Encyclopaedia Britannica [7, 14 ed.]

Citation preview

FOURTEENTH EDITION

LEE0 ree wa

oiha

iaaiA

S

Lag

Fane

ENCYCLOPAEDIA’ BRITANNICA FIRST

EDITION

SECOND THIRD

EDITION EDITION

FOURTH

e a? 0 = eA

fo

A 4

EDITION

1788 1801 1615

SIXTH

EDITION

1823

EDITION EDITION

1830 1853

NINTH

EDITION

1875

TENTH

EDITION

1902

ELEVENTH

"i

1777

EDITION

EIGHTH

— 8—

1768

FIFTH

SEVENTH

EDITION

1910

TWELFTH EDITION

1922

THIRTEENTH

1926

EDITION

FOURTEENTH

§&£

EDITION

1929

B

P

—88

aa

PDT)

as é A)

ORL

MTN

ANN

*

NCL

UIN —8 —J ee A REUE ————

a,

|

ae

3

Coon —

9 — iT

i

wa

Ne

G

-

— Pe

es

Pd

A

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

SKA W jUP —

N

—8 iy N A si

*

tas “Wed

FOURTEENTH EDITION ANEW SURVEY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE

t

———

A— y

*

ws

id @

>

VOLUME

7 DAMASCUS To EDUCATION, BUREAU OF AB %

THE ENCYCLOPADIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD | LONDON

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. INC. NEW YORK

fd

tate e

SIT

— w,

‘KAAS A"

COPYRIGHT IN ALL COUNTRIES SUBSCRIBING TO

THE

BERNE

CONVENTION

BY THE

ENCYCLOPADIA

BRITANNICA

COMPANY,

LTD.

COPYRIGHT IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, BY THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA

BRITANNICA,

INC.

1929

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS IN VOLUME VII WITH THE ARTICLES WRITTEN ALEXANDER BELL FILSON YOUNG. pao of Saturday Review, 1921-4.

BY THEM.

Sometime Special Correspondent of The Times,

Dance (in part).

ondon.

A. D. Tus, M.A., D.Sc.

Chief Entomologist, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Herts. Formerly

A. E.G.

Diptera;

Dragon-Fly;

Forest Zoologist to the Government of India and Professor of Biology, University of Earwig. Allahabad. Author of A General Textbook of Entomology. Rev. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M. A. D.D. Principal of New College, Hampstead, since 1907, and of Hackney College since Devil 1922, and of Hackney and New College since 1924. Author of The Christian Doctrine F the Godhead; The Preachers of the Church; etc.

A. E. Tw.

A. E. TWENTYMAN.

A. F. Ho.

A. F. HocHwALT. Firm of G. F. Hochwalt Tompany, Publishers, Dayton, O. Staff Representative, The Author of

Pointer and Setter in America; The

, }Education (in part).

Formerly Librarian and Information Officer, Board of Education, London.

American Field.

(77C™™

Modern Pointer.

A. Fi.

PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTE FILON. French Man of Letters. Author of Le Théâtre Anglais; Prosper Mérimée; ctc.

A. F. K.

A. F. KENDRICK.

A. Gé.

ANDRE GERAUD.

A. G.G.

ARTHUR GEORGE GREEN, M.Sc., F.I.C., F.R.S. Director of Research, British Dyestuff Corporation until resignation, 1923.

Dog (in part).

D

Keeper in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, of Textiles, 18971924; Ceramics, 1899-1902; and Woodwork, 1904-8. Pertinax (nom de plume). Contributor to L'Echo de Paris.

rama

A (in part).

>Dress (in part). }Delcassé, Theophile.

Late

Prof. of Applied Chemistry (Dyestuffs), University of Leeds. Author of Systematic Dyes, Synthetic. Survey of the Organic Colouring Matters; Analysts of the Dyestuffs; etc. — —

A. G. P. A. H. Q. A. J. Bu.

A.K. C.

ARTHUR GEORGE PERKIN, D.Sc., F.I.C., F.R.S. Emeritus Professor, formerly Professor of Colour Chemistry and Dyeing

and Dean of the Faculty of. Technology, University of Leeds. Davy Medallist of the Royal Society, 1925. Joint Author of Natural Organic Colouring Matters.

Mrs. A. H. QUIGGIN. Lecturer, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge. ARTHUR JOHN BUTLER.

Dwellings, Primitive.

Late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Professor of Italian Language and literature, University College, London. Author of a prose translation of Dante's Divine Comedy; Dante and his Times; etc. . Keeper of Indian, Persian and Mohammedan Art, Museum

A. M. A. M. E. A. P. W.

A. Sd.

A. Sh.

Dante (in part).

ANANDA K.-‘Coomaraswamy, D.Sc., F.L.S., F.G.S., M.R.A.S. of Fine Arts, Boston,

Mass. Fellow of University College, London. Author of The Indian Craftsman; Essays in National Idealism; Art ana Swadeshs,; The Dance of Siva; etc.

A. Lk.

Dyes, Natural.

A. LARKINS. The Early Closing Association, London. ALLEN MawEr, M.A.

Baines Professor of English Language at the University of Liverpool. Survey of English Place Names.

ALBAR M. Epwarps, M.A., Ps.D. Supervising Special Agent, United States Bureau of Census, Washington. Labor Legislation of Connecticut.

Dance (in

|Barly Closing Movement. Danelagh (in part); Director of Denmark (in part); Edred.

Author o! } Domestic Service (in part).

neral Staff AT

Officer,AA War Office, Britis Milk ilitary on the E on. Cenk : attaché hé on the C Caucasus Front, Nov. 1916—June, 1917. General Staff Officer, 1917-8 and Brigadier General, General Staff, Egyptian Expeditionary Force, 1918-20.

|

Dunajec-San, Battles of the. ,

ARCHIBALD SAFFORD. Barrister-at-Law, Temple, London.

ARTHUR SHERWELL.

Distress.

Member of Parliament 1906-18. Thirty —

industrial questions. Author of Life in

research work and study of social and

West London; Taxation of the Liquor Trade; >Disinterested Management.

Public Control of the Liquor Trade; Joint Author of the Temperance Problem and Social Reform; etc. Director of enquiry into conditions of child life in Edinburgh.

A. Sn. A. T.C.

par!)

a POT):

;

A. SIMONSOHN.

Darmstiidter und National-

Arruur T. Coone, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. Of Mesers. Cooke, Fitzmaurice, Wilson and Mitchell, London.

:

v

—

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS A. Tuk. St

A. Wo.

had

A. T. FIDLER.

a

Assistant Secretary of the Dunlop Rubber Company, Ltd., and of its subsidiary companies. arte wou. M.A., D.Litt. ü | *rofessor of Logic and Scientific Method in the University of London. Sometime

Rubber Company,

Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. Fellow of University College, London, Descartes, René; Author of The Oldest Biography of Spinoza; Textbook of Logic. Editor of the Philosophy and Psychology section, 14th Edition, Encyclopædia Britannica.

A. W. Po.

Duration and Time.

ALFRED W. Porter, D.Sc., F.R.S. Emeritus Professor of Physics in the University of London. Editor of Preston's Theory of Light; co-author of Foster and Porter's Blementary Treatise on Electricity und Magnetism.

A. W. Wa.

= — oe wane History and dl Literature and d P Principal lof «ate Professor of English of Ow Owen's CCollege, Manchester. Author of JJistory of English Dramatic Literature to the Age of Queen Anne,

See the biographical article:

Warb, SiR A. W.,

A. Yo.

ALLyNn Youne, PN. D.

B. F. C. A.

B. F. C. Arkwson, Pu.D. Under Librarian, University Library, Cambridge. BRAND Warrock, LL.D. Author and diplomat, Formerly United States Minister to Belgium.

B. Wh.

Late Professor of Political Economy in the University of London.

C. C. A. M.

C. C.T. C. D.

C. Do.

Member of the Legion of Honour, D-és-L.(Hon,Causa) Lille University, Late Divisional Inspector to the London County Council. Editor of the Education section, 14th Edition, Encyclopædia Britannica. C. C. A. Monro, M.A. Assistant in the Zoological Department of the British Museum (Natural History).

CHARLES CUTLER TorREY, Pu.D., D.D. CHARLES Davison, Sc.D., F.G.S.

Author of A History of British Earthquakes; A Study of Recent Earthquakes; The Origin of Earthquakes; etc.

P

—

Drawings,

nauk

British

Museum, since 1912.

i

Editor o

Collector's Quarterly, Author of Catalogue of Flemish and German British Museum; Old French Colour-prints; ete.

C. E. C.

or

Print

Woodcuts in the

Major GENERAL SiR CHARLES Epwarpb CALLWELL, K.C.B.

Director of Military Operations, at the War Office, 1914-6. Author of Smuil Wars; The Dardanelles; ete.

C. E.T.

Cuci. EDGAR TILLEY, B.Sc., PrR.D., F.G.S.

C. F. A.

CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.

The Wilderness and Cold ITarbour.

.

Scholar of Queen’s College, Oxford.

}Earthquake.

Dry Point (in part).

>Dardanelles Campaign. Dumortierite;

Author of Dutch. Wars (in part).

CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D., F.B.A. Professor of Political Economy, Dublin University. Regius Professor of Law since 1908, Author of Theory of International Trude; Commerce of Nations; Public Finance.

C.G.

CHARLES GIDE.

©

}Echiuroidea.

Eclogite.

C. F. B.

Professor at the Collège de France.

Education (in part)

aa

Demonstrator in Petrology, University of Cambridge.

Major, late East Surrey Regiment.

|

}Daniel (in part).

Professor of Semitic Languages, Yale University.

eeper of Prints and

. Drama (in part).

}Dorians. } Author of The Democracy.

CLOUDESLY BRERETON, M.A., L-Ès-L.

Sheree TD ON

Diffusion (in part)

}Economics.

Turn of the Balance; Belgium under the German Occupation,

C. Br.

f

Editor of La Revue d'Economie Politique; Author

}Decimal Coinage. Economic Man.

of Political Economy: etc.

C. H. B.

C. H. Besr.

C. H.C.

CHARLES H. Corvin, M.E. President and General Manager, Pioneer Instrument Company, Inc., Brooklyn, New York. Inventor of many aircraft instruments and devices.

C. H.J.

CHARLES H. Jupp, Px.D., LL.D.

C. Hr.

C. H. Remy, O.B.E., M.A., F.R.I.B.A.

C. H. T.

Crawrord HowzLL Toy, A.M., P.D.

}Deihi (in part).

Roscoe Professor of Architecture, University of Liverpool.

f

Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York,

American Historical Association.

C.J.

pEarth Inductor Compass.

Director of School of Education, and Chairman of the Department of Psychology, Education (in parl). University of Chicago. Author of Psychology of High School Subjects. CARL HRDINA. }Dresdner Bank. Member of Board of General Managers, Dresdner Bank, Berlin,

C. H. R.

C. H. W.

} Diabetes.

National Medical Research Institution, London.

CaMILLA H. WEpGwoop, B.A.

Department of Anthropology, Sydney University, N.S.W.

Member of the

CHARLES J. SEYMOUR.

C. Mo.

HERBERT CLIFFORD MORTIMER. Barrister-at-Law, Probate and Divorce Court, London,

|

Dance (is part); Formerly Lecturer in >Dead, Disposal of the (js

Sociology, Bedford Coll ege, ndon. _ C. JAMES. —— University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire.

C. J.S.

clesiastes (in pari).

part).

D }

}Dress Manufacturing. Divorce (isspart). | +

INITIALS AND C. P. S. C. R. B.

NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS

Cuirrord P. Surts, LL.B., C.S.B. The First Church of Christ Scientist, Boston, Author of numerous articles andbay, Mary Baker. pamphiets on Christian Science. CHARLES RayMOND BEASLEY, M.A., D.Lirt., F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S. co of History, — Caner Ont: ee F = of — ang .niver: sity urer in History an phy, ord; formerly on Council of Roya Geographical Society and of Hakluyt and African Societies, and a Member of the House of Laymen; Member of Advisory Committees of British Labour Party for

International Affairs and for Education; Party.

Member of Executive of Birmingham Labour

C. S. E.

CHARLES S. ELTON.

C. Sh.

C. SHaw. Assistant Inspector of Special Schools (Blind and Deaf), London County Council. CHARLES BRUCE Locker Tennyson, C.M.G.

C. Te.

C. W. W.

University Demonstrator in Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, Cxford.

Deputy Director of the Federation of British Industries. the Colonial Office, London.

— and Dumb, Education and Welfare of the.

Formerly Legal Adviser to Dumping.

Str CHARLES WILLIAM WILson, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-94. Director-General of Military

D. Bru.

CAPTAIN D. BRUNT.

D. C. McM.

Dovucras C. McMurtrIe. Director of Typography of the Ludlow Typograph Co., Chicago.

pDiarbekr (in part).

}Dust

Superintendent, Army Division, Meteorological Office, Air Ministry, London.

°

Author of The }De Vinne, Theodore Low.

Golden Book; American Type Design, Editor of Ars Typographica.

D. F. T.

; Pamplin, Druses (tn part).

Fund, 1899.

Davip MEREDITH SEARES WaTsON, M.Sc, F.R.S.

Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, University College, University of London. Author of many papers on Vertebrate Palaeontology and connected subjects in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, Journal of Anatomy; etc.

SIR PA -ate

— Joint

Cee etary,

——

Dis

—

and

Liquidation

D. S.

Stores, etc., Liquidation Department, Expeditionary Force. D. SAURAT.

D. S. F.

Douctas SOUTHALL FREEMAN, Pn. D., LL.D.

Commission and

Secretary, Surplus

ndon. Was Financial Adviser to Salonika

Professor of Literature in the University of Bordeaux.

E. A.

n The News Leader (Richmond, Va.); Calendar of Confederate Papers; Lee's Dis-

Prince D. S. Mirsky.

Lecturer in Russian Literature, King's College, London University. Modern Russian Literature; Pushkin; Russian Literature, 1875-1925. CAPTAIN Epwarp ALTHAM, C.B., R.N.

Secretary and Chief Executive Officer, Royal United Service

Eric Arup, Px.D.

E. A. Sp.

ELMER A. Sperry, E.D., Sc.D.

Institution since

Professor of Danish History at the University of Copenhagen.

Chairman of the Board, Sperry

Gyroscope Company, Brooklyn, N.Y.

pDavis, Jefferson.

Author ofDae

1927; Senior Naval Officer, Archangel River Expeditions, 1918-9. TaY and Editor of the Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, Editor of the Naval section, 14th Edition, Encyclopædia Britannica.

E. Ap.

Disposal Board.

Drama (in part).

patches. D. S. M.

Dinosauria.

|

the Gyro-Compass, Ship Stabilizers, and other inventions in many fields.

;

Deamark (in purt).

Inventor of pDiesel Engine (in part).

:

Ernest Barker, M.A., Litt.D., LL.D. Formerly Principal of King's College, London. Professor of Political Science, Cam- } Diet. bridge and Fellow of Peterhouse. Author of Greek Political Theory; The Crusades.

E. B. Po.

EDVARD paca FourON, Mai — rofessor o

in the

Ds —

University

ord.

—

Fellow of

‘

Destroyer (in pari).

E. B.

o

a sn pari).

Jesus College,

Oxford. Author of The Colours of Animals; Essoys on Evolution, Charter Darwin (Darwin, Charles Robert.

E. C. B. E. C. Br.

E. C. K.

E. Co.

and the Origin of Species; etc. Rt. Rev. Epwarp CuTuBert But_er, M.A., Hon.D.Lirrt. : it Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath, 1906-22. |Dominic, Saint Epwarp C. BRIDGMAN. Drawing, Anatomical (in President, Bridgman Publishing Company, Pelham, N.Y. part). Epwarp CAMERON Kirk, Sc.D. Professor Emeritus (since 1917), Dental Pathology, Therapeutics and Materia-Dentistry (in part). Medica, University of Pennsylvania. sp | Euan COmEn.

Department of Statistics, Copenhagen.

—

lDenmark (17 part). |

INITIALS

Vill Ed. M.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS Darius;

EDUARD MEyeER, D.Litt.

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin.

Alterthums,

E. E. E.

E. E. EVANS. Lecturer in Geography, University of Belfast.

E. E. L.

E. E. Lone, C.B.E.

E.E. Sl.

E. E. Stosson, Px.D., D.Sc., Litr. D.

Author of Geschichte des Demetrius: King of Bactria; Di odotus. ; }Denmark (in part).

|

Foreign Office as Officer-in-Charge, Eastern Section, News Department, 1918-21; Special correspondent touring British Malaya, Siam, Java, etc., 1924-5.

}East Indies.

Director of Science Service, New York. Formerly Literary Editor of The Independent, Edison, Thomas Alva. D York. Author of Great American Universities; Creative Chemistry; Snapshots of

Science.

E. F. C.

EuGENE F, Crark, A.M., Pu.D.

E. F. M.S.

periodicals; Editor of 750 Years of Dartmouth College; Dartmouth Alumni Magazine. ELIZABETH F. MALCOLM SmiTuH, M.A.

E. F. S.

Secretary, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N.H.

|

Contributor to various philological

>Dartmouth College.

Dilke, Sir Charles.

Fellow of Newnham College, Cambridge. LizeuT, COLONEL EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE, G.B.E.

Late Keeper of Woodwork, Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Author of Alphabets, A Handbook of Lettering; The Colour Prints of Hiroshige; Chinese Lacquer;

Della Quercia.

Flowers and Plants for Designers and Schools; etc.

E.

G.

Sir Epmunb Goss, M.A., LL.D., Hon.Litt.D. Librarian, House of Lords, 1904-14.

Donne, John; Drachmann, Holger, H. H.; Drayton, Michael.

Sometime Assistant Librarian, British Museum.

Clark Lecturer in English Literature, Trinity College, Cambridge, 1884-90. President of the English Association, 1921, Author of //tstory of Eighteenth Century Literature; Books on the Table; etc. See the biographical article: Gosse, Sır EDMUND. E. G. Bor.

EpwIn GARRIGUES BORING, A.M., Pu. D.

E. G.G.

E. G. GARDNER, Liırrt.D. Professor of Italian at University College, University of London.

E. He.

EpovARD HERRIOT.

}Discrimination, Sensible.

Professor of Psychology, Harvard University.

) Author of Dante; pDante (in part).

Dante and the Mystics.

|

Prime Minister of the French Republic, 1924-6.

Senator, 1912-9. Minister of Public

Works, 1916-7. Formerly Professor of Rhetoric in the Lycée at Lyons.

Danton, Georges Jacques.

Author of

Madame Récamter et ses Amis, E. Hi.

Eva Hinpert,

M.Sc. Tecnu.

Assistant lecturer in Applied Chemistry, Manchester.

Faculty of Technology,

University

of Dyeing.

E. Ho.

E. Homes, Pu.D., A.I.C.

E. M.T.

Sir EDWARD

E. Nee.

EBRE NEERGAARD. } . Lecturer in Danish Language and Literature, University of Berlin. Drama (in pari). ErLwoop P. CUBBRERLEY, Pu.D., LL.D. ; — Dean of School of Education, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford, California. Education: United States.

E. P. Cu.

}Distillation.

ee PORON

—

D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D., nate Ba

Director and Principal Librarian of the British Museum, 1888-1909. Joint Editor o Publications of Palaeographical Society, Shakespeare's Handwriting. Author of An Introduction to Greek and Latin Palacography.

i

: . Diplomatic (in part).

Author of History of Education; Public School Administration.

E. Ro.

EDWARD RoBErRTSON, M.A. Professor of Semitic Languages, University College of North Wales.

— (in part); Dead Sea.

E, W.

EpWARD WESTERMARCK, Pu.D., Hon.LL.D.

E. Wag.

E. WAGON.

}

E. W. P. N.

Major E. W. PoLson NEWMAN.

}Damascus (in part).

F. A. B.

pea

F. A. M. W.

F. A. M. WEBSTER.

F. A. N.

FreD A. Nortzu, C.E., D.Sc.

F. B.

FRANCIS BICKLEY. Editor of State Papers for the Public Record Office and of reports for the Historica!

i

:

Professor of Philosoph at the Academy of Abo, Finland; Professor of Sociology at pDivorce (in part). the University of London since 1907.

Literary Department, Deutsche Bank, Berlin.

Deutsche Bank.

Correspondent of The Datly Maz in Jerusalem; War Correspondent in Syria, 1925-6.

—

BATHER, a e.

aaT

x

ci

:

eeper, Department o ogy, Britis useum atural History), 1924-8. inoderma Rolleston Priseman, Oxford, 1892. Author of “Echinoderma” in Lankester's Treatise Echinod on Zoology; Triassic Echinoderms of Bakony; etc. ‘ |

?Discus Throwing.

Joint Editor of The Blue Magazine, London, and writer on athletics.

de

Consulting Hydraulic Engineer, Los Angeles, California. Author of Gravity and Arch Action in Curved Dams. i

Manuscripts Commission (England). Author of The Cavendish Family; J. M. Synge and the Irish Dramatic Movement; etc.

F. C. B.

Francis CRAWForD Burkitt, F.B.A., D.D.

F. C. E.

FRA

Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. versity of Cambridge. N COURTNEY Etis.,

A.B

|

Dams (tn part).

Diplomatic (in part).

f

Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the Uni- >Edessa (in pari).

Directőr of Public Information, Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, N.Y.

} Eastman Kodak Co.

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS F. G. M. B.

Freperick Greorce MEEsonN Beck, M.A. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.

F. G. P.

FREDERICK GYMER Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.S.A.

ix

ore East Anglia.

Professor of Anatomy, University of London. President, Anatomical Society

of Great

Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Anatomy at St. Thomas's Hospital and The London }Ear, Anatomy of. oe of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College

of

Surgeons.

F. LL G.

F, LLEWELLYN GreirritH, M.A., LL.D., Pu.D., F.S.A.

F. M. S.

F. M. STENTON. Professor of History, University of Reading.

F. No.

FRANCIS BENEDICT VINCENT NORRIS.

F. R. K.

FRANK RICHARDSON KENT, M.A. Vice President, Baltimore Sun, Baltimore, Md. Author of The Great Game of Politics; pDemocratic Party.

F. R. M.

Lieut. COLONEL Francis RICHARD MAUNSELL, C.B.E., C.M.G.

Professor (1924) of and Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Queen's College, Oxford. |

section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Hon. Fellow of |DemoticLanguage and Writing.

; : Editor of the History (Mediaeval | Danolagh (in part),

Dark Ages.

Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln’s Inn, London.

Droit, Administratif.

Political Behavior; The Democratic Party—A History.

Late R.A.

Writer and Explorer.

nople, 1901-5.

.

Military Attaché, British Embassy, Constanti-

Author of Hsndusian; etc.

F. R. T.

FREDERICK ROBERT TENNANT, D.D., B.Sc.

F. S.

FRANCIS STORR.

F. S. B.

Late Editor of the Journal of Education (London). Officier d’Academie (Paris). F. S. Boas, M.A., LL.D. Divisional Inspector of English Language and Literature to the London County

Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in Divinity.

Council, 1905-27.

pDiarbekr (tn pari). |

Deiam

:

Duel (in part).

,

Fellow and Professor of the Royal Society of Literature; a Vice pDrama (in part).

President of the English Association. University Drama in the Tudor Age.

F. S. P.

Francis S. PHiLsprick,

F. T. M.

Sir FRANK T. MARZIALS.

F. W. W.

FREDERIC W. WHYTE.

F. W. We.

F. W. WEBER.

Author of Shakespeare and his Predecessors;

B.Sc., LL.B., Pu.D.

Professor of Law, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

History of Germanic Private Law.

Accountant-General of the Army, 1898-1g04.

Author of Actors of the Century.

Etcher and Artist.

Translator of Hamer s| Declaration of Independ

z

ence.

Editor of “Great Writers” series.

Translator of Filon’s English Stage; etc.

Dumas, Alexandre. Du Maurier, George.

Etchings in the Library of Congress, Washington; New YorkEasel.

Public Library and Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

G. A. Bu.

G.A.R.C.

G. B. Br.

G. A. Burts, M.Inst.C.E. Author, and Joint Editor with Sir Dugald Clerk, of works on internal engines. Gerorrrey A. R. CALLENpDER, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.Hısrt.S. Professor of History and English, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. History to the R.N. War College. Author of The Naval Side of British GEORGE B. BRIDGMAN. Instructor, Arts Students League, New York. Author of Life Drawings;

combustion

Diesel Engine (in part).

i Lecturer in Dutch Wars (in part). History.

Constructive

POE

Anatomical

(in

part).

Anatomy; The Hand.

G. Be.

GERTRUDE BELL, C.B.E.

G. B. W.

G. C.

GEORGE B. WILSON. United Kingdom Alliance, London. GEORGE COPPING.

G. Ch.

GEORG CHRISTENSEN.

G. D. Bi.

G. D. Brexuorr, A.M., Pu.D., Sc.D.

G. G. A. M.

GEorGE GILBERT Armé Murray, M.A., LL.D., D.Liırr., F.B.A., F.R.S.L. Regius Professor of Greek, Oxford University; Charles Eliot Norton Professor of Drama (in part)

Late Oriental Secretary to the British High Commissioner of ‘Iraq. Author of Review of the Civil Administration of Mesopotamia,

>Druses (in part).

} Drink Bill.

Managing Editor, The Pottery Gazette and Glass Trade Review and The Oil and Colour Trades Journal.

pHarthenware.

E

Author, Literary Critic and Educationalist.

Haderslev, Denmark.

— Principal of the State Training College,}P

Professor of Mathematics, Harvard University.

7

Author of Relativity and Physics; etc.

Poetry, Harvard University, 1926; Trustee of British Museum,

1914.

—

and Litera

© (in part).

|Determinant.

Author of

:

Rise of the Greek Epic; Five Stages of Greek Religion; etc.

G. G. K.

G. G. KLOEKE.

G. G. S.

GEORGE GREGORY Sauaits, M.A., LL.D. Professor of Englisb Literature at Queen's University, Belfast.

G. H. Br.

GrorcE HarTLEY Bryan, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

G. A. R.

GEORGE

Lecturer on Dutch Language and Literature, University of Hamburg. Corresponding Member, Academy of Sciences, Amsterdam.

ey Professor of Pure and Applied Mathematics, University College of North ales. , H.

RYDEN,

Professor of Hi

M.A., Pu.

Author of Foreign

mi

P

: }Douglas, Gavin.

VES

pDiffusion (7 part). '

D.

and Political Science, University of Delaware, Newark, Del. >Delaware.

Policy of the United States in Relation to Samoa.

and Litera

—

.

INITIALS AND. NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS

X. G.

J. N.

G. K. A.B. G. K.C.

GEORGE JEAN NATHAN, B.A. | F Founder and Editor (with H. L. Mencken) of the American Mercury. Author ofLand| Drama (in part). of the Pilgrim's Pride; etc. Very Rev. GEORGE KENNEDY ALLEN BELL, D.D. . Dean of Canterbury. Formerly resident Chaplain to the Archbishop of Canterbury. Davidson, Randall Thomas. Author of The Meaning of the Creed. GILBERT KEITH CHESTERTON, F.R.S.L., LL.D. Author and Journalist.

Author of Dickens; The —

of Don Quixote; etc. See the biographical article: Gites L, Courtney, A.M., B.C.S., C.P.A.

G. L.C.

of Notting Hill; The Retugn

Dickens, Charles.

CHESTERTON, G. K,

Chairman, Department of Business English and Secretary, New York University School of Commerce, Accounts and Finance. |

G. McL. Wo.

G. T. M.

GEoRCE MCLANE Woon.

Editor, United States Geological Survey, Washington. Potomac Telephone Company. GILBERT T. MorGAn, O.B.E., D.Sc., F.I.C., F.R.S.

}Department Store.

Secretary, Chesapeake and

pEcuador (in part).

Director, Chemical Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Formerly Mason Professor of Chemistry, University of Birmingham; |

Professor in the Faculty of Applied — Royal College of Science for Ireland; Professor of Applied Chemistry, Technical College, Finsbury. Author of Organic Compounds of Arsenic and Antimony. Contributor to pes Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. Editor of the Chemical section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britanntca, Major-GENERAL GEOFFREY WHITE, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., R.A.

_.

Diazo Compounds.

i Driving (in part).

Commandant, Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, 1918-20. Commandant, Wool-

wich Sub-area, 1920-3.

G. W. PIckELs, B.C.E., C.E. Professor of Drainage Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. Author of }Drainage of Land. Drainage and Flood-Control Engineering; Ratlroad Surveying. SIR HENRY ALEXANDER Miegs, D.Sc., M.A., F.G.S., F.R.S. Trustee of the British Museum since 1926.

Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.

Principal of the University of London, 1908-15. Vice-Chancellor of the University of Manchester and Professor of — —— 1915-26. President, Geological

Section, British Association, 1905; Educational

Diamond.

Section, 1910. Author of numerous

scientific papers, and Report on Public Museums,

H. A. Si.

HARVEY ALEXANDER Simmons,

M.S., PH.D.

:

H. B. Ba.

HERBERT BRERETON BAKER, C.B.E., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Chemistry, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. Dryness, Chemical (in pari). H. DAs. Graduate Member of New College, Oxford. Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature Dutt, Toru and Contributor to the Calcutta Review and The Journal of Indian History, Editor of ° The Life and Letters of Toru Dutt. Harrow Dow SAVAGE.

Assistant Professor of Mathematics, Northwestern University, Evanston, II.

H. Da.

}Diophantine Equations.

President of Dry Quenching Equipment Corporation, New York. Author of numerous papers on engineering subjects.

Henry E. Garrett, M.A., PH.D.

Assistant Professor of Psychology, Columbia Statistics ån Psychology and Education,

H. E. H.

Harrison E. Howe, M.S., Sc.D.

H. Fu.

H. Fucus.

H. Go.

Huc Goprrey, M.A.

H. H. L. B.

HucH Have Leicu BEttor, M.A., D.C.L.

University, New

pDry Quenching.

,

York.

Author of }Differential Psychology.

—

Chemist; Editor of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Washington. The New Stone Age; Chemistry in the Home.

Author of Dyes, Synthetic (in part).

a

Literary Department, Disconto-Cesellschaft, Berlin.

lin.

Sometime Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. Treatise on the Lunar Theory; A Treatise on Astronomy.

Author of An Elementrry ,

Late Associé de l'Institute de Droit International; Honorary Secretary, International | Declaration of Paris;

H. J. Br.

mittee. Author of Commerce in War; Permanent Court of International Justice, ~ H. Jerrerys, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. l z University Lecturer in Mathematics, University of Cambridge. Author of he Earth: Its Origin, History and Physical Constitution, H. J. BRaunnottz, M.A.

H. K.

HoLLoway KILBORN, PH.D., E.E.

H.

Major H. L. AuBREY-FLetcuer, D.S.0., M.V.O. Late Gregadier Guards. Author of A H istory of the Foot Guards to 1856.

Assistant Keeper of Ceramics and Ethnography, British Museum, London. Vice-President and Treasurer, The Kilborn and Bishop Company, Conn. Author of Jron Age; Hardware Age.

L. A-F.

H. N. H. R.

H. NIsseET, F.T.I.

Textile Technologist and Consultant.

"

i

New

,

Drago Doctrine. pEarth.

EasterIsland. }

eee

eo

Haven, pDrop Forging (in purl). h

; } Dettingen. ,

! Delaine.

Author of Grammar af Texile Design.

Sye Huwprrey (Davy) Rotzzston, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., Hon.D.Sc., LL.D. Physician-in-ordinary to the King.

Consulting Physician to the Royal Navy.

Eeaiiter in the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, London, etc. Formerly Presi- Diagnosis. dent of the 1 Col of Physicians. Author of Clinical Lectures; etc., and Joint

Editor (with

Sir Cliffo

Allbutt) of and Edition of A Sysiens af Medicine.

|

Ber-

-Dial and Dialling (in part).

Law Association and Grotius Society; Secretary, Breaches of the Laws of War Com-

H. J.

mene

|

|

INITIALS AND NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

H. R. H.

Harry REGINALD HALL, M. A. D. LITT., F. B.A., F.S.A.

H. Wa.

HERBERT NA n of the

Dress

Keeper of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities in the British Museum.

xi (i

ss (in part).

ORE, — College of Preceptors since 1926, and Hon. Lecturer in Education,

King's College, London. Formerly Chief Inspector for the Training of Teachers, fecucation (in part).

Board of Education, london.

I. A. L A. R. I. Br.

ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. Formerly Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. Irma A. RICHTER.

Artist and Writer.

i lDosso Dossi, Giovanni;

Duccio Di Buoninsegna,

Ivor BROWN. London Dramatic Critic for the Manchester Guardian since 1919,

7 Saturday —

Duran

Dramatic Critic

;

since 1923. Shute Lecturer in the Art of the Theatre, Liverpool

Drama (in pari).

niversity, 3920.

I, C. McL. I. F. I. F. D. M. I. L. K.

L S. J. A. Th.

J. Ca.

TRENE CASTLE MCLAUGHLIN.

—

Ball Room Dancer, Lake Forest, Ill. Co-Author of Modern Dancing. }Dance (în part). IRVING FisHER, A.B., PH.D. Professor of Political Economy, Yale University. }Dollar Stabilization. Ian F. D. Morrow, Pu.D. Formerly Senior Moderator, Trinity College, Dublin. }Dardanelles. Isaac LEON KanpeEt., M.A., Pu.D. Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. Author }Degree (in part). of Elementary Education in England, etc. . ISRAEL SCHAPERA. Lecturer on Anthropology, London School of Economics. Dual Organization. JOHN ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A., LL.D. Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen since 1899. Gifiord Lecturer at St. Andrews, 1915; Terry Lecturer, Yale University, 1924. Degeneration. Author of the Study of Animal Life; Outlines of Zoology; Heredity; Darwinism and € ° Human Life; What is Man?; Concerning Evolution, Joint Author (with Professor Patrick Geddes) of Evolution; Sex; Biology.

J. A. Carront, Px.D. University Lecturer (Astrophysics) in the Faculty of Mathematics, Observator, Solar Physics Observatory, Cambridge.

J.C. N

J. Courcmtt NEwcoms, A.B. Sporting Editor, The Field Illustrated, New York. hound in Field Trials; etc.

J. F. C. F.

J. F.G. P. J. F.-K.

Cambridge. {Relies (sn part).

Author of The American

Fox->Dog: American Foxhound,

COLONEL JOHN FREDERICK CHAS. FULLER, C.B.E., D.S.O.

Diadochi:

Military Assistant to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff. Chief General Staff

Officer, Tank Corps, 1917-8.

D

Formerly Chief Instructor, Camberley.

JAMES FREDERICK GEORGE PRICE, C.B. Principal Assistant Secretary, Ministry of Labour, London. JAMES FitzMAURICE-KELLY, Lirr.D., F.R.Hisrt.S.

reux:

á B

le ofD Batlle of Dreux.

; Dole (in part).

Late Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University.

Deus, João de.

Author of A History of Spanish Literature.

J. G. Be.

J. GouLp Beary, M.Sc., A.I.C.

}

J.G. D.

CAPTAIN J. G. DOLLMAN. Assistant Keeper, Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Ken-

Chemist, Messrs. Walter Carson and Sons, Battersea, London.

,

Distemper (in part).

}>Deer.

sington.

J. Har.

J. H. M. J.H. R. J. H. Sr.

J.L J. J. C. J. J. T.

Jiro HARADA.

Of the Imperial Household Museums, Japan; formerly Professor in the Nagoya College of Technology, and in the 8th Higher School; Imperial Japanese Government Commissioner to the Panama-Pacific International Exposition at San Francisco,

1915; Author of The Gardens of Japan.

. ica

Author (with R. Mortimer) of The Oxford Circus.

J: Cecio —

}Doughty, C. M.

Author of Explorations in Eastern Eeuador.

}Ecuador.

of History at the Lycée of Lyons, France.

Dramatic Criticism.

BR tearoftheLegionofHosous LateChictoftheGeneral Seat. Union of South Africa, {Bast Africa, Operations in. J

AMES J. T1IGERT, LL.D., D.C.L. — of the University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. United States Commissioner | Education, United States Buof Education.

Author of Philosophy of the World War; Monographs in Educational |

and Scientific Subjects.

J. K.F.

>Dance (in part).

J. K. Forsegmncuam, M.A., D.Litt. Reader in Ancient Astronomy and — Assistant in the Pa Ancient History, King’s

in the University

oe. ord. Lecturer in College, London, 1904-12.

J. M. D.

Joun M. Davis.

J. Mo.

Joun Morey, Viscounwr Mosiey oF BLACKBURN. English Statesman. Author of Diderot and,the Encyclopaedists.

of Oxford; Honorary

ical Literature an d

President, Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad Company, New York.

reau of.

| Eclipses: Ancient. Lackawanna and Western Railroad Co. jDelaware, jDiderot (in pari).

INITIALS AND

X11 J.

M.

P.

J. M. Se.

S.

in Political Science, University of California.

JAMES PENDEREL-BRODHURST.

J. S. Fr.

J. S. Fraser, M.B.

J. S. Py.

OF CONTRIBUTORS

J. M. Powers Samira, Px.D. Professor of Oriental Languages and Literature, University of Chicago. Editor of the Ecclesiastes (in part). American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature. J. M. ScAMMELL, A.B. Lieutenant Colonel, California National Guard and United States Army Reserve. Assistant Chief of Staff, 4oth Division, Formerly Assistant in History and Lecturer louns

J. P. B. J.R.F. J. S. F.

J. S. H.

NAMES

Consulting Editor of The Guardian, London.

Desk.

Editor until 1922.

}

Srr JOHN RitTcHIE FINDLAY, K.B.E., F.R.S.E., LL.D., M.A. Chairman, Board of Trustees for the National Galleries of Scotland.

Sir

}De Quincey, Thomas.

