure ii

BRIDGE. 513 the screw as 1 to m, and the pressure on the must in general be “ stronger than an elliptical arch Bridge, screw to the actual pressure on the substance as n of the same height and span,” have not adverted tov'^V^ to 1, calling this pressure x, the pressure on the the distinction between the apparent curvature of the arch, and the situation of the true curve of equiscrew will be nxt and the friction —; but this re- librium, which depends on the distribution of the m weight of the different parts of the bridge, and by sistance will take from the gross ultimate pressure^ no means on the form of the arch-stones only; this a force, which is to the friction itself, as the veloci- form being totally insufficient to determine the true ty of the parts sliding on each other is to the velo- radius of curvature, which is immediately connected city of the part producing the ultimate pressure, a with the lateral thrust, and with the strength of the proportion which we may call p to 1; and the force fabric. remaining will be the actual pressure; that is, Question 8. Is it necessary or advisable to have a model made of the proposed bridge, or any part of f— Vnx,. — x and x = —^— f. In these experir it, in cast iron. If so, ivhat are the objects to ’which ^ m m+'pn'7 ments, the gross force f, as supposed to be exerted the experiments should be directed; to the equilibration only, or to the cohesion of the several parts, or on the iron, was 4 tons; the friction was probably to both united, as they will occur in the intended bridge ? Experiments on the equilibration of the arch about the screw not having been lately oiled; the distance of the screw from the centre of motion was would be easy and conclusive; on the cohesion or to the length of the whole vice as 3 to 4, whence n connexion of the parts, extremely uncertain ; the was f , andp was 8.44, the middle of the screw de- form and proportion of the joints could scarcely be scribing 4.22 inches, while the cheek of the vice imitated with sufficient accuracy; and since the strength of some of the parts concerned, would vary 771 moved through ^ an inch: consequently n_^^n was as the thickness simply, and that of others as the square or cube of the thickness, it would be more 4 1 difficult to argue from the strength of the model r= , and the corrected pressure be* v upon that of the bridge, than to calculate the whole 4+11.25 3.81 from still more elementary experiments. Some 4 comes g —. In several experiments made with still such experiments ought, however, to be made, on the force required to crush a block of the substance greater care, and with an improved apparatus of levers, employed; and the form calculated to afford the the mean force required to crush a cube of a quar- proper equilibrium, might be very precisely and eleter of an inch was not quite 4^ tons, instead of 400. gantly determined, by means of the method first sugCalcareous freestone supports about a ton on a gested by Dr Hooke, that of substituting for the square inch, which is equal to the weight of a co- blocks, resting on each other and on the abutments, lumn not quite 2000 feet in height: consequently as many similar pieces forming a chain, and suspendan arch of such freestone, of 2000 feet radius, would ed at the extremities. It would, however, be imbe crushed by its own weight only, without any fur- portant to make one alteration in the common mode ther load; and for an arch like that of a bridge, of performing this experiment, without which it which has other materials to support, 200 feet is the would be of little or no value; the parts correspondutmost radius that it has been thought prudent to ing to the blocks of the arch, should be formed of attempt; although a part of the bridge of Neuilly their proper thickness and length, and connected stands, cracked as it is, with a curvature of 250 feet with each other and with the abutments by a short radius; and there is no doubt that a firm structure, joint or hinge in the middle of each, allowing room well arranged in the beginning, might safely be for a slight degree of angular motion only; and made much flatter than this, if there were any ne- every other part of the structure should be reprecessity for it. sented in its proper form and proportion and conAn elliptical arch would certainly approach near- nexion, that form being previously determined as er to the form of the curve of equilibrium, which nearly as possible by calculation; and then, if the would remain little altered by the change of that of curve underwent no material alteration by the susthe arch; and the pressure might be more equably pension, we should be sure that the calculation was and advantageously transmitted through the blocks of sufficiently correct; or, if otherwise, the arrangesuch an arch, than in the proposed form of the ment of the materials might be altered, until the re^ructure. The duration would probably be propor- quired curve should be obtained ; and the investigational to the increased firmness of the fabric, and tion might be facilitated by allowing the joints or the greater flatness at the crown might allow a wider hinges, connecting the block, to slide a little along space for the passage of the masts of large ships on their surfaces, within such limits as would be alloweach side of the middle. There might be some ad- able, without too great a reduction of the powers of ditional trouble and expense in the formation of resistance of the blocks. portions of an elliptical curve; but even this might Question 9* Of what size ought the model to be be in a great measure avoided by employing por- made, and whaf relative proportions will experiments, tions of three circles of different radii, which would made on the model, bear to the bridge when executed? scarcely be distinguishable from the ellipsis itself. The size is of little importance, and it would be Those who have imagined that a circular arch unsafe to calculate the strength of the bridge from VOL. II. PART II. 3 T

Bridge.

on

BRIDGE. 514 Bridge, any general comparison with that of the model. Since this question relates entirely to the local cir- Bridge. There is an Essay of Euler in the New, Commen- cumstances of the banks of the Thames, the persons, taries of the Royal Academy of Petersburgh (Vol. to whom it has been referred, have generally appealed XX. p. £71.), relating expressly to the mode of to the stability of St Saviour’s Church, in a neighbourjudging of the strength of abridge from a model; ing situation, as a proof of the affirmative. And it does but it contains only an elementary calculation, appli- not appear that there have been any instances of a failcable to ropes and simple levers, and by no means ure of piles well driven, in a moderately favourable soil, comprehending all the circumstances that require to Professor Robison, indeed, asserts that the firmest be considered in the structure of an arch. piling will yield in time to a pressure continued withQuestion 10. By what means may ships be best out interruption; but a consideration of the general directed in the middle stream, or preventedfrom driv- nature of friction and lateral adhesion, as well as the ing to the side, and striking the arch ; and what would experience of ages in a multitude of structures actube the consequence of such a stroke? ally erected, will not allow us to adopt the assertion For the direction of ships, Professor Robison’s as universally true. When, indeed, the earth is exsuggestion seems the simplest and best, that they tremely soft, it would be advisable to unite it into might be guided by means of a small anchor, dragged one mass for a large extent, perhaps as far as 100 along the bottom of the river. The stroke of a ship yards in every direction, for such a bridge as that might fracture the outer ribs, if they were too weak, under discussion, by beams radiating from the abutbut could scarcely affect the whole fabric in any ments, resting on short piles, with cross pieces inmaterial degree, supposing it to be firmly secured terspersed ; since we might combine, in this mariner, by oblique bars, crossing from one side of the abut- the effect of a weight of 100,000 tons, which could ment to the other side of the middle; and if still great- scarcely ever produce a lateral adhesion of less than er firmness were wanted, the braces might cross still £0,000, even if the materials were semifluid; for more obliquely, and be repeated from space to space. they would afford this resistance, if they were caA ship moving with a velocity of three miles in pable of standing in the form of a bank, rising only an hour, or about four feet in a second, would be one foot in five of horizontal extent, which any thing stopped by a force equal to her weight, when she had short of an absolute quicksand or a bog would certainadvanced three inches with a retarded motion ; and ly do in perfect security. The proper direction of the the bridge could not very easily withstand, at any joints of the masonry may be determined for the abutone point, a force much greater than such a shock ment exactly as for the bridge, the tangent of the of a large ship, if it were direct, without being dan- inclination being always increased, in proportion to gerously strained. But we must consider that a the weights of the successive wedges added to the large ship could never strike the bridge with its full load; and the ultimate inclination of the curve is force, and that the mast would be much more easily that in which the piles ought to be driven ; being broken than the bridge. The inertia of the parts of the direction of the result, composed of the lateral the bridge, and of the heavy materials laid on it, thrust, combined with the joint weight of the half would enable it to resist the stroke of a small mass bridge, and the abutment. with great mechanical advantage. Thus the inertia Question 1£. The weight and lateral pressure of of an anvil, laid on a man’s chest, enables him to the bridge being given, can a centre or scaffolding be support a blow on the anvil, which would be fatal erected over the river, sufficient to carry the arch, without such an interposition, the momentum com- without obstructing the vessels which at present navimunicated to the greater weight being always less gate that part? than twice the momentum of the smaller; and this There seems to be no great difficulty in the consmall increase of momentum being attended by a struction of such a centre. When the bridge at much greater decrease of energy or impetus, which Wearmouth was erected, the centre was supported is expressed by the product of the mass into the by piles and standards, which suffered ships to pass square of the velocity, and which is sometimes call- between them without interruption, and a similar ed the ascending or penetrating force, since the arrangement might be made in the present case with height of ascent or depth of penetration is propor- equal facility. tional to it, when the resistance is given. And the Question 13. Whether woidd it be most advisable same mode of reasoning is applicable to any weight to make the bridge of cast and wrought iron combined, falling on the bridge, or to any other cause of vibra- or of cast iron only ? And if of the latter, Whether of tion, which is not likely to call forth in such a fabric the hard white metal, or of the soft grey metal, or of any violent exertion of the strength of the parts, or gun metal ? of their connections. We must also remember, in A bridge well built ought to require no cohesive appreciating the effect of a stroke of any kind on an strength of ties, as Mr Southern has justly observed arched structure, that something of strength is al- in his answer to the eighth question ; and for repulways lost by too great stiffness; the property of re- sive resistance, in the capacity of a shore, cast iron sisting velocity, which has sometimes been called re- is probably much stronger than wrought. It has silience, being generally diminished by any increase also the advantage of being less liable to rust, and of stiffness, if the strength, with respect to pressure, of expanding somewhat less by heat than wrought remains the same. iron. But wherever any transverse strain is unaQuestion 11. The weight and lateral pressure of voidable, wrought iron possesses some advantages, the bridge being given, can abutments be made in the and it is generally most convenient for bolts and proposed situation for London Bridge, to resist that other fastenings. The kind of iron called gun mepressure ? tal, is decidedly preferred by the most experienced

^

B R I bridge, judges, as combining, in the greatest degree, the properties of hardness and toughness; the white being considered as too brittle, and the grey as too soft. Dr Hutton, however, and Mr Jessop, prefer the grey; and if we allow the strength of the gun metal to be at all comparable to that which Mr Reynolds attributes to it, we must also acknowledge that a much weaker substance would be amply sufficient for every practical purpose, and might deserve to be preferred, if it were found to possess a greater degree of tenacity. Question 14. Of what dimensions ought the several members of the iron work to be, to give the bridge sufficient strength ? See the Answers to Questions 7 and 11. Question 15. Can frames of cast iron be made sufficiently correct to compose an arch cf the form and dimensions shown in the drawings, so as to take an equal bearing as one frame, the several parts being connected by diagonal braces, and joined by an iron cement, or other substance f Professor Itobison considers it as indispensable that the frames of cast iron should be ground to fit each other ; and a very accurate adjustment of the surface would certainly be necessary for the perfect co-operation of every part of so hard a substance. Probably, indeed, any very small interstices that might be left, would in some measure be filled up by degrees, in consequence of the oxydation of the metal, but scarcely soon enough to assist in bearing the general thrust upon the first completion of the bridge. The plan of mortising the frames together is by no means to be advised, as rendering it very difficult to adapt the surfaces to each other throughout any considerable part of their extent. They might be connected either as in the bridge at Wearmouth, by bars of wrought iron let into the sides, which might be of extremely moderate dimensions ; or, as in some still more modern fabrics, by being wedged into the grooves of cross plates, adapted to receive them, which very effectually secure the co-operation of the whole force of the blocks, and which have the advantage of employing cast iron only. Question 16. Instead of casting the ribs in frames, of considerable length and breadth, woidd it be more advisable to cast each member of the ribs in separate pieces of considerable lengths, connecting them together by diagonal braces, both horizontally and vertically ? No joint can possibly be so strong as a single sound piece of the same metal; and it is highly desirable that the curve of pressure should pass through very substantial frames or blocks, abutting fully on each other, without any reliance on lateral joints ; but for the upper parts of the work, single ribs, much lighter than those which form the true arch, would be sufficiently firm. Question 17. Can an iron cement be made, which shall become hard and durable, or can liquid iron be poured into the joints? Mr Reynolds has observed, that a cement, composed of iron borings and saline substances, will become extremely hard ; and it is probable that this property depends on the solidity which is produced by the gradual oxydation of the iron. It would certainly be injurious to the strength of the fabric to

D G E. 515 interpose this cement between perfectly smooth and Bridge. solid surfaces ; but it might be of advantage to fill up with it any small interstices, unavoidably left between the parts. To pour melted iron into the joints would be utterly impracticable. Question 18. Would lead be better to use in the whole or any part of the joints ? Lead is by far too soft to be of the least use ; and a saline cement would be decidedly preferable. Question 19. Can any improvement be made in the plan, so as to render it more substantial and durable, and less expensive ? And f so, what are these improvements ? The most necessary alterations appear to be the omission of the upper and flatter ribs; the greater strength and solidity of the lower, made either in the form of blocks or of frames with diagonals; a curvature more nearly approaching to that of the curve of equilibrium, and a greater obliquity of the crossbraces. It would be necessary to wedge the whole structure very firmly together before the removal of the centres, a precaution which is still more necessary for stone bridges, in which a certain portion of soft mortar must inevitably be employed, in order to enable the stones to bear fully on each other, and which has been very properly adopted in the best modern works. In this manner we may avoid the inconvenience pointed out by Professor Robison, who has remarked, that the compressibility of the materials, hard as they appear, would occasion a reduction of three inches in the length of the bridge, from the effect of the lateral thrust, and a consequent fall at the crown of 15 ; a result which will not be found materially erroneous, if the calculation be repeated from more correct elements, derived from later experiments and comparisons. For obviating the disadvantageous effects of such a depression, which he seems to have supposed unavoidable, as well as those of a change of temperature, which must in reality occur, though to a less considerable extent, Professor Robison suggested the expedient of a joint in the middle of the bridge, with an intermediate portion, calculated to receive the rounded ends ol the opposite ribs, somewhat like an interarticular cartilage; but it is impossible to devise any kind of joint, without limiting the pressure, during the change ot form, to a very small portion of the surfaces, which could not bear fully on each other throughout their extent, if any such liberty of motion were allowed, unless all friction between them were prevented; and a similar joint would be required at the abutment, where it would be still more objectionable, as extending to a wider surface. The arrangement of the joints between the portions of the ribs, in one or more transverse lines, would be a matter of great indifference. Some have recommended to break the joints, as is usual in masonry, in order to tie the parts more firmly together; others to make ail the joints continuous, as a safer method, on account of the brittleness of the materials ; but if the fabric were well put together, there would be neither any want of firm connexion, nor any danger of breaking from irregular strains, in whatever way the joints might be disposed. Question 20. Upon considering the whole cir-

BRIDGE. 516 Bridge, cumsiances of the case, agreeable to the Resolutions of of a chain of the same weight, suspending a similar Bridge, the Committee, as stated at the conclusion of their load in an inverted position: and the parts of the Third Report, is it pour opinion, that an arch oj 600 bridge in question seem to differ only about as much feet in the span, as expressed in the drawings produ- from such a form in excess of curvature, as a straight ' ced by Messrs Telford and Douglas, or the sepme plan, line would differ from it in defect. The partial failure, with any improvement you may be so good as to point which accidentally occurred, rather bears testimony out, is practicable and advisable, and capable of being to the merits than to the demerits of the bridge, as they would be estimated in any other situation : for made a durable edifice ? The answers that have been returned to this ques- the lateral thrust, which it is generally desirable to tion are almost universally in the affirmative, though reduce as much as possible, was here actually too deduced from very discordant and inconsistent views small, and the abutments were forced inwards, by of the subject. The only reasonable doubt relates the external pressure of the loose materials, forming high banks, against which the abutments rested. to the abutments; and with the precautions which theMr Paine’s iron bridge, exhibited in London, and have been already mentioned in the answer to the 11th question, there would be no insuperable diffi- intended to have been erected in America, was a professed imitation of a catenarian curve: it was a culty in making the abutments sufficiently firm. Question 21. Does the estimate, communicated good specimen of that ideal something, which a poherewith, according to your judgment, greatly exceed pular reformer generally has in view : a thing not ill or fall short of the probable expense of executing the imagined, and which might possibly succeed very plan proposed: specifying the general grounds of your well under very different circumstances ; but which, when closely examined, proves to be wholly unfit for opinion ? . The estimate amounts to L. 262,289 ; and it has the immediate purpose to which the inventor intends generally been considered as below the probable ex- to apply it. The bridge at Wearmouth was completed in 1796, pense. The abutments are set down at L. 20,000 ; but they would very possibly require five times as in great measure through the exertions of Mr Burmuch, to be properly executed; while some other don, both as architect and as principal proprietor of parts of the work, by a more judicious distribution of the undertaking. It is remarkable for springing 70 the forces concerned, might safely be made so much feet above low water mark; and the arch rises 30 lighter, as considerably to lessen the expense of the feet, leaving a height of 100 feet in the whole for the whole fabric, without any diminution either of its passage of ships in the middle of the stream: the span is 240. The abutments are founded on a solid beauty or of its stability. rock, but their own internal solidity appears to be somewhat deficient. The weight of iron is 250 tons; Section VI.—Modern History of Bridges. 210 of them being of cast iron, and 40 of wrought. (Plate XLII. fig. 9.) A bridge was finished in the same year at BuildThe whole series of the questions, which we have been considering, are fully as interesting at the pre- was, near Colebrook Dale (Plate XLII. fig. 10.), unsent moment, as they were at the time when they der the direction of Mr Telford; ISO feet in span, were circulated by the Committee of the House of weighing 174 tons; and rising only 17 feet in the Commons. The practice of building iron bridges roadway, but furnished on each side with a stronger has been progressively gaining ground, ever since its arch, of about twice the depth, which extends to Jfirst introduction in *1779, by Mr Abiah Darby of the top of the railing, and assists in suspending the Colebrook Dale. Mr Wilson, indeed, who assisted part of the road which is below it by means of kingMr Burdon in the erection of the bridge at Wear- posts, and in supporting the part nearer the abutmouth, mentions in his answers, an iron bridge which ments by braces and shores. The breadth is only lias stood secure for ninety years: but it must have 18 feet; and the construction would not be so easily been on a very small scale, and has not been at. all applicable to a wider bridge, unless the road were generally known. Of most of the later iron bridges divided in the middle by an additional elevated arch we find a concise account in Dr Hutton’s elaborate with its king-posts, like the celebrated wooden bridge Essay on Bridges, which has been reprinted in the at Schafhausen, which was burnt down by one of first volume of his valuable collection of Tracts: but the French armies. A third iron bridge was also there are some still greater edifices of this kind erected in i796onthe Parrot at Bridgewater, by the Colebrook Dale Company. It consists of an elliptic which still remain to be completed. Mr Darby’s construction is not remarkably elegant arch, of 75 feet span, and 23 feet height, and some(Plate XL1I. fig. 8.), but it is by no means so objec- what resembles the bridge at Wearmouth in the tionable as several late authors have seemed to think it. mode of filling the haunches with circular rings : a The span is 100 feet 6 inches : the weight 178^ tons. mode not very advantageous for obtaining the greatThe curvature of the exterior concentric arches, est possible resistance from the materials, and conwhich assist in supporting the roadway, though it sequently throwing a little too much weight on the may be somewhat too great for the most favourable parts of the arch which support them ; although it is exertion of their resistance, leaves them still abun- probable that no great inconvenience has actually dantly strong for the purpose intended; nor is it arisen from this cause. correct to say that every shore supporting a pressure An attempt was also made, about the same time, should be straight; for if its own weight bears any to throw an iron bridge over the river Tame in Hereconsiderable proportion to that which it has to sup- fordshire ; but it fell to pieces as soon as the centre port, the curvature ought to be the same with that was removed. A similar failure occurred some time

517 BRIDGE. Bridge, afterwards in a bridge of about 180 feet span, which more elegant, and it has the advantage of a greater .Bridge, was erected on the Tees at Yarm. In 1802 or 1803, solidity in the blocks supporting the principal part of an elegant iron bridge, of 181 feet span, and 161- the pressure. (Plate XLIII. fig. 2, 3.) This advantage characterizes also very strongly vise, was erected at Staines. Its general form resembled that of the bridge at Wearmouth, but the the masterly design of Mr Rennie for the structure mode of connexion of the parts was somewhat differ- about to be erected at the bottom of Queen Street, ent. In a short time after its completion, it began Cheapside, opposite to Guildhall, under the name of to sink, and some of the tranverse pieces broke, in the Southwark Bridge. It exhibits an excellent consequence of the change of form. Upon examina- specimen of firmness of mutual abutment in the parts tion it was found that one of the abutments had constituting the chief strength of the arch, which given way: and when this was repaired and made has been shown in this essay to be so essential to the lirmer, the other failed. The abutment was pushed security of the work, and which the architect has outwards horizontally, without any material derange- probably been in great measure induced to adopt ment of its form or direction ; a circumstance which from his practical experience of the comparative could not have happened if its weight had been suf- merits of different arrangements. A plan of the ficiently great: but the architect seems to have bridge was in February last made public in the Retrusted to the firmness of the iron, and the excel- pertory of Arts; a work which amply deserves the lence of the workmanship, and to have neglected the encouragement of all those who wish to promote the calculation of the lateral thrust, which it is of so much diffusion of useful information: and the magnitude of the object is such, as to justify our entering into importance to determine. Mr Rennie has executed several iron bridges with some details of calculation respecting the pressure success in Lincolnshire; one at Boston, over the and strength of the different parts of the fabric, founded on a particular account of their weights and Witham, of which the span is 86 feet, and the rise only : but the abutments being well constructed, it dimensions, which has not yet been made public. has stood securely, notwithstanding the fracture of (Plate XLIII. fig. 4, 5, 6.) An act of Parliament for the erection of this some of the cross pieces of the frames, which had been weakened by the unequal contraction of the bridge was passed in 1811; but it was not begun metal in cooling. At Bristol, Messrs Jessop erected till 1814 ; the act having directed that no operations two iron bridges, of 100 feet span, rising 15 ; each should be commenced, until L. 300,000, out of the of them contains 150 tons of grey iron ; and the ex- required L. 400,000, should be raised by subscrippense of each was aboutL.4000. The construction ap- tion. The subscribers are allowed to receive ten per pears to be simple and judicious. (Plate XLII. fig. I I.) cent, annually on their shares, and the remainder of Mr Telford has been employed in the construction the receipts is to be laid by, and to accumulate, until of several aqueduct bridges on a considerable scale. it shall become sufficient to pay off to the proprietors One of these was cast by Messrs Reynolds, and com- the double amount of their subscriptions, and after pleted in 1796, near Wellington in Shropshire: it is this time the bridge is to remain open, without any 180 feet long, and 20 feet above the water of the toll. A considerable part of the iron work is already river, being supported on iron pillars. Another, still cast, by Messrs Walkers of Rotherham. The middle larger, was cast by Mr Hazledine, for carrying the arch is to be 240 feet in span, the side arches 210 Ellesmere canal over the river Dee, at Pontcysylte, in feet each. The abutment is of firm masonry, conthe neighbourhood of Llangollen. It is supported, nected by dowels, to prevent its sliding ; and resting 126 feet above the surface of the river, by 20 stone on gratings of timber, supported by oblique piles. pillars, and is 1020 feet in length, and 12 feet wide. The piers stand on foundations nine or ten feet below the present bed of the river, in order to provide (Plate XLII. fig. 12.) In France, a light iron bridge, for foot passengers against any alterations which may hereafter take only, was thrown across the Seine, opposite to the place in its channel, from the operation of varigate of the Louvre, in 1803. It is supported by ous causes : and they are abundantly secured by a stone piers, which are too narrow to withstand^ the flooring of timber, resting on a great number of effect of an accident happening to any part of the piles. fabric, and leaving the lateral thrust uncompensated: nor is there any immediate reason to apprehend that Weight of half of the middle arch of SouthmarJc Bridge. any inconvenience should arise from this deficiency of strength ; since it is highly improbable than any ^ 8 3 Oblique Cross Qrosses> Spandrils. Total. partial failure should occur, in such a situation, supBlocks. Stays, frames. posing the bridge originally well constructed. (Plate t, cwt. t% cwt. t. cwt. t. cwt. t. cwt, t. cwt. XLIII. fig. 1.) ... But all these works have been far exceeded, in ex1 62 18 2 11 11 0 9 1 26 4 ill 17 tent and importance, by the three new bridges, lately 60 19 2 12 10 13 8 15 20 3 103 4 2 built and now building over the Thames. The 3 54 15 2 13 10 2 8 3 32 16 108 10 Vauxhall Bridge was completed and opened in Au23 14 87 6 9 17 51 3 2 11 4 gust 1816: it consists of nine arches of cast iron, 32 14 95 19 2 13 50 17 9 15 5 each of 78 feet span, and between 11 and 12 feet 88 6 24 15 2 13 51 2 9 15 6 rise. The breadth of the roadway is 36 feet clear. 48 12 20 7 2 12 25 12 The architect was Mr Walker. The form of the half 7 arches considerably resembles that of Messrs Jessop s 643 15 (Carry forward,) bridges at Bristol; but it is somewhat lighter and

518 Brill!'? 1 (Brought forward,,) Covering-plates _ Cornice and palisades Roadway and pavement

BRIDGE. Total. t. cwt. being 60.8, a = 11.98, and r = — = 329 feet, the 1 643 15 152 0 radius of curvature of the curve of equilibrium at the 77 5 vertex, while that of the middle of the blocks is 334. 650 0 In order to determine the ordinate y, we have my =

Whole weight 1523 0 Springing plate * 1310 Abutment 11,000 0 Span 240 feet. Rise 24. Depth of the blocks or plates at the crown 6 feet; at the pier 8 feet. It is evident from the inspection of this statement of the weights, that their distribution is by no means capable of being accurately expressed by any one formula; but it will be amply sufficient for the determination of the thrust, to employ the approximation founded on the supposition of a parabolic curve (Prop. T.); and if we afterwards wished to find the effect of any local deviation from the assumed law of the weight, we might have recourse to the mode of calculation exemplified in the answer to the fifth Question. But, in fact, that answer may of itself be considered as sufficient to show, that the effect of a variation of a few tons, from the load appropriate to each part, would be wholly unimportant. We must, therefore, begin by finding the weight of a portion of the arch corresponding to a quarter of the span ; and the whole angle, of which the tan24 gent is — — .2, being 11° 18^', its sine is .1961 ; 1 zt/ and the angle, of which the sine is .09805, being 337.5 5° 372> we have to compute the weight of g-----, or ej^-,

of the angular extent, beginning from the mid-

1 ax2+ r~ bxA; but - ax for the whole arch is 728.2, 12 2 2 1 3 50 and -4 bx = 50; consequently my = 728.2a; -f- —x, 3 the first portion varying as a;2, and the second as x4; and the sum y being 23 = 22.49 -j- .51, the ordinate at - a; or 30.4 feet is ~ x 22.49 4 lo

256 X -51

1.41 ; and, in a similar manner, any other ordinate may be calculated, so that we have,

30.2 60.8 91.0 121.6

V1.41 5.65 13.02 23.00

Middle of the Blocks. 1.40 5.67 3 2.89 23.00

Hence it appears that the curve of equilibrium nowhere deviates more than about two inches from the middle of the blocks, which is less than one fortieth of the whole depth. The half weight of the smaller arches is probably about 1300 tons, and their lateral thrust 3500 ; and, since the abutment weighs 11,000 tons, the foundation ought to have an obliquity of 3500 or more than 1 in 4, if it were intended to stand on the piles without friction; but in reality it rises only 66 inches in 624, or nearly 1 in 9; so that there is an angular difference of 1 in 7 between the direction of the piles and that of the thrust, which is probably a deviation of no practical importance. It remains to be inquired how far the series of masses of solid iron, constituting the most essential part of the arch, is well calculated to withstand the utmost changes of temperature that can possibly occur to it in the severest seasons (Prop. K.) For this purpose, we may take the mean depth a — 7 feet, , . 23 ; then , 4/i = ~ 99 = 14.14, and 1 -f U, being 1 + —

dle of the arch. And this will be 48 + 88 ^ -f 95 ^ -f (S726o) X *7845 = 297 tons. Now, the weight of the covering-plates, cornice, palisades, roadway, and pavement, are distributed throughout the length, without sensible inequality, making 879 t°ns; from which the part immediately above the piers might be deducted; but it will be safer to retain the whole weight, especially as something must be allowed for the greater extent of the upper surface of the wedges. We shall, therefore, have, for the interior quarter, 297 -f 439-5 = 736.5 tons, and for the exterior 1523—736.5 =: 786.5, the difference being 50 tons; one-sixth of which, added to 736.5, gives us 744.8 for the reduced weight, which is to \6hh =: 9199 := : conse( u n 735 l e t]y the greatest acthe lateral thrust as the rise to the half span. But 15a« for the rise we must take 23 feet, since the middle tual compression or extension of such a structure is of the blocks next to the piers is a foot more remote to the mean change which takes place in the direcfrom the intrados than that of the blocks at the tion of the chord, as 14.14 to 12.52, or as 1.129 crown. And the true half span, measured from the to 1 ; and if, in a long and severe frost, the temperature varied from 52° to 20°, since the general di. . 120 same point, will be 4 x greater than that of the 1 312 mensions would contract about the extreme 5000’ intrados, amounting to 121.6. We have, therefore) 23 *. 121.6 = 745.8 13942 tons, for m the lateral thrust* parts of the blocks near the abutments would vary tjo I.129 And for - ax, 736.5 — -* = 728.2 whence, - x --- - of their length; and the modulus M being 0 ^ vUU 5

B R I Btklpe. about 10,000,000 feet, this change would produce a resistance equivalent to the weight of a column of the same substance 2258 feet high : that is, to about three tons for each square inch, diminishing gradually towards the middle of the blocks, and converted on the other side into an opposite resistance : so that this force would be added to the general pressure below in case of contraction, and above in case of extension. Now, the lateral thrust is derived from a pressure equivalent to a column about 329 feet high, of materials weighing 1523 tons, while the blocks themselves weigh 357; that is, to a column equal in section to the blocks, and 1400 feet high : it will, therefore, amount to about two tons on each square inch : consequently such a change of temperature, as has been supposed, will ■ cause the extreme parts of the abutments to bear a pressure of five tons, where, in the ordinary circumstances, they have only to support two. The ingenious architect proposes to diminish this contingent inconvenience, by causing the blocks to bear somewhat more strongly on the abutments at the middle than at the sides, so as to allow some little latitude of elevation and depression, in the nature of a joint: and, no doubt, this expedient will prevent the great inequality of pressure which might otherwise arise from the alternations of heat and cold. But it cannot be denied that there must be some waste of strength in such an arrangement, the extreme parts of the abutments, and of the blocks near them, contributing very little to the general resistance ; and when we consider the very accurate adjustment of the equilibrium throughout the whole structure, we shall be convinced that there is no necessity for any thing like so great a depth of the solid blocks, especially near the abutments ; and that the security would be amply sufficient if, with the same weight of metal, they were made wider in a transverse direction, preserving only the form of the exterior ones on each side, if it were thought more agreeable to the eye. In carpentry, where there is often a transverse strain, and where stiffness is frequently required, we generally gain immensely by throwing much of the substance of our beams into the depth ; but in a bridge perfectly well balanced, there is no advantage w hatever from depth of the blocks : w-e only w'ant enough to secure us against accidental errors of construction, and against partial loads from extraneous weights ; and it is not probable that either of these causes, in such a bridge, would ever bring the curve of equilibrium six inches, or even three, from its natural situation near the middle of the blocks. We cannot conclude our inquiries into this subject with a more striking example, than by applying the principles of the theory to the magnificent edifice which is now nearly finished, by the same judicious and experienced architect, and which is destined to bear the triumphant appellation of Waterloo Bridge ; a work not less pre-eminent among the bridges of all ages and countries, than the event which it will commemorate is unrivalled in the annals of ancient or modern history. It consists of nine elliptical arches, each of 120 feet span, and 35 feet rise. The piers are 20 feet thick, the road 28 feet wide, be-

D G E. 519 sides a foot pavement of seven feet on each side. Bridge. ^ The arches and piers are built of large blocks of'^^' granite, with short counterarches over each pier. The haunches are filled up, as is usual in the most modern bridges, by spandrils, or longitudinal walls of brick, covered with fiat stones, and extending over about half the span of the arch ; the remainder being merely covered with earth or gravel, which is also continued over the stones covering the spandrils. The hollow spaces between the walls are carefully closed above, and provided with outlets below, in order to secure them from becoming receptacles of water, which would be injurious to the durability of the structure. The mean specific gravity of the materials is such, that a cubic yard of the gi’anite weighs exactly two tons, of the brick work one ton, and of the earth a ton and an eighth. Hence, the weight of the whole may be obtained from the annexed statement. (Plate XL1V. fig. 1, 2, 3.) Contents of the materials in half an arch of Waterloo Bridge, from the middle of the pier to the crown, beginning from the springing of the arch. Cubic Feet. Half of the arch stones, 25311 Half of the inverted arch, 2555 Square spandril between them, 1994 Outside spandril walls, 4374 Spandrils of brick, 4976 ( = 2489) Kirbels of the brick spandrils, 1271 Flat stone covers, 969 Earth, 10260 (=5771) Foot pavement, 620 Frises, E. and W. 1586 Cornice, E. and W. 1120 Plinth of balustrade, 510 Solid in parapet, 416 Balusters 72, 151 cwt. 102 Coping, E. and W. 142 From this statement, and from a consideration of the arrangement of the materials, exhibited in the plate, we may infer that the half arch, terminated where the middle line of the arch-stones enters the pier, is equivalent in weight to about 34,000 cubic feet of granite ; its inner half containing in round numbers 13,000, and its outer 21,000, whence we have 14,333 for the reduced weight of the quarter arch (Prop. T.). The extreme ordinate will be about 21 feet; the middle of the blocks being somewhat more than 16 feet above the springing of the arch, and the key-stone being four feet six inches deep; consequently the horizontal thrust will be expressed by 14,333 X gy = 40,952 cubic feet, weighing 3033 tons. 1 5*

But ^ ex being 11667, and

m = >’=40952 = 30, a = 389, and sr

105

feet; while the radius of curvature of the ellipsis at , . 60 X 60 Tx • 1 • the crown is ——-— = 103 feet. It is obvious, 35

BRIDGE. 520 in the neighbourhood of D will be incapable Bridge B idge therefore, that the curve of equilibrium will pass joints I! of resisting the pressure in the direction of the curve iinsson. II everywhere extremely near to the middle of the ' Bnssou. blocks> an^ there can be no apprehension of any de- CD, and must tend to turn on their internal termi- • y ficiency in the equilibrium. It is true that, as it ap- nations as centres, and to open externally. (Prop. proaches to the piers, it acquires an obliquity ot a Y.) Fig, 6. A, B, C, Different steps in the fall of a few degrees to the joints; but the disposition to weak arch. (Prop. Y.) slide would be abundantly obviated by the friction Fig. 7. Elevation and plan of Mess. Telford and alone, even if the joints were not secured by other Douglas’s proposed iron-bridge over the Thames. precautions. (Sect. V.) In building the arches, the stones were rammed Fig. 8. Elevation of Mr Darby’s iron Bridge .at together with very considerable force, so that, upon Colebrook Dale. (Sect. VI.) the removal of the centres, none of the arches sunk Fig. 9- Elevation of Mr Burden’s Bridge at Wearmore than an inch and a half. In short, the accuramouth. (Sect. VI.) cy of the whole execution seems to have vied with Fig. 10. Elevation of Mr Telford’s Bridge at the beauty of the design, and with the skill of the Buildwas. (Sect. VI.) arrangement, to render the Bridge of Waterloo a Fig. 11. Elevation of Messrs Jessop’s Bridges at monument, of which the metropolis ot the Biitish Empire will have abundant reason to be proud, for Bristol. (Sect. VI.) Fig. 12. Elevation of Mr Telford's Aqueduct a long series of successive ages. Bridge at Pontcysylte. (Sect. VI.) Plate XLIII. Fig. 1. Elevation of the Bridge of the Louvre at Paris. (Sect. VI.) EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Fig. 2. Elevation of Vauxhall Bridge. (Sect. VI.) Fig. 3. Middle arch of Vauxhall Bridge. (Sect. VI.) Plate XLII. fig. 1. If AB represent the distance Fig. 4. Middle arch of Southwark Bridge. (Sect. of any two particles of matter, and BC, DE, FG the repulsive forces at the distances AB, AD, AF VI0 Fig. 5. Elevation of Southwark Bridge. (Sect. VI.) respectively, and BC, DH, FI, the corresponding Fig. 6. Plan of Southwark Bridge. (Sect. VI.) cohesive forces, then GI must be ultimately to EH Fig. 7. Elevation of London Bridge in its present as FB to BD. (Sect. I. Prop. A.) Fig. 2. The block will support twice as great a state. (Sect. IV.) Fig. 8. Plan of London Bridge, with its sterlings. pressure applied at A as at B. (Prop. B.) Fig. 3. It is obvious that ABC — ADE = ABC (Sect. IV.) Fig. p. London Bridge, as proposed by Mr Dance — CFG, HI being = HK, and HG = PIA ; and the difference ABFHA is always equal to DB x KH. to be altered. Plate XLIV. Fig. 1. Elevation of Waterloo Bridge (Prop. C.) Fig. 4. It is evident that AB is to CD as A E to (Sect. VI.) Fig. 2. Plan of Waterloo Bridge. (Sect. VI.) CE, or as s -f to z. (Prop. E.) It is also obFig. 3. Section of an arch of Waterloo Bridge, vious that as z or CE is to CD, so is EF to FG. showing the foundations of the piers, and the span(Prop. F.) Fig. 5. Supposing the arch AB to be so loaded dril walls of brick ; together with the centre supin the neighbourhood of C as to require the curve porting it. The dotted line represents the direction (o. r.) of equilibrium to assume the form ADCEB, the of the curve of equilibrium. (Sect. VI.)

BRISSON (Mathurin James), a zoologist and natural philosopher, born at Fontenay le Comte, 3d April 1723, the son of Mathurin Brisson and Louisa Gabrielle Jourdain. He was originally intended for the church, but he had acquired at an early age a taste for natui’al history, which was particularly encouraged by the advantage that he enjoyed of passing his holidays with the justly celebrated Reaumur, who had an estate near Fontenay. At the age of twenty-four, he had made great progress in his theological studies, and had fully qualified himself for the rank of a subdeacon ; but his courage failed him at the time appointed for taking orders, and he then determined to confine himself to the study of physical sciences. Reaumur had the direction of the Chemical Laboratory of the Academy of Sciences, and had given up the salary attached to it to several young men in succession, whom he appointed as his assistants, and of whom'Pitot and Nollet became afterwards the most 7

distinguished. He now chose Brisson for the situation, which served him, as it had done his predecessors, rather as a step in his advancement with respect to general science, than in enabling him to pursue any objects more immediately chemical; and he followed his passion in attaching himself, almost exclusively, to natural history. The collection of Reaumur furnished him with ample materials for his studies, and with the principal subjects described in his works on the Animal Kingdom. The first of these was published in 1756, containing quadrupeds and cetaceous animals. It consists of simple descriptions of the different species, together with synonyms in various languages, more in the nature of a prodromus than of a complete history. His Ornithologie appeared in 1760, forming six volumes, and containing a number of well-executed plates. But upon Reaumur’s death, the collection having been added to the Royal Cabinet, Messrs Buffon and Daubenton, the Directors of that Cabinet, not affording him all

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mentary Treatise on that science, intended for the Brisson v "r^^nued • ^ ^ and i° altogether that he expected, discontithe work, renouncedhethe study use of his pupils in the central school. Briisot of natural history in favour of natural philosophy. His whole life was occupied in his studies, and the v ^ M. Brisson had been chosen a Member of the history of his various works comprehends the history : Academy ot Sciences in 1759 he soon afterwards of every thing that is to be recorded concerning associated himself with the Abbe Nollet in deliver- him. After eighty years of uninterrupted activity of ing lectures on experimental physics, and obtained mind, an attack of apoplexy reduced him to a stato the reversion of his appointments of Professor in the ol second childhood, and effaced from his memory College of Navarre, and Instructor of the royal fa- even all traces of his native language, except a few mily in Natural Philosophy and Natural History. words of the dialect of Poitou, which he had spoken The subject of electricity was at this time warmly when he was a boy. He died the 23d June 1806; debated between Nollet and Franklin ; and M. Bris- and his place in the Academy was filled by M. Gay son had a difficult task to perform, in discussing the Lussac. (Delambre, Mem. Inst. Par. VII. Hist. merits of a mistaken friend and an overbearing op- P-189.) (T*u*) ponent ; but, in fact, this department of science was BRISSOT (John Peter), the chief of the Brisat that time too little understood to make it disgrace- sotine or pure republican party in France, during the ful for Nollet to be in error with respect to the utili- early stages of the Revolution, was born at the vilty of conductors, or for Brisson to remain neuter lage of Ouaroille, near Chartres, in the Orleannois, upon this and other similar questions. He seems, on the 14th of January 1754. His father, who was however, by no means to have adhered to the cha- a pastry-cook, gave his son a liberal education, and racter of neutrality in his anonymous Translation of Brissot became an author when he had scarcely left Priestley’s History of Electricity, published in 1771, College. He exhibited a decided predilection for and accompanied by notes, which exhibit a spirit of politics, and displayed an early zeal for republican acrimonious criticism, not at all calculated to en- principles. The boldness of his writings against the hance the merit of the work, which he wished to in- inequality of ranks excited the displeasure of the troduce to the notice of his countrymen. He also Government, and subjected him to a prosecution and attempted, in an Essay on Waterspouts, published in imprisonment in the Bastile. Having been restored the Memoirs of the Academy, to explain a variety to liberty through the influence of the Duke of Orof electrical phenomena, by means of the different leans, at the solicitation of Mad. de Genlis, he marcurrents of fluid imagined by Nollet, but certainly ried one of the Duchess’s women, and soon afterwith very little success. wards went to England, with secret instructions, it iff He afterwards undertook a course of experiments said, from the Lieutenant of the police. Others ason the Specific Gravity of Alcohol and Water, mixed sert that he came over to London, to avail himself in different proportions, which led him to a conjec- of the freedom of the press in conducting a perioditure, at that time somewhat singular, that water was cal publication, the design of which was to enlighten not a homogeneous substance. He assisted M. the people of France on the subject of civil liberty. Trudaine, and other observers, in the experiments It is certain that he endeavoured to maintain himself which they made on Heat and Light with the power- in London by his literary talents ; but the failure of ful lens of Berniere; and, in conjunction with M. this attempt subjected him to embarrassments from Cadet, he endeavoured to disprove the opinion of which he was relieved by the liberality of a friend, Beccaria, that electricity has a power of reviving the and he then returned to his native country. Metallic oxyds. He also made experiments on the Having again rendered himself obnoxious to the Refractive pouters of fluids which might be substitut- government by an attack on the administration of ed for flint glass, in the object glasses of telescopes; the Archbishop of Sens, he escaped a second imon the utility of different kinds of Steel for magneti- prisonment by a journey to Holland. During a cal purposes ; and on the mode of renewal of the temporary residence at Mecklin, he published a peShells of some species of Snails. riodical paper, called Le Courier Belgique. In the In 1772, M. Bnsson published a memoir on the beginning of the year 1788, he repaired to America; Specific Gravities of Metals, a subject which, in all but, on the approach of the revolution, he returned its extent, occupied a great portion of his attention to Paris, resolved to take an active part in the scenes during twenty years of his life. The results of his which were just preparing. He commenced his ' experiments, on a great variety of substances, were revolutionary career in 1789, by the publication collected into a single volume of Tables of Specific of some pamphlets, and particularly of a Journal, Gravities, which was published in 1787. It was entitled Le Patriote Frangois. He belonged to the principally for the use of students who attended his Representation des Communes, which was formed in lectures, that he published his Traite de Physique, the capital a short time previous to the memorable and his Dictionnaire ; both of them containing ele- 14th of July. On the storming of the Bastile, the mentary and popular information, rather calculated keys were deposited with him. He was elected exclusively for the immediate purpose which they President of the Jacobin Club ; and, in consequence were intended to serve, than for being of permanent of his zeal and activity in the revolutionary cause, utility in the promotion of the sciences. At a late he was appointed by his colleagues a Member of the period of his life, he renewed his attention to the Comite des Recherches, which served as the model subject of chemistry, when the discoveries of his ju- of all those Committees which were afterwards sucnior contemporaries had given greater certainty and cessively formed, under similar denominations, and precision to its laws ; and his last work was an EU- with similar objects; such as the Comites de SurveiT VOL. II, PART II. 3u t ie acc0rnmo at

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U2 B R 1 Bnssot. lance, de Surete Generate, de Salut Public, &c. Of this Committee Brissot was the president; and,^ while in this situation, he acquired a number of enemies. A French writer of the name of Morande published at Paris, in J79P a periodical pamphlet, under the title of Argus, in which he assailed the character of Brissot with great bitterness, repieocnting his conduct in the most odious colours, and even accusing him of robbery,—an accusation which, there is reason to believe, was utterly calumnious. On the flight of the royal family, in 1791> Brissot, in concert with the Chevalier de Laclos, drew up the famous petition of the Champ de Mars, demanding the abdication of the king, which became the signal for a dangerous insurrection, that was with difficulty quelled, by the interposition of the National Guard. This circumstance is said to have been the occasion of his quarrel with M. de Lafayette, to whom he had previously been zealously attached. At this period, the republican faction began to assume a consistent form, and to utter their sentiments with freedom and boldness. Brissot, who nad been one of its first and most zealous apostles, was returned a Member to the National Assembly, in spite of the opposition of the Court, to whom he had become extremely formidable ; and from this time he displayed an implacable enmity to the king. The National Assembly, attributing to Brissot talents which he does not appear to have possessed, appointed him a Member of the Diplomatic Committee, of which he became the habitual organ ; and in this capacity he was the constant advocate of the most violent public measures, and never ceased to demand a declaration of war against all the powers ot Europe. In order to attain this object, it w as necessary to remove the ministers, whose dispositions were favourable to peace. Brissot, accordingly, attacked them all, but particularly M. Delessart, who was at the head of the department of foreign affairs; and, by repeated denunciations, be at length succeeded in obtaining a decree of accusation against him. His place was supplied by Dumouriez, under wffiose administration war w as declared against the Emperor of Germany, on the 20th of April 1792. From this period, however, the political influence of Brissot began to decline. Robespierre, with whom he had previously been intimately connected, now declared himself his enemy, denounced him at the Jacobin Club as a traitor to his country, and an enemy of the people, and continued to persecute him with unrelenting rancour, until he finally effected his destruction. Alarmed at the storm which was gathering around him, Brissot, in concert with the other leaders of his party, attempted to form a reconciliation with the constitutional royalists; but this attempt having proved abortive, he reverted to his former opinions and line of conduct, and continued to denounce to popular vengeance all those whom he knew to be attached to the king. But although his writings may naturally be supposed to have excited those dispositions among the people which gave rise to the atrocities of the times, he had no direct influence on the revolution of the 10th of August, which appears to have been planned and directed by Danton, and the ferocious leaders

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of the Orleans faction. He was chosen a Deputy to Btissot. the National Convention for the department of the Eure, where he played only an inferior part, and was continually exposed to the rancorous attacks of Robespierre. * It was Brissot, however, who, as the organ of the diplomatic committee, obtained the declaration of war against England and Flolland, on the 1st of February 1793- This may be considered as the last act of his political life ; for, from thenceforth, he was only occupied in defending himself against his numerous enemies. The party distinguished by the name of the Mountain had now acquired a complete ascendancy, and meditated the destruction of their opponents, the Girondists, to which latter party Brissot was attached. Having at length been proscribed, after the revolution of the 31st of May, he was arrested at Moulins, while attempting to make his escape into Switzerland, sent to Paris, subjected to a mock-trial before the revolutionary tribunal, and beheaded on the 31st of October 1793, at the age of thirty-nine. Brissot was somewhat below the middle size, a little deformed, and of a feeble constitution. His countenance was pale and melancholy, and he affected an extreme simplicity in his dress. With regard to his intellectual character, his talents appear to have been much beneath his reputation, and he certainly possessed more zeal than judgment. Notwithstanding, however, the violence of his writings, declamations, and public conduct, he was not deficient in humanity; and, in the intercourse of private life, his manners arc said to have been mild and accommodating. As an author, Brissot has not much merit; his style is monotonous, verbose, and tedious ; and, upon the whole, it is wonderful, that, with such slender abilities, he should have acquired so great an ascendancy in public opinion. The best articles of his journal are said to have been written by his secretary, DuprG The following are the principal productions of his pen : 1. Moyens d'Adoucir la Rigueur des Lois Penales en France, Chalons, 1781, 8vo. 2. Un Independant de I'Ordre des Avocats sur la Decadencedu Barreau en France, 1781, 8vo. 3. De la V erite, ou Meditations, &c. 1782, 8vo. 4. Le Philadelphien a Geneve, 1783, 8vo. 5. Theoric des Lois Criminelles, 1781, 2 vols. 8vo. 6. Bibliothequc Philosophique du Legislateur, du Politique, du Jurisconsulte, 1782-1786, 10 vols. 8vo. 7. Tableau de la Situation Actuelle des Anglais dans les Indes Orientales, &c. 1784-85, 8vo. 8. Journal du Lycee de Londres, &c. published in monthly numbers, 1784, 8vo. 9. Vn Defenseur du Peuple d TEmpereur Joseph IL, sur son Reglement concernant VEmigration, &c. 1785, 12mo. 10. Examen Critique des Voyages dans VAmerique Septentrionale, par le Marquis de ChateUux, 1786, 8vo. 11. Voyages en Europe, en Asie, et en Afrique, translated from the English, wdth notes, 1786, and 1790> 2 vols. 8vo. 12. Nouveau Voyage dans les Etats-Unis de VAmerique Septentrionale, 179L 3 vols. 8vo. To the first volume of this work was prefixed the life of Brissot, which was translated into English, and published separately in 1794* Besides these works, Brissot wrote a variety of pamphlets, and

523 B R O B R I Brissot articles inserted in periodical publications, which it of a Lady labouring under Diabetes, in Vol. HI. Brockfesfl ■ d is unnecessary to enumerate. See the Life of Bns- Experiments relative to the Analysis of Seltzei Waocklesby. go^ above-mentioned, and the Biographic Univer- ter ; and Case of an Encysted Tumour in the Orbit of the Eye; in Vol. IV. His Dissertation anon the selle. (h.) BRITAIN. The history of England and Scot- Music cf the Ancients appeared in 1749; d his land is given under these separate heads in the Oratio Harveiana in 1760. Dr Rrocklesby was appointed, by his patron and Encyclopcedia, down to the Union of the Crowns in friend the Duke of Richmond, Physician-General to the person of James VI.; from which period the histhe Royal Regiment of Artillery and Corps of Entory of the two countries is brought down to the rupture of the peace of Amiens, under the article gineers ; an appointment that connected him much Britain. In order to afford more time to digest a with the laboratory of Woolwich, which he always comprehensive account of the great and important visited with pleasure. It was by his advice, indeed, a Professorship of Chemistry was added to the events which have succeeded, and of which Britain that establishment of the College ; and it was also by his was the prime mover, we shall defer the continua- recommendation that the celebrated Dr Adaii Ciawtion of the history till we reach the word England. ford was nominated the first Professor in this new BROCKLESBY (Richard), a Physician of considerable reputation, was born in SomersetThe life of a medical practitioner, absorbed in shire, on the 11th of August 1722; and w-as delaborious duties of his profession, is seldom scended from a respectable and opulent Irish fa- the diversified with much incident; and Dr Brocklesbj mily, belonging to the sect ot Quakers. He re- was now arrived at that period wnen the appicaching ceived his grammatical education at the Academy infirmities of age demand s'ine relaxation from laof Ballytore, in the north of Ireland, and afterwards pursued his medical studies at Edinburgh, and at bour, and an exchange of the anxieties and fatigue Leyden ; at which latter University he graduated, m of practice, for the tranquil amusements of literature, and the solace of cheerful society, ihe fiugal 1745, choosing for the subject of his thesis, De Sa- use which he had made of means originally slenner, liva sana et morbosa. In the following year, he but progressively augmenting by the inciease of his fixed his residence in London, with a vievy to piac- professional emoluments, by the addition of a pentice ; and in 1751 was admitted a Licentiate of the sion from the Duke of Richmond, his half pay from Royal College of Physicians, of which he afterwards the army, and an estate which devolved to him on became a fellow; after having received honorary de- the death of his father, had placed him in circumgrees of Doctor in Medicine from the Universities stances not only independent, but affluent, and enSf Dublin and of Cambridge. The first publication abled him to derive from retirement all the advanby which he became known to the world, was his tages he had contemplated. His society was courtEssay on the Mortality of the Horned Cattle, which ed on all sides ; and the circle ot his friends compreappeared in 1746, and gained him considerable re- hends some of the most distinguished literary men. putation ; and his practice extended itself with that of the age. He was, during the whole of his life, ingradual and steady progress, which affords the surest timate with Burke. His acquaintance with this exprospect of permanent and distinguished success. traoi'dinary man, began at the school where they His benevolent attention to his poorer patients, and both were educated, and soon ripened imo the the general suavity of his manners, soon brought most warm and most durable friendship. He was him into notice, and procured him the esteem of a also in terms of close intimacy with Dr Johnson, wide circle of friends, especially among his profes- and attended him in his last illness with the assiduisional brethren. In consequence of their recom- ty and kindness of a friend. Dr Brocklesby is chamendation of him to Lord Barrington, he was ap- racterized in Boswell s Lfe of Dr Johnson, as a man pointed, in 1758, Physician to the Army ; in which whose reading, knowledge of life, and good spirits, capacity he served in Germany during the greater supplied him with a never-failing source of converpart of the seven years’ war; and in the course of it sation ; and several letters, addressed to him from was chosen Physician to the Hospitals for British Dr Johnson, are preserved in that enteitaining work. Forces, The results of his observations during this One trait, however, is omitted, which does him great period were published in 1764, under the title of honour. Understanding that Dr Johnson wished, Economical and Medical Observations, from MSS to in the latter part of his life, to remove to the continent 1763 tending to the improvement of Medical Hospi- for the recovery of his health, Dr Brocklesby imtals. in one volume 8ve. He had already, however, mediately made him an offer of an annuity of L. 100 given to the ublic many proofs of the activity of his during the remainder of his life ; and when this offer mind, and the variety of his attainments The was declined, pressed him to reside in his house, as Transactions of the Royal Society tor 1747 ( 0 » more suited to his health than the one in which he YLIV ) contain a letter of his On the Indian Pot- then lived. The same generous disposition was maion sent over by Don Antonio de Ulloa ; and the nifested in his conduct to Burke, to whom he transsucceeding volume for 1747-8, a paper Me Poi- mitted L. 1000, as a legacy he had intended leaving sonous Root lately found mixed xmth the Cm- him, but which he thought would be of more use to tian. In the Transactions for 1755 (Vol. XL1X.) him at the present time. Dr Brocklesby was, inare inserted his Experiments on the Sensibility and deed, the survivor of Burke, though only for a few Irritability of the several parts of Animals. He months ; for on his return from a visit which he paid also published, in difterent volumes of the Medical to his widow at Beaconsfield, after dining with his two Observations, the following papers, viz. The Case

524 B R 0 b r o Brocklesby nephews Dr Thomas Young and Mr Beeby, of whose the debts, while the latter are void of any risk. We Broker, Broker. education he had taken the principal charge, lie ex- find in the city of London, that the number of^^^y^w pired suddenly a few minutes after retiring to bed, pawnbrokers lately amounted to no less than about without the least pain or previous illness. He left 240, and it was calculated, that the property of nehis fortune, which was considerable, between his cessitous persons in their possession, probably atwo nephews, with the exception of a few legacies mounted to a million Sterling. Their numbers also to friends and distant relations. (w.) had suddenly augmented, and they are still augmentBROKER, an agent or intermediate person ap- ing. In Edinburgh, on the contrary, which is not. above pointed for the transactions of special business for a tenth part of the size of the metropolis, there was another, somewhat different from an ordinary factor scarcely one a few years ago, and now the number in functions and responsibility. Of this class, there does not exceed a dozen. Therefore the number is are various descriptions, exercising employments not one half in proportion to the population of the without the smallest analogy, though all are brought two different places, which indicates fewer necessiunder the general name of brokers; and of these, tous people by a half in Edinburgh; arguing, either the principal are, Exchange-Brokers, whose province that the inhabitants are more industrious and more is to ascertain the rates and relation of exchange be* easily maintained, or less exposed to losses and fluctween countries; Stock-Brokers, who negociate tuations. transactions in the public funds; Insurance-Brokers, But the temptations held out to those who, in who effect insurances on lives or property; and this manner, obtain possession of the property of Pawn-Brokers. It is to the last that our attention others to such an amount, and with so little refershall here be chiefly directed. ence to its value, combined with the natural proPawnPawn-Brokers are a kind of bankers who advance pensity of mankind to take advantage of the nebroker. money at a peculiar ra?e of interest, on goods un- cessities of their neighbours, long ago rendered pledged for security of the capital; and in case of legislative interference necessary in regulating the failure to redeem the goods within a limited time, dut ies and interests of pawnbrokers. Besides, it was they may be sold to indemnify the lender. of great consequence to check the facilities with Nature of A part of the population of every flourishing counthe Trade. try consists of necessitous people, those frequently which stolen goods might be unpledged with, and sold by them. Omitting, however, the older enactbelonging to a class whose skill contributes to its pro- ments on these branches, we shall limit ourselves to sperity ; but whose income, often slender and precari- those of more recent date. ous, cannot keep pace with the times, or support the By the 99th chapter, of 3,9th and 40th George III., M demands of an increasing family. Exposed also to it is provided, that for every pledge on which a Hatf "so?’ sudden disappointments and losses, they are forced, sum, not exceeding two shillings and sixpence, shall Pawning, from the want of pecuniary capital, to seek a tempo- have been advanced, it shall be lawful to take one rary relief, by impledging their property for a cer- halfpenny per month, as interest and indemnification tain sum, while they pay interest on the advance. for warehouse room; one penny for five shillings; But this advance, in general, bears a very inconsi- three halfpence for seven shillings and sixpence; derable proportion to the value of the property, twopence for ten shillings; and if the loan does not whence its confiscation, by the increasing difficulties exceed forty shillings, the pawnbroker may take at of the owner, or of not being claimed on account of the rate of fourpence for every kalendar month, indeath or removal, proves most advantageous to the cluding that which is current. For any sum exceedholder; for, in the one case, he may become the ab- ing forty shillings and not above ten pounds, he may solute proprietor himself, and, in the other, he se- take at the rate of threepence monthly per pound cures a high rate of interest originally stipulated. Sterling. But these sums, though apparently inconThus, a pawnbroker has an infinite superiority over sicleiable, are in fact high per centages, and far suran ordinary banker; the latter calculates only on the passing the legal rate of interest. credit of his debtor, which is frequently nominal; d he pawner may redeem his goods within seven the former never makes an advance without being’ days after the expiry of the first month, without payput in possession of what exceeds it in value; his ing any thing as interest to the pawnbroker on these rate of interest is much greater, and the credit of seven days; and also, if the goods are redeemed behis debtor is of no importance. Nay it is rather fore expiry of the first fourteen days of the second better that his circumstances should be desperate. month, the profits or interest of one month and a It thence results, that, like other trades, the number half only are due. But if he fail to redeem them until of pawnbrokers will increase with the necessities of after the lapse of these fourteen days of the second the people requiring their aid, and, on that account, month, the pawnbroker may demand the profits of giving them employment, just as bankers, whose Uie whole second month; and the like regulation is issues increase when the calls of the public require a in force for every kalendar month subsequent. more ample supply of a circulating medium. Thus Should the sum advanced on the goods in pawn exa strong inducement is continually held out to commence the profession of a pawnbroker; for all that ceed five shillings, it is enacted that a description of is required, is comprised in a licence of L. 10 yearly the pledge shall be entered in a book by the pawnto Government, a small capital, and an empty ware- broker, and a note or ticket, an extract copy or duplihouse. On such an establishment, business may be cate of the same, be delivered gratis to the impledger. done to a great extent in a very short time; because If the sum advanced be above five and under ten shillthe securities increase in a much greater ratio than ings, the pawnbroker is entitled to a halfpenny for this duplicate; if above ten and under twenty, to one

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B R O roker. penny; and for a copy of the entry of goods pawn^ -Y-^ ed for five pounds or more, fourpence may be taken, but nothing higher. Further, an account of the amount of profits shall be written on this duplicate when the goods are redeemed; and pawnbrokers are bound always to produce their books when required. They must likewise exhibit a table of their profits in conspicuous characters in the place where they carry on their business, and register their name and profession over their doors, under a penalty of ten pounds. T e when By the seventeenth section of the statute, it is def rned clared that all goods and chattels which are pawned

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in the 29th of Geo. II. cap. 30, after many pveceding ones, annexing the pain of transportation, for fourteen years, to the reset of stolen goods: and by a statute of the preceding year, it was made lawful for a pawnbroker, or other dealer, his servants or agents, to whom any goods should be offered to be pawned, exchanged, or sold, which he suspected to be stolen, to seize and detain the person offering the same, for the purpose of being examined by a justice, who was empowered, if he saw any reason to suppose that the goods had been unlawfully obtained, to commit the persons offering the same to prison, for a period not exceeding six days. Nevertheless all prohibitions are found ineffectual in pracy or h otT shall be deemed to be forfeited, and may be sold at the expiration of a year, from the tice ; and although pawnbrokers, in the metropolis, date of pawning. But the impledger is, to a certain are entitled to carry on their trade only on taking degree, protected by another clause, prohibiting out an annual licence of L.lO, and of L.5 if in any pawnbrokers from purchasing goods in their own other part of the kingdom, nothing is liable to greatcustody. If any sum above ten shillings, and not er abuses. It is not uncommon for sharpers and exceeding ten pounds, has been lent, the goods shall swindlers to obtain such licences, and, taking advanbe sold by public auction after expiration of the year, tage of the necessitous or unwary, to exercise all under strict regulations in respect to previous adver- possible deceptions on them. Such persons are intisement, and publication of catalogues, specifying, variably the receivers of stolen goods, on which adin addition to their description, the month in which vances are made without scruple, from well-knowing they were impledged, as also the name and place of that no one will ever return to reclaim them ; and, abode of the pawnbroker. But it is provided that besides, the goods may safely be sold, for the same pictures, prints, books, bronzes, statues, busts, carv- reason, before the statutory period expires. W ithings in ivory and marble, cameos, intaglios, musical, out any regard to reputation or integrity, it has mathematical and philosophical instruments, and proved so easy to be established a pawnbroker, that, china, shall be sold only at four times in the year; it is alleged, persons confined to the hulks on the namely, the first Monday of January, April, July, Thames have even been able to obtain licences to and October, and on the following day if the num- carry on a trade in the very place of their punishment. However lucrative the business of pawnbrokers Evils inseber of articles render it necessary. Thus the imab , pledger may redeem his goods at any time within a may be to those who follow it, doubts are entertained ^ 1 pawn v whether the toleration of them be not an evil to the^®" year, on payment of the statutory profits on the money lent, but, on his failure, they may be sold. public. They are, indeed, temporarily useful, to Should he give notice to the pawnbroker before the persons in the most necessitous circumstances; year closes, of his intention to redeem, the sale must but as it is impossible, by any Legislative interbe postponed until three months subsequent to its ference, to bring them under that control which termination. When the sale has actually taken would be desirable,—as their interests are always at place, the pawnbroker is entitled to appropriate only variance with the interests of their employers,—and so much of the price received as shall cover his own as mankind, under the pressure of necessity, are readvances, the statutory profits and costs, and must strained by no sacrifice in seeking momentary relief, pay the residue to the owner on demand, within ultimate considerations are too often overiooked. three years, under high penalties in event of re* Hence the first resort for aid frequently leads to a second, and then to others successively, while the profusal. Ilictments Pawnbrokers are prohibited from lending money perty originally impledged remains unredeemed, and t »revent to persons below twelve years of age, or to those all the rest belonging to the owner gradually diminish^ tses and wh0 are intoxicated; nor may they receive any es, until he is left destitute. It is the poor and necessi1 Hds * goods in pawn before eight in the morning, or after tous only who avail themselves of raising supplies on nine at night, between Michaelmas and Lady-Day ; their goods, to ward off some impending evil, and it nor before seven in the morning and after ten at is surprising how low such transactions are carried. night, during the remainder ot the year; but with Nay, the statute itself illustrates the nature of this miserable traffic more forcibly than could be done in some exceptions which the statutes explain. A great many enactments are comprised in the other terms. It is enacted, that if, at the period statute 39th and 40th Geo. III., respecting the penal- of redeeming the goods impledged, there shall be a ties of unlawfully pawning goods the property of certain sum due of interest and profit, of which the another, and those of forging any notes or memo- lowest denomination shall be a farthing, and the rerandums regarding them ; likewise as to the appre- deemer “ shall not be able to produce and pay to the hension and punishment of persons offering goods to Pawnbroker a current farthing, which shall be to pawn who cannot give a good account of themselves. the satisfaction and liking of such person or persons The facility with which loans might be obtained as are to receive the same, but shall, in lieu thereof, from pawnbrokers on stolen goods, had previously tender to such person or persons to receive the rendered it an object of anxiety with the Legisla- same, one halfpenny, in order to discharge the said ture to detect offenders. Hence an act was passed remaining farthing so due, as aforesaid, the said

526 B R O B R O Broker Pawnbroker or Pawnbrokers, his, her, or their s-er- Greeks, and Romans, nations which subsisted long Bronzing, Bronzing. vant or agent’ t(> wh.oni sucl1 tender of a halfpenny and were familiar with the most refined state of the shall be made, shall, in exchange thereof, deliver un- arts, used this compound metal in the greater part to such person or persons so redeeming goods as of the decorations of those magnificent temples aforesaid, one good and lawful farthing of the cur- and palaces, whose ruins only have remained to rent coin of this kingdom, or, in default thereof, later eras. But amidst the general wreck there are shall wholly abate the said remaining farthing from still some fragments preserved, which indicate the the total sum to be received” from the redeemer. perfection which was attained in the employment of But it is not only in the view of the indigent yield- bronze. The wealth of some ancient cities was estiing to the pressure of necessity, in parting with their mated by the number of their brazen statues ; and property for an inconsiderable value, that society Delphos, Athens, and Rhodes, are reported to have suffers an injury. The thoughtless and depraved each possessed three thousand. Some distinguished here find ready means of gratifying their propensi- Romans adorned the public edifices of their city in this ties, by the assistance of the pawnbroker’s shop, and manner ; and so strong a propensity wus excited for thousands part with their apparel and furniture for multiplying such works, that an observation became what is, the next moment, wasted in intoxication. current, that, “ in Rome, the people of brass were not Besides, the facility of obtaining the reception of less numerous than the Roman people.’’ It has been stolen goods, is attended with the most pernicious remarked, that the works which we now execute in consequences, and the most powerful encouragement iron or steel were little known to the ancients ; that to theft. Notwithstanding the law anxiously endea- their arms and armour were usually of brass, or the vours to secure property to its owners, bv imposing compound now alluded to ; and a set of surgeons’ inpenalties on those who offer it in pawn, and” in ordain- struments consisting entirely of bronze was found ing it to be restored by the pawnbroker, cases in- not long ago at Pompeiinumerable may be figured, where the pawnbroker Bronze is extremely hard, sonorous, more brittle cannot discriminate what is the genuine property of than brass, and more fusible than copper, from any individual in particular, and where it is not only which, and its not being liable to tarnish, it is pecudifficult, but may prove impossible, to bring an of- liarly adaptedfor casts of statues. Various nations have fender to justice. In the present year (1817), an asso- compounded the metals employed in different prociation, more immediately resulting from the pressure portions. The Egyptians are said to have taken of the times, has been formed in Edinburgh, for the two-thirds brass and one-third copper. According purpose of aiding those with advice and information to Pliny, the bronze of the Grecians was formed in who have dealings with pawnbrokers. Its special ob- the same w^ay, with the addition of one-tenth part ject, we believe, is, to warn the ignorant of the laws of lead and a twentieth of silver; which proportions under wffiich their property is protected. were adopted by the Romans. In modern times, 1 he banks called Savings’ Banks ma)' probably prove bronze is generally composed of tw o-thirds of copa beneficial substitute for resort to the pawnbroker. per and one-third of brass, and sometimes small Sums amounting to a shilling and upwards are receiv- quantities of lead and zinc have been added. These ed, and bear interest at 4 per cent, when accumulated latter render the cast more compact and brilliant; to twelve shillings; thus enabling the labourer, or and the combination of different substances occasions mechanic, or artisan, to preserve the remnant of the readier fusibility of the whole than when sepahis weekly wages, and convert it to advantage. rate. The ancient bronzes, however, present a difLoans, not exceeding L. 5, are made, free of inte- ference in appearance and composition from those rest, to the necessitous under temporary pressure, executed by the moderns, and the fact is ascertained, whereby their little property may remain entire. in respect to the metallic proportions by skilful cheBanks of this description are, at the present mo- mists on analysis. An illustration of this fact is ment, rapidly disseminating throughout the different sometimes given in the four celebrated horses of parishes and towns of Scotland, and their outset has bronze, supposed to be the work of Lysippus, a Gieek been attended with one decided benefit, in diminish, artist; which were brought from Venice, by command ing the resort to alehouses, where the earnings of la- of Bonaparte, to the Thuilleries at Paris. bour, too small to form an object for preservation, The casting of bronze statues is a nice and diffiquickly disappeared. In some towns of Italy we have cult art, requiring long experience and the judicious understood there are charitable institutions of a mixed management of a great apparatus. An exact model nature between pawnbroking and banking. There, must be made of the subject to be cast, and nicely an advance seems to be made on goods impledged coated over with wax not less than an inch thick, at a certain rate of interest by some, and by others on which the artist works the impression meant to money is received and returned, with 7 per cent., at be taken. A mould is then formed, consisting of the termination of a year. The transactions of these several hollow pieces of wood or other resisting subinstitutions, however, are not completely explained, stance, filled with a mixture of clay and sand, which either as to the security given or the advantage de^ is applied to the model, in order that its outline may rived * , (s.) be received. The mould being united together, is BRONZING. A combination of metals which perforated by a number of channels, and the melted has received the name of bronze w as employed by metal being discharged from a furnace by means of the ancients in the fabrication of different utensils these into the interior, thus produces the cast. When and in casting busts, statues, and other subjects*, cold, the external covering is taken off, and the subeither larger or smaller than life. The Egyptians^ jects appear as if covered with spines, which are the 10

B R 0 Bronzing, channels filled with metal; they are removed by saws, files, and chisels, and any imperfections on the surface being corrected, the whole is completed. But this in detail is a tedious, laborious, and expensive process; and the difficulty of producing beautiful works' in bronze, conspires to give them a high value in the estimation of the lovers of the arts. In general, the natural colour of the composition remains unaltered, and with the lapse of time, tends to black, or particular shades of green; but some artists render it black artificially, or give it a green colour from the first. It is the delicacy of the workmanship, however, that constitutes the value of bronzes, not the colour, because it is the former alone which constitutes the difficulty, and calls for the skill of the artist. Colossal figures are sometimes obtained in bronze; but more usually, when of very large dimensions, they are formed by the union of several pieces, and are hollow within; as is also the case with some of those of smaller size. Considerable premiums have been offered by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, for promoting the execution of bronze figures in tingland, but few have been claimed. Nevertheless, British artists have produced several very creditable works, if we take the low condition of sculpture in view ; but either from want of skill or practice, neither the bronzes of this Island nor of the Continent rival the masterpieces of antiquity. Perhaps it is only the best specimens which are preserved, and many of inferior note have been allowed to decay, or cease to attract attention; and in this way we may partly account for our own inferiority. \rt of The substances on which bronzing is employed Bronzing, are either metals, wood, ivory, clay, or plaster; but more general preference is given to wood or plaster. The colours are of various shades and intensity; their composition and application being in a great measure arbitrary, according to the will of the artist. This art is nothing but a species of painting, far from the most delicate kind ; and, when applied to plaster figures, may be done either with or without cement, the latter rendering it more durable. One principal ingredient in bronzing is gold-powder, for the preparation of which the following receipt is given. A quantity of leaf-gold is ground with virgin honey on a stone, until the texture of the leaves be completely broken, and their parts divided to the moS't minute degree. The mixture of gold and honey is then removed from the stone, and put into a basin of water, whereby the honey may be melted, and the gold freed from it; and the basin is allowed to stand at rest until the gold subsides. When it does so, the water is poured off, and fresh quantities are added, until the honey be entirely washed away ; after which; the gold is put in paper^ and dried for use. This is the true gold-powder ; besides which, there is another, called German gold, in common use ; and also a third, called uurum mosaicum or musicum, greatly employed in bronzing, and is thus prepared. A pound of tin, seven ounces of flour of sulphur, half a pound of purified quicksilver, and the same quantity of sal ammoniac, are taken as the necessary ingredients. The tin being melted in a crucible, the quicksilver is added to it; and, when this

B R 0 527 mixture is cold, it is reduced to powder, and ground Bronzing, with the sal ammoniac and sulphur until the whole be thoroughly mixed. They are then to be calcined in a mattrass, and the sublimation of the other ingredients leaves the tin converted into the aurum mosaicum, which is found at the bottom of the glass like a mass of bright flaky gold-powder. Should any black or discoloured particles appear, they must be removed. The sal ammoniac used here must be very white and clean, and the mercury quite pure, and unadulterated with lead. These colours are commonly employed in bronzing; but when a shade more of a red, resembling copper, is required, it can easily be obtained by grinding a very small quantity of red lead along with them. Copper powder may be procured by dissolving filings or slips of that metal with nitrous acid in a receiver. When the acid is saturated, the slips are to be removed; or, if filings be employed, the solution is to be poured off from what remains undissolved. Small iron bars are then put in, which will precipitate the copper from the saturated acid, in a powder of the peculiar appearance and colour of copper; and the liquid being poured from the powder, this is to be washed clean off the crystals by repeated levigations. In addition to these compounds, we may name gold size, which is of particular use in bronzing, and several other branches of the arts. This is prepared from a pound of linseed-oil, with four ounces of gum animi. The latter is gradually supplied in powder to the oil, while boiling, and it is necessary that it should be stirred with every successive dose, until the whole be dissolved and incorporated with the oil. The mixture is still allowed to continue boiling, until a small quantity, when taken out, appears of a thicker consistence than tar, and the whole being then strained through a coarse cloth, is put aside. When used, it must be ground with as much Vermillion as will render it opaque, and, at the same time, diluted with such a quantity of oil of turpentine as will bring it to a proper consistence for working freely J with the pencil. In regard to the operation of bronzing itself, if a cement is to be Used, the powders now described may be mixed with strong gum water or isinglass, and laid on the subject with a brush or pencil; in doing which, some artists recommend beginning at the bottom, and proceeding upwards. By a different process, gold size, prepared with a due proportion of turpentine, may be taken, and the subject covered with it; then being allowed to dry very nearly, but still preserving a certain clamminess, a piece of soft leather wrapped round the finger is dipped in the powder, and rubbed over the work ; or, what is judged preferable, it may be spread with a soft camel-hair pencil. I he whole, now covered, must be left to dry, and the loose powder then cleared away by a hair pencil also. Here the principal nicety consists in ascertaining the proper period of dryness for applying the powder, as much of the effect depends on it. But this method of bronzing is esteemed better, because the gold size binds the powders to the ground, without any hazard of their scaling or rubbing off, which sometimes happens

528 B R O Bronzing when gum or isinglass are employed. 1 he precise I! tint of bronzing is regulated by taste ; and, indeed, , ■ a very perceptible difference appears both in anY cient and modern statues, resulting either from age or the metallic proportions. Bronzing on wrood may be effected by a particular process, somewhat varying from the general rules. Prussian blue, patent yellow, raw umber, lamp-black, and pipe-clay, are ground separately, with water, on a stone, and as much of them as will make a good colour put into a small vessel three-fourths full of size, not quite so strong as what is called Clean Size in gilding. This mixture is found to succeed best on using about halt as much more pipe-clay as of the rest; but this depends on taste and fancy in preferring a peculiar tint. The wood being previously cleaned and smoothed, and coated with a mixture of clean size and lamp-black, receives a new coating with the preceding ingredients, twice successively, having allowed the first to dry ; afterwards the bronze-powder is to be laid on with a pencil, and the whole burnished or cleaned anew, observing to repair the parts which may be injured by this operation. Next, the work must be coated over with a thin lather of Castile soap, which will take off the glare ot the burnishing, and afterwards carefully rubbed with a woollen cloth. The gangrenous appearance of the cavities is effected by slightly wetting them with a camel-hair pencil dipped in the lather, and then sprinkling them with a little dust of verditer gum. The superfluous powder may be rubbed off when dry. In bronzing iron, the subject should be heated to a greater degree than the hand can bear, and German gold, mixed with a small quantity of spirit of wine varnish, spread over it with a pencil. Should the iron be already polished, it is necessary to heat it well and moisten it with a linen rag wet in vinegar, on purpose to obscure the glare, that the bronzepowder may be sufficiently incorporated with the surface. There are other methods of accomplishing the same object, as by employing some coloured mordant, when the iron is not to be exposed to heat, and spreading the bronze over the mordant, when half dry, with a pencil. Bronze is injured by humidity; and it is said not to preserve its proper quality beyond ten years; but it may be renewed, in which case the subject must be completely cleaned. There is an analogous method of silvering casts of plaster of Paris, and other substances, which is also called Bronzing, and conducted after the manner above described, but it is not in general repute. Conjectures have been entertained, that artists originally resorted to bronzing solely for the purpose of correcting the glare of colours; but this is exceedingly improbable, and it is certainly unnecessary to seek farther than the inducement of easily imitating metallic figures esteemed by the curious. This art has, of late years, come into very general use, and has received many improvements. (s.) BRQSSES (Charles de), first President of the Parliament of Burgundy, was born at Dijon, on the 17th of February 1709. He studied law, with

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a view to the magistracy, but without neglecting liross VOL. II. PART H.