JOHN SmitH Fett, K.B.E., O.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S.

irector, Geological Survey of Great Britain and Museum of Practical Geology since 1922, Formerly Lecturer in Petrology, University of Edinburgh.

pe

Lecturer in Laryngology, Otology and Rhinology, University of Edinburgh.

—

Mutism, Medical As-

pects of.

— King’s Coll on. ea Lecturer, College, London. London. Fullerian Fullerian ProfProfessor o f Physiol ysiology in the e e Royal Institution. Author of Essays of a Biologist; Animal Biology (with J. B. S. Dedifferentiation. Haldane). Editor of the Biology section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica,

Joun SAMUEL PYEATT.

}Denver and Rio Grande

President, The Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad, Denver, Colo:

J.W.

>Diorite.

Western Railroad.

Jous Westlake, K.C., LL.D., D.C.L. Professor of International Law, Cambridge,

1888-1908.

One of the members for

United Kingdom of International Court Arbitration under The Hague Convention, 1900-6. Author of A Treatise on Private International Law, and The Conflict of Laws.

J. Wal. J. W. Ev.

J. Wi. K. R. C. L. A. P. L. C. M.

Domicil

i

Drama (in part);

Jan WALCH.

Lecturer on Drama, University of Leyden, Holland.

i

Dutch Language and Litera-

i ture (in part). J. W. Evans, C.B.E., D.Sc., LL.B., F.G.S., M.I.M.E., F.R.S. , President of the Geological Society, 1924-6. President of Geologists’ Association, >Devonian System. 1912-4. Lecturer in Petrology, Imperial College of Science and Technology,1912-27. AMES WILLIAMSON, M.I.C.E. . fDams (in part). J Member of the firm of Sir Alexander Gibb and Partners.

K. RuTH COLLINS. The Association of Drop Forgers and Stampers, Birmingham.

l : , f Drop Forging (in part).

L. A. Pars, M.A. : Fellow of Jesus College and University Lecturer in Mathematics, Cambridge. jDynamics. Sır Leo Cuiozza Money, F.R.StTAt.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. Author and Journalist. Member of the War Trade Advisory Committee, 1915-8. Parliamentary Secretary to the — of Shipping, 1916-8. Chairman of the Dorman Long & Co., Ltd. Tonnage Priority Committee, 1917-8. Editor of the Economics, Engineering and Industries section, 14th Edition, Encyclopaedia Britannica.

L. du P.

LAMMOT DU PONT, B.S.

L. E. J.

LLoyp E. JACKSON, B.S.

L. F.

LEONOR F. LoREE, M.Sc., C.E., LL.D.

L.

L.

J. S.

iDu Pont de Nemours and Company, E. I.

President of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Wilmington, Del. In charge of research in the field of Dry Cleaning, Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, Pa. Author of articles in technical, textile, dry cleaning and other trade journals.

President, The Delaware and Hudson Company, New York. Freight Transportation.

Author of Reiroa}Dalawar and Hudson Company.

L. J. SPENcER, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.S.

L. K.

Keeper of Mineralogy, British Museum (Natural History). Editor of the Mineralogical Magasine. LAWRENCE KOLs, M.D. Commissioned Medical Officer of The United States Public Health Service, American Consulate, Dublin. Author of many papers on drug addictions.

L. M. F.

LEONARD M. FANNING.

L. P. E.

L. P. EISENHART.

L. R. D.

LAWRENCE R. Diıcxser, M.Com., F.C.A.

Director of Publicity, American Petroleum Institute, New York.

Professor of Accountancy

>Dolomite.

f pDrug Addiction (in part).

‘eas Drilling, Petroleum.

}Differential Geometry.

Professor of Mathematics in Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.

Head of Sellars, Dicksee & Co.

Dry Cleaning.

Emeritus Professor, formerly Sir Ernest Cassel

and Business Organisation in the University of London. University of London, 1925-6. i

` Depreciation.

Dean of the Faculty of Bo nomics in the

L. Wa.

Lina WATERFIELD, O.B.E.

M. Ba.

M. BARROWCLIFF.

M. Ca. Me.

,

Correspondent for the Observer, London, in Rome. Member of Academy of Perugia.

Technical Department, British Dyestuffs Corporation, Ltd., Manchester. M. CaRLTON, B.Sc., Pu.D., D.I.C. Imperial College of Science and Technology, University of London. James Scorcie MesTON, 1sT BARON MesTON, K.C.S.I., LL.D.

GovChancellor of Aberdeen University, 1928. Secretary to Finance Department, and Oudh,

Lieut Governor, United Provinces of ernment of India, — 1912-7. Finance Member of Governor-General’s Council, 1919.

, Eleonora. —

Dyes, Synthetic (sn part).

}Dryness, Chemical (4 part).

,

Delhi (i~ pari).

INITIALS AND NAMES M. Ga.

M. L. T. M. M.G.

M. N. T.

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Monica M. GARDNER. Author of Adam Mickiewics; Poland, A Study in National Idealism; The Patriot Poet >Drama (in part).

- of Poland, Henryk Sienkiewics. | M. L. TILDESLEY. Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Research >Dead, Disposal of. Worker in Craniology, Royal College of Surgeons of England. . MARGARET M. GREEN, M.A. Assistant Editor of the International Section of The Contemporary Review, 1921; The }Education (in part). New Leader, 1923-6; and Foreign Affairs, 1926-8.

Marcu§ Niesunr Top, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford University; Lecturer in Epigraphy. Author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum, _

M. S. M. Mu. B.

N. G.G.

Joint}Demaratue

MERVYN SorLEY MACDONELL, O.B.E. Formerly High Commissioner, Free City of Danzig. MUIRHEAD BONE. Etcher and Painter. Official Artist, Western Front and with the Fleet, 1916-8. NICHOLAS G. GrEpyE, O.B.E., B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. Consulting Civil Engineer. Formerly Chief Engineer, Tyne Improvement Commission; served B.E.F., Lt.Col. (Late R.E.). Acting Director Civil Engineer-in-Chief's Department, Admiralty; Chief Civil Engineer for Docks, Waterways, Minister of Transport. :

N. L. F.

NORMAN L, ForTER.

N. L. H.

London Daily Telegraph and Financial Times. Nina L. Hitis (Hon. Mors. Eustace HILLS).

Harbours

and Inland

0. D.

Y.

O. E. N.

}Danzig (in part). }Drypoint (in part). >Docks (in part).

With H.M. Legation in Rumania as Translator and Archivist. Correspondent of the pPDobruja (in part). Chairman of The Council of the National Society of Day Nurseries.

N. W. T.

xili

Day Nurseries.

NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THomas, M.A. Government Anthropologist in Southern Nigeria. Corresponding member of the }Dream. Societé d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; etc. Owen D. Youne, LL.B., LL.D., D.Sc. Chairman of the Experts’ Committee on Reparations, Paris, 1929. Associated with Dawes, Charles Gates. General Dawes on the Experts’ Committee which drew up the Dawes Plan. Str Otro (Ernst) NiEMEYER, K.C.B., G.B.E. At Bank of England since 1927. Member of Financial Committee of League of pDebt Conversion. Nations since 1922.

Controller of Finance, H.M. Treasury, 1922-7.

O. G. S.

ORRIN G. SHERMAN.

O. H. L.

O. H. LARSEN. Professor in General Agriculture and Agricultural Castings at the Royal Veterinary| Denmark (in part).

O. R. A.

SIGNORA OLIVIA ROSSETTI AGRESTI.

Policyholders Service Bureau, Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, New York.

—

Closing Movement (in

part).

and Agricultural College, Copenhagen. Writer, Lecturer and Interpreter to the Assemblies of the League of Nations and the

International Economic Conference. Connected with the founding of the Inter- Dopolavoro national Institute of Agriculture in Rome. Lecturer in U.S. on Italian Economic | po : Conditions, 1919-20, 1923. Author of David Lubin, a Study in Practical Ideals. On

the editing staff O.

vV.

P. Ai. P. B.

P.

G.

P. Gm.

O. VEBLEN, Professor Sciences, Rev. PETER

of the General Confederation in Industries, Rome.

A.B., Px.D. of Mathematics, Princeton University. Washington. AINSLIE, D.D., LL.D.

Author of Studies in the Old Testament; Christ or Napoleon, Which?; etc.

PIERRE BERNUS. Foreign Editor of the Journal des Debats.

Paris correspondent of the Journal de| Dreytus,Alfred.

Percy Groom, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Professor of the Technology of Woods and Fibres, Imperial College of Science and

P. Gr.

PHILIP GRAVES.

P. H. St.

PauL H. STONE.

P. M.

}Disciples of Christ.

Genève. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Percy GARDNER, Litt.D., D.C.L., F.S.A. Disney Professor of Archaeology, —— University, 1880-7. Professor of Cias- Demetrius. sical Archaeology, University of Oxford, 1887-1925. Professor Emeritus since 1925.

Technology since 1911.

P. J. N. B.

Member, National Academy of }Differential Forms.

Author of Trees and Their Life Histories.

}Druses (in part).

Assistant Foreign Editor of The Times, London.

Of the Illustrations Department (New York), 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. P. J. NoeL Baker, M.A. Late Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge. Sir Ernest Cassel Professor of International Relations in the University of London since 1924. PauL Mruvrov, Hon.LL.D.(Cambridge).

Former Member of the 3rd and 4th

}Dry Rot.

Drawing, Anatomical (in part). Disarmament.

Dumas; former Minister of Foreign Affairs in pDuma.

the ist Provisional Government of Prince Lvov.

P. Se.

PAUL SELVER. of R.

R. A. S. M.

l

Authorof Modern Csech Poetry; Anthology of Modern Slavonic Literature. Translator Drama (in part). U. R.

ROBERT ALEXANDER Stewart Macaister, M.A., Litt.D., F.S.A. Professor of Celtic Archa Irish Academy. Author of

, University C The Archaeology of I

Dublin. ;

President of the Royal

Deirdre; Diptych.

XIV R. C. J.

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS SIR RicHARD CLAVERROUSE JEBB, O.M., LL.D., DCL.

i

u tor, Cambridge University, 1869-75, an essor of Greek, 1889-19085. Author of ——— Greek Ga Lae. omer, an Introduction to the Thad ei Demosthenes. Odyssey; etc. See biographical article: JEBB, Sir R. C. f

R. D. Ca.

R. D. CARMICHAEL.

! Diagram;

Professor of Mathematics at University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.

R.

de T-E.

R. F.

ROMAIN DE TIRTOFF-ERTÉ.

Artist and Painter. Contributor to Harper's Basaar; L'Illustration; Vogue; Sketch;

R.

FIRTH, M.A.,

Pu.D.

Member of the Polynesian Society. Author of Primitive Economics of the New Zealand aori.

R. H. Ch.

Rev. RoserT Henry CuHarLes, M.A., D.D., Lirr.D.(Oxon.), F.B.A.

R. H. D.

R. H. Davis.

R. He.

Dimension. etc. }Dress (in part).

Archdeacon of Westminster since 1919. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, and Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford.

R. H. L.

R. H. R.

Srz Henry Rew, K.C.B.

R. H. Ra.

RosertT Heron RasrtaLL, Sc.D., F.G.S.

,

Daniel (in part). tus.

} Distribution of Animals.

Principal Musical Critic for Daily Telegraph, London, Norwich Festivals; etc.

Author of Annals of the Debussy, Claude A. (in part).

Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 1898, Assistant Secretary, 1906-18; President, Royal Statistical Society, 1920-2. Secretary to the Ministry of Food, 1916-7; Chairman, Inter-Departmental Committee on Unemployment Insurance. University Lecturer in Economic Geology; Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge.

Member of Council of the Geological Society, 1915, and Mineralogical Society, 1918.

Attached to War Office, 1915-9. Author of

:

Divers and Diving Appara-

Managing Director, Siebe, Gorman & Co., Ltd., submarine engineers, London,

R. HESSE. Professor of Zoology in the University of Berlin. RoBIN HUMPHREY LEGGE.

«

>Economics, Primitive.

eology of the Metalliferous

Deposits.

Editor of the Geology section, 14th Edition, Encycdopadia Britannica.

|

Drainage, Arterial; Farming. Piy 5

pDolerite.

R.I.P.

REGINALD InNEs Pocock, F.L.S., F.R.A.I., F.R.S.

R. Lev.

REUBEN Levy, M.A.

R. Ma.

Rrv. RosrrT Mackıinross, M.A., D.D. , Professor at Lancashire Independent College and Lecturer in the University of }Dogma, Dogmatic Theology. Manchester,

Natural History Editor of T he Field and Temporary Assistant in the Zoological Dept. of the British Museum since 1923.

Edentata. on

Mıss R. M. FLEMING.

Librarian of the Geographical Association, Aberystwyth. jrom Many Lands; Stories from the Early World.

Author of Ancient Tales

R. M. He.

R. M. Henry, M.A.

R. P. Co.

RICHARD Pope CowL, M.A. Late Profesaor of agian at Bristol University. Author of Poetic Theory in England;

Professor of Latin and Secretary of the Academic Council, Queen’s University, Belfast.

o.

Education (in part).

}Drama (in part). >Edda (in part).

Fourth, Pts. I and II in Arderne Shakespeare.

RAYMOND Peart, Pu.D., Sc.D., LL.D.!

Director, Institute for Biological Research and Professor of Biology, Medical School,

Johne Hopkins University.

R. R. M. R. S.

Formerly Professor of Biometry and Vital Statistics,

.

Author of numerous scientific and technical

papers on aluminium and kindred subjects. Ronee ee — Oe “ormer

utor in

Natural

Science an

TROD rarian o

a agdalen

*

ba a

College,

ord;

Curator al the Lewis Evans Collection of Scientific Instruments, Oxford, 1924. Author of Early Science in Oxford; Earth Movements sn the Bay of Naples; etc.

R. T. Hi.

e

Death, Biological Aspects of.

ohns Hopkins University. RosBERT RanuLr MARETT, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.I. , Rector of Exeter College, Oxford; University Reader in Social Anthropology. Author >Dynamism. of Anthropology and the Classics; Anthropology. RICHARD SELIGMAN, A.C.G.I. Sometime Chief Chemist to the British Aluminium Co., Ltd., London. Now Technical Managing Director of The Aluminium Plant and Vessel Company, Limited, London. >Duralumin. Vice-President, Institute of Metals.

R.T.G.

—

Ecbatana.

Lecturer in Persian, Cambridge University.

Editor of Henry the

Dog (in part)

Rosert T. Hr, A.B., Px.D. : New York University and Council on Adult Education for the Foreign Born. Author of the Public Domain and Democracy.

3 .

oo

ans

.

Dial and Dialling (in part).

pEducation (in par/).

R. U. Saycr, M.A.

Lecturer in Material Culture and Physical Anthro ogy, University of Cambridge. |Durban; Formerly ea in Geology and Geography, Natal University College, Pietermaritz- {East London. urg, Natal,

Raymond WrLLIAM POSTGATE. Editorial Staff, London, 14th Edition, Enc—— i n Ai 1 alist. Author of The Bolshevik Theory; | History; ëd. Pervigilium Veneris. STANLEY ARTHUR Cook, M.A., Lrrr.D.

Deloscluze, Charles: ta Britannica. Author and las; Jour- |e Action; gee l from 1789-19006; The Bu : ; Drama: Greek (sn part). amascus (i š University. Lecturer in Hebrew and Aramaic, Cambri Lecturer in Hebrew and Deak * N

Syriac, ant Former Fellow of Gonville and Caius

Cambridge.

Religion of Ancient Palestine. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund.

Author of Ed

om.

’

INITIALS AND NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

XV

S. C. gli

Keeper o Prints and Dea of Engraving in England; etc.

S. C. H. - S. Cu.

in the British Museum.

S. C. Hammer, M.A.

Oslo Correspondent of The Times, London. STEWART CULIN.

—

—

of Early

Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, Brooklyn, New York.

Author of Koren}Dols

Games; Games of the American Indians.

S. de J.

{Drama (in part).

Editor of the Norway Year Book.

S. vE Jastizesski, F.S.S. Member, American Academy of Social and Political Science. Formerly Assistant

}Death-Rate.

Registrar General, Great Britain.

S. F. S. S. N. M. S. P. C. St. H. S. T. H. W. S. Wr.

S. F. STAPLES.

Docks (in part). Partner in firm of Clark and Stanfield, London, S. N. Mitier, M.A. Eburacum. urer in Roman History and Antiquities, University of Glasgow. PROFESSOR SAMUE!. PAut CapEN, Pu.D., LL.D., Sc.D. }Education (in part). Chancellor, University of Buffalo, N.Y. Author of Lessing's Nathan der Weise. Lorp St. HELTER (Sır Francis Henry Jevne), P.C., G.C.B. President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court of pDivorce (in part). Justice, 1892-1905. Late Honorary Fellow of Hertford College, Oxford. CAPTAIN STANLEY T. H. Witton, R.N.(retired). Late Assistant Director of Naval Ordnance, Admiralty, London. SAMSON Wricut, M.D. Diet and Dietetics. Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London.

}Dockyards and Naval Bases.

T. A.J.

THomas ATHOL Joyce, M.A., O.B.E.

T. D. K.

T. D. Kenprick, M.A.

T. E. F.

Tuomas E. Frencu, M.A., D.Sc.

Dress (in part).

Deputy Keeper, Department of Ethnography, British Museum.

!Druidism.

ent of British and Mediaeval Antiquities, British Museum.

Professor of Engineerin,

|

Drawing, the Ohio State University,

Author of A Manual of Engineering Drawing; The Essentials of

Columbus, Ohio.

Drawing, Engineering.

ellering.

-` T. F. H.

Decorated Period;

Diaconicon;

TALBOT F, Hamuin, B.A., B.ARCH.

Instructor in the History of Architecture, Columbia Universit | New York. Chair- |Dome; ew York. Author of |Door; man, City Plan Committee of the Merchants’ Association,

T'he Enjoyme nt of Architecture; The American Spirit in Architecture.

oorway;

Early English Period.

T. H. R.

THEODORE H. Rosrnson, M.A., D.D. i i Sii :?— of Semitic I.anguages, University College of South Wales and Monmouth-

T. J. R.

T. J. REYNOLDS.

T. L. H.

Sir. THOS. LITTLE HEATH, —

Vice President, Diamond Match Company. Assistant

Secretary

Cambridge.

to the

}Diamond Match Company.

K. C.V.O., Sc. Treasury,

—

1907-13,

on,

Fellow

President of Mathematical Association, 1922-3.

of Greek —

Diophantus of Alexandria; etc,

T. OL.

Str Tuomas Oriver, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.

T. P. N.

T. Percy Nuss, M.A., D.Sc.

T. W.R. D.

T. W. Ruys Davins, LL.D., Pu.D., F.B.A.

Deborah: 9 Deuteronomy.

— rinity

‘etary

Author of A Histo

Diophantus.

Consulting Physiciian, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Newcastle. [emeritus Professor of Medicine and formerly Professor of Physiology, University of Durham. Vice- pDangerous Trades, Chancellor, University of Durham. Late Medial EExpert, Dangerous Trades Com-

mittee, Home Office.

ie

Author of Lead Poisoning; Occupations.

f

i

of the London Day TYaining College; Professor of Education, University of l Education (in part).

London

Late Professor of Comparative Reli ligion, Manchester avemi,

of Pali and Buddhist

Literature,

Formerly Professor

University College, London; President of the

Society. Author of Buddhism, Its History and Literaturc; Sucred Books of the Buddhists

V. St.

VERNEY Stott, B.A., F.Inst.P. Assistant, Department of Metallurgy

Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Midd

W. A. B.C. W. A. P.

and

Metallurgical

Chemistry,

National pDensity.

Rev. Wittiam AuGustus BrEvoort Coonipcr, M.A., F.R.G.S., Hon. Px.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of The Alpine Journal 1880-9; etc. Lecky Professor ‘of Modern History, Dublin University. Contributor to — Modern History. Author of Modern Europe; The War of Greek Independence; etc

W. A. S.

Witus A. Sutton, Px.D., LL.B

W. B. F.

WiLLia BENJAMIN FITE.

Superintendent of Public Schools, Atlanta, Georgia.

Professor of Mathematics at Columbia mays

Devadatta.

l

}Dauphiné

° Diplomacy;

Duke: Eastern Question.

[D*

; New York.

tistry

(i

(in part).

:

Differential Equations.

XVI

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS

W. B. P.

WILLIAM BELMONT PARKER, A.B.

i }Durao, José de Santa Rita.

W. C. B.T.

; }Dutch Wars (in part).

W. Du.

W. C. B. TUNSTALL, M.A. Civilian Lecturer, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. WILLIAM JAMES Durant, M.A., Pu.D.

W. E. Ba.

Rev, WILLIAM EMERY Barnes, D.D.

Editor of South Americans of To-Day.

Author of The Story ofPhilosophy; Philosophy and the Soctal Problem. Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge and Dean, 1920-1.

Cambridge.

T

Hulsean Professor of Divinity, pEcclesiasticus.

Warren E. Cox.

W. E. D.

W. E. Darsy, M.A., B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mecu.E., F.R.S.

W.F. W.

Art;

oe

W. E. Cx.

W. E. E.

}Dewey, John.

Art Editor, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

esign (in part),

Drawing.

Dean of and London University Professor of Engineering, City and Guilds Engineering College of the Imperial College of Science and Technology. W. E. ExBLaw, M.A.

>-Dynamometer.

‘smal

Clark University, Worcester, Mass.; Assistant Editor Economic Geography. Special}Bis eat Swamp;

Field of Research—Agricultural Geography and Arctic Geography. WALTER a eee Pu.D. se ean and Professor of Political Economy and Statistics, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Special Agent of the United States Census Bureau. Author of The Divorce Problem, a Study in Statistics; Social Statistics of the United States.

|p;

`

.

Divorce (in pari).

Wittram Henry MAxwe tt, A.M.I.C.E.

Borough and Waterworks Engineer, Tunbridge Wells. Formerly President Institute | pnestryctors.

of Sanitary Engineers, London.

Author of

Removal and Disposal of Refuse.

Editor of Encyclopaedia of Municipal and Sanitary Engineering. Sir WILLIAM HENRY Wittcox, K.C.I.E., C.M.G., M.D., B.Sc., F.R.C.P. Physician to and Lecturer on Chemical

Pathology and on Forensic Medicine, St.

Mary's Hospital, London. Medical Adviser to Home Office, 1919. Author of numerous original papers on Medicine, Chemical Pathology; etc.

W. J. W. J. B.

W. Jurzi.

W.L. W.

Rev. W. L. Warre, M.A., D.D.

W.M.

Dyeworks and Chemical Industries Amalgamation, Ludwigshafen, Germany.

Drug Addiction (¿in pari). }Dyeworks and Chemical Industries, Amalgamation of.

SIR WM. JOHN Berry, K.C.B.

Director of Naval Construction, Admiralty; Director of Warship Production, 1917-23; pDestroyer (in part). Vice-President of Institution of Naval Architects.

|

Lecturer in Biblical Criticism and Exegesis of the Old Testament, University; Principal of Hartley College, Manchester. WILLIaAM MILLER, M. A. F. R.Hisr.S.

David (in part);

Manchester > Deluge; Eden.

Correspondent of the Morning Post in Rome and Athens since 1903. Hon. LL.D. in the National University of Greece. Hon. Student of the British Archaeological School of Athens. Author of Travels and Politics in the Near East; Greek Life in Town and Country; Essays on the Latin Orient; Greece; etc.

WirtiraM M. Marston, A.B., LL.B., PH.D. Lecturer in Psychology, Columbia University and New York University. Emotions of Normal

W. P. F.

Joint

People; Psychology.

Wituiam P. Few, Pa.D., LL.D.

President of Duke University, Durham, N. C.

Dodecanese;

Drama (in part).

, Author of >Defence Mechanisms.

Frequent writer and speaker on

Duke University.

educational and social questions,

W. R Be. WRL W. R. Le.

WILLIAM R. BENET, Pu.B., M.A. Associate Editor of Saturday Review of Literature, New York. W. R. Lonctey, A.B., M.S., Pu.D. Professor of Mathematics, Yale University.

Dreiser, Theodore.

Descriptive Geometry.

WILLIAM RICHARD LETHABY.

Late Professor of Design at the Royal College of Art, South Kensington; formerly Principal of the London County Council Central School of Arts and Crafts. Author

Design (i part).

of Mediaeval Art; etc.

W. R. S. W. S. L-B.

W. Rosertson Suita, LL.D.

Philologist and Biblical Critic. Editor of the 9th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. WALTER SYDNEY LAZARUS-BaARLOw, B.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.

Member of the Cancer Committee, Ministry of Health. Late Professor of Experimental Pathology, Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London University. Author of A Manualo Coneral Pathology; Elements of Pathological Anatomy and Histology for

Dilatation.

Historian, Executive Staff, Detroit Board of Commerce, Detroit, Michigan. Author

Detroit.

W. St.

Students. Editor of the Medical section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. WILLIAM STOCKING, M.A.

W. Tu.

of History of Republican Party. WorTH TUTTLE, A.B.

Y. K.

Youncur Kana, B.S.

Y.S. W.

David (in part); Decalogue (7 part).

Contributor to Atlantic Monthly; Saturday Review of Literature; etc.

Instructor, Comparative Literature, New York University. Y. S. Wrirrams. Captain in the United States Navy, Washington.

:

ckinson,

} Di

—

A

Emily

(in part);

f

Dress (in part). oy and Naval Base: (in part).

|

THE

ENCYCLOPA DIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH

EDITION

VOLUME 7 DAMASCUS TO EDUCATION. BUREAU OF AMASCUS, the name of a Sanjak and town of Syria, 57 m. from Beirut and Situated in 33° 30’ N. and 36° 18’ E. Its

According to the Assyrian records Ahab fought as Ben-Hadad’s ally at the battle of Karkar against Shalmaneser in 853 B.c. This seems to indicate the vassalage of Ahab, of which no direct record

origin is unknown, and the belief that it is remains; and it was perhaps in the attempt to throw this off that the oldest city in the world still inhabited he met his death in battle (1 Ki. xxii. 34-40). In the reign of has much to recommend it. It is men- Jchoram, Naaman, the Syrian general, came and was cleansed by tioned in the account of the battle of the the prophet Elisha of leprosy (2 Ki. v.). In 842 Hazael assassinated Ben-Hadad and made himself king four kings against five, in the book of Genesis (ch. xiv.), where Abram (Abraham) o!Damascus. The states which Ben-Hadad had brought together is reported to have pursued the routed kings to Hobah north of Damascus (v. 15). In the period of the Egyptian suzerainty over Palestine in the 18th dynasty Damascus (whose name frequently appears in the Tell el-Amarna tablets) was capital of the province of Ubi. The name of the city in the Tell el-Amarna correspondence is Dimashka. Towards the end of that period tbe overrunning of Palestine and Syria by the Khabiru and Sutu evidently changed the conditions, language and government of the country, and the Aramaean form, Darmesek, appears in an inscription of Rameses TII. Damascus soon reached such strength that though TiglathPileser I. reduced the whole of northern Syria, and by the fame of his victories induced the king of Egypt to send him presents, GENERAL VIEW OF THE CITY OF DAMASCUS, SHOWING. IN THE DISTANCE, yet he did not venture to attack Kadesh and Damascus, so that THE COVERED ‘‘STREET WHICH IS CALLED STRAIGHT’ this kingdom acted as a “buffer” between Assyria and the rising into a coalition against the advancing power of Assyria all rekingdom of Israel. volted; and Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, took advantage of this David made an expedition (2 Sam. viii) against Damascus as and attacked Syria (841). He wasted the country, but could not a reprisal for the assistance the city had given his enemy. Hada- take the capital. Jehu, king of Israel, paid tribute to Assyria, for dezer, king of Zoba. The Israelite possession of Syria did not last which Hazael afterwards revenged himself, during the time when long. A subordinate of Hadadezer named Rezon (Rasun) suc- Shalmaneser was distracted by his Armenian wars, by attacking ceeded in founding a dynasty there, and throughout Solomon’s the borders of Israel (2 Ki. x. 32). reign he was a constant enemy to Israel (1 Ki. xi. 23 seq.). Adad-nirari III. invaded Syria and besieged Damascus, It is inferred from 1 Ki. xv. 19 that Abijah, son of Rehoboam, c. 805-802; and Jehoash, king of Israel, seizing. the opportunity, king of Judah, made a league with Tab-Rimmon of Damascus to recovered the cities that his father had lost to Hazael. In 735 assist him in his wars against Israel, and that afterwards Tab- Ahaz of Judah was attacked by Rezon (Rasun, Rezin), king of Rimmon’s son Ben-Hadad came to terms with the second suc- Damascus; at the same time the Edomites and the Philistines cessor of Jeroboam, Baasha. Asa, son of Abijah, followed his revolted. The king of Assyria, Tiglath-Pileser ITI., was besought father’s policy, and bought the aid of Syria, whereby he was en- to help; and, invading Syria, reduced Damascus in 733. abled to destroy the border fort that Baasha had erected (1 Ki. Except for the abortive rising under Sargon in 720, we hear xv. 22). Hoctilities continued between Israel and Syria. Syria nothing more of Damascus for a Jong period. In 333 B.c., after established « quarter for his merchants in Samaria (1 Ki. xx. 34.); the battle of Issus, it was delivered over by treachery to Parmenio, and a Syrian defeat at Aphek, when the king of Israel acted too the general of Alexander the Great. It had a chequered history leniently, was the cause of a prophetic denunciation (1 Ki. xx. 42). in thewars of the successors of Alexander, being occasionally in

2

DAMASCUS

Egyptian hands. In 112 B.c., the empire of Syria was divided by Antiochus Grypus and Antiochus Cyzicenus; the city of Damascus fell to the share of the latter. Hyrcanus took advantage of the disputes of these rulers to advance his own kingdom. Demetrius Eucaerus, successor of Cyzicenus, invaded Palestine in 88 B.C., and defeated Alexander Jannaeus at Shechem. On his dethronement and captivity by the Parthians, Antiochus Dionysus, his brother, succeeded hjm, but was slain in battle by Haritha (Aretas) the Arab. Haritha yielded to Tigranes, king of Armenia, who in his turn was driven out by Q. Caecilius Metellus. In 63 B.C. Syria was made a Roman province. In the New Testament Damascus appears only in connection with Acts ix., xxii., xxvi., 2 Cor. xi. and Gal. i. In A.D. 150, under Trajan, Damascus became a Roman provincial city. On the establishment of Christianity Damascus became the seat of a bishop who ranked next to the patriarch of Antioch, and the great temple of Damascus was turned into a Christian church. In 635 Damascus was captured for Islam by Khalid Ibn Welid. After the murder of Ali, the fourth caliph, his successor Moawiya transferred the scat of the Caliphate (g.v.) from Mecca to Damascus and thus commenced the great dynasty of the Omayyads, whose rule extended from the Atlantic to India. Ninety years later it was supplanted by that of the Abbasids, who removed the seat of empire to Mesopotamia; and Damascus passed through a period of unrest in which it was captured and ravaged by Egyptians, Carmathians and Seljuks in turn. The crusaders

attacked

Damascus

in 1126, but never

succeeded in

keeping a firm hold of it. lt was the headquarters of Saladin in the wars with the Franks. The chief later events are the Mongolian capture in 1260, its Egyptian recapture by the Mameluke Kotuz; the ferocious raid of Timur (Tamerlane) in 1399; and the conquest by the Turkish sultan Selim, whereby it became a city of the Ottoman empire (1516). Of its more recent history, one may mention the massacre of July 1860, when the Muslim

population rose against the Christians, burnt thcir quarter, and slaughtered about 3,000 adult males. See also Kraeling, Aram

(See Syrta.)

and Israel (New York, 1918);

Wissen-

schuftliche Verdfientlichungen des Deutsch-T urkischen DenkmalschutzKommandas, cdit. Theodor Wiegand, Carl Watzinger and Karl

Wulzinger, iv. Damascus, die antike Stadt, (1921); die islumische Stadt (1924).

(S. A.C.; X.)

In recent, as in earlier times, the development of the city has been affected by great outbreaks of fire. The Great Mosque was gutted in 1893, and in 1912 a conflagration destroyed a considerable tract of bazaars. Great damage was done by the French bombardments of Oct. 1925 and May 1926. It is said that Damascus has 240 mosques, mostly dilapidated, of which 70 are still in use. Catholic and Protestant missions support a large

number of educational institutions and hospitals. The municipal-

ity has erected a public hospital and a hospital for lepers. There is a resident British consul. Antiquities—The ground plan of the city may be said to have remained unaltered since the Mohammedan occupation at least, and a conflagration such as reduced the city to ashes in 1401 merely cleared the site for fresh building. Material and facilities for archaeological study are consequently less than might have been expected. The hand of the Roman workman is visible in what is left of the city walls and gates, in the area of the Great Mosque, in the Derb-el-Mustakim, which was prob-

ably colonnaded, and in an aqueduct in the western quarter. The Great Mosque (or Umayyad mosque) was originally the Church of St. John Baptist, whose building was begun by the emperor Theodosius (375) and completed by his son Arcadius (395-408). It occupied the site of an earlier temple, probably that of Rimmon (cf. 2 Ki. v. 18). The Caliph El-Watid deprived the Christians of their building (A.D. 705), and destroyed it in great part before re-erecting it as a mosque. It was burned down in 1069, pillaged by Tamerlane (1401) and badly damaged by fire (1893). In this mosque in 1905 some valuable Syriac and Kufic manuscripts were discovered. The citadel in the north-west of the city was built in 1219 by Malik el-Ashraf, refortified by Beibars (1262) and by the Turks (16th century). The French have established an Institute of Mohammedan Archaeology and Art (its archaeological collection suffered heavily from fire and pillage in Oct. 1925), and a School of Arabic Decorative Art to revive the work in glass and wood and the colouring of stuffs. They aim at reproducing the best Arabic work of the best period. A new Syrian National Museum has also been instituted. Commerce.—From its happy situation Damascus has ever had much to offer to the nomad and from the earliest times it has been the market of the desert. Ezekiel (xxvii. 18) mentions its “wine of Helbon” and its wool. In classical times it had a reputation for its ——— wine (i.e. of Helbon, mod. Halbũn,

Modern City.—Damascus is the chief town of the new state of Syria; 2,200 ft. above sea-level; pop. 188,000 (21,000 Christians, 16,000 Jews). It stands on both banks of the main channel of the Barada about 2 m. from the point where it emerges from a gorge of the Antilibanas to branch off eventually fanwise and irrigate a wide area. Damascus stands on the north-west edge of this extensive tract of amazingly fertile ground (the Ghuteh), where, intermingled with fields of wheat, barley and maize, are orchards of apricot, fig, pomegranate, pistachio and almond, and groves of poplar and walnut, whilst vine boughs trail everywhere. Viewed from a point of vantage (as at the suburb Salihiyah), the white minarets of the city bathed in sunlight rising above the mass of verdure leave an ineffaceable impression on the mind of the beholder. The ancient city, rudely rectangular in shape, was huddled within a wall on the southern bank of the Barada. The modern city is spoon-shaped, the handle to the south whither the city has been drawn a long way on the Meccan road forming the quarter known as the Meidän. A suburb, El-Amara, has been built on the northern bank, and farther off towards the north-west is another suburb, Sdlthiyak. Damascus is supplied THE COVERED ''STREET CALLED STRAIGHT, WHICH RUNS FRON THE with water from the Baradé by an extensive system of canals EASTERN TO THE WESTERN GATE OF DAMASCUS and conduits. Its streets, for the most part narrow and protected overhead, are by no means clean, and the high walls which con- 13 m. N.N.W. of Damascus). Its dried fruits (pruna et cottana: ceal private dwellings belie the magnificence to be found within. Juvenal iii. 83) were a valued present, and its linens, cloths and Its public buildings, mosques, schools and Khans reveal many cushions were famous. For centuries the “Damascene blade” fine examples of Arabian art. To a partial extent sheltered by carried far afield the reputation of the city’s armourers. Dioclehills to the north, west and south, the city lies open to the east tian promoted this industry but it perished when Tamerlane and its trying and prevalent winds. It suffers a great variation carried off the smiths in 1401. The silk looms are not so imin temperature in the course of the year. In winter frost and portant now as of old, but modern industries such as leather snow are not unknown, and summer temperatures are high but work, the filigree work of gold and silversmiths (who are all the nights are always cool. Fever, dysentery and ophthalmia Christians), inlaid work in wood and metal (brass, copper), have due to the climatic conditions are prevalent. survived. Damascus was hard hit by the World War and in-

DAMASCUS dustry has revived but slowly. manufacture goods previously from Damascus have migrated fers from foreign competition,

3

Egypt since the war has begun to with Aleppo. This was superseded later by the establishment of made in Syria and many artisans one capital at Damascus, and in 1925, at the wish of the in-

thither. The textile industry sufand dyeing has declined in sympathy. Railway connection with the Hauran (1894), Beirut (1895) and Haifa (1905) has diminished its caravan trade.

Damascus is tending more and more to become a centre for foreign imported goods as well as local produce, and with the development of motor transport an increase in transit trade may be expected. The shops of Damascus are famous for the wealth and variety of their goods and its streets for the mixture of races that throng them.

habitants, Damascus became the capital of the Syrian State, comprising the two districts of Damascus and Aleppo under a president with a French adviser as High Commissioner's delegate. On April 8 and 9, 1925, the visit of Lord Balfour to Damascus was the occasion of considerable rioting, nominally as a protest against the Zionist declaration EEE My RE ELTES bearing his name, but more aes

aa

is

q K

vi

generally

2 vols.; J. L. Porter, Five

Years in Damascus

(1855), 2 vols.;

e

CE a ~Cd ‘@e ad

- ,.

— a a

‘

Statement, 1924, 68 sq.; Syria and Palestine Guide Books; Consular Reports and Reports of Department of Overseas Trade. (E. Ro.)

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Prior to the World War, Damascus was the headquarters of the IV. Turkish Army, and after the outbreak of hostilities became the base of the Turkish and German forces operating in Palestine and on the east bank of the Suez Canal under General Liman von Sanders. On Oct. 1, 1918, the city fell into the hands of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force under Lord Allenby (q.v.) and the Arab troops of the Emir Feisal (g.v.). The advance on Damascus was a purely cavalry operation, and at the city itself no resistance was made to the British and Arab troops. By Sept. 30 the Australians had worked round the north; the desert column was lying to the west; and the Arab force was at the southern outskirts of the city. Most of the Germans and Turks,

after severe quarrelling, had already left. During the night of Sept. 30 troops of the Australian Mounted Division and the advanced guard of Feisal’s force had made their

way into the city, and both claimed to be the first to set foot in Damascus. The formal entry was made at 6 a.m. on Oct. | when a British detachment and part of the Arab army marched through the streets. Ahout 7,000 Turks surrendered to the Allied forces. On Oct. 3 Feisal made his official entry into Damascus, and this he did, according to ancient custom, by riding furiously through the streets with a large number of kinsmen, to the accompaniment of a feu de joie and the piercing shouts of the Arab population. After the formal occupation the Allied troops were withdrawn and an Arab administration under Feisal was set up. Sukry Pasha El Ayyubi, senior descendant of Saladin, was appointed head of the administration of the city. Feisal and the French.—When in Nov. 1919 General Gou-

raud was nominated French High Commissioner for Syria, the Feisal regime jn Damascus was strongly antagonistic to the French

and productive of much disorder. Raiding and pillaging were encouraged and public money was misappropriated. Finally, on March 7, 1920, Feisal was elected King of Syria by a so-called General Syrian Congress, while the material opposition to French influence increased and the Arab army steadily grew in numbers. Eventually matters became so seriqus that in July 1920 General Gouraud had to issue an ultimatum. Feisal delayed his reply and questioned the terms, while an Arab detachment attacked one of the advanced French posts, with the result that a French force took up its position at ‘Ain el Jedeida, on the road from Beirut to Damascus, two days before the delivery of Feisal’s reply. As Feisal still refused to accept certain conditions, the French force \vanced and, after a fierce combat at Khan Meizalun with some 20,000 Arabs, entered Damascus. Feisal with his chief councillors took to flight.

On June 20, 1921, the Syrian Confederation, consisting of the state of Aleppo, Damascus and the Alaouites, was proclaimed at Damascus and, in order to preserve an equal balance between the north and the south, the city had to share the capital honours

recognized

demonstration

BrspLiocrAPoy.—A. V. Kremer, Topographie von Damaskus (1854),

Sir G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land (1895 etc.) ; Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible (W. Ewing), Encyc. of Islam (R. Hartmann) (1912); C. Watzinger u. K. Wulzinger, Damaskus, die Antike Stadt (1921); R. Dussaud, Le Temple de Jupiter Damascénien et ses transformations aux époques Chrétienne et mussulmane; Syria, 1922, 219 seq.; J. E. Hannaver, Damascus; Notes on changes made in the city during the Great War: Pal. Expl. Fund Quart.

3

of

as a

anti-Irench

fecling. The Druses.—When the Druse rebellion (see Druses) broke out in July 1925, Damascus played an important part as the

French advanced base and as the key to the general situation in Syria. The Damascenes were sympathetic to the Druses and, their discontent being aggravated

by an exceptionally bad harvest a general rising was feared with

serious ROOFLESS BUILDING NAMED AFTER THE GREAT SULTAN OF TURKEY WHICH WAS FORMERLY AN INN, BUT 18 NOW A THRIVING BAZAAR

consequences

in other

Syrian towns. Two attempts were made by the Druses to effect a Damascene rising by attacks on the city. The first was a

complete failure, but the second attack of Oct.

18 was

a great

deal more serious. Bands of Druses entered Damascus from the south and, receiving the support of the lower clements of the population, overran certain quarters, looting and pillaging as they went. Most of the inhabitants, however, disappointed at the small numbers of the Druses, failed to take any decisive action. French troops were sent into the streets to repel the insurgents, but, as the situation became more serious, the French troops were withdrawn and the order was given to bombard the affected arcas. The bombardment lasted until Oct. 20, and great damage was done, including the partial destruction of the Palais Azm, recognized as the most beautiful building in the city. This action of General Sarrail (q.v.), the French High Commissioner, was severely criticised, and he incurred well-merited censure for permitting the situation in Damascus to become such that a bombardment was a military necessity, and for carrying out such a drastic measure without issuing either an ultimatum to the inhabitants or notices to the foreign consuls. General Sarrail was recalled to France in November of the sume year. His dismissal, however, brought no peace to Damascus, and fighting continued around the city.

In Dec. 1925, M. Henri de Jouvenel (g.v.) succeeded General Sarrail as High Commissioner for Syria and in Feb. 1926, after the resignation of Subky Bey Barakat, President of the Syrian State, a Provisional Government was set up under M. Pierre Alype, with General Andréa as Military Governor of Damascus. In April of the same year, M. Alype was replaced by a native Provisional Head of the State in the person of Damad Ahmed Nami Bey, who governed through a Council of Ministers with Erench advisers. As martial law still prevailed, Damascus was excluded from the areas in which elections were subsequently held. On May 7, 1926, Damascus was again the scene of serious disturbances. A Druse band, about 200 strong, penetrated into the Meidan quarter, which was bombarded, at half an hour's notice, by French artillery and aircraft. The greater part of the Meidan quarter, which contains one-quarter of the population of Damascus, was destroyed, while 1,000 lives are said to have

been lost. The value of the damage was estimated at £700,000. On this occasion the street fighting on the French side was conducted, not by French regular troops, but by Circassian and Armenian levies, who were accused of savage brutality. Even this second devastation of Damascus failed to produce the effect desired by the French.

DAMASK—DAMASUS

4

At the end of May, 1926, M. de Jouvenel accorded the Syrian President the right to offer an amnesty to all rebels, who should lay down their arms in Damascus by June 15; he abolished the indemnity of 100,000 Syrian pounds imposed upon the city as a result of the insurrection of Oct. 1925; and approved the programme of the National Syrian Government. These conciliatory measures, however, had no satisfactory result, the Syrian Ministry was dissolved for showing undue sympathy to the insurgents, and desultory fighting continued in and about Damascus. Finally, after the arrival of M. Ponsot as High Commissioner, the Syrian revolt began to subside at the end of 1926. By this time it was possible to re-establish road communications with Beirut, and Damascus began to regain its commercial position on the trade route to Iraq via the Syrian Desert. Meanwhile, the city had been placed in a strong state of defense by General Andréa, and the clearances made for this purpose were utilized for the construction of the “Boulevard de Baghdad,” a broad thoroughfare encircling the city. A comprehensive scheme of town-planning was also inaugurated, including the restoration of the bombarded area, and plans for approved facades were prepared by M. de Lorey, Directeur de VInstitut français d'archéologic et d’art mussulman. Provision was thereby made that the new quarter of Damascus should not clash with its ancient surroundings. BIBLIOGRAPHY .—A.

J. Toynbee,

Survey of —

Affairs,

r935. Vol 1. “The Islamic World” (1927); Polson Newman, ke Middle East (1926); Lowell Thomas, With eae in Arabia (1924). The last two mentioned are popular in nature. See also

DAMASK,

(E.W. P.N.)

the technical term applied to certain distinct

types of fabric. The term owes its origin to the ornamental silk fabrics of Damascus, fabrics which wete elaborately woven in colours, sometimes with the addition of gold and other metallic threads. At the present day it denotes a linen texture richly

figured in the weaving with flowers, fruit, forms of animal life, and other types of ornament. “China, no doubt,” says Dr. Rock (Catalogue of Textile Fabrics, Victoria and Albert Museum), “was the first countsy to ornament its silken webs with a pattern. India, Persia and Syria, then Byzantine Greece followed, but at

long intervals between, in China’s footsteps. Stuffs so figured brought with them to the West the name ‘diaspron’ or diaper, bestowed upon them at. Constantinople. But about the 12th century the city of Damascus, even then long celebrated for its looms, so far outstripped all other places for beauty of design, that her silken textiles were in demand everywhere; and thus, as

under Die, and it will be seen that each weave gives a maximum float of seven threads. (In some special cases a weave is used which gives a float of nine.) The small figure here shown to illustrate a small section of a damask design is composed of the two single damask weaves; these give a maximum float of four threads or picks. No shading is shown in the design, and this for two reasons-——(1) the single damask weaves do not permit of elaborate shading, although some very good effects are obtainable; (2) the available space is not sufficiently large to show the method to advantage. The different single damask weaves used in the shading of these cloths appear, however, at the bottom of the figure, while between these and the design proper there is an illustration of the thirty-first pick interweaving with all the 48 threads. The principal British centres for fine damasks are Belfast and Dunfermline, while the medium qualities are made in several places in Ireland, in a few places in England, and in the counties of Fife, Forfar and Perth in Scotland. Cotton damasks, which are made in Paisley, Glasgow, and several places in Lancashire, are used for toilet covers, table-cloths, and similar purposes. They are often ornamented with colours and sent to the Indian and West Indian markets. Silk damasks for curtains and upholstery decorations are made in the silk-weaving centres.

DAMASK STEEL or DAMASCUS STEEL, asteel with a peculiar watered or streaked appearance, as seen in the blades of fine swords and other weapons of Oriental manufacture. One way of producing this appearance is to twist together strips of iron and stecl of different quality and then weld them into a solid mass, A similar but inferior result may be obtained by etching with acid the surface of a metal, parts of which are protected by some greasy substance in such a way as to give the watered pattern desired. The art of producing damask steel has been generally practised in Oriental countries from a remote period, the most famous blades having come from Isfahan, Khorasan, and Shiraz in Persia.

DAMASUS, the name of two popes.

Damasus I., Saint, was pope from 366 to 384. As a deacon he protested against the banishment of Pope Liberius (355), but when the emperor Constantius sent to Rome the anti-pope Felix II., Damasus, with the other clergy, rallied to his cause.

When

Liberius returned from exile and Felix was expelled, Damasus again supported Liberius. On the death of Liberius (366) he was nominated successor; but the irreconcilables of the party of Liberius set up against him another deacon, Ursinus. A serious conflict ensued which quickly led to rioting. The prefect of Rome fecognized the claims of Damasus, and Ursinus and his supporters were expelled. The new pope also secured the sympathy of the people by his zeal in discovering the tombs of martyrs, and in often happens, traders fastened adorning them with precious marbles and monumental inscriptions. the name of damascen or damask The inscriptions he composed himself, in mediocre verse, full of upon every silken fabric richly Virgilian reminiscences. In Rome he erected or embellished the wrought and curiously designed, church which still bears his name (S. Lorenzo in Damaso). no matter whether it came or not The West was recovering gradually from the effects of the from Damascus.” Arian crisis, and Damasus endeavoured to eliminate from Italy and The term ts perhaps now best Illyria the last champions of the council of Rimini. The bishknown in reference to damask ops of the East, however, under the direction of St. Basil, were table-cloths, a species of figured involved in a struggle with the emperor Valens, whose policy was cloth usually of flax or tow favourable to the council of Rimini. Damasus, to whom they apDESIGN yarns, but sometimes made partly DETAILS a OF A DAMASK * pealed for help, was unable to be of much service because that of cotton. The finer qualities ites eter iy ofDement te: episcopal group, viewed askance by St. Athanasius and his sucare made of the best linen yam, — vignifies a linen texture elabo- cessor Peter, was incessantly combated at the papal court by the and, although the latter is of "stely desened In the weaving hatred of Alexandria. The Eastern bishops triumphed in the end a brownish colour during the weaving processes, the ultimate under Theodosius, at the council of Constantinople (381), in fabric is pure white. The high lights in these cloths are obtained which the Western church took no part. They were invited to a by long floats of warp and weft, and, as these are set at right council at Rome in 382, but few attended. angles, they reflect the light differently according to the angle This council had brought to Rome the learned monk Jerome, of the rays of light; the effect changes also with the position of for whom Damasus showed great esteem. To him Damasus enthe observer. Subdued effects are produced by shorter floats of trusted the revision of the Latin text of the Bible. A short time yam, and sometimes by special weaves. Any subject, however before the pope had received a visit from the Priscillianists after

intricate, can be copied by this method of weaving, provided that

expense is no object. The finest results are obtained when the

so-called double damask weaves are used. These weaves are shown

their condemnation in Spain and had dismissed them. Damasus died on Dec. 11, 384. His writings are printed in Migne, Patrol. Lat. XIII. See also

DAMBROWA—DAMIETTA

5

Duchesne, Liber Pontificalis 1. 212; J. Wittig, Papst Damasus a. ‘in his struggle with the anti-pope, Honorius II.; and having (Rome, 1902) and Die Friedenspolitik des Papstes Damasus served the papacy as legate to France and to Florence, was al(Breslau, 1912), lowed to resign his bishopric in 1067. After a period of retirement Damasus II., pope from July 17 to Aug. 9, 1048, was the at Fonte Avellana, he proceeded in 1069 as papal legate to Gerephemeral successor of Clement II. His original name was Poppo, many, and persuaded the emperor Henry IV. to give up his intenand he was bishop of Brixen when the emperor Henry III. raised tion of divorcing his wife Bertha. He died at Faenza on Feb. 22, him to the papacy. 1072. Damiani was a determined foe of simony and clerical DAMBROWA, a Polish town in the province of Kielce and marriage, and a vigorous controversialist. centre of the coal basin bearing its name and which combines with His works published by Cardinal Cajetan, 4 vols. (Rome, 1606-15) the basins of Cracow and Polish Silesia to form one of the great- are reprinted in Migne, Patrol Lat. v. 144 and 145. See F. Neukirch, Das Leben des Peter Damiani (Göttingen, 1875); Kleinermanns, Der est coalfields of Europe. Pop. (1921) 39,800, an increase of 15,- heilige Petrus Damiani (Steyl, 1882); R. Biron, St. Pierre Damien 7oo on that of 1910. The Dambrowa basin, 200 sq.km., was for- (1908); J. A. Endres, Petrus Damiani und die weltliche Wissenschaft merly in the Russian empire, and in 1924 produced 6,585,097 tons, (Münster, 1910). about 97% of the production of 1913. DAMIEN, FATHER, the name in religion of JoseEPH DE DAME, properly a name of respect or a title equivalent to VEUSTER (1840-1889), Belgian missionary, born at Tremeloo, “lady,” now surviving in English as the legal designation of the near Louvain, on Jan. 3, 1840. In 1858, he joined the Society of wife or widow of a baronet or knight, or of a dame of the Order the Sacred Heart of Jesus and Mary (also known as the Picpus of the British Empire; it is prefixed to the Christian name and Congregation), and while still in minor orders, in 1863 went as a surname. It has also been used in modern times by certain so- missionary to the Pacific islands, taking the place of his brother, cieties or orders, e.g., the Primrose League, as the name of a cer- who had been prevented by illness. On reaching Honolulu he was tain rank among the lady members, answering to the male rank ordained priest in 1804. Struck with the sad condition of the of knight. The ordinary use of the word by itself is for an old lepers, whom the Hawaiian Government deported to Molokai woman. As meaning “mistress,” #.e., teacher, “dame” was used island, in 1873 he volunteered to take spiritual charge of the settleof the female keepers of schools for young children, which have ment. Besides attending to the spiritual needs of the lepers, he become obsolete since the advance of public elementary education. managed, by the labour of his own hands and by appeals to the At Eton college boarding-houses kept by persons other than memHawaiian Government, to improve the water-supply, the dwellings, bers of the teaching staff of the school were known as “Dames’ and the victualling of the settlement, and after five years received Houses,” though the head might not necessarily be a lady. As a assistance from other resident priests. He succumbed to leprosy term of address to ladies of all ranks, from the sovereign down, on April 15, 1889. Some ill-considered imputations upon Father “Madam,” shortened to “ma'am,” represents the French madame, Damien by a Presbyterian minister produced a memorable tract my lady. by — Louis Stevenson (An Open Letter to the Rev. Dr. Hyde, “Damsel,” a young girl or maiden, now only used as a literary 1890). word, is taken from the O.Fr. dameisele, formed from dame, and parallel with the popular dansele or doncele from the M. Lat. domicella or dominicella, diminutive of domina. The French damoiselle and demoiselle are later formations. The English literary form “damosel” was another importation from France in the 15th century. In the early middle ages damoiseau, M. Lat.

domicellus, dameicele, damoiselle, domicella, were used as titles of honour for the unmarried sons and daughters of royal persons and lords (seigneurs). Later the damoiseau (in the south donzel, in Béarn domengar) was specifically a young man of gentle birth who aspired to knighthood, equivalent to écuyer, esquire or

valet (q.v.).

DAME’S

See Life and Letters of Fr. Damien, ed. by his brother, Fr. Pamphile (London, 1889) and M. Quinlan, Damien of Molokai (London, 1909), which reproduces Stevenson's letter.

DAMIENS, ROBERT FRANCOIS (1715-1757),aFrenchman who made an attempt on the life of Louis XV. on Jan. 5, 1757. As the king was entering his carriage, he rushed forward and stabbed him with a knife, inflicting only a slight wound. His mind seems to have been unhinged by the ecclesiastical controversies of the moment. He was condemned as a regicide, and sen- ` tenced to be torn in pieces by horses in the Place de Grève. Before being put to death he was barbarously tortured. See Pièces originales et procédures du procès fait à Robert François

VIOLET,

the English name for Hesperis ma-

tronalis, a herbaceous plant belonging to the family Cruciferae, and closely allied to the wallflower and stock. It has an erect, stout,

leafy stem, 2 to 3 ft. high, with irregularly toothed, short-stalked leaves and white or lilac flowers, 4 in. across, which give off a scent in the evening. The slender pods are constricted between the seeds. The plant is a native of Europe and temperate Asia, and is found in Great Britain and in the eastern United States and Canada as an escape from gardens, in meadows and plantations.

DAMGHAN, town, Persia, in 36° 10’ N., 54° 20’ E., 216 m.

from Tehran, on the high road to Khurasan; elevation 3,737 feet. Pop. 10,000. Damghan was an important city in the middle ages, but there are few remains of that period. The remains of Hecatompylos extend from Frat, 16 m. S. to Gúsheh, 20 m. W. Damghan was destroyed by the Afghans in 1723. Fath Ali Shah was born here in 1772. Damghan is famous for the excellent quality of its almonds.

DAMIANI, PIETRO, SAINT (c. 1007-1072), celebrated ecclesiastic, was born at Ravenna, and after some years of teaching about 1035 entered the hermitage of Fonte Avellana, near Gubbio, where he became superior some eight years later. He enication with tbe emperor Henry IJI., addressed tered into c

to Pope Leo IX. in 1049 his Liber Gomorrhianus denouncing the vices of the clergy, and soon became associated with Hildebrand in the work of reform. As a trusted counsellor of successive

Damiens

(Paris, 1757).

DAMIETTA, a town of Lower Egypt, on the eastern (Damietta or Phatnitic) branch of the Nile, a few miles above its

mouth and 125m. N.N.E. of Cairo by rail. Pop. (1917) 30,984. The town is built on the east bank of the river between it and Lake Menzala. Though ill-built and partly ruinous, the town possesses some fine mosques, with lofty minarets, public baths and busy bazaars. Along the river-front are many substantial houses with terraces and steps leading to the water. Their wooden lattices of saw-work are very graceful. Once the third town in Egypt, it enjoys now little more than a coasting trade, and ships of over 6ft. draught must anchor in the offing. Damietta is a Levantine corruption of the Coptic name Tamiati, Arabic Dumydt. The original town was 4m. nearer the sea than the modern city. Under the Saracens it had great wealth and commerce, and, as the eastern bulwark of Egypt, was frequently attacked by the crusaders. In June 1249, Louis IX. of France occupied Damietta without opposition, but being defeated near Mansura in the February following, and compelled (April 6) to surrender himself prisoner, Damietta was restored to the Muslims as part of the ransom exacted. To prevent further attacks from the sea the Mameluke sultan Bibars blocked up the Phatnitic mouth of the. Nile (about 1260), razed old Damietta to the ground, and transferred the inhabitants to the site of the modern town. Damietta gives its name to dimity, a kind of striped cloth,

for which the place was at one time famous. Cotton and silk goods

popes he was made cardinal bishop of Ostia in 1057, and pre- are still manufactured here and there is some trade in rice and

sided over a council at Milan in 1059. He assisted Alexander II.

salted fish.

6

DAMIRI—DAMOH DAMIRI, the common name of KaMAt up-DINn MUHAMMAD

IEN MotsA up-DamiIrI (1344-1405), Arabian writer on canon law and natural history; he belonged to one of two towns called Damira near Damietta and spent his life in Egypt. Of the Shafi’ite school of law, he became professor of tradition in the Rukniyya at Cairo, and also at the mosque el-Azhar; in connection with

count of Dammartin,

made himself master of the town in the

roth century. His dynasty was replaced by another family in the 11th century. Reynald I. (Renaud), count of Dammartin (d. 1227), who was one of the coalition crushed by Philip Augustus at the battle of Bouvines (1214), left two co-heiresses, of whom the elder, Maud (Matilda or Mahaut), married Philip Hurepel, son of Philip Augustus, and the second, Alix, married Jean de Trie, in whose line the countship was reunited after the death of Philip Hurepel’s son Alberic. In the 15th century the countship was acquired by Antoine de Chabannes (d. 1488) by his marriage

this work he wrote a commentary on the Minhdj ut-Télibin of Nawawi (q.v.). He is, however, better known in the history of literature for his Life of Animals (Hayat ul-Hayawan), which treats in alphabetical order of 931 animals mentioned in the Koran, the traditions and the poetical and proverbial literature with Marguerite, heiress of Reynald V. of Nanteuil-Aci and Marie of Dammartin. Antoine de Chabannes fought under the standard of the Arabs. The use of the animals in medicine, their lawfulness or unlaw- of Joan of Arc, became a leader of the Ecorcheurs, took part in fulness as food, their position in folk-lore ure the main subjects the war of the public weal against Louis XI., and then fought for treated, while occasionally long irrelevant sections on political him against the Burgundians. The collegiate church at Damhistory are introduced.

Several editions have been made at various times of extracts, among them the poetical one by Suyiti (g.v.), which was translated into Latin by A. Ecchelensis (1667). Bochartus in his Hierozoicon (1663) used Damiri’s work. There is a translation of the whole into English by Lieutenant-Colonel Jayakar (Bombay, 1906-1908). DAMJANICH, JANOS (1804-1849), Hungarian soldier, was born at Stasa in the Banat. On the outbreak of the Hungarian war of independence he was promoted to be a major of the third Honvéd regiment at Szeged, for although he was an orthodox Serb, he was from the first a devoted adherent of the Magyar Liberals. At the beginning of 1849 he was appointed commander of the 3rd army corps in the middle Theiss on account of his reputation for ability and valour.

He fought battle after battle,

so that after the battle of Isaszeg, Kossuth, at the ensuing review at Göüdöllö, expressed the sentiments of the whole nation when he doffed his hat as Damjanich’s battalions passed by. Always a fiery democrat, Damjanich uncompromisingly supported the extremist views of Kossuth, and was appointed commander of one

of the three divisions which, under Gorgei, entered Vacz in April 1849. After the catastrophe of Vilagds, Damjanich surrendered to the Russians, by whom he was handed over to the Austrians, who shot him in the market place of Arad a few days later. See Odin Hamvay, Life of János Damjanich (Budapest, 1904).

DAMMAR or DAMMER, a resin, or rather series of resins,

obtained from various coniferous trees of the genus Agathis (Dammara). East Indian dammar or cat’s eye resin is the produce of Agathis Dammara, which grows in, Java, Sumatra, Borneo and other eastern islands and sometimes attains a height of 80-100ft. The resin oozes in large quantities from the tree in a soft viscous state, with a highly aromatic odour, which, however, it loses as it hardens by exposure. The resin is much esteemed in oriental com-

munities for incense-burning. Dammar is imported into England by way of Singapore; and as found in British markets it is a hard, transparent, brittle, straw-coloured resin, destitute of odour. It is readily soluble in ether, benzol and chloroform, and with oil

of turpentine it forms a fine transparent varnish which dries clear, smooth and hard. The allied kauri gum, or dammar of New Zealand (Australian dammar), is produced by Agathis australis, or kauri-pine, the wood of which is used for wood paving. Much of the New Zealand resin is found fossil in circumstances analogous to the conditions under which the fossil copal of Zanzibar is obtained. Dammar is besides a generic Indian name for various . other resins, which, however, are little known in western commerce. Of these the principal are black dammar, yielded by Canarium strictum (family Burseraceae) and white dammar, Indian copal, or piney varnish, the produce of Vateria indica (family Dipterocarpaceae). Sal dammar is obtained from Shorea robusta; Symplocos micrantha is the source of rock dammar and other species yield resins which are similarly named and differ little in physical properties.

DAMMARTIN, a small town of France, in the department

of Seine et Marne, 22 m, N.E. of Paris. Situated on a hill form-

ing part of the plateau of la Goéle, it is known as Dammartin-enGoéle to distinguish it from Dammartin-sous-Tigeaux, a small commune in the same department. Hugh, the earliest recorded

martin was founded by him in 1480, and his tomb and effigy are in the chancel. His son, Jean de Chabannes, left three heiresses, of whom the second left a daughter who brought the countship

to Philippe de Boulainvilliers, by whose heirs it was sold in 1554 to the dukes of Montmorency. In 1632 the countship was confiscated by Louis XIII. and bestowed on the princes of Condé.

DAMME, 2 decayed city of Belgium (pop. 1,100), 44 m. N.E. of Bruges, once so important as a commercial port that it had its own maritime law, known as Droit maritime de Damme. It is on the canal from Bruges to Sluys (Ecluse), but in the middle ages a navigable channel called the Zwyn connected it with the North sea; the battle of Sluys, in which Edward III. destroyed the French fleet, was fought in 1340 at its mouth. In 1490 a treaty was signed at Damme between the people of Bruges and the archduke Maximilian, and very soon after the channel became completely silted up, and the foreign merchant gilds or ‘‘nations” removed to Antwerp. The marriage of Charles the Bold and Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV., was celebrated at Damme on July 2, 1468. The town, although long neglected, preserves some remains of its former prosperity. The tower of Notre Dame, dating from 1180, is a landmark across the dunes, and the church, although a shell, merits inspection; out of a portion of the ancient markets a hotel-de-ville has been constructed; and in the hospital of St. Jean are a few pictures; and in the Place is a statue (1860) to Jacob Van Maerlant, the Flemish poet, who was clerk to the magistrates of Damme in the late 13th century.

DAMOCLES, one of the courtiers of the elder Dionysius of

Syracuse. When he spoke in extravagant terms of the happiness of his sovereign, Dionysius is said to have invited him to a sumptuous banquet, at which he found himself seated under a naked sword suspended by a single hair (Cicero Tusc. v. 21; Horace Odes, iii. 1, 17; Persius iii. 40).

DAMOH, a town and district of British India, in the Jub-

bulpore division of the Central Provinces. The town of Damoh is situated on the railway from Katni to Bina. a branch of the G.1LP. railway, 48 m. E. of Saugor. It has small local industries and a large cattle market, and is a distributing and collecting centre for the district. Being situated below rocky hills it is decidedly hot. In pre-railway days its population was about 8,000, which had increased to 17,000 in 1911. In 1921, owing to the ravages of influenza, the population had fallen to 15,296. Damoh was looted by mutineers from Jubbulpore in 1857 and the district office was burnt. The District oF Damon is one of the smallest in the Central Provinces, having an area of 2,818 sq.m. and a population of 287,126. It is one of the Vindhyan districts and on the north and north-east: borders Bundelkhand. It is drained by the Sonar and Bearma rivers which flow northwards into the Ken, and thus eventually reach the Jumna. The district is mainly wheat producing, but its agriculture is liable to severe vicissitudes of drought and excessive rain, and its population and prosperity have fluctuated greatly. The central plain is rich and fertile but the areas to both the north and south are hilly and jungly. Its people, among whom Lodhis predominate, are turbulent in character. Agricultural losses have been responsible for a condition of indebtedness, for which special measures have at various times

DAMON AND PHINTIAS—DAMPIER

7

American shores for the next year, attacking Guayaquil, Puebla Nova, etc. At last Dampier, leaving Davis, went on board Swan’s for the export of dried meat, bones, hides, horns and hoofs has ship, and proceeded with him along the northern parts of Mexico been established near Damoh, the old and infirm cattle from long as far as southern California. Swan then proposed, as the expedidistances being brought in for slaughtering. Except for a little tion met with “bad success” on the Mexican coast, to run across iron ore and sandstone for building, there is no mineral wealth in the Pacific and return by the East Indies. They started from Cape the district. There are notable temples at Bandakpur and Kun- Corrientes on March 31, 1686, and reached Guam in the Ladrones on May 20; the men, having come almost to an end of their dalpur and there are old Hindu and Jain remains at Nohta. rations, had decided to kill and eat their leaders next, beginning DAMON AND PHINTIAS (not Pythias), Syracusan Pythagoreans, devoted {riends. Condemned to death by Dionysius with the “lusty and fleshy” Swan. After six months’ drunkenness of Syracuse, Phintias begged a short respite that he might arrange and debauchery in the Philippines, the majority of the crew, inhis affairs. Damon pledged his life for the return of his friend; cluding Dampier, left Swan and thirty-six others behind in Minand Phintias returned in time. The tyrant released both and danao, cruised (1687~1688) from Manila to Pulo Condore, from begged to be admitted to their friendship (Diod. Sic. x. 4; Cicero, the latter to China and from China to the Spice Islands and New Holland (the Australian mainland). In March 1688 they were De Of. iii. 45; cp. Hyginus, fab. 257). off Sumatra, and in May off the Nicobars, where Dampier was DAMOPHON, a Greek sculptor of Messene, who executed many statues for the people of Messene, Megalopolis, Aegium, marooned (at his own request, as he declares, for the purpose and other cities of Peloponnesus. Considerable fragments, includ- of establishing a trade in ambergris) with two other Englishmen, ing three colossal heads from a group by him representing a Portuguese and some Malays. He and his companions contrived been taken. Dyeing, weaving, pottery and the manufacture of bell-metal utensils are the chief industries. Cattle slaughtering

Demeter, Persephone, Artemis, and the giant Anytus, have been found on the site of Lycosura in Arcadia, where there was a temple of the goddess called “The Mistress.” They are preserved in part

in the museum at Athens and partly on the spot. Hence there arose controversy as to the date of the artist, who was assigned to

various periods, from the 4th century B.C. to the 2nd A.D. G. Dickins, however, by the help of inscriptions proved the date to be the 2nd century B.C.

to navigate a canoe to Achin in Sumatra; but the fatigues and distress of the voyage proved fatal to several and nearly carried off Dampier himself. After making several voyages to different places of the East Indies (Tongking, Madras, etc.), he acted for some time, and apparently somewhat unwillingly, as gunner to

the English fort of Benkulen. Thence he ultimately contrived to

return to England in 1601. In 1699 he was sent out by the English Admiralty in command of the “Roebuck,” especially designed for discovery in and around rat G. Dickins, Annual of the British School at Athens (xii. and Australia. He sailed from the Downs on Jan. 14, with twenty X111.). months’ provisions, touched at the Canaries, Cape Verdes and DAMP, vapour or mist, and hence moisture. In the vocabu- Bahia, and ran from Brazil round the Cape of Good Hope direct lary of coal-miners “fredamp” is marsh gas, which, when mixed to Australia, whose west coast he reached on July 26, in about with air and exploded, produces “choke damp,” “after damp” or 26° S. Anchoring in Shark’s Bay, he began a careful exploration “suffocating damp” (carbon dioxide). “Black damp” consists of the neighbouring shore-lands, but found no good harbour or of accumulations of irrespirable gases, mostly nitrogen, which estuary, no fresh water or provisions. In September, accordingly, cause the lights to burn dimly, and the term “white damp” is he left Australia, recruited and refitted at Timor, and thence made sometimes applied to carbon monoxide. As a verb, the word means for New Guinea, where he arrived on Dec. 3. By sailing along to to stifle or check, hence damped vibrations or oscillations are its easternmost extremity, he discovered that it was terminated those which have been reduced or stopped, instead of being al- by an island, which he named New Britain (now Neu Pommern), lowed to die out naturally; the “dampers” of the piano are small whose north, south and east coasts he surveyed. That St. George’s pieces of felt-covered wood which fall upon the strings and stop bay was really St. George’s channel, dividing the island into two, their vibrations as the keys rise; and the “damper” of a chimney was not perceived by Dampier; it was the discovery of his sucor flue, by restricting the draught, lessens the rate of combustion. cessor, Philip Carteret. Nor did Dampier visit the west coast of DAMPIER, WILLIAM (1652-1715), English buccaneer, New Britain or realize its small extent on that side. He was prenavigator and hydrographer, was born at East Coker, Somerset- vented from prosecuting his discoveries by the discontent of his shire, in 1652. Having early become an orphan, he was placed men and the state of his ship. In May 1700 he was again at Timor, with the master of a ship at Weymouth, in which he made a and thence he proceeded homeward by Batavia (July 4-Oct. 17) voyage to Newfoundland. On his return he sailed to Bantam in and the Cape of Good Hope. In February 1701 he arrived off the East Indies. He served in 1673 in the Dutch War under Sir Ascension island, when the vessel foundered (Feb. 21-24), the Edward Sprague, and was present at two engagements (May 28, crew reaching land and staying in the island till April 3, when they June 4); but then fell sick and was put ashore. In 1674 he became were conveyed to England by some East Indiamen and warships an under-manager of a Jamaica estate, but continued only a short bound for home. In 1703-1707 Dampier commanded two Govtime in this situation. He afterwards engaged in the coasting trade, ernment privateers on an expedition to the South Seas with grievand thus acquired an accurate knowledge of all the ports and bays ous unsuccess; better fortune attended him on his last voyage, of the island. He made two voyages to the Bay of Campeachy as pilot to Woodes Rogers in the circumnavigation of 1708-1711. (1675-76), and remained for some time with the logwood-cutters, On the former venture Alexander Selkirk, the master of one of varying this occupation with buccaneering. In 1678 he returned to the vessels, was marooned at Juan Fernandez; on the latter England, again visiting Jamaica in 1679 and joining a party of Selkirk was rescued and a profit of nearly £200,000 was made. buccaneers, with whom he crossed the Isthmus of Darien, spent But four years before the prize-money was paid Dampier died the year 1680 on the Peruvian coast, and sacking, plundering and (March 1715) in St. Stephen's parish, Coleman street, London. burning, made his way down to Juan Fernandez island. After Dampier’s accounts of his voyages are famous. He had a genius serving with another privateering expedition in the Spanish Main, for observation, especially of the scientific phenomena affecting he went to Virginia and engaged with a captain named Cook for a a seaman’s life; his style is usually admirable—easy, clear and privateering voyage against the Spaniards in the South Seas. manly. His knowledge of natural history, though not scientific, (C. R. B.) They sailed in Aug. 1683, touched at the Guinea coast, and then appears surprisingly accurate and trustworthy. proceeded round Cape Horn into the Pacific. Having touched at See Dampier’s New Voyage Round the World (1697); his Voyages Juan Fernandez, they made the coast of South America, cruising and Descriptions (1699), a work supplementary to the New Voyage; along Chile and Peru. They took some prizes, and with these they his Voyage to New Holland in... 1699 (1703, 1709); Dampier’s proceeded to the Galapagos islands and to Mexico, falling in with | Voyages (ed. J. Masefield, 1906); W. C. Russell, William Dum pier (“English Men of Action,” 1889); also Funnell’s Narrative of the the latter near Cape Blanco. While they lay here Captain Cook Voyage of 1703-1707; Dampier’s Vindication of his Voyage (1707);

died, and the command devolved on Captain Davis, who, with |Welbe’s

Answer to Captain Dampier’s Vindication; Woodes

several other pirate vessels, English and French, raided the west | Cruising Voyage Round the World (1712).