B R O '■ 529 lowing, and repaired to his native city. Persecution Broussonet followed him in his retreat, and he was glad to effect | his escape to Madrid, after encountering many dangers. But though well received and liberally assisted by the Literati of that city, the malignity of the French emigrants, who could not pardon his having held any office under the Revolutionary Government, still pursued him, and drove him from Spain, and afterwards from Lisbon, where he had sought another asylum. He at last went out as physician to an embassy which the United States sent to the Emperor of Morocco. He was furnished with the means of equipping himself by the generous assistance of Sir Joseph Banks, who, informed of his distresses, nobly sent him a credit for L. 1000. After residing for some time at Morocco, during which he lost no opportunity of pursuing his favourite science, he obtained from the French Directory permission to return to France; and he was appointed by them Consul at the Canaries, in which capacity he resided for two years at Teneriffe. On his return, in 1796, he was chosen Member of the Institute, and was reinstated in his botanical Professorship at Montpellier, with the direction of the botanical garden. He was afterwards elected a Member of the Legislative Body, and died of apoplexy, July 27? 1807. France is indebted to him for the introduction of the Merino sheep and Angola goats. Besides the work on fishes, already noticed, the following are his principal productions: 1. Varicc positiones circa respirationem, Montpellier, 1788. 2. Essai sur VHistoire naturelle de quelques especes dc Moines, decrite a la maniere de Linnee, 8vo. 1784, which is a translation of a Latin Satire on the monks, the original of which appeared in Germany in 1783. 3. Annee rurale, ou Calendrier a Vusage des Cultivatears, in 2 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1787-8. 4. Notes pour servir a Vhistoire de VEcole de Medecine de Montpellier pendant Van VI. 8vo. Montpellier, 1795. He was also a conductor, conjointly with Parmentier, Dubois, andLefebure, of LaJeuille du Cultixfateur, in 8 vols. 4to, published in 1788, and the following years. (w.) BRUCKER (James), Theologian, Historian, Philologer, and Biographer, was born at Augsburgh on the 22d of January 1696. His father, who was a respectable burgher, destined him for the church, and his own inclinations according with his father’s wishes, he was sent, at the usual age, to pursue his studies in the University of Jena. Here he took the degree of Master of Arts in 1718 ; and in the following year he published his Tentamen Introductionis in Historiam doctrince de Ideis, in 4to ; a work which, having afterwards amplified and completed, he republished under the title of Historia Philosophica doctrince de Ideis, at Augsburgh in 1723. He returned to his native city in 1720; but here his merit having attracted envy rather than recompence, he was induced to accept of the office of Parish Minister of Kaufbevern in 1724. In the same year he published a memoir, De Vita et Scriptis CL Eiingeri, Augs. 8vo. His reputation having been at length established by these learned works, in 1731 he was elected a Member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and soon thereafter he was in3x

530 B R U Brucker. vlted to Augsbargh to fill the honourable situation of Pastor, and senior Minister of the church of St Ulric. He published, in the same year, three dissertations relating to the history of philosophy, under the title of Otium Vindelicum, sive Meletematum Historico-philosopkicorum triga, Augsburgh, 1731, 8vo. Besides several smaller dissertations on Biography and Literary History, printed at different times, and which he afterwards collected in his Miscellanea, he published at Ulm, in 1737> Neve Zusaetze verschiedner Vermehrungen, &c. zu den hurtzen Fragen aus der Philosophischen historic, 7 vols. 12mo. This work, being a history of philosophy in question and answer, contains many details, especially in the department of literary history, which he has chosen to omit in his greater work on the same subject. He was forced, by the booksellers, in opposition to his own opinion, to adopt the erotematic method, which at that time had been rendered popular by the writings of Hubner and Rambach. In 1741, at Leipsic, appeared the first volume of his great work, Historia Critica Philosophice, a mundi incunahulis ad nostrum usque cetatum deducta. Four other ponderous quartos, completing the first edition of this elaborate history, followed in 1744. Such was the success of this publication, that the first impression, consisting of four thousand copies, was exhausted in twenty-three years, when a new and more .perfect edition, the, consummation of the labours of half a century devoted to the history of philosophy, was in 1767 given to the world in six volumes quarto. The sixth volume, consisting entirely of supplement and corrections, is applicable to the first as well as to the second edition. Of the merits of this work, .we shall speak in the sequel. His attention, however, was not wholly occupied -by this stupendous undertaking: the following books would of themselves have been sufficientto exhaust the industry of any ordinary author. Pinacotheca Scriptorum nostra estate Uteris illustrium, See. Augsburgh, 1741-55, folio, in five decads. Ehren Tempel der Deutschen Gelehr samkeit in tvclschen die Bildnisse gelehrter Maenner unter den Deutschen aus dem XV. XI'I. and XVII. Jahrhundert aufge&tellet, und ihre Geschichte, &c. ouiXKorfen sind, Augsburgh, 1747-49, 4to, five decads: Institutiones Histories Philosophiccs, Heipsie, 1747, Svo, a second edition, ibid. 1756; and a third has been published since Brucker’s death, with a continuation by Professor Born of Leipsic, in I790: Miscellanea Histories Philosophices Literaries critices olim sparsim edita nunc tmo fasce collecta, Augsburgh, 1748, Svo: Erste Anfangsgrunde der Philosophischen Geschichte, als ein Auszug seiner grossern IVerke. Zweyte Ausgabe, Ulm. 1751, 8vo. He likewise superintended and corrected an edition of Luther’s translation of the Old and New 'Testament, with a Commentary extracted from the writings of the English Theologians, Leipsic, 1758-70, folio, six parts. • His death ensued before this work was finished, which has since been accomplished by Teller. He died at Augsburgh in 1770 ; and he may be added to the catalogue of Huetius, to prove that literary labour is not incompatible with sound health and

B R U longevity. See Saxii Onomasiicon.—Biographic Uni- Brucker. verselle.—Gesner’s Isagoge. It is only by his writings on the history of Philosophy that Brucker is now known in the literature of Europe. In this study, his great work forms an important eera, and even at the present day it is the most extensive and elaborate upon the subject. It is, however, a work of which the defects are great, and its errors have been important in their consequences, in proportion to the authority it has acquired. We shall, therefore, hazard a few general observations on the defects which chiefly detract from the perfection and utility of the Critical History of Philosophy. If Brucker had carried into this study a penetration equal to his diligence ; and had his general comprehension of the scope and nature of the subject been correspondent to the elaborate minuteness of his details : he would have left us a work which might have had some pretensions to be considered as a rational history of human opinion. He lived, however, at a period when these different qualities were only beginning to be conjoined ; and when as yet the history of Philosophy had been written merely as a chronicle of the passing theories of individuals and sects. To give to the science of history a regular and connected form, and to arrange the narrative of successive events, and still more of successive opinions, according to the relation they bear to principles of established influence, was an attempt of whidi few in that age had any conception, and of which Brucker certainly had none. In civil history, it was then believed, that the historian had fulfilled all the duties of his office, if he strung together the events which were known, or believed to have occurred, in good language, and garnished them occasionally b}^ a few general reflections on the absolute motives of human action. A very different notion is now held of the functions of the historian. He who at present attempts to write the history of any country, must reflect before he begin, what were the chief occurrences in that history, and what were the revolutions which the manners and constitution of that particular nation have undergone. He must bear with him, frona the commencement to the conclusion of his labours, a constant impression that every occurrence should be more or less considered, not only as it took place, and as it bore an influence on contemporary affairs, but as it may remotely have contributed to the events, and the opinions, and the character of succeeding times. But if this be true in regard to the histories of particular nations, it is evident, that by how much the traces of opinions are more light and evanescent than those of events,—by how much the speculations of philosophers, whose writings have either perished or come down to us mutilated and obscure, are more difficult to be appreciated in their causes, and connections, and consequences, than the actions of warriors and statesmen; by so much the more is it necessary in philosophical than in civil history, to combine reasoning with erudition, and to substitute the researches of the philosopher for the details of the chronicler. History and philosophy are two different things; and he who

B R U Bnicker, would write the history of philosophy must excel in ooth. Bacon had long ago required this union, and had pointed out the manner in which the historian of literature should endeavour to establish those principles of connection, which constitute the soul and charm of such a history ; how by detecting the union of effects and causes, he might be enabled to determine the circumstances favourable or adverse to the sciences; and how, in short, by a species of enchantment, he might evoke the literary genius of each different age. The fulfilment of this plan was, however, far beyond the capacity of Brucker; and was an undertaking of which he had even no conception. Better qualified by nature and education for amassing than arranging materials, he devoted his principal attention to a confused compilation of facts, leaving to others their application, the discovery of their mutual connections, and the formation of the scattered fragments into a whole. The merit of his great work consists entirely in the ample collection of materials. The reader who would extract any rational view of the progress of opinion, must peruse it with a perpetual commentary of his own thoughts. He will find no assistance from his author, in forming any general views, or in tracing the mutual dependencies of the different parts of the subject. Brucker has discovered the fountains of history ; but he has made us drink of them without purifying the draught. Even in this respect, his merit has been greatly overrated. Vast as is the body of materials which he has collected, we are always missing those very things which we might reasonably have expected would have been the first objects of a rational inquireri and we are continually disappointed of the information we are most anxious to acquire. The idle and slavish attention which he has bestowed on previous compilers, has frequently diverted him from the study of the original authors themselves. Quoting the passages of the ancients from others, or trusting, perhaps, to the reference of an index, he has frequently overlooked those very testimonies which could have given us the most authentic knowledge of the opinions or characters of ages and individuals. He has often presented the authorities he has adduced, mutilated or misapplied ; and this either from not having sufficiently studied these passages in their general connection with the system they illustrate, or from having been unable to withdraw them from the obscurity in which they were involved. He has shown no critical sagacity in distinguishing the spurious from the authentic, or in balancing the comparative weight of his authorities. He has frequently transcribed, where he ought to have explained, the words of the original authors; and, without taking into account the different value of the same term in different nations and ages, he has left us to apply a doubtful or erroneous meaning to words which might have been easily rendered by other expressions, and to suppose a distinction in the sense, where there only existed a difference in the language. The glaring errors, even, which occasionally occur in his expositions of the Grecian philosophy, while they are inconsistent with any critical know-

E R U 531 ledge of the tongue, would make us suspect that he Brueker. was in the habit of relying on the treacherous aid of translations. In short, if we knew nothing more of the ancient philosophers than what we acquire from Brucker, we should be often obliged to attribute to them opinions, so obscure or so absurd, that we must either believe ourselves wrong in the interpretation, or be unable to comprehend the cause of all the admiration and reverence they have received. He has discovered little skill in his analyses of the different Systems of Philosophy ; and the confusion of what is essential and principal with what is accidental and subordinate, clearly evinces, that these abridgments were thrown together while acquiring, in detail, a knowledge expressly for the purpose, instead of being the consummation of a long and familiar meditation on the subjects in all their modifications and dependencies. He has dwelt with the most irksome minuteness on every unimportant and doubtful circumstance in the lives of the Philosophers ; but he has too often overlooked the particular and general causes that produced an influence on the destinies of their philosophy. The aphoristic method which he has adopted, prevents him from following a consecutive argument throughout its various windings. The most convincing reasoning, in his hands, loses much of its demonstration and beauty ; and every ingenious paradox comes forth from his alembic a mere caput mortuum,—a residue from which every finer principle has been expelled. Where the genius of the Philosopher is discovered more in the exposition and defence, than in the original selection and intrinsic stability of his tenets, Brucker has not found the art of doing justice both to the Philosopher and his opinions, or in conveying to the reader any conception of the general value of the original. This last defect, it must, however, be acknowledged, is, more or less, inseparable from every abstract of opinions, where it is always necessary to separate, in some degree, what is essential to the subject from what is peculiar to the man. He has relieved the sterility of his analyses by none of the elegancies of which the subject was susceptible. Without any pretension to purity, his diction is defective even in precision ; and his sentences, at all times void of harmony and grace, are abrupt, and often intricate in their structure. The person, therefore, who would attempt to write a history of Philosophy, without the imperfections of that of Brucker, must draw from obscurity many important facts hitherto omitted ; he must arrange and combine these in a more perspicuous order; and, above all, he must review the opinions he shall thus relate and methodise with a more accurate criticism. He ought not to write of Peripatetics like a disciple of Aristotle, of Platonists like a pupil of Proclus, nor of the doctrines of the Porch like a follower of Zeno. Still less must he compare the tenets of one sect by the principles of another ; or endeavour to estimate doctrines, dubious in themselves, by reference to a standard equally arbitrary and contingent. He must place himself, to use the language of Lucretius, upon the highest pinnacle of the temple of science, from whence he may look calmly back, anti

B R Y 532 B R U Bmcker. compare and study the doctrines of ail these de- stand the strictures of Tenneman on the systems even Brucker (kk.) | parted sages, without being himself involved in the of Aristotle or Plato. BRYANT (Jacob), a profound scholar, mythopartialities of particular sects or opinions,— legist, and sacred historian, born at Plymouth in 1715. Despicere unde queat alios, passimquc videre, His father had a place in the Customs, and was afErrare, atque virni palanteis qtuerere veri. terwards stationed in Kent, where his son was first He must honour the genius of all alike; and believe sent to a provincial school, from which he was rethat all are deserving of commendation, although moved to Eton. Here he appears to have remained all are more or less subject to error. He ought, in till 1736, the date of his election to King’s College, short, to be a Philosopher superior even to the pre- Cambridge, and he took his degrees of Bachelor and Master of Arts in 1740 and 1744. He returned to judices of philosophy. If we take a survey of what has been attempted Eton in the capacity of private tutor to the late since the death of Brucker, in accomplishing a more Duke of Marlborough, then Marquis of Blandfprd; perfect history of philosophy, we shall find that more and the good taste which his pupil showed through has been done in illustrating the philosophical tenets life, in the protection of the fine arts, and in the purof particular sects, or the progress of particular pox*- suit of science, sufficiently demonstrated the benefitions of science, than in giving a comprehensive view cial influence of his instructor's example. In 1756, of the general history of thought. In France, in he went to the Continent as Private Secretary to the Italy, and in our own countx-y, those who have la- Duke of Marlborough, then Master-General o» the boured in this work, far from being able to correct Ordnance, and Commander in Chief ot the forces in the errors of Brucker, have, in general, through de- Germany ; and he was rewarded, after his return, for fect of erudition, been wholly indebted to his indus- his various services to the family, by a lucrative aptry for their materials, and been content to rely on pointment in the Ordnance, which allowed him amhis accuracy with more than Pythagorean faith. If ple leisure to indulge his literaxy taste in a variety of we except some ingenious speculations, which ai’e refined investigations, and to exercise his zeal for the more of the natui’e of philosophical essays on the cause of religion in a multitude of works, calculathistory of philosophy, and which endeavour rather ed for the illustration of the Scriptures, and the deto illustrate the general spirit, than to detail the par- monstx-ation of their authenticity and divine authority. 1. His first publication was entitled Observations ticular opinions of the philosophers, there is nothing valuable on this subject to be found in the literature and Inquiries relating to various parts of Ancient of these countries. Among the learned of his own Flistory, containing Dissertations on the wind Eurocountry, Brucker has never enjoyed a very distin- clydon, and on the Island Melite, together with an guished reputation; and the Germans, while they Account of Egypt in its most early state, and of the were the most capable of discovering his defects, Shepherd Kings, 1767. In this work he attempts ta have had the honour of most sedulously and suc- prove that the Melite, on which St Paul was wreckcessfully endeavouring to supply them. We are in- ed, was not Malta, but one of the Illyrian islands in debted to them, especially, for many valuable treatises the Adriatic, now called Melede ; and he endeavours on the history of particular portions of philosophy, to illustrate several points in the early history of the in which we find, at length, a profound reasoning oriental, and especially of the Aramitic nations. 2. But his most elaborate performance was his united to an extensive and original erudition. The woi-ks of Meiners, Fulleborn, Tiedmann, and perhaps Ncie System or Analysis of Ancient Mythology, Buhle, deserve especially to be distinguished. An wherein an attempt is made to divest tradition of faundertaking, however, which, from the extent of its ble, and to reduce truth to its original puxdty, S vols. plan, as well as the ability of its execution, claims 4to, 1774, 1776. In this attempt, the author has particular notice, is the History of Philosophy, by equally displayed his deep and extensive learning, Professor Tenneman of Jena. This work, as far as and his inventive fancy; but it must be confessed it is completed, affords us the most accurate, the that, on a minute examination, the work exhibits most minute, and the most rational view we yet pos- much more of a poetical imagination than of a sound sess, of the different systems of philosophy, in their judgment, and that, in endeavouring to substitute intrinsic and relative bearings. The author has not etymological for historical evidence, he has been only given us a minute analysis of each system, the completely unsuccessful. Nothing can afford a more result of a profound and familiar study of the origi- satisfactory kind of proof than etymology taken on nal Philosopher, but he has also displayed to us his a large scale, and considered as a mode of tracing philosophy, divested of its peculiarities, and compar- the relations of natioxxs to each other, by the affinied with others by a general and impartial review. ties of their languages ; since the accumulation of a The main defect of tliis work, at least in reference to multitude of probabilities, each weak when taken sereaders not German, is, that, like Buhle and the other parately, becomes at last equivalent to a certaindisciples of Kant, he has taken the Critical philoso- ty. But nothing, on the other hand, can be more phy as the vantage-ground from whence to make his fallacious, or more liable to controversy, than sinsurvey of all former systems. Thus the continual refe- gle etymological inferences, in particular cases, rence to the peculiar doctrines of the school of Kant, when one of these slight I’esemblances is magniand the adoption of its language, render it fre- fied into a striking likeness, and even an idenquently impossible for those who have not studied tity, which is then made the foundation of a magthe dark works of this modern Heraclitus, to under- nificent superstructure in mythology or in history.

B It Y Bryant. Mr Richardson has shown, in the Preface to his Dictionary, how much Mr Bryant was mistaken in some ot his reasoning respecting the signification and derivation of particular words ; and even if he had been more correct in these instances, the conclusions, which he has deduced from his etymologies, would by no means have been perfectly legitimate. Jablonsky seems to have exhibited one of the strongest examples of this dangerous abuse of learning ; in which he has been followed not only by Mr Bryant, but by several other modern writers equally visionary, who have commonly been very imperfectly acquainted with the languages on which their conjectures have depended, and have been still more deficient in that sort of common sense, and correct feeling, confirmed by experience, which constitutes the most essential part of the qualifications of a critic, and the want of which can never be compensated by the most unwearied labour of a mere mechanical commentator. 5. Some remarks, which had been made on particular passages of Mr Bryant’s work, led him to publish A Vindication of the Apamean Medal; of the inscription NHE; and. of another coin, in the Archaeologia, Vol. IV. Art. 21, 22, 23. 4. Pie deviated somewhat more widely from the usual objects of his researches, and apparently without any very decided advantage over his adversary, in An Address to ' Dr Priestley, on the doctrine of philosophical necessity, 8vo, 1780. 5. He also published in the same year Vindicice Flaviance, or a vindication of the testimony given by Josephus concerning our Saviour, 8vo 6. Unfortunately for the credit of his critical discrimination in matters of old English literature, Mr Bryant w'as the author of Observations on the Poems of Thomas Rovoley, in which the authenticity of these poems is ascertained, 2 vols. 12mo, 17S1. If there could be any excuse for the commission of forgeries like that of Chatterton, it would be found in their serving as a valuable test of the degree of confidence, which it is justifiable to place, in the decrees of the most powerful critics, respecting other questions of a more ambiguous nature. 7. Mr Bryant contributed to the publication of the Duke of Marlborough's Collection of Gems, the Latin explanations contained in the first volume, fol. 1788. 8. He inserted in the Archaeologia, VII. 887, some Collections on the Zingara or Gipsey Language ; which has been since sufficiently proved to be one of the many derivatives of the old Sanscrit. 9. Sometime afterwards, he published an anonymous Treatise on the Authenticity of the Scriptures, and the truth of the Christian religion, 1792. 10. This was succeeded by his Observations upon the Plagues inflicted upon the Egyptians, 8vo, 1794. 11. His opinions respecting the existence of the city of Troy, and the veracity of Homer as a historian, raised up against him a host of powerful adversaries ; and in a question of this nature, upon which the decisions of mankind are so manifestly influenced by their sensibility to poetical beauty, and their early habits and attachments, a much more cautious attempt to innovate might easily have been unsuccessful. Whatever learning and talents may have

BUY 533 been exhibited in this controversy, it will hardly be Bryant believed by an impartial judge, reasoning on the general probabilities of the case, that Homer intended the actions of his heroes, any more than their genealogies, to be historically correct; but, at the same time, it will readily be admitted, that he was much more likely to take, for the scene of his poem, a town that had really existed, and, for its subject, a traditional report of a war which had actually been carried on, than to have invented a fabulous city and an imaginary warfare, without any historical foundation whatever. Mr Bryant published on this subject Observations on a Treatise, entitled, Description of the Plain of Troy, by Mr de Chevalier, 4to, 1795. 12. A Dissertation concerning the War of Troy, and the expedition of the Greeks, as described by Homer ; showing that no such expedition was ever undertaken, and that no such city in Phrygia existed, 4to, 179b. IS- Observations on the Vindication of Homer, written by J. B. S. Morritt, Esq. 4to. 1799* 14. He had, in the meantime, not discontinued his theological studies, and had published'an Essay on The Sentiments of Philo Judaeus concerning the word of God, 8vo, 1797* His last work was a volume of Dissertations on Various Subjects in the Old Testament, which had been nearly completed thirty years before. The subjects which had particularly attracted his attention, were the histories of Balaam, Sampson, and Jonah ; and besides Philo Judaeus and Josephus, he had endeavoured to illustrate some controverted passages of Justin Martyr, as well as many other departments of religious and historical discussion. The habits of Mr Brant’s maturer life were in general completely sedentary; although, in his youth, he had taken his full share in the cultivation of the manly exercises common to Etonians, and had once the good fortune to save, by his proficiency in swimming, the life of Dr Barnard, afterwards Provost of Eton. His conversation was elegant and animated ; his manners mild but firm; he exerted himself to please others, and was himself easily pleased. He was much courted in society, and his residence, at Cypenham, near Windsor, was not unfrequently visited by persons of the highest possible rank. He never married. He died in his 89th year, the 14th November 1804, from the immediate consequence of an accidental blow. He left his library to King’s College, having, however, previously made some valuable presents out of it to the King, and to the present Duke of Marlborough. He also bequeathed L. 2000 to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and L. 1000 for the use of the superannuated collegers of Eton School. \_Gentleman s Magazine, LXXIV. p. 1080. 1165. Nichols’s Literary Anecdotes, IV. 667. 8vo, Lond. 1812. Aikin’s Biographical Dictionary, X. Supplement.'] (x. a.) BUAT-NANCAY (Louis Gabriel, Count du), was born of an old family in Normandy, on the 2d of March 1732. At an early age, he entered into the Order of Malta ; and, by a fortunate accident, he became acquainted with the Chevalier Folard, author of the Commentaries on Polybius, who received him into his house, and superintended his education.

534 Dual

B U A Folard had a nephew, who was Minister for France Bucking- at different German Courts, and under whom Buat hamshire. studied History and Diplomacy. He was successively Minister for France at Ilatisbon and Dresden ; but afterwards, becoming disgusted with this career, he retired from public life, in the year 1776'. He died at Nangay, in Berry, on the 18th of September 1787Buat was a man of some talents, and considerable literary attainments, but possessing little knowledge of the world; which circumstance seems to have, in a great measure, disqualified him for public employment. He appears to have written with great facility ; but his style is very unequal. His works are : 1. Tableau duGouvernemenl actuel de VEmpire d' Allemagne, translated from the German of Schmauss, with notes historical and critical. Paris, 1755,12mo. 2. Les Origines, ou VAncien Gouvernement de la France, de VItalic, et de VAllemagne, published at the Hague, 1757> 4 vols. 12mo. 3. Histoire Aneienne des Peuples de VEurope, Paris, 1772, 12 vols. 12mo. This is the largest, and perhaps the best work of Bua'u 4. Les^Elemens de la Politique, ou Recherches sur la vrais Principes de VEconomic Sociale, 1773, 6 vols. 8vo. 5. Les Maximes du Gouvernement Monarchique, pour servir de suite aux Elemens, 4 vols. 8vo. There is also ascribed to Buat a work entitled Remarques d'un Franqais, ou Examen impartial du lime de M. Necker sur les Finances, Geneva, 1785, 8vo. In his youth he had composed a tragedy, entitled Charlemagne, ou le Triumphe des Lois, published at Vienna, 1764, 8vo. He likewise contributed several articles to the journals of his time, on different points of history, literature, and political economy ; in particular, some excellent, observations on the character of Xenophon, &c., inserted in the fourth volume of the Varietes Litteraires. See Biographie Universelle. (h.) Boundaries. BUCKINGHAMSHIRE is divided from Berkshire by the river Thames, during a course of about 28 miles, from about a mile to the north of Flenley Bridge to the conflux of the farthest stream of the Colne: for a course of about 14 miles, the Colne is the eastern boundary between this county and Middlesex. The Thame, in its course from the town of that name, is, for a very few miles, the boundary between Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire. The Ouse first becomes a boundary between this county and Northamptonshire, near Brackley; and for a few miles beyond Westbury, it divides it from Oxfordshire; after it passes Thornton, it again becomes, for a few miles, the boundary between Buckinghamshire and Northamptonshire ; and just before it quits the county, it forms theboundary between itand BedfordForm and shire. The Ousel is the boundary between these two Extent. counties, from Eaton Bray to Linchlade. The figure of this county approaches to that of a crescent, but its outline is rendered very irregular by projections and indentations. From the south-eastern to the northwestern extremity, it measures nearly 50 miles; but its greatest breadth is scarcely 18 : it is about 138 miles in circumference. According to the Report to the Board of Agriculture, it contains 518,400 acres ; but, according to the returns to Parliament,

B U C of the poor’s rates, only 478,720 ; and Dr Beeke, Bucking, in his Observations on the Income-Tax, calculates the number of acres at 461,729- The parishes, according to the Parliamentary returns respecting the poor’s rates, amount to 223, and not 185, as Divisions, stated in the Encyclopcedia. The fourteen Members for Parliament are returned,—two for the county ; two for Buckingham ; two for Aylesbury ; two for Wycombe; two for Amersham; two for Wendover ; and two for Marlow. There are seven deaneries in it. Though in the diocese of Lincoln, four parishes are in the peculiar jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Canterbury, and four others are in the diocese of London, and in the jurisdiction of the Archdeacon of St Albans. The great tithes of ninetytwo parishes are in lay hands, and most of the remainder are held by lay leases. The Summer Assizes are held at Buckingham,—the Lent Assizes at Aylesbury. The Quarter-Sessions are always held at Aylesbury. This county contains many magnificent seats ; among which the most celebrated are Stowe, the seat of the Marquis of Buckingham,—Bulstrode; formerly belonging to the Rutland family, but latelypurchased by the Duke of Somerset,—Dropmore, the seat of Lord Grenville,—Taploe House, the seat of the Marquis of Thomond,—Wycombe Abbey, of Lord Carrington. The southern part of Buckinghamshire, beyond Soil, the Thames, is principally occupied by the Chiltern Hills. The soil of these is chalk, intermixed with flints. They stretch across the country from Bedfordshire to Oxfordshire, forming a part of that great chain which extends from Norfolk to Dorsetshire. On the west side of the county, adjoining Oxfordshire, is a range of hills of calcareous stone. In that part of the county which borders on Bedfordshire, about Wavendon, Broughton, and the Brickhills, the soil is a deep sand. The Vale of Aylesbury, of proverbial fertility, which lies under the Chiltern Hills, and occupies the middle of the county, is formed of a rich black loam, on a calcareous subsoil. In the northern parts of the county, the soil is chiefly clay; but, on the Bedfordshire border, the surface rises into gentle sand-hills. The whole of the Chiltern district is said formerly to have been a forest; the western part, occupied by the forest of Bernwood, was disforested in the reign of James I. At present, the chief woodlands lie to the south of the Chiltern Hills. On a tract of land, extending across the parish of Little Kimble into that of Great Kimble, there are about 100 acres of box-wood, apparently the natural growth of the soil. The black cherry abounds in the neighbourhood of Chesham. The prevailing timber in the southern part of the county is beech ; one wood of which, in the parish of Wycombe, is said to contain 700 acres; nearly one-sixth part of the land between the road to Oxford and the Thames, is supposed to be covered with this wood. Whaddon Chace is the principal woodland in the northern part of the county , containing 2200 acres of coppices. The rivers of note are the Rivers. Ouse and the Thames; the Ouse enters Buckinghamshire, on the west side, near Water Stratford, which it passes, and then flows in a devious course

B U C Back in*- to Buckingham; thence winding to the north, Imnisliire. through ugn a rich tract of meadow land, it reaches Money Stratford, Newport Pagnell, and Olney ; soon afterwards, turning suddenly to the east, it leaves the county near Brayfield. ‘ One of the most consideiable streams of the Thames, rises near the borders of the county, in Hertfordshire, and flowing through the Yale of Aylesbury, from east to west, receives the waters of several smaller streams, and enters Oxfordshire, near the village of Ickford; its course through Buckinghamshire is about 30 miles. .The grand junction canal enters this county near Woolverton, and, running eastward, goes within a mile of Newport Pagnell; thence flowing to the south, it passes Fenny Stratford, Stoke-Hammond, Cmslade, and Ivinghoe, into Hertfordshire. From a branch of the canal at Old Stratford, a cut has been made to Buckingham; and another from Bulbourne to Wendover. 'ullerV On the borders of Bedfordshire, are the celeiarth. brated fuller s-earth pits, one of which only is now occasionally worked. Mr Pennant thus describes the strata : “ dhe beds over the marl are, first, several layers of reddish sand to the thickness of six yards; then succeeds a stratum of sandstone, of the same colour, beneath which, for seven or eight yards more, the sand is again continued to the fuller s-earth, the upper part of which being impure, or mixed with sand, is flung aside ; the rest taken up for use. The earth lies in layers, under which is a bed of rough white freestone, and under that sand, beyond which the labourers have never penetrated.” Natural A striated species of Nautilus is found in great abunlistory. dance, and frequently of a very.large size, in the yellow limestone near Dinton. The only very rare plant known to the botanists as indigenous to this county, is the Dentaria bulbifera, which grows abundantly in its south-east corner. The great snail, or / omatia, Mr Pennant was informed, is found in the woods near Gothurst; and he regards this as its most southern residence in England. We have seen it, however, near Ashted in Surrey; and the tradition there, as in Buckinghamshire, is, that it was introigricul- duced from abroad for medicinal purposes. Formerly, the commons, common fields, and wastes ue. in this county, bore a very large proportion to the whole of its area; but, at present, their whole extent is very inconsiderable, except in the vale of Aylesbury, where the common fields are still numerous. Between the 1st of Queen Anne and the year 1797, there were thirty-one inclosure-acts passed for this county, comprehending 38,457 acres; besides 22 acts, in which the number of acres was not specified ; and during the first 40 years of his present Majesty’s reign, there were 6l acts of inclosure passed. In other respects, however, the agriculture of this county has not advanced much, principally in consequence of the restrictions in the leases. It has long been remarkable for its produce of corn and cattle. “ Buckinghamshire bread and beef,” was an old proverb. As far back as the time of Camden, numerous flocks of sheep were fed in the vale of Aylesbury, which yielded great profit from their wool; and Fuller informs us, that, in his

B U C 53 5 time (156o), the largest sheep in England were bred Bueki >£m this vale, and that it was not unusual to give L. 10 iiamsl,iie • or more for a ram. At present, this vale is principally employed in feeding oxen for the Smithfield market, and in furnishing immense quantities of butter to the London dealers. Eight pounds is the average weight of butter produced weekly from each cow in summer, and six the average in winter. In the northern parts of the county, great numbers of calves are bred, which are purchased at Aylesbury maiket by the farmers of the Chiltern district, and by them fattened for the markets of the metropolis. Hie skim and butter-milk of the dairies are employed in fattening vast numbers of swine. There is a very small proportion of arable land in the northern division of the county ; and not much in any other part, except the Chiltern districts. Here the crops usually cultivated are wheat, barley, oats, beans, and sainfoin. In the neighbourhood of Aylesbury, they are famous for rearing ducks very early in the spring, and sometimes by Christmas; these are sent to London, and sold at a very high price. I he ducks are prevented from laying, by artificial means, till October or November. A few weeks before they lay, they are fed highly ; the eggs are hatched by hens, which are frequently exhausted to death, by sitting on three broods successively. As soon as the ducklings break the shell, they are nursed with particular care at the side of a fire. The only manufactures of consequence in this Mannfaccounty are those of bone-lace and paper.' The tares, former is principally carried on at Olney, Newport Pagnell, and Hanslope, a village about five miles north-west from Newport Pagnell. In this village, in the year 1801, 800 out of a population of 1275 were employed in this manufacture. The lace made here sells from sixpence to two guineas a yard. But, since lace has been made on the frame at Nottingham, Loughborough, and other places in that neighbourhood, the bone-lace manufacture of Buckinghamshire has been greatly on the decline. The manufacture of paper has been carried on in the neighbourhood of Wycombe for more than a century. On that part of the small river Wyke which passes through this parish, there are fifteen corn and paper-mills. At Amersham, besides the lace manufacture, there is a manufacture of sacking; and one for all kinds of white cotton goods. At Marlow are manufactures of paper and black silk lace, large works of copper1, brass, and brass-wire, and mills for making tlrimbles, and for pressing rape and linseed oil. The principal markets in the county are those of Aylesbury, Buckingham, and Wycombe. Marlow fair is much celebrated for its show of horses. The church of Stewkley is one of the most com- Architectn. plete specimens of Saxon architecture now remain- ral Antiquimg; no part of it, externally or internally, having ties' been altered or materially defaced ; nor have any additions been made to it, except the porch on the south side, and the pinnacles of the tower. The date of 1106 is said to have been observed on a stone by some workmen who were repairing the roof ot the Chancel The Chancel of the church of Chetwode, supposed to have been founded in the year

.536 Buckingliamshire « | shami.

BUG 1244, has lancet-shaped windows, with slender piljarg} the capitals of several of which are highly enriched with foliage and figures ot animals. Hillesden Church, which was rebuilt about the year 1493, affords a rich specimen of the later Gothic. Some of the most ancient and elegant specimens of stained glass in the kingdom, remain in the chancel of Chetwode Church ; as there is little doubt that this glass was coeval with the erection of the church, in 1244, it may be considered as one of the earliest specimens of the kind produced in England. I he cross built upon the side of a hill, near the hamlet of Whiteleaf, is supposed to have been erected in the reign of Edward the Elder, to commemorate a battle fought against the Danes ; it is about 100 leet high, and 50 broad, tapering to 20. In the year ending Easter 1803, the total money Poor’s raised by poor’s rates, and other parochial rates, was Kates. L. 105,378, 14s. llfd.; on the average of the three years 1783, 1784, and 1785, it was L. 48,242, 15s. 3d.; and in the year 1776, it amounted to L. 37,052, 18s. Id. In the account of the poor’s rates for the year ending 25th March 1815, ordered by the House of Commons to be printed 26th February 1816, there are no returns from this county. Population. In the year 1377, the number of persons in Buckinghamshire, charged to a poll-tax, from which the clergy, children, and paupers were exempted, was 24,672. In the year 1700, the population amounted to 80,500. In the year 1801, by the returns under the act of Parliament, there were 20,443 inhabited houses, and 543 uninhabited. The total number of inhabitants was 107,444, of whom 52,094 were males, and 55,350 females. Of this total number, 25,083 were employed in agriculture, and 20,138 in trade, manufactures, or handicrafts. In the returns of the population act in 1811, the following results are given: Inhabited houses 21,929 Families inhabiting them 25,201 Houses building H9 Uninhabited houses 457 Families employed in agriculture 13,933 Ditto in trade, &c. 8,424 Ditto not comprehended in preceding classes 2,844 Males 56,208 Females , 61,442 Total population Ditto in 1801 Increase

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” ■

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117,650 107,444 "

10,206

neral View of the Agriculture of Buckingham by Priest.—Lysoris Magna Britannia, Vol. I.—Pennant’s Tour from Chester to London. (c.) BUDUKSHAUN, a mountainous country, or rather range of mountains, in Asia, reaching northwards, from the great ridge of Hindoo Coosh to the source of the Oxus. It forms thus the western boundary of the territory of Kaushkaur. The whole range is covered with snow during the greater part of the year; but there is only one point of per-

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petual snow, being that from which the Oxus and Buduk, Kama take their rise. The territory is watered also slla"a by a considerable river, called the Koocha, which ^ Jnos falls into the Oxus. The mountains contain many Ayre° valuable mines of silver, iron, antimony, and lapis lazuli. Budukshaun is celebrated also for mines of rubies, situated on the lower hills, near the Oxus ; but they are no longer wrought. This country, from its inaccessible situation, has generally maintained its independence against any foreign power. The present chief, Sultaun Mahommed, is said to be absolute over his own subjects. He has a revenue of about L. 60,000, and maintains from 7000 to 10,000 men, armed with matchlocks, in the use of which the Budukshees are said to be peculiarly expert. The capital is Tyzabad, a considerable town situated on the river Koocha. (b.) BUENOS AYRES, one of the viceroyalties Boundaries,; into which the Spanish dominions in South America are divided, and the most extensive of the whole. To the south and north its limits are not exactly defined, as it stretches into extensive deserts inhabited only by savages, and little known. Its southern boundary may be considered to extend from Cape Lobos westward to the Rio Colorado ; on the north it is bounded by Amazonia, or the country of those independent Indians who wander about the Amazons and its tributary streams ; on the east by Brasil and the Atlantic Ocean; and on the west by the great ridge of the Cordilleras, which separates it from Chili, and further to the north from Peru. From Cape Lobos to the furthest northern settlements on the Paraguay, it extends upwards of 1600 miles; and from Cape St Anthony at the mouth of the Plata, to the ridges that’ separate it from Chili, 1000 miles. It was erected into a viceroyalty in 1778, and several districts were added to it from Peru and Chili. From the latter those provinces were principally taken which are situated on the eastern declivity of the Andes. The viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres is divided into Divisions, five governments or provinces, namely, I. Buenos Ayres, or Rio de La Plata, of which the chief towns are Buenos Ayres the capital, Santa Fe, Monte Video, and Maldonado on the opposite shores of the river. II. Paraguay, of which the chief town is Assumption. III. Tucuman, of which the chief towns are San Jago del Estero, and Cordova. IV. Los Charcos, or Potosi, formerly part of Peru, and comprehending the new district of Santa Cruz de la Sierra. The chief towns are La Plata, Potosi, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, and La Paz. V. Chiquito, or Cuzco, formerly part of Chili, of which the chief towns are Mendoza, and San Juan de la Frontera. The viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres forms a compact body of land nearly square, lying between the mountains of Brasil on the east, and the Cordilleras of Peru and Chili on the west. Towards the south, from those great ranges of mountains, a considerable tract of elevated country branches into the interior, in which arise all the numerous streams by w'hich the country 7

BUENOS A Y R E S. 537 urnos is watered; whilst its western and southern parts, ordinary level, this rise is perceived in the river Buenos tyres. descending by gradual slopes, run into extensive, and Panana at the distance of 60 leagues. , Ayres. In consequence of this flatness of the country, the ' in some places marshy, plains to the foot of the Corrains which fall upon the Cordilleras are stopped when dillera of Chili. It is chiefly by means of the Rio de la Plata, that they descend into the plain, and are insensibly evathose extensive regions are drained of their wa- porated ; so that a number of small rivulets which, ters ; all the streams which have their rise in the under a different configuration of the ground, would eastern declivity of the Chilian Andes, or that de- be collected into rivers, are here checked in their scend from the western ridges of Brasil, being ulti- course, and gradually evaporated. Nor can any art mately carried into the channel of this great river. or skill ever remedy this physical defect of the counIn the upper part of its course, it is known by the try ; for the same cause which prevents its superfluname of the Paraguay, and runs nearly in the centre ous moisture from forcing its way to the ocean, would of the American continent, from N. to S., receiving equally prevent the conveyance of water by means from the mountains of Brasil the two great streams of any artificial canal. In Buenos Ayres, accordof the Parana and the Uruguay, while from the west ingly, and in other places situate on the banks of it receives the Pilcomayo, the Vermejo, and the Sa- rivers, it is always found necessary to make use of lado, which flow down the eastern declivity of the a pump in order to raise the w'ater to the level of the town. Andes. But this peculiarity is, on the other hand, favour- Lakes, It was called Rio de la Plata, or River of Silver, by Sebastian Cabot, from his having taken a con- able to the formation of lakes. There being no outsiderable booty, in gold and silver, from a body let to the superfluous waters which the soil cannot abof Indians whom he defeated on its banks, and this sorb, they are necessarily collected in the flat parts of imposing title it has ever since retained. This ap- the country, where they spread to a great extent, copellation, however, though no doubt intended by its vering an immense space, but of no great depth in any author to apply to the whole of the idver, is now part. Most of the lakes which are to be found in this confined to the channel by wdiich the Paraguay, the extensive country are of this description. Of these,, Panana, and the Uruguay, pour their united waters the celebrated lake of Los Xarayes is formed by the into the ocean. This vast estuary of fresh water, collected waters which fall during four months from which is without a parallel for width and magnifi- the beginning of November to the end of February cence, is 150 miles broad at its mouth, from Cape St in the northern provinces, and in the mountainous Maria, on one side, and Cape St Anthony, on the districts in which the Paraguay has its sources. other. Between Monte Video and the Punta de This great river, swelled by the tropical rains, soon Piedras, which some have considered its proper li- overflows its banks, and its redundant waters spread mits, it is 80 miles in breadth ; and at Buenos Ayres, to a great extent over the flat country through which is 200 miles from its mouth, its breadth is which it flows. As the quantity of rain which falls about 30 miles ; and, the shores being low, it is sel- in different years varies considerably, the dimendom that they can be seen from opposite sides. This sions of Lake Xarayes, which is formed by the overimmense inland sea is, however, rendered dangerous flowing of the river, are liable to great uncertainty. for the purposes of navigation, not only by rocks In general, however, it is found to extend beyond and sand-banks, which are the terror of mariners, the 17th degree of south latitude, and about this and which greatly detract from its utility; but by point its breadth on the east of the river Paraguay tempests of wind which, bursting forth from the is about 66 miles. It preserves the same breadth south-west, sweep over the boundless plains of the for about 300 miles to the north, surrounding with Pampas, where they meet with no obstacle to op- its waters several islands which are covered with pose them, and rush down the wide opening of the lofty trees. On the west side of the river, the Plata with unequalled fury. A thunder storm is the breadth of the lake is not so considerable. Its whole general prelude to those destructive blasts, which length, according to the nearest estimate, may be are known by the name of the Pamperos; so that the 330 miles, and its breadth on an average 120 miles. mariner, being warned of the coming tempest, ge- But although it spreads over so large a space, it is nerally seeks shelter in some of the neighbouring not navigable in any part except for canoes and small craft. When the rainy season abates, the ports. The greater part of the country included with- waters of this lake subside into the channel of the in the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, forms, accord- Paraguay, leaving the whole plain perfectly dry, and ing to Azara, a vast plain, of which the uni- covered with weeds and other plants. The number form level is hardly ever interrupted by hills of a of crocodiles in this lake is immense, and in the vigreater elevation than of 90 toises above their base ; cinity are found tigers, leopards, stags, and monkeys and it has been calculated, by barometrical observa- of various kinds; the country also swarms with ants, tions, that the great river Paraguay, in its progress mosquitoes, and innumerable noxious insects. Dursouthward, does not fall above one foot in perpen- ing the inundation, the Portuguese, from their setdicular height between the 18th and 22d parallels of tlements on the Cuyaba, cross the lake in canoes and south latitude. In like manner it is asserted, by small barks. There are various other lakes of the persons well acquainted with the country, that when same description in Paraguay, such as that of the easterly winds occasion the rivers of Buenos Aguaracaty in the 25th degree of latitude; those Ayres to rise to the height of seven feet above its which are found to the south and north of the lake 3Y VOL. II. PART II.

538 Biionos ^yres-

BUENOS AYRES. The vast plains of which so great a proportion of Buenoi of Ypoa, situated in the 26th degree; that of NeemA bucu at the 27th; all those which lie on the eastern this viceroyalty consists are many of them fruitful; yesJ and, in the vicinity of the Spanish settlements, where banks of the Paraguay, besides an infinite number e llse of others of more or less extent, on the banks of all they have been cultivated, they yield abundant crops p”a™ s the streams and rivulets which run through the vast of excellent corn, and other productions, while others ed Pam afford pasture for numerous flocks of sheep. From plains of this level country. All those more permanent collections of water, the banks of the Paraguay, immense plains extend which depend not for their existence on the supply westward to the limits of the province of Los Charfrom the periodical rains, are in like manner spread cos, and to the mountains that rise far to the north. over extensive flats, and they have in consequence These are in general elevated and dry, though tralittle depth. Of this sort, there is a great num- versed by numerous rivers. They are skirted by ber, both large and small, scattered throughout dif- extensive and ancient forests, which afford shelter to ferent parts of the country. The most consider- the wild animals of the country, and they are inhaable are the lakes of Mandiha, situated in 25° 20' bited by scattered tribes of Indians, who roam over of south latitude, that of Ypacarary, situated in 25° their trackless deserts in a state of savage independ23', and the Iberi, to the south of the Parana, be- ence. One continued plain, in like manner, extends tween the 20th and 29th parallels. This lake is of from the banks of the Plata to Chili, and to the large an irregular figure, nearly 200 miles in length, but rivers of Patagonia. These plains are called the little more than 46 in breadth. It gives rise to three Pampas, and they present one uniform expanse of rivers which, issuing from its south-west extremity, waving grass, uninterrupted either by wood or fall into the Parana, namely, the St Lucia, Batela, eminence for about 900 miles. The luxuriant herand Corrientes, and also to the river Mirinay, which, bage of those fertile districts affords pasture to innutaking a south-east course, falls into the river Uru- merable herds of cattle, which rove about over a great guay. It is shallow, and filled with aquatic plants, portion of South America, and which are principally which greatly obstruct the access into the interior. sought after by the Spanish hunters for their hides and The immense expanse of its waters is diversified by tallow. The same circumstance has also favoured the several islands, which are covered with wood, and multiplication of wild horses, which are so numerous abound in deer and other game. It produces a con- in the plains, that travellers are often surrounded tinual supply of fish, which are remarkably sweet with them for the space of several weeks ; and while and fresh, and abundance of wild fowl are found on they are passing them in troops, at full speed, its surface. This lake overflows twice a-year ; its which frequently happens for hours together, the environs are fertile and beautiful, and they are en- party are in the greatest danger of being run over livened by the flourishing settlements, now called and trampled down. Here are also found deer, Presidencies, which have been established on its as well as great abundance of ostriches, armadilshores. loes, wild geese, ducks, partridges, and other game, In the late additions which have been made to the and towards the frontiers, guanacoes and vicunviceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, from the kingdom of nas are met with in considerable numbers. These Peru, the lake Titiaca, or Chucuito, appears to be regions are not well watered; for, though the included. It is situated between the two Cordil- rivers Saladillo, Hueque-Leuvu, and the first leras of Peru, in the north-western part of the pro- Desaguadero, otherwise called Ilio Colorado, run vince of Los Charcos, and, being formed by the through them, the country is traversed by no accumulated waters of the surrounding mountains, smaller streams running into those main rivers ; so which have no outlet, it differs entirely from the that they hold their solitary course through the arid lakes which are to be found in the flat parts of the plains ; and no water is to be found, except what is country, being in some parts from 70 to 80 fathoms collected in the pools when the rain falls. in depth. It is about 240 miles in circumference, This country, though neither inhabited by Indians Mode of and is navigable for the largest vessels, but is subject nor Spaniards, is occasionally traversed by both ; by travelling j to storms, owing to the winds which descend in tre- the former in hunting or in predatory excursions,‘p10*8 t,ie mendous gusts from the neighbouring mountains. and by the latter in journeying from Mendoza to am™' It is frequented by immense flocks of water-fowl ; Buenos Ayres, or in hunting expeditions. There is and its shores are covered with flags and rushes, a route across the Pamjjas to Chili; but no stations which serve for many purposes of domestic manu- have been established for the accommodation or facture. It contains several islands, of which the protection of travellers, who are exposed, in conlargest is Titiaca, from which this lake derives its sequence, to the attacks of the savage Indians. name. The banks are crowded with towns and As there is frequently no beaten track for hunvillages, which are considered the most pleasant dreds of milts, nor any traces by which the road residences in the country. Helms, who travelled can be discovered, the journey across the level by this route from Buenos Ayres to Lima, men- country is often pursued by the compass. In trations, that, after quitting the banks of the Plata, velling, covered carts are made use of, which are he did. not meet with any country, in the whole constructed with all the accommodations of a house, course of his journey, so pleasant and picturesque, having doors to shut, windows on each side, and as that which bordered on this lake. The hills and mattresses laid on the floor, on which the travellers dales appeared agreeably intermixed with the rich- sleep for the greater part of the journey. In geneest meadows, on which were feeding numerous herds ral, they begin travelling about two hours before of cattle, mules, horses, and sheep. sun-set, and continue all night, until an hour after 4

BUENOS AYRES. 539 IlftlOl sun-rise in the morning. In the course of this jour- this quarter in the month of March, he found the Huenos yres. ney, the party are exposed to many dangers and in- surface of the ground, for about a league across, Ayres. ^ conveniencies. Of these the want of water is the covered to the depth of four inches with Epsom salt. most serious evil. It is always necessary to carry a To the south-west of Buenos Ayres, about 130 Salt Lakes, supply with them, both for themselves and their leagues, there is a salt lake always filled with excelcattle ; but when this fails, they suffer the greatest lent common salt, which is preferred to that of Eudistress, unless fortunately a shower of rain comes to rope on account of its being entirely free from a their relief. The excessive heats during the day slight tincture of bitterness, always supposed, in are also greatly complained of. Against these the these countries, to adhere to European salt. In the caravan attords no adequate shelter, nor does it pro- neighbourhood, at the distance of from 400 to 450 R tect its inmates against the rains, which often fall in miles, there is an abundance of salt lakes, which excessive quantities. The inconceivable fury of produce very fine crystalline-grained salt. These the westerly winds, which sweep across, the Pampas lakes are large and broad. Some of them are surwithout any interruption, presents another obstacle rounded by woods to a considerable distance ; and to the progress of the traveller. There is a road their banks are white with salt, which needs no established across the country from Buenos Ayres to other preparation than an exposure for some time to Lima, which is more frequented than the route to the heat of the sun. Journeys are undertaken from Chili. On this road regular stages were established Buenos Ayres to this part of the country, for the in the year 1748, post-houses were erected, and re- purpose of procuring salt, and from 200 to 300 carts lays of horses and carriages were provided, for the are annually loaded with it for the supply of this accommodation of travellers. It is likewise free city. Numerous salt-lakes of the same description from all danger of attacks from the Indian tribes, occur in the neighbourhood of the river Vermejo, who, in their predatory incursions, seldom advance and in the Chaco to the west of the Paraguay. At so far within the precincts of the Spanish territories ; the city of Assumption, situated on the^Paraguay, and it is only in the first stages that it is thought in latitude 24° 47' south, and longitude 59° 35' w'est, necessary to place troops at the different stations for a considerable quantity of salt is refined from the the security of travellers. This was the route pur- earth. Between Santa Fe and Cordova, a still greater sued by Helms, the German Mineralogist, who has quantity is produced, and this quality of the soil published an account of his journey. In traversing reaches to St Jago del Estero, where the whole the mountainous districts of the Andes, the party ground is covered with a white incrustation of salt, were exposed to the most sudden and dangerous vi- and even quite across the barren and desert plain cissitudes of heat and cold, sometimes oppressed by which extends westward to the foot of the Cordillethe scorching heat of the deep valleys through which ra. Natural saltpetre is also produced in this coun- Saitpetre. the road winded, and within the space of a few try in great abundance. After a shower of rain the hours shivering in the regions of everlasting ice and ground appears white with it, so as to chill the feet snow. excessively. A small quantity, however, is only colThere is a very large tract of country in the ex- lected, no more than is sufficient to manufacture fire ? ie 1 u«. tensive plains of South and North America, of works for the amusement of the converted Indians, which the soil is saturated with fossil salt. In this at the religious festivals of the Romish church. viceroyalty the saline plains extend about 600 or In this country, as in Brasil, and other parts of 700 miles in length, and 150 in breadth. It has America, the cattle are accustomed to receive been generally observed, that, in all the country salt as part of their nourishment. In the prowestward of the Paraguay, in all that tract which vince of Paraguay, they eat a sort of salted clay is comprehended under the denomination of the which they find in the ditches, and when this fails, Chaco, and in the country also to the south of the which sometimes happens in the eastern cantons of Plata, from Cape St Anthony on the south to the this province, and in the missions on the banks of Rio Vermejoon the north, there is not a single rivu- the Uruguay, numbers of cattle perish in the space let, lake, or well, which is not of a brackish taste of a few months. It is incredible with what avidity during the heats of summer, when a quick evapora- they feed upon this singular nutriment, and when tion takes place, or during a long course of dry they have wanted it for some time, no inducement, weather, when no rain falls to correct, by its fresh- not even blows, will tempt them to quit the place ness, the natural saltness of the rivers and springs. where they have found it. All the rivers that flow from the western Andes The western parts of this viceroyalty, more espe- Mountaius. yield excellent water, until they reach the salt ter- cially the provinces which were added from Peru, ritory, after which their waters are not fit to be are generally mountainous, comprehending within drunk until they reach the Parana. Even the great their limits some of the highest ridges of the Andes. rivers the Pilcomayo and the Vermejo have a brack- The province of Los Charcos includes a considerable ish taste during the dry season, when their waters proportion of the two principal chains that run from are low. The rivers and springs are, however, more north to south along the eastern part of Peru, and impregnated with salt in some parts than in others. between which lie the elevated plains of Cuzco, with The fort of Melincue, which is situated about 33° the districts of Los Charcos, rugged and barren, but 44' S. lat. and about 150 miles to the north-west of rich in minex*al treasures. From the great chain Buenos Ayres, is almost entirely surrounded with of the Andes, branches diverge in different parts, salt lakes, which are frequently dry when there is a and extend far into the interior. Of these, the scarcity of rain. Azara mentions that, arriving in mountains of Cordova and Achala, in the province

BUENOS A Y R E S. 340 Buenos of Tucuman, and those of the more westerly pro- to Lima, the traveller who undertakes so arduous a Buenos Ayrcs. vince of Cuyo, form secondary ridges; and another journey must expect to meet with every sort of pri- Ayes. rjljge 0c nature branches off in the latitude of vation and hardship; not only from being exposed to the great river Colorado, which, under the Indian the utmost extremes both of heat and cold, but appellation of Casuhati, runs nearly across to the At- from the rugged and impracticable nature of the lantic. These southern mountains are covered with country through which he has to pass. It is only thick impenetrable woods, and are little known. The during the summer that the passage across the Andes eastern mountains, which form the Brasilian ridge, can be attempted, and as this is the season when the are also of secondary elevation. They are generally mountain snows begin to melt, the streams which covered with thick forests, interspersed with exten- rush down the declivities of the Cordilleras are sive tracts wholly devoid of vegetation. They form swelled to impetuous torrents. And this often hapa cluster of mountains towards the interior provinces pens so suddenly, that the unfortunate traveller of Minas Geraes and Matto Grosso, by which the has no time to escape from the fury of the stream, tributary streams of the great river of the Amazons but is swept down with his mule, and perishes are divided from those which run south into the miserably amid the precipices and dark abysses Plata. Different ridges diverge from them to the through which the foaming, waters take their rapid north and south, and the main chain extends quite course. To facilitate the passage across those rivers, across the Continent, taking a north-westerly direc- wooden bridges are frequently constructed, of suffition towards Santa Cruz, de la Sierra, and Potosi, cient breadth to admit the passage of a traveller on and thus uniting with the great ridges of the western horseback ; but where the river is too broad for the Cordillera. In this mountainous district, the sum- construction of those bridges, other bridges are mits of the Andes rise above the regions of the thrown over of a slighter construction. These are clouds, and are covered with eternal snows. In the formed of a thin elastic cane, called bijnco, and from lower parts of the mountain, where the snow is only thence they have received the name of bijuco bridges. occasional, sterile tracts of sandy deserts appear, Several of these canes are twisted together so as to which are bordered with various kinds of lichen form a large cable of the length required. Six of that grow in crevices. To this imperfect vegeta- these being stretched from one side of the river to tion succeeds a wiry kind of grass or rush, the the other, two of which are considerably higher than natural food of the guanacos and the vicunnas which the other four, sticks are laid in a transverse direchaunt those upland deserts. The mountains of se- tion over the lower four, and over these branches or condary elevation are covered with stately forests, trees. The two uppermost ropes are fastened to the and the embosomed vales which are interspersed others that are lower, so as to serve as rails for the amongst them, though frequently of a higher eleva- security of the passengers, who would otherwise be tion than the summits of the Pyrenees, enjoy from in no small danger from the continual oscillation. their sheltered situation a temperate and favourable These bridges are only for men, the mules beingclimate, which adapts them to the production, in taught to swim across the rivers. But where the great abundance, of all sorts of European fruits and rapidity of the torrent, and the large stones which grain,. In many of those valleys, apples, peaches, it continually rolls down, render it impracticable for cherries, plumbs, grow to great perfection. Wheat mules, a contrivance is adopted for passing them is cultivated with success, and there are extensive safely across, named a tarabita. This consists of natural pastures, which afford herbage for large herds two ropes made of bijuco, or of thongs of an ox-hide of cattle and flocks of sheep. twisted together to a proper thickness. These ropes, ProilucIn the lower districts of the country, and in the being extended across the river, are fastened on each tions. plains, wheat, maize, cocoa, grapes, oranges, citrons, bank to strong posts, and the animal being slung in figs, olives, and sugar-canes, are among the most com- a sort of leathern hammock which depends from the mon productions ; and the herb paraguay, or matte, ropes, and properly secured by girths round the belly, which furnishes the favourite beverage of all ranks, with neck, and legs, is drawn to the opposite shore by the exception of the European Spaniards, is yielded in means of ropes fastened to the hammock and exgreat abundance. This herb, which is called the tea of tending to both sides of the river. For the carryParaguay, is drunk as an infusion, and the Creoles ing over men or baggage only one rope is required, are so passionately fond of it, that they never travel and on one side is a winch or wheel by which it may without a supply of this favourite refreshment. About be either tightened or slackened as circumstances 100,000 arrobas of this plant, of 25 lbs. each, are may require. annually exported from Paraguay to Peru. The vaIn those upper regions heat and cold depend, it Climate, lue of each arroba is estimated at L.l, 3s. 4d. Ster- is well known, not so much on the geographical posiling, which makes the annual value of this merchan- tion of any particular place, as on its height above dize sent to Peru equal to L.l 16,666. There are, the level of the sea. In South America, accordingbesides, great quantities sent to Buenos Ayres from ly, which is distinguished above all other countries the city of Assumption, of which this herb constitutes by the prodigious elevation of its soil, we find everone of the principal articles of export. lasting ice and snow under the rays of a tropical sun ; Roads and The route from Buenos Ayres to Potosi, which is and throughout the whole tract of this elevated Bridges. geographical miles, and from Potosi to Lima, country the climate is uniformly modified by the which is an additional 1215 miles, passes over the height of the land. In the low country, on the other highest ridge of the Andes, and, according to the hand, the distance from the equator fixes the climate; account of Helms, who crossed the continent by it and the extensive and unsheltered plains are ex6

BUENOS AYRES. Buenos posed to the most scorching heats, more especially was extracted by Helms from the records of the Buenos Ayres. those towards the south. At Assumption, the capital chancery. Ayres. of Paraguay, which is situated in 25° 16' 40" of south latitude, it is stated by Azara that, in ordinary Districts. Gold- Silver. Copper. Tin Lead. summer weather, Fahrenheit’s thermometer rose, within doors, to 85 degrees ; and that, during the greatest heat of the season, it rose so high as 100. Tucuman During the winter, in weather which would have Mendoza been called cold, it fell to 45; but in seasons when Atacama the cold wras unusually severe, such as in the years Caranges 1786 and 1789? the water was found frozen in a Pipes court adjoining his house. The nature of the Porco weather depends, in a great measure, on the pre- Potosi vailing winds. It is generally remarked, that a Pacages or j south or south-east wind brings cold weather, and Benenguela j . that the weather is hot when the wind blow s from Chuciuto Puno the north. This last is the most prevailing wind, the southerly wind not blowing, at the most, for Lampa more than a twelfth part of the year. The west Chicusy } / wind is scarcely ever known, and, if it is sometimes Tanija Cochabamba felt, it scarcely continues for two hours together. At Buenos Ayres, which is situated in south lati- Sicasica tude 34° 35', the weather is, of course, colder than at Lavicaja Assumption; and it is considered as an ordinary winter Omasuyo in which there are only three or four days when wa- Avanguro ter is slightly frozen. Here, and on the coast, the Carabaya winds are greatly more violent than in the interior. Chayanza The west winds, which have been already noticed, Misque are more frequent; and those from the south-east, Paria Monte Video while they always bring rain in winter, are accompanied wdth clear weather in summer. The violent winds, which prevail both in summer and spring, An account of the accidental discovery of the rich Silver Mines raise clouds of dust which penetrate into all the mines ot Potosi will be found in the Encyclopaedia un- °f Potosi. apartments of the houses, and greatly incommode der the article Peru. In 1545, the first mine was forthe inhabitants. Hurricanes are rare; but they mally registered. Another was discovered some days sometimes occur. In the year 1799, the settlement afterwards. A third, surpassing the two others in of Atira in Paraguay w'as thrown down by one of wealth, was distinguished by the name of Rica, which, them; thirty-six persons were killed, many carri- with a fourth, were soon worked with great activity. ages were blown away, and various other destruc- The mountain, which at the base is 18 miles in circumtive consequences were experienced. The atmo- ference, is pierced everywhere by the operations of sphere is everywhere filled with moisture, by which the miners. According to Helms, who visited the furniture of the houses is injured. At Buenos Potosi in 1789, above three hundred pits were at Ayres, all the apartments which have a southern ex- that time worked; but those who directed these posure have the floors continually damp ; the walls works seemed totally ignorant of the first principles are also covered with moss, and the roofs with a sort of mining. Few of them penetrated to a greater of bushy grass, three feet in height, which must be depth than 70 yards, and they were all of them cleared away every two or three years, to prevent worked as irregularly, as if it had been merely for the moisture from sinking down into the house. plunder. Many of the pits were inundated with This moisture of the atmosphere does not appear to water ; to free them from which, a main conduit had be in the least degree prejudicial to the health of been begun in 1778, which, in the course of nine the inhabitants. In no country is thunder and years, had, at an incredible expence, been carried lightning more violent. The peals of thunder suc- two miles in length. But so unskilfully had this imceed each other with such rapidity, that there seems portant work been planned, that even at its mouth hardly an instant between them, and the whole hea- the conduit was above the level of the water in many vens appear as if they were illuminated with one flame. of the mines, after which it rose about one yard in These thunder-storms are frequently fatal to indivi- every thirty-two, which rendered it still more inefduals ; and in one of them, which happened in January ficacious. Eight new veins were intersected by this 1793, the lightning struck the town of Buenos Ayres conduit, some of them containing very rich silver in thirty-seven places, and killed nineteen persons. ores. Another conduit was inspected by Helms The precious metals, which form such an import- and the other German Mineralogists who accomMines. ant article of commerce in this viceroyalty, are en- panied him, which was begun about 100 years betirely derived from the western provinces, which fore, and which led to many rich veins of red and lie on the eastern declivity of the Cordillera, and grey silver ore. For want of proper machinery, which, in 1778, were separated from Peru. The fol- however, all the pits were filled with w ater; though, lowing enumeration of the mines presently worked under better management, they might have been

BUENOS AYRES. 342 Buenos made to yield a considerable revenue to their pro- mation. In the elevated $nd cold regions of Potosi Buenoi ^Ayres. prietors. and Lipes, this operation requires a month or six Ayrfs« ’j*—The one from which silver is extracted is various weeks before it is completed. But, in warmer disin its nature, consistency, and colour. The moun- tricts, it is finished in eight or ten days. The manner in which these and all the other ope- Low state tain of Potosi consists chiefly of a yellow, very firm argillaceous slate, full of veins of ferruginous quartz, rations are performed, by which the precious metals of the Art in which silver ore, and sometimes brittle vitreous are extracted from the earth, and afterwards separated of ore, are found interspersed. There is also a greyish from their ores, is censured, in the most unqualified brown one, in which appear some small grains, and terms, by Helms. After pointing out the ignorance thin branches or veins of silver, running along the lay- which prevailed in the previous management of the ers of stone. This ore is extremely rich, yielding for mines, “ still greater, if possible (he observes), was the each caxon, or 50 hundred weight, 20 marcs of silver ignorance of the Directors of smelting-houses and reor about 13 lbs. Some of the ores which are found fining works at Potosi. By their method of amalgain other provinces of this viceroyalty appear black, mation they were scarcely able to gain two-thirds of frequently from the admixture of lead. The silver the silver contained in the rude ores ; and for every is seen when the ore is scratched. These ores are marc of pure silver gained, they destroyed one, and called negrillos, from their colour, and are esteemed frequently two marcs of quicksilver. Indeed, all the very rich, yielding 50 or 60 marcs of silver per operations at the mines of Potosi, the stamping, siftcaxon. They are more valued also on another ac- ing, washing, quickening, and roasting the ore, are count, namely, that the silver is extracted from them conducted in so slovenly, wasteful, and unscientific at a small charge. In place of the usual process of a manner, that, to compare the excellent method of amalgamation with quicksilver, they are merely melt- amalgamation invented by Baron Born, and praced in furnaces, where the lead, being evaporated by tised in Europe, w-ith the barbarous process used by the fire, the silver is left pure and clean. There is these Indians and Spaniards, would be an insult to another sort of rich ore, containing a large propor- the understanding of my readers.” u tion of the finest silver, which turns red if it is wet’l he tools of the Indian miner (he continues) are ed and rubbed against iron. Some of the ores glit- very badly contrived and unwieldy. The hammer, ter like talc. These yield but little silver; but, be- which is a square piece of lead of 20 pounds weight, ing soft, the metal is easily extracted from them. exhausts his strength,—-the iron, a foot and a half Some are green, from the admixture of copper, long, is a great deal too incommodious, and, in some which it is found troublesome to separate from the narrow places, cannot be made use of. The thick silver. But the most scarce and valuable ore is that tallow candles, wound round with wool, vitiate the air.” which appears in entangled threads of pure silver, so The same mismanagement prevailed in the Royal fine that it is called arana^ from its resemblance to a Mint, where every hundred weight of refined copper spider’s web. used for alloy in the gold and silver coin cost the The veins of silver frequently run through hard King L. 35 through the ignorance of the overseers, rocks, which have to be reduced to a very fine powder who spent a whole month in roasting and calcining before the ore can be fit for the process of amalga- it, and in the course of these tedious operations fremation. In order to render the ore more friable, quently made it unfit for the purpose to which it was it is frequently roasted or calcined in an oven. It is intended. Mr Helms was ordered by the Governor afterwards broke to pieces with iron mallets, after to introduce a more improved process for the refinwhich it is carried to the mills, where, being ground ing of the copper, and he accordingly showed, by to a very fine powder, it is passed through several actual experiment, that copper could be brought to wire sieves successively, the last being the finest. a greater degree of fineness in four hours and a half, The rude ores are also frequently broke to pieces by and at less than -Ajth of the expence. The other hammers lifted up and down by means of a wheel. evils in the management of the mines, he also atThese hammers weigh about 200 pounds, and fall tempted to reform, in conjunction with another perwith sufficient violence to reduce the hardest stones son of skill in the mining art, who accompanied him to powder. This powder is laid in wooden troughs, to South America for the same purpose. In order and is kneaded with quicksilver and water, until the to free the mines from water, two deep conduits two metals are completely amalgamated, after which were dug in the mountains; proper machines w ere the quicksilver is evaporated by distillation, and the erected; amalgamation works were set on foot, and metal which remains is cast into ingots. the necessary instructions in metallurgy were given to In some of the smaller rivers, mills with grind- six pupils, for the purpose of enabling them to reduce stones are used. The ore is ground with water, this improved system to practice. If the water in the which makes a liquid mud, that runs into a receiver. pits can be drained, the mines of Potosi would be in The mud is disposed on the floor in square parcels as flourishing a condition as ever. The total want of about a foot thick, each of them containing 25 hun- timber, however, on the naked ridge of mountains in dred weight of ore. On each of these about 200 which those mines are situated, tends greatly to retard weight of sea-salt is thrown, which is moulded and the progress of the work. incorporated with the earth for two or three days. Respecting the quantity of silver which has been Produce of , After this the quantity of quicksilver which they extracted from the mines of Potosi, various accounts tlie silver judge necessary is added to the mass, which is have been published. But these have generally moulded eight times a day, and lime is frequently been founded on imperfect materials, and their acmixed with it, to accelerate the process of amalga- curacy is therefore liable to doubt. On this point.

B U E N 0 Buenos Humboldt’s invaluable work on the kingdom of New con tains the most complete and satisfactory information. This celebrated traveller was enabled to procure, from official papers, an account of the value of the royal duties paid into the provincial treasury of Potosi, on all the silver brought to the mint between the years 1556 and 1789; and the proportion ol those duties to the whole produce being known, the annual amount of the silver extracted from the mines, during this period, with the exception of what was carried away by the contraband traders, can be easily ascertained from these accounts. From the year 1545 to 1556, there are no records of the royal duty, and Humboldt has supplied this defect from such imperfect and accidental information as he could collect in the works of the earlier writers on South America. Ulloa, who proceeds upon the authority of a writer in the 17th century, estimates the silver produced, during those eleven years, when the official records are wanting, to 72,000,000 of marcs, equal to about L. 144,000,000 Sterling. But, according to the more accurate reckonings of Humboldt, this estimate must be greatly above the truth ; and he conjectures that the whole produce during this period, cannot have exceeded 15,000,000 of marcs or 127,500,000 piastres, equal, valuing the piastre at 4s. 2jd. to L. 26,328,125 Sterling. He states, however, that little reliance can be placed on the correctness of this estimate. From the year 1556 to the year 1578, a duty of one-fifth was paid on all the silver brought to the mint of Potosi. These duties amounted, during this period of twenty-three years, to 9,801,906 piastres, which gives a total produce for these twenty-three years, of 49,009,530 piastres, or 5,765,827 niarcs of silver, equal to L. 10,312,431. From the year 1579 to the year 1736, including a period of 158 years, a duty of \\ ■per cent, was paid, and afterwards the fifth of the remaining 98vy piastres, which amounted to nearly 6£ per cent. The produce of this duty for 158 years amounted to 129,417,273 piastres, which gives a total produce of about 610,458,835 piastres, or 71,818,686 marcs, and an annual average produce of 3,888,272 piastres, or of 455,991 marcs, in value equal to something more than L. 8,000,000 Sterling. From the year 1736 to 1789, l± per cent, of duty, and the half of the fifth were paid, and, during this period of fifty-three years, the duties amounted to 14,542,684 piastres. The whole produce Amounted consequently to 128,129,374 piastres, or 15,074,044 marcs of silver, and the annual average produce to about 281,758 marcs, equal to about L. 490,000. From 1789 to 1803, there is no account of the royal duties. But, according to the records of the mint, the produce amounted to 46,000,000 of piastres, or to 3,285,710 piastres yicr annum. Helms, who visited Potosi in 1789, states that there were annually coined in the royal mint from 550,000 to 600,000 marcs of silver, and about 2000 marcs in gold.

s

4 Y R E s.

543 According to these calculations, the quantity of Buenos Ayres. silver yielded by the mines of Potosi, amounts Piastres. For 11 years, from 1545 to 1556, to 127,500,000 26,828,125 For 23 years, from 1556 to 1578, to 49,009,530 10,312,431 For 158 years, from 1579 to 1736, to 610,458,835 128,450,713 For 53 years, from 1736 to 1789, to 128,129,374 26,960,554 From 1789 to 1803, to 46,000,000 9,679,166 In this account the piastre is estimated at eight reals, or 4s. 2|d. Previous to the year 1600, it contained 13^ reals de Plata. For this add two-thirds to the produce of these years, about 250,000,000 52,604,166 The allowance for contraband is variously estimated at a third, a fourth, and a sixth. Estimating it at onefourth, it will amount to 302,774,434 63,708,780

Add for contraband, J one-fourth,

1,211,097,739 254,835,155 302,774,434 63,708,780

Total produce,

1,513,872,173 318,543,935 From this estimate of the produce of these mines, it will be found that they were never more flourishing during the whole period of 233 years, from 1556 to 1789, than from 1585 to 1606. For several successive years, the royal fifth amounted to one and a half million of piastres, which supposes an annual produce of 1,490,000, or 882,000 marcs, according as the piastre of silver is estimated at 13^ or 8 reals. * This is the more surprising, as at this period more than a third of the silver was never registered. Adding this one-third to the annual produce calculated from the royal fifth, the quantity of silver produced at this time, will amount to 10,000,000 of piastres, equal to L. 2,104,166. After the year 1606, the produce began gradually to diminish, although from this time to 1688, it never was below 350,000 marcs per annum. From the commencement of the subsequent century, the produce continued decreasing, and from the year 1736, when the royal fifth only amounted to 85,410 piasties till about the year 1748, the annual amount of the duties was never equal to 200,000 piastres. After this period, the produce began to increase, and gradually rose to between 300,000 or 400,000 marcs. This quantity, however, Helms, who had the best opportunities of information, assures his

* This coin, towards the conclusion of the sixteenth century, was reduced to the value of eight reals; and as it is uncertain when this change took place, we cannot exactly ascertain the quantity of silver which was produced at this period. We can only be certain of its highest and lowest quantity.

544

B U E N O S Buenos readers could be doubled, if the mines were drained Ayrep. 0f the avater with which they are overflowed, and if some other simple improvements, which he suggests, were carried into effect. In 1545, it is mentioned that ores containing from SO to 90 marcs per quintal of 1600 ounces, were common. The marc is nearly equal to about eight ounces; so that, according to this account, 1600 ounces of ore were found to yield about 600 or 700 ounces of silver. The average produce was, at this period, from eight to nine ounces per quintal, which was nearly in the proportion of one ounce in twenty-two or twenty-five. Since the commencement of the eighteenth century, it is stated by Humboldt, that they reckon only on extracting from three to four marcs of silver from the caxon of ore, equal to 5000 lbs. which is only one ounce of silver out ef every 2000 or 2500 ounces of mineral. According to experiments made by Helms on 300 specimens of ores, they were found to produce from six to eight ounces of silver for every caxon of 5000 lbs.; although in some ores the silver was in the proportion of 20 marcs to each caxon, which is about one in 384. The minerals of Potosi are consequently extremely poor, and it is owing to their abundance alone, that they still produce so great a quantity of silver. From 1574 to 1789, the mean quantity of silver afforded by the ores has diminished in the proportion of 170 to one, while the silver extracted from the mines has only diminished in the proportion of four to one. It thus appears that the productiveness of mines does not by any means depend so much on the richness or poverty of the minerals which they contain, as on their abundance, and the facility with which they are worked. It happens, accordingly, that the Mexican mines, which are the richest in the world, contain remarkably poor minerals, the best yielding, on an average, from 4T8(j to 5T3^; the middling from lyJy to 2T7y, and the worst about 1-^ ounces of silver for every 1600 ounces of ore. In some of the mines of Germany, on the other hand, of which the produce falls so far short of those of South America, the mean proportion of silver is found to amount to 10 ounces quintal, and in fortunate periods to 15. From 1545 till 157.1? the silver minerals of Potosi were all smelted in portable furnaces contrived by the Indians. These were cylindrical tubes of clay, very broad, and pierced with a number of holes, which, admitting the air, gave the flame a great degree of intensity. About the year 1571, the method of amalgamation with mercury was introduced ; and of the 8000 or 10,000 quintals produced by the mine of Guancunelica towards the end of the sixteenth century, above 6000 or 7000 quintals were consumed in the works of Potosi. About the year 1763, the consumption amounted to between 16,000 and 17,000 quintals annually. There are at present 2000 miners engaged in the works at Potosi, who are paid at the rate of 25s. per day. Fifteen thousand lamas, and an equal number of asses, are employed in carrying the ore from the mountain of Potosi to the amalgamation works. Gold f°und in most of the mountainous districts Mines. It is either worked in mines, 0f tijjs vi«eroyalty.

AYRES. gathered from the sands, or collected from the Buenos streams. Near the town of Mojos, there is a eonsi- v Ayres, derable stratum of rich magnetical iron sand, in which are found particles of gold of the size of a lentil, and sometimes as heavy as the quarter of a ducat. The Indians, however, by their unskilful mode of working the sand, lose all the finer particles of the gold, which are carried away by the stream. From the town of Mojos to within a short distance of Potosi, from which it is distant 180 miles, similar alluvial layers occur, and gold is washed from them, especially at the little town of St Jago de Cotagoita, which is distant about 90 miles from Potosi. In the province of Lipes there are gold mines, many of which have been abandoned. But two are now worked, and one of copper, the strata of which are intermixed with gold, silver, iron, and loadstone. In Puno and Oruro, there are several gold mines. But most of them have gone to decay from the inactivity of the inhabitants, or they have been overflowed, and all efforts to drain them have been found unavailing. The most abundant mines are in the province of Cochabamba and Sicasica. The whole of the mountains in this last district, where the Indians collect ore by working, abound in rich gold ore, and when, about a hundred years ago, a projecting part fell down, lumps of pure gold, weighing from two to fifty pounds, were severed from the stone; and, even in the present times, in the layers of sand washed from the mountain by the rain water, pieces of pure gold are found, some of which weigh an ounce. From the ignorance of the inhabitants, however, most of these treasures lie totally neglected. A very brief and general account of the animals Animals, of this country, is all that can be attempted within our present limits. The horses and horned cattle, originally imported from Europe, have multiplied amazingly in the extensive plains of South America. Asses, mules, European sheep, stags of different species, foxes, rabbits, goats, and hogs, are numerous, and great numbers of wild dogs are to be met with. These are descended from those of a domestic kind that have left their masters in pursuit of the game, with which the country everywhere abounds. The other wild animals are the puma or American lion, the jaguar and cougar, twro species of American tigers, which are strong and ferocious animals, and commit great devastations among the flocks. The jaguar, when full grown, is a large animal, some of them measuring five feet from the nose to the root of the tail, which is two additional feet long, and so strong that they will drag the carcase of a horse or bull which they have killed to the place where they intend to devour it. They are excellent swimmers, and Azara mentions, that he has seen them swimming across a large river loaded with their prey. The Puma is a weak and cowardly animal, and is now become very scarce in the parts inhabited by the Spaniards. The guazuara, called the cougar by Buffon, is 47 inches long, without including the tail, which is 26 inches long. It flies from the human species, but kills calves, sheep, pigeons, and all other smaller animals. It does not stop to eat the flesh, but is contented with licking the blood. Of the other animals, the most remarkable are the anta or danta, which is between the elk and buffalo

BUENOS AYRES. 545 species. It is oi the size of a large ass, has no The rivers abound in great varieties of fish ; and Buenos hot ns, and is ot singular strength. It is frequent- of amphibious animals, there are on the coast tur- Ayies. ly found in the forests and plains of Paraguay, but ties, seals, and sea-lions ; while alligators or cayhas been so much hunted both for its skin and flesh, mans, of a large size, and very voracious, swarm in 1 ^1that it is scarce both in Tucuman and Buenos Ayres. all the rivers. The interior of the country is infestIhe armadillos are very numerous all over South ed by innumerable tribes of reptiles and insects, America, and are of various species, differing in size, which are brought into life in the damp forests, and and in the nature of the armature with which they on the rank soil on the borders of rivers. Serpents aie covered. The tamandua, or nurumi, or ant-eater, also abound in these parts, among which the most is Sol} inches long, without reckoning the tail, which remarkable is the enormous boa constrictor, which is in length 22^ inches, besides a thick bunch of is chiefly found in the marshy places of the forests. hair at its end, 1] inches long. Azara enumerates In regulating the colonial trade, Spain has uni- Commerce, various other small animals, which are generally car- formly proceeded upon the principle of sacrificing nivorous, preying upon birds, reptiles, or other infe- the colony for the supposed advantage of the mother rior quadrupeds. The chibi-guazu, which he consi- country; and, with this view, such restraints were ders to be the jaguar of New Spain, or the tiger- imposed on the commerce of her South American cat ot other countries, is 3i inches, and the tail 13 provinces, as forced them to depend entirely on the inches. Wild cats are found of various sorts. There parent state, both for the supply of their wants, and , are also several animals which have the form of the for the sale of their produce. They were not only martin, the pole-cat, and the ferret, but wrhich are entirely debarred from trading with Europe, or wuth much larger and stronger. The sarigue or the fe- any other country, in their own vessels, but their incundo, is a small animal peculiar to America, which tercourse with each other was either entirely prohipreys upon pigeons, mice, insects, eggs, &c. It has bited or obstructed by many severe restrictions. a long triangular and pointed face; its eyes are Under this system, the commerce of Spain with her oblique and jutting out. Its mouth is large, and colonies centered entirely in the port of Seville ; and well furnished with teeth. Its tail is long, thick, and the cargo of every ship destined for the colonies covered with scales, which it uses to climb up trees was inspected by a board appointed for the purpose, and walls wdien the surface is in any degree rough. before she could receive a licence to make the It has long whiskers, and its ears are round, naked, voyage. In 1720 this commerce was transferred to and transparent. Cadiz, as being a more convenient port; and the Of the domestic animals, those most worthy of commerce was carried on by means of annual fleets, note are the lama and the paco, both -natives of the which sailed periodically, and which consisted of mountainous parts of Peru, and inhabiting the higher two squadrons, known under the respective appelladistricts of the Tucuman, and the provinces of Los tions of the galleons and the flota. These expediCharcos, and Santa Cruz de la Sierra. The lama is tions were made exclusively to the Gulf of Mexico ; a most useful animal, and is capable of carrying hea- and it was through the ports of Porto-Bello and vy burdens in the most rugged and dangerous roads. Vera Cruz alone that the colonies of Spain were * It is about four feet high ; the body, including the either supplied with European commodities or found neck, is five or six feet long. This animal bears a a vent for their own productions. Owing to this ligreat resemblance to a camel, excepting that it has mited intercourse, the produce of America was no hunch on its back. The paco, or vicunna, is a exchanged for that of Europe on terms extremely species of subordinate animal to the lama, in the disadvantageous. Her markets were always impersame manner as the ass to the horse. Their wool is fectly supplied with the commodities of Europe, tine and long, and is a valuable article of merchan- which bore, in consequence, a very high price ; while dise. The natural colour of it is that of a dried her own productions, being restricted to particular rose-leaf; and while every kind of clothing manu- ports, were always liable to arrive at a market alfactured of it possesses a peculiar degree of genial ready overstocked. The Spanish colonies lanwarmth, it is at the same time most beautifully silky guished under those harassing restrictions ; and and light. The lama and the paco inhabit the high- Buenos Ayres, whose territorial resources conest mountain-deserts amid perpetual ice and snow ; sisted neither in gold, silver, indigo, cochineal, and the cold, far from being unfavourable to them, nor in any of those precious products which are seems to invigorate and refresh them. The tapir, easily exported, but in bulky and perishable commothough more abundant in Brasil, is also found on the dities requiring the constant command of shipping, banks of the Parana and Paraguay. It is of the size remained lor a long time in a state of obscurity and of a small cow, but has neither horns nor tail, depression. Of birds, the emu, which is generally known by the But the operation of this system was eventually name of the American ostrich, and the well-known counteracted by its extreme violence and injustice; bird of prey the condor, are the most remarkable. The in consequence of which it was found impossible, in emu is bred in the Pampas. It is generally six feet cases where it prohibited the colonies from being high, measuring from the head to the feet; and it runs supplied with articles of the first necessity, to carry with such swiftness that the fleetest dogs are thrown it into strict execution. Salutary evasions were, out in the pursuit. Carrion vultures, which fly in therefore, connived at, and, in process of time, a large flocks, are also very common, and feed upon contraband trade was established, which was found numerous carcases of the cattle slaughtered for the so beneficial, that it flourished in spite of all the exsake of their hides. pedients adopted to prevent it. The legitimate VOL. II. PART II. 3£

BiiPiios

i*

BUENOS F>:icnos Ayres.

corairterce was proportionably diminished, and the annual squadron gradually dwindled away from 15,000 to 2000 tons of shipping. Those encroachments on the monopoly of the colonial trade plainly suggested the necessity of relaxing the restraints by which the colonies were oppressed, and of devising some method for ensuring to them a constant and adequate supply of European produce. In the year 1740, a considerable part of the American trade was permitted to be carried on by register ships, which, on purchasing a licence from the Council of the Indies, were allowed to sail at any time, and which, in the year ITi'S, finally superseded the galleons and flota, after they had been in use for two centuries. By means of this intercourse, the American market was more regularly supplied with the productions of Europe, and Buenos Ayres was benefited, along with the other colonies, by these regulations. Other relaxations of the system of restraint soon followed. In 1774, a free intercourse was opened between several of the American provinces; and, in 1778, seven of the principal Spanish ports, to which, in 1788, five others were added, were permitted to engage in a free trade with Buenos Ayres, and with the ports of the South Sea. These regulations, together with the erection of Buenos Ayres into an independent viceroyalty in 1778, gave it importance and stability; and, from this period, its imports and exports have progressively increased. Previous to the year 1778, not more than 12 or 15 registered vessels were engaged in the colonial trade of South America, and these seldom performed more than one voyage in three years. But, in that year, their number increased to 170 vessels, the value of whose cargoes amounted to L.1,958,676. For the further encouragement of the trade of Buenos Ayres, salted meat and tallow were allowed, in the year 1793, to be exported duty-free; and, by this and other regulations, the trade and population of the adjacent provinces was considerably increased. Azara gives the following annual average estimate of the trade and shipping of Buenos Ayres, taking the average of the years between 1792 and 1796. Imports from Spain. Value of Value ot the ProSpanish ductions No. of From what Porh Manufac- and MaCargoes. tures and nufactures Total. received. Produc- of other tions. Nitrons. 21J21

331

Cadiz Barcelona and Malaga Corunna St Andero Vigo Jijon St Lucar

AYRES.

Value of Silver in PiNo.of To what astres,in In- Value of Produce Total Vain lue in Car- Ports sent. gots, or in Gold in Plate. Piastres. Piastres. Piastres. goes. 1,002,557941,798 19 Cadiz 15- Barcelona & Malaga 200,385 83,281 Corunna 938,348 1625,696 5,202 1,632 St Andero

617,074 233,669 56,688 10,532 6,784 287

2,545,364 In pounds Sterling, L. 535,587

447,483 2,391,845 277,301 561,568 32,685 1,656,729 50,189 57,023 4,667,166; L. 982,049

47 In pounds Sterling, Imports from the Havannah.

13,037 arrobas. 37 ditto. 132 jars. 65 arrobas. 225 ditto. 1,277 casks. 240 quintals. 505 arrobas. 37 quintals. 473| pieces. 96 pounds. 37£ quintals, 188 ditto.

Sugar Confections Honey Cocoa Coffee Brandy Rice Wax Pitch and Tar Linen Manna Dye-woods Acuna wool

L. 20,397.

Value in pounds Sterling, Exports to the Havannah Silver in piastres Salt Beef Tallow Fine furs Sea-wolf skins Common wool Sheep skins Flour Oil of the sea-wolf Copper Goose wings

17,236. 39,281 quintals. 10,617 arrobas. 147 323 80 arrobas. 113 dozen. 440 quintals. 25 ditto. 50 ditto. 70

Value in pounds Sterling,

Pmsttes. Piastres. 631,615 923,313 1,554,328 595,229 21,845 223,484 75,584 32,501 24,187 6,132 4,400 4,684 2,123 287

Buenos Ayres.