Rogers,

DAMROSCH—DAMS DAMROSCH, LEOPOLD (1832-1885), German-American struction: A relatively thin watertight core wall of concrete or musician and conductor, born in Posen, Prussia, Oct. 22, 1832. In early life a physician, he became konzertmeister at Weimar, then conductor of the Philharmonic Society at Breslau; he went to America as conductor at the Metropolitan Opera House and founded the Oratorio Society, New York, 1874, the New York Symphony Society, 1878, etc. His son, WALTER JOHANNES DamroscH (1862— ), American musician and conductor, was born at Breslau, Germany, Jan. 30, 1862. He went to America in 1871, and ten years later began his career as conductor in Newark, New Jersey. On the death of his father in 1885, he was appointed conductor of the Metropolitan Opera House, the New York Symphony Society and the Oratorio * Society. In 1894 he founded the Damrosch Opera Company for producing Wagner and in 1896 produced Wagner’s Parsifal in concert form for the first time in the United States. In 1903 he was appointed director of the New York Symphony Orchestra, remaining conductor up to Feb. 1927. He was then appointed musical adviser to the National Broadcasting Company, informal lectures on Wagner with music having developed into lecture recitals over the radio. His compositions include The Scarlet Letter (1894); Cyrano (1913); and music for Euripides’ Media, ]phigenia in Aulis (Berkeley, 1915) and Sophocles’ Electra (1917). He wrote an autobiography, My Musical Life (1923). Another son, Frank Hetno DAmRosCcH, was born at Breslau, June 22, 1859. He was director of the Institute of Musical Art, New York city, and wrote a Popular Method of Sight Singing and Some Essentials in the Teaching of Music.

reinforced concrete is frequently used now as being practicable for most sites and quicker to construct than a puddle wail. The slopes of the embankment vary according to the height of the dam and the nature of the material. Generally the slope next the water is made rather flat, frequently from 1:24 to 1:34 while the outer slope is somewhat steeper, 1:2 to 1:3. In high

While types (a) and (b) have been used from antiquity, = others are products of the 19th and 2oth centuries. Earth Dams—Earth dams are largely used on account, of their permanence and cheapness and convenience of construction where suitable material is available in the vicinity. Security depends on the construction being adequately watertight to prevent scouring away of any of the earth by water passing through the dam, and on the installation of a spillway and spillway channel formed in masonry concrete or rock sufficient to pass the maximum flood without allowing any water to pass over the top of the earth bank. Water passing over the top would form ruts on

upstream slope varies from 1:1 at the top to 1-2:1 at the bottom. Downstream, the slopes are 1:1 at top and 1-4:1 at the bottom. A thick layer on the upstream face was hand-built with large stones, while the rest of the material was side-tipped from wagons. The watertight skin of reinforced concrete varies in thickness from 8 in. at the top to 18 in. at the bottom. Gravity Dams—Though dams of massive masonry have been used for thousands of years it was not till the r9th century that a proper scientific basis for design was developed by Prof. Rankine and others so that the width could be reduced from three to four times the height to something less than the height. The tendency in gravity dams is to use the simple triangular form for even the highest dam and to use concrete to the exclusion of masonry. The triangular form gives a uniform stability condition at any hori-

FIG, 1.—CROSS-SECTION OF THE DAVIS BRIDGE DAM, VERMONT

dams the slopes in the lower part are flattened out still more as compared with the upper part and in all cases the water slope must be protected by stone or concrete paving or beaching sufficiently massive to withstand wave action and prevent the earth of the embankment from being disturbed. The trend of development in America for the construction of large earth dams is towards the attainment of watertightness by the formation of a wide hearting of fine material bound with fine clay and silt separated and washed into the centre by hydraulic sluicing from the earth as dumped in banks along the upper and lower sides of the dam. Fig. 1 shows a cross-section of the Davis

DAMS. From immemorial times dams have been constructed Bridge dam in Vermont, 200 ft. high, with an earthworks volume of earth and masonry for the purpose of forming reservoirs for of 1,900,000 cu.yd., which was constructed in Jess than two years the storage of water to ensure regular supplies to communities for by this method. Rock-fill Dams.—A rock-fill dam depends for its stability on domestic purposes and for irrigation. There are records of a huge earthen dam on the Tigris and a large masonry dam on the river an embankment of tipped rock material and for its watertightness Nile, built almost in prehistoric times, which remained in service on a skin of concrete or reinforced concrete laid on the handfor incredibly long periods, and the Romans built numerous mas- built water face and carried down in the form of a vertical cut-off sive masonry dams in Italy and northern Africa. All the early wall to an impervious stratum. Lack of suitable earth material masonry dams were characterized by excessive width of base and excessive cost of concrete lead to consideration of the rockfill type of dam. The embankment is usually formed with rock usually three to four times the height. The production of hydro-electric energy and the application of of all sizes as blasted from the quarry, the outer face being roughly irrigation on a large scale are two forms of development which built to a plain surface with large blocks and the inner face more have expanded very rapidly in the 2oth century in countries having carefully and solidly built to a uniform surface and formed with the requisite conditions and resources and in many cases have grooves or keyways to furnish a grip for the concrete. For involved enormously greater storage of water than that required important dams, special drainage arrangements are made for for even the largest towns. The progress in scientific design and catching up at the back of the skin any water which may percolate in magnitude of dam structures has been correspondingly exten- through it, and leading it by special drains through to the downsive, and new types of structure have been introduced to meet stream side so as to obviate risk of scour under the dam. The the call for greater economy in a class of work which is seldom water face is made steep (1:1 or steeper) to minimize the quanp. tity of skin concrete, the outer face being generally somewhat Types of Dams.—The principal types are (a) earth dams, (b) flatter, about 4:3. The largest dam of this type yet constructed is the Dix river masonry or concrete gravity dams, (c) rock-fill dams, (d) single horizontal arch, (e) multiple buttress dams, (f) large river dams, dam in Kentucky, U.S.A., built 1923-25. This has a height of 275 ft. and a volume of rock-fill of 1,747,000 cubic yards. The or barrages.

the outer slope which would rapidly develop into a breach. Passage of water through the dam is usually prevented by the provision of a watertight core in the centre of the embankment

extending from end to end of the dam and carried down in a trench below the ground surface until an impermeable stratum is reached. In Britain puddle clay is the material which has been generally preferred for the core. In other countries the puddle core has been largely abandoned even where suitable material is available, on account of the long time required for its proper con-

zontal section,,.. directly p :

the maximum stresses in the material are to the depth below T.W.L. Assuming a

usual inclination of the waterface, say 1:20, and concrete of normal density, the necessary inclination of the outer face will depend on the amount of upward water pressure on the base. If by means of effective drainage arrangements upward pressure is

DAMS

Puare I

.

—

i

ae Nas

ae

(2, BY COURTESY OF (8) THE BRADFORD WATER WORKS. (5) UNDERWOOD PRESS SERVICE HOUSE: PHOTOGRAPH,

THE

DERWENT

GRAVITY 1. Face of Anagram dam, Yorkshire, England;

VALLEY

WATER

AND

BOARD,

view of horizontal arch dam during construction

(3,

6)

HORIZONTAL

masonry spillways

2. Stone spillway of Howden dam, Derwent valley, England 3, Upstream

E

tre

E

'

ET E S

G

tay

i

“a

G

ee ‘yom

wat

ae

k

20

BENT

BROTHERS,

ARCH

INC.,

(4,

THE

DIRECTOR,

PUBLICITY

BUREAU.

BUUTH

DAMS

4. Side view of horizontal! arch dam,

5. Sluice gate showing power

Pretoria,

South Africa

hoist, Nile dam, Assuan, Egypt

6. Buttressed spillways at sides, gravity dam, California

AFRICA

PLATE II

D AMS

*

COURTESY

OF

(1)

THE

U.S.

BUREAU

OF

RECLAMATION,

(2)

WATER

THE

U.S.

DEPARTMENT

SUPPLY

OF

THE

DAMS

1. Roosevelt dam, Salt River irrigation project, Arizona. Horizontal arch type of storage dam showing spillways at either side and discharge nines at base of dam.

Built

In a narrow gorge, each end of dam is ae ee

Ai sabbath .——

INTERIOR

FOR

IRRIGATION

PROJECTS

2. Elephant Butte dam, Rio Grande irrigation project, New Mexico. crete gravity type of storage dam, built in triangular form outlet at base. 1-

Conwith

Construction Is thickest at base, where water pressure — ba width af rnadwav at the ton of dam. Dimen-

DAMS

|

9

eliminated, an outer slope of about o-65:1 will suffice. If the is without drainage arrangements and is designed for water uplift conditions require anallowance ofupward waterpressure onthe on the base varying from full-head at the inside to zero at the base varying from the full head at the inner face to zero at the outside. The slope of the waterface is 1:20 and of the outer face outer face, the outer slope will require to be about o-80:1. If, in o-80:1. The cross section also indicates the masonry facing of addition, it is necessary to allow for heavy ice pressure at the gneiss applied on the outer slope, which has a southern exposure top af the wall, still greater slope, up to 0-85:1, will be required. and is subject to severe temperature variations. The greatest dam of this type yet projected is the San Gabriel These dimensions ensure that theresultant willpass within the

~a

EXPANSION JOINT SECTION XX

t —* Wy

— aina rD

P

a

nannaa

ERTE

>e

P

\ À |

*

TTEN HETTIE 4A P ihiihi: jde

ad

q

EAL E] PET

Tra1:20

PS

|

»

dam of the Los Angeles flood control project which is to have a maximum height of 438 ft., a base width of 360 ft. and will contain over 34 million cu.yd. of concrete. The reservoir with a capacity of 8,000 million cu.ft. would not be one of the largest. Horizontal Arch Dams.—The horizontal arch dam is suitable only for narrow gorges with sound rock at the sides to resist the great thrust from the abutments. The water pressure at any horizontal plane being constant, the appropriate arch form at that plane will be a segment of a cylinder of uniform thickness. If the radius of the extrados is constant at all depths the arch thickness required will be directly proportional to the depth of water. The vertical section will then be of triangular form, and if the waterface is vertical the angle of the outer slope will vary with the radius and the working compressive stress in accordance with the formula: tang = 243° 6

-

where r = radius of extrados in feet c average compressive stress in lb. per square inch.

Seeneee

we } Ti 9

Towshan Tepe

CAPE ™ LLB9

Qum Qaled

a ni Shehr

Aj | +.

ee

ry

\

Yeni Keul

wy

*Kalakatli Keul ) F

ef

f

if

|, —

THE THREE THEATRES OF WAR ON THE HELLES, ANZAC BEACH, AND SUVLA BAY

GALLIPOLI

PENINSULA:

CAPE

attempts of the invaders on the gth and roth. Large forces were engaged on either side in this battle, and the attack was prepared by a heavy bombardment of the Ottoman trenches, in which warships moored in Suvla bay, where they were secure from submarines, participated. But after a sanguinary encounter the assailants met with a decisive rebuff, and from that date onwards

no serious offensive operation was attempted by the Allies in the Dardanelles campaign. The conditions of stalemate which had prevailed before the arrival of the five new divisions from England set in afresh and continued to the end. As a consequence of the failure at Suvla during the early days of its occupation certain changes in command were carried out, Gen. Byng, especially sent out from home for the purpose, taking over command in this area. Gen. Davies was in command at Helles, and, as the right of the Suvla force was in touch with the left of the Anzac force in the low ground near the shore, Byng and Birdwood now held a continuous front extending from a point on the coast about 3m. N.E. of Suvia bay near to Gaba -Tepe, overlooked for practically the whole of its length by

up of Turkey with the Central Powers by railway, moreover, connoted that Liman von Sanders would speedily be furnished with ample munitions of all kinds, which would make the prospect of Anglo-French forces gaining possession of the straits remoter than ever. Withdrawal Discussed—By the middle of September the Paris Government had come to the conclusion that there was now no hope of victory in the Dardanelles theatre; but the British cabinet, influenced by anxiety as regards prestige in the East and by disinclination to abandon an enterprise in which great sacrifices had been incurred and from which much had at one time been expected, could not make up its mind to cut losses and to withdraw. On Hamilton being asked to give his views concerning the question of evacuation, he pronounced himself as emphatically opposed to such a step, so Sir C. Monro was sent out from England to take his place. The new commander-in-chicf, impressed by the very unsatisfactory positions occupied by the Allied troops, by the impossibility of their making any progress at their existing strength, and by the risks that the army ran by clinging to such a shore without any safe harbour to depend upon for base in stormy weather, declared unhesitatingly in the closing days of October for a complete withdrawal after examining the situation on the spot and consulting with Birdwood, Byng and Davies. The British cabinet would not accept the recommendation, and sent Lord Kitchener to investigate and report. He had viewed proposals to abandon the campaign with alarm; but after visiting the peninsula he realized that evacuation was the only justifiable course, and reported to that effect. All this time winter was drawing nearer and the need for a prompt decision was becoming more and more urgent, but the authorities in London lost

another fortnight before, on Dec. 8, they at last sent instructions to Monro to withdraw from Suvla and Anzac, while retaining Helles. Evacuation of Suvla Bay and Anzac.— goyyon phywin vi0de}euI0I}s taponb wnuriaad SaU0}SIUN] ALe səuozsəw|

sofiig ipnousac

pəsjsosdiyiid

Dyjauoysukyy

IOJ SIJES 13dd1 -eaj aquiosspeq

eunej

UEAN) tq] sn4sg yg 0490 $4934

s

saprogna

eruul spaq Uapyan sayeys

DIDILYS

ISPUBG

JUL sↄuoꝛsatui DICLYING 04]24

SIMO

sajespue Sauo}SouN’] SoU0}SIUIT] pue DIOP JAISSLEUI —Ax soyeqs 31201 auoꝛsaↄtui

SNOVA

`J

jy

$D4990}t34 SD4II0U40] SD42902114D SUIISIUEN

123407 uod spəq

-—7 ` .

i

— iy —“ qOrn

Ly

se bs;

j

l are

pe

A

FROM C. A. BURLS AND SIR DUGALD CLERK IN “DICTIONARY OF APPLIEZO PHYSICS” FIG. 1—SECTIONAL VIEW OF A TYPICAL 4-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE, SHOWING, ALSO, USUAL MODE OF VALVE ACTUATION

is meant that the air and gases are supposed for the sake of simplicity to be compressed and expanded respectively, without any loss or gain of heat to the containing cylinder. Actually of course some heat is lost to the cylinder during the compression and expansion (working, strokes; nevertheless the rapid squeezing-up of the air during the compression stroke results in increase of its temperature to about 1,000° F, which is sufficient to cause spontaneous ignition of the fuel spray during its injection; thus no igniting apparatus is required with diesel engines. Neither the suction and subsequent compression of air alone, nor the absence of igniting apparatus in the diesel engine was

novel. Akroyd Stuart (1886-90) injected the fuel spray into a hot-bulb prolongation at the combustion chamber end of the cylinder, and atmospheric air, during compression, formed with this heated spray the working charge, which ignited spontaneously and explosively, at the end of the compression stroke. The characteristic feature of the diesel procedure is the regulated admission of the fuel spray by which combustion at constant pressure is realized. Definition of a Diesel Engine.—The accepted definition of a diesel engine is as follows:—-A diesel engine ts a prime mover actuated by the gases resulting from the combustion of a liguid or pulverized fuel injected in a state of fine subdivision into the revolutions of the crankshaft. T The special feature of the diesel cycle is the regulated imtre- engine cylinder at or about the end of the compression stroke. duction of the fuel spray giving a combustion at approximately The heat generated by the compression of air in the cylinder is

19

ASIZNNOD jð Bak

WED DE

MDAjo

LSA sm!es TS

Suljpquasse woosuy

vw NO asd BIW

243

WEL

dansy

auBua

SYM jN

Autu SuimoysJue.y jO

NOILONYLSNOD JO V 3984Vl

jasa'g

suiBuaPul

3NIYVW

SNISNA JUaucGwod 82.80

138310

AsyOsUGasd

UO!}Ejje}Sui Gi 4}

Gigs

the sole means of igniisng the charge. Combustion of the charge proceeds at, or approximately at, constant pressure. A sectional view of a simple four-stroke diesel engine appears in fig. 1; the inverted vertical frame design shown is almost universally adopted. The piston reciprocates within the cylinder and drives the crankshaft through connecting rod. On the first down stroke air is drawn through the air inlet and valve into the cylinder; this air is next compressed on the return up stroke of the piston, and the fuel spray is then forcibly injected into this compressed and consequently highly heated mass of air through the fuel valve; spontaneous ignition takes place and the piston is driven down and performs the “working stroke.” Near the bottom of this stroke the exhaust valve is opened and the burnt gases are discharged through the exhaust into the atmosphere during the final up stroke of the piston; this completes the cycle. The inlet and exhaust valves are usually of the “poppet” or “mushroom” type as shown, and all valves are cam-driven from a “half-speed” shaft in the manner indicated in the illustration substantially as in an ordinary motor-car engine. It will be noted that the cylinder is well water-jacketed. and that the engine generally is of massive design. In normal working the maximum pressure, as already stated, does not exceed that of compression, i.e., 500-600 Ib. per sq.in., but the engine has to be built safely to resist occasional excessive pressures that occur if, e.g., a leaky fuel valve permits admission of oil during suction with subsequent vaporization during the compression stroke, and pre-ignition near the end of the com-' pression; in this way momentary pressures of fully 1,000 lb. per sq.in. not uncommonly occur, and have to be provided against. Accordingly, in general, the diesel is a heavy internal-combustion engine in relation to its power development. Ideal Diesel Indicator Diagram.—An

ideal indicator dia-

gram of a four-stroke diesel engine is given in fig. 2. Horizontal measurements represent volumes, and vertical measurements pressures in Ib. per sq.in., each to some convenient scale. Thus at the commencement of the cycle, the combustion chamber, of volume Vo is, in the simplest theory, filled with air at atmosphcre pressure po. The piston performs the suction stroke, and the line or is traced on the diagram; at the end of the suction stroke the cylinder contains a volume Vi of air at atmospheric pressure. The inlet valve is now closed and the returning piston compresses

downwards, until the point 4, the end of the working stroke, is reached. The exhaust valve is now suddenly opened and the burnt gases escape into the atmosphere, falling instantly from pressure p; to

Pi(=po). Finally, during the return of the piston from 1 to o,

the remaining exhaust gas is expelled. This cycle is then repeated indefinitely. Simple Theory.—The working fluid is regarded as a perfect gas, conforming strictly to the relation: PV =c.T (1) where T denotes absolute temperature (say, in °F) and c is a constant, being equal to the difference (Cp— C.) between the specific heat of the fluid at constant pressure and that at constant volume. The compression and expansion curves are regarded as truly adiabatic, so that the fluid neither gains nor loses heat, qua heat, during these periods. Hence, on these simplifying assumptions, the heat given to the working fluid per cycle is H = Ka(Ta—T:) British thermal units. While the heat rejected per cycle (sec the indicator diagram, at 41) is eee et

R=K,(7,—7;) British thermal units.

The useful work done, expressed in heat units, is (47~R),

Thus

an expenditure of H, B.T.U. gives a return of (W7—R) B.T.U. of useful work; and accordingly the “thermodynamic efficiency”

of the cycle is expressed by the fraction 5

thus,

H—R R ermodynamic jj =1— I~ =, Therme mic efficiency efficiency = ----—-

(2)

That is, denoting as usual the ratio of the specific heats, viz.

kp ti umm

;

by

Y:

Thermodynamic efficiency = |— a —

vy 13-7,

(3)

This expression gives the value of the ideal thermodynamic efficiency of the diesel cycle in terms of the absolute temperatures at the four corners of the indicator diagram; these temperatures are not, however, readily ascertainable; but the efficiency can, fortunately, also be expressed in terms of magnitudes immediately measurable from the indicator diagram, as follows:

The volume ratio of compression, commonly termed the “‘compression ratio,” = (fig. 2), 18 usually denoted by r; it will be 2

a V V V seen that this is the same as —; thusr= — = —-

a ©

2


3 * w ẽ a

combustion at constant pressure) is commonly denoted by p; V

thus p=

— 2

Va

V3

Vo

Nete Va —Ve Note herehere also also tha that —Vi = +

T=p7 T;

so that

Ti—-Tiı= (pf —1)T:.

(5)

Substituting, now, in (3) from (4) and (5) we get:

—

Pt

Thermodynamic efficiency = 1 — ()

x —

working down-stroke.

(3) When about 80% of the down-stroke has been completed, the piston over-runs a ring of ports in the lower part of the

{6) Am STARTING VALVE HOUSINGS

and thus the diesel cycle efficiency is expressed in terms of the compression and expansion ratios only. Eq. (6) is the exact expression for the efficiency, on the ordinary simple theory, and as Table I. below shows, the efficiency falls as p, 4.¢., the period of constant-pressure combustion, increases. When the constant-

FUEL INJECTION VALVE HOUSING

«VLINDER

pressure combustion period is extremely short, ¢.e., when p=1, SCAVENGING VALVE

nYa — the expression (6) above reduces to 1— () . Now it is shown

SCAVENGING AIR PORTS

in the article on gas engines (q9.v.) that for the type of four-stroke cycle in general use in gas and petrol engines known as the “constant-volume” cycle, the thermodynamic efficiency, with the usual simplifying assumptions, is expressed by the formula I

y~

I (*)

S w

AIR INLET PORTS

, where r is, again, the ratio of adiabatic compression. °

°

®

°

°

.

A committee of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1905 after careful consideration recommended the adoption of this formula for estimating the ideal maximum of thermodynamic efficiency

Exnaust OUTLET

Aly ThTea ae tes

Peron

of the internal-combustion engines in general use at that date,

all such engines being assumed as working with a perfect gas for which the value of y was taken as 1:4. í

f

I

Ain Pwe

Thus the 0'4

1905 Air Standard = 1 — ()

(7)

and this hus been largely used from that date in connection with all internal-combustion engines, including diesels. ‘The 1905 Air Standard makes the efliciency increase with the compression ratio, thus: For r 73. The Air Std =+356

4 +426

5§ +475

6 +513

7 541

8 565

10. “602

I2 “30

14 °652

and the diesel engine owes its position as one of the most economical engines in fuel consumption to the high compression ratio (14-15) employed. This high compression ratio is practicable on account of air alone being compressed; in the case of gas engines, and of many oil engines, much lower compression ratios must be used in order to avoid detonation of the working charge, and in

FIG. 3.—DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL 2-STROKE INLET, EXHAUST AND SCAVENGING PORTS

DIESEL

ENGINE,

SHOW/NG

cylinder through which the burnt gas discharges itself into the

atmosphere. Simultaneously air, supplied by a so-called scavenge pump under a pressure of 1-5 to 3 Ib. per sq.in. enters the cylinder through a valve, or ports, and causes the expulsion of any remaining exhaust gas, so that at the end of the working stroke the cylinder is again filled with air alone. This completes the cycle. The piston on the return up-stroke first closes the rings of air inlet and exhaust ports, and then compresses the now entrapped air as in operation (1) above. A diagrammatic illustration of one of Messrs. Sulzer's designs of two-stroke cycle diesel engines appears in fig. 3. The piston works in the cylinder. When

near the bottom of its stroke the piston over-runs, and so opens such cases the value of r ranges from about 3 to 7-5 only. The the ring of exhaust ports, which extends half-way round the ideal diesel efficiency is, however, somewhat over-estimated if cylinder; the burnt gas at once escapes into the exhaust outlet; Eq. (7) be used, as is shown in Table JI. below, which exhibits cylinder. the true efficiency values from Eq. (6) for a compression ratio A slightly further descent of the piston then uncovers a of 14, and with p ranging from its minimum value 1 to the ring of ports, through which fresh air at 1-5 to 3 Ib. per sq.in. maximum, in practice, of about 2. pressure (supplied by the scavenge pump) at once enters the cylinder from the air-pipe, and drives out the remaining exTanLe L—TFdeal Thermodynamic Efficiency of Diesel Cyel haust gases through the ports. The piston then commences its From Eq. (0) r-i. porto? up-stroke and after the air-ports are masked, but before the —

——

—

ess e Volume ratio of 1905 air True value of `e error in constant-pres- | standard value | diesel cycle using air std. sure expansion, 1-(4 * chiy. from ed. | instead of (6)

exhaust

ports are closed, further air ts admitted

through the

ring of small ports, by which the final “scavenging” of the residual exhaust gases is effected. The ports continue to deliver air into p 14 (6) the cylinder until just after the exhaust ports have been closed, ro. "652 052 o so that in this ingenious manner the cylinder is charged with 125. ‘652 "035 2'7 fresh air at slightly above atmospheric pressure. Ss ‘052 ‘620 52 The supply of air to the ports is regulated by a reciprocating 175. 652 005 7°38 valve operated from the crankshaft. The only valves in the 2'0 ‘652 ·501 10°3 cylinder head in this type of engine are (1) the fuel injection Two-stroke Cycle Diesel Engines.—All the earliest diesel vaive and (2) the air-starting valve. The massive strength of engines were operated on the four-stroke cycle, but two-stroke the design and the liberal water-jacketing provided should be cycle engines are now (1928) common and are increasing in noticed. favour. The sequence of operations is as follows:— The ideal two-stroke cycle engine would develop twice the (1) On the first up-stroke of the piston, air alone is adia- power of a four-stroke of equal size; actually, as only about batically compressed into the combustion chamber, becoming in 80% of the stroke can be utilized on account of the presence of consequence highly heated. the scavenging and exhaust ports, and as some power is absorbed

DIESEL ENGINE in driving the scavenging pump, the two-stroke diesel in practice is usually a little less efficient than the four-stroke. Another

351

A diagrammatic illustration of a fuel injection valve and fuel pump for airless injection appears in fig. 4; the small solid-plung-

difficulty with the two-cycle is that it is practically impossible to get complete scavenging, especially at high speeds, where the scavenging pressures and consequent losses are necessarily much higher. It possesses, however, the important advantages (1) that it is lighter for the same power output; (2) that it possesses

er eccentric-driven fuel pump is shown on the right by which the charge of oilis delivered at high pressure into the space surrounding the needle valve which issimultaneously raised just off its seat, against the pressure of its spring, by a cam-operated

readily reversed. With refertnce to (3), it is obvious that a two-

instant ignition occurs; in true diesel engines the inlet is held open during an appreciable portion of the down stroke, and the continued supply of oil then causes the combustion to continue at approximately constant pressure until cut-off. In the impor-

fewer moving parts, and is thus

lever; the oil immediately enters the combustion chamber in a

simpler; and (3) that it is very finely pulverized condition in the form of a hollow cone, and

stroke cycle engine will work equally well in whichever direction it may be started; it is therefore only necessary to move the crankshaft operating the fuel inlet valve through a small angle in order to change the injection-period to that suitable for reverse running. Fuel: Fuel Injection: Fuel Consumption.—Although many

tant class of so-called “semi-diesel” engines (see Or. ENGINES), the fuel inlet valve is not cam-operated, but is forced open, against the pressure of its closing spring, by the pump delivery liquid and even some solid (pulverized) fuels, as coal dust, have pressure, and the whole charge of oil is suddenly sprayed into a been tried in diesel engines, practically the only fuels employed heated chamber, usually a prolongation or extension of the comare (1) crude and residual petroleum oils and (2) coal-tar oils bustion chamber; in such engines the combustion is practically obtained from the large-scale distillation of coal. Suitable instantaneous, with resulting rise of pressure considerably above petroleum oils have a specific gravity (water==1) of -85—95 at that of compression. The diesel, of all internal-combustion engines, is the most 60° F, a flash point of 150-250° F (by close test), and a lower heat value of 18,000-19,000 B.T.U. per pound. Oils having an economical in fuel consumption, and Table II. illustrates in a asphalt base are liable to gum-up the valves, and are thus less general way not only the high economy of the type but also the favoured. progress that has been made since its introduction; all the figures Coal-tar oils often show a flash point of 400° F or more, a given relate to single-acting four-stroke cycle inverted-vertical sp.gr. of 1-0-1-1 and a (lower) heat value of about 16,000 engines at full load, using petroleum oils as fuel: B.T.U. per lb. These oils require in general a very high temTABLE II.—F ued Consumption of Diesel Engines 1897-1927 perature to produce spontaneous ignition and this proved at first an obstacle to their employment in the diesel engine; the difficulty Leading dimensions of was completely removed by injecting through the fuel inlet valve engines into the cylinder a minute quantity of some more readily ignitable oi] (as gas oil), immediately before, or simultaneously with, the main charge of tar oil; by aid of this “pilot jet” combustion is initiated, and entirely satisfactory performance obtained.

The injection of the charge of fuel oil into the compressed and heated mass of air in the combustion chamber at and for a short period after the instant when the piston has reached the top of its stroke is effected through a spring-seated needle valve (the fuel inlet valve) located in the cylinder head, in one of two ways: (1) By a blast of air supplied from a special air reservoir at a pressure of up to 1,000 lb. per sq.in. Air blast injection has given, in general, a somewhat better distribution of the sprayed and “pulverized” fuel throughout the combustion chamber, with consequent improvement in fuel

great attention was devoted to the discovery of a means of dis-

pensing with the air-blast, and recent engines are provided in (2) “Airless” or “Solid” Injec-

'Lb. fuel of per'hour b.h.p.

Charing Cross

economy. It is thought that one of the principal contributions of air-blast injection is the turbulence thus introduced mto the combustion space. However, it involves the provision of bulky and costly air-compressing apparatus which absorbs in its op- | eration 6-7% of the whole power output of the engine. Accordingly

increasing numbers with:—

Actual brake horse |

Fig. 4.—DIAGRAM

SHOWING

tion —In this method the charge “S°t!®” FUEL INJECTION of fuel is forced through a cam-operated, or automatic, spring-

loaded fuel mjection valve into the cylinder by a small quickacting mechanically-operated pump at a pressure of 4,000-7,000

These figures show a steady increase in the brake thermal efficiency; the highest value included, viz., 35.5%, is that of a 6-cyl. 1,750 b.h.p. engine installed in 1927 at Charing Cross for the Charing Cross Electricity Supply Co., Ltd.; this was, at that date, the largest stationary oil engine built in Britain. An external view of this engine is given in fig. 5. With special types of dicsel even higher values are obtained; for example, tests conducted by the marine oil engine trials committee on a ScottStill diesel-steam engine of 1.250 b.h.p. showed a consumption of only -354 Ib. of fuel per b.h.p. hour corresponding to a brake thermal efficiency of 36-96%. According to H. R. Ricardo, “almost, if not quite, the highest thermal efficiency ever yet recorded on a diese! engine, namely 38.8% on the net shaft horsepower, was obtained by the Royal Aircraft Establishment on a high-speed diesel engine of 8 in. bore running at 1,000 revoluTase

III.

Type of engine

lb. per sq.in. The fuel consumption per indicated horse-powerNon-condensing steam engines hour is usually a little greater than with air-blast injection; on Condensing steam engines, and turbines using superthe other hand the elimination of the sir-blast apparatus inheated steam . l creases the mechanical efficiency of the engine, and in conseDitto, using steam pressureof 3 ih. s.in 2 quence the fuel consumption per er-hour with Suction gas engi nes . . . airless injection compares quite favourablywiththatwhen an Normal disi engia Scott-Still combined bined diesel and steam engine air biast is used.

Best brake thermal cff. r

Ho B-4

15:0 21 23 3S'S

36:9

DIESEL ENGINE

352

D çi, U

|

refi

wer

'

ell |Sons

|

i,

F

|

A

5

LA

fPesa

|

ae

|

[Tne

a

de

n pa

ee

À

II

MRcane ee eee

i

———

TF ie eT

! 4’ am aeA

E

Rafa

a

Cle ea

i

=

aw

a

>

9

a, —

AEE o a ip

)i

at

Cr

foES

—

a 6

Be

⸗

an

ee

|

—

a

|

|

——|a on ee TEE

OR

š

—

\;

i

ay

rm =r

Pry q —

tefs

we

Tg yee

E

oasesarttacereed Prat ee

i

flay a `

—

Pr EIA! SR (eR

—

E A *

et

Ia

a ae

ao

RT

im

—o

A

DEEEi a nai = |

x —

—

— ——— 3

A

o

Lii

he 2 ee

7Dp a

Ena

L

Ee: LAILAi

`

—

AN(> UA at

vai

MERS

is PA

Tt

J -= rmU E dy

a

h

— XX

—

mn — k

ß

| Í BY

COURTESY

OF

MEUSRS.

FRASER

AND

CHALMERS

ENGINEERING

Ih AL

onel

4LAEE En

‘|

|

WORKS

FiG. 5.—-EXTERNAL VIEW OF THE 17850 B.H.P. 6-CYLINDER DIESEL ENGINE, WHICH WAS, AT THE TIME OF ITS CHARING CROSS ELECTRICITY SUPPLY CO., IN 1927, THE LARGEST STATIONARY OIL ENGINE BUILT IN BRITAIN

tions per minute.” It is of interest to compare these figures with the best attained with other types of prime mover, and the figures on p. 351 (Table III.) include some given by A. B. Chalkley, Diesel Engines (6th ed., 1927). General.—A fundamental disadvantage of the four-stroke cycle engine, especially when of the predominating single-acting type (see fig. 1), is the infrequency of the working impulses, and

INSTALLATION

AT THE

problems of piston- and cylinder-cooling, and many experimental engines were built before success was finally attained. By the end of 1927, however, large double-acting diesel engines both of the four-stroke and two-stroke type were running regularly in commercial service; in all these the pistons are necessarily cooled by the continuous circulation through them of a current of water or oil. The piston rod terminates in an external crosshead—as

in the normal type of steam engine—by which the piston is entirely relieved of the side thrust of the connecting-rod, this thrust being taken by a well-lubricated and water-cooled crosshead guide. British engineers for long favoured the single-acting type of engine with uncooled pistons; with these the cylinder diameter is limited to a maximum of about 26 in. and is usually considerably less than this limit; with water- or oil-cooled pistons the diameter is independent of cooling considerations. Of land installations in 1926 the largest was a 15,000 b.hp. double-acting two-stroke diesel engine built for the Hamburg electricity works; this engine had nine cylinders, each 33-86 in. bore and 59-05 in. stroke, and ran normally at 94 revs. per minute.

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

WORTHINGTON

PUMP

& MACHINERY

CORP.

FIG. 6.—DIAGRAM OF A SINGLE-ACTING FOUR-CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE Only during one stroke in four does combustion and generation of power occur

a reasonable degree of uniformity of revolution speed can only be obtained in single-cylindered or few-cylindered engines by the provision of heavy fly-wheels. The drawback is minimized in practice by constructing engines having two, three, four, six, cight, and even more, cylinders arranged in line and acting upon a common crankshaft, but the one impulse per cylinder in every two crankshaft revolutions is still an objection, as such engines necessarily remain very bulky and costly in relation to their power output.

The two-stroke engine at once doubles the impulse frequency, but for,long the design of completely satisfactory engines of this type proved difficult, largely from the serious piston- and cylindercooling troubles encountered; these difficulties were in due course entirely overcome, and the attention of designers was next concentrated upon the problem of the production of double-acting engines, że., engines in which working impulses are caused to occur on each side of the piston; this problem was obviously of extreme importance in relation to marine applications on account of the great value of space and weight saved on a ship. The double-acting engine, however, raised again in an acute form the

` BY

COURTESY

BiG.

OF

THE

WORTHINGTON

7.—DIAGRAM

PUMP

@

MACHINERY

OF SINGLE-ACTING

CORP.

TWO-CYCLE

Power stroke ocours once per revolution, and for equal output Is double that of the single-acting four-oycle type

DIESEL

ENGINE

size cylinder

the

An idea of its size may be formed from the statement that it had an over-all length of 77 ft., width of 14 ft. and height of 334 ft. The fuel consumption (using gas oil of -875 sp.gr.) on trial was only 0-392 lb. per b.-h.p. hour at full load. Among large marine installations may be mentioned :— (1) The engines of the 23,900 ton, 19-knot, motor ship “Saturnia,” launched late in 1927; this vessel is propelled by two 10,000 horse-power eight-cylindered double-acting four-stroke super-

charged diesel engines of 33 in. bore and 59 in. stroke; and (2) The engines of the 32,650 ton, 19-knot, motor ship “Augus-

t i ï =z

E.

AS3LBNOD 30 i) (£

+ z >

30

VI

BNOBSA

INIHIVM OD'

7?!

* iw- $

HSOLWiSm BNOMATS dB8OD “ PF}

AYYNOILVLS WS3SI0

“SENVEBVS ISEOM @ "OF

‘“SANIDNSAYNOA

“¢ `p

SLNVId

YOIH, NO4

NYSGOW WO

SNIDSNS pozyesado Aq pezJeuu0d-y3e1!1p ja8e!iq @ui6ua Butausp s6emas dwnd ur peaisiunw Jutja

3HL OuNssaids0};BMm Gund sapuijAdjaseig auiBua

DNIMOHS SJSN4O

ENGINE

AB

DIESEL Puare H

Pe} I sijnespAy OOS “d-y sapusjAd-g .0UU0s-79071p jsssig 0} eu:Sus Gwnd “Zz XIS OOC ‘d'y sapuijAd>E yo Sdid Jui] u0:}8}S ul SsuiGua uB

DIESEL LOCQMOTIVE—DIE tus,” also built in 1927, and fitted with four double-acting two-

stroke diesels aggregating 25,000 b.h.p. The. report of Lioyd’s at the end of June 1927 showed that throughout the world at that date there were under construction 268 motor ships

aggregating 1,459,595 tons, and 30 steam ships aggregating

— tons; and that for the first time the motor tonnage under construction throughout the world exceeded that of steam.

SINKING

353

Sleeve Valve Ricardo succeeded in adapting the sleeve valve to diesel operation in England in 1926. Since that time considerable advance has been made in the utilization of this type of valve for high speed engines. The great advantage of its adoption consists in giving sufficient port opening to permit the transference of gases to the low pressure cylinder. Further, the internal shape of the combustion chamber permits the supercharging pressures to be utilized by its tangential inlet direction to secure

an extremely high state of turbulence, by a simple solid fuel injection nozzle. This achieves two important functions: (1) almost instantaneous co-mingling of the fuel and oxygen; (2) it allows the solid injection to reach a very much more increased amount of the oxygen present than ever before. The design lends itself, therefore, to high fuel efficiency and high speed ———

DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE: see Locomotive.

(E.

Sp.)

DIE SINKING, art of making tools, called dies, by means ofwhich metals and other materials are pressed or cut into various shapes by a hammer or an arrangement of levers. The die is usually cut from steel by a machine, but where extreme accuracy

is required, e.g., when engraving dies for coins, goldsmiths’ work and for some parts of machines,

OP THE WORTHINGTON PUMP @ MACHINERY CORP. Fig. 8.—DOUBLE-ACTING TWO-CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE, HAVING THE SAME WORKING SEQUENCE AS IN THE STEAM ENGINE--FOUR POWER ' STROKES FOR EACH FOUR STROKES OF THE ENGINE BY COURTESY

In this necessarily limited article only a general sketch can be ted. The diesel engine forms already a highly specialized branch of engineering calling for great knowledge and skill in designing and extreme accuracy and refinement in construction. An instructive series of articles on earlier developments will be found in the pages of The Engineer from April to Oct. 1913; development since then has been so phenomenally rapid that reference must mainly be made

to the many

technical papers dealing with the type:

The Engi-

hand work predominates.

Here

an exact copy of the design is traced on a thin coating of wax spread over the prepared smooth surface, and is then engraved on the metal by recessing or sink-

FIG. 1.—EVOLUTION OF COINING ing. The tools used are chisels ' : f bi Sia for stamping coins are not gravers and rifiers, which are

neer, Engineering, The Motor Ship, The Marine Engineer, Gas and Oil Power, etc. Of special treatises wholly devoted to the subject fiere AreDur E A the principal, in being that of A. B. —— Engines or Land oad Marine Work (of ed., 1927), which a soca clear and complete account is given. (G. A. "Bu )

small files with curved ends for negotiating curves and recessed portions. First the sinker recesses matrix to impress its pattern upon the master die by engraving, in

United States——American practice in diesels is tending distinctly towards supercharging. The practice at this date is super-

soft steel called the ub, which is then hardened to form the

charging which is measurable in ounces of super-atmospheric pressure. This has two very beneficial tendencies: (1) it contributes in an engine of a given size a larger combustion space, therefore smaller ratio of chilled walls; (2) more oxygen with its complement of fuel demand per stroke. The difficulty with supercharging is that the exhaust valve or exhaust passages open at somewhat higher temperatures and pressures. It is a logical sequence that, when supercharging rises to really considerable pressures, the corresponding increased pressures at the point of exhaust opening should be utilized by farther expansion in a cylinder provided for this purpose. One group of engineers in America has been pursuing this type of design for some time with results The increased temperatures and pressures which the exhaust valves are compelled to handlein case ofsupercharging engines entail difficultiesin connection with the heat erosion of the valve | seats. A complete remedy for this bas been found in com- Fie. 9.—INDICATOR CARD FOR pounding, where proper cushion- SUPERCHARGING ENGINE in the low pressure cylinder does away entirely with high velocity in gases passing through the exhaust port, which opens under conditions of equal pressure on both sides, the velocity being reduced to a value due to piston movement, and erosion is suppressed. Fig. 9gives aa typical card fromsuchanengine, the super-

charged induction pressure being indicated at A,, the compression ee expansion curve proper at BC, thefuelinjection at

in. the hig pressure cylinder being heram

Dl

actually out by hand, but are multipiled from a hardened matrix, which etruek from an engraved die, A number of heavy blows cause the

the soft working dle

intaglio, the design on a piece of

matrix. By means of the matrix, the design is expressed in relief

on a second piece of softened steel called the punch which in turn is hardened and held in the press to strike the softened face of the working die. Several operations are necessary to bring the impressions to a perfect state, the first blow being made on the die while in cone shape (see fig. 1). The blow changes the form to that in the second view. The working die must then be annealed, and its edge turned off a little smaller; a complete, perfectly clean impression is produced, the die appearing as in the third view.

Considerable quantities of metal must be removed in sinking

dies, and machine cutting, as far as possible, is essential to save

hand labour. Dies which have the Milling eutters eliminate hand cutting. The die is moved about under the shape cut through from top to cutters as required by slides oon- bottom, for press work, are FIG.

2.—THREE

WILLING

COTTERS

trolled with screws and hand wheels = roughed out on a metal jig-sawing

machine, and finished on a slotting machine or a filing machine, which passes a file up and down while the die is held on a table and moved about as required. Large dies are often cut out by means of the oxy-acetylene blowpipe. A die-sinking machine,

which is a milling machine, uses a variety of revolving cutters (see fig. 2). The difficulty ‘with half-dies, pairs of which make cylindrical or spherical shapes, is the cutting of the. half-round

recesses. A cherry cutter is utilized for these; instead of revolv-

in ingitis made to oscillatebytheaction of a curvedslideonthe at C” and that

ntpa

a

this motion (not required in other metal-working opera-

tions). —

a half-round recess as sketched. The principle of

354

DIES IRAE—DIET |

the copying lathe applied to the die-sinking machine, enables it to cut any intricate shapes from a pattern in sheet metal, or sunk in iron or brass, the milling cutters being guided by the movement of an arm controlled by the pattern. Pantograph engraving and die-sinking machines also work from a copy, and cut the dies to an enlarged or reduced scale. A celluloid or sheet metal copy can be used also for guidance when cutting lettering, the copy CHERRY CUTTER OBCILLATED IN A MACHINE

SHAPE SUNK BY THE CHERRY CUTTER

FIG. 3.——CHERRY CUTTER AND CROSS SECTION OF A DIE CUT THROUGH IN THE VERTICAL, DIRECTION. AS EACH END OF THE CONCAVITY IS CLOSED, THE CHERRY CUTTER IS NECESSARY TO MILL OUT THE CURVE

being either in one piece, or made up of the separate letters or figures clamped in a holder.

DIES IRAE (Lat., “day of wrath”), the opening words of a Latin hymn on the Last Judgment, ascribed to Thomas of Celano

(c. 1250) and forming part of the Office for the Dead and Requiem Mass; in music, the traditional plain-song melody to which the words are sung and settings in general of this portion of the Mass. Among famous examples of the latter may be mentioned those of Mozart, Cherubini, Berlioz and Verdi.

DIEST, a town in the province of Brabant, Belgium, on the Demer at its junction with the Bever. Pop. (1928) 6,000. The chief industry is brewing. DIESTERWEG, FRIEDRICH ADOLF WILHELM (1790-1866), German educationist, was born at Siegen on Oct. 29, 1790. Educated at Herborn and Tiibingen universities, he began teaching in 1811. In 1820 he was appointed director of the teachers’ seminary at Mors, where he put in practice the methods of Pestalozzi. In 1832 he became director of the new state-schools seminary in ‘Berlin. In 1846 he established the Pestalozzi institution at Pankow, and the Pestalozzi societies for the support of teachers’ widows and orphans. In 1858 he was elected to the chamber of deputies as member for Berlin, and voted with the Liberal opposition. He died in Berlin on July 7, 1866. Diesterweg wrote several text-books and educational works, including Wegweiscr f. deutsche Lehrer (1834), and in 1827 established Rheinische Blätter f. Erziehung u. Unterricht. See W. Kreitz, Diesterweg u. die Lehrerbildung (1890) Richter, Diesterweg nach seinem Leben und Wirken (1890).

and K.

DIET, a term used in two senses, (1) food or the regulation of feeding (see Der anb Dietetics), (2) an assembly or council. We are only concerned here with this second sense, and in particular with the diet of the Holy Roman empire and its relation to its successors in modern Germany. The origin of the diet, or deliberative assembly, of the Holy Roman empire must be sought in the placitum of the Frankish empire. This represented the tribal assembly of the Franks, meeting partly for a military review on the eve of the summer campaign, partly for deliberation on important matters of politics and justice. By the side of this larger assembly, however, which contained in theory, if not in practice, the whole body of Franks, available for war, there had developed, even before Carolingian times, a smaller body composed of the magnates of the empire, both lay and ecclesiastical. The germ of this smaller body is to be found in the episcopal synods, which, afforced by the attendance of lay magnates, came to be used by the king for the settlement of national affairs. It is from this assembly of magnates that the diet of mediaeval Germany springs. The general assembly became mpgningless and unnecesary, as the feudal array gradually supegaedsc the old levy en masse, in which each freeman had been ‘Sighs to service; and after the close of the roth

century it no longer existed.

. The imperial diet (reichstag) of the middle ages might times contain representatives of Italy; but it was practically always confined to the magnates of Germany. The regular members were the princes (Fürsten), both lay and ecclesiastical. In the 13th century the seven electors began to disengage themselves from the princes as a separate element: and the Golden Bull (1356) made their separation complete; from the 14th century onwards the nobles (both counts and other lords) attend along with the princes; and after 1250 the imperial and episcopal towns often appear through their representatives. By the 14th century, therefore, the originally homogeneous diet of princes is already, in practice, if not yet in legal form, divided into three colleges— the electors, the princes and ‘nobles, and the representatives of the towns (though as we shall see, the latter can hardly be reckoned as regular members until the century of the Reformation). The powers of the diet during the middle ages extended to matters such as legislation, the decision upon military expeditions (especially the expeditio Romana), taxation and changes in the constitution of the principalities or the empire. The election of the king which was originally regarded as one of the powers of the diet, had passed to the electors by the middle of the 13th century. A new era in the history of the diet begins with the Reformation. The division of the diet into three colleges was henceforth definite and precise. The representatives of the towns became regular members; but it was not until 1648 that they were recognized as equal to the other estates of the diet. The estate of the princes and counts, which stood midway between the electors and the towns, also attained, in the years that followed the Reformation, its final organization. The vote of the great princes ceased to be personal and began to be territorial: it was not the status of princely rank, but the possession of a principality which was henceforward a title to membership. The position of the counts and other lords, who joined with the princes in forming the middle estate, was also finally fixed by the middle of the 17th century. While each of the princes enjoyed an individual vote, the counts and other lords were arranged in groups, each of which voted as a whole, though the whole of its vote (Kurialstimme) only counted as equal to the vote of a single prince (Virilstimme). There were six of these groups; but as the votes of the whole college of princes and counts (at any rate in the 18th century) numbered 100, they could exercise but little weight. The last era in the history of the diet may be said to open with the treaty of Westphalia (1648). The treaty acknowledged that Germany was no longer a unitary State, but a loose confederation of sovereign princes; and the diet accordingly ceased to bear the character of a national assembly, and became a mere congress of envoys. The last diet which issued a regular “recess” (retchsabschted—the term applied to the acta of the diet, as formally compiled and enunciated at its dissolution) was that of Regensburg in 1654. The next diet, which met at Regensburg in 1663, never issued a recess, and was never dissolved; it continued in permanent session, as it were, till the dissolution of the empire in 1806. This result was achieved by the process of turning the diet from an assembly of principals mto a congress of envoys. The emperor was represented by two commissarii; the electors, princes and towns were similarly represented by their accredited agents. In practice the diet had nothing to do; and its members occupied themselves in “wrangling about chairs”—that is to say,

in unending disputes about rights of precedence.

In the Germanic Confederation, which occupies the interval

between the death of the Holy Roman empire and the formation of the North German Confederation (1815-66), a diet (Bundestag) existed, which was modelled on the old diet of the 18th

century. It was a standing congress of envoys at Frankfurt-onMain.

In the North German Confederation

(1867-70) a new

departure was made, which was followed in the constitution of the German empire after 1870. Two bodies were instituted—a bundesrat, which resembled the old diet in being a congress of envoys sent by the different States of the confederation, and a reichstag, which bore the name of the old diet, but differed en-

DIET: AND tirely in composition. The new reichstag was a popular representative assembly, based on wide suffrage and elected by ballot; and, above all, it was an.assembly representing, not the several States, but the whole empire, which was divided for this purpose into

electoral districts. Both as a popular assembly, and as an assembly which represents the whole of a united Germany, the reichstag of modern Germany goes back, one may almost say, beyond the diet even of the middle ages, to the days of the old Teutonic ‘folk-moot. See R. Schroder, Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte (1902), p. 149, 508, 820, 880. Schröder gives a ——— of monographs

g on the history of the mediaeval dict

(E. B.)

DIET and DIETETICS, that part of science which deals with food, its composition and its value to the animal economy in supplying the necessary material for life and work. Food may be defined as that which when taken into the body may be utilized for the formation and repair of body tissues and for the production of energy. When a living being is increasing in size, materials must obviously be supplied for the purpose, and the food must contain in some form the actual chemical constituents of the new tissues which are being laid down. Even in the adult the various parts of the body undergo wear and tear just as any machine does and this loss of substance must be replaced from the food. It is not necessary that all the chemical compounds which are found in the body shall be present in the food; but the necessary chemical elements and certain complex groupings must be provided from which the body can build up what it needs. Only a small part of the ingested food is made use of for purposes of growth or replacement; most of it is needed for the liberation of energy to perform muscular and glandular work, and partly for conversion into heat. The law of conversion of energy has been

found to apply to man and animals as well as to inanimate nature; the income and expenditure of energy in the body are equal. The energy value of foodstuffs is universally expressed in terms of heat units or calories (referred to in this article as C.). The calorie (C.) is the quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by 1° Centigrade. The total energy that can be obtained from food is determined by burning a known weight of foodstuff in oxygen and measuring the amount of heat produced by the combustion. Essential Constituents.—The essential constituents of a diet are proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, water and salts. Proteins are complex bodies containing the elements C, H, O, N, and sometimes P, S, and Fe. They are the only constituents of the

diet which contain nitrogen in a form which may be used for purposes of body building or of repair. The albumen of egg white, Vitellin of egg yolk, myosin of meat, casein of milk and glutein of flour are examples. Meat extract, soups and beef tea have practically no energy value though they probably improve the appetite and increase the flow of the digestive juices. Fats are compounds of glycerin with acids containing a large number of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms and afford much energy when burnt.

Butter, lard, suet, olive oil are examples of

nearly pure fats, but fat is a constituent of most natural foodstuffs in varying quantity. Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the two latter elements being present in the same proportions as they are in water. They are met in a variety of forms—starch, a prominent constituent of wheat and other cereals and potatoes; sugar, of which several kinds are distinguished; e.g., cane sugar of sugar cane and beetroot, milk sugar or lactose of milk, glucose and fructose in fruits and honey.

These three kinds of foodstuffs yield energy on being oxidized inthe body, so that in a diet they may be replaced one by the other to a considerable extent. But we shall see that certain minimal amounts of the individual foodstuffs are essential if health and growth are to be maintained. The accepted values for the energy liberated by 1gm. of each of the foodstuffs when burnt in the bedy are as follows:—Protein 4.1 C.; carbohydrate 4-1 C.; fat 9.3 C. If protein is completely combusted outside the body it yields 5-6 C. per1 gm. The destruction of protein in the body is,

DIETETICS

355

however, not so complete, as a certain number of products are excreted in the urine which are capable of still further oxidation and liberation of energy.

ENERGY REQUIREMENTS Basal Metabolism.—For a first calculation it is desirable to determine the total food requirements in terms of calorie value, for we have to provide sufficient energy to meet individual needs. Living matter is continually undergoing chemical changes and as a result of these activities energy is being liberated. This process is taking place on a considerable scale even when the body is under conditions of complete physical and mental rest. The amount of energy evolved is found to be correlated most closely with the surface area and less closely with the body weight. It is found desirable for comparative purposes to determine the energy output first under so-called basal conditions—namely at complete bodily rest after the digestion and absorption of the last

meal has been completed. In adult males the energy liberated under such conditions (basal metabolism) is 40 C. per sq. metre of

body surface per hour or less accurately 1 C. per kg. body weight per hour. The surface area can be calculated from du Bois’ formula S=-007184 X Wo-425 XHo-725, where S is the surface in sq. metre, W the weight in kilograms and H the height in centimetres.

In females the metabolic processes are slightly less active and only amount to 37 C. per sq. metre per hour. Mean

Heights, Weights and Surface Area Men.

American and Canadian

insured persons 1912 . . British Associution (1883) for England (ages 20BOs

Gs

we

Ce.

OR

Height.

o We ight.

Surface arca.

g Rg” (174 cm.)

155 lb. (703 kilo)

1:792 xchj. metres

g pa” (171 cm.)

155 Ib. 1'772 (70°3 kilo) | sq. metres

Women

Height. —

American und persons 1912

Canadiun

Weight. —

——

Pigs tal £ ‘

(103:8 cm.)

wee

—

—

et a

| Surface area. —

134 lb. (60:8 kilo)

——

—

—

—

—

1'605

sq. metres

British Association (1883)

for England (ages 20-50)

5’ 27"

122°8 Ih.

1511

(159°3 cm.)

(55:7 kilo)

bY. Metres

The weights quoted are with the clothes on; 10 lb. has been subtracted from them before compiling the surface arca to allow for the weight of the clothes. The English figures are old, but have recently been confirmed for nearly 5,000 working women. An English adult with a surface area of 1-772 sq. metre would have a basal metabolism of 1-772X

40 C. per hr. or 1701 C. per 24 hours. The basal metabolism diminishes slightly as age advances, so that the resting energy requirements of the old are less than those of young adults. This large resting energy output is devoted to a small extent to maintain the activity of the vital organs—to enable the heart, the brain, the respiratory muscles and the essential glands to continue their functions; but in the main the energy is converted into heat and used to maintain the normal temperature of the body. The basal metabolism is altered by changes of external temperature. On exposure to cold, metabolism is stimulated, chiefly by increased muscular activity; on exposure to heat, it 1s somewhat

surprising to find that there is little depression of the metabolism. Immediate compensation is established by sweating and flushing the skin with blood. In the tropics, however, it has been shown by de Almeida that the metabolic rate is about 25% lower than it is in the temperate zone, and food requirements would be correspondingly diminished. A rise of 1° F. in body temperature causes an increase of 7% in the metabolism, so that a patient with a temperature of 105° F. would have a metabolic rate which is 50% above normal.

356

DIET: AND

Prolonged under-nutrition results in a great lowering of the

resting metabolism and this may be regarded as a protective reaction on the part of the tissues to the unfavourable environment. The ingestion of food results in an increase in metabolism; this is mainly due to the stimulating action exerted by the products of digestion on the tissue cells. This effect varies with the kind of food consumed, and is more marked with protein than with fats or carbohydrates. This property of protein is referred to as its “specific dynamic action” and is due to the action of the aminoacids of which it is composed, more especially glycine and alanine. It is difficult to see what advantage is conferred on the body by the specific dynamic action of protein; it gives rise to a wasteful expenditure of energy quite independently of the needs of the body. The effect of an ordinary mixed diet is to increase the daily metabolism by about 10%. Finally energy is needed for the carrying out of physical work. It is difficult to compute the energy expended during ordinary It must be remembered that the mechanical efficiency of the body is about 25%; by this is meant that only 25% of the energy freed as a result of the chemical transformation in the muscles is converted into work and the remaining 75% is dissipated as beat. Consequently if the energy value of the work done is expressed in heat units, this figure must be multiplied by four to obtain the amount of energy liberated in the body during the process. An example may help to make this clearer. It is usual to assume that the average amount of work done daily may be represented by eight hours’ continuous moderate work. It has been shown by Waller that a young man may perform in eight hours without fatigue about 100,000 kilogram-metres of work in raising his body by going up a staircase. This is equivalent to 240 C. when expressed in heat units. The total energy liberated during the process is 2404=960 C. An increase of about 20% in the metabolism is produced by moving about a room, carrying out the small activities of daily life and being exposed to fluctuations in the ecxternal temperature. Average Calorie Requirements.—We can now calculate the daily calorie requirements of an average man in whom the basal metabolism is 71-1 C. per hour. It is convenient to divide the day into three eight-hour periods:

DIETETICS 3,300 C. and this represents a fair average allowance for each adult male of the population. The energy requirements of working women can be similarly calculated and found to be about 2,200 C. A net allowance of 2,400 C. would be ample and leave an adequate surplus for household duties. The calorie value of the food as purchased should be 2,650 C. The food requirements of a purely sedentary worker should not exceed 2,100 C.

Calorie Needs of Children—The energy needs of children are extremely difficult to compute. The basal metabolism in children per square metre of body surface per hour is considerably higher than in adults; e.g. age 6, 57-5 C.; age 12-6, 50-4 C.; age 13°7, 49-4 C.; age 16-5, 43-0 C.$ age 10-25, 40-7 C. (du Bois). Greenwood has calculated from the scanty data available the basal requirements in calories of boys and girls.

Age

5

6

7

8

9

Boys Girls Age Boys

1026 1008 10 1328

1100 1057 11 1358

1159 1110 12 1389

1197 1163 13 1430

1262 1201 14 1499

Girls

1266

1331

1399

1476

1539

body movements and in the various avocations.

Eight hours’ sleep, eight hours’ rest and eight hours’ work Calories cight hours asleep at 71-1 (Basal metabolism) . 568.8 cight hours awake at 92-4 (basal+30% i.¢.+

10% for action of food and 20% activities) 2. 2, eight hours’ work (basal+-960 C.) Total ©... Add for locomotion and travelling

for minor . 9392 - 1528-8 . 2,836:8 300

The fact that growth is occurring implies that excess of energy must be taken over and above that required to furnish the energy output of the body. Between the ages of 11 and 16 both sexes put on weight at the average rate of about 4 kilos a year. This is equivalent to only 30 C. per day; but the growing body is formed at the expense of many different varieties of food which have to undergo chemical conversions of different kinds before they can take their place as part of the living body, so that probably the amount of energy which must be provided in the food to produce the necessary increase in weight is considerably in excess of 30 C. It is very difficult to compute the energy output due to muscular activity in children. Lusk gives the following table to show the food requirements of children in relation to that of an average Man or woman: Age.

Average man Average woman ob

100

(both sexes)

b-10

( ,,

wee

"

14-20 (boys)

14-20 (girls).

Sedentary:

less than 400 C. in excess of resting requirements.

Light work: 400 to 700 C. in excess of resting requirements. Moderate work: 700-1,100 C. in excess of resting requirements.

—

Utilizable calories. 3,000 2,500 1,500 1,800 2,500

3,000

.

2,500

Average and Total “Man Value.”—By using these coefficients we can determine the “average and total man value” of a mixed population.

Population.

3,136-8 (Starling) In the above-given estimate an allowance had been made for the energy expended in travelling between home and place of occupation. The Food (War) Committee of the Royal Society suggested that the various occupations should be classified as follows as far as the energy requirements for the work are covered:—

Coefficients.

o0

.

6-10 . 10-14

Males 14 and upward Females 14 and upward .

5,772,153 3,708,513 3,548,403 15,436,633

Total “Man 2,886,076 2,595,959

2,945,174

15,436,633

16,807,929

_13:950,581

45,273,631

37,814,423

Ser ee oe aeenemas

The table quoted from Starling shows the calculation made for 1911 population of the United Kingdom. Allowing 3.300 C. per Heavy work: 1,100-2,000 C. in excess of resting requirements. man per day, the total requirements of the whole population Among the sedentary pursuits must be included all classes of would amount to approximately 45-5 billion calories. It is interestbrain worker. Even the most intense mental activity causes no ing to note that the average annual requirements per head are appreciable increase in the metabolism. In a country like Great 1,200,000 C. A computation has been made of the calorie value Britain determinations of the total energy expended by different of the food available for consumption in the United Kingdom classes of workers have shown that the average is about 3,000 C. during the years 1909-13. It amounted to just over 47 billion per diem. A distinction must be drawn between the energy value calories, which gave a daily ration of 3.410 C. per “average man.” of the digested food and of the food as purchased. A small per- In France, according to official statistics, the average consumption centage of the food escapes digestion and absorption and is elim- per man per day before the war was 3,800 C.; in 1916-17, 3,300 inated in the fæces; this is more marked on a vegetable than on C.; in 1917~18, 2,900 C. Some small addition must be added to an animal diet. It is usual to deduct 10% from the theoretical these figures for the calorie value of cottage and garden production calorie value of the mixed diet to allow for this loss. Thus if which cannot be determined accurately. The average energy 3,000 C. are needed by the.-body, the daily. ration should contain sumption per head for all countries is 3,400 C. .

DIET AND World's Calorie Requirements.—Holmes has presented data to show the amount of energy contributed annually to the world's requirements by the more important food materials. Expressed

DIETETICS

357

The proportions of protein, carbohydrates and fat in a normal diet have been given somewhat differently by different authorities.

in trillion calories the figures are:—Rice goo, wheat 382. sugar

209, rye 164, barley 119, potatoes 99, meat 62. The figures show clearly how dependent mankind is on cereals for the major part of its energy needs. The consumption of meat is concentrated in relatively few countries. No data are available for China, India or Japan where the amount used is known to be small. The highest figures are those of the meat raising countries, Australia, Argentine and the U.S.A. where the number of Ib. of meat and meat products consumed per head annually are 262-6, 140 and 171 lb. respectively. In Great Britain the figure is 119 lb. and in Portugal only 44 Ib.

Protein Fat

145 &.

100 g: 500 3:575

Carbohydrate Calories

(1) Royal Society Food —

Committee;

(2) and (3) from

Voit. Protein.—As has been pointed out previously, protein is an essential constituent of the diet because it is the only class of

If the diet of many nations is surveyed, it is found that meat, foodstuff containing Nitrogen (and Sulphur) in a form which can including fish, poultry and eggs, supplies 20% of the calories and be assimilated by the tissue cells and used for the replacement about the same percentage of the protein; milk and its products | of the nitrogen lost as a result of the normal cell activities. 13-17% of the calories and 14~25% of the protein; cereals Anywhere in the world except among the destitute, the protein 35-40% of both calories and protein. The greatest variation is | consumption does not fall helow 1 g. per kilo. per diem, or 70 g. found in the nature of the cereal used. In Great Britain and for a man of average weight; in N. Europe and the U.S.A. the France it is almost exclusively wheat; in U.S.A. maize is not figure is more like 1-3 g. to 1-5 g. per kilo. or about 100 g. per unimportant; in Germany especially among the rural population, man. 8-5% of the total calories needed are obtained from protein rye is used almost exclusively. The part played by sugar is in the Orient and among the poorer classes of mankind; 18 to greatest in Great Britain and the U.S.A. but is considerable in 19% in Swedish and Finnish diets; 44%, among the Esquimaux; all countries. Potatoes usually furnish ro-12% of the total the average for normal diets is 12—15%, and only exceeds 18% energy needs and a somewhat smaller part of the protein. in exceptional circumstances. The amount of protein consumed varies directly with the wealth and social position of the indiCOMPOSITION OF COMMON FOODSTUFFS vidual; it is not increased in the case of men doing hard work. The composition of the common foodstuffs must now be sur- Thus the lumber men of Maine or Sweden who consume 8,000veyed. 9,000 calories daily, obtain only 10-5% of their calories from proTable of composition and calorie value of more important tein and about 58% from fat. foodstuffs adopted by the Inter-Allied Scientific Food Commission. The minimum protein requirements are probably 30 to 4o g. (The carbohydrate content is not quoted but is taken into account per day, provided that the protein is of the proper constitution. in calculating the energy values.) On such a ration, if enough carbohydrate and fat is consumed to provide the full energy requirements of the individual nitrogenous — Fat %. Protein %. Commodity. balance may be maintained, the amount of nitrogen lost (chiefly in the urine), being no greater than the amount ingested. But Cereals with certain kinds of protein it is impossible to obtain nitrogen 3,640 ro TI'S four veno and Wheat — balance no matter how much is consumed. Some of the amino8:6 16-0 Oatmeal. — Ji Tors acids present in protein are essential for the proper functioning Barley meal. of the body, presumably because they cannot be synthesized and 3.540 0-3 8-0 ii Dee so must be provided in the food and serve for the formation of Meat aie 22'5 essential secretions or enzymes. These amino-acids are trypto14°S Beef, prewar. 4,490 18o 15°0 phane, tyrosine, lysine, cystine and histidine. Without tryptoBeef, wartime 1,230 6-3 16'0 . Veal phane or histidine body weight cannot be maintained; without lysine growth cannot occur. Adequate amounts of cystine are 24-30 13°5 — ,340 Goio | 2,790-3 ee 9'5 Bacon essential if a normal rate of growth is to occur. Proteins which 3,750 340 14°5 1,500 Ham 9°5 are deficient in any of these amino-acids are of inferior biological 1500 Poultry and game value and cannot in themselves produce healthy development. 850 4:0 11°6 Herrings Ghadin of wheat contains no lysine; sein of maize is deficient in 500 L'O 10:0 sh Fresh tryptophane and lysine; gelatin contains no tryptophane or tyroae produce sine; casein is deficient in cystine but together with the lactalbu1,400 9'5 12-0 Pegs at 2 oz. men of milk forms a satisfactory source of protein. Proteins 700 3'7 3°3 which contain all the essential amino-acids are ovalbumen (egg), 7,950 85-0 1-0 ; ; Butter 4,000 30:0 glutein (wheat), glutelin (maize), excelsin (brazil nut), lactal25-0 Cheese bumen (milk). 7,800 83-5 1.2 "Boo Margar 94°0 22 Lard ine. Experiments have been carried out by Chittenden, Hindhede and others, in which nitrogenous equilibrium, unimpaired health, 500 o4 and mental and physical vigour have been maintained for months av. o7 Nuts or years on diets which contained no more than 30 to 50 g. protein 700 gi 1-8 Potatoes. daily. But the proteins were specially selected and were of high 1,000 os 70 Shelledpaasaand beans 3,600 13 biological value. To provide a margin of safety when consuming 14°3 Dried peas a mixed diet, a minimum of 80 g. should be aimed at and this 4,100 * — Refined sugar tallies better with the general experience of mankind. Bayliss 4,800 34°0 150 d Cocoa. said “Take care of the calories and the proteins will take care of 9,300 100°0 Olive oil themselves” because if dietaries are studied it is found that if the The percentage carbokydrate content of the different classes calorie value of a mixed diet is adequate it will probably contain of food are: cereals 66-75; meat and poultry, eggs, fish, butter, 100 g. of protein or even more. olive oil, nothing or a trace; milk 5; cheese 24; peas and beans Vegetable proteins as a class are rather less effective as body builders, but there are marked exceptions; the proteins of potato 60; potatoes 14-18; fruits 4-14; starch 90; sugar 100. |

The percentage composition of bread is: protein 9-0, fat 1-5, being one of the most efficient. The mixed proteins of wheat or maize as found in flour or meal will maintain nitrogenous equilibcarbohydrate 53, calories 1,200 per 1 lb.

358

DIET AND

rium at a fairly low level, particularly if whole grain is used and if it be supplemented by small: quantities of other proteins such as those of milk. Fat.—The amount of fat consumed varies with the country, economic status, occupation and the time. The maximum fat content of the native diets in Japan is about 30 g. per day, which

is (except during the war period) the European minimum. The amount of fat eaten increases steadily with the income. The Inter-Allied Food Commission adopted 57 g. daily as the minimum fat ration, during the war.

Experiments of short duration have

been carried out (Hindhede) in which health and weight were maintained on diets of high total calorie value with as little as 10-9, 13-8 and 13-9 g. of fat daily. Although the body can adapt itself to partial or even complete deprivation of fat for short periods (probably preparing the necessary fat from the carbohydrate of the food) deleterious effects will become apparent after months or years. The significance of fat in the diet depends on several factors. It is highly assimilable and is almost entirely absorbed from the alimentary canal. But its absorption is a gradual process, not reaching its maximum till five or six hours after a meal. Man is unaccustomed to work with the alimentary canal entirely at rest, and when the digestion of the last meal is finished, hunger recurs and affects the efficiency of the work. The bulk of the food becomes of importance when the total energy requirements of the body are very large. Weight for weight fat has double the calorie value of starch or sugar. Fat, in

addition, is taken without admixture in a pure form, whereas the other foods are all mixed with a considerable proportion of water; when starch is cooked it is swollen up with five to ten times its volume of water. As has been pointed out, the Swedish and American lumbermen and the Welsh miners obtain a large part of their

huge calorie intake from fat. Carbohydrates are more subject to fermentative changes in the intestine with the production of gases and general discomfort. A study of dietaries shows that a normal diet of 3,000 C. should contain 75 g. fat (698 C.); the proportion of fat in the diet may be increased to 35% of the total calories where there is abundance of animal food; the fat ration should always be high if there is a large increase in the energy expenditure of the body, either in the form of work or in consequence of exposure to cold (Starling). As is shown below, the animal fats are the most important sources of some of the vitamins; #.e., A, D and E. The vegetable fats are an equally effective source of energy, but are deficient in vitamins. It is advisable from the point of view of the health of the community that margarine should not be made exclusively

DIETETICS especially in seeds and eggs. In the pulses it is found throughout the seed; in the cereals it is only found in the germ and, the bran. It is present in yeast. It is absent from white flour and is apparently present in inadequate amounts in white bread, in spite of the yeast which is added previous to baking. Wholemeal bread is an important source of the vitamin. This vitamin probably exerts a specific stimulating action on the functions of the digestive tract, increases the movements of the bowel and aids effective digestion and absorption of the food. Vitamin C (antiscorbutic vitamin) is found in fresh foodstuffs: fruit juices; e.g., lemon, orange; vegetables; e.g., raw cabbage leaves, raw juice of swedes, and to some extent in potato.

It is

present in small amounts in fresh milk, and it is formed during the process of germination of seeds. This vitamin is rapidly destroyed by heating at 100° C. (especially in an alkaline medium) and by drying. It is absent from dried, canned or preserved foods. The absence of the vitamin results in a condition called scurvy which is characterized by haemorrhages from different parts of the body. Vitamin D (anti-rachitic vitamin) has a very similar distribution in nature to Vitamin A. It can be synthesized from a complex lipoid, ergosterol, by means of ultra-violet rays. It is present in cod-liver oil, beef suet, lard and to a less extent in vegetable fats. It is believed to promote the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the bowel and thus ensure sufficient concentrations of these substances in the blood to ensure normal development of the skeleton. Vitamin E is a recently described accessory factor which is necessary for fertility in both sexes. It is present in whole wheat, wheat germ, lettuce, rolled oats and milk fat. It is clear from this brief survey of the distribution and properties of the vitamins that animal fats, eggs, milk, fresh fruit and vegetables and whole cereals should be present in adequate amounts in the dietary to ensure normal growth, health and reproductory vigour.

WATER, SALTS, COOKING, ETC.

Water and Mineral Salts.—IW'ater does not ‘afford energy since it is already completely “burnt” or oxidized. It may be looked on, however, as a kind of food as it is necessary for the proper working of the animal machine; it can be compared to some extent to the lubricating oi] used for the moving parts of the petrol motor. Water is continually being lost in the urine and lungs and sweat and faeces and it must be replaced. The méneral constituents of the human body amount to 4-:3-4:4%. The only from vegetable oils, but should have added to it animal fats salt commonly consumed as such js table salt or sodium chloride (not lard) or milk fats. (NaCl). The various salts needed by the body are present in Carbohydrates furnish more than 50% of the energy content small amounts in food, particularly in milk and in vegetables. of most diets, and are a cheap and readily obtained food. If 1-2 g. of NaCl are needed daily, and while custom varies congreatly reduced in amount, the fats are incompletely oxidized and siderably, the average intake is probably nearer 8-10 g. Possibly give rise to poisonous bodies such as 8-hydroxy-butyric acid and habit has resulted in the use of much more NaCl in the human aceto-acetic acid. As both carbohydrate and fat serve chiefly as dietary than is physiologically necessary. 0-9-1 g. of calcium is sources of energy, they can replace one another to a considerable needed daily (Sherman), and the minimum necessary for the extent, so long as precautions are taken to ensure the minimum maintenance of a calcium balance is 0-63 g. calcium per 70 kg. amounts of fat specified above. of body weight. Of the American diets investigated by Sherman Vitamins.—The vitamins (g.v.) or accessory food factors are 15% were found to be deficient in calcium. A sufficient calcium a group of substances of unknown chemical composition present supply is very important, especially in children because calcium in the food which are essential for adequate growth and for the phosphate is the chief constituent of bone and is best obtained by muintenance of health. Five such bodies have been described— the ingestion of liberal quantities of milk. Of phosphate 0-88 g. vitamins A, B, C, D and E. is the minimum needed per 70 kg. body weight, but there is no risk Vitamin A (fat soluble A) is found associated with certain of phosphorus shortage in diets yielding 3,000 C. daily unless animal fats; e.g., butter, cream, beef-fat, cod liver oil, eggs and the large amounts of degerminated patent flour are consumed as embryo of seeds; and green vegetables. It is absent from root the principal cereal. vegetables and from vegetable fats; e.g., linseed oil, olive oil. It Iron is an essential constituent of the food since it is its presis not found to any extent in lard. It is therefore absent in purely ence in the haemoglobin of the red corpuscles which endows the vegetable margarine. It is a fairly stable substance and can resist blood with the power of transporting oxygen from the lungs to the ordinary processes of cooking. It is essential for growth in the tissues. The daily intake of iron should be not less than 12 young animals and promotes the resistance of the various mucous mgm. daily, a figure which should be increased in pregnancy and membranes, as of the intestinal or respiratory tract or the eye, in lactation. It must be mentioned that milk is very deficient in against infection. In its absence disorders like broncho-pneumo- iron, and that this substance is principally obtained from animal nia, enteritis and inflammation of the eyes are common. food and the chlorophyll of green vegetables. It has been shown

Vitamin B (water solui B) is i found in most natural foodstuffs,

in animal experiments that iron deficiency leads to impoverish-

DIETARY—DIETRICH OF BERNE ment of the blood and stunting of growth. A similar anaemia develops in infants at the 6th month if they have been fed exclusively on milk, but rapid recovery is noted when a mixed diet is commenced. It is now advised that infants shall be given small amounts of soups prepared from marrow bones and mixed vegetables from the 3rd month onwards, partly to prevent this anaemia. Iodine in minute traces is essential for the preparation of thyroxin which is the name given to the active principle of the secretion of the thyroid gland. In districts in which the iodine supplies in the drinking water are insufficient simple goitre frequently develops. This may be prevented or the condition may be cured by the use of iodized table salt, or by the deliberate addition of iodine to the water supply (see Gorrre). Vegetarian Diet—The real objection to the free use of meat (see VEGETARIANISM) is that though animals are partly fed on materials not required for human consumption (cow, sheep), they are to some extent grain fed (pig, fowl), or live on products that are grown on land which might otherwise be used for vegetables, grain or fruit. To this extent animals compete with man for utilizable foods. The cow, pig and fowl consume 12-14 lb. dry fodder for each 1 lb. of dry human food produced (as meat, eggs, etc.); the sheep 24 lb. and the ox 64 lb. (Wood). Prime beef is thus the most extravagant of all forms of animal food as regards the quantity of vegetable food required to produce it.

Messing] and 40/WO/9071

359

[Manual of Military Cooking and

Dietary]) the diet provided contains Protein 136 g., Fats 138 g., Carbohydrates 442 g. The daily scale of rations is:—Meat, fresh or frozen 12 oz. (or preserved meat

g oz.); bread

16 oz. (or biscuits 12 oz.);

bacon 2 oz.; sugar 14 oz.; tea § 0z.; suet 4 0z.; cheese x oz.; jam or syrup 14 oz.; margarine 1 oz. Messing cash allowance of

34 d. per day.