Exports to Spam.

L.l 5,057.

Imports from Lima* Sugar Cocoa Cinnamon Rice Salt Stones Indigo Wrought iron Value in pounds Sterling, 10

4337 arrobas. 295 do. 75| pounds. 80 quintals. 200 138 pounds. 7 L.5264*

547 BUENOS AYRES. Bueno« Buenos annually purchased for Peril and Potosi at the price Exports to Lima. Avres. of between three and four piastres a-head. These Ayres. are driven into the interior by easy journeys to Paraguay tea 2688 arrobas. Salta, where they are taken great care of during the Tallow 2800 do. winter, and when in good condition, they are conSwan skins 20 ducted to Potosi, where they sell for eight, nine, or Negro slaves 83 ten piastres a-head ; and such as are carried to Peru Hoes 419 sell for higher prices, some for 40 and even 50 Thread 128 piastres. Peru and Potosi, and the mountainous Silk stockings 8 districts where the mines are situated, are also supHats 24 plied with large droves of cattle from the provinces of Buenos Ayres and Tucuman. These are either Value in pounds Sterling, L.4723. caught wild, or they are purchased from the imImports from the Coast of Africa. mense pasture lands which extend over a great part of the province of Buenos Ayres, and are conNegro slaves 1338 veyed by easy journeys into the interior. A great 1420 Hoes trade is also carried on, more especially when the usual intercourse with Europe is interrupted by Value in pounds Sterling, L.66,705. war, between Peru and Potosi, and the other provinces which were annexed to Buenos Ayres in the year 1778. These provinces being the princiExports to the Coast of Africa. pal mining countries, are on this account populous, while, owing to their elevated situation, the climate Silver, in piastres 120,276 is bleak, and the soil barren. Supplies therefore, both 12,738 Value of goods of subsistence and of manufactures, must he drawn from more fertile regions; and the trade in question Value in pounds Sterling, L.27,987consists accordingly in exchanging the produce of In the year 1797, hostilities commenced between the adjoining provinces for the precious metals which Iffects of le War Spain and Great Britain; and, in consequence of this form the great staple of the mining districts. Peru, j 'ith Eng- event, the trade between the mother country and Chili, and the provinces to the east, receive from nd on her South American colonies was necessarily ex- the mining countries supplies of gold and silver, in ommefce. posed to the maritime hostility of Britain. So effec- exchange for which they send maize, wrheat-flour, tually was this hostility carried on by the British cotton, oil, pimento, sugar, hides, wax, soap, tallow, cruisers, that, in 1798, the trade of the Spanish &c. baize, woollen manufactures, and articles for the settlements was at a stand; and it was calculat- use of the mines, &%*. Estalla, the compiler of a voluminous collection, Population, ed that above three millions of hides were lying at the warehouses of Buenos Ayres and Monte Video, which contains much valuable information on South for which no vent could be found. European goods America, called Viagero Universal, estimates the were totally wanting, or had risen to excessive population of this viceroyalty at 1,000,000 of Spaprices. Linen was not to be had, and the cotton niards and Creoles, besides Indians. He estimates stuffs of the county, or those which came from the population of the city of Buenos Ayres at about Peru, were substituted in lieu of it, and for brandy 40,000, of whom one half are whites or Spaniards. and Spanish wines, those of Cuyo were used. This Though reckoned the capital of the viceroyalty, it is stagnation of trade was at length relieved by the in- not so populous as Potosi, which, according to tervention of the neutral vessels of the Americans, Helms, contains a population of 100,000; an which brought European goods to the colonies, and amount which so greatly exceeds all preceding actook away their surplus produce in return ; and this counts, as to render the accuracy of his information contraband intercourse was found so indispensable extremely doubtful. M. Humboldt, in his general to the trade of those countries, that it was either table of the population of South America, which, however, he does not give as pretending to accuconnived at or openly encouraged. racy, estimates the Spanish and Creole population of A very extensive trade is carried on between the iterior ommerce. lower and upper provinces of this viceroyalty, and this viceroyalty at 1,100,000; which exceeds Estalla’s also with Peru and Chili. The herb of Paraguay, estimate by 100,000. Azara states the population of known by the name of Paraguay tea, and the cattle the province of Paraguay at 97,500, and that of the and mules of the provinces of Buenos Ayres and province of Buenos Ayres at i 70,900. In 1806, a British squadron, commanded by Sir BdtisU Ex. Tucuman, form the staples of this commerce. The herb of Paraguay is in such demand, that the crop Home Popham, appeared in the Rio de la Plata, on the ground is generally sold before it is gathered. from which a force was landed under the command The quantity exported to Peru is estimated at of Major-General Beresford, for the reduction of 2,500,000 libs., and about 1,000,000 of libs, are an- Buenos Ayres. Some trifling resistance was offered nually sent to Chili. The remainder is consumed in by the Spaniards; but, in the end, General Beresford Paraguay, Tucuman, and the other provinces. entered the town with little opposition. He appears There is a continual demand for mules in Peru and to have been partly indebted for his success to the, Potosi to carry on the work of the mines ; and it is surprise into which the Spaniards were thrown by calculated that about 60,000 of these animals are this unexpected invasion, for when they had suffi-

BUENOS AYRES. 548 Buenos ciently recovered from their panic, and had leisure authority, proceeded to bombard the city and to de- Rnrno* Ayres. i to consider the inconsiderable numbers of their ene- stroy its commerce. On the other hand, the Junta Ayres mies, the British were assailed by such a superiority sent their army against Monte Video, and compelled Bukhara. of force, that they were compelled to yield them- Elio to take refuge within the walls of the fortress. selves prisoners of war on the 12th of August, hav- An armistice was afterwards concluded between the ing had possession of the place for about the space parties ; but the subsequent transactions are yet inof six weeks. In the meantime, reinforcements ar- volved in considerable obscurity. We propose to rived from the Cape, and Sir Home Popham, hav- reserve the account of the revolution which has ing made an unsuccessful attempt on Monte Video, been begun in these colonies, for the Article South took possession of the fort of Maldonado, at the America ; trusting that, before we shall have admouth of the Plata. Additional reinforcements hav- vanced so far in the course of our work, the cause of ing arrived under the command of Sir Samuel Ach- independence will have finally triumphed, and that muty, the invaders succeeded at length in taking we shall then be able to exhibit a distinct and saMonte Video by storm, and they only waited for tisfactory view of its progress, and of its probable refarther succours to resume the attack of the capital. sults both to America and to Europe. Azara, Voyages en Amerique Meridionale, depuis The expected reinforcements at length arrived, in May 1807, under General Whitelock, to whom was 1781 jusqu’ en 1801.4 vols. 8vo. 1809-—Humboldt, committed the chief command of the expedition; Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain, 4 vols. and, on the 15th June, a farther reinforcement was 8vo.—Wilcocke’s History of the Viceroyalty of Buenos received under General Crawford. With this force, a- Ayres, 1806—Helms’s Travels from Buenos Ayres, mounting to 8000 men, it was resolved to attack Buenos by Potosi and Lima—Alcedo’s Geographical and Ayres by marching into the town. But no sooner Historical Dictionary of America and the West Indies, had they entered the place, than they were assailed, translated by Thompson, 5 vols. 4to. 1810 Edinfrom all quarters, with a commanding and superior burgh Review, Vol. XIX. (o.) fire of grape and musketry. The streets were inBUKHARA, or Bokhara, an extensive countersected by deep ditches secured by cannon which try in central Asia, situated to the north of the poured upon the assailants an incessant and destruc- Oxus, which separates it from Khoarism and the tive fire ; while, from the windows and tops of the kingdom of Caubul. Its principal cities are Bukhouses, they were exposed to a galling fire of mus- hara and Samarcand. This ancient seat of the conketry, to hand-grenades, bricks, ailtf Stones. In this querors of Asia is now almost entirely unknown to unequal contest, about a third of the British army Europeans. A few particulars, however, respecting was either killed, wounded, or captured, without any its present state, were collected by Mr Elphinstone, material advantage gained ; and, next day, an armis- during his residence in Caubul. tice was concluded, which issued in a convention, About the beginning of the sixteenth century, the by which it was agreed that the British should eva- descendants of Timur were driven from this territory cuate the Piata in two months ; and that all prisoners by the Uzbeks, who, crossing the Jaxartes, swept taken on both sides should be restored. all before them, till they were stopt by the central Lale Revi The project of the French Emperor to subdue barrier of mountains. They thus established themlufion. Spain, for the purpose of establishing his brother selves, and have ever since remained the ruling peoJoseph on the throne, gave rise to a spirit of just in- ple in Bukhara, Bulkh, Fergannah, and Khoarism. dignation throughout the South American colonies ; The Uzbeks belong to the great race of Turk or and when his successes seemed to pave the way for Toork, which, with the Moguls and Mandshoors, the subjection of the mother country, their first comprises all the people known in Europe under the care was to take effectual measures for the se- general appellation of Tartar. The beauty of this curity of their own independence. With this view, race is celebrated by the Persian poets ; though, for in the town of Buenos Ayres, the government of the this admiration, it seems chiefly indebted to the conviceroy was superseded by one of popular appoint- trast with the hideous deformity of the Mogul aspect. ment ; and though the leaders of the revolution still The Uzbeks are generally short and stout. Broad professed allegiance to Ferdinand, it was generally foreheads, high cheek-bones, thin beards, and small believed that they had secretly resolved to shake off eyes, form the national features. Their complexion the yoke of Spain. Different views, however, pre- is clear and ruddy, and their hair generally black. vailed in other parts of the country. In Monte Part of the nation live in houses and part in tents. Video the Regency of Cadiz was recognised; and, Of the latter description, Bukhara contains a large in the interior, a counter-revolution w^as begun proportion, as a great part of the soil is fit only for under the influence of Liniers and the adherents of pasturage. This people have not the remotest idea the new government in Spain. To suppress this move- of travelling on foot; every man keeps a horse or ment, a force was dispatched into the interior, at a camel; even the beggar must have an ass to ride whose approach the chiefs of the counter-revolution upon. Horse-flesh is the favourite food ; but can be fled, and being pursued and taken, they were bar- obtained only in small quantities unless by the rich. barously murdered. The opposition to the revo- Their drink consists chiefly of tea, and koumiss or lution begun at Monte Video, was of a more formi- kimmiss, an intoxicating liquor drawn from mares’ dable character. It was directed by Elio, an officer milk. of marine, who arrived from Spain with the comThe Uzbeks, having embraced Mahometanism at mission of viceroy, and who, not being able to pre- a time when they probably had few other positive invail on the Junta of Buenos Ayres to recognise his stitutions, have adopted ■ its precepts in their fullest

B U K Ail the details of civil government, and the

B U N 549 The King of Caubul does not even draw any tribute Bulkli Bi ikh Bimutest observances of common life, are regulated from Bulkh ; he is content if it serve as a barrier Buudelthe P^cepts of the Koran. The King of Buk- against the northern Uzbek tribes. hara assumes the title of Commander of the Faithful; The country is chiefly divided into three large cund. he spends a great part of the day in teaching the provinces,—Bulkh Proper, Khoolloora, and KoonMahommedan religion, and of the night in prayers dooz. Its government and manners being those and vigils. He reads praj^ers in his own mosque; common to the Uzbek tribes, have been described and will sometimes perform the funeral service, even under the head of Bukhara. Killich Ally main. for people of low rank. tains an army of 12,000 horse ; after paying the exIn Bukhara, and in all the Uzbek countries, the pence of which, he has a clear revenue of a lack and form of government is almost entirely despotic. The a half of rupees (about L. 19,000). He is much country is formed into divisions and subdivisions, beloved by his subjects, and affords such effectual which are governed by officers appointed solely by protection to trade, that his praises are celebrated the sovereign. Ihe villages alone have some share by all the caravans which traverse this part of Asia. in their own administration ; but this cannot form He seats himself daily in his public apartment, on a any material check on the royal authority. The carpet, without pillows or cushions. Those of his Uzbeks are brave ; they charge with shouts, visitors whom he wishes to honour, are seated by drawn up in three lines which advance succes- him on the same carpet; while others must be consively to the attack; so that, till the third has tented with the bare floor. He superintends in pergiven way, they cannot be considered as finally de- son every department of the administration, executes feated. They make admirable light cavalry from the justice with strictness, and is particularly attentive rapidity of their movements, and from being patient to the regulation of the bazar, or public market. of thirst, hunger, and fatigue, in an extraordinary Bulkh is the ancient Bactria, which, for wealth and degree. Their laws of war are entirely barbarous; power, held a high pre-eminence among the kinginfidel captives are sold as slaves ; and this treatment doms of central Asia. The capital was known under being unlawful in regard to Mahommedan enemies, the name of Bactra, and seems to have been the these suffer a more cruel fate, and are butchered with- grand emporium for the commerce of this part of the out mercy. Yet, in the intercourse of private life, world. The Asiatics are impressed with the deepest they display many laudable qualities. They are veneration for its antiquity, and call it commonly honest and sincere; quarrels are rare, and a murder “ the mother of cities.” Immense ruins still attest scarcely ever heard of. Their hospitality is such, its ancient grandeur ; but the modern Bulkh merely that Mr Elphinstone considers Bukhara as the coun- occupies a corner of the circuit enclosed by the antry of Asia through which a traveller may pass with cient Avails. The country round, however, is level the greatest security. and fertile, contains a great number of villages, and The capital city, called also Bukhara, appears to is Avatered by artificial canals. Tausk Koorghaun, be very considerable. Its population is said to be the capital of Khoolloom, contains 8000 houses, and equal to that of Peshawer, and, consequently, ex- the capital of Koondooz still exceeds it in magniceeds a hundred thousand souls. This city contains tude. (b. ) numerous colleges, supported either by the king, or BUNDELCUND, or Bandelkhand, an exten-situation by private foundations* The sciences exclusively sive district of the province of Allahabad, in Hindus- and Extent taught, indeed, are those of Mahommedan Theology tan, between the rivers Cane and Betwah, occupying and Jurisprudence; and, even in these, the fame "of a superficies of about 11,000 square miles. The this city is inferior to that of Peshawer. ■ Besides south-west frontier lies in about 24° north latitude, these institutions for education, Bukhara contains and 80° 45' east longitude, and the territory extends caravanseries, on a gx*eat scale, for the accommoda- about tAvo degrees further north. In general, the tion of trade ; and, notwithstanding the rigid attach- face of this country is mountainous, high, and rocky; ment of the people to the Mahommedan faith, stran- its vegetation is scanty, and the inhabitants do not begers of every religion experience the most liberal stow much care on the cultivation of it. The sumtoleration. (b.) mits of many of the hills, however, are covered with BULKH, or Balk, a kingdom of central Asia, Ioav copses, amidst Avhich there is but little grass insituated on the northern declivity of the immense terspersed. Other parts of the district exhibit a close chain of mountains, commonly called Hindoo Coosh, jungle ; and there are portions, consisting of fertile which separates it from Caubul. It forms thus the soil, which are brought under suitable culture. intermediate state between that kingdom and BukThe most valuable of all fossils, diamonds, have Diainoad hara. Some of its vallies, particularly along the been long found here, particularly near the toAvn of Mines. Oxus, are lower, and suffer more from heat, than Purna or Pannah. The mines producing them are those of Caubul, on the southern side of the chain. situated in a range of hills called Bund-Ahiil by the This country was conquered, at the commencement natives, extending above twenty miles in length by . of the sixteenth century, along with Bukhara, by between two and three in breadth, and are said to be the Uzbeks, who have ever since continued the rul- partitioned into twenty one divisions ; but we do not ing people. Bulkh was conquered by Nadir Shah ; know that the whole belong to Bundelcund. Of and, notwithstanding several revolutions, has since these, the mines of Maharajepoor, Rajepoor, Kimgenerally continued in a state of nominal subjection merah, and Guddaseah, contain the finest diamonds; to Caubul. Killich Ally, however, an Uzbek prince, and one dug from the last has been reputed the exercises at present an authority almost independent. largest in the world. It was kept in the fort of Cal-

linkh ira

extent.

550 BUN Bundel- linger, among other treasures of Rajah Himmut Bac,tnd * hadur. Several different rajahs are proprietors of j]ie mines, each having the charge of his own, without any interest in the produce of the rest. A superintendent is appointed to inspect the produce, and every diamond when found is registered, valued, and, if the rajah does not chuse to keep it, is offered for sale. When sold, he receives two-thirds of the value. In the reign of the Emperor Ackbar, the mines of Pannah produced to the amount of L.100,000 annually, and were then a considerable source of revenue ; but for many years they have not been nearly so profitable, and it appears that about the year 1750, the government did not derive more from them than equivalent to L. 50,000 per annum. Their present value is not exactly known. According to tradition, the mines were discovered by a fakir or religious mendicant. Aspect of The country, at a distance from the mountains, is the country, agreeably diversified with clusters of eminences or small hills, separate from each other, exhibiting a picturesque appearance; and the inhabitants invariably build their villages at the bottom of a hill. They are seldom seen in any other situation, and it is chiefly around the villages that the small quantity of grain raised in the district is cultivated. But Bundelcund not being a fertile country in itself, grain is brought from the banks of the Jumna and the Ganges. Many other commodities are supplied from the Deccan, or middle region of the peninsula, and large herds of bullocks are seen continually passing to the hilly part of the territory. The forests abound with tigers, and the nhil-gau or white-footed antelope, as also the wild boar, which are all hunted by the chief men of the country. Inhabitants. The inhabitants, who are called Bondelas, are a brave and warlike people, entertaining high notions of independence, and impatient of constraint or indignity. They act under the full impulse of those violent passions which sway the inhabitants of the east, and lead to catastrophes of a nature unknown to Europeans. An instance occurred not long ago, when the fortress of Adjyghur, besieged by the British troops, was evacuated by the garrison. The removal of the family of the refractory Zemindar who had occasioned hostilities having been directed, his father-in-law was desired to prepare the females of the family for it. Instead of doing so, however, he murdered the whole and their children eight in number, and then put an end to his own existence. But what was still more extraordinary, the perpetration of this horrible deed was apparently with the consent, and without any complaint of the sufferers. The Bondelas are either Bramins or Rajpoots. About Ditteah and Jhansi, they are a stout and handsome race of men, exhibiting an appearance of opulence and content. They commonly go armed with a bow and spear, both of which are of excellent quality; and they know very well how to use them. They testify "no apprehension in engaging veteran troops. Owing to the intestine commotions which tong pervaded this district, every man carried arms; and many, availing themselves of superior force, attacked and plundered travellers, or levied a contribution from them, on pretence of guarding the passes which they had necessarily to traverse among the hills.

BUN Very little of their manners and customs is known. Bundeb Women occasionally burn themselves along with the bodies of their deceased husbands, according to a remarkable religious principle diffused in the east, which now seems universally on the decline. The inhabitants dwell in towns and villages, of which the latter are much better than most others in India; and they have numerous strong forts, which they are accustomed to take and defend with determined vigour. There are several considerable towns in the dis- Chief trict, such as Pannah, Pirna or Purna, where the Ra- Towns, jah resides on account of its proximity to the diamond mines, Chatterpoor, Ditteah, Callinger, Jyghtpoor, Jhansi. Chatterpoor, 30 miles distant from Pannah, and 6Q8 from Calcutta, is extensive, well built, and the houses chiefly consist of stone. Formerly it was in a flourishing condition, a place of great and active commercial transactions, and a kind of depot for goods carried between the Deccan and Mirzapour, which is also in the province of Allahabad, and one of the principal trading towns of Hindostan. The goods were afterwards transported by numerous bullocks and camels to the places of their destination, and so much commerce was conducted here, that, when Chatterpoor preserved its greatest importance, the duties levied amounted to L. 50,000 yearly. It was founded by one of the rajahs of Bundelcund, and occasionally his residence. Ditteah, or Dutteah, is a large town surrounded with a stone wall, and is provided with gates. It extends a mile and a half in length, by nearly as much in breadth, and is populous and well built, the houses being of stone, and covered with tiles. A spacious edifice, with seven cupolas, stands at the north-west extremity, which was the former residence of the Rajahs; but a palace has recently been built for them on an eminence without the town, close to which is a considerable lake. The district of Ditteah was tributary to the Mahrattas, and the Rajah could raise 2000 horse, and as many infantry, esteemed excellent troops. Some years ago, they testified how much they w ere to be dreaded in an engagement between the veteran forces under M. de Boyne, a famous French General in the Mahratta service, where all the skill and ability of the commander could scarcely preserve the latter from destruction. But among the most important places of Bundelcund is Callinger, the chief town of a subdivision of this district, which seems to have once been an independent government, and now includes ten pergunnahs or circles of villages. It has a fortification built on a lofty rock of great extent, and is deemed impregnable by the natives. The walls are said to be six or seven miles in circuit; 170 pieces of cannon are mounted on them, and a garrison of 5000 men is necessary for their defence. Nevertheless, its natural strength has enabled a smaller number to sustain long sieges; and the earlier invaders of Bundelcund have been compelled to retire after unsuccessful blockades protracted during several years. So lately as the year 1810, the British army, having attempted to take it by storm, was repulsed with great slaughter. However, the garrison of this fortress, probably dreading a repetition of the assault, eva-

BUN BUN 551 Bundel- cuated the place during the night. No fortress can part of both, and the Rajah was invited by his bride Bundelclini |‘ . be more secure against the irregular approaches of to the house of the Bondela, where the ceremony was cund,‘ , an Indian army. Here the Rajah kept his military to be performed. Here a magnificent entertainment stores and treasure, and it was also the residence of was prepared, of which he partook plentifully along the Europeans in his service. It is twenty or thirty with his attendants; but it was soon succeeded by miles from Pannah, and lies in 24° 58' north lati- excruciating tortures,—poison had been treacheroustude. Jhansi is a considerable town, but smaller ly administered, and when the victims became incathan Ditteah, commanded by a stone fort on a high pable of defence, they w'ere treacherously massacred. hill, in 25° 31' north latitude, and thirty-two miles The Bondela then placed himself on the musnud of distant from Chatterpoor. There is a district de- the Rajah, which he enjoyed peaceably until hi? pendent on the town, which, from having been seven- death. He was succeeded by his son Ber Sing Deo, ty or eighty years in the uninterrupted possession of whose descendant is the Rajah of Ouncha, and be the Peshwa, or Chief of the Mahrattas, is in a more gained an accession of power by his services to the tranquil state, and better cultivated than most of the Soubahdar of Allahabad. But he is accused of being neighbouring territories which have undergone fre- a great plunderer, and his history is stained by the quent changes. Hence it is frequented by caravans assassination of the celebrated Abul Fazel, Prime from various commercial towns of India; and its Minister of Ackbar, which is said to have been wealth is augmented by a trade in cloths, and the committed by a banditti under his command. Nay, manufacture of carpets, bows, arrows, and spears, it is affirmed, that he acted in compliance with the the principal arms of the Bondela tribes. In the wishes of Jehangeer, the emperor’s son, who w-as year J 790, it afforded a revenue of about L. 50,000 jealous of Abul Fazel’s influence over his father, annually. There is an ancient city called Ouncha, and who, on his accession to the throne of Delhi, but now in decay, whose Rajah was formerly the head entrusted Ber Sing Deo with the government of all of all the tribes of Bundelcund, and from whom Bundelcund, then called Dungush. On descending their chiefs received tokens of their investiture. A to a later period, we find that this territory was incastle which stands here, or in the neighbourhood, vaded during the government of the Rajah Chatterresembles a gothic building, and is said to have been saul, about the middle of last century, by the chief of erected by a Rajah of old, who in one day gave or- Furruckabad; and the Rajah, to aid him in repellders for building fifty-two forts. This may account ing the enemy, applied for support to the Peshwa, for the places of strength seen in Bundelcund, for Sewai Bajerow. Success having attended them, he which the particular character of its surface is ex- adopted Sewrai Bajerow as his son, and partitioned tremely favourable. Bundelcund between him and his own sons. But Besides these, there are several towns, villages, allotting him a third of his dominions, the land reand fortifications of consequence in this district, but venue of which was estimated at about L. 1,300,000 recent events have rendered the preservation of the Sterling, was under an express stipulation that his latter of less importance to their owners, posterity should be protected by the Peshwa, in inistory. Bundelcund from ancient times has been divided dependent possession of the remainder. The rest into many petty territories, whose chiefs have inces- of his male issue, said to exceed fifty, were in a santly disturbed the peace of their subjects by pre- state of dependence on their two brothers. In time datory incursions on each other. The successful this division opened the way to dissensions, a civil captures of strongholds in the mountains, was an en- war ensued, and the consequent weakness of the couragement to the subsistence of warfare ; and in chiefs afforded an opportunity for other invasions. addition to the numerous ordinary sources of dis- Ali Bahauder, an illegitimate grandson of Bajerow, pute, it is not unlikely that their joint interests in held a command in the army of Scindeah, the noted the diamond mines contributed to excite dissension. Mahratta chief, and in the same army was the RaThough the predominance of power induced some jah Himmut Bahaudar, who not only commanded a one of the contending parties to claim the superiori- great body of cavalry, but was the spiritual head and ty, it was reluctantly acknowledged by the rest; military leader of a numerous sect of devotees called whence, instead of a common bond of union to de- Gosseins. Both seem to have fallen under the disfend the country, it was weakened by the distrac- pleasure of the Peshwa, and the latter, after retirtions of the whole. The Rajahs of Callinger are ing to his estate in 1786, soon united with the other mentioned by Mahometan writers so early as the in attempting the conquest of Bundelcund. The year 1008, but it does not appear to have been in- Rajah Himmut seems to have had it in contemplacorporated with Bundelcund for several centuries af- tion to establish a sovereignty elsewhere; and about terwards. Sometime in the sixteenth century, it is the year 1787? he was actively engaged in assisting said that a Bondela, living in Benares, removed to the prince Mirza Jurvaim Buklit, in raising an army, a fort in the district of Ouncha, then governed by a but whose death, which happened suddenly in 1788, Rajah whose confidence he speedily obtained. This probably allowed him more leisure to attend to the Bondela had a daughter of exquisite beauty of whom other object in view. He and his associates agreed the Rajah became enamoured, and demanded her in that a large portion of the territory to be conquered marriage. But her father, considering the proposal a should be assigned to himself, and its revenue apgrievous insult, from one whom certain circumstances plied to the support of certain troops which he ennow unknown prompted him to consider his inferior gaged to maintain in the service of Ali Bahauder. in rank, he, in concert with his daughter, plotted a The projected invasion took place in 1789; when diabolical revenge. Acquiescence was given on the Ali Bahauder conquered much of the district ia

n BUN BmiJelthe name of the Peshwa, of whom he rendered him~ c nnfl. sej£* nearly independent; and in a short time the wj10|e was suiadned except some fortresses, which the Mahrattas have never been able to reduce. Some years elapsed before the complete establishment of their authority; but an arrangement was made with the Peshwa, whereby he was acknowledged lord paramount of all the conquests effected in Bundelcund by Ali Bahauder, wdio engaged to obey him as his sovereign, and to pay him tribute. The latter contrived to evade both conditions, however ; and, after being occupied fourteen years in endeavouring to subjugate the country, died in 1802, during the blockade of Callinger, which, during ten years, he had fruitlessly endeavoured to capture. Ali wras succeeded by his eldest son, Shumshere Bahauder, then absent at Poonah; and Himmut Bahauder, w ho, to retain his own influence, had for years been exciting disaffection among the different chiefs, now appointed a relation of Shumshere, the young rajah, regent of Bundelcund until his return. A war next broke out between the British and the Mahrattas. Himmut Bahauder endeavoured to accomplish the transference of this district to the former, while Shumshere was determined to oppose them vigorously. In September 1803, Colonel Powell crossed the river Jumna for the purpose of entering Bundelcund, and was joined by Himmut with a body of 13,000 or 14,000 men. The united forces arriving on the banks of the river Cane, which, passing the fort of Callinger, falls into the Jumna, near the town of Oorah, found the army of Shumshere on the opposite side. It was numerous, occupied a great extent, and was strongly posted, but after a short cannonade on both sides it precipitately retreated. At this time a proposal was made by the Mahrattas, and acceded to by the British, for the cession of a portion of the territory of Bundelcund inlieu of certain districts in the Deccan, which had been ceded to them by a former treaty. Forces were then stationed in Bundelcund for the protection of other parts, and successive engagements of a conciliatory nature were made with Shumshere, and all the rest of the chiefs, whereby the British authority was rendered paramount. Himmut Bahauder had previously secured an advantageous arrangement for himself; and his death ensuing in the year 1804, Government provided for his family, and assumed possession of his territory. The troops who had been retained in his service, a kind of irregular force, now dispersed. Still, however, the tranquillity of the country was liable to be disturbed, and indeed the cession of some parts pf it by the Mahrattas was only nominal, as they had never been able to occupy the strong holds themselves. Thus it wuis judged expedient by the British to bestow a considerable tract, in 1807, to a descendant of the Regent Chuttersaul, who had been long dispossessed amidst contending factions, on condition of guarding the passes and preserving his territory in peace. Other arrangements were made, conceding to the chief of Calpee, on the confines of Bundelcund, a portion of the interior, in lieu of the city and district of Calpee, and several villages on the Jumna. Meantime it be-

B U N came necessary to besiege the fortress of CaHinger; Jhinrlelbut notwithstanding the British forces had captured c,ln(l many strongholds of the Indians, previously deemed p>jjter impregnable, they were unsuccessful in attempting _J— to take it by assault, and, as already observed, gained possession by the garrison retiring in the night. Its reduction proved a great accession of power, and tended materially to tranquillize the district, w hich had previously been incorporated with the British empire in the East, and a civil establishment constituted for the regular management of its affairs. The possession of a country such as Bundelcund, occupying 11,000 square miles, is of considerable consequence in several respects; and it has been suggested that the revenue derived from it might be materially augmented, by assuming the direction of the diamond mines of Pannah. Nevertheless the occupation of the w'hole does not seem to have been judged an important object, more especially, as, by. the arrangement above alluded to, w'ith the chief of Calpee, he was left in the enjoyment of a third part of them, to which he was originally entitled, (s.) BURGER (Godfrey Augustus), a celebrated German Poet, born the 1st of January 1748, at Wolmerswende, a village in the principality of Halbcrstadt, where his father wras Lutheran minister. In his childhood he discovered little inclination to study; the Bible and the Canticles alone had any attraction for him: these he knew by heart, and his first attempts in versification were imitations of the Psalms, which, notwithstanding their defects, gave proofs of feeling and a correct ear. It is to this first direction of his studies that we are to attribute the Biblical phrases, the allusions to Christianity, and the theological style, if we may be allowed the expression, which we find even in his amatory poetry. He was fond of solitude, and indulged in all the romantic sentiments which deserts and the gloom of forests inspire. From the school of Aschersleben, where his maternal grandfather resided, and wLich he quitted in consequence of a severe chastisement, which had been inflicted on him for composing an epigram, he was sent to the Institution at Halle '; but, at neither of these places did he make any very sensible progress. He discovered a taste only for the lessons in prosody and versification which were given to the scholars of the Institution, in which his friend Gbkingk was a class-fellow with him, who afterwards distinguished himself by his Epistles and Songs; and who has lamented the premature death of Burger in an elegy to his memory. In 1764, Biirgex*, who was intended for the clerical office, began to attend the course of lectures given by the professors of the university. Klota, a learned classical scholar, admitted him of the number of young people whose talents he took a pleasure in cultivating ; but this society appears not to have produced the same favourable effect on the moral character of Burger as on his genuis. His conduct prejudiced his grandfather Bauer against him, and it was with difficulty that he obtained from him some farther assistance, with permission, in the year 1768, to repair to Gottingen, to prosecute the study of the law, instead of that of theology. This change did not make him more regular in his studies ; his manners u

BUR

bur 553 his misfortunes. He had, a little before, lost his Biir^er. wife; and it is but too certain that her death was hastened by the culpable passion which Burger cherished in his heart. Left with two children, and reduced to the inconsiderable emoluments of The Almanack of the Muses, published at Gottingen, which he had edited since 1779} he removed to this city, 7 Mllle, V ss the two with a view to give private lessons there, and in the fr’i/TT ’ ? ’. Counts G. r. Cramer, and‘’ Leisewitz. BUrger was Stolberg, admitted hope of obtaining from the Hanoverian government into it. All of these persons were versed in the a Professor s chair in the Belles-lettres. Five years Greek and Homan literature; and, at the same after, this title was conferred on him, but without time, all of them idolised Shakespeare. The Ger- a salary ; yet this was the only public recompence mans are the only foreigners who seem to relish or obtained during his whole life by a man who was undeistand the merits of this great genius in the one of the favourite authors of his nation; and who. same degree as his own countrymen profess to do ; while yet young, had enjoyed the highest reputaand they do not seem to like his genius the less on tion. Scarcely were the ashes of his wife cold account of the irregularities objected to it by other when he espoused her sister Molly, whose name his nations. Burger, in a great measure, owed his poems have made but too famous,' and who had emstyle to the enthusiasm which he showed in common bittered the existence of his first wife ; but he did not with his literary friends for our celebrated tragic long enjoy the happiness after which he had sio-hed. writer. The Reliques of Ancient English Poetry, She died in child-bed, in the beginning of 1786. published about this time by Dr Percy, gave an ad(ti- From that moment, his own life only lingered on ; and tional impulse to the direction which his mind had the fire of his genius seemed extinguished with the taken, and suggested to him some of the produc- passion which had so long nourished it. He had scarcetions which his countrymen admire the most. Of ly strength enough, in the intervals of his dejection, all his friends, Boje was the one who exercised the to finish his Song of Songs, a sort of dithyrambic greatest influence over him in the choice and ma- or nuptial hymn, intended to celebrate his second nagement of his compositions. He taught him to mairiage, and which is a strange mixture of frantic make easy verses, by taking pains ; and it is to his passion, religious devotion, and the most bombastic exsevere observations that the poetical stanza of Bur- pression. It was the last production of Burger. Havger owes a great part of that elegance and round- ing studied the philosophy of Kant, he had an idea of ness which characterize it. To the same friend he deriving some advantage from it at Gottingen, where was indebted, also, for some improvement in his cir- it had not yet been taught. He undertook to excumstances, which, till the year 1772, had been plain it in a course of lectures, which were attendvery uncomfortable. On the recommendation of ed by a great number of young people. The satisBoje, he was appointed to the Collectorship of faction which the university expressed to him for Alvengleichen, in the principality of Calenberg. two Cantatas which he composed in 1787, at the The winter following, some fragments of a ghost period of the fifty years’jubilee of this illustrious instory, which he heard a peasant girl singing by stitution, and his nomination to the situation of Promoon-light, caught his imagination, and his Leo- fessor Extraordinary, reanimated his spirits. Fornora appeared, which soon became popular in all tune appearing to smile on him once more, he formparts of Germany. Soon after the publication of ed the design of marrying again, in order to provide this ballad, a circumstance occurred to give him still a mother for his children. During one of the mogreater confidence in his talents: Going a journey ments when he was most occupied with this idea, he to his native place, he one evening heard the school- received a letter from Stuttgard, in which a young master of the village, in the room next to that in woman, whose style indicated a cultivated mind, and which he lay, reading to the assembled audience her sentiments an elevated and feeling heart, after collected at the inn, the ballad of Leonora, which desciibing to him, with enthusiasm, the impression had just come out, and which was received with which his poetry had made upon her, offered him the liveliest marks of admiration. This proof of her hand and heart. Burger spoke of the thing, at success flattered him more than all the compli- first, only in jest, but the information which he rements of his friends. About this time, he marri- ceived respecting the character, the fortune, and ed a Hanoverian lady, named Leonhart; but this personal accomplishments of his correspondent, havunion proved only a source of bitterness to him, an ing excited his curiosity, he took a journey to Stuttunhappy attachment to her younger sister having gaid, and brought back with him a wife who embitsprung up in his heart. The loss of a sum of tered and dishonoured the rest of his days. In less money, of which his grandfather had made him a than three years, he saw himself under the necessipresent, was the first commencement of the embarrass- ty of obtaining a divorce from her, and the ruin of ment of his circumstances. The taking a large farm, his health aggravated the absolute disorder of his which he did not know how to manage, increased it, finances. Confined to a small chamber, the favourand the dismissal from his place, which he was ite poet of Germany wasted the remainder of his obliged to submit to in 1784, in consequence of sus- strength in translations ordered by foreign bookpicions (probably ill-founded) raised against the fi- sellers ; but sickness and grief soon deprived him delity of his accounts, gave the finishing stroke to even of this resource, and he must have died in VOL. n. PART II* 4A ecamc corril

jr\u~il.' protection. ^ . pted, and his grandfather withdrew his Burger contracted a number of debts, and ms situation would have become altogether desperate, had it not been for the assistance.of some friends. An association, memorable in the annals of German literature, had just been formed at Gottingen : it reckoned among its members Boje, Biester, Spren-

.551 BUR Burger. the most frightful state of want, if the Government of Hanover had not extended some kindness to him. He died the 8th of June 1794, of a disorder of the bowels, of which he had never believed the danger. Burger is only remarkable as a lyric poet. He has tried all the different species of this class of the pi'oductions of genius; but he succeeded eminently orfly in the song and the ballad- We shall, perhaps, characterize his genius sufficiently by saying, that his imagination is more fresh than rich,—that he has more sensibility than elevation,—more naivete and good nature than delicacy or taste. His style sparkles by its clearness, its energy, and from an elegance which is rather the result of labour than of natural grace ; he possesses, in short, all the qualities which please the multitude. Allowing the title of poet only to those whose writings were calculated to become popular, he early habituated himself to reject whatever appeared to him not sufficiently intelligible and interesting to all classes of readers. Always clear and forcible, he is never either low or trivial ; and if, at certain times, there appears a want of selection and care in the details, yet the sentiments are uniformly noble, and the moral intention of the majority of his pieces altogether irreproachable. Some breathe the loftiest piety and the purest love of virtue. Wieland said of him (see the German Mercury, 1778), that in composing his poem entitled Mcennerkeuschheit (on Chastity), Burger had deserved better of the present and future generations, than if he had written the finest treatise of morality. This little piece has been inserted in most of the collections of hymns for the use of the Lutheran church. There are three editions of Burger’s works. The two first appeared in his lifetime, in 1778 and 1789, in 3 vols. 8vo, and the third, after his death, was published by his friend Ch. Reinhard, in 4 vols., 179f>. All three were printed atGbttingen. The last contains some posthumous pieces, and miscellanies in prose. We must confine ourselves to & short notice of those for which their merit or the singularity of the subject has procured the greatest degree of celebrity. I. A translation, or rather an imitation, of the Vigil of Venus (Pervigilium Veneris). It is a fine piece of poetic diction and rythmical harmony. II. Leonora, a romance, which belongs to the class which Burger himself called the epic lyric. The story is borrowed from a popular tradition, of which the traces are to be found in the different countries of the north. Leonora was translated into Danish, in 1788,—six times into English, by Stanley, Pye, Spencer, Taylor, &c.—and from English into French, by De la Madeleine, in 1811. The translation by Mr Spencer is accompanied with engravings after designs by Lady Diana Beauclerc. Two German composers have set it to music. Burger often appeared very ill-contented with the vast success of this production of his youth. Fie preferred a great number of his other poems, and was himself the first to blame the puerile trick of the play upon sounds which he has there indulged in. III. The Ministers Daughter of Taill^nhain. It is the story of the seduction and tragi-

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cal end of a young girl. There are in this, as in the Burner other productions of the same author, some objeclj. tionable details, but the whole leaves a deep im-. v pression. IV. The Inhuman Huntsman. V. The Song of the Brave ; in which the heroism of a peasant, who saves a family from the fury of the waves, is related with admirable feeling. VI. The Song of Songs, conceived at the foot of the altar. This is a hymn or ode in praise of his Molly. VII. ^4 2Vavestie of the Fable of Jupiter and Furopa. This is a piece of humour of the most clumsy kind, and in a taste the most wretched, yet it had a great run when it first appeared. VIII. A translation, in iambic verse, of some books of the Iliad. The choice of the measure is by no means happy. He was accordingly requested, ironically, to set about translating Anacreon into hexameters, when he had finished his version of Flomer into German iambics. IX. An excellent Translation of Shakespear s Macbeth. X. Pieces of Poetry and of Rhetorical Prose. He had begun to write critical observations on his own works, with equal severity and sagacit)r. But he has only left some fragments of this work. XI. He was editor of the Gottingen Almanack of the Muses, from 1779 to 1794. Vetterlein, Politz, and Engel, have published a selection of the poetry of Burger, with notes ; and celebrated composers, such as Schulz and Reichardt, have set a great number of his songs to music. Burger’s third wife, whom German biography has thought worthy to have her name associated with his on account of her taste for literature, and particularly poetry, is author of several pieces in verse, inserted in the Collections. The one having for its title The Raillery of a Mother, is sufficient to prove her poetical talent. See the account of Burger in the sixth Volume of the Biographic Universells. (z.) BUSCF1ING (Antony Frederick). This very eminent Geographer was born at Stadthagcn, a village of Westphalia, on the 27th September 1724. In his youth he laboured under peculiar disadvantages, arising from the disorderly life led by his father, and from the narrow means of education which his native town afforded. Fortunately, a clergyman of the name of Hauber, pleased with the promising talents of the young man, undertook to give him gratuitous instruction. He laid a solid foundation of learning, and also of a piety which, though fervent, was always accompanied with moderation and mildness. At the age of eighteen, young Rusching was driven from his father’s house, on account of the zeal with which he espoused the cause of his patron, on occasion of a controversy in which he was involved. Hauber, however, procured for him the means of continuing his studies at Halle. There, by his application to learning, and his irreproachable conduct, he acquired numerous friends. They procured him the appointment of tutor in the family of the Count de Lynars, who was then going as ambassador to Petersburgh. The observations made by Busching on this journey decided the pursuits of his future life. In travelling through Poland and Russia, he compared the actual features of those i i

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BUS regions with the descriptions given of them. He thus became sensible of the miserably defective f .a geographical science, and resolved to devote his life to its improvement. He withdrew as soon as possible from the Count’s family, and went to reside at Copenhagen, devoting himself entirely to this new pursint. In 1752, he presented the first specimen of his powers m a Description of the Counties of Slestmg and Holstein, a work which produced a favourable idea of his accuracy and ability. He soon after removed to Gottingen, and married Christiana Dilthey, a young lady of great accomplishments, authoress of a volume of poems, and to whom he had been engaged from the time of his departure to itussia. Here, on account of a work which appeared to dissent from some of the Lutheran tenetsjie was excluded from the theological chair, for which he had become a candidate. The chagrin occasioned by this disappointment, induced him to accept an invitation to the German congregation at Petersburgh. He wras employed there, also, in organizing a school, which, under his auspices, soon became one of the most flourishing in 118 sch o1 was *• i1 who, ° first, showed superintended by Marshal Munich, at great favour to rmsching ; but being accustomed to entire obsequiousness from all connected with him, he did not accommodate himself to the hardy independence of the German sage. A collision arose, in consequence of which Busching announced to his congregation, that he was under the necessity of returning to Germany. The Empress expressed much dissatisfaction at the conduct of Munich, and made very high offers to Busching if he would consent to remain • but he deemed it unworthy of him, after having resisted the intreaties of his congregation, to yield to the favours of the Court. He returned to Germany without any fixed object or establishment in life, and went, at first, to reside at Altona. Next year, however he was called to superintend an extensive establishment for education, which had been formed at Berlin, under the auspices of the great Frederick. His appointments here were liberal, and his exertions proved of signal benefit to the institution, of which he became the head. His writings and example gave a new impulse to education throughout Prussia. He spent a number of hours every day in the Institute,—superintended the progress of every pupil,—and inspected the minutest details connected with its prosperity. He gave also courses of Lectures on the History of the Arts and Sciences. Ihis labour did not interrupt the composition of his numerous works. The Queen loved his society, and, at first, often invited him to dine with ier; but, finding that such engagements occupied too much of his time, he intreated her Majesty to allow him to devote himself, as much as possible, to his numerous labours. Though seized with dropsy which occasioned a series of the most cruel sufferings! he did not remit his academical labours, till the disrnin to a foSf ’ 5? & .crisis, terminated the ~8th May 1793, m the 69th year of his his life age.on His wife had died m 1777, and he had contracted a second marriage with Mad*'. Reinbeck, the daugh-

B U T 555 ter of a clergyman at Berlin. By the first mar- Busching nage, lie had two children, who survived him ; by II the second, he had six, who, except one, all died infancy. Few authors, even in Germany, have produced a greater number of works than Busching. The entire number, as enumerated by Meusel, in his Lexicon oj German Authors, amounts to more than a hundred. I hey may all be classed under the following heads: 1. Geography and History. 2. Education. 3. Religion. 4. Biography. The first c ass comprehends those upon which his fame chiefly rests. He possessed not, indeed, the geographical genius, if we may so speak, of D’Anviile; his skill in the construction of maps, his quick eye, or his sagacity in eliciting the truth from hints and imperfect notices. He may be regarded, however, as the creator of modern Statistics,—that science which exhibits the present state of every kingdom, its civil and political constitution, its wealth, the productions of nature, the exchanges of commerce, and the establishments for public instruction: all these particulars are detailed in his works in the fullest manner, and from the most careful investigation of original materials. His works, devoid of the ornaments of style, and composed of minute details, are rather useful to consult, than profitable to read ; but this is a fault to which most writers of his country are iiable. His grand work is the Neue Erdheschreibuns, Aeu> Geographical Description of the Globe. The four first parts, which comprehend Europe, were published in four successive volumes, from 1754 to 1761, and have been translated into all the European languages. They appeared in English, with a premce by Murdoch, in six volumes 4to, London, 1762. He published also in 1768 the fifth part, being the first volume upon Asia, containing Asiatic Turhen and Arabia. It displays an immense extent of research, and is generally considered as his masterpiece; but has not been translated either into French or Eng-

Besides this great geographical work, Busching was the editor of a valuable collection, entitled Magaztne for the History and Geography of modern times, 82 vols. 4to. 1767-88 ; also of a Journal anpi opr late d to the Notice of Maps, Berlin, 1773-87. The elementary works on education, published by Busching, are very numerous, and have Jong held a distinguished place, even in a country so eminent as Germany, in this branch of literature. If m some departments, better works have now been produced, it is by labouring on the foundation of Busching. His theological writings are not very highly esteemed. In biography, he wrote a number o articles for the Historical Magazine; also A Collection of Biography, in six volumes, 1783-0 including a very elaborate life of the great Fre& derick. , X BUTESHIRE, a county on the west coast of Scotland in the Firth of Clyde, comprehends the Islands of Bute, Arran, the Cumbraes, Inchmarnoch, and a few smaller islets. Bute, which gives name to the county, is sepa- Situation rated by a narrow channel from the district of Cow-and Extert.