BIBLioGRAPHY.—Schaefer, Text Book of Physiology, vol. 1, p. 868 (1898); Chittenden, Nutrition of Man (1907)*; Hindhede, Protein

and Nutrition (1913)*; Royal Society Committee, Food Supply of United Kingdom (1917); Lusk, Science of Nutrition (1919)*; Starling, Feeding of Nations (1919)*; Benedict, Metabolism and growth from birth to puberty, Carnegie Instit. Publications No. 302 (1921)*; Greenwald, “Normal Diet” in Barker's Endocrinology and Metubolism (1922)*; various authors, “Dietary constituents and their derivatives” Ibid. pp. 81-356"; Kellogg, New Dietetics (1923)*. (Those marked *

have bibliographies.) Sherman, Chemistry

of Food and Nutrilion and

Food Products; McCollum, Newer Knowledge of Nutrition; MclLester, Nutrition and Diet in Health and Disease; Foundations of AN Feeding the Family. S. Wr.)

DIETARY: see Dret anv Dietetics. DIETERICI, FRIEDRICH (1821-1903), German orientalist, and a pioneer in mediaeval Arabic studies, was born on July 6, 1821, in Berlin, where he died on Aug. 18, 1903. He travelled in Egypt and the Near East from 1847-49 and on his return

Because of these facts, meat is dear, and if too large a propor-

became professor at Berlin. His writings did much to stimulate

tion of the income is expended on meat there is not enough left for milk and vegetables which are indispensable constituents of the diet. The great disadvantage of a purely vegetarian diet is its bulk. This objection does not apply to a lacto-vegetarian diet which permits the free use of milk and eggs; in fact such a dict has much to commend it (Greenwald). It need not be bulky. The “milk and eggs furnish protein of exceptionally good quality to compensate for possible deficiencies in those supplied by other articles of the diet, and they contain much phosphorus and calcium, the latter of which is apt to be present in inadequate amounts if milk is not included in the diet and they furnish a considerable, if seasonally-varying quantity of some of the vitamins. Moreover the cow and hen return in the form of milk and eggs much more of the energy they receive than they do if kept for their meat (Armsby). Cooking.—The great value of cooking lies in making dishes attractive to the palate and other senses and thus ensuring an adequate intake of food; it improves the digestibility of certain classes of food partly by splitting the envelopes of the starchy granules and also by destroying certain substances which prevent the action of the digestive enzymes. It kills micro-organisms and

an appreciation of the speculations of the mediaeval Arabs; they include Alfijgah, carmen grammaticum auctore Ibn Mâlik (1851); Mutanabbii carmina cum commentario Wåâhidii (1858); Die Philosophie der Araber im o u. 10 Jhr. n. Chr. (1876—05); Die sogenannte Theologie des Aristoteles (trans. from Arabic, 1883); Der Streit zwischen Mensch u. Thier .. . aus den Schriften der lauteren Brüder übersetzt (1858); Alfarabis philosophische Abhandlungen (Arabic ed. 1892); Der Musterstaat von Alfarabi (trans. from Arabic, 1900); Christomathie Ottomane (1854) and an oriental novel, Mirjam (1886).

other parasites.

It has a destructive

action, however,

on some

of the vitamins, but this is of considerable extent only in the case of the antiscorbutic factor, and it can be readily compensated for by taking fresh fruit or vegetables. When the diet is controlled by authority the essential points to be borne in mind are :—the provision of the necessary calories, which will almost certainly ensure adequate amounts of protein; the maintenance of a minimum fat supply; plentiful supplies of milk and milk products especially for children and of fresh vegetable food. Army and Navy Food Scales.—To illustrate how the practical problems of dietetics are treated, a brief reference will be made to the procedure ip the navy and army. In the British navy (see Appendix XIX. King’s Regulations and Admiralty Instructions) the daily standard ration, service afloat, is 10 oz. bread, 4 Ib. fresh meat, 1 Ib. fresh vegetables or 4 oz. haricot beans or marrow fat beans when fresh vegetables are not available, 4 pint spirit, 2 oz. sugar, 4 oz. tea, 4 0z. chocolate (or 1 oz. coffee), # oz. condensed milk, 1 oz. jam, marma-

lade or pickles, 4 oz. corned beef on one day of the week in har-

bour or on two days at sea, mustard, pepper, vinegar and salt as required. This ration is supplemented by money allowances, out of which the men purchase at their discretion the extra foodstuffs necessary to complete their messing In the army (see 40/WO0/8263 [Management of Soldiers

DIETHER VON ISENBURG (1412-1463), second son of Count Diether of Isenburg-Biidingen, was rector of the University of Erfurt in 1434 and became archbishop of Mainz in 1450. He led the movement for the reform of the empire, and the opposition to the papal encroachments, supporting the theory of Church government enunciated at the Councils of Basel and Constance and condemned in Pius IJ.’s bull, Execrabilis.

(See Papacy.)

DIETRICH, CHRISTIAN WILHELM ERNST (17121774), German painter and engraver, was born at Weimar on Oct. 31, 1712, and died at Dresden on April 24, 1774. He was taught by his father, Johann George, painter of miniatures to the court and was then sent to Dresden to work under Alexander Thiele, the landscape painter. Augustus IJ., king of Saxony, sent him to Italy and the Netherlands where he learnt to imitate the masters of the previous century with amazing fidelity. At Dresden there are pictures acknowledged to be his, bearing the fictitious dates of 1636 and 1638 and the name of Rembrandt. His “Itinerant Musicians,” in the manner of Ostade, is in the National Gallery, Lon-

don. In 1741 he was appointed court painter to Augustus IIT. at Dresden, with an annual salary conditional on the production of four pictures a year and there are §2 of his canvases and panels in one room at the Dresden Museum. A collection of his engravings at the British Museum, produced on the lines of earlier men, such as Ostade and Rembrandt, reveal both spirit and skill. Dietrich, after his return from Italy gencrally signed himself “Dietericij.” He was director of painting at the Meissen porcelain factory and professor of the Dresden academy of arts.

DIETRICH OF BERNE, name given in popular story to Theodoric the Great. The legend differs so widely from the true history that even in mediaeval times some doubted the connection, and noted the staring anachronisms. But the identity seems to be proved by the names Dietrich (Theodoric), Dietmar (Theudemir), Berne (Verona), Raben (Ravenna); and there is some resemblance in character between Theodoric and Dietrich.

The South-German cycle of Dietrich-songs is partially preserved in the Heldenbuch (q.v.), Dietrichs Flucht, the Rabenschlacht, and Alpkarts Tod; but is was reserved for a 13th century Ice-

DIEZ—DIFFERENTIAL

360 `

lander to compile a consecutive account.

This prose redaction

(Vilkina or Thidreks Saga) incorporates. much matter from the

Nibelungen and Wayland legends; in fact practically the whole South-German epos.

There are traces of a form of the story in which the hero started out from Byzantium for the conquest of Italy. But this was very early superseded by the existing legend, in which, perhaps by epic fusion with his father Theudemir, he was associated first with Attila and then with Ermanaric, by whom he was

driven from his kingdom of Berne. After years of exile at Attila’s court he returned with a Hunnish army and defeated Ermanaric in the Rabenschlacht (battle of Ravenna). Attila’s two sons fell in the fight, and Dietrich returned to Attila to answer for their death: this seems to suggest that originally the Rabenschlacht

was a defeat.

In Ermenrichs Tod he slays Ermanaric, as in fact

Theodoric slew Odoacer; and in the Hildebrandslied “Otacher” takes the place of Ermanaric. Dietrich’s long stay with Attila represents Theodoric’s youth spent at the Byzantine court; the

period of exile was as usual adorned with marvellous exploits, most of which had no connection with the cycle; the poems of Konig Laurin, Sigenot, Eckenlied, and Virginal are based largely on independent traditions. Through Attila Dietrich enters the Nibelung cycle. In the final catastrophe it is he who, to avenge his Amelungs, at last delivers Hagen to Kriemhild.

His ‘flame-

breath” seems to be pure myth; but the tales of his demonic origin and of his being carried off by the devil may be ascribed to clerical hostility to Theodoric’s Arianism.

Dietrich typifies the wise and just ruler as opposed to Ermanaric the typical tyrant. He is invariably represented as slow to anger; but once roused he overcomes even Siegfried (but probably the fight in the rose garden at Worms is a late accretion). The chief herocs of the Dietrich cycle are his tutor and comrade Hildebrand (see H1LDEBRAND, Lay oF), with his nephews the Wolfings Alphart and Wolfhart; Wittich, who renounced his allegiance and slew Attila’s sons; Heime and Biterolf. The poems of the Dietrich-cycle are summarized by Uhland, Zur Geschichte der Dichtung und Sage (Stuttgart, 1873). Thidrekssaga (ed. Unger, Christiania, 1853) is translated into German by v. der Hagen, Altdeutsche Heldensagen (Breslau, 3rd ed., 1872). A summary

of the legend is in Hodgkin, Theodoric (1891). Part of Thidrekssaga is

in Möbius, Analecta Norroena (Leipzig, 1877). Sve also W. Grimm, Deutsche Heldensage (1867); accounts in Sandbach, Saga-cycle of Dietrich (1906); Jiriczek, Deutsche Heldensage (trans, BentinckSmith, Northern Legends, 1902). Original extracts, Jiriczek, Kudrun und Dietrichepen (Stuttgart, 1895). For full bibliography see Symons, D. Heldensage, in Paul's Grundriss; also Goedeke, Geschichte der d. Dichtung (1857-81).

DIEZ, FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN (1794-1876), German philologist, the founder of Romance philology, was born at Giessen, Hesse-Darmstadt, on March 15, 1794. A visit to Goethe

in 1818 decided the direction to his studies. Goethe had been reading Raynouard's Choix de poésies originales des troubadours, and advised the young scholar to explore the rich mine of Provençal literature which the French savant had opened up. Henceforth Diez devoted himself to Romance literature. He removed in 1822 to Bonn, where he held the position of privat-docent. His Poesie der Troubadours (1826) and Leben und werke der Troubadours (1829), of both of which there are modern editions edited by Karl Bartsch, were his earliest important studies. In 1830 he became professor of modern literature at Bonn. The rest of his life was mainly occupied with the composition of the two

great works on which his fame rests, the Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen (3 vols., Bonn, 1836—44; sth ed. 1882), and the Etymologische Wörterbuch der romanischen Sprachen (2 vols., Bonn, 1853; sth ed. 1887); in these two works Diez did for the Romance group of languages what Jacob Grimm did for the Teutonic family. He died at Bonn on May 29, 1876. He also wrote works on Spanish and Portuguese language and early literature. See W. Foerster, Friedrich Diez (1894).

EQUATIONS

now a:prison. Close by, on an eminence above the river, lies the castle of Oranienstein, formerly a Benedictine nunnery.

The

industries include iron works, machine-making, colour preparation, lime-burning and quarrying. In the vicinity are Fachingen, celebrated for its mineral waters, and the castle of Schaumburg. DIFFERENTIAL, in a motor car (g.v.), the system of gears (usually situated in the back axle) by means of which one driving wheel may revolve with increased speed while the other is checked (in taking corners, etc.). In physics, differential apparatus, e.g., a differential thermometer (see THERMOMETRY), is designed in such a manner that errors due to extraneous effects in the experiments are eliminated.

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS, ABSOLUTE: see Tex-

son ANALYSIS.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

If we have given the re-

lation y=sinx and differentiate twice with respect to x, we find that y’+-ymo. This latter equation is an ordinary differential equation. In general, an equation involving derivatives of y with respect to x, together possibly with x and y, is called an ordinary differential equation. TYPES AND SOLUTIONS

Need For Differential Equations.—These equations are of frequent occurrence in mathematical analysis, geometry, physics, and chemistry. For example, the equation just referred to describes the law of motion of a particle movingin a straight line subject to an attraction, from a point in the line, that is proportional to the distance of the particle from the centre of attraction. Here x represents the time and y the distance. In order to determine where the particle will be at a given moment, we must find a function y of x that is connected with its second derivative in the way described by the equation. That is, we must do what is described as solving the differential equation. In general, we say that a function y of the independent variable x is a solution of a differential equation if the two sides of the equation are identically equal—that is, equal for all values of x when for y and its various derivatives in the equation there are substituted the given function and its correspondihg derivatives. It is not evident that a differential equation selected at random has a solution, but it will be shown later that under certain rather broad conditions solutions do exist. It is however evident independently of this that many of the simpler and more common differential equations, such as we shall discuss in the first part of this article, have solutions, as these solutions either can be seen directly or can be found by more or less ingenious devices. Many problems might be cited from physics and chemistry to show how the statement of a natural law gives us a differential equation and how the solution of this equation furnishes information concerning natural phenomena. An ordinary differential equation is said to be of order n if it contains the nth derivative of y with respect to x, but no derivative of higher order. Common Types and Solutions.—We consider now the solution of a few of the simpler and more common types. But first it should be observed that the equation

Pafe, y)

(2)

dy=f(x, y)dx,

(2)

can be written in the form where dx and dy represent the differentials of x and y respectively. The reader may refer to a standard text on the calculus (g.r.)

for the precise significance of differentials.

(1) Variables Separable —If (1) can be written in such a way that one member contains only x and its differential, the equation can be solved by two integrations, or quadratures, as they are

DIEZ, province of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia, Germany, in the sometimes called. For example, the equation Da? can be written

deep valley of the Lahn, crossed by an old bridge, 30 m. east from Coblenz on the railway to Wetzlar. Pop. (1925), 3,309. It is overlooked by a former castle of the counts of Nassau-Dillenburg,

in the oe

dy dx F S - Here the variables are separated.

By in-

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

361

tegration we get log y= log x-+logc, or ywcx. Since we can give vy + Pvy=vy +v'y, toc any constant value, we have here a whole family of loci which or gm Py. This requires that are all straight lines through the origin. The fact that there is log v= fP(x)dx+c, an unlimited number of these loci is in agreement with the theorem to be established in the second part of this article that there or p= cfandate, is a solution passing through an arbitrary point of the plane. Since any integrating factor will answer our purpose, we can (2) Exact Equations.—When (1) is written in the form

Mdx+Ndy=o, (3) where M and N are functions of x and y, it may be that the left member is the exact differential of some function of x and y, as ọ(x, y). When this is the case the equation is said to be exact. The solution is then obviously given by the equation (x , y) =c. For example, the left member of the equation ydx+ xdy=0 is the differential of xy. Hence the solution is given by the equation xy=c. The curves of this family are equilateral hyperbolas (see HYPERBOLA).

put c=ọ.

If we apply this factor ¢/"*)4* to (4) we get cfMads y+ Pefmerds

Hence

cefrods yx [Oe /mnds dy+ C, y=

or

rods [Qe frnds dy 4C

On the other hand, the left member of the

ydx—xdy

z æ=f(s), which occurs in mechanics. ory

Typ To

and the left member of this equation is the differential of Hence me gives the solution. A factor, such as

in this case,

rads,

(5) Equations of Order Higher Than the First.—We mention first certain equations of the second order whose solution can be made to depend upon the solution of equations of the first order— for example, the SA

equation ydx—xdy =o is not an exact differential. But if we divide through by y* we get

y = OcfPerda,

dy

If we put v=—= 7 >We have—*$ -æf(s),

— = S(s). This is of the first order and the variables can be

separated. Having determined v, we can find s by a quadrature. As a sccond example, consider the differential equation of the catenary,

=

= a

y

[:H

)J

which when introduced into equation (3) makes the left member an exact differential is called an integrating factor. Every equation of the form (3) has an unlimited number of integrating factors. The actual determination of such factors is, however, in most cases a difficult matter. In a few simple cases they can be determined by inspection or by the application of simple rules. (3) Homogeneous Equations. —The function f(x, y) is said to be homogeneous of degree m if the equation

derivatives, and have constant coefficients, form another simple class under this head. They are of the form

Sf(u,v) =i" (x, y)

poy + pry"+ > + + pny’ +pay =0.

is identically satisfied when we put #=/x and v=/y.

If now in

equation (1), f(x, y) 1s homogeneous of degree zero and we take ae

—

we

8

get

lts solution can be reduced to the solution of an equation of the .

first order by putting

d

= p.

The equations that are lincar and homogeneous in y and its

If the right member is a function of x, instead of o, we have the non-homogeneous equation with constant coefficients

boy + pry+

|

(5)

pny’ +Pay =f(x).

(6)

Equations of this form are in general much more difficult to solve than those of form (5). We shall therefore consider first f ( 9 z) = f(x, 977° y) x those of form (5). In case n=1, we have poy’+piy=o, and we know from the This tells us that f(x, y) can be expressed as a function of : discussion of equation (4), since P is here a constant and (=o, alone, and suggests that we write (1) in terms of a new dependent that y= Ce”, where isa constant, isa solution. We are therefore led to inquire whether y=c" is a solution of (5) for a properly variable v connected with x and y by the relation v=? , Or y=Vx. chosen constant value of r. If we substitute this function for y in (5), the left member becomes In order to do this we must know what dy is in terms of v and x and CF (por®+ pirP + os pair t+pa). their differentials. We find by differentiation dy =udx+ xdv. This equals zero if, and only if, r is a root of the equation Hence (1) becomes wdx -+ xdv = f(1, 9)dx, or -———— == sand the

Ja rE

variables are separated. (4) Linear Equations.—Equations of the form d

a +P(x)y= Q(z)

are linear with respect to y and 2 -

por + pir! +

ej

+ pani + pn =O.

(7)

This equation is called the auxiliary equation of (5). The manner of its formation from (5) is obvious. If (7) has n distinct roots, ri, rz >», fn, (5) has the linearly (4) independent solutions

They are therefore called

N=, yw,

y Yawn’,

Now it is a property of linear, homogeneous differential equations

linear equations. They are also of the first order. We shall later that the sum of two solutions is also a solution, and that the discuss linear equations of higher orders. product of a solution by any constant is a solution. Hence

We could solve (4) if we knew an integrating factor. If v is such a factor rangANE al dele Me with respect to x

y== fit ceyt

where ¢1, c2, ° ° , Cn are Moreover any solution shall be the derivative of vy. Inoriek (of;Cie robe ie case we signing to the c’s proper discussion to be given must have

of some function. Since this expression contains the term vy’, we are led to consider whether y can be so determined that vy’ + Pry

-

< E CnYns

(8)

arbitrary constants, is a solution of (5). of (5) can be obtained from (8) by asvalues, as will appear from the theoretical later. For this reason (8) is called the

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

362

first order and first degree in x and p. We can therefore solve it and get a relation between x and p. This relation, together with the original equation between y and p gives a parametric repand we put y= Gayn(x), ani be linear. components of a differential form can also be quadratic where a,=C f(x) ya(x)p(x)dx, and each yn(x) has been multi- in The the differentials, for example,

plied by a properly chosen constant factor.

Bratiooraruy.—G. Darboux, Leçons iri la Théorie générale des surfaces, four volumes a Pai rip,1887-96); Königsberger, Lchrbuch

der Theorie der Diferentialsleichungen the , 1889);Lie-Scheffers,

V—

infinttcsimaien se ueber Meeeleic * hengen i behannten infini e—

Theorie der aM

des

—

—

on mit einer —

*

—

Leçons sur l'intégration

S ae ata)partielles du premior Ordres(Patis, 1921);

Edu?+-2Fdudv+Gdv’,

(5)

in which Æ, F, and G are functions of two variables # and v. In general, the components of a differential form are required to be functions which are analytic in the variables v, y, etc., and analytic and homogeneous in the differentials dx, dy, etc. In the cases usually considered they are homogeneous polynomials in the differentials. They may also be functions of several sets of

DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY

366

differentials. For example, the quadratic form (5) is intimately | is unaltered by all analytic transformations of the variables x, v The next important step was taken by Riemann, who in 1854 related to the bilinear form, outlined the theory in its full generality and used it as the basis Eduéu+F (du dv-+-dvdu)+Gdvdv. of what has come to be known as Riemannian geometry. He also It is obviously a fundamental problem to determine whether

two differential expressions, such as (3) and (4) for example, are or are not components of the same differential form. This is known as the equivalence problem. The study of this problem, as well as of related problems, has led to the discovery of diferential invariants of various kinds. The simplest of these are functions formed from the given form which are unchanged in value by transformations of coordinates. For example, an invariant of (3) is the bilinear form,

5 — 2) (ax by—dy8x)-+ (SE - =) (dy b2—dzéy) (= - oP

=) (dz6x —dx 62).

This example illustrates one of the uses to which differential invariants are put. For the vanishing of this bilinear form is a necessary and sufficient condition that (3) be a “complete differential.” In other words, there exists a function F(x, y, 2) such that dF (x, y, 2) = Pdx+Qdy+ Raz,

if and only if this bilinear form vanishes. Other properties of the differential form (3) are expressed by the vanishing of other invariants. Indeed, the typical way of saying anything about a differential form is to assert that such and such an invariant vanishes—and a very large proportion of the theorems of geometry and physics reduce to such statements. Returning to the example of a linear differential form which has the components (3) and (4) in two coordinate systems we find, on carrying out the substitution of (1) and (2) in (3), that

P(x, y’, #) =P iy Cae Re ; Oey

i

2h ePðf +o ERSS,

R'(x’, y’, 2’) = P

(6

hie

In these equations P stands for the function of x’, y’, 2’, obtained by substituting (1) in P(x, y, s); similarly Q and R. In the language of Tenson Analysis (q.v.) the equations (6) state that the coefficients of a linear differential form are the components of a covariant vector. In like manner we can work out the equations of transformation, analogous to (6), of the coefficients of a differential form of any degree. It comes out that whenever the differential form is a polynomial in the differentials, the coefficients are the components of a covariant tensor. The theory of these differential forms is therefore co-extensive with that of covariant tensors. The theory even of linear differential forms is very extensive and has applications in a wide variety of fields of mathematics and physics. We need only mention line integrals, vector analysis (g.v.), and electricity and magnetism (gq.v.). The higher theory of linear differential forms and systems of linear differential forms is to be found in mathematical books usually under the heading ‘The problem of Pfaff,” so called because the first investigations of the subject were made by Pfaff in 1814 and 1815. The further

development of the subject is associated with the names of Gauss, 4acobi, Natani, Clebsch, Grassmann,

Frobenius, Darboux

and

artan.

The theory of quadratic differential forms was initiated in 1827 by Gauss, who showed that the metric properties of surfaces depend on forms of the type (5). This work of Gauss is also the

showed that the curvature of Gauss must be replaced in the gen-

eral case by what is now called the curvature tensor. The work of Riemann was followed immediately by that of Christoffel and Lipschitz. The former introduced the functions often called Christoffel symbols or the components of affine connection, and gave a solution of the equivalence problem. Lipschitz developed the calculus of variations (g.v.) side of the subject and also the system of normal coordinates which had been sketched by Riemann. This work was followed by a long series of researches by such mathematicians as Ricci, Voss, Lie, Levi-Civita, Zorawski, Wright and Haskins. Differential forms of degree higher than the second have been studied by Lipschitz, E. Noether, E. Pascal, and others. The theory of quadratic differential forms has found many applications in geometry and physics, notably in dynamics. In recent years it has received a great deal of attention and been generalized in various directions because it is the foundation of Einstein’s theory of relativity. In the researches of Einstein, as extended by Weyl and others, the phenomena of gravitation and electricity are described by means of a quadratic and a linear differential ‘form restricted by the vanishing of certain invariants. BrBLioGRAPHY.—For the general theory of differential forms we may refer the reader to: Weitzenbock, /nvariantentheorie (1923); Pascal, Repertorium der Höheren Mathematik, vol. i. (1927); and the Encyklopddie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften, Band iii., Teil 3 (1927). For linear differential forms A. R. Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equations, part 1 (1890); E. von Weber, Vorlesungen über das Pfaffsche Problem (1900); E. Goursat, Leçons sur le Problème de Pfaff (1922). For quadratic differential forms: T. Levi-Civita, The Absolute Differential Calculus (1927); T. Y. Thomas and A. D. Michal, “Differential Invariants of Relative Quadratic Differential Forms,” Annals of Mathematics — L. P. Eisenhart, Riemannian Geometry (Princeton, 1926); Veblen, Invariants of Quadratic Differential Forms (1927); and O.a the mathematical books on the Theory of Relativity. (0. V.)

DIFFERENTIAL

GEOMETRY

embodies the theorems

concerning curves, surfaces and other manifolds which involve

applications of the calculus. Straight lines, circles, planes and spheres are geometrical entities possessing the common property that any part of one of them has the same shape as any other part. Other curves and surfaces do not possess this property, as for example, conics, ellipsoids and paraboloids. The geometrical character of these entities varies in general continuously from point to point, and consequently the calculus is needed in order to study many of their geometrical properties. Most of the older differential geometry, and much of the recent, in so far as magnitudes are concerned, rests upon the assumption that the curves and surfaces under consideration lie in ordinary, or Euclidean, space of three dimensions, and that the measurement of magnitudes, such as lengths of curves, angles and areas of sur-

faces, is based upon Euclidean measure. Thus, when the threedimensional space is referred to rectangular cartesian coordinates, the quadratic differential form

ds?= (dx)*+(dy)?+ (d2),

(1)

which defines the square of the distance between points (x, y, 2) and (z+dz, y+dy, z+dz), leads by the processes of the integral calculus to the determination of the length of a curve between two points of it. In fact, a curve is defined by two equations of the form

f(x, y, 2)=0,

g(x, ¥, 2) =o.

(2)

For differentials dx, dy, dz in the direction of this curve and by means of (2), equation (1) is reducible to the form ds=F(x)dz,

and then the length of arc is given by an integration. Or any curve may be defined, in many ways, in the form

rafi(t), yeflt), sef), —. foundation of modern differential geometry (g.v.). From the point of view of differential forms his chief contribution was the where ¢ is a parameter, and then thelength of arc is given by discovery of an invariant, called the curvature, which is a func- an integral in £. tion of £E, F, and G, and their first and second derivatives, which When all the points of a curve lie in one plane, it is called a

DIFFERENTIAL plane curve, otherwise a skew curve. If P is any point on a skew curve C, / the tangent line to C at P, and Qis any other point of

the curve, the plane determined by / and Q assumes a limiting position as Q approaches P along the curve; it is called the osculattng plane to C at P; of all the planes through / it lies nearest to the curve in the sense that the distance of a point of C near P from the osculating plane is of the second order and from the other planes it is of the first order. The normal to C at P in the osculating plane is called the principal normal, and the normal to the osculating plane at P the binormal. The manner in which the configuration consisting of the tangent, principal normal, and binormal varies in direction, as the point describes the curve,

characterizes the curve. The rate of change of direction of the tangent with the arc is the curvature, and of the binormal the torsion. These are the fundamental elements in the differential geometry of curves and in any of the many treatises the reader will find extensive developments of the theory. A surface is a locus of two dimensions. A surface in Euclidean space, or a portion of it, is defined by one relation between the coordinates as

S(x,y, 3) =o.

(3)

If P is an ordinary point of the surface, not a singular point such as the vertex of a cone, the tangents at P to all curves on the surface through P lie in a plane, called the tangent plane at P; its equation is

ðf y z (X

of +3 Y

ðf y)+ 3° (2-2)

=0.

(4)

When one of the three variables x, y, s is eliminated from (4) by means of (3), ordinarily the other two enter in the equation, that is, the tangent plane depends upon two parameters. Wher the tangent plane involves a single parameter, the surface is called

developable, otherwise non-developable; a developable surface can be rolled out, or developed, upon a plane. When the tangent plane at an ordinary point P of a non-developable surface is taken for the plane z=0, and any two orthogonal lines in this plane are taken for the x and y axes, the equation of the surface, at least in the neighbourhood of the point, can be written in the form

z=ax'+2bry+cy+ olx, y), where ¢ (x, y) is a power-series in x and y of the third and higher orders, and a, b and c are constants. The ellipse or hyperbola whose equations are axt+ 2bxy+cy2=1, 20 ax?+e2bxy+cy=1, 20,

is called the Dupin indicatrix of the surface at P. The principal axes of the conic are called the principal directions at P; conjugate diameters determine conjugate directions, and the asymptotes

asymptotic directions. Two one-parameter families of curves on the surface whose directions at a point of meeting are conjugate are said to form a conjugate system; a curve whose direction at every point is asymptotic is any asymptotic line; a curve whose direction at every point is principal is a line of curvature. These various curves may be defined also by properties involving the tangent plane. The tangent planes to a surface along any curve form a developable surface, and the directions of the generators are conjugate to the given curve; the tangent planes to a surface along an asymptotic line are the osculating planes of the latter; the normals to a surface along a line of curvature are tangent to a curve in space, and this is true only of a line of curvature. If in equation (3) we put x and y each equal to a function of two parameters, % and v, and solve for z, the surface is defined by three equations |

x= f(u, v),

y= f(u, v),

z= f(u, v).

(5)

Conversely, any three equations of this type define a surface. This method of definition is due to Gauss. Owing to the great arbitrariness in the choice of the parameters # and v, it is a very powerful methed and has simplified the solution of many problems. When the expressions (5) are substituted in (1), we get the differential form . | ds = Rdu’-+-2Fdudo+Gdr’,

(6)

PSYCHOLOGY

367

where Æ, F and G involve the first derivatives of fı, fa fa Any curve on the surface is defined by a relation between s and v; when this is used in connection with (6), the latter defines the length of the curve. The right-hand member of (6) is called the first jundamental quadratic form of the surface. There is another quadratic differential form of importance, called the second fundamental form and usually written Ddu?+ 2D'dudv+ D''dv'; (7) to within terms of third and higher orders it is equal to twice the

distance from the point (u-+du, v-+dv) on the surface to the tangent plane at the point (u, v). Measurement of angles between directions at a point on the surface depends only upon the first form, and conjugacy only upon the second. Since lines of curvature form an orthogonal system and also a conjugate sys— their differential equation involves the coefficients of both orms. Through each point of a surface, and in cach direction, there is a curve of the surface whose principal normal at cach point is normal to the surface. Although this definition involves a property of the curve as viewed from the Euclidean space in which the surface is contained, the differential equations of these curves involve only the coefficients of the first form and their first derivatives, that is, they are characterized by a property of distance alone. In fact, they are the curves for which the first variation of the inte-

gral fds is zero; that is, they are the extremals of this integral, to use the terminology of the calculus of variations. These curves are called the geodesics of the surface.

Let P be any point of a surface, I a small portion of the surface including P and C its contour. 1f lines be drawn through a point O parallel to the normals to the surface at points of C, these lines will meet the sphere of unit radius and centre O in a closed curve. The limit of the ratio of the area enclosed by the latter to the area of Z as X approaches P in the limit is the curvature of the surface at P. It is equal to (DD” —D”?)/ (EG — F°), but it is equal also to a function of E, F, G and their first and second derivatives. Hence, when the formula for distance (6) of a surface is known, the Gaussian curvature of the surface at any point can be found without reference to the enveloping Euclidean space. In this sense properties involving geodesics and Gaussian curvature are intrinsic. The foregoing are the fundamental elements which enter into the vast body of theorems concerning surfaces in a Euclidean space, which are to be found in any of the many treatises. Much of the theory involves metric properties. Since conjugate systems and asymptotic lines are invariant under projective transformations of the enveloping Euclidean space, there is a considerable theory which is projective in this sense. It is a geometrical interpretation of linear partial differential equations of the second order. This has been developed by Darboux, Guichard, Tzitzeica, Demoulin and Wilczynski. Recently Fubini and Bompiani have made further developments. BrsiiocraPHy.—W.

Blaschke,

Vorlesungen

über

Differentialgeo-

metrie (Berlin, 1921); L. Bianchi, Lezioni di geometria diflerenziale, 2 vols. (Pisa, 1922-23); G. Darboux, Leçons sur la théorie générale des surfaces, 4 vols. (Paris, 1887-96; 2nd ed., 2 vols., 1914-15); L. P. Eisenhart, Differential Geometry (Boston, 1909) and Transformations of Surfaces (Princeton, 1923); A. R. Forsyth, Differential

Geometry

(Cambridge,

1912);

G. Fubini

and

Cech,

Geometria

proiettiva differensiale, 2 vols. (Bologna, 1926-27); G. Scheffers, Anwendung der Diferential- und Integral-Rechnung auf Geometric,

2 vols. (Leipzig, 1901-02) ; G. Tzitzéica, Géométrie différentielle pro-

jective des reséaux (Bucharest, 1924); C. E. Weatherburn, Differential

Geometry of Three Dimensions,(Cambridge, 1927); E. J. Wilczynski,

Projective

Differential

Geometry

of Curves

(Leipzig, 1906).

DIFFERENTIAL vsis.

and

Ruled

Surfaces

(L. P. E.)

PARALLELISM:

see Tensor ANAL-

DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY is that branch of psychology which deals with the differences found among individuals and groups in mental traits and performances. Individual differences are attributable broadly to the two opposed, but closely interwoven, forces of nature and nurture, or heredity and environment. In the first category are the intrinsic factors such as race, sex, age, immediate ancestry, etc.; under the latter

368

DIFFERENTIATION

head are the extrinsic factors, viz.-the social, educational, cultural, physical (e.g., disease) and other agencies which shape and mould the developing individual from birth until death. In a general sense, the complex and more recently acquired traits tend to be more variable than the simple, biologically more fundamental ones. The feeble-minded, for example, differ least from the normal in physical and motor abilities and most in the ability to use language, deal with “ideas,” and employ abstract thought. Even among groups relatively homogeneous as to general ability, we find greater variability in those tests requiring the education of intricate verbal relations, in learning and association, than in those tests designed to measure the speed of voluntary movement, rote memory, or recognition. Individuals do not fall into sharply separated groups or “types” in mental, any more than in physical, traits. People differ widely, for example, in the vividness and kind of mental imagery which they possess. In other traits the same condition obtains; mediocrity is the status most commonly encountered, marked superiority or inferiority being relatively and equally infrequent. The results of many careful studies of primitive peoples point to the conclusion that these races do not differ markedly from modern Europeans in general sensory equipment, such as keenness of vision and hearing, sensitivity to pain and pressure, and delicacy of the skin senses. Simple “intelligence” tests of the “form board” variety (a form board is a board containing cut out depressions into which blocks of different shapes and sizes are to be fitted) show no large differences between the whites and many primitive folk (e.g., Eskimos, American Indians, etc.), although a few races, the Igorot, the Negrito and the Pygmies, do no better than lowgrade and even imbecile whites. The inferiority of the negro to the white in mental capacity has often been asserted as the result of comparative studies, but it is difficult to say how much of difference found is due to native as against cultural factors. Negro high school children in New York city remain in school longer,

are older on the average, and are inferior in scholastic work to whites of approximately the same social status (Mayo). The greater the admixture of white blood, the closer does the negro approach the white in performance (Ferguson). Intelligence tests given to large groups of whites and negroes in the American army place the negro below the white both in tests of the language and non-language variety. Several investigations have shown the negro to be more overtly emotional and less inhibited in his reactions than the white (Crane). The American Indian ranks consistently below the white man on tests of mental capacity; the greater the admixture of white blood, the smaller the deviation from the performance of the white. There is some recent evidence to indicate that the Indian, while slower in motor performances than the white, is more accurate and painstaking. In comparative studies of general intelligence made in America, Chinese children have ranked slightly lower than whites in language tests (English) but better in rote memory. Japanese children do not differ significantly in intelligence from comparable

groups of whites, due allowance being made for social and cultural status. The most extensive comparative data on the intellectual differences as among national groups is that obtained from

the tests given in the American army during the World War. These tests indicated a superiority of those foreign-born men from northern countries of Europe (the “Nordics’’) over those from central and southern Europe (the “Alpines” and “Mediterraneans’). Selection plus differences: in language, schooling, age ra a probably account for much if not all of the difference oun Comparative studies of men and women have indicated few

differences which might be attributed to the factor of sex, apart from social and cultural influences. The differences within either

`:

logical construction and in problems involving sbstract and space telations (Thompson). Women are somewhat less stable emotionally than men. They have been asserted also to be more interested in people, more religious, more patient and more sympathetic, while men are more interested in athletic activity, have a superior sense of humour and are more independent (Pearson, Heymans and Wiersma). Girls are definitely better in school work than boys. This result has been explained as due to the slower physical development of boys, to the greater docility of girls and to native differences in ability. The fact that men have excelled women in practically every field of endeavour is probably to be attributed to social, cultural and traditional factors, and to the greater physical strength and endurance of men, rather than to native differences in endowment. One explanation is based upon the reputed greater variability within the male sex. Greater variability, j.e., greater range of ability, would tend to produce more gifted men than women, even though the average man and woman ranked about the same in ability. The fact of greater variability in the male sex has been disputed, however, by competent investigators, and the question is still an open one. Investigators are fairly well agreed that there is a regular and progressive increase in ability as measured by mental tests from infancy up to and through adolescence (14-18 years). This mental growth parallels roughly the steady increase in physical size and strength. After adolescence growth in most mental traits increases slowly, if at all, while in many cases it ceases altogether. Processes which are based upon experience, such as judgment, “reasoning ability” in practical situations, rational learning, etc., probably improve up through middle life and show no very definite losses until old age (Thorndike). There is a general loss in the speed and flexibility of mental operations in old age. Sensory acuity in general—auditory, visual and tactual—is considerably reduced and there is some loss in learning ability, speed of reaction and memory. Curiosity and enthusiasm are lost as physical and mental vigour wane. A part, at least, of the fall in general intelligence score with increasing age may be attributed to the loss in speed of response, and also to the removal, by a relatively long-time interval, from school practice with the kind of operations called for by the tests. Suggestibility, or the ability to resist suggestion, is another complex trait which has been found to differ with age and sex. Tests applied to children indicate that ability to “resist” suggestions increases progressively with age from 6 or 7 through adolescence (M. Otis). Girls are slightly more resistant than boys but the differences are not reliable. The influence of immediate ancestry is best studied by com-

paring those of like ancestry and vice versa. Careful studies of twins have shown that they are more alike both mentally and physically than ordinary brothers and sisters. The fact that older twins are no more alike than younger twins argues for the greater potency of heredity in shapmg mental traits. Brothers,

and brothers and fathers, are more nearly alike, as measured by correlation of traits (both mental and physical) than are unrelated individuals. Brother and sister, brother and brother, and sister and sister, are also more alike in such traits as vivacity,

temper, assertiveness and other character traits than unrelated

persons (Pearson).

No doubt a considerable part of the mental

resemblance noted among those of the same family or closely related families, such as habits of speech and thought, common opinions, ideas and attitudes, is due to a common fund of environmental influences and associations. But over and above all of this, there is, in the opinion of most competent workers in the field, a large share attributable to native factors. See W. Stern, Differentielle

Thorndike, Educational en

Whipple, Manual of Mental and

ene

—

(Leipzig, 1931);

i. (New York, rai

Tests, Parts I. andII 5Baki

(H. E. G) sex are far greater than the differences between the two sexes. more, 1921). Women have been reported to have a figer sense of touch, better DIFFERENTIATION, a term used in biology signifying colour discrimination, and to be faster in verbal ion; the evolutionary process, by which certain modifications of the men to be superior, on the average, in the discrimination of dif- body both structural and functional take place in plants and

ferences in weight and visual magnitudes, and in the speed of animals. In the vegetable kingdom the evolution of growth is motor response (reaction time). In general, females are superior usually from the simple to the complex form, the organs developin tests of memory and in foreign languages; males in tests of ing into more specialised parts of the body. (See PLANTS; EXPERI-

DIFFRACTION—DIFFUSION MENTAL EMBRYOLOCY; DEDIFFERENTIATION.) in mathematics see CALCULUS.

369

For differentiation

In order to make accurate observations of diffusion in fluids it is necessary to guard against any cause which may set up curDIFFRACTION: see Licut. rents; and in some cases this is exceedingly difficult. Thus, if DIFFRACTION GRATING, a series of parallel straight gas is absorbed at the upper surface of a liquid, and if the gaseous lines spaced at equal intervals in one plane or on a concave sur- solution is heavier than the pure liquid, currents may be set up, face. A beam of radiation after falling on such a grating, is and a steady state of diffusion may cease to exist. This has been resolved into a spectrum (see SPECTROSCOPY and LIGHT). tested experimentally by C. G. von Hiifner and W. E. Adney. The DIFFUSION, in general, a spreading out, scattering or cir- same thing may happen when a gas is evolved into a liquid at culation; in physics the term is applied to a special phenomenon, the surface of a solid even if no bubbles are formed; thus if pieces treated below. The word is from the Lat. difundere ; dis-, asunder, of aluminium are placed in caustic soda, the currents set up by the and fundere, to pour out. evolution of hydrogen are sufficient to set the aluminium pieces 1. General Description.—-When two different substances are in motion, and it is probable that the motions of the Diatomaceae placed in contact with each other they sometimes remain separate, are similarly caused by the evolution of oxygen. In some pairs but in many cases a gradual mixing takes place. This occurs when- of substances diffusion may take place more rapidly than in others. ever there is a difference of concentration or (in the case of Of course the progress of events in any experiment necessarily gases) of partial pressure between the constituents of neigh- depends on various causes, such as the size of the containing vesbouring portions. This phenomenon is known as diffusion. sels, but it is casy to see that when experiments with different Simple cases of diffusion are easily observed qualitatively. If a substances are carried out under similar conditions, however these solution of a coloured salt is carefully introduced by a funnel into “similar conditions” be defined, the rates of diffusion must be the bottom of a jar containing water, the two portions will at first capable of numerical comparison, and the results must be expressbe fairly well defined, but if the mixture can exist in all propor- ible in terms of at least one physical quantity, which for any two tions, the surface of separation will gradually disappear; and the substances can be called their coefficient of diffusion. How to rise of the colour into the upper part and its gradual weakening select this quantity we shall see later. 2. Quantitative Methods of Observing Diffusion.—The in the lower part, may be watched for days, weeks or even longer intervals. The diffusion of a strong aniline colouring matter into simplest plan of determining the progress of diffusion between two the interior of gelatine is easily observed, and is commonly seen liquids would be to draw off and examine portions from different in copying apparatus. Diffusion of gases may be shown to exist by strata at some stage in the process; the disturbance produced taking glass jars containing vapours of hydrochloric acid and would, however, interfere with the subsequent process of diffusion, ammonia, and placing them in communication with the heavier and the observations could not be continued. By placing in the gas downmost. The precipitation of ammonium chloride shows liquid column hollow glass beads of different average densities, that diffusion exists, though the chemical action prevents this and observing at what height they remain suspended, it is possible example from forming a typical case of diffusion. Again, when a to trace the variations of density of the liquid column at differfilm of Canada balsam is enclosed between glass plates, the disap- ent depths, and different times. In this method, which was origipearance during a few weeks of small air bubbles enclosed in the nally introduced by Lord Kelvin, difficulties were caused by the adherence of small air bubbles to the beads. balsam can be watched under the microscope. In general, optical methods are the most capable of giving In fluid media, whether liquids or gases, the process of mixing is greatly accelerated by stirring or agitating the fluids, and exact results, and the following may be distinguished. (a) By liquids which might take years to mix if left to themselves can refraction in a horizontal plane. If the containing vessel is in the thus be mixed in a few seconds. It is necessary carefully to dis- form of a prism, the deviation of a horizontal ray of light in passtinguish the effects of agitation from those of diffusion proper. ing through the prism determines the index of refraction, and Agitation brings together portions of the fluid between which con- consequently the density of the stratum through which the ray siderable differences of concentration may exist. The interchange passes. (b) By refraction in a vertical plane. Owing to the between such portions then proceeds much more rapidly. In many density varying with the depth, a horizontal ray entering the liquid cases, especially in gases, the intermixing goes on until the con- also undergoes a small vertical deviation, being bent downwards centration is uniform throughout. Thus a strong solution of towards the layers of greater density. The observation of this CuSQ, will ultimately form a uniform weaker solution if brought vertical deviation determines not the actual density, but its rate into contact with water. In other cases, the material remains di- of variation with tbe depth, że., the “density gradient” at any vided into two or more regions (or phases) in each of which the point. A parallel-faced vessel is employed and the incident beam relative concentration of the components is uniform, but changes falls normally upon it. (c) By the saccharimeter. In the cases of in passing from one phase to the next. The passing of one or solutions of sugar, which cause rotation of the plane of polarized more components across the boundary between two phases is light, the density of the sugar at any depth may be determined by known as solution or evaporation or condensation; but the pro- observing the corresponding angle of rotation; this was done origcess by which the uniform distribution in each phase is set up is inally by W. Voigt. 3. Elementary Definitions of Coefficient of Diffusion.— diffusion. Diffusion may take place in solids, that is, in regions occupied The simplest case of diffusion is that of a substance, say a gas, by matter which continues to exhibit the properties of the solid diffusing in the interior of a homogeneous solid medium which restate. Thus, gold and lead brought into contact begin to diffuse mains at rest, when no external forces act on the system. We may into one another. An interesting series of examples is afforded regard it as the result of experience that: (1) if the density of by the passage of gases through partitions of metal, notably the the diffusing substance (3.e., the mass of that substance per passage of hydrogen through platinum and palladium and of he- unit volume) is everywhere the same, no diffusion takes place, and lium through silica (“fused” quartz) at high temperatures. When (2) if the density of the diffusing substance is different at different the process is considered with reference to a membrane or parti- points, diffusion will take place from places of greater to those of tion taken as a whole, the passage of a substance from one side to lesser density, and will not cease until the density is everywhere the other is commonly known as “osmosis” or “transpiration” (see the same. It follows that the rate of flow of the diffusing subSo_uTions) but what occurs in the material of the membrane stance at any point in any direction must depend on the density itself is correctly described as diffusion. Agitation brings together gradient at that point in that direction, 3.e., on the rate at which portions of the fluid between which considerable differences the density of the diffusing substance decreases as we move in

of concentration may exist. The interchange between such por-

tions then proceeds much more rapidly. To sum up, the ultimate process by which the individual molecules of two different substances become mixed, producing finally a homogeneous mixture, is in every case diffusion.

that direction. We may define the coefficient of diffusion as the ratio of the total mass which flows per unit area across any small section, to the rate of decrease of the density with distance in a direction perpendicular to that section. In the case of steady diffusion parallel to the axis of x, if p be

370

DIFFUSION

the density of the diffusing substance, and g the mass which flows across a unit of area in a plane perpendicular to the axis of x in unit time, then the density gradient is —dp/dx and the ratio of g to this is called the “coefficient of diffusion.” By what has been

This definition implies the following laws of resistance to diffusion, which must be regarded as based on experience, and not as self-evident truths: (1) each fluid tends to assume, so far as diffusion is concerned, the same equilibrium distribution that it

said this ratio remains finite, however small the actual gradient and flow may be; and it is natural to assume, at any rate as a first approximation, that it is constant as far as the quantities in question are concerned. Thus if the coefficient of diffusion be denoted by K we have q= —K(dp/dx). Further, the rate at which the quantity of substance is increas-

would assume if its motion were unresisted by the presence of the other fluid. (Of course, the mutual attraction of gravitation of the two fluids might affect the final distribution, but this is practically negligible. Leaving such actions as this out of account the

ing in an element between the distances x and x+dx is equal to the difference of the rates of flow in and out of the two faces,

whence as in hydrodynamics, we have dp/dt= —dg/dx. It follows that the equation of diffusion in this case assumes the form: Op E ð Op Ot ax\ dx)’

which is identical with the equations representing conduction of For

heat, flow of electricity and other physical phenomena. diffusion in three dimensions we have in like manner:

Op _

Dp

2( w

° ( 2)

GaN ds) Oy Og)

(2

Op\ .

Eas

and the corresponding equations in electricity and heat for anisotropic substances would be available to account for any parallel phenomena, which may arise, or might be conceived, to exist in connection with diffusion through a crystalline solid. The solution of such an equation can usually be expressed in terms of an expansion in an infinite series (see Fourter’s SERIES, SPHERICAL HARMONICS, etc. ).

In the case of a very dilute solution, the coefficient of diffusion of the dissolved substance can be defined in the same way as when the diffusion takes place in a solid, because the effects of diffusion will not have any perceptible influence on the solvent, and the latter may therefore be regarded as remaining practically at rest. But in most cases of diffusion between two fluids, both of the fluids are in motion, and hence there is far greater difficulty in determining the motion, and even in defining the coefficient of diffusion. It is important to notice in the first instance that it is only the relative motion of the two substances which constitutes diffusion. Thus when a current of air is blowing, under ordinary circumstances the changes which take place are purely mechanical, and do not depend on the separate diffusions of the oxygen and nitrogen of which the air is mainly composed. It is only when two gases are flowing with unequal velocity, that is, when they have a relative motion, that these changes of relative distribution, which

are Called diffusion, take place. The best way out of the difficulty is to investigate the separate motions of the two fluids, taking account of the mechanical actions exerted on them, and supposing that the mutual action of the fluids causes each fluid to resist the relative motion of the other.

4. The Coefficient of Resistance.—Let us call the two dif-

following statement is correct.)

In a state of equilibrium, the

density of each fluid at any point thus depends only on the partial pressure of that fluid alone, and it is the same as if the other fluids were absent. It does not depend on the partial pressures of the other fluids. If this were not the case, the resistance to diffusion would be analogous to the friction of solids, and would contain terms which were independent of the relative velocity uw2.—4. (2) For slow motions the resistance to diffusion is (approximately at any rate) proportional to the relative velocity. (3) The coefficient of resistance C is not necessarily always constant; it may, for example, and, in general, does, depend on the temperature. If we form the equations of hydrodynamics for the different fluids occurring in any mixture, taking account of diffusion, but neglecting viscosity, and using suffixes 1, 2 to denote the separate fluids, these assume the form given by James Clerk Maxwell (“‘Diffusion,” in Ency. Brit., oth ed.): Du

Op;

Pi Di

Ox

Du,

where

—

Dit

— Xi p+ Ciz pı pelti — u) + — ð ty

G

ama

ðt

Ou; tag

Ou, T agy

6

ðM T”

ae"

and these equations imply that when diffusion and other motions cease, the fluids satisfy the separate conditions of equilibrium

ðpı/ðx—Xıpı=0. The assumption made in the following account is that terms such as Du,/ Dt may be neglected in the cases considered. A further property based on experience is that the motions set up in a mixture by diffusion are very slow compared with those set up by mechanical actions, such as differences of pressure. Thus, if two gases at equal temperature and pressure be allowed to mix by diffusion, the heavier gas being below the lighter, the process will take a long time; on the other hand, if two gases, or parts of the same gas, at different pressures be connected, equalization of pressure will take place almost immediately. It follows from this property that the forces required to overcome the “inertia” of the fluids in the motions due to diffusion are minute in comparison. At any stage of the process, therefore, amy one of the diffusing fluids may be regarded as in equilibrium under the action of its own partial pressure, the external forces to which it is subjected and the resistance to diffusion of the other fluids.

5. Slow Diffusion of Two Gases, Relation Between the Co-

efficients of Resistance and of Diffusion.—We now suppose the diffusing substances to be two gases which obey Boyle’s law, and that diffusion takes place in a closed cylinder or tube of unit sec-

fusing fluids A and B. If B were absent, the motion of the fluid tional area at constant temperature, the surfaces of equal density A would be determined entirely by the variations of pressure of being perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, so that the directhe fluid A, and by the external forces, such as that due to gravity tion of diffusion is along the length of the cylinder, and we supacting on A. Similarly if A were absent, the motion of B would pose no external forces, such as gravity, to act on the system. be determined entirely by the variations of pressure due to the The densities of the gases are denoted by pi, ps, their velocities fluid B, and by the external forces acting on B. When both fluids of diffusion by u, uz, and if their partial pressures are fı, pa, we are mixed together, each fluid tends to resist the relative motion have by Boyle’s law pı = kıpı, p:™= kpa, where kı, k: are constants of the other, and by the law of equality of action and reaction, for the two gases, the temperature being constant. The axis of the resistance which A experiences from B is everywhere equal the cylinder is taken as the axis of x. and opposite to the resistance which B experiences from A. If From the considerations of the preceding section, the effects the amount of this resistance per unit volume be divided by the of inertia of the diffusing gases may be neglected, and at any relative velocity of the two fluids, and also by the product of their instant of the process either of the gases is to be treated as kept densities, the quotient is called the “coefficient of resistance.” If in equilibrium by its partial pressure and the resistance to diffuthen p1,p2 are the densities of the two fluids, s, u2 their velocities, sion produced by the other gas. Calling this resistance per unit C the coefficient of resistance, then the portion of the fluid A volume R, and putting R= Cpp:(uı—u:), where C is the coefficontained in a small element of volume v will experience from cient of resistance, the equations of equilibrium give

the fluid B a resistance Cp,p20 (14: —%2), and the fluid B contained in the same volume element will experience from the fluid A an equal and opposite resistance, Cpp:V (u2 —41).

I y Caminu)=o, and P i Coplin) —o. (1)

DIFFUSION These involve

37!

state that K is of two dimensions in length and —1 in time, t.c., d

“h +

d

=o or fith=P,

(2)

where P is the total pressure of the mixture, and is everywhere

of dimensions L?/T. | Example 1. Taking K =0.1423 for carbon dioxide and air (at temperature o° C and pressure 76 cm. of mercury) referred to a

centimetre and a second as units, we may interpret the result as constant, consistently with the conditions of mechanical equi- follows :—Supposing in a mixture of carbon dioxide and air, the librium. density of the carbon dioxide decreases by, say, 1, 2, or 3% of Now dp,/dx is the pressure-gradient of the first gas, and is, itself in a distance of 1 cm., then the corresponding velocities by Boyle’s law, equal to k, times the corresponding density- of the diffusing carbon dioxide will be respectively 0-01, 0-02 and gradient. Again pi, is the mass of gas flowing across any section 0-03 times 01423, that is, 0001423, 0-002846 and 0.004269 cm. per unit time, and 2,p,%, or ~,u; can be regarded as representing per second in the three cases. Example 2. If we wished to take a foot and a second as our the flux of partial pressure produced by the motion of the gas. Since the total pressure is everywhere constant, and the ends of units, we should have to divide the value of the coeficient of the cylinder are supposed fixed, the fluxes of partial pressure due diffusion in Example 1 by the square of the number of centimetres in r ft., that is, roughly speaking, by goo, giving the new value of to the two gases are equal and opposite, so that K =0-00016 roughly. iuit h:mo or ki pititk:p2tte=0. (3) 7, Numerical Values of the Coefficient of Diffusion.—Thc From (2) (3) we find by elementary algebra table with this article gives the values of the coefficient of diffusion of several principal pairs of gases at a pressure of 76 cm. of tti/ pa = - u⸗/ pi = (uy —us)/(pr + p2) = (uy —u:)/P,

and therefore Path = — p22= pı pelt — u2) /P = kı kipıpelt — u3) /P.

Hence equations (1) (2) gives

dn | CP hike

(piu) =0,

and

7Ox

+ oF (Potts) *0; 1x2

whence also substituting p:=kipi, p2™=k2p2, and by transposing u = — Hike Op

PUA

and

CP ax’ SNC PUBS

—

hie pa.

CP ax

We may now define the “coefficient of diffusion” of either gas as

mercury, and also of a number of other substances. In the values for gases the centimetre and second are taken as fundamental units, in other cases the centimetre and day. The numbers given must be taken as indicating the order of magnitude only since considerably different values are obtained by different observers. Thus Obermayer obtained the value 0-67 for hydrogen-oxygen. 8. Diffusion Through a Membrane or Partition. Theory of the Semi-permeable Membrane.—It hus been pointed out that diffusion of gases frequently takes place in the interior of solids; moreover, different gases behave differently with respect to the same solid at the same temperature. A membrane or par-

tition formed of such a solid can therefore be used to effect a more or less complete separation of gases from a mixture. This method is employed commercially for extracting oxygen from the atmosphere, in particular for use in projection lanterns where a

the ratio of the rate of flow of that gas to its density-gradient. With this definition, the coefficients of diffusion of both the gases in a mixture are equal, each being equal to kıka/CP. The ratios of high degree of purity is not required. A similar method is often the fluxes of partial pressure to the corresponding pressure- applied to liquids and solutions and is known as “dialysis.” In such cases as can be tested cxpcrimentally it has been found gradients are also equal to the same coefficient. Calling this coeffcient A, we also observe that the equations of continuity for the that a gas always tends to pass through a membrane from the side where its density, and therefore its partial pressure, is two gases are greater to the side where it is less; so that for equilibrium the Op; O(pi%1) Ope (pra) partial pressures on the two sides must be equal. This result is al ap ey ag Te, unaffected by the presence of other gases on one or both sides of the membrane. For example, if different gases at the same leading to the equations of diffusion pressure are separated by a partition through which one gas can ð Op. pass more rapidly than the other, the diffusion will give rise to a difference of pressure on the two sides, which is capable of = 26 5 doing mechanical work in moving the partition. In evidence of exactly as in the case of diffusion through a solid. this conclusion Max Planck quotes a test experiment made by If we attempt to treat diffusion in liquids by a similar method, him in the Physical Institute of the University of Munich in it is, in the first place, necessary to define the “partial pressure” of 1883, depending on the fact that platinum foil at white heat is the components occurring in a liquid mixture. This leads to the permeable to hydrogen but impermeable to air, so that if a conception of “osmotic pressure,” which is dealt with in the platinum tube filled with hydrogen be heated the hydrogen will article SoLuTIoONS. For dilute solutions at constant temperature, diffuse out, leaving a vacuum. the assumption that the osmotic pressure is proportional to the The details of the experiment may be quoted here:—“A glass density, leads to results agreeing fairly closely with experience, tube of about 5 mm. internal diameter, blown out to a bulb at and this fact may be represented by the statement that a sub- the middle, was provided with a stop-cock at one end. To the stance occurring in a dilute solution behaves like a perfect gas. other a platinum tube 10 cm. long was fastened, and closed at (It is to be borne in mind that the partial pressures are no longer the end. The whole tube was exhausted by a mercury pump, additive. For a solution containing 1 gm. molecule of sugar per filled with hydrogen at ordinary atmospheric pressure, and then litre the osmotic pressure is about 30 atmospheres even though closed. The closed end of the platinum portion was then heated the total pressure is only 1 Atm.) in a horizontal position by a Bunsen burner. The connection be6. Relation of the Coefficient of Diffusion to the Units of tween the glass and platinum tubes, having been made by means Length and Time—We may write the equation defining K in of sealing-wax, had to be kept cool by a continuous current of the form water to prevent the softening of the wax. After four hours the tube was taken from the flame, cooled to the temperature of the room, and the stop-cock opened under mercury. The mercury Here—dp/pdx represents the proportional rate at which the rose rapidly, almost completely filling the tube, proving that the density decreases with the distance z; and we thus see that the tube had been very nearly exhausted.” In order that diffusion through a membrane may be reversible coefficient of diffusion represents the rafio of the velocity of flow to the proportional rate at which the density decreases with the so far as a particular gas is concerned, the process must take place distance measured in the direction of flow. This proportional rate so slowly that equilibrium is set up at every stage. In order to being of the nature of a number divided by a length, and the separate one gas from another consistently with this condition velocity being of the nature of a length divided by a time, we may it is necessary that no diffusion of the latter gas should accom-

261eas 8 (4,90), ang2Pa a

DIFFUSION

i

Substances —

dioxide and air

”

s

”

”” — *

.

.

hydrogen

.

oxygen carbon monoxide. marah gas ane nitrous oxide Hydrogen and oxygen $ Ss », carbon monoxide

», sulphur dioxide. Oxygen and carbon monoxide . Water and ammonia

.

N 990,0, an oO, 9, O,

common salt (density 10269) 99

19

7)

Q * ws8 mancaonnannanal?

a,

99

zinc sulphate (0-312 eny cmn)

zinc sulphate (normal)

zinc acetate (double normal) . zinc formate (half normal) .

cadmium sulphate (double normal)

glycerin (gn, jn, jn, 1°5n)

99

;

0°356, 0°350, 0°342, 0'315

urca ($n, 4n, Jn‘, 1-5n) .

—

»

F. Heimbrodt

127°1

A. Hagenbach

2°208, 2°331, 2480 cm?/day

hydrochloric acid Gelatin 20% and ammonia . J », carbon dioxide i »» nitrous oxide

99

cm?/day 0°973, 0°946, 0°926, 0°883 cm?/da y

”

1

0°845

0° 509 0'230

» Oxygen .

», hydrogen

o'o565

pany the process. The name “semi-permeable” is applied to an ideal membrane or partition through which one gas can pass, and which offers an insuperable barrier to any diffusion whatever of a second gas. By means of two semi-permeable partitions acting oppositely with respect to two different gases A and B these gases could be mixed or separated by reversible methods. Most physicists admit, as Planck does, that it is impossible to obtain an ideal semi-permeable substance; indeed such a substance would necessarily have to possess an infinitely great resistance to diffusion for such gases as could not penetrate it. But in an experiment performed under actual conditions the losses of available energy arising from this cause would be attributable to the imperfect efficiency of the partitions and not to the gases themselves; moreover, these losses are, in every case, found to be completely in accordance with the laws of irreversible thermodynamics. The reasoning in this article being somewhat condensed, the reader must necessarily be referred to treatises on thermodynamics for further information on points of detail connected with the argument.

9. Work That Can Be Gained on Mixing Perfect Gases

Reversibly.—In the case of perfect gases the partial pressures of the respective gases are independent of the presence of other gases. Take two separate gases, each at the same pressure, f1-+ ps, and at the same temperature; their volumes being V: and V3. These can be mixed in a reversible way by means of suitable cylinders and pistons. I. Ord. Piston

II. Ord. Piston

me:

WELLL 7,

(2)

Ah VILA hh hhh

Place the gases in cylinders 1 and 2. The central pistons sessally in contact must be semi-permeable, No. 1 to gas No. 1 and No. 2 to gas No. 2. By adjusting the ordinary pistons the gases may be brought to pressures pı and p: respectively. The isothermal work done by the system is

+R:T log pith: ——— bs and the volumes become V’, and V'a. By suitably moving all four pistons the gases can be transferred reversibly to the space between the two inner. pistons the pit:

RT log —— Pi

pressure remaining at the values pı and p} while the intervening

region remains throughout at constant pressure, ~:-+-f:. The work done in this stage is —V'i Pim Vo pat (pit ps) (Vit V2)

which, on inserting the values of V’, and V’; is seen to be zero. Hence the total work obtained is that done in the first stage and on putting (p: + pa) V; == RıT and (pit ps) V2 R,T it becomes

When the two gases are — by diffusion in an — space, the total pressure remaining constant at $:1-+/, throughout, all this work is lost for good since the gases can only be separated again by having work performed on them aż least equal to that which might have been gained. 10. Kinetic Models of Diffusion.—Imagine in the first instance that a very large number of red balls are distributed over one half of a billiard table, and an equal number of white balls

over the other half. If the balls are set in motion with different velocities in various directions, diffusion will take place, the red balls finding their way among the white ones, and vice versa; and the process will be retarded by collisions between the balls. The simplest model of a perfect gas studied in the kinetic theory of gases (see KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER) differs from the above illustration in that the bodies representing the molecules move in space instead of in a plane, and, unlike billiard balls, their motion is unresisted, and they are perfectly elastic, so that no kinetic energy is lost either during their free motions, or at a collision. The mathematical analysis connected with the application of the kinetic theory to diffusion is very long and cumbersome. We shall therefore confine our attention to regarding a medium formed of elastic spheres as a mechanical model, by which the most important features of diffusion can be illustrated. We shall assume the results of the kinetic theory, according to which:—(1) In a dynamical model of a perfect gas the mean kinetic energy of translation of the molecules represents the absolute temperature of the gas. (2) The pressure at any point is proportional to the product of the number of molecules in unit volume about that point into the mean square of the velocity. (The mean square of velocity is different frorfi but proportional to the square of the mean velocity, and in the subsequent either of these two quantities can generally be taken.) (3) In a gas mixture represented by a mixture of molecules of unequal masses, the mean

_, DIFFUSION kinetic energies of the different kinds are equal. Consider now the problem of diffusion in a region containing two kinds of molecules A and B of unequal mass. The molecules of A in the neighbourhood of any point will, by their motion, spread out in every direction until they come into collision with other molecules of either kind, and this spreading out from every point of the medium will give rise to diffusion. If we imagine the velocities of the A molecules to be equally distributed in all directions, as they would be in a homogeneous mixture, it is obvious that the process of diffusion will be greater, ceteris paribus, the greater the velocity of the molecules, and the greater the length of the free path before a collision takes place. If we assume consistently with this, that the coefficient of diffusion of the gas A is proportional to the mean value of Wals, where Wwe is the velocity and le is the length of the path of a molecule of A, this expression for the coefficient of diffusion is of the right dimensions in length and time. If, moreover, we observe that when diffusion takes place in a fixed direction, say that of the axis of x, it depends only on the resolved part of the velocity and length of path in that direction: this hypothesis readily leads to our taking the mean value of 4twol, as the coefficient of diffusion for the gas A. This value was obtained by O. E. Meyer and others. Unfortunately, however, it makes the coefficients of diffusion unequal for the two gases, a result inconsistent with that obtained

373

Now according to the experiments frst made by J. C. Maxwell and J. Loschmidt, it appeared that with constant density K was proportional to T more nearly than to VT. The inference is that in this respect a medium formed of colliding spheres fails to give a correct mechanical model of gases. lt has been found by L. Boltzmann, Maxwell and others that a system of particles whose mutual actions vary according to the inverse fifth power of the distance between them represents more correctly the relation between the coefficient of diffusion and temperature in actual gases, Other recent theories of diffusion have been advanced by M. Thiesen, P. Langevin and W. Sutherland. On the other hand, J. Thovert finds experimental evidence that the coefficient of diffusion is proportional to molecular velocity in the cases examined of non-electrolytes dissolved in water at 18° at 2-5 grams per litre. 11. Applications of Diffusion to Separating Gases.—Lord Rayleigh has applied the different rates at which diffusion takes place through porous partitions to the partial separation of mixed gases. Let x and y denote the quantities of the respective gases remaining at any moment in the chamber, so that —dzx and —dy can stand for the quantities diffusing out in time dt. The values of dx/dt and dy/dt will depend upon the character of the porous partition and upon the actual pressure. Calling the relative rates of diffusion u, and v, we have

above from considerations of the coefficient of resistance, and

leading to the consequence that differences of pressure would be set up in different parts of the gas. To equalize these differences of pressure, Meyer assumed that a counter current is set up, this current being, of course, very slow in practice; and J. Stefan assumed that the diffusion of one gas was not affected by collisions between molecules of the same gas. When the molecules are mixed in equal proportions both hypotheses lead to the value 4([wela]+[wold]), (square brackets denoting mean values). When one gas preponderates largely over the other, the phenomena of diffusion are too difficult of observation to allow of accurate experimental tests being made. Moreover, in this case no difference exists unless the molecules are different in size or mass. Instead of supposing a velocity of translation added after the

The integral of (1) is

dy/dx = (vy)/ px.

log í— «

(1)

“mn

» + constant.

If the values, at any moment which we take as the initial time, — x are Y and X the constant can be eliminated. If we write K yu"

the value of r represents the enrichment of the residue in regard to the second constituent (y) — we can — aty XxX

=

)

nent Ty

—

r=),

These equations show that the residue becomes purer without limit, and this is so whatever may be the original proportions. mathematical calculations have been performed, a better plan is This is an outline of the theory that might be expected to apply to assume from the outset that the molecules of the two gases have to Graham's atmolyser in which the gaseous mixture is caused small velocities of translation in opposite directions, superposed to travel along a tobacco pipe on the outside of which a vacuum is on the distribution of velocity, which would occur in a medium maintained. The third Lord Rayleigh applied this method to the representing a gas at rest. When a collision occurs between mole- separation of argon from air from which the oxygen had precules of different gases a transference of momentum takes place viously been removed. If an enrichment in the ratio 2 to r is between them, and the quantity of momentum so transferred in desired the diffusion must continue until the total quantity of gas one second in a unit of volume gives a dynamical measure of the is reduced to less than 2%. In his experiments even more than resistance to diffusion. It is to be observed that, however small the this reduction was required (Rayleigh, Phil. Mag., xlii. 493, 1896). relative velocity of the gases A and B, it plays an all-important BısLiocRaPuY.—The best introduction to the study of theories part in determining the coefficient of resistance; for without such of diffusion is afforded by O. E. Meyer's Kinetic Theory of Gases, relative motion, and with the velocities evenly distributed in all translated by Robert E. Baynes (London, 1899). The mathematical directions, no transference of momentum could take place. The portion, though sufficient for ordinary purposes, is mostly of the possible character. Another useful treatise is R. Ruhimann’s coefficient of resistance being found, the motion of each of the simplest Handbuch der mechanischen Wärmetheorie uniwie, 1885). For two gases may be discussed separately. a shorter sketch the reader may refer to J.C. Maxwell's Theory of One of the most important consequences of the kinetic theory Heat, chaps. xix. and xxii, or numerous other treatises on physics. is that if the volume be kept constant the coefficient of diffusion The ‘theory of the semi-permeable membrane is discussed by M. varies as the square root of the absolute temperature. To prove Planck in his Treatise on Thermo dynamics, English translation by Ogg (1903), also in treatises on thermodynamics by W. Voigt and this, we merely have to imagine the velocity of each molecule to A. other writers. For a more detailed study of diffusion in general be suddenly increased # fold; the subsequent processes, including the following papers may be consulted:—L. Boltzmann, “Zur Integradiffusion, will then go on n times as fast; and the temperature T, tion der Diffusionsgleichung,” Sitzung. der k. bayer. A kad math.being proportional to the kinetic energy, and therefore to the phys. Klasse (May 1894); T. des ‘oudres, “Diffusionsvorgange in square of the velocity, will be increased * fold. Thus K, the co- einem Zylinder,” Wied. Ånn. W. (1895),p. 213; J. Loschmidt, “Experimentaluntersuchungen über Diffusion,” Wien. Sitz. lxi., lxii. efficient of diffusion, varies as yT. (1870); , J . Stefan, “Gleichgewicht und... Diffusion von ' Gas-

The relation of K to the density when the temperature re- mengen,” Wien. Sitz. lxiii , ‘Dynamische Theorie der Diffusion, Wien. mains constant is more difficult to discuss, but it may be sufficient Sitz. Ixv. (April 1872); M. To epler, “Gas-diffusion,” Wied. Ann. Wiii. to notice that if the number of molecules is increased n fold, the (1896), p. 599; A. Wretschko, “Experimentaluntersuchungen über die Diffusion von Gasmengen,” Wien. Sitz. Ixii. The mathematical chances of a collision are n» times as great, and the distance tra- theory of diffusion, according to the kinetic theory of gases, has versed between collisions is (not therefore but as the result of been treated by a number of different methods, and for the study more detailed reasoning) on the average 1/n of what it was before. of these the reader may consult L. Boltzmann, Vorlesungen über

Thus the free path, and therefore the coefficient of diffusion, Gastheorie (Leipzig, 1896-98); S. H. Burbury, Kinetic Theory of Gases (Cambridge, 1899), and papers by L. Boltzmann in Wien. Sitz. varies inversely as the density, or directly as the volume. If the hxxvi. (1882), Ixxxvii. (1883) ; P. G. Tait, “Foundations of the pressure p and temperature T be taken as variables, K varies Kinetic of Gases,” Trans. RSE. xxxili., Xxxv., XxXxvi., oF 7 as p and directlyas vT. Scientific Papers, ii. (Cambridge, 1900). Some of the difficulties in the

DIFFUSIVITY—DIGESTION

374

theory are discussed in a recent paper by S. Chapman, Phil. Mag. §,630 (1928). For other work reference should be made to the current issues of Science Abstracts (London), and entries under the heading “Diffusion” will be found in the general index at the end of each (G. H. Br.; A. W. Po.) volume.

freedom for Roman Catholics in England and Ireland, an independent parliament for Ireland, etc. In Feb. 1649 he was asked to return to England, was again banished; and remained in exile until 1654. At that time he was engaged by Cromwell, to the scandal of both parties, in diplomatic business. At the Restoration he re-

distinct from heat (g.v.), along a body. It depends on the thermal conductivity K, density p and specific heat S of the material,

turned to England. He died on June 11, 1665.

DIFFUSIVITY, the rate of propagation of temperature, as

according to the equation: diffusity =taal

|

i

TEN

liPr

p JEi

MARN,

r aa aaa*nar

——

York City (1898-1905);

OVERLAND

and a biography of his father,

Memoirs of John Adams Dix (1883).

DIXIE, a popular name given to the Southern States of the United States which lie south of the Mason and Dixon line. There are various reasons given for the name, one of the most plausible being that it had its origin in money issued by a bank in New Orleans before the Civil War. On the back of the ten dollar bills was printed the French word Diz, with other lettering in French, hence the South, particularly Louisiana, became known as the

land of Dixies and thereupon Dixie land. It was about this time that Daniel Emmett, negro minstrel and song writer, while looking out on the cold dreary streets of New York and wishing he were in Dixie, picked up his violin and composed that rollick- )f ou. ing song, which has been called the national anthem of the South, “Away down South in Dixie.”

DIXIE

OVER-LAND

an

(1822-1870), English sporting

DIXON, RICHARD WATSON &

(1833-1900), English poet

and divine, son of Dr. James Dixon, a Wesleyan minister, was born on May 5, 1833. He was educated at King Edward’s school, Birmingham, and on proceeding to Pembroke college, Oxford, hecame one of the famous “Birmingham group” there who shared

with William Morris and Burne-Jones in the pre-Raphaelite movement. He became minor canon and honorary librarian of Carlisle in 1868, and honorary canon in 1874; he was proctor in convocation (1890—04), and received the honorary degree of D.D. from Oxford in 18099. He died at Warkworth. of which parish he was vicar, on Jan. 23, 1900. His principal work is History of the Church of England from the Abolition of the Roman Jurisdiction (1878-1902). At the time of his death he had completed six volumes, covering the period 1529 to 1570, two of which were published posthumously. Dixon’s Selected Poems were published in 1909 with a memoir of the author by Robert Bridges.

DIXON, a city of northern Illinois, U.S.A., on the Rock river

—

and the Lincoln highway, 98m. W. of Chicago; the county seat of Lee county. It is served by the Chicago and North Western and the Illinois Central railways. The population was 8,191 in 1920 (91% native white), and was estimated locally at 12,000 in 1928. Dixon is the centre of a rich farming region, and has a number of manufacturing industries, for which the river supplies power. It was laid out in 1835 by John Dixon (1784-1876), the first white settler in the county, and was chartered as.a city in 1859. In 1833, at the close of the Black Hawk War, Jefferson Davis, Zachary Taylor and Abraham Lincoln were comrades in the old block-house that stood near the northern end of the present bridge across the river.

American

thoroughfare beginning at Savannah, Ga., and ending at San Diego, Calif. About 2,660 m. in length, it is one of the most direct routes from the Atlantic to the Pacific through the south. It is mostly improved or graded with pavements in California and in and out of large centres, and includes Columbus, Meridian, Vicksburg, Dallas, El Paso and Phoenix (qq.v.) in its course.

HALL

See Hon. Francis Lawley, Life and Times of “The Druid” (1895).

1,930 m. in its western and 2,169 m. in its eastern division. The Dixie highway represents one of the earliest attempts in the United States at modern longdistance road improvement and comprises in its course the scenic charm of the Great Lakes, the Appalachian mountains and the

shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic ocean.

return became a captain in the royal navy. In the autumn of 1785 he sailed in the “Queen Charlotte,” in the service of the King George’s Sound Company of London, to explore the shores of the present British Columbia, with the special object of developing the fur trade. His chief discoveries were those of Queen Charlotte’s islands and sound (the latter only partial), Port Mulgrave, Norfolk bay and Dixon’s Entrance and archipelago. He disposed of his cargo in China and returned in 1788, and published A Voyage round the World, but more particularly to the NorthWest Coast of America (1799), the bulk of which consists of descriptive letters by William Beresford, his supercargo. His own contribution to the work included valuable charts and appendices. He is usually identified with the author of The Navigator's Assistant (1791), who was teacher of navigation at Gosport. It is believed that he died c. 1800.