556 B U T Buteshire, al in Argyleshire. It is about 15 miles long, and 31 miles broad, but so much indented by the sea that the heads of some of the bays on the opposite sides of the island are not more than a mile distant; and it contains nearly 30,000 acres, of which more than a half is susceptible of cultivation. Ihe country is generally low, few of its hills rising more than 200 feet above the sea. The climate, though very moist, is so mild as to be compared with that of Devonshire ; and the soil is for the most part dry, and naturally fertile. Agriculture. A former Marquis of Bute, to whom seven-eighths of the island belonged, began, so early as 1758, to promote the improvement of the island and its inhabitants ; but his plans, though apparently well calculated for this purpose, do not seem to have effected any favourable alteration, probably owing to his absence from the country, and to his time having been engrossed by public aftairs. The present Marquis, however, has within these few years displayed a very laudable attention to the same object. An eminent agriculturalist has been employed to survey the island, and to point out the defects in its husbandry in a small treatise which is distributed gratis; and young men have been sent to the border counties, as apprentices to some of the best farmers in that district, to whom the noble proprietor means to give a preference as tenants. All the crops common in the lowlands of Scotland are cultivated in Bute; and, though modern husbandry be yet in its infancy, its progress in the southern parts of the island, where the land is enclosed with white-thorn hedges, is by no means inconsiderable. Minerals. Slate and limestone are found in various quarters of the island, from which also there is ready access to the noted limestone quarries in the north of Ireland. Coal has not yet been discovered. Beds of sea-shells abound on the western side, and vast quantities of sea-weed are thrown upon its shores. Fisheries. The herring-fishery was formerly prosecuted by the inhabitants of Bute with great success; but of late it has declined, and at present does not much interfere with agriculture, as it is chiefly confined to the town of Ilothsay, White fish and shell fish, though abounding on the coast, have been hitherto much neglected. In the town of Rothsay, the principal town of Buteshire, from which the heir apparent to the British throne takes the title of a Scottish duke, there has been a cotton manufactory for several years. The vessels belonging to this port in 1812 carried 5195 tons ; and it has a regular communication by packets with Greenock, and by a daily mail-boat with Largs in Ayrshire. Ruins. In the ruins of the castle of Rothsay, the principal residence of the Stuarts, ancestors of the present family of Bute, till it was burned in 1(585, are still pointed out the bedchambers and banquetting rooms of Robert II. and III. the last Scottish monarchs who inhabited this venerable pile. Mount Stuart, the seat of the Marquis of Bute, from which he takes his second title, is an elegant house, with fine woods and pleasure-grounds, situated about two hundred yards from the eastern shore, and commanding a delightful view of the navigation of the Firth of Clyde, and of the opposite shore.

BUT Arran, lying about twelve miles south from Buiesliire. Bute,, is something more than twenty miles long and from eight to eleven miles broad; and contains, by Arran, the latest estimation, more than 100,000 acres, of which only a seventh part may be fit for cultivation. It is an extremely rugged and mountainous country, particularly the northern part, in which the valleys are deep and romantic. Goatfield, a mountain Surface, nearly in the centre of the island, is about 3000 feet high, and a few others approach to the same elevation. The climate, in winter, is exceedingly severe ; and, like that of all the other western isles, moist during the other seasons. With the exception of a few farms, the whole island belongs to the Duke of Hamilton, who has very lately begun to take an interest in its improvement, and expended a considerable sum in making roads, bridges, and small harbours. Game is in great abundance, particularly grouse, which are surprisingly numerous on the mountains. Limestone, marl, and slate, are found in different parts, and there are indications of coal also. The herring fishery is prosecuted to great advantage. Arran has two remarkably fine harbours, Harbour?, oaet ci/tc amt T.nph Ttanza T nmloch north. Its agriculture does not seem to have im-Agricirtproved much since the time when Pennant visited it. ture. The arable land of a farm is still occupied in intermixed ridges, or what in Scotland is called ruinrig, by a society of tenants, who interchange their possessions every year, or every two years at the longest; and, adjoining to this portion, a common pasture is allotted for their cows, under the charge of a herd. The highest grounds are held in commonty by the tenantry at large; and, as soon as the crops are removed, the live-stock pasture indiscriminately over the whole island. See the Article Arran in the Encyclopcedia. The Cumbraes are two small islands on the coast Cumbraes. of Ayrshire, but do not, as has been inadvertently stated in the article Ayrshire, make a part of that county. The largest, which belongs to the Marquis of Bute and the Earl of Glasgow, contains about four square miles, of which a half is cultivated; and the smallest, the property of the Earl of Eglinton, only one mile, on which there is a light-house, with four or five families, and a great number of rabbits. Inchmarnoch, a beautiful islet, lies to the south- Inclimarwest of Bute, and takes its name from a chapel on nochit, dedicated to St Marnoch, of which the ruins are still visible. Its surface is less than a square mile, and about a third of it is cultivated. Pladda, another islet belonging to Buteshire, Pladda. is about a mile to the east of Bute. A lighthouse was erected on it a few years ago. The only other islet worthy of notice in this county is Lamlash, which covers the harbour of that name in Arran. The county of Bute sends a Member to Parliament alternately with Caithness; and Rothsay, the only royal burgh it contains, unites with Ayr, Irvine, Campbelton, and Inverary, in electing a Member for the boroughs. The valued rental, according to the Valued and books of the collector of the land-tax, is in Scots ®ent’ money L. 15,042, 13s. 10d., divided among only

BUT Buteshire eleven estates ; and that of the lands held under enCabanis. tail is a third of the whole. The real rent in 1811 was, for the lands L. 18,591, 9s. 2d., and for the

BUT 557 houses L. 2810, Is. 7d. Sterling. The following Buteshire tables exhibit an abstract of the returns made under - II . the Population Acts of 1800 and 1811. -abanis.

1800. HOUSES.

PERSONS.

By how many Families occupied. 1911

2501

OCCUPATIO NS.

Persons chiefly emMales. Females, ployed in Agriculture. 17

5552

6239

3l6l

Persons All other chiefly em- Persons ployed in comprisednot Trade, Ma- the two nufactures, in preceding or Handi- classes. craft. 4821

3809

Total of Persons.

11,791

1811. HOUSES.

PERSONS.

By how many Families occupied. 2047

2618

OCCUPATIONS.

Families chiefly emMales. Females. ployed in Agriculture. 38

5545

6488

1214

Families chiefly employed in Trade, Manufactures, or Handicraft. 530

\ll other Families not comprised Total of in the two Persons. preceding classes. 874

12,033 (A.)

CAB CABANIS (Peter John George), a distinguished Writer and Physician at Paris, was born at Conac in 1757* His father, John Baptiste Cabanis, was a lawyer of eminence, and chief Magistrate of a district in the lower Limousin; highly respected for his extensive knowledge and inflexible integrity, and entitled to the gratitude of his country for the many improvements he has introduced in agriculture and farming. He brought the culture of the vine to great perfection in his province, and introduced a mixed breed of sheep, by crossing the Spanish with those of Limousin and Berri. France is more particularly indebted to him, however, for the successful methods he discovered of grafting fruit trees, and also for contributing to render more general the use of the potatoe in the southern provinces. He was exceedingly anxious that his son, the subject of the present article, and who had given early indications of talent, should have the advantage of a learned education; and, accordingly, placed him, when only seven years old, under the tuition of a neighbouring priest. It was remarked, that, even at this early age, he had acquired habits of steadiness and perseverance, from which, under proper direction, the best results might be expected. At the age of ten, he entered the college of Brive, where the severity of discipline to which he was subjected, had an injurious effect upon his temper, and fostered that ha-' bitual impatience of restraint which formed part of

his character, and which afterwards so frequently operated to interrupt his progress. When raised to the second class, he was fortunate in meeting with a master whose kind treatment soon softened a disposition, which harshness only had rendered stubborn and intractable. He was not only reconciled to study, but applied to it with the utmost diligence, and became passionately fond of the great models of poetry and eloquence that were put into his hands. At a later period, being again exposed to the rigorous control of one of the heads of the college, his spirit was again roused; he came to the determination of provoking the anger of his master, and even suffeied himself to be accused of a fault of which he was innocent, in the hope that he might get expelled. Persisting in this extraordinary'mode of conduct, he soon accomplished his object, and was sent back to his father. But far from* enjoying any relaxation under the paternal roof, he now found himself under a subjection still more rigorous and insupportable than that from which he had managed to escape. Indignant at the yoke imposed upon him he relapsed into his habits of obstinacy, and would do nothing. After a year had thus passed in sullenness, his father became sensible that other measures than those of severity must be tried, and adopted the bold expedient of taking him to Paris and leaving him there, at the age of fourteen, without any restraint on his actions, or even commissioning

558 C A B Cahanis. any one to superintend his conduct. The experiment was hazardous in the extreme; but it was attended with complete success. Young Cabanis no sooner felt himself at full liberty to do as he pleased, than his love of literature revived, and he engaged with ardour in the pursuit. He had formerly paid n® attention to the lectures of his professors ; but he now, of his own accord, resumed those branches of his education in which he had remained deficient, and prosecuted them with the same perseverance which throughout marked his character. He devoted himself entirely to the cultivation of his mind, and associated only with a few chosen companions of his own age, who had a congenial taste for literature, and an equal desire of improvement. Thus constantly occupied, two years passed away with a rapidity which astonished him, when he received a letter from his father, offering him the place of secretary to a Polish nobleman of high rank. He had now to choose between accepting a situation, which, although it would totally interrupt his present pursuits, might give him the power of resuming them at some future period, or returning to his family, where he felt that all his exertions must be paralysed, and his hopes blighted by neglect. He embraced, therefore, without hesitation, the offer made to him, and, though only sixteen, committed himself into the hands of strangers, in a distant country, which was represented to him as in a state of barbarism. This was in 1773, the year during which that Diet was sitting, which was to deliberate upon giving its sanction to the first partition of Poland. The corrupt intrigues and compulsory measures which were practised on that occasion, gave him an insight into the affairs of the world peculiarly revolting to a youthful and generous mind, and inspired him with a contempt for mankind, and a degree of misanthropic gloom, which are generally the fruits of a later experience of human depravity. He returned to Paris two years after, when Turgot, the friend of his father, was Minister of Finance. On being presented to him, he was received with kindness, and would soon have been placed in a situation perfectly conformable to his tastes and wishes, had not a court intrigue produced the sudden downfal of the minister. Thus, the only fruits which he had gathered from his travels, were the knowledge of the German language, and a premature acquaintance with the world. He now felt the necessity of making up for the time he had lost, and again applied to his studies with his former ardour. His father feeling it incumbent upon him to second his efforts, secured to him the means of subsistence for two or three years longer, which was all that Cabanis desired. He had contracted a friendship with the poet Roucher, who possessed some celebrity. This connection rekindled his taste for poetry ; and the French Academy, having proposed, as a prize subject, the translation of a passage in the Iliad* he not only ventured to appear as competitor, but set about translating the entire poem. The two specimens which he sent to the Academy, did not obtain any public notice; but they were judged of favourably by several persons of taste ;• and some other frag-

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ments that were published among the notes to the Cabanis. poem Des Mois, met with general approbation. He received the approbation of those critics who wrere the dispensers of literary fame in Paris, and was introduced at once into a large circle of acquaintance, where he was everywhere greeted with acclamation. He w as soon, however, sensible of the emptiness of these applauses ; and dissatisfied with successes that offered no prospect of solid advantage, he sunk into a state of melancholy, which, together with his excessive application to study, began visibly to prey upon his constitution. His father now urged him to choose a useful profession, and he at length decided for that of medicine, which, embracing such various objects of study, presented an ample field for the exertions of his active mind, while it necessitated that degree of bodily exercise, which had become so necessary for the preservation of his health. Dubreuil, whose counsels had had much influence with him in forming this determination, offered to be his guide in the new and arduous career which he was commencing. Cabanis continued for six years the pupil of this able master, following his steps both in his hospital and private practice, and conducting his studies conformably to his instructions. In 1789 he published Observations sur les Hopitaux; a wmrk which procured him the appointment of Administrator of Hospitals at Paris. His state of health, in the midst of his laborious professional exertions, requiring occasional relaxation in the country, he fixed upon Auteuil, in the immediate vicinity of Paris, as his place of residence. It was there that he became acquainted with the widow of Helvetius, and ever after cherished for that excellent woman the affection of a son, as she, on her part, fulfilled towards him the duties of the kindest mother. He spent all his leisure hours in her society ; and profited by the opportunity her house afforded him of cultivating the acquaintance of the most distinguished literary meu of that period. He continued his intercourse with Turgot, was on terms of intimacy with Condillac, Thomas, and D'Alembert ; and acquired the friendship of Holbach, Franklin, and Jefferson. During the last visit which Voltaire made to Paris, Cabanis was presented to him by Turgot, and read to him part of his translation of the Iliad, which that acute critic, though old, infirm, and fatigued with his journey, listened to with great interest, and bestowed much commendation on the talents of the author. Cabanis had now, however, long ceased to occupy himself with that work, and fully engaged with the studies and duties, of his profession, had renounced the cultivation of letters. He even bade a formal adieu to poetry in his Serment d'un Medecin, which appeared in 1783, and is a free imitation of the Greek of Hippocrates, but is more remarkable as exhibiting the author in the light of a zealous friend to liberty. Political interests were now, indeed, beginning to engross the general attention, and the muses were deserted amidst the contentions of parties, the din of arms, and the various anxieties and passions, which were called into play during this eventful period. Cabanis espoused with enthusiasm the cause of the revolution, to. which he was attached from principle.

CAB CAB 559 Cabams^ and of which the opening prospects were so congethe policy of Buonaparte, and had constantly reject- Cabana, nial to his active and ardent mind. But however he 1 may have shared in the intoxication which seized its ed all his solicitations to accept of a place under his ' ^y earJy partizans, it is certain that he had no partici- government. For some years before his death, his health bepation in the criminal excesses which followed, and came gradually more impaired, in consequence of which have left so indelible a stain upon the history the exertions and anxieties he had undergone; and J ot those times. in the spring of 1807, he had a slight apoplectic at. Puring the two last years of Mirabeau’s life, he was tack, from which he soon recovered. He took intimately connected with that extraordinary man, who had the singular art of pressing into his service however, the warning that was thus given him, and retired from the laborious duties of his profession, the pens of all his literary friends, whom he engaged spending the greatest part of his time at the chateau to furnish him with their ideas, in writing, on the of his father-in-law, at Meulan, about thirty miles political topics of the day, that he might afterwards from Pans. Here he again solaced himself with combine them as he chose, and adopt them as his own. Cabanis united himself with this disinterested reading his favourite poets, and even had it in conto resume his translation of the Iliad, association of labourers, and contributed the Tra- templation had been the first effort of his youthful muse! mil sur Veducation publique,—* tract which was which The rest of his time was devoted to acts of kindness found among the papers of Mirabeau at his death, and beneficence, especially towards the poor, who and was edited by the real author soon after, in flocked from all parts to consult him on their com■^ur*n& t^ie iHness which terminated his life, plaints. Increasing infirmity now made him sensiMirabeau confided himself entirely to the profession- ble that his life was drawing near to a close, and he al skill of Cabanis; and though repeatedly and stiongly urged, as his danger increased, to have was fond of conversing on the subject of his apfarther medical assistance, constantly refused to have proaching end,-—an event which he always contemplated with perfect serenity of mind. A more comrecourse to any other advice. Of the progress of plete attack of his disorder, at length, carried him tiie malady, and the circumstances attending the off, on the 5th of May 1808, when he had attained death of Mirabeau, Cabanis has drawn up a very de- his fifty-second year. He left a widow and one tailed narrative, which, whatever proof it may afford daughter to lament the loss of one. who united to of the warmth of his friendship for his patient, is not the ornaments of a highly cultivated mind, the greatcalculated to impress us with any high idea of his skill m tiie treatment of an acute inflammatory dis- est sensibility and benevolence of heart. J Besides the tracts already mentioned, he was auease. thor of several other works. The only one amonoCondorcet was another distinguished character ^ purely of a literary nature, is the with whom Cabanis was on terms of intimacy. The Melanges de Litterature Allemande, ou Choix de calamitous events of the Revolution, and the relent- traductions de l Alleviand, &c. Paris, 8vo, 1797. It less persecution which the former was suffering from is dedicated to Madame Helvetius, and consists of the party which had gained the ascendancy, tended only to unite them still more closely in the ties of translations of different works of Meisner,—of a drama of Goethe’s entitled Stella,—of Gray’s Elegq friendship; and Cabanis exerted every means in his on a Country Church-Yard,—vn& of the Idyl of power to avert his impending fate. But all his Bion on the Death of Adonis. His work, Du degre efforts were unavailing; and he had only the melan- de certitude de la Medecine, appeared in the same choly consolation of preserving the last writings of year, and a second edition was published in 1808 his unfortunate friend, and of collecting his dying containing a republication of his Observations sur les wishes relative to his wife and children. Soon after this event he married Charlotte Grouchy, sister to Hopitaux, and his Journal de la Maladie et de la Mort de Mirabeau l ante; together with a short Madame Condorcet, and to General Grouchy ; a tract on the punishment of the guillotine, in which union which was a great source of happiness to him he combats the opinion of Soemmerring, CElsuer, and during the remainder of his life. Sue, that sensibility remains for some time after deAfter the subversion of the government of the capitation. This tract had already appeared in the Materrorists, on the establishment of central schools, gazin Encyclopedique, and in the first volume of the Cabanis was named Professor of Hygiene, in the Memoires de la Societe Medicale d*Emulation. This medical schools of the metropolis. He was chosen new edition also contains his Rapport fait au Conseil member of the National Institute the next year, and on the following, was appointed Clinical Professor. des Cinq-cents sur VOrganisation des ecolcs de Mede; and a long dissertation entitled, Quelques prinHe was afterwards member of the Council of Five cine cipes et quelques vues sur les secours publiques. In Hundred, and then of the Conservative Senate. The 1799> he published Qiielques Considerations sur l’Ordissolution of the Directory was the result of a mo- ganisation sociale en general, et particulierement sur tion which he made to that effect. But his political la nouvelle Constitution, 12mo. His principal work career was not of long continuance. He was pro- however, is that entitled, Des Rapports du Physique foundly affected at the turn wdiich the affairs of his et dii' Moral de l Homme, 1803, in two volumes 8vo ; country were taking, so unfavourable to the cause of consisting of twelve essays, the first six of which had liberty, and so dispiriting to the friends of humanity ; been presented to the National Institute, and were and the latter years of his life were, in consequence, inserted in the two first volumes of their Memoirs deeply tinctured with melancholy. A foe to tyran- in the Class of Moral and Political Sciences. This ny under every shape, he was decidedly hostile to work was reprinted in the following year, with the

.560 CAB Cabanis addition of £i copious analytical tabic of its contents II by M. Destutt-Tracy, and alphabetical indexes by Sl'ZZ- M. Sue. His Coup d'ceil sur les Revolutions et les Of this reformes de la Medecine, came out in 1803. work we possess an excellent English translation, with notes, by Dr Henderson. His only practical work on medicine is the Observations sur les Affections Catarrhales en general, et particulierement sur celles connues sous le nom de rhumes de cerveau, et rhumes de poitrine, 8vo, 1807- He wrote many interesting articles in the Magazin Encyclopedique. Several of his speeches to the Legislative Assembly arc given at full length in the columns of the Moniteur. (w.) CABINET-MAKING, see Joinery. Extent and CAERMARTHENSHIRE, a county in South Surface. "Wales, containing 926 square miles, or about 590,640 acres. The northern and eastern parts are mountainous. Near the sea the land is flat, but the general surface of the county is hilly. It is intersected in almost every direction by valleys, from the sides of which the hills rise abruptly. These valleys are, for the most part, very narrow. The most celebrated for fertility and picturesque beauty, as well as the most extensive, is the vale of Towy, which stretches thirty miles up the county, with a breadth of only two miles. From the celebrated Grongar Hill, and the ruins of the Castle of Dynevor, the picturesque beauty of this vale are seen to the greatest advantage. Rivers. The principal rivers in Caermarthenshire are the Towy, the Teivy or Tair, the Cotby, the Dulas, and the Gwilly. The Towy rises in Cardiganshire. It enters Caermarthenshire, at its north-eastern corner, crossing towards the south-west, and, passing Caermarthen, it empties itself into the large bay, between the counties of Glamorgan and Pembroke, called Caermarthen Bay. Many rivulets join the Towy in its course, among which is the Cothy. This stream rises on the north side of the county, and, running mostly in a southern direction, unites with the Towy about six miles above Caermartben. The Teivy rises in Cardiganshire, between which county and Caermarthenshire it afterwards forms the boundary; soon after receiving the Keach, it enters the county of Pembroke. Ports. The principal ports in this county are Llanelly, Kidivelly, Caermarthen, and Llaugharne. Llanelly has a good port for vessels of ten feet draught, formed by an inlet of the sea called Burry River, which divides this county and Glamorgansliire. Llanelly is the port of entry of Kidwelly and Caermarthen: its experts are coal and tinned iron plates. Kidwelly is situated on two small streams, called Givandraeth, which form a little haven, but mostly choked with sand. From this town a canal has been cut, at the expence of a private gentleman, between three and four miles long, to his coal-mines and lime-quarries ; and, by means of this canal, Kidwelly has been enabled to export a considerable quantity of coals. Vessels of 250 tons burden ascend to the bridge of the town of Caermarthen on the Towy, but the entrance of the river is rather difficult, in consequence of a bar across it. The principal exports of Caermarthen are tin plates and cast-iron. Llaugharne, on a creek, is chiefly remarkable for a considerable

CAE flat tract in the vicinity, embanked from the sea, and Caermar. of singular fertility. ► 1 Oienshire. The climate of this county is soft and mild, but moist; the soil of the lower districts is fertile, being Climate, for the most part either a rich clay, or a sharp or deep loam. Little w'heat is growm ; and, except on Agriculthe lighter soils, barley is not a common crop ; but tine, oats are extensively cultivated, and in respect both of produce and quality, are a very profitable crop: Great quantities are exported, chiefly to Bristol. The pasture land, especially where the soil is suitable, support a heavy stock ; they are applied either to the dairy, or to the breeding of black-cattle and horses. The latter are reared in great numbers on the hills, and constitute the principal article of trade at the fairs of this and the adjacent counties. Much butter is exported. It is computed that 114,000 acres are in tillage ; and about double that number in pasture; the rest is unfit for cultivation, though by no means unprofitable. According to the original agricultural report of this county, there are only about 170,000 acres of wastes and commons. This r county was formerly extremely well wooded; but, E of late years, great waste has been made of the timber. Its rivers and sea-coast abound in fish, especially salmon of excellent quality, and a species of trout, called Suen, in high request with epicures. Caermarthenshire is rich in mineral productions. Minerals. Coals and lead are the most abundant and profitable. The greatest lead-mines are not far from Llandowry. Limestone also abounds, and there are considerable quantities of iron ore. The sands in the vicinity of Llaugharne, according to Mr Donovan, abound in j,,, shells of great rarity and beauty. On the road from Caermarthen to Llandillo Vawr, a medicinal spring has lately been discovered, containing carbonic acid gas; carbonate of iron, and lime; muriate of soda and lime; and sulphate of lime. At KastellKarreg there is a fountain, which ebbs and flows twice in twenty-four hours. There are several remains of antiquity, chiefly Roman, to be seen in Caerraarthenshire. The inhabitants, who are not engaged in agricul- Mannfacture, are principally employed in working the mines,tures' in manufacturing the produce of these mines, or in making woollen stockings. The most extensive manufactures of tinned iron-plates are carried on at Kidwelly; here are also other manufactures of iron, for which there are large and excellent furnaces, forges, flatting-mills, &c. Tinned-plates and castiron are also manufactured at Caermarthen, and the works in both branches are extensive. In the neighbourhood of Llandowry, the woollen-stocking manufactory principally prevails. The money raised for the maintenance of the poor Poor-rates, in 1803 was L.l7,046, at the rate of 12s. 9d. in the pound. In the year ending the 25th of March 1815, there was paid, in parochial rates, the sum of L.30,354, 6s. 9|fl. from 83 parishes alone, the remaining 43 not having made any return. By the Popelatio!)population returns, in the year 1800, there were 13,449 inhabited houses, 67,317 inhabitants, 31,439 males, and 35,878 females; of this number 32,862 were returned as employed in agriculture, and 4343 as 10

CAE Caermat* employed in trade. The following are the results of thenshire the last population-return, in 1811 : Caernarvonshire. Inhabited houses, 14,856 Families inhabiting them, 16,083 Houses building, 113 uninhabited, 333 Families employed in agriculture, 9878 in trade and manufactures, 5256 — not included in these heads, 949 Males, 36,080 Females, . 41,137

CAE 561 streams. The mountain of Snowdon is composed of Caemarvanous cliffs of different heights ; the altitude of the vonsl>i>'e. highest point of the mountain is about 3600 feet from the high-water mark on Caernarvon quay.Snowdo,iSnow lies all the year in the hollows near the top of Snowdon, the temperature here being very low, even in the middle of summer. On the morning of the 5th of July 1795, just after sunrise, Mr Aikin observed the thermometer at 34, whereas in the vale of Beddgelest, at seven in the morning, it was at 62; at one in the afternoon it had reached only 48 on the top of Snowdon. The principal rivers in Caernarvonshire are the Rivers. Conway and the Seiont. The first rises from a lake Total population in 1811, 77,217 on the confines of Denbigh, Merioneth, and Caerin 1800, 67,317 narvon. Its course is nearly in a northerly direction, along the east side of the county, for about Increase, 9,900 twenty-four miles, when it empties itself into the See Agricultural Report of South Wales.—Malkin’s sea, at the town of the same name ; it is half a mile Scenery, cf South Wilies.—iLvans’s Tour.—Donovan’s wide at the lash at high-water; and not above fifty Excursions. ic \ yards at low, the remaining space being sand-banks, CAERNARVONSHIRE, a county in North which, at high-water, are covered twelve feet. ,danes ^!" * Wales, is divided by the Conway from Denbigh- These sands still abound in the pearl muscle, as they shire ; from part of Merionethshire by a rivulet; did in the time of the Romans, but they have been from Anglesea by the straits of Menai: the re- long neglected. The Conway is navigable for about sidue is bounded by the sea. In figure it is very twelve miles. Ihe Seiont rises from a lake near irregular, a great peninsulated point running out Snowdon; its course is westward, and it discharges from it to the south-west. From the extremity of itself into the Menai Straits at Caernarvon. The this point, the length is 45 miles; the breadth bar admits vessels of about 300 tons into the haven. varies extremely; its circumference is about 150 . ^ie sea coast of this county presents many ob-Sea Coast miles. It contains, from a late survey, 300,000 jects worthy of notice. Traeth Bach, and Traeth acres of land, of which, by one account, about Mawr, are two inlets of the sea having one entrance, 200,000, and, by another account, only 160,000 are and each receiving a little river; the greatest part of in a state of cultivation. them are dry at low-water, and become quicksands. tnface. This county is the most mountainous in Wales. They he between Caernarvonshire and MerionethIts central part is entirely occupied by Snowdon, shire, but as they seem more properly to belong to and its subordinate mountains, extending from near the latter county, the attempts of Mr Maddocks to Conway in the north-east to the shore that bounds embank the sands of Traeth Mawr, will more prothe Perthorian road, including the Rhifel ridges. perly be noticed under Merionethshire. Passing The Snowdon mountains are connected with another from this county into Caernarvonshire, the first seachain of hills, which approach the sea at Aberda- port is Pwllheli, on an inlet which receives three or ron. Among these are very deep passes, forming four rivulets. It has a considerable coasting trade narrow valleys, through which numerous streams, is- in small vessels. St ludwell’s bay is sheltered by suing from various lakes, rush in some places with two small islands. To it succeeds the bay named great violence. The highest region of the moun- Hell’s Mouth, from the height and form' of the tainous district is covered with snow, during the shores, which cause the wind to blow continually greatest part of the year; the middle region affords into it, while there is also a constant in-draught of fuel and pasturage, though the woods which once the current. The promontory of Lyn extends to clothed it are nearly exhausted. The bases of the the west of the mass of mountains, that occupy the mountains and the valleys are in general temperate space between the west entrance of the Menai, and and fertile. The vale of Conway is the most exten- Traeth Mawr. At the extremity of this promontosive in the county; it is a long and narrow tract, ry lies the Isle of Bardsey, two miles long, and one equally romantic and beautiful, through which the mile broad ; the tides run with great rapidity beriver of the same name runs. At first it is very tween this island and the promontory. The o^ulf narrow, but it gradually widens to the breadth of a between the peninsulated hundred of Lyn 2nd mile. Its extent is about twenty miles, terminating Anglesea is called the bay of Caernarvon. It is at the town of Conway. It affords rich pasturage, lined by the high ridge of Snowdon. The only especially near Llanwost, where it is formed into the port on this coast is Porthyn Lyn, formed by a long finest meadows, corn-fields, and groves,—and exhi- point of land jutting into the sea, and sheltering 5 bits a striking and pleasing contrast to the bleak re- cone on the west. Port Penryhn, on a small rivulet, gions of Snowdon frowning above it. has been recently enlarged into a haven for vessels The general escarpment of the mountains, which of 300 or 400 tons; from it are exported immense rise from the sea towards the centre of this county, quantities of slate, from Lord Penryhn’s estate in fronts the sea- But the particular escarpment of the this county, to the amount of 500 tons a-week when detached groups, depends upon the course of the the demand is great. About seven miles to the VOL. II. PART II. 4B

562 CAL Caernar- west-south-west of Conway, on the 1’oad from that vonsliire. town to Bangor, is the stupendous precipice of Penmaen Mawr, the last of the long Caernarvon chain. It is 1400 feet perpendicular from its base, and, according to Mr Caswell, who was employed by Mr Flamstead the astronomer to measure it, 154/5 feet above the beach at low-water. In 1/72, application was made to Parliament to improve and secure the road across this precipice, which was accordingly done ; and there is now a good road, on a ledge of the rock, defended by a wall five feet high. The county of Caernarvon is terminated by the lofty round promontory, called Llandudno, or the Great Orme’s Head, on the east of the Conway river. It is a fine sheepwalk, ending in a steep precipice over the sea, which is hollowed into various inaccessible caverns. AgriculIn consequence of the elevated surface of the tare. greatest part of the county, and its cold, piercing, and damp atmosphere, there is little corn grown in it. Near the sea, however, and in some of the vales, barley of fine quality is grown ; and in some of the higher districts, oats are cultivated. The vales yield a little meadow grass for hay, which is got in without the aid of wheel-carriages, the uneven surface of the ground not admitting their use. Sheep and black cattle, however, constitute the principal agricultural stock of the Caernarvonshire farmers. The former are pastured on the mountains, which, in general, are commons ; and the latter on the low'er grounds. A considerable quantity of cheese, made from the mixed milk of ewes and cows, is made. From the peninsulated hundred of L}rn, which is in general flat, oats, barley, cheese, and black-cattle, are exported ; of the last, about 3000 annually. The numerous herds of goats, which used to frequent the rocky districts of this county, are now nearly extinct. There are some profitable orchards in the vales, but in general the climate is very unfavourable to fruittrees. MineraloCaernarvonshire is an interesting county to the Mineralogist; but we can only very briefly notice the principal features of its mineralogy. The highest and interior regions of the Snowdon mountains are composed of granite, porphyry, whin, and other primitive aggregate rocks, inclosing considerable blocks of quartz. The western side of Snowdon itself consists of ironstone, on which are placed basaltic columns, of different lengths, and about four feet in diameter. On each side of the primitive rocks, there are mountainous banks of slate, the coarsest on the eastern, and the finest invariably on the western side of the central ridge. At Nantfrancon are the slate quarries of Lord Penryhn, who has constructed admirable railways from them to Port Penryhn. The banks of slate, growing ■finer as they descend, occupy the country between Snowdon and the Menai, usually terminating within a few hundred yards of its banks. The channel of the Shast, as well as its banks, consists of limestone; breccia, or the fragments of the Snowdon mountains, in a calcareous cement, and hard marl, inclosing shells. The general dip of the strata, in the promontory of Lyn, is to the south-west; on the north coast is chlorite slate and coarse serpentine.

CMS On the former rest beds of primitive argillaceous Cacrnarschistus. The argillaceous schistus in some places V0I*sll:re is largely mixed with carbon, forming a kind ofCfesalpimis. hard drawing slate ; and in others it is penetrated by carbon and pyrites, forming alum slate. No mines have been opened in this district. A hard stone, used instead of brass, for supporting the pivots of light machinery, and another stone, something resembling the French burr, have been found in this county. There are some lead mines near Gwydir ; but the most important and valuable metal found in this county is copper. The richest mines of it are in the vicinity of Llanberis ; it is also found in various parts of the Snowdon mountains; and the green carbonate of copper lies between the limestone strata, in the promontory of Orme’s Head. There are mines of calamine on the Caernarvon side of the river Conway. Many rare vegetables, met with only on the most elevated spots, grow in this county. Some of the steepest crags of the Great Orme’s Head are inhabited by the peregrine falcon. Considerable quantities of fish, particularly herrings, are caught on the shores of this county; and lobsters and oysters are found in great abundance. In some of the lakes are found the char, and the gwyniad, another alpine fish. Foxes are the chief wild animals. The money raised for the poor in 1803 was p0Cr Rates. L. 9137, being at the rate of 4s. Ofd. in the pound. In the year ending the 25th of March 1815, there was paid in parochial rates the sum of L. 15,776, 17s. bd. In 1800, there were 8304 inhabited houses, Population, and 41,521 inhabitants; 19,586 males, and 21,935 females, of whom 12,808 w’ere employed in agriculture, and 4234 in manufactures, trade, and handicrafts. The inhabitants live in a state of the utmost simplicity, manufacturing their clothes from the wrool of their own flocks, and dyeing them with lichens : a little oatmeal added to the produce of their dairies constitutes their food. In 1811, the results of the population returns wrere as follow s: Inhabited houses, Families inhabiting them, Houses building, Houses uninhabited, Families employed in agriculture, in trade, and manufactures, not included in the above head, Males, Females, Total in 1811, —— in 1800, Increase in 1811,

9369 10,187 102 154 6667 2687 833 23.379 25,957 49,336 41,521 7815

See Davie's Agriculture of North Wales.—Aikin’s Tour.—Bingley’s Tour.—Pennant's Tour, Vol. II. (c.) CiESALPINUS (Andrew), one of those great and daring geniuses, who, contending with the mists of a dark age, elicit the most brilliant truths on the one hand, while they sometimes wander into great absurdities on the ether, wras born at Arezzo u

C JE S ^alpinus.in Tuscany in 1519. Of his family nothing is recorded, nor does he appear to have left any progeny, nor to have been ever married. Devoted to the studies of physic and natural philosophy, he attained at length the honour of being physician to Pope Clement VIIl., during the chief part of whose pontificate, from 1592 till his own death in Ki03, at the age of eighty-four, Caesalpinus lived at Kome, in the highest credit and celebrity ; for which, as we trace the circiit^istances of his history, and inquire into his opinions, it seems, at first sight, difficult to account. Eminent talents have seldom proved a shield against persecution. On the contrary, by adding tear to its malice, they have generally tended to envenom its darts. How then could Caesalpinus, a professed Aristotelian, an open unbeliever of revealed religion, whose opinions nearly approached those of Spinosa, exist in the holy court of Rome, which was then beginning to persecute the immortal Galileo! This mystery will but too readily unravel itself. Caesalpinus seems to have been furnished with two distinct philosophical intellects, which, like a good and evil genius, directed him by turns. Under the influence of the one he discovered the circulation of the blood, the sexes of plants, and the only true principles of botanical classification ; under the guidance of the other, he became entangled in the metaphysics of the schools, the dreams of Aristotle, and a philosophic contempt for everything, good or bad, connected with the nonsense he was obliged publicly to respect. It is scarcely necessary to remind the reader, that however brilliant the reign of literature and taste in the golden age of Leo X. and the times which immediately succeeded, true science and experimental philosophy were as yet in the cradle. In this respect the time of Cajsalpinus was “ dark as Erebus,” and the light he struck out was altogether his own. We have no account of this great man, till we find him seated in the botanical chair of the University of Pisa, where also he studied, if he did not teach, anatomy and medicine. His first publication w^as entitled Speculum Artis Mediae Hypocraticum, in which it were too much to expect he should release himself from the shackles of his venerable guide; but he haS|left evident proofs, in a passage often quoted, of his having a clear idea of the circulation of the blood, at least through the lungs. In botany his inquiries were conducted on a more original plan, and their result was one of the most philosophical works in that science, which came from the press at Florence in 1583, in one volume 4 those from the summit of heights which do not exceed that of Vesuvius, Rigi, or Puy-de-Dome. Colossal mountains, such as Chimborago, Antisana, or Mount Rosa, compose so large a mass, that the plains, covered with rich vegetation, are seen only in the immensity of distance, where a blue and vapoury tint is uniformly spread over the landscape. The Peak of Teneriffe, from its slender form and local position, unites the advantages of less lofty summits to those which arise from very great heights. We not only discover from its top a vast expanse of sea, but we see also the forests of Teneriffe, and the inhabited part of the coasts, in a proximity fitted to produce the most beautiful contrasts of form and colouring. The volcano seems as if it crushed, with its mass, the little isle which serves for its basis, and shoots up from the bosom of the waters to a height three times loftier than the region where the clouds float in the summer.” The remarkable transparency of the atmosphere increases greatly the apparent proximity in which the hamlets, vineyards, and gardens on the coast are beheld. The Peak appeared to Humboldt to be composed entirely of volcanic products, without any mixture of primitive rocks. It is peculiarly distinguished by the vast quantity of obsidian, a substance not found in the immediate vicinity of almost any other volcano. It alternates with, and passes into pumice, in a manner which convinced our traveller that pumice was merely tumefied obsidian. These two rocks, together with a porphyry consisting of vitreous lava in a basis of pitchstone, composed the whole upper part of the Peak. Although the crater was entirely silent, yet, near the summit, vapour, which condensed into pure water, issued from different spiracles, called the Nostrils of the Peak. The active volcanos of Teneriffe are considered by Humboldt to be merely lateral eruptions of the great volcano. The only one recently in operation, is the volcano of Cahorra, situated on the west side of the Peak. After a long silence, it began its discharge on the night of the 8th of June 1798. A hollow and stifled sound was first heard, like that of distant thunder; then a louder noise, like that of matter in violent ebullition ; after which another sound, which resembled a great discharge of artillery. A short interval still elapsed, till the liquified substances began to ascend. Four mouths were opened, of which the two highest threw up only redhot stones. The third poured out lava, but slowly; and it is fortunately surrounded by a rampart of \ rocks, the interval between which and the volcano \ must be filled up, before the stream could reach the cultivated fields. Humboldt observed the other islands merely by Aspect of sailing along their coasts. Lancerota exhibited everytlie olheir mark of having been recently overwhelmed by vol-Islail^s' canic agency. This appears to have taken place in 1730, when nine villages were entirely destroyed. The summit of its great volcano did not appear to exceed 300 toises. The coast of Graciosa is distinguished by rocks of basalt 500 or 600 feet high, which frown in perpendicular walls over the ocean,

CAN 604 Canary like the ruins of vast edifices. One of them so ex* Islands. actjy resembled a castle, that the French captain saluted it, and sent a boat on shore to make some inquiries of the governor. All the rocks which Humboldt observed, were thus either volcanic, or of very recent trap formation. M. Broussonnet, however, who spent a long time upon these islands, stated, that Gomera was composed of the primitive rocks of granite and mica slate. The Grand Canary has never been explored; but it struck Humboldt as wearing a different aspect from the rest, its mountains being disposed in parallel chains. Present The eastern side of the Island of Teneriffe is enst ate , °4 tirely naked and barren; but the northern and westand the ern sides are beautiful and fertile. It does not proother duce two-thirds of the corn necessary for its own Islands. consumption, but is supplied from the other islands. Santa Cruz, the capital, is situated on the eastern side ; the convenience of the harbour and situation compensating for the barrenness of the surrounding country.* It supports itself by trade, forming, as it were, a great caravansary between Spain and the Indies. English ships often touch at this port for fresh provisions, which are obtained of excellent quality, though chiefly from the neighbouring island of Canary. The appearance of this city, which exhibits houses of dazzling whiteness, with flat roofs, and windows without glass, stuck against a perpendicular wall of basaltic rocks, appeared very unpleasing to Humboldt. The streets, however, are neat, with foot-walks on each side. The houses within are remarkably spacious; the halls and galleries so extensive as, in M. Bory’s opinion, to exclude the comfortable feeling of a house, and rather to suggest that of an open space. The road is excellent, and forms the chief recommendation of Santa Cruz. The harbour is well built, but the landing difficult and even dangerous. The population is estimated at 8000 souls. Laguna is the nominal capital of Teneriffe, and contains the tribunals belonging to the island; but since the volcano of 1706 destroyed its port of Garachico, then the finest on the island, its commerce has been supplanted by that of Santa Cruz, and it has been in a state of rapid decline. It still, however, contains (jOOO inhabitants. The situation is beautiful, about 350 toises higher than Santa Cruz, and crowned by a wood of laurel, myrtle, and arbutus, which maintains a delightful coolness. The situation of Orotova is still finer, and it is refreshed by numerous rivulets passing even through the streets. Its aspect, however, is gloomy and deserted, and it is chiefly inhabited by a haughty race of nobility. The population amounts to 7000, with 3000 in its port of Santa Cruz. The road is bad. The other islands have been very little examined. The Grand Canary is said to surpass Teneriffe in fertility, but has been much neglected. Its chief town, Cuidad de las Palmas, contains upwards of 9000 inhabitants, and is the ecclesiastical capital of the islands. Lancerota and Fortaventura are the most arid, and their soil so nearly resembles that of the African continent, that the camel has been in* troduced with success.

CAN The following statement is given by Humboldt of Canary the progressive population of the different islands.— Islands II Cannon.

Teneriffe . Grand Canary Palma . . . Lancerota . Fortaventura Gomera . . Terro . . . Total

55 ? •—c 05es

POPULATION in

11 1678.

1745.

1768.

1790.

73 49,112 60,218 66,354 70,000 60 20,458 33,864 41,082 50,000 27 13,892 17,580 19,195 22,600 26 7,210 9,705 10,000 63 7,382 8,863 9,000 14 4373 6,251 6,645 7,400 7 3297 3,687 4,022 5,000 270

136,192 155,866 174,000

The inhabitants are said to be of an active and industrious disposition. They have emigrated in great numbers to the different parts of South America, where they are supposed to be as numerous as in their native islands. They are fond of considering these as a portion of European Spain, to whose literature they have made some not unimportant additions, by the labours of Clavijo, Yieyra, Yriarte, and Betancourt. A most formidable list of prohibited books is exhibited at Laguna, but this only whets their avidity after these forbidden treasures. The chief article of export is wine; of which the average produce in Teneriffe is estimated by M. Bory at 22,000 pipes. Lord Macartney reckons 25,000, and Mr Anderson (in Cook’s Third Voyage) 40,000 ; but this last amount is doubtless greatly exaggerated. A large proportion is consumed in the island; the export, chiefly to Britain and America, amounts to 8000 or 9000 pipes. The other exports are brandy, raw silk, soda, and some fruits, which, however, are not equal in quality to those of Portugal. The revenue amounts to 242,000 piastres. (b.) CANNON, the art of casting. Formerly the mould for casting cannon was of loam, and now is usually made of dry sand. Loam for making Moulds, moulds, is an earth consisting principally of clay. It is passed through sieves and then mixed, whilst wet, with horse dung, cow’s hair, chopped straw, or tow cut short; the loam being mixed up with one of these substances, they are well beat up together on a wooden board with an iron bar; by this addition, the loam becomes susceptible of being dried rapidly without cracking. The most attenuated loam is used for the surface of the mould that is to come in contact with the metal, to the end that the surface may come off smooth. The loam-moulders are a particular class of workmen different from the common sand-moulders. The business to which they are bred, consists in making of loam and of dry sand, the moulds for steam-engine cylinders, pipes for conveying water, boilers, guns and other large articles. Formerly on a tapering wooden spindle, entwined with straw ropes, a model was made of loam, copied 10

605 CANNON. Cannon, exactly from the pattern gun; this model was paint- breech lowermost, sand is beat round it for support, ^Cannon^ ed over with a coat of wood ashes mixed with wa- and the metal is poured in at the top of the head. This method was practised in the Arsenal of Paris in 10 ter means )f formh) ^ * coat, no adhesion took place he Loam- between the convex model and the loam which was 1794. The most approved method of constructing the Dry Sand Moulds. afterwards applied; over this coat of ashes, succesou ins sive coats of loam were applied, each being dried by mould of a gun is in dry sand, and this is the mefire before the next was laid on; the whole was thod now practised in Britain. Guns cast in loam bound externally with longitudinal iron bars, and do not come from the mould with a surface so corwith hoops transversely. Over this carcass of iron, rectly resembling that of the model as those cast in & coait of plaster of Paris was applied,. This was dry sand, and in order to render the surface correct, dried, and then the spindle and its envelope of and to remedy defects, it was always necessary to straw was taken out. The interior convex model subject them to the process of turning. In guns being thus deprived of its core and support, fell to carefully cast in dry sand, the process of turning pieces and was picked out; and then a hollow mould might be dispensed with, the gun would then be of the gun remained. In this way the mould for strengthened by the outer skin of metal which, hathe body of the piece was formed; the moulds for ving cooled more rapidly than the other parts, is the the breech and head were made separately; these hardest; this outer skin is also less liable to rust three parts were joined together so as to form a than the surface laid bare by turning. The mould of complete mould. This method of moulding guns a gun in dry sand, at the same time that it is more required the construction of a new convex model for accurate, is also sooner made and dried than a loamevery gun that was moulded; It was used in the mould. Dry sand-moulding is a part of the busiFrench Government founderies of Douai, Ruelle, ness of the loam-moulder. The sand for dry sand-mouldings is made by mixnear Paris, and Strasburg, in 179Imother The following method of constructing the loam- ing a quantity of sharp refractory sand with water Method. mould, is an improvement on that just mentioned: in which clay ha^ been diluted. After the mixture A model of wood, or to prevent change of form is thoroughly made, if a handful is grasped, and ou by moisture, a model of brass or pewter is made opening the hand the sand retains the form given it, and formed on the turning lathe, with its exte- then the consistence of the mixture is good. The rior surface exactly resembling that of the gun, sand should have the following qualities: Isf, It with its head and the square piece at the casca- should not be fusible by the heat of melted castbel; if the model is of metal, it is made hollow for iron ; if it were, it would adhere to the metal, and the sake of lightness. This model is laid with its make the surface of the gun rough. 2dly, It must longitudinal axis horizontal, and one half immersed be sharp, and composed of angular particles ; if the in a bed of sand; upon that part of the model which particles of the sand were round, it would not hold projects above the sand, successive coats of loam are together on taking out the model. 3dly, It must applied and pressed on the model. When the first not contain too much clay, for in that case it would layer is dried by fire, a second layer is applied and crack in drying. 4sthly, It must contain a certain dried, and so on till the model is covered with a proportion of clay to retain the form that the model coat of loam four or five inches thick. Over this an impresses on it. For dry sand-moulding, a pattern of wood may be The Mode!, iron carcass is applied, and over the carcass another used, turned exactly to the form of the gun; or to coat of loam. The mould with the model in it is now turned, so that the half already covered with avoid expansion from humidity, the model or pattern, loam shall be lowermost. The plain surface of the as it is termed in the founderies, may be of metal. loam which had been in contact with the sand, is Brass or pewter are preferable to iron tor making painted over with a coat of blacking, composed of patterns, as a smooth surface may be more easily finely powdered charcoal mixed with clayed water; given them, so that they may leave a correct imthis prevents the adhesion oi the flat surface with pression and may come out well from the sand. the loam that is to be laid on it. A layer of loam The metallic pattern is hollow, that it may be lighter is applied upon the naked half of the model. This is and more easily handled; it is in different pieces; dried, and several more layers are applied succes- each piece fits into the adjacent piece by a rabbet. The length of each piece of the model should be sively. A carcass is put over the loam corresponding to the carcass of the first half, so that these two a very little greater than the given length of the carcasses can be bound together with bolts and corresponding part of the gun; because the length wedge-formed keys, with screw-bolts and nuts, or of the mould is the length of the gun whilst hot; tied with iron-wire. When the loam is dry, the and this is longer than the length of the gun when upper half of the mould is lifted ofl, the model is it comes to the temperature of the atmosphere, at taken out, and the interior surfaces of both parts of which temperature the dimensions of the guns are It has been estimated that some kinds of the mould are painted over with blacking; this pre- given. vents the loam from being melted, and from adher- cast-iron contract six-hundredths of an inch in a ing to the hot metal. The two halves of the mould foot, in passing from the liquid state to the temperaof the atmosphere. This contraction is not are then put together, and the carcasses are firmly ture connected by their bolts; the whole is thoioughly considerable enough to be taken into consideration dried by fire. When dried, the mould is placed ver- in the diameter of the pattern. The shrinking of tically in the pit of the casting house, with the the sand in drying, though not considerable, tends like-

606

CANNON. nnor lse ^f ‘ ^ to make the piece shorter, and is another mo- may be flush with the box; if this were not done, Ciinnon: t tive for making the pattern a little longer than the there would be an interval between the adjacent dimensions taken from a gun at the usual tempera- surfaces of the sand, through which the metal would ture. The patterns of the trunions are attached to pass and form a fin. the pattern of the second reinforce by screws, so as When every part is moulded, the box is taken to Drying, to be unscrewed and separated when the pattern is pieces, and the parts of the pattern are carefully Stove, to be lifted out of the sand. taken out of the sand, for which purpose they are Gun Boxes. The gun-box, in which the dry sand mould IS first struck with a wooden mallet. Each part of the to be formed* is of castmould is then carried separately to the stove to drv. iron, and cast in sand. It The stove is a room 12 or 15 feet square, with large consists of several portions ; iron doors on one side; the fire is made in a large each of these portions has conical grate placed on the middle of the floor ; the flanges by which it is fixed to smoke issues by an aperture in the brick ceiling. C the others, and the whole, The heat in this stove is considerable, but it must when connected together, not be so great as to make the boxes red hot, for xQl. form the gun-box. In the then, by the expansion of the iron, the mould would flanges arc holes through be injured; the moulds take about 15 hours to dry which bolts are passed; the in this situation. When the moulds are taken out r bolts are secured by wedgeof the stove, their interior surface is painted over r formed keys ; thus the differwith a coat of blacking, that there may be no adheent parts of the box are firmsion between the mould and the metal. ly held together. The two 3 The pieces of the gun-box containing the mould Putting to- P1 portions of the gun-box which are then taken to the pit, and being carefully placed seihcr Hie ^ contain the breech-ring and the one upon the other by the crane, they are put _rfh_l Lrfh_ cascabel are single, not being together and secured by their bolts. The mould is divided longitudinally. Each placed with the breech undermost; the axis of the of the other five transverse mould is made perpendicular to the horizon by a B B portions is divided longitudiplumb-line, that the weight of the melted metal may '1S nally into two. A handle is press equably, and not more on one side of the -ifb. fixed to each portion of the mould than on another. It is not necessary that ^ box, for the purpose of movsand should be rammed round the mould, the box ( ing it. The upper transverse being strong, and its parts firmly bound together, so portion AA contains the gunas to require no additional support. The mould is —TflT head. In each of the two now in a position for the metal to flow into it portions BB, which contain through its open end, which is the extremity of the the second reinforce, there is head. Whether the gun is to be of cast-iron or a lateral projection for the brass, the construction of the mould is the same. trunions. The figure repreThe pig iron from which the gun is to be made Air-furnace, sents the gun-box with the , , is melted in a furnace, called an air-furnace in the breech lowermost, in the posiiron-founderies, and termed by some authors a retion in which it is placed when the metal is poured in. verberatory furnace. The flame of pit coal is carFormin" lo make the mould, the pattern of the breech is the mould. first placed on a board, and the corresponding por- ried by a current of air, so as to play upon the pig iron. The stack of the chimney is 4*0 feet high. tion of the gun-box is put over it, and sand is ram- By the pressure of the unrarified external air on the med between the pattern and the box. The flat ex- lower part of the rarified column of air in the furposed surface of the sand is painted over with black- nace and chimney, the current of air through the ing, which consists of charcoal and clayed water, furnace is produced. The grate G is larger than uiat there may be no adhesion with the sand of the any other transverse section of the furnace. (See next portion of r the mould. The pattern of the first figure next page.) The furnace has three open* eintorce is now fitted into the pattern of the breech, ings, one C, for introducing the coals; the seand the corresponding portions of the first reinforce cond P, which has a sliding brick door, with a pox adjusted on the flange of the breech box. Sand counterpoise, serves for introducing the pig iron. iS we ^ rammed, in small quantities at a time, be- The third I is for the purpose of stirring the metween the pattern and the box; and the upper flat tal, and taking out the melted iron for small castsurface of the sand is painted over with blacking. ings by iron ladles coated with clay, and made .e mould is completed by adding the remaining red-hot. This third opening has a door of fire brick, pieces of the model and of the box, one above ano- the joints between the door and the door-frame are ther, ramming the sand, and painting the transverse luted. In the middle of the door is a hole, through surface of the sand at the top of each division of the which the state of the melted metal may be seen. box with blacking. The sand must be strongly There is likewise a smaller opening T for letting rammed and equably, that every part of its surface out the melted metal. may be able to resist the pressure of the liquid me The furnace and stack are of brick. The interior * ta . Three little wedges are•interposedi between the of the furnace is a coating of fire brick, g inches two adjacent transverse portions of the box, that the thick, detached and separate from the outer coat, fep sand may project a little, so that after it is dry it and the other parts of the building, in order that the

CANNON. 607 Cannon, heat may not melt the common brick of which the thrown in. T the hole through which the metal is Carnon. ' outer parts are composed. The fire-brick is made of let out. The metal flows into the casting-house. refractory clay, which, containing little iron, and lit- O the floor of the casting house. In this floor is the tle or no calcareous matter, burns white, and sustains pit in which the moulds of large goods are sunk, that a, great heat without melting. These bricks are the metal may flow down into them. I the door, with made of Stourbridge clay, or of a light blueish grey a hole in it, for seeing the state of the melted metal. stratified clay found in the strata that accompany coal. The clay is first ground, the pieces of ironstone picked out, and then made into bricks. In making the interior coating of the furnace, the bricks must be built with moistened fire-clay, and not with lime mortar. The quantity of metal put into the furnace should be equal to the weight of the solid unbored gun with its head, and something more in case of need. It requires a large air-furnace to contain metal enough for one large gun. lality of The pig-iron for guns should be grey, that kind s Iron, having most tenacity ; white pig-iron is too brittle, and so hard that the head cannot be cut off, nor the gun bored. barging A bed of sand N is made in the furnace on which r Field racaibo on the west, Guiana on the south, the go1186 950 lA vernment of Cumana on the east, and the Island of 4 Pounder j pieces i 590 550 lO/k Margaretta on the north-east. It is bounded on the 1 Pounder For light 3 10 266 250 north from the Cape de la Vela to the point of Fatroops ria, by the Carribbean sea ; on the east by the Atlantic from the 12th to the 8th degree of north latitude; (v.) 3

CARA Cauaecas. on the south by Dutch Guiana and Peru, and on the vvest by the kingdom of Santa Fe. liimate. This country, extending from the 12th degree of north latitude towards the equinoctial line, might be expected, from its geographical position, to be subject to the utmost violence of the tropical heats, and to be reckoned almost uninhabitable by a scorching sun. But throughout the whole continent of America, the general law of the climate is modified by the elevation of the ground ; and, owing to this circumstance, the inhabitants of many parts of the Caraccas enjoy the temperature of perpetual spring. For this happy singularity in its climate, the province of the Caraccas is indebted to a chain of the Andes, which, commencing near the province of Quito, traverses the country in its whole extent, and, gradually diminishing in height in its progress to the east, finally loses itself in the Island of Trinidad. This chain of mountains, which varies in breadth from ten to twenty leagues, is generally of moderate elevation. In some points it rises to the height of SOOO feet, but its average height is not more than 4500 feet above the level of the sea. These inequalities of height give rise to a corresponding diversity of temperature; owing to which the vegetable productions of distant countries, here meeting with a congenial climate, are frequently found concentrated within a comparatively narrow compass. At intervals rich vallies open, and the sides of the mountains are covered with the finest trees. In travelling into the interior from the coast, the European experiences a great and enlivening change from the hot air of the low countries to the pure and cool atmosphere which prevails in these mountainous regions. The city of Caraccas, according to Depons, is 3000 feet above the level of the sea, and though it is situated in 10° 3V north latitude, so far from being oppressed by the insupportable heats of the torrid zone, it enjoys the mild and temperate climate of the southern countries of Europe. The highest range of the thermometer in summer is 85°, and in winter 76°, and the minimum of heat in winter is 52°. To the south, these mountains are bounded by the valley of the Orinoco. The country is here extended into immense plains, known by the general name of Las Llanos. Those plains afford pasturage to innumerable cattle, the proprietors of which reside in the towns, leaving them to the care of slaves or people of colour. This race of men, accustomed to be almost continually on horseback, and being almost in a state of nature, in these immense and uninhabited plains, contract the most disorderly and lawless habits. Many of them are professed robbers; they are already beginning to form themselves into bands, and to infest the roads, so as to render travelling dangerous. In these plains the heat is intense, the thermometer frequently rising to 110 and even 115 degrees. ieasons. The seasons here are divided into winter and summer, which are not so much distinguished by cold or heat, as by rainy and dry weather. The rainy season commences generally in April and continues till November. These rains are not, however, without intermission. There are some days in which no rain falls, and there are others, though they are not frequent, in which it rains incessantly. It may

CCAS. . be calculated that, during the rainy season, it rains, Caraccas. on an average, three hours each day, and oftener in the morning than in the evening. The long continued and drizzling rains of the polar regions are not known here. But notwithstanding of this, the rains which in the torrid zone rush down with the violence of a torrent, produce in one hour about six times the quantity of water which is ever known to fall in Europe within the same space. During the rainy season, the rivers are consequently in a continual state of inundation ; the channels which, during the rest of the year, remain parched and dry, are now filled with overflowing streams; and the plain through which flows the Orinoco, is inundated by a sea of fresh water for a space extending 150 leagues in length and 40 in breadth. For about a century after the acquisition of Terra Agriculture Firma by the Europeans, no attempt was made to an(l “ro* raise any sort of produce from the soil, (jokl ana silver were the great objects of research, and the pursuit after these superseded every other species of industry. The adventurers, however, who settled in the country, not finding a sufficient quantity of the precious metals to gratify their rapacity, turned their thoughts towards the pearl fisheries. Being speedily disappointed in their expectations of wealth from this source, they had recourse to agriculture, and, on trial, they found the soil of the Caraccas extremely fertile, and capable of producing ample returns. They began with cultivating cacao, plantations of which were multiplied throughout the country, and the labours of the planter were so admirably seconded by a favourable soil, that the produce was both abundant and of an excellent quality. Cacao was almost exclusively cultivated till a very late period. About the year 1774, the culture of indigo was begun, and it was speedily ascertained, that the soil was equally well adapted to raise this valuable produce. Most of the new plantations were, therefore, prepared for this new species of culture, and immense plains, till then uncultivated, were covered with plantations of indigo. The profits derived from this trade, and the great concourse of traders and cultivators, occasioned villages to spring up in the desert, and gave to many towns, such as Maracay, Tulmero, and Victoria, which were before in a state of decay, the aspect and consistence of cities. About the same time the cotton plant was introduced. The cultivation of sugar, tobacco, and generally of all the other products of the tropical regions, was also commenced. In this fine country, how'ever, blessed as it is with all the advantages both of soil and of climate, agriculture still languishes. There is a want of enterprise and active industry among the planters;—their plantations are committed to the care of ignorant overseers ; and the Spanish proprietor, who generally resides in town, seldom visits his estates above once in a year. This carelessness frequently produces embarrassments ; the land is mortgaged for the purpose of raising money, and the capital which ought to be laid out in improved cultivation, is thus forestalled for the purposes of extravagance. “ It is a matter of astonishment,” says Depons, “ that in the most beautiful country in nature, where everything concurs to promote luxuriance of vegetation, the plantations should be so inconsider-

C A R A 612 Caraccas. able in magnitude. A planter, whose income amounts to 4000 or 5000 dollars per annum, is considered rich. There cannot be enumerated twenty plantations in the Caraccas which yield a greater revenue. It is not, however, that the property is too much divided. It is rare to see a plantation of which one-tenth part of its extent is cultivated. It is a cheerless and painful sight to behold the labour of three successive centuries crowned with such pitiful results. On a soil two hundred times less spacious, incomparably less watered, and less fertile, and with not more than one-half the white population, the French have succeeded in raising, at St Domingo, ten times more produce than is raised at this day in the vast province of the Caraccas.” Abundance Besides the colonial commodities already enumeot Wood of rated, this country produces vanilla, wild cochineal, ktnds?8

gums, resins, roots, barks, and plants, many of which are prized for their medicinal virtues. In the mountains of the interior are found the same kinds of wood as in the Antilles, and many other kinds peculiar to the country. The vast forests by which the country is covered, contain abundant supplies of timber for the most extensive ship-yards. AH those inexhaustible resources are, however, useless, owing to the difficulty of transporting the wood over the trackless paths of the mountains. These difficulties might be considerably diminished, if due exertion were made to clear the channels of the rivers from occasional obstructions, so as to facilitate the intercourse with the interior. But there is neither enterprise nor industry in the country adequate for such improvements. Besides large timber for the construction of vessels and other purposes, their forests contain materials for the work of the carpenter and cabinetmaker, so various, as to embarrass them in their choice. The beams and joists of houses are, in general, made from the wood which the Spaniards call Pardillo, and in some places they use a species of very hard oak. Cedar is used for doors, windows, tables, &c.; and, for ornamental furniture, they have several kinds of wood susceptible of the highest polish. Among these is distinguished the black ebony, found in great abundance in the forests in the neighbourhood of Lake Maracaibo. Yellow and red ebony is also common ; but mahogany is not so abundant as in the West India islands, and it is, besides, inferior both in respect to its shades and gloss. Iron wood, which abounds in different parts of the country, is used for shafts to the wheels of water-mills; for the rollers of the cylinders used for pressing sugar-canes ; and, generally, on all occasions for which wood of extraordinary hardness is required. The red ebony is also applied to the same uses as the iron wood, and is even thought to surpass it in hardness. No wood has yet been found fit for dyeing, except the Brasil wood. But the immense forests which overspread the mountainous parts of this country have not been explored to any extent. They still continue, for the most part, to be the exclusive domain of ferocious animals and venomous reptiles, and we cannot be certain, until they are more fully known, what hidden resources they may afford for the extension of commerce, or the improvement of art.

C C A S.

On the first discovery of Terra Firma, the pearl- Caraceas, fishery formed a considerable branch of trade as well as of revenue. The pearla ronde was found to abound ePearl Fibrin the shoals which extend from Cape Paria to that O’* of Vela ; and the island of Margaretta, Cubagua, Coche, Punta Araya, and the mouth of the Rio la Hacha, were celebrated for the quantity of pearls which they produced. The fifth of the produce was claimed by the king, and it was estimated in the beginning of the 16th century to amount to about 15,000 ducats, which, considering that an extensive contraband trade rvas at the same time carried on, show's the whole amount to have been considerable. Till the year 1530, the annual value of the pearls sent to Europe amounted on an average to 800,000 piastres. Towards the end of the 16th century, the produce of the American pearl-fisheries diminished rapidly, and, according to some accounts, they were altogether abandoned by the year 1683. Various causes were assigned for the decline of this trade. But the chief cause seems to have been the increasing scarcity of the oysters which yielded these precious stones. With such persevering rapacity was this lucrative trade pursued, that the shells were destroyed faster than they could be multiplied. It is known that the animal which inhabits the pearl-shell does not live above nine or ten years, and it is only in the fourth year that the pearls begin to show themselves. Of these shells, a boat will collect'in about two or three weeks more than 35,000. At Ceylon, the government only permits the pearl-fish-' ing to be continued for one month in the course of a year; but on the coasts of the Caraccas there was no restriction. The pearl banks were fished at all seasons, and the consequence is, that they have been abandoned for nearly two centuries. At Cumana it is supposed, that, during such a long period of reprieve, the pearl-shells must have been greatly increased ; and, in 1812, some attempts were made to revive the fishery. But it is generally observed, that the few pearls which are now accidentally found are both extremely small, and devoid of brilliancy, while those found among the Indians on the arrival of the Spaniards on Terra Firma, were particularly distinguished for these two properties. It is difficult t© account for this change. Humboldt conjectures that the earthquakes to which this country is peculiarly subject, ma}^ have altered the bottom of the sea, or that the changes in the submarine currents may have so far influenced the temperature of the water, as to diminish the sustenance necessary for the support of the animal which produces the pearl. The small pearls which are still occasionally found on the coasts entangled in the fishermen’s nets, are sold to the retail dealers of Cumana, at the ordinary price of a piastre, or 4s. 2d. per dozen. Mineral springs abound in these provinces, both Mineral warm and cold; and they are of various qualities,SP"118S' namely, the ammoniacal, the ferruginous, the nitrous, and the acidulous. Some of these waters have a degree of heat which nearly approaches to that of boiling water. Owing to their situation, however, generally in uninhabited places, far from any frequented path, they are not of the same advantage to medicine as if they were differently situ-

e A R A >raccas. ated, because the patient cannot enjoy the benefit of those waters, and, at the same time, all those domestic comforts which are equally necessary to his recovery. He must sacrifice the one to procure the other; so that, in many cases, the disadvantage of the change is greater than the benefit, gap. All that portion of the coast which is north of the province of Venezuela, furnishes a considerable quantity of salt, of a beautiful whiteness. But the most abundant salt-pit is that of Araya, which consists of a mixture of the fossil and marine salts. Its produce, under the regime of the mother country, was monopolized for the benefit of the Crown, the consequence of which was, that the working of the pits was little attended to, and that they did not yield anything like the quantity of salt which, under better management, they were capable of producing, v The aspect of this country is agreeably diversified by lakes and rivers. Of the lakes, those of Maracaibo and Vaiencia are the most deserving of notice. The lake of Maracaibo is of an oblong form, lying north and south, and communicating by a narrow neck with the sea. Its length, from the bar to its southern extremity, is 150 miles. Its greatest breadth is 90, and it is 450 miles in circumference. It is navigable for vessels of the greatest burden ; and though it is not liable to tempests, there is always an undulation on its surface ; and when strong breezes blow, more especially from the north, its waves become sufficiently agitated to bury under them canoes and small craft. Its waters are, in general, fresh and fit for drinking; but, at times, the waters of the sea are forced, by means of storms, towards the lake, and it then becomes brackish as far as the town of Maracaibo. All the different species of fish which are found in the rivers of South America, with the exception of the tortoise, abound in this lake ; but the general sterility of the adjacent country, and the unhealthy atmosphere which is occasioned by noxious exhalations from its wateis, are unfavourable to the progress of cultivation; so that the Indians, in place of making their abode on its shores, have generally dwelt on the lake itself, in wooden huts, constructed for the puipose. To the north-west of the lake is an inexhaustible mine of mineral pitch, which is of so inflammable a nature that during the night, and especially in hot weather, phosphoric fires are continually seen, which have the appearance of lightning. Ihese fires are known by the name of the lanterns of Maracaibo, and they serve as alight-house and compass to guide the course of the Spaniards and Indians who are navigating the lake. The lake of Valencia, though not of the same magnitude as Lake Maracaibo, presents a far more agreeable and interesting spectacle. Its shores, in place of being arid and unhealthy, are clothed with all the luxuriant vegetation of the tropical regions, and the temperature is mild and salubrious. I his lake is about one league distant from the city of Valencia, and about 18 miles from the sea. It is of an oblong form, stretching north-east and southwest, and is about 40 miles in length, and about 12 in the broadest part. It is situated in a valley surrounded with high and inaccessible mountains, ex-

613; C C A S. cepting on the west, where it extends into the inte- Caraccas. rior; and it receives the waters of twenty rivers, without any visible outlet. This circumstance has’ given occasion to the conjecture, that its waters must be discharged by a subterraneous passage.; and, in confirmation of this hypothesis, it is stated by De-pons, that the boats which navigate the lake sail with rapidity from the shores to the centre, but that it requires longer time and greater exertion to return from the centre towards the shore. How far this conjecture is well-founded, seems extremely doubtful. The contributions from so many rivers may be no more than sufficient to supply the drain occasioned by the constant and intense evaporation of a tropical sun ; and, at any rate, until this question is determined by accurate investigation, it seems idle to have recourse to the supposition of subterraneous channels to account for what may be the result of more obvious causes. One fact is certain, that, of late years, the waters of the lake have experienced a considerable depression, and they still continue receding within a narrower space. This is sufficiently accounted for by the progress of cultivation throughout the country, in consequence of which the cultivators draw an increased supply of water from the streams which flow into the lake, in order to irrigate and refresh their different plantations. In proportion as the waters recede, tracts of ground are left uncovered, which, having received for centuries past the deposited slime and substances of the lake, have thence acquired a prodigious fertility. These spots are eagerly selected for cultivation, and they reward the labours of the planter with a large return. The eastern shores of the lake are laid out for the culture of tobacco in five plantations, which occupy 15,000 persons, and the remainder of the lands which surround it are employed in raising other productions peculiar to the country. The woods in the vicinity afford a haunt to numerous varieties of birds, which are equally distinguished by the brilliancy of their plumage, and the melody of their notes. Reptiles are also common. Among these are two species of lizards, which are considered by the Indians and Spaniards as delicious food, and which are eagerly sought after. The waters of the lake are thick and of a nauseous taste, which is ascribed by Depons to. the putrefaction of animal and vegetable substances. Its surface is diversified by numerous islands, by which its navigation is somewhat impeded. Most of these are inhabited, and yield abundance of pro-, visions, fruits, and vegetables. The abundant rains, which fall in the Caraccas, Rivers, find their way to the ocean by a variety of channels, and there is, accordingly, no country which is watered by more numerous streams. Every valley has its rivers, and if they are not all of sufficient size to answer the purposes of navigation, they afford ample supplies of water for the necessary purpose of irrigating the grounds which are cultivated along their shores. All the streams which rise on the northern ridge of the mountains in the interior run from south to north, and fall into the Carribbean Sea, while those which have their sources in the southern declivity of the same range of mountains, traverse in a southern direction the whole ex-

C A R A 614 Caraccas. tent of the intermediate plain, till they reach the majestic stream of the Orinoco. The principal rivers which flow northward into the Carrihean Sea are the Guiges, Tocuyo, Aroa, Yaracuy, Tuy, Unara, Never!, Manzanares. These are so strongly fenced in by the natural barriers of high banks, and the ground at the same time forms such a continued declivity, that they seldom overflow the adjacent country to any extent, so as to occasion damage. The most considerable rivers which fall into the Orinoco are the Mamo, the Pariagon and Pao. the Chivata and Zoa, the Cachimamo, the Aracay, the Manapira and Espino, and, lastly, the great river Apure, which enters the Orinoco by several channels. This river receives an immense variety of smaller streams, and is, indeed, the only channel by which all the lesser rivers, which rise in the extensive tract of country through which it flows, are conveyed to the Orinoco. During the rainy season, its waters, near its mouth, are spread over the flat country, which it traverses to an extent of nearly 96 miles ; and, in general, all the rivers of this province, which flow through level grounds, overflow, during part of the year, a large tract of the adjacent country. This inundation covers a larger space as the rivers approach the ocean. Near the mouth of the Orinoco, one vast sea of fresh water is spread over the country to an extent, according to Depons, of nearly 200 leagues. The rise of the rivers commences in April, and ends in August, and during the subsequent month of September, there is no perceptible fall in the waters of the Orinoco. About the beginning of October they begin to retire from the flat country, and by the end of February the river has reached its lowest point. Commerce In the settlements which they established in difof this Co- ferent parts of South America, the Spaniards, it is lony, and wel ttown we e Policy of !k > ^ actuated solely by the desire of prothe Mother curing the precious metals, and every other less valuCountry. able produce was regarded as unworthy of consideration. Under the influence of this spirit, the first adventurers in Terra Firma directed all their researches, as we have already observed, to the discovery of mines. These, however, proved so unproductive, that they were soon abandoned, and the colonists were, in this manner, compelled to have recourse for their subsistence to the cultivation of the soil. But it does not appear that their early efforts were favoured by the superintending care of the mother country. No Spanish vessel ever approached the desert shores of this new settled colony; and it was only at the special request of the colonists, that one vessel from the mother country was annually freighted to this part of America, to supply them with the necessaries of' life. In this languishing state, the Caraccas continued during the whole of the 16th century. The faint hope of discovering mines, joined to the prosecution of the pearl fishery, which was at this time carried on with singular perseverance and cruelty, still continued to stifle every idea of agricultural industry ; and it was not till the year 1634>, when the Dutch took possession of the island of Curacoa, that the inhabitants of lerra Eirma were encouraged, by

C C A S. the vicinity of those industrious settlers, to devote their Caraccaj. attention to agriculture, for the purpose of providing themselves with the means of commercial exchange. Cacao and hides constituted for a long period the two staple articles which they exchanged with the Hollanders for such other commodities as they were in want of. The commencement of a trade with foreigners, however inconsiderable, excited the jealousy of the mother country, which, though it gave no seasonable aid to the early efforts of those colonists, was resolved to claim the dominion over them, as soon as their industry could be made subservient to its profit. Two vessels were accordingly allowed to sail from Spain, freighted with merchandise for the colonies, on which enormous duties were charged. The consequence was, that the Spanish merchants were undersold by the Dutch traders, and those foreigners were left during the remainder of the century in quiet possession of the trade, which was carried on both more openly and to a greater extent. During the first thirty years of the subsequent century, the intercourse with Spain was revived; but the trade with the mother country bore no proportion to the contraband trade. The annual produce oi the province amounted to 65.000 quintals * of cacao; the legal exports were estimated at 21,000 quintals, so that 44,000 quintals still remain for the contraband trader. The Spanish Government, viewing with increasing dislike the growing connection ot its colony with foreigners, resolved to stop the intercourse by the violence of power; and, with this view, confiscations, fines, and the moat degrading punishments, were inflicted on those who engaged in it. Numerous families were ruined by these severities, but the trade continued as before. It originated in the necessities of the country, and such encouragements to evasion were held out, as covered all the risks of detection. These violent measures not being found to answer their intended purpose, several Biscayan merchants offered to the government, in 1728, to destroy the contraband commerce, on condition of being allowed the privilege of supplying the wants of the colony, and of exporting its produce. To this proposal the government acceded, after imposing several burdensome conditions on the company. These,however, were complied with, and with such activity, prudence, and economy, were the affairs of the company carried on, that they succeeded in supplanting the contraband trade, while their management gave complete satisfaction to the colonies. From the year 1730 to 1748, 858,978 quintals of cacao were shipped from the colonies to the mother country, which amounted to one-third more than had been exported for the last thirty years. In 1742, the company bad acquired such credit with the government, that they applied for and obtained the monoply of the colonial trade. Great jealousies were excited in the colonies by this concession; and to appease the universal discontent which prevailed, it was agreed, in 1750, that a board should be appointed, composed of an

* A quintal is 1600 ounces.

C A R A Caraccas. equal number of members of the company, and of Y cultivators in the colony,—the Governor-General to be President, who should regulate the prices at which the colony and the company should respectively exchange their merchandise. It was, at the same time, permitted to those planters who were not satisfied with the established price, to send one-sixth part of their cacao to Spain, on their own account, and in the vessels of the company. Under this regulated monopoly, the colonial trade was carried on with less of injustice to individuals than might have been expected, and with great prudence and success. For the destruction of the contraband trade, the company maintained, at an annual expence of 200,000 dollars, an armament of ten vessels, which carried 86 guns and 518 men; besides, 102 men employed on shore. Superb warehouses were constructed in the different ports to which its vessels traded, for the accommodation of its agents; and advances, without interest, were made to different planters to the amount of 640,000 dollars, on the security of the produce of their estates, at a fixed price. By the encouragement thus given to the trade of the colony, cultivation was extended,—flourishing villages arose in different parts,—and in addition to cacao, formerly the Only staple of the country, other species of colonial produce were now cultivated. About the year 1735, the whole cacao produced in the province was estimated at 65,000 quintals, while, in 1763, there were embarked, Quintals. For Spain, . . . . . 50,319 Vera Cruz, . . . 16,864 the Canaries, . . . 11,160 St Domingo, Porto Rico, and Havannah, 2316 Local consumption, ... 30,000 Total,

110,659

During the same-period the cattle multiplied rapidly on the extensive plains which stretch to the south of Caraccas, and hides w-ere added to the other articles of exportation. By the increase of cultivation and trade, the various duties, which were hitherto insufficient to defray the expences of government, became perfectly adequate to every charge ; and the government of the mother country was freed from the burden to which it had been subject for a

C C A S. 615 period of 200 years, of sending remittances from Cataceas. Mexico, for the purpose of supporting the civil and military establishments of Venezuela. Such were the beneficial effects produced by the moderate and prudent conduct of the Company. It was evident, however, that no security existed for the continuance of this good management, farther than the discretion of the directors, who, in process of time, were corrupted by the temptations held out to them ; and, in place of trading with the colonies upon the equitable principles of commercial exchange, became eager to obtain all the unfair advantages of the most rapacious monopolists. Bribery was resorted to, in order to procure a regulation of prices favourable to their interests,—the duties w'ere evaded,—the contraband trade was encouraged,— and by all those transactions the planters w-ere injured, while the mother country was deprived of the trade which the Company had engaged to carry on for her benefit. The natural remedy for these abuses was a free trade. A regulation was accordingly issued in 1778, by which all the chief ports of the Caraccas and of Spain were reciprocally opened to each other’s produce, and the trade between them was, in effect, declared free. A scale of duties was at the same time established, by which the articles exported to the colonies were divided into three classes. The first of these consisted of articles the growth or manufacture of Spain, which were charged at the lowest rate, namely, 9^ ‘per cent, on leaving Spain, and the same on being landed in America. All goods, likewise, of which the value was doubled by domestic industry, were placed in the same class. In the second class were comprehended such articles as had received a certain augmentation of value trom domestic industry, but not such as to raise their value one half. These paid, on their shipment to the colonies, and on their arrival, per cent. The third class of articles, which were of foreign workmanship, were liable to a duty of 22 per cent. on leaving Spain. The colonial produce, on its importation into Spain, was made subject to moderate duties. From the year 1793 to the year 1796, and from 1796 to 1800, Depons, in his account of the Caraccas, gives the following comparative statement of the value of the produce exported.

Exportations from 1793 to 1796. 367,819 2,955,963 1,498,332 1,325,584

quintals cacao, at 18 dollars, libs. indigo, 12 reals, libs. cotton, 20 reals, libs. coffee,

Dollars. 6,620,742} 5,172,937 ( 299,666f' 12,252,415 159,07o3

Exportations from 1796 to 1800. Dollars. 239,162 quintals cacao, at 18 dollars, 4,304,916) 793,210 libs. indigo, 14 reals, 1,386,U7( 2,834,254 libs. cotton, 20 dollars, 566,850( 6,442,318 1,536,967 libs. coffee, 184,435) Diminution on the four last years,

5,810,097

C A R A C C A S. The cargoes exported from Spain to the Caraccas Caraccas. This diminution of exports is ascribed by Depons to the defects of the internal administration, and do not, generally, contain above one-fourth of Spapartly also to the war which, after this period, was nish produce and manufactures, the other three,u begun between Great Britain and Spain. This writ- fourths being supplied chiefly from Britain, France, greate8t er does not specify particularly the faults to which the Hanse Towns, and part occasionally by Italy, request. he alludes; but, in the mean time, no such change The articles in the greatest demand at the Caraccas had taken place in the domestic administration of are linens, laces, black stuffs, principally serges, the country, as will account for such an enormous prunellas, satins, and taffeties. These are used for defalcation in the value of the produce exported. the cassocks and mantles of the priests, and for the The war between Britain and Spain appears to be dresses used by the women in their devotional exerthe most probable and satisfactory cause ot this di- cises. Thick cloths are also in demand, and most of minution. By that event, the whole colonial trade the whites are dressed in cassimere or in French of Spain became the prey of the British cruisers; cloths. Hats are also a saleable article, and French and such was their unremitting vigilance, that the in- hats are universally preferred to those manufactured tercourse between the colonies and the mother coun- in other countries. No round hats are worn except try was almost entirely interrupted. In these cir- by the lowest classes, or by boys, all the civil and cumstances, the rigour of the colonial monopoly was military officers wearing cocked hats. A considerrelaxed; the ports of the colonies were thrown open able quantity of boots, for the wearing of which the to neutrals ; and, in addition to this intercourse, a young Spaniards have acquired a taste, have been contraband trade, to a great extent, was carried on lately imported from the British colonies, and have with the British colonies. But of this illicit traffic met with a ready sale. As the shoemakers of the no return would of course be made in the general country cannot imitate the fashion and the make of account of the colonial trade ; and it is possible, these articles, the importer is free from competition, therefore, that the apparent defalcation of exports and he is therefore enabled to charge a high price. pointed out by Depons may have arisen from the Shoes, however, are made in the country of a sufficircumstance of an illicit having taken the place of ciently good quality, and at a moderate price. They a contraband trade. In the year 1800, the Court of do not, therefore, form so profitable an article of imSpain, swayed by the selfish representations of the portation. Among the coarse goods, the linens of Spanish merchants, revoked the liberty granted to Brittany, Rouen, Morlaix, and of Russia, are univerthe colonies of trading with neutrals; and the con- sally used. The population of the Caraccas is stated by De- Population, sequences of this order were injurious in the extreme, and would have been ruinous to the colonies, pons to amount to 728,000, and he assigns the folhad they not resorted, as before, to the necessary lowing proportions to the different provinces: remedy of the contraband trade. This trade was carried on to a great extent with the British colo- To the province of Venezuela, including Varinas, a population of 500,000 nies, and was either connived at, or, as was affirmed, 100,000 was in some cases formally licensed, by the British To the Government of Maracaibo, 80,000 cruisers During this period, therefore, and gene- To that of Cumana, 34,000 rally indeed during the whole course of the war, no To Spanish Guiana, 14,000 custom-house account of imports and exports can To the Isle of Margaretta, be considered as affording any accurate view of the 728,000 foreign trade of this colony. Revenues. The public revenues of the Caraccas arise from Of this population the whites form two-tenths, the -various taxes, namely, from the alcavala, which is a tax of 5 per cent, collected on all sales, whether of slaves three-tenths, the descendants of freedmen moveables, or of landed property. Every species of four, and the Indians compose the remainder. Some merchandise or territorial production is made subject writers are of opinion that this account of the poputo this impost, the moment it is exposed to sale; and lation is rather exaggerated. The principal towns of the Caraccas are, Caraccas Piincipa 1 retail dealers are in the habit of compounding with the Government, by the payment of an annual sum the capital, containing 34,000 inhabitants, Cumana Towns. on their whole stock. This tax produced, in 1793, 24,000, Porto Cavello 7500, Valencia 6500, Mara150,862 dollars, and, in 1797, only 10,248, owing to cay 8400, Guayra 6000, Tulmero 8000, Victoria the suspension of maritime commerce. A revenue 7800, Coro 10,000, Carora 6200, Barquisimeto is also derived from export and import duties, 11,300, Tocuyo 10,000, Guanara 12,300. This country was first discovered by Columbus History, and from duties on all distillers of intoxicating liquors, Revoand on the shops where they are sold ; from the sale in the year 1498, in the course of his third voyage late lH,,on * of titles and offices, from stamps, from the sale to America. Several attempts were made to settle it by means of missionaries, all of which proved unof bulls granting spiritual indulgencies, from the monopoly of tobacco, and from various other local successful. The natives were at last subdued by a imports. The tithes, which are rigorously levied military force, and the management of the Spanish throughout the Caraccas, form a branch of the pub- settlements in this province were, for a pecuniary conlic revenue ; two-ninths belonging to the Crown, and sideration, consigned by Charles V. to a German merthe remaining seven-ninths being appropriated to the cantile company named the Welsers. Under their gopayment of the ecclesiastics, and to the building and vernment, the country experienced the most cruel oppression. The company were, in consequence (upholding of religious edifices. 12 616 Caraccas.

CAR Caraccas deprived of the sovereignty in the year 1550, and a Cardigan- suPreme government was appointed by the Crown, sliire. Since this period, these provinces continued under the government of the mother country, until the year 1810, when Spain was nearly overrun by the armies of France, and when no reasonable expectation could be entertained that she would be able to resist the invading force. In these circumstances, the colonies being aggrieved by useless restrictions on their commerce, and by other oppressions, a strong party was formed, ostensibly to protect them from the yoke of France, but really, it is supposed, with a view to detach them entirely from the dominion of the mother country. At last, on the 4th July 1811, the congress of Venezuela published a formal decree for their independence. A declaration of rights was afterwards issued, and with such severity was the newr system enforced, that the jails were crow ded with persons suspected of disafiectioh to the revolutionary measures adopted; great numbers were proscribed ; some were banished and imprisoned; others were executed, and their heads stuck upon poles, as examples of terror to others. Several towns, and among others Coro and Valencia, declared against the new system. Troops were immediately dispatched to reduce the former city by force; these were beaten back with considerable loss. General Miranda was at the same time sent against the town of Valencia, and after some sanguinary encounters, he obtained possession of the place, from which, however, he was soon driven with loss by the determined resistance of the inhabitants. Being reinforced, he renewed the attack, and finally succeeded in his object. Since this period, the war between the two parties has been carried on with various success ; and, from the latest accounts, it would appear that the cause of the independents is gaining ground. At present we have no information by which we can decide as to the issue of the contest; and we must, therefore, defer any farther account of it till we arrive at the general article of South America. See Semple’s Sketch of the Present State of the Caracals, 1812.— Travels in South America, by F. Depone, 2 vols. 8vo, 1807.—Humboldt’s Personal Narrative of Travels in the Equinoctial Regions, 2 vols. 8vo, 1814. (o.) CARDIGANSHIRE is divided from Caermarthenshire and Pembrokeshire, along the greatest part of its southern side, by the Tivy; on the north it is divided from Merionethshire by the river Dory; and from Montgomeryshire by an artificial boundary. The boundaries on the east, between it and Radnorshire and Breconshire, are also artificial. On the Extent, west, it stretches along the sea-coast in a bending Joundaries, line, from north-east to south-west, forming part of ndDivi- the shore of Cardigan Bay. Its extent, measured along the shore, is nearly 40 miles. Its breadth does not average 20. It contains 726 square miles, or 464,640 acres. It is divided into five hundreds. The market towns are Aberystwith, Cardigan, Llanbodarnvawr, Llanbeder, and Tregaron. The number of parishes, according to the last Parliamentary returns respecting the poor’s rates, is 97« If sends VOL. II. PART II.

C A R 617 one member to Parliament; lies in the province of CardiganCanterbury, and diocese of St David’s; and is in the t , North Wales circuit. The coast of Cardigan Bay (which is formed by the projecting counties of Caernarvon on the north, and Pembroke on the south, with the coasts of Merioneth and Cardigan in the centre), according to tradition and appearance, have sufi'ered greatly from the depredations of the sea, especially on the Cardigan shore. The tradition of the country is, that there was formerly a sixth hundred, which is now covered by the sea; and there are still to be seen, at low water, several ridges of rocks, called causeways, which seem to confirm the truth of this tradition. Of these the most remarkable is St Patrick's Causeway, which extends from within a mile of the point of Mochras, south of Harlech, 22 miles into the sea, in a serpentine line. It is formed of rough stones, 24 feet broad; and at the extremity there is a round head, formed of sixteen great stones, one of which is four yards in diameter. Trunks and roots of trees are also found at a considerable distance from the shore. The px-incipal rivers are the Tivy, the Rydiol, the Rivers. Ystwyth, and the Aeron. The Tivy rises in Llyn Teefy, or Tivy Pool, in a mountain in the northeast of the county. On the top of this mountain there are five lakes, of which Tivy Pool is the principal. It is about one mile and a half in circumference, is surrounded by high and perpendicular rocks, and is said never to have been fathomed. The Tivy at first flows through a rocky district; afterwards, forming a regular channel, it passes Tregaron ; and, at Llanbeder, becomes the boundary between Caermarthenshire and Cardiganshire. It falls into the sea about two miles below Cardigan. The Rydiol rises on the south-west side of Plinlimmon ; its course is about south-west; and it falls into the sea near Aberystwyth. About 12 miles above this town is the Devil’s Bridge, called by the Welch, Pont y Monach, or the Monks’ Bridge, and Pont ar Fynach, from the confluence here of the Fynach with the Rydiol. There are two arches, one above the other. The uppermost is between 20 and 30 feet in the chord; and the other less than 20. The upper one was built in 1753 ; the date of the building of the lower one is not known. Near this bridge are the falls of the Fynach. The first fall takes place where the river is much confined by the rocks. The water is carried about six feet over them, into a basin 18 feet below. The next fall is 60 feet, the third fall is 20, and the last is 110 feet. Near this is the fall of the Rydiol, the scenery round which is considered very striking and grand. The Ystwyth rises among the hills on the eastern side of the county, and falls into the sea at Aberystwyth. The Aeron is between six and seven miles in extent, receives six tributary streams, and forms, during the whole of its course, nearly the arc of a circle. It falls into the sea at Aberaeron. That part of the country which lies along the sea Surface and is level, especially the south-western extremity; but So'h the northern and eastern parts are very rugged and mountainous. The soil of the low lands is either a light or a strong loam, lying on slate. The soil of 41

618 CAR Cardigan- the mountainous division is in general thin and poor, i _rS-lll%_ ■ except in the narrow vallies, where it consists of or eat Agriculture. P * The tract along the sea coast pro' duces good crops of wheat, barley, turnips, potatoes, and oats. The quality, as well as the produce of the barley grown in some parts of this tract, are very remarkable. Between Aberaeron and Llanrysted, is an extensive flat, extending from the sea to the east mountains, which produces from sixty to eighty bushels of fine barley acre. This land is constantly under this crop, and has been so for at least half a century. It is manured every three years with sea-weed. Potatoes are grown on the peat mosses in such a manner as at once to secure good crops, and to drain the land. The potatoe sets are laid on the surface of the bog, a little manure is spread over them, and they are afterwards covered with earth dug out of the trenches. Very few sheep are kept on the low land ; but on the mountains they are numerous. They are, in general, the native breed, very inferior both for wool and carcase. Cattle are kept in all parts of the county^ in the low lands, and in the vales of the mountainous district, principally for butter and cheese ; in the other parts they are bred for the English drovers. Of the 464,640 acres which this county contains, it is calculated that 100,000 are in tillage ; 145,000 in pasture, and the rest waste land. Mines. Cardiganshire formerly was famous for its mines of lead, but at present they are not very productive ; the principal are two, in the vicinity of Cwmystwith. Near Tal-y-bont are some that used to be very productive, but now are almost exhausted ; the matrix of the ore is carbonate of lime. There are also veins of copper, but they are not wrought. The want of coal, of which there is none in the whole county, the rugged nature of the country, and the badness of the roads, are probably the chief causes why the Slate Quar- mines are not worked. Near Aberystwith are large ries. slate quarries; the slates lie in alternate strata with shale, and are in compact masses, of a coarse texture ; the inclination of the strata varies very much, following the general irregularity of shale. The slate that is found near the sea coast, not being Peat. mixed with shale, lies in perpendicular strata. There are some very extensive tracts of peat, especially on the coast beyond Aberystwith, bordering on the river Dovy; and from Strata Florida, near the Tivy, to Llyn y Maes, or the lake of the flood; the latter tract is one continued marshy bog, abounding in Turbaries, as far as Tregaron: according to tradition, a town once stood in this marsh. As connected with the natural history of this county, it may be remarked that Mr Aikin observed near the banks of the Rydiol, a moor-buzzard, and the horse-ant, the largest species of ants that are natives of Britain. The angel-fish is found in the bay of Cardigan. MamifacThere are few manufactures in this county; at tures and Llechwydol, near Cardigan, are iron and tin works. Exports. Black cattle, pigs, butter, barley, oats, flannels, Welsh-tvebs, bark, iron, tin, slates, and ale, are exported from Aberystwyth, and Cardigan. There is a great fair for cattle and sheep at Rhos, near the source of the Tivy.

CAR Cardiganshire is celebrated in the literary history Cardigan, of Wales, for having given birth to David ap Gwylim, s,lil'e who flourished between 1530 and 1370. From the r. | poems of this author, the modern literary dialect of Wales has been chiefly formed, and this dialect is LamnC!^ fo.) Soon after his return, he was presented by the Bishop of Carlisle to the living of Newcastle-uponTyne ; but which he did not long enjoy ; for he fell into bad health, and died in the prime of life, in April 1804 {Gent. Mag. 1804). His premature death cut short some useful literary undertakings, and deprived the world of the full fruits of his observations on many interesting scenes, which he had surveyed with the eye of a scholar and the feeling of a poet; for all that the public has derived from his travels, is a posthumous volume of poems, with remarks suggested by these scenes, and which, though bearing testimony to his learning and taste, is but a poor substitute for such a work as, with his knowledge and means of information, he could not have failed to produce. The title of this posthumous volume is as follows: Poems, suggested chiefly by scenes in Asia Minor, Syria, and Greece, mth Prefaces extracted from the Author's Journal, It was published in 4to, in 1805, and is embellished with some fine engravings. CARNATIC, the name of an extensive maritime province on the eastern side of the peninsula of India, which, according to Mr Hamilton’s East India Gazetteer, stretches from the 8th to the 16th degree of north latitude. In Dr Heyne’s Tracts on India, it is said to extend from the 10th to the 15th degree. The average breadth of this tract is about seventy-five miles. It comprehends the former dominions of the Nabot of Arcot, which were transferred to the East India Company, by a treaty concluded in 1801. The Carnatic is reckoned one of the hottest portions of India. The soil varies, but is generally sandy,

C A R and in many parts water is scarce, the supplies being Carnatic II wholly derived from what is preserved in tanks filled Carpentry. during the periodical rains. There are, however, some rivers which flow through the country from the high mountains called the Ghauts. In the inland parts, there are large spots of salt ground, containing, says Dr Heyne, either common salt, or a mixture of that salt and soda, which, from the use to which it is applied in India, is known by the name of Washermens earth. Rice constitutes the principal produce of this country, and in those places where water is scarce, great labour is employed to obtain the necessary supplies for the rice fields. The cultivators raise four different crops in the year, two of them from the same ground. In good seasons the first crop produces fifty fold. Sugar is cultivated, but in very small quantities, the soil not being rich enough for the cane. The indigo plant might be cultivated to advantage, if the demand for it were greater. The common dwarf cotton is cultivated on the coast, but not extensively. The capital of this province is Madras, of the present state of which city we shall give some account when we reach that head. The other principal towns are Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Madura, Tranquebar, and Negapatam, in the division called the Southern Carnatic; Madras, Pondicherry, Arcot, Wallajahbad, Vellore, Cuddalore, Ginjee, Pullicat, Chandgherry, and Nelloor, in the Central Carnatic; and Ongole, Carwaree, and Samgaum, in the Northern Carnatic. Vellore is well known as one of the principal stations of the Company’s forces. The sons of Tippoo Sultan were placed here, and palaces on a large scale built for them, but since the well known mutiny of 1807) they have been removed to Bengal. The great mass of the population profess the Hindoo religion, the Mahommedans being but thinly scattered through the country. It contains about 40,000 Christians of all descriptions. The whole population of the Carnatic, in its most extensive sense, may be estimated at five millions. The natives are considered inferior in bodily strength to the other natives of Hindostan Proper. In no part of India are the genuine Hindoo manners more purely preserved than among the majority of the natives of the Carnatic. See Hamilton’s East India Gazetteer, 8vo. London, 1815. Heyne’s Tracts, Historical and Statistical, on India. 4to, London, 1814.

CARPENTRY. It has been judged most expedient to reprint the article Carpentry from the Supplement to the third Edition of the Encyclopcedia, in order that it

may form, with the articles Roof and Strength of Materials, * a uniform system of the most useful departments of practical mechanics, deduced, in

* It is proper to mention here, that these two a.-ticles, first printed in the third, were incorporated in the subsequent editions of the Encyclopcedia, but that the connected article Carpentry, first published in the Supplement to that edition, was not; owing to this circumstance, that the copyright of the Encyclopaedia, and of that Supplement, was for some time held by different Proprietors.—Ed,

622 CARPENTRY. Carpentry. the same familiar and elementary manner, from the al to its magnitude ; but when it is longitudinal, there Carpentry, simple principles of the composition of forces : is a certain magnitude which it must exceed, in order premising some Introductory Observations, which to produce or rather to continue the flexure, if the may be considered as a retrospective summary of force be applied exactly at the axis. But it is equalthe doctrine of Passive Strength, accompanied by ly true that the slightest possible force applied at a some of the most useful propositions respecting distance from the axis, however minute, or with an the resistance of elastic substances, derived from obliquity however small, or to a beam already a litthe principles which have been already laid down tle curved, will produce a certain degree of flexure; in our article Bridge : and subjoining a few notes, and this observation will serve to explain some of the on such passages as may appear to require further difficulties and irregularities which have occurred, in illustration or correction. Some of the demon- making experiments on beams exposed to longitudistrations will be partly borrowed from a work which nal pressure. has been published since the death of Professor Stiffness, or the power of resisting flexure, is Robison, the able author of these three articles : measured by the force required to produce a given but others will be more completely original: and of minute change of form. For beams similarly fixed, the remarks, the most important wall probably be it is directly proportional to the breadth and the cube those which relate to the form and direction of the of the depth, and inversely to the cube of the length. abutments of rafters; a subject which seems to have Thus a beam or bar two yards long will be equally been very incorrectly treated by former writers on stiff with a beam one yard, provided that it be either Carpentry. twice as deep, or eight times as broad. If the ends of a beam can be firmly fixed, by continuing them to a sufficient distance, and keeping them down I. Abstract of the Doctrine of Passive by a proper pressure, the stiffness will be four times Strength. as great as if the ends were simply supported. A The effects of forces of different kinds, on the ma- hollow substance, of given weight and length, has its terials employed in the mechanical arts, require to stiffness nearly proportional to the square of the diabe minutely examined in the arrangement of every meter : and hence arises the great utility of tubes, work dependent on them ; and of these effects, as when stiffness is required, this property being still exhibited in a solid body at rest, we may distinguish more increased by the expansion of the substance seven different varieties : the extension of a sub- than the ultimate strength. It is obvious that there stance acting simply as a tie ; the compression of a are a multiplicity of cases in Carpentry where stiffblock supporting a load above it; the detrusion of an ness is of more importance than any other property, axis resting on a support close to its wheel, and re- since the utility as well as beauty of the fabric might sisting by its lateral adhesion only ; the flexure of a often be destroyed by too great a flexibility of the body bent by a force applied unequally to its differ- materials. ent parts ; the torsion or twisting, arising from a parIf we wish to find how much a beam of fir will tial detrusion of the external parts in opposite direc- sink when it is loaded in the middle, we may multitions, while the axis retains its place; the alteration ply the cube of the length in inches by the given or permanent change of a body which settles, so as weight in pounds, and divide by the cube of the to remain in a new form, when the force is with- depth, and by ten million times the breadth: but on drawn ; and lastly, the fracture, which consists in a account of the unequal texture of the wood, we complete separation of parts before united, and must expect to find the bending somewhat greater which has been the only effect particularly examined than this in practice, besides that a large weight will by the generality of authors on the strength of ma- often produce an alteration, or permanent settling, terials. which will be added to it: a beam of oak will also The analogy of the laws of extension and com- sink a little more than a beam of fir, with the same pression has been demonstrated in a former article of weight. this volume, and their connexion with flexure has With respect to torsion, the stiffness of a cylindribeen investigated: but it is not easy to compare cal body varies directly as the fourth power of the them directly with the resistance opposed to a par- diameter, and inversely in the simple proportion of tial detrusion, the effects of which are only so far the length : it does not appear to be changed by the understood as they are exhibited in the phenomena action of any force tending to lengthen or to comof twisting : and these appear to justify us in consi- press the cylinder: and it may very possibly bear dering the resistance of lateral adhesion as a primi- some simple relation to the force of cohesion, which tive force, deduced from the rigidity or solidity of has not yet been fully ascertained : but it appears the substance, and proportional to the deviation that, in an experiment of Mr Cavendish, the resistfrom the natural situation of the particles. The re- ance of a cylinder of copper to a twdsting force, sistance exhibited by steel wire, when twisted, bears acting at its surface, was about of the resistance a greater proportion to that of brass than the re- that the same cylinder would have opposed to direct sistance to extension or compression ; but the forces extension or compression. agree in being independent of the hardness produced Alteration is often an intermediate step between by tempering. a temporary change and a complete fracture. There Flexure may be occasioned either by a transverse are many substances, which, after bending to a ceror by a longitudinal force: when the force is trans- tain extent, are no longer capable of resuming their verse, the extent of the flexure is nearly proportion- original form : and in such cases it generally hap-

CARPENTRY. 623 Carpentry, pens that the alteration may be increased without derived from the time required for the successive Carpentry, limit, until complete fracture takes place, by the propagation of the pressure through the different — continued operation of the same force which has be- parts of the substance, in order that they may gun it, or by a force a little greater. Those sub- participate in the resistance. Thus if a weight stances which are the most capable of this change, tell on the end of a bar or column with a veloare called ductile, and the most remarkable are gold, city of 100 feet in a second, and the substance and a spider’s web. When a substance has under- could only be compressed of its length, without gone an alteration by means of its ductility, its stiff- being crushed, it is obvious that the pressure must ness, in resisting small changes on either side, re- be propagated through the substance, with a velocimains little or not at all altered. Thus if the stiff- ty of 20,000 feet in a second, in order that it might ness of a spider’s web, in resisting torsion, were suf- resist the stroke ; and, in general, a substance will ficient at the commencement of an experiment, to be crushed or penetrated by any velocity exceeding cause it to recover itself, after being twisted in an that which is acquired by a body falling from a angle of ten degrees, it would return ten degrees, and height, which is to half that of the modulus of el asticinot more, after having been twisted round a thou- ty of the substance, as the square of the greatest possand times. The ductility of all substances, capa- sible change of length is to the whole length. From ble of being annealed, is greatly modified by the the consideration of the effect of rigidity in lessening effects of heat: hard steel, for example, is incompar- the resilience of bodies, we may understand how a ably less subject to alteration than soft, although in diamond, which is capable of resisting an enormous some cases more liable to fracture; so that the de- pressure, may be crushed with a blow of a small gree of hardness requires to be proportioned to the hammer, moving with a moderate velocity. It is uses for which each instrument is intended: al- remarkable that, for the same substance in‘different though it was proved by Coulomb, and has since been forms, the resilience is in most cases simply proporconfirmed by other observers, that the primitive stiff- tional to the bulk or weight, while almost every ness of steel, in resisting small flexures, is neither in- other kind of resistance is capable of infinite variacreased nor diminished by any variation in its temper. tion by change of form only. The strength of a body is measured by the force The elaboiate investigations of Mr Lagrange, rerequired completely to overcome the corpuscular specting the strength and the strongest forms of powers concerned in the aggregation of its particles, columns, appear to have been conducted upon prinand it is jointly proportional to the primitive stiff- ciples not altogether unexceptionable; but it is ness, and to the toughness of the substance; that is, much easier to confute the results than to follow the to the degree in which it is capable of a change of steps of the computations. One great error is the form without permanent alteration. It becomes supposition that columns are to be considered as however of importance in some cases, to consider elastic beams, bent by a longitudinal force; while, the measure of another kind of strength, which has in reality, a stone column is never slender enough sometimes been called resilience, or the power of to be bent by a force which it can bear without resisting a body in motion, and which is proportional being crushed: and even for such columns as are to the strength and the toughness conjointly, that is, capable of being bent by a longitudinal force, Mr to the stiffness and the square of the toughness. Lagrange’s determinations are in several instances Ihus if we double the length of a given beam, we inadmissible ; he asserts, for example, that a cylinreduce its absolute strength to one half, and its der is the strongest of all possible forms, and that a stiffness to one eighth; but since the toughness, or cone is stronger than any conoid of the same bulk; the space, through which it will continue to resist, but it appears to be demonstrable in a very simple* is quadrupled, the resilience will be doubled, and it manner, and upon incontestable principles, that a would require a double weight to fall from the same conoidal form may be determined, which shall be height, or the same weight to fall from a double stronger than either a cone or a cylinder of the height, in order to overcome its whole resistance. same bulk. If we wish to determine the resilience of a body When a column is crushed, its resistance to comfrom an experiment on its strength, we must mea- pression seems to depend in great measure on the sure the distance through which it recedes or is force of lateral adhesion, assisted by a kind of interbent, previously to its fracture ; and it may be shown nal friction, dependent on the magnitude of the that a weight, which is capable of breaking it by pressure.'and it commonly gives way by the separapressure, would also break it by impulse if it moved tion of a wedge in an oblique direction. If the adwith the velocity acquired by falling from a height hesion were simply proportional to the section, it equal to half the deflection. Thus if a beam or bar may be shown that a square column would be most were broken by a weight of 100 pounds, after being easily crushed when the angle of the wedge is equal bent 6 inches without alteration, it would also bo to half of a right angle ; but, if the adhesion is inbroken by a weight of 100 pounds falling from a creased by pressure, this angle will be diminished height of 3 inches, or moving in a horizontal direc- by halt the angle of repose appropriate to the subtion with a velocity of 4 feet in a, second, or by a stance. In a wedge separated by a direct force weight of 1 pound falling from a height of 300 inch- rom a prism of cast iron, the angle was found equal es. This substitution of velocity for quantity of to 32£°, consequently the angle of repose was matter has however one limit, beyond which the 2 X 122° = 25°, and the internal friction to the velocity must prevail over the resistance, without pressure as 1 to .466, the tangent of this angle; regard to the quantity of matter, and this limit is there was, however, a little bubble in the course of

024 C A R P E Carpenfry* the fracture, which may have changed its direction slight degree. The magnitude of the lateral adhesion is measured by twice the height of the wed"e, whatever its angle may be : in this instance the height was to the depth as 1.57 to 1, consequently the surface, affording an adhesion equal to the force, was somewhat more than three times as great as the transverse section, and the lateral adhesion of a square inch of cast iron would be equal to about 46,000 pounds: the direct cohesive force of the same iron was found by experiment equal to about 20,000 pounds for a square inch. It is obvious that experiments on the strength of a substance in' resisting compression ought to be tried on pieces rather longer than cubes, since a cube would not allow of the free separation of a single wedge so acute as was observed in this experiment; although, indeed, the force required to separate a shorter wedge on each side would be little or no greater than for a single wedge. The same consi-^ deration of the oblique direction of the plane of easiest fracture would induce us to make the outline of a column a little convex externally, as the common practice has been : for a circle cut out of a plank possesses the advantage of resisting equally in every section, and consequently of exhibiting the strongest form, when there is no lateral adhesion; and in the case of an additional resistance proportional to the pressure, the strongest form is afforded by an oval consisting of two circular segments, each containing twice the angle formed by the plane of fracture with the horizon. It we wish to obtain a direct measure of the lateral adhesion, we must take care to apply the forces concerned at a distance from each other not greater than one sixth of the depth of the substance, otherwise the fracture will probably be rather the consequence of flexure than of detrusion. Professor Robison found this force in some instances twice as great as the direct cohesion, or nearly in the same proportion, as it appears to have been in the experiment on the strength of cast iron ; Mr Coulomb thinks it most commonly equal only to the cohesion: and in fibrous substances, especially where the fibres are not perfectly straight, the repulsive strength is generally much less than would be inferred from this equality, and sometimes even less than the cohesive strength. It is well known that the transverse strength of a beam is directly as the breadth, and as the square of the depth, and inversely as the length : and the variation of the results of some experiments from this law can only have depended on accidental circumstances. If we wish to find the number of hundred weights that will break a beam of oak, supported at both ends, supposing them to be placed exactly on the middle, we may multiply the square of the depth, in inches, by 100 times the breadth, and divide by the length ; and we may venture in practice to load a beam with at least an eighth as much as this, or in case of necessity, even a fourth. And if the load be distributed equally throughout the length of the beam, it will support twice as much : but for a beam of fir, the strength is somewhat less than for oak. A cylinder will bear the same curvature as the circumscribing prism, and it may be shown that its strength, as well as its stiffness, is to that of the

NT R Y. prism as one fourth of its bulk is to one third of the Catpentry. bulk of the prism. The strength of a beam supported at its extremities may be doubled by firmly fixing the ends, where it is practicable ; and we have already seen that the stiffness is quadrupled: but the resilience remains unaltered, since the resistance is doubled, and the space through which it acts is reduced to a half. It is therefore obviously of importance to consider the nature of the resistance that is required from the fabric which we are constructing. A floor, considered alone, requires to be strong; but in connexion with a ceiling, its stiffness requires more particular attention, in order that the ceiling may remain free from cracks. A coach spring requires resilience, for resisting the relative motions of the carriage, and we obtain this kind ol strength as effectually by combining a number of separate plates, as if we united them into a single mass, while we avoid the stiffness, which would render the changes of motion inconveniently abrupt. In all calculations respecting stiffness, it is necessary to be acquainted with the modulus of elasticity, which may be found, for a variety of substances, in the annexed table. Height of the Modulus of Elasticity in Thousands of Feet. Iron and steel, 10,000 Fir wood, 10,000 Copper, 5,700 Elm, 8,000 Brass, 5,000 Beech, 8,000 Silver, 3,240 Oak, 5,060 Tin, 2,250 Box, - ‘ 5,050 Crown glass, 9,800 Ice, 850 II. Propositions relating to Flexure. A. The stiffness of a cylinder is to that of its circumscribing rectangular prism, as three times the bulk of the cylinder is tofour times that of the prism. We may consider the different strata of the substance as acting on levers equal in length to the distance of each from the axis ; for although there is no fixed fulcrum at the axis, yet the whole force is the same as if such a fulcrum existed, since the opposite actions of the opposite parts would relieve the fulcrum from all pressure. Then the tension of each stratum being also as the same distance x, and the breqdth of the stratum being called 2j/, the fluxion of the force on either side of the axis will be 2x2?/d.r, while that of the force of the prism, the radius being r, is 2r.r2dx. Now z being the area of half the portion included between the stratum and the axis, of which the fluxion is y&x, the fluxion of 2 — fAx rr 3y yxf / V

or since

be ^do: — xxy&x ~Tr

nr

i/ /

will

v£ _ j rr~~

xj^/dx ^

t

yy rr*

3xxy > f° cylinthe radius of curvature r corresponding to y will be M kk . . . k der, ^ | ‘ ac. Now, the tangent of the in——, that is, a third proportional to y and - the ra, ... , Maa = clination of the harmonic curve varies as the sine of the angular distance from the middle, consequently dius of the generating circle ; consequently kk

,, u

Maacc = ~W'

. ,

,

.M ao;

nature of the curve, y'.b= l

, . , ’

= sec.

t ec . ,3f y = 4sec.s = SsecV|j'

as ^ y

. 1 and

which is the ordi-

nate at the middle ; and the deflection from the natural situation is ^ — b. It follows that, since the secant of the quadrant is infinite, when s/ 4?.- becomes equal to c, the deflection will be infinite, and the resistance of the column will be overcome, however small the distance b may be taken, provided that it be of finite magniMaacc 3foe_ tude: and since in this case Maa cc,f = See .8225 M—, which is the utmost force that the coee lumn will bear: and for a cylinder we find, by the same reasoning, f

^

= -6169 M —. If & be

supposed to vanish, we shall have in theory an equi« VOL. II. PART II.

^ • c, or 5 is to the radius, so is the tank k gent t, expressing the difference of inclination, of the end of the beam and the direction of the force, which is also that of the middle of the supposed curve, to the tangent of the extreme inclination of the curve to its absciss, which will therefore be t sec. -y-: consequently the greatest ordinate will k be — sec. and since the ordinates are as the c k sines of the angular distances from the origin of the curve, the ordinate at the fixed end of the beam, €C • • corresponding to the angle —, that is, the deflection, K kt ec fee kt ec T .M W1lIbeTSEC. T' T=TTANG.T=iv'| ? “t 2e 3f tang. ~ V'jyj* or> f°r

a

r M cylinder, ^ f-j . at tang.

.f a^M ‘ By means of this proposition we may determine 4 K

626 CARPENTRY. Carpentry, the effect of a small lateral force in weakenins a O beam or pillar, which is at the same time compres- the versed sine for the ordinate e will behalf maa‘ sed longitudinally by a much greater force; considering the parts on each side of the point, to which of which is the actual depression. F. The depression of the middle of a horizontal bar, the lateral force is applied, as portions of two beams, bent in the manner here described, by a single force fixed at both ends, and supporting its ovon weight slightly inclined to the axis. j . , 5e* D. A bar fixed at one end, and bent by a trans. only, is dzz 32maa verse force applied to the other end, assumes initially The transverse force at each point of such a bar, the form of a cubic parabola, ^and the defection at resisted by the lateral adhesion, is as the distance _ *ef x from the middle (Art. Bridge, under Prop. L.); the end is d = Mna but this force is proportional to the first fluxion of The ordinate of a cubic parabola varying as x3, its the strain or curvature, consequently the curvature second fluxion varies as 6x (dx)2, or since the first itself must vary as the corrected fluent of rfcxdx, fluxion of the absciss is constant, simply as the ab- taking here the negative sign, because the curvature sciss x, measured from the vertex of the parabola, diminishes2 as x2increases; and the corrected fluent which must therefore be situated at the end to which will be le —x , since it must vanish when x=±e; will then be i e2xdx — the force is applied, and the absciss must coincide the3 first fluxion of the ordinate 2 2 jr x dx, and the fluent ^ e x —yL x4, or for the whole with the tangent of the bar. But if we begin from 4 or T|g, which would the other end, we must substitute e—x for x, and length l e,j%2 e , instead of the second fluxion of the ordinate will be as 6 (e x) have been its value if the curvature had been equal (dx)2, the first as 6exdx—3x-dx, and the fluent as throughout. Now the strain at the middle is the 3ex2—x3, which, when x=e, becomes 2e3, while it difference of the opposite strains, produced by the would have been Se3 if the curvature had been uni- forces acting on either side; and these are the half form, and the second fluxion had been every where weight, acting at the mean distance ^ e, and the reequal to the same 6e(dx)z. Now the radius of curvature at the fix- sistance* of the support, I*. / which isOttilia half weight, but acts at the distance ^ e, the differMaa ed end being r = and the versed sine of a small ence being equivalent to the half weight, acting at 12ef the distance ^ e, so that the curvature at the middle is the same as if the bar were fixed there, and loose portion of a circle being equal to —, this versed at the ends, that is, as in the last proposition, sub2r • • t QfttCKl sine will be expressed by ; and two thirds of stitutmg -2 e for e,rz=. -j—; and the versed sine at this, or

will be the actual deflection. Mym E. The depression of a bar, fixed horizontally at one end, and supporting only its own weight, is 3e* m d= being the height of the modulus of elasticity. The curvature here varies as the square of the distance from the end, because the strain is proportional to the weight of the portion of the bar beyond any given point, and to the distance of its centre of gravity conjointly, that is, to (e —x) \ (e—x), so that if the second fluxion at the fixed end be as e^dx)3. it will elsewhere be as (e — x)2(dx)2; and the corresponding first fluxions being e2xdx and e2xdx cx2dx-f ^ x3dx, the fluents will be ^c2x2, and i e2x* — iex3 + TL x4, or, when x = e, ^ e\ and (I — i + tV) £4= i e4; consequently the depression must be half the versed sine in the circle of greatest curvature. Now the radius otc curvature Maa, —— beWy Maa 16 comes here > t* force being applied at the distance £ e: and since the weight of the bar is to that of the modulus of elasticity in the proportion of the respective lengths, we have ^ m

m

, and r — fff Qee

an(j

the distance i e being ~, or

£ of this will be

5eA This demonstration may serve as an illus32maa tration of two modes of considering the effect of a strain, which have not been generally known, and which are capable of a very extensive application. It follows that where a bar is equally loaded throughout its length, the curvature at the middle is half as great as if the whole weight were collected there, the strain derived from the resistance of the support remaining in that case uncompensated. The depression produced by the divided weight will be | as great as by the single weight, since £ X £ is to I as 5 to 8. Mr Dupin found the proposition by many experiments, between f and f; and £ is a very good mean for representing these results. III. Elements of Carpentry. “ Carpentry is the art of framing timber for the Definition, purposes of Architecture, Machinery, and, in general, for all considerable structures. It is not intended in this article to give a full account of Carpentry as a mechanical art, or to describe the various ways of executing its different works, suited to the variety of materials employed, the processes which must be followed for fashioning and framing them for our purposes, and the tools 4

C A R P E N T R Y. mi arpentry. which must be used, and the manner in which they pleasure that we can say, that we were told by the Caipentry. must be handled : This would be an occupation for editor, that this work was prompted in a great meavolumes; and though of great importance, must be sure by what has been delivered in the Encyclopcedia entirely omitted here. Our only aim at present will Britannica in the articles Roof and Strength of be to deduce, from the principles and laws of me- Materials. It abounds more in important and new chanics, and the knowledge which experience and observations than any book of the kind that we are judicious inferences from it have given us concern- acquainted with. We again call on such as have ing the strength of timber, in relation to the strain given a scientific attention to this subject, and preiy laid on it, such maxims of construction as will unite that they would render a meritorious service to their economy with strength and efficacy. country by imparting the result of their researches. This object is to be attained by a knowledge, The very limited nature of this work does not allow 1st, of the strength of our materials, and of the ab- us to treat the subject in detail; and we must consolute strain that is to be laid on them ; 2dly, of the fine our observations to the fundamental and leading modifications of this strain, by the place and direc- propositions. tion in which it is exerted, and the changes that can Ihe theory (so to term it) of Carpentry is found-j(,eory be made by a proper disposition of the parts of our ed on two distinct portions of mechanical sciences, founded on structure ; and, 3dly, having disposed every piece in namely, a knowledge of the strains to which fram-what, such a manner as to derive the utmost advantage ings of timber are exposed, and a knowledge of their from its relative strength, we must know how to relative strength. form the joints and other connections in such a manWe shall therefore attempt to bring into one ner as to secure the advantages derived from this point ot view the propositions of mechanical science disposition. that are more immediately applicable to the art of . importThis is, evidently, a branch of mechanical science Carpentry, and are to be found in various articles ' *irar,c*1. which makes Carpentry a liberal art, constitutes part of our work, particularly Roof and Strength of le earn n Materials. From these propositions we hope to . LizavJ KtHnlria-yf/i

C A R PENT RY.

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P L A 7 /; XL IX.

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PLATE E

CARPENTRY Pi,/. I A.

ii