DIXON, HENRY

DIXIE HIGHWAY, an pas

from Lake Michigan and Lake Huron to Tallahassee, Jacksonville and Miami, Fla. A branch running through Nashville, Tenn., is called the “Dixie B Line.” Paved or improved throughout, it has a length of 3,989 m.,

0—

HIGHWAY

writer over the nom de plume “The Druid,” was born at Warwick Bridge, Cumberland, and educated at Rugby and at Trinity college, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1846. Three of his novels, Post and Paddock (1856), Silk and Scarlet (1859), and Scott and Sebright (1862) appeared in the Sporting Magazine. He also published a legal compendium entitled The Law of the Farm (1858); Field and Fern (1865), giving an account of the herds and flocks of Scotland; and Saddle and Sirloin (1870), treating in the same manner those of England.

American thoroughfare extending

HIGHWAY,

if!

—i

DIXIE

New

—

DIXIE HIGHWAY

DIXON, GEORGE (c. 1755-1800), English navigator. He

served under Capt. Cook in his third expedition, and after his

DIXTOUR A CORDES: see Viottn. DIZFUL, a town and district in the province of Khuzistan,

Persia, in 32° 25’ N., and 48° 35’ E., anciently known as Andamish. It is 650 ft. above sea-level on the left bank of the Ab-i-

462

DJAKOVO—DNIEPER

Diz, tributary of the river Karun, here crossed by an imposing bridge 430 yards in length in large part dating from Sasanian times and recently repaired under British auspices, the central

DLUGOSZ,

JAN

(Jonannes

Loncinus)

(1415-1480),

Polish historian, was the son of the burgrave of Bozeznica. He became the secretary of Bishop (afterwards Cardinal) Zbygniew Olesnicki (1389-1455), and was employed by him on many important missions. In spite of his connection with Olesnicki he nevertheless supported King Casimir IV. in his Prussian policy in opposition to his patron. After the Cardinal’s death in 1455 he began his Historia polonica (13 vols., 1st impression, 1614;

span now being of the suspension type. The population is estimated at 15,000 and includes Persians, Lurs and Arabs. The roads to Shushtar, 35 m. to the south-east and Ahwaz 85 m. to the south are passable ty motor cars and a motor road to Khurramabad and Burujird is under construction (1928). The town is on conglomerate cliffs some 70 ft. above river level, 1st complete impression, 1711). This great book, the first and in which cool and dry underground chambers are extensively cut still one of the best historical works on Poland, was based on an for use in the hot weather. The ruins of Susa (g.v.) are distant exhaustive study of the archives of Poland and Hungary. It was about 15 m. to the south-west. The industries peculiar to Dizful completed in 1479. Dlugosz became archbishop of Lemberg in are the preparation of indigo, the dyeing of cloths and the making 1478. He died on May 19, 1480, at Piatck. of felts. It is the principal southern market town of the nomad See Semkowicz, Critical Considerations of the Polish Works of population of Luristan. Indigo was first introduced here in the Dlugosz (Cracow, 1874); Michael Bobrzynski and Stanislaw Smolka, early 19th century, but has since been almost entirely displaced Life of Dlugosz and his Position in Literature (Cracow, 1893); both of these are in Polish. by imported dyes. Dizful reed pens are celebrated in the East and extensively exported. The streets are narrow and crooked and DMITRIEV, IVAN IVANOVICH (1760-1837), Russian the sanitary conditions bad. In the river bed above the bridge statesman and poet, was born at his father’s estate in the Governare several flour mills worked by water power. Several canals ment of Simbirsk on Sept. 20, 1760. In consequence of the revolt take off below the bridge and irrigate some 20,000 acres on either of Pugachev the family was compelled to flee to St. Petersburg, bank, but a far greater area was once served by similar canals and and there Ivan entered the army. During the four years from could be again fertilized if the dam, on which the original bridge 1810 to 1814 he served as minister of justice under the emperor stood, were reconstructed. Alexander. The rest of his life was devoted to literature. He took DJAKOVO, a city of Croatia Slavonia, Yugoslavia. Pop. sides with Karamsin in the battle for a natural Russian language (1921) 7,987. Djakovo is a Roman Catholic Episcopal see, whose against the Old Slavonic Party. His poems include songs, odes, occupant bears the title of Bishop of Bosnia, Slavonia and satires, tales, epistles, etc., as well as the fables—partly original Sirmium (Srijem). Bishop Strossmayer (1815-1905), did much and partly translated from Fontaine, Florian and Arnault—on tò foster the sense of racial kinship among the Yugoslavs, and which his fame chiefly rests. He also wrote a short dramaticothe town became a centre of religious and political activity. The epic poem on Yermak, the Cossack conqueror of Siberia. cathedral, a basilica with a central dome and two lofty spires, His writings occupy three volumes in the first five editions; in the was founded in 1866. Its style is Romanesque, chosen by Stross- sixth (St. Petersburg, 1823) there arc only two. His memoirs, to mayer as symbolical of the position of his country, midway be- which he devoted the last years of his life, were published at Moscow tween east and west. Djakovo has a thriving trade in agricultural in 1866. produce. Many Roman remains have been discovered. DMITRIEVSK, a town in the Stalin district of the UkrainFor a full description of the cathedral, in Serbo-Croatian and French, ian S.S.R. long. 38° 48’ E. lat. 47° 56’ N. In 1897 it was a village see the illustrated folio Stolna Crkva Djakovu, published by the South with a population of 512, but in 1917 its coal mines were deSlavonic Academy, 1900. veloped and metal and chemical industries established. Its popuDJEMAL PASHA, AHMED (1861-1922), Turkish poli- lation (1926) is 51,436. tician, was born at Constantinople on May 1, 1861. He entered DNEPROPETROVSK, formerly Ekateringslav, a town in the army, and later became a member of the Committee of Union a county of the same name, in the Ukrainian S.S.R. It is situated and Progress. He was appointed military governor of Adana on the right bank of the Dnieper river above the rapids in 48° (1908), governor-general of Baghdad (1911) and commanded a 21’ N. and 35° 4’ E. alt. 210 ft. In 1927 under American direcdivision during the Balkan wars. In 1913 he commanded the tion, the construction of a ferro-concrete dam, with sluices and I. Army Corps, and was made Minister of Public Works. In 1914 docks allowing ships to pass, and turbines for generating eleche became Minister of Marine; in the same year he took over the tricity was commenced. The proximity of manganese, nitre, coal II. Army, and was afterwards sent to Syria in command of the and iron deposits to the station, and of the Zaporozhny aluminium IV. Army. Owing to dissensions with Enver Pasha and von industry is a great commercial asset. Pressure on the railway Falkenhayn he returned to Constantinople in 1917, where he system will be relieved by the opening of river transport for - retained the portfolio of the Marine until the Armistice. On the wheat, timber, coal, iron and other heavy products. The town downfall of the Ministry in Oct. 1918 Djemal, with other members has iron-smelting, and metal industries employing more than of the Committee of Union and Progress, sought refuge in Ger- 50,000 men, and there are also breweries, flour-mills and other many and Switzerland. Later he visited Russia, and thence pro- smaller industries. In 1895 it became the centre of numerous ceeded to Afghanistan, where he exercised a powerful influence. Franco-Belgian industrial enterprises, and its population has He was assassinated at Tiflis on July 22, 1922. Djemal did much increased from 18,881 in 1861 to 187,357 in 1926. It is a trading to awaken the spirit of nationalism in the Mohammedan countries centre for the agricultural products of the district. On the site of central Asia. of the present city there formerly stood the Polish castle of His writings include a volume in French, Le Carnet de route du Koindak, built in 1635, but it was destroyed by the Cossacks. Colonel Djemal Bey, and works in Turkish on Plevna and the Crimean Potemkin founded the city in 1785, and Catherine II. in 1787 Campaign. Another work, Memories of a Turkish Statesman, 1913-19 laid the foundation stone of its cathedral, which however, was (1922) appeared in English and in German.

D LINES, in spectroscopy (g.v.), the pair of lines. characteristic of sodium, in the yellow region of the spectrum. Their separa-

tion is too small to be detected with a spectroscope of low resolving power, hence to Fraunhofer (qg.v.) they appeared asa single line. This line was the fourth prominent absorption line in the

sun’s spectrum, starting from the red end, and he accordingly

designated it by the letter D. It was subsequently resolved into

two components D; and D; corresponding to wave-lengths 5895-93 and 5895-97 A.U. (107° cm.) respectively. An emission line appearing in the chromosphere, D; A 5875-62, has since been discovered.

This line is due to helium.

not built until 1830-5.

Paul I. changed the name of the city to

Novo Rossiysk, but its original name was restored in 1802. The oldest part of the city lies very low and is subject to floods. The civic buildings include a mining academy, an archaeological museum andalibrary.

DNIEPER, one of the most important rivers of Europe (the

Borysthenes oí the Greeks, Danapris of the Romans, Uzi or Uzu of the Turks, Æksi of the Tartars, Elice of Visconti’s map [1381], Lerene of Contarini [1437], Luosen of Baptista of Genoa h514], and Lussem in the same century). It belongs entirely to Russia, and rises in the Smolensk province, in a swampy district (alt.

930 ft.) at the foot of the Valdai hills, not far from the sources

DNIESTER—DOBBS

FERRY

4.63

of the Volga and the Dvina, in 55° 52’ N. and 33° 41’ E. Its length is about 1,410 m. and it drains an area of 202,140 sq.m. In the first part of its course, which may be said to end at Dorogobuzh, it flows through an undulating country of Carboniferous formation; in the second it passes west to Orsha and south through the White Russian S.S.R. to the Ukrainian S.S.R., where it passes south through the fertile plain of Chernigov and Kiev, and then southeast across the rocky steppe to Dnepropetrovsk (Ekaterinoslav). About 45 m. south of this town it has to force its way across the same granitic offshoot of the Carpathian mountains which inter-

ficial channel on the right, for steamboats they form an insuperable barrier. The river falls into the sea by several arms, passing through a shallow lagoon, a few miles south west of Odessa. There are two periodical floods—the earlier and larger caused by the breaking up of the ice, and occurring in the latter part of February or in March; and the latter due to the melting of the snows in the Carpathians, and taking place about June. The spring flood raises the level of the water 20 ft., and towards the mouth of the river submerges the gardens and vineyards of the adjacent country. In some years the general state of the water is so low that rupts the course of the Dniester and the Bug, and for a distance navigation is possible only for three or four weeks, while in other of about 25 m. rapid succeeds rapid. The fall of the river in that years it is so high that navigation continues without interruption; distance is 155 ft. The Dnieper, having got clear of the rocks, but considerable improvements were effected before the World continues south-west through the grassy plains of Kherson and War at government expense. In consequence the traffic increased: Taurida, and enters the Black sea by a considerable estuary in the Dniester used to tap regions of great productiveness, especially 46° 30’ N. and 32° 20’ E. with the town of Kherson on its right in cereals and timber. Steamboat trafic was introduced in the bank. On this ramifying liman, into which the Bug also pours its lower reaches in 1840. The fisheries of the lower course and of waters, stands Nikolaiev. Navigation extends as far up as Dorogo- the estuary are of considerable importance; and these, together buzh, where the depth is about 12 ft., and rafts are floated down with those of the lakes which are formed by the inundations, furfrom the higher reaches. The banks are generally high, more par- nish a valuable addition to the diet of the people in the shape of ticularly the left bank. About the town of Smolensk the breadth is carp, pike, tench, salmon, sturgeon and eels. Its tributaries are 455 ft., at the confluence of the Pripet 1,400, and in some parts of numerous, but not of individual importance. DO, in music, the first of the sol-fa syllables, or sound names the Dnepropetrovsk district more than 14 m. In the course above the rapids the channel varies very greatly in nature and depth, and for the notes of the scale, this syllable having been substituted, as it is not infrequently interrupted by shallows. The rapids form a being more sonorous, for Ut, which was originally the first of serious obstacle to navigation; it is only for a few weeks when the these syllables—dz, re, mi, etc.—as chosen in the 11th century by river is in flood that they are passable, and even then the venture Guido d’Arezzo when he devised his system of solmization (g.v.). is not without risk and can be undertaken only with the assistance Hence in the Tonic Sol-fa system, based on what is called the of special pilots. As early as 1732 an attempt was made to im- “movable do,” do is the tonic of whatever key may be employed, prove the channel. A canal, which ultimately proved too small for whereas in the systems employing the “fixed do” it is invariably C. use, was constructed at Nenasitets in 1780 at private expense;

blastings were carried out in 1798 and 1799 at various parts; in 1805 a canal was formed at Kaindatski, and the channel straightened at Sursk; by 1807 a new canal was completed at Nenasitets;

DOAB, a name applied in India, according to its derivation

(do, two, and ab, river), to the stretch of country lying between any two rivers, as the Bari Doab between the Sutlej and the Ravi,

the Rechna Doab between the Ravi and the Chenab, the Jech Doab between the Chenab and Jhelum, and the Sind Sagar Doab between the Jhelum and the Indus, but frequently employed, without any distinctive adjunct, as the proper name for the region

in 1833 a passage was cleared through the Staro-Kaindatski rapid; and in the period 1843 to 1853 numerous ameliorations were effected. The result has been not only to diminish greatly the dangers of the natural channel, but also to furnish a series of between the Ganges and its great tributary the Jumna. DOBBIE, SIR JAMES JOHNSTONE (1852-1924), Britartificial canals by which vessels can make their way when the river is low. A ferro-concrete dam was constructed in 1927 across ish chemist, was born at Glasgow on Aug. 4, 1852, and educated at the falls, under American direction, with sluices and docks for Edinburgh, Glasgow and Leipzig. At Glasgow he became closely letting ships pass, and a station and turbines for the production of associated with Ramsay’s work, and they collaborated in a series electric power. Of the tributaries of the Dnieper the following are of papers on the cinchona alkaloids (Trans. Chem. Soc., 1878— navigable—the Berezina and the Pripet from the right, and the 1879). He held various posts at University college, Bangor (1884), Sozh and the Desna from the left. By means of the Dnieper-Bug the Royal Scottish Museum (1903-1909), and the Government (King’s) canal, and the Berezina and Oginski canals, this river has Laboratory in London, becoming Government chemist (1911water connection with the Baltic sea. In the estuary the fisheries 1920) when the laboratory was created a separate department. He give employment to large numbers of people. At Kiev the river was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and was knighted in 1915. He is free from ice on an average for 234 days in the year, at died on the Ayrshire coast on Juve 19, 1924. At Bangor where he helped to establish an agricultural departDnepropetrovsk 270 and at Kherson 277. DNIESTER, ariver of south-eastern Europe belonging to the ment, Dobbie collaborated with Dr. A. Lauder, and they sucbasin of the Black sea. It rises on the northern slope of the Car- ceeded in isolating three of the five alkaloids of Corydalis cava. pathian mountains in Czechoslovakia, and for 150 m. from Za- As Government chemist he used the absorption spectra method of leszczyky to Karmassy, where it forms a broad estuary as it flows studying the constitution of organic compounds (with W. N. into the Black sea, is the boundary between Rumanian Bessarabia Hartly, J. J. Fox and others). After the World War he applied and the Ukrainian S.S.R. During the 1918 Russo-Rumanian re- the absorption spectra methods to gases. The results of his retreat, all the bridges across the Dniester were destroyed, and as searches were published in a series of papers from 1893-1921. DOBBS FERRY, a village of Westchester county, New York, diplomatic relations between Rumania and the U.S.S.R. have not on the east bank of the Hudson river, opposite the northern end no and re-built, been not have been opened (1928) these bridges traffic is allowed up and down the river. Both banks of the river vf the Palisades, 20m. N. of New York city. It is served by the are watched by armed guards and trade across or along it bas New York Central railroad. The population was 5,020 in 1925. completely ceased. The Dniester drains an area of 20,670 sq.m. It is the seat of two private schools and of The Children’s Village It is excessively meandering, and the current in most parts even (formerly the New York Juvenile asylum, incorporated 1851), a during low water is decidedly rapid as compared with Russian rivers generally, the mean rate being calculated at 114m. per hour. The average width of the channel is from 50o to 750 ft., but in some places it attains as much as 1,400 ft.; the depth is

reform school for New York boys, on the cottage plan. The prin-

cipal manufacturing establishment is the printing plant of the Methodist Book concern, employing 600 workers. There are many fine country homes in the vicinity. About 1775 Jeremiah Dobbs, various and changeable. The navigable portion of the river is a Swede (probably from Delaware) began operating a skiff interrupted by a granitic spur from the Carpathians which gives ferry here, which was kept up by his family for a century. During rise to the Yampol rapids. For ordinary river craft the passage of the Revolution fortifications were erected, and the village was a these rapids is rendered possible, but not free from danger, by a rendezvous for the British army after the Battle of White Plains natural channel on the left side, and by a larger and deeper arti- and for an American division in Jan. 1777. Washington’s army

DOBELL—DOBRIZHOFFER

464

encamped near by on July 4, 1781, and started thence for Yorktown the following month. In the Van Brugh Livingston house, on

May 6, 1783, Washington and Governor Clinton met General Sir Guy Carleton to negotiate for the evacuation of the posts still held by the British. The village was incorporated in 1873, as Greenburgh, but the original name was soon resumed.

DOBELL,

BERTRAM

(1842-1914),

English bookseller

and man of letters, the discoverer of the poet Thomas Traherne, was born at Battle, Sussex, the son of a tailor; he died at Hampstead on Dec. 14, 1914. The father moved to London, and there fell ill; the son became an errand-boy and began to collect old books from the stalls. In 1869 he set up business as a bookseller on a capital of £10, and in 1887 moved to Charing Cross road, where his shop became famous and his catalogues interesting for their literary gossip. Dobell met James Thomson in 1876, and helped him from that time to his death; in 1895 he edited the

Poetical Works of his friend, with a memoir. His literary work

also included the publication of much useful work on Shelley and Charles Lamb. After his death some volumes of his verse containing some admirable sonnets were issued by his son. But his reputation rests chiefly on the identification of Thomas Traherne, whose Poetical Works he edited in 1903. For the story of that identification see TRAHERNE, THOMAS. See S. Bradbury, Bertram Dobell (1909).

DOBELL, SYDNEY THOMPSON (1824-1874), English poet and critic, was born at Cranbrook, Kent. His father was a wine merchant, his mother a daughter of Samuel Thompson (1766-1837), a London political reformer. The family moved to Cheltenham when Dobell was 12 years old. He was educated privately, and never attended either school or university. He refers to this in some lines on Cheltenham college in imitation of Chaucer, written in his 18th year. An acquaintance with Mr. (subsequently Sir James) Stansfeld and with the Birmingham preacher-politician, George Dawson (1821-76), which afterwards led to the foundation of the Society of the Friends of Italy, fed the young enthusiast’s ardour for the Liberalism of the day. Meanwhile, Dobell wrote a number of minor poems, instinct with a passionate desire for political reform. The Roman appeared in 1850, under the nom de plume of “Sydney Yendys.” His second long poem, Balder, appeared in 1854. The three following years were spent in Scotland. Perhaps his closest friend at this time was Alexander Smith, in company with whom he published, in 1855, a number of sonnets on the Crimean War, which were followed by a volume on England in Time of Mar He died on Aug. 22, 1874. As a poet Dobell belongs to the “spasmodic school,” as it was named by Prof. Aytoun, who parodied its style in Firmilian. The epithet, however, was first applied by Carlyle to Byron. The school includes George Gilfllan, Philip James Bailey, John Stanyan Bigg (1826-65), Dobell, Alexander Smith, and according to some critics, Gerald Massey. It was characterized by an under-current of discontent with the mystery of existence, by vain effort, unrewarded struggle, sceptical unrest, and an uneasy straining after the unattainable. It thus faithfully reflected a certain phase of 19th century thought. The standard edition of his Poems (1875) includes a memoir by Prof. Nichol, who also edited a collection of his prose writings under

the title Thoughts on Art, Philosophy and Religion (1876).

DOBELN, a town of Germany, in the republic of Saxony, on the (Freiberg) Mulde, two arms of which embrace the town as an island, 35 m. S.E. from Leipzig by rail, and at the junction of lines to Dresden, Chemnitz, Riesa and Oschatz. Pop. (1925) 22,508. The Nikolai-kirche, dating in Its present form from 1485, a mediaeval town hall, a former Benedictine nunnery and a monument to Luther are notable. The industries include wool-spinning, iron-founding, carriage, agricultural implement, and metal-printing and stamping work.

possesses an Evangelical Gothic church of the 14th century, one of the finest in north Germany, a palace, a theatre, an exchange and a concert hall. ‘Owing to its delightful situation amid beech forests. and to its chalybeate waters, Doberan has become a favourite summer resort. In 1793 Duke Frederick Francis caused the first seaside watering-place in Germany to be established on the neighbouring coast, 4 m. distant, at the spot where the Heiligen-Damm, a great bank of rocks about 1,000 ft. broad and 1§ ft. high, stretches out into the sea and forms an excellent

bathing ground. DOBEREINER, JOHANN WOLFGANG (1780-1849), German chemist, was born near Hof in Bavaria on Dec. 15, 1780. After studying pharmacy at Miinchberg, he started a chemical manufactory in 1803, and in 1810 was appointed professor of chemistry, pharmacy and technology at Jena, where he died on March 24, 1849. The Royal Society’s Catalogue enumerates 171 papers by him on various chemical topics, but he is best known

for his experiments on platinum in a minute state of division and on the oxidation products of alcohol. He studied the formation of aldehyde from alcohol by various methods, also obtaining its crystalline compound with ammonia, and he was the discoverer of furfural. An early observation of the diffusion of gases was recorded by him in 1823 when he noticed the escape of hydrogen from a cracked jar, attributing it to the capillary action of fissures. His works included treatises on pneumatic chemistry (1821-25) and the chemistry of fermentation (1822). ` A correspondence which he carried on with Goethe and Charles August, grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, was collected and published at Weimar by Schade in 1856. DOBLIN, ALFRED (1878_+), was born at Stettin on Aug. 10, 1878. After studying in Berlin and Freiburg, he settled in Berlin as a practising doctor. His principal works are Der schwarse Vorhang (written 1902-03; pub. 1919); Die drei Spriinge des Wang-lun (a romance of China, 1916); Wallenstein (historical novel, 1919) and Berge, Meere, Giganten (a tale of primitive life, 1924). In these works he combines an epic force of expression with an extremely vivid narrative style. Less important are Wadsek’s Kampf mit der Dampfturbine (1918); Der deutsche Maskenball (essays, 1921); Retse in Polen (an appreciative travel book, 1926); Manas (poem, 1927); Das Ich über die Natur (1928). In 1928 Döblin was elected a member of the German Academy of letters.

DÖBRENTEI, GABOR (GasrEL) (1786-1851), Hunga-

rian philologist and antiquary, was born at Nagyszollos. He completed his studies at the Universities of Wittenberg and Leipzig, and became a tutor in Transylvania. In 1820 Dobrentei settled at Budapest, where he held various official posts, and there he spent the rest of his life. His great work Is the Ancient Monuments of the Magyor Language (Régi Magyar Nyclvemleékek, 1838 seg.), the editing of which was entrusted to him by the Hungarian Academy. Döbrentei was one of the organizers, under the presidency of Count Teleki, of the Hungarian Academy. He died at his country house, near Budapest, on March 28, 1851.

DOBRICI (or Bazarcic), capital of the department of Caliacra, southern Dobruja, Rumania. Pop. (1928) 19,000. Dobrici is the centre of a postal district, and has a large annual fair for cattle, horses and sheep. The small ports of Balcik and Cavarna are situated some 15 m. away, on the Black sea. The population of the district is very mixed, including Turks, Bulgars, Circassians and Tatars, Gagauz and many gypsies.

-DOBRITCH,

a large town in Dobruja (g.v.). Pop. (est.)

14,500. The town is noted as the centre of a great fair, principally for cattle and horses. This is held in the summer, but has declined in importance in recent years. DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN (1717-1791), Austrian Roman Catholic missionary, was born at Gratz, in Styria. He DOBERAN or Dosseran, a town in the republic of Meck- joined the Jesuits in 1736, and in 1749 proceeded to Paraguay, lenburg-Schwerin, Germany, about 2 m. from the shores of where for 18 years he worked among the Guaranis and the the Baltic and 7 W. of Rostock by rail. Pop. (1925) 5,300. Abipones. Returning to Europe on the expulsion of the Jesuits Besides the ruins of a Cistercian abbey founded by Pribislaus, from South America, he settled at Vienna, obtained the friendprince of Mecklenburg, in 1173, agd secularized in 1552, it ship of Maria Theresa, and composed the history of his mission

DOBROVSK Y—DOBSON entitled Historia de Abiponibus, Equestri Bellicosaque

Para-

guariae Natione, etc., 3 vols. (Vienna, 1783). In 1822 there appeared in London an anonymous translation really by Sara Coleridge. Dobrizhoffer died on July 17, 1791.

DOBROVSKY, JOSEPH (1753-1829), Hungarian philolo-

gist, was born of Bohemian parentage at Gjermet, near Raab, Hungary, and studied at Prague. In 1772 he joined the Jesuits at Brünn; but on the dissolution of the order in 1773 returned to Prague to study theology, and became tutor in the family of Count Nostitz. In 1792 he was commissioned by the Bohemian Academy of Sciences to visit Stockholm, Abo, Petersburg and Moscow in search of the manuscripts which had been scattered by the Thirty Years’ War; and on his return he accompanied Count Nostitz to Switzerland and Italy. Dobrovsky was the real founder of modern Slavonic studies, and the originator of the revival of Czech as a literary language. His grammar and dictionary provided the basis for modern Czech philology, and modern Czech speech. (See CZECH LANGUAGE: CZECH LITERATURE.) The following is a list of his more important works, Fragmentum Pragense evangelii S. Marci, vulgo autographi (1778); Scriptores rerum Bohemicarum (2 vols., 1783); Geschichte der böhm. Sprache und dlltern Literatur (1792); Die Bildsamkeit der slaw. Sprache (1799) ; Institutiones linguae slavicae dialecti veteris (1822); Entwurf su einem allgemeinen Etymologikon der slaw. Sprachen (1813); and a critical edition of Jordanes, De rebus Geticis, for Pertz’s Monumenta Germaniae historica. See Palacky, J. Dobrowskys Leben und gelehrtes Wirken (1833).

DOBRUJA, a region of south-east Rumania, bounded north and west by the Danube, east by the Black sea, and south by Bulgaria. Its area is 23,262 sq.km., the population (1926) approximately 700,000.

It comprises the four districts of Tulcea, Con-

stanta, Durostor and Bazargic. It consists of low mountains, fens and sandy steppes, wind-swept and drought-ridden, but remark-

ably fertile when the lack of irrigation is considered. There are forests, and the peasants raise cereals, but little is available for export. There is also copper near Tulcea, and undeveloped coalfields of some value. Its chief claim to importance lies in the fact that its main port, Constanta, is Rumania’s principal sea-port for export, and in winter, when the Danube is ice-bound, her sole link with the Black sea. An oil pipe-line runs from Constanta to the main Rumanian oil-fields, and a railway connects the town with Bucharest via a bridge at Cerna-Voda. A second line runs from Tulcea, in the north, to Varna, in Bulgaria. The population is very mixed, including besides Rumanians, Bulgars, Tatars, Gagauzes, and, since the War of 1914-18, many Macedonian

Vlachs, settled here by the Rumanian Government.

(X.)

HISTORY The district was known to the Greeks in the 6th century B.c. and included the Greek colonies of Istros, Tomi and Dionysopolis. In the sth and 4th centuries B.c. invading Scythians subjugated and later submerged the Thracian population, whence the later names of Scythia Minor and Scythia Pontica. The Romans first invaded it 75-72 B.c., definitely subjecting it in A.D. 46. They and their successors the Byzantine emperors Romanized the population and erected walls for its defence; but it was repeatedly overrun by Goths, Alans and Huns. In a.v. 678 Asparuch, Khan of the Bulgarians, settled with his horde, by permission of the Byzantine empire, near the present Nicolitel; but soon repudiated his allegiance and founded the first Bulgarian empire, which included the Dobruja, with its mixed population of Slavs, Bulgars and the remnants of the old Roman colonies. It was recovered for Byzantium in 1018, but in 1186 reverted to the second Bulgarian empire, established by the alliance of Bulgars, Viachs and Cumans. Magyars, Petchenegs and

465

his several capitulations to the Turks (1391, 1393, finally in 1411) it came under Turkish domination for nearly soo years. These years brought a further ethnical change, numbers of Turks, Tatars and Circassians being settled in the steppes. The Treaty of Berlin (July 13, 1878) assigned the Dobruja to Rumania, in compensation for Bessarabia, annexed by Russia. The Treaty of Bucharest (Aug. 10, 1013) advanced the frontier 30m. southward, the two districts of Bazargic and Durostor being ceded to Rumania by Bulgaria. The Central Powers annexed the entire province under the Treaty of Bucharest (May 7, 1918); the southern half was ceded immediately to Bulgaria, the northern

administered

provisionally

by the Central

Powers

in condo-

minium, while Rumania was allowed to retain the port of Con-

stanța (Kustenje) as an outlet to the Black sea. The Treaty of Neuilly (Nov. 27, 1919), restored the 1913 frontier, leaving the entire province to Rumania. (N. L. F.)

DOBŠINÁ, a small town of central Slovakia in the Triassic limestone “karst” zone of the Carpathians near the Gollnitz valley. Founded by German miners in the 14th century as a result of the wealth of the surrounding mountains in iron, cobalt, copper

and mercury, it is now mainly famous for the existence about 34 m. N.W. of the town of a cavern containing an icefield, nearly 2 acres in area, with which are associated remarkable and beautiful formations.

DOBSON, FRANK (1887- __ ), British sculptor, was born in London on Nov. 18, 1887. He received his early training with the sculptor W. Reynolds-Stephens, and later obtained a scholarship at Hospitalfield, Arbroath, New Brunswick. After further study in the City and Guilds Schools at Kennington, London, he lived in Cornwall and worked with the granite cutters. He was thus technically well equipped for a sculptor’s career. His early works, both in painting and sculpture—few of which now exist— show definitely the attraction of the first Post-Impressionist exhibition held in London in 1909. After war service he exhibited his first important work in stone “The Concertina Man” (1919), which was followed in 1921 by “Two Heads” in red Mansfield stone and the more complex Portland stone group “The Man Child.” In 1923 he competed unsuccessfully for the Welsh National Memorial at Cardiff with his recumbent figure, “Cambria.” To the next two years belong the white marble figure of a woman (1924), the seated nude “Susanna” and “Morning” (1925). His

portraits include the bronze bust of the Earl of Oxford and Asquith (1921), the polished brass head of Osbert Sitwell (1923) and the plaster head of a young girl (1925)—the two last named in the National Gallery of British Art—the bronze half-length of

Lydia Lopokova (1924) and heads of L. H. Myers (1925), Robert McAlmond and Robin Sinclair. He was a founder of the X Group, and in 1923 became president of the London Group. See Roger Fry in The Burlington Magazine, vol. 46, p. 171 (1925); Clive Bell in The Architectural Review, vol. 59, p. 41 (1926).

DOBSON,

HENRY

AUSTIN

(1840-1921), English poet

and man of letters, was born at Plymouth and educated at Beaumaris, Coventry, and the Strasbourg gymnase. In Dec. 1856 he entered the board of trade, and from 1884 to 1901, when he retired, was a principal clerk in the marine department of that office. In 1873 he collected the poems which had appeared in various periodicals in a volume entitled Vignettes in Rhyme.

In 1875 ap-

Cumans had repeatedly ravaged it, the two last named settling

peared At the Sign of the Lyre, which contained “The Ladies of St. James’s,” “The Old Sedan Chair,” “My Books,” and the delightful “Fables of Literature and Art.” The book has the flavour of the 18th century which Dobson loved so well, and of which he has left ‘exquisite pictures in prose as well as in verse. Dobson led the movement in the late ’7os for the introduction of French forms, the ballade, the triolet, and the rondeau, forms which he used in his Proverbs in Porcelain (1877). Vignettes in Rhyme and

there in such numbers that it was known as Petchengia.

In the

Proverbs in Porcelain, combined in one volume, were printed in the

frequently raided it. With the decline of one Dobrotitich, a condottiere of Walhere an independent, or at least semithe name Dobruja derives either from

United States as Vignettes in Rhyme (1880), and with some additions as Old World Idylls (1883) in England. After 1885 Dobson was engaged principally upon critical and biographical prose. His

13th century the Tatars the_ Bulgarian empire, lachian origin, founded autonomous depotate;

biographies of Fielding (1883), Bewick (1884), Steele (1886),

Dobrotitich or from the Topruch Tatars. In 1390 it passed under | Goldsmith (1888), Walpole (1890), Hogarth (1879—98), Samuel the suzerainty of Mircea-Voda, Voivode of Wallachia; but after |Richardson (1902), and Fanny Burney (1903) are studies marked

466

DOBSON—DOCKS

“

alike by assiduous research, sympathetic presentation and sound ‘oped in the three enlarged leathery inner sepals, one or all of criticism. Dobson always added something, and often a great deal, which bear a tubercle. In the common or broad-leaved dock, to our positive knowledge of the subject in question, his work as Rumex obtusifolius, the fiower-stem is erect, branching, and 18 in. a critic never being solely aesthetic. Four Frenchwomen (1890), to 3 ft. high, with large radical leaves, heart-shaped at the base, the three series of Highteenth-Century Vignettes (1892-94-96), and more or less blunt; the other leaves are more pointed, and and The Paladin of Philanthropy (1899), contain unquestionably have shorter stalks. The whorls are many-flowered, close to the his most delicate prose work. In 1901 he collected his hitherto stem and mostly leafless, The flowers appear from June to Auunpublished poems in a volume entitled Carmina Votiva. gust. In autumn the whole plant may become of a bright red See Alban Dobson, Austin Dobson, Some Notes (1928). colour. It is a troublesome weed, common by roadsides and

DOBSON, WILLIAM

(1610-1646), English portrait and in waste places, fields and pastures, where it is often accidentally

historical painter, was born in London. Excellent examples of Dobson’s portraits are to be seen at Blenheim, Chatsworth, and other country seats throughout England, and there are several examples at Hampton Court and in the National Portrait Gallery, London, including a very fine portrait of Endymion Porter. The head in the “Decollation of St. John the Baptist” at Wilton is said to be a portrait of Prince Rupert. See Collins Baker Lely and the Stuart Portrait Painters (1912),

DOBSON-FLY, the name given to large flies of the genus

Corydalis, allied to the alder-flies (g.v.), and inhabiting North and South America and northern India. The males are remarkable for their large jaws. Scientifically, dobson-flies are placed in the family Sialidae, order Neuroptera (g.v.). The larvae are aquatic.

DOCETAE, a name applied to those thinkers in the early Christian Church who held that Christ, during his life, had not a real or natural, but only an apparent (doxetv, to appear) or phantom body. The name is first used by Theodoret (Ep. 82) as a general description, and by Hippolytus (Philosophumena, viii.

8-11), Clement of Alexandria and others, as the name of a distinct sect. It must, however, be regarded as a type of Christology. The origin of the heresy is to be sought in Greek, Alexandrine and Oriental speculations about the imperfection or rather the essential impurity of matter. Traces of a Jewish Docetism are to be found in Philo; and in the Christian form it is generally supposed to be combated in the Johannine Epistles (J. ii. 22, iv. 2, v. 6, 20; II. 7) and more formally in the epistles of Ignatius (Ad Trall. 9 f., Ad Smyrn. 2, 4, Ad Ephes. 7; cf. Polycarp, Ad Phil. 7). It differed much in its complexion according to the points of view adopted by the different authors. Among the Gnostics and Manichaeans it existed in its most developed type, and in a milder form is to be found even in the writings of the orthodox teachers. The more thoroughgoing Docetae assumed the position that Christ was born without any participation of matter; and that all the acts and sufferings of his human life, including the crucifixion, were only apparent. They denied, accordingly, the resurrection and the ascent into heaven. To this class belonged Dositheus, Saturninus, Cerdo, Marcion and their followers, the Ophites, Manichaeans and others. Marcion, for example, regarded the body of Christ merely as an “umbra,” a “phantasma.” His denial (due to his abhorrence of the world) that Jesus was born or subjected to human development, is in striking contrast to the value which he sets on Christ’s death on the cross. The other, or milder school of Docetae, attributed to Christ an ethereal and heavenly instead of a truly human body. Amongst these were Valentinus, Bardesanes, Basilides, Tatian and their followers. They varied considerably in their estimation of the share which this body had in the real actions and sufferings of Christ. Docetism springs from the same roots as Gnosticism (q. v.).

introduced with clover and grass seeds. The great water dock, R. hydrolapathum, is a tall-growing species. Other British species are R. crispus; R. conglomeratus, the root of which has been employed in dyeing; R. sanguineus (bloody dock, or bloodwort); R. pulcher (fiddle dock), with fiddle-shaped leaves; R. maritimus. The naturalized species, R. alpinus, or “monk’s rhubarb,” was early cultivated in Great Britain, and was accounted an excellent remedy for ague. Some 30 or more species occur in North America, widely distributed in the United States and Canada, about one-third of which are naturalized from the Old World.

The roots of the

canaigre (R. hymenosepalus), native to the south-western United States and Mexico, are used for tanning. The fleshy, solid part of an animal’s tail is also known as “dock” (cf. Icel. docke, stumpy tail; Ger. Docke, bundle, skein). The verb “to dock,” especially in reference to horses and dogs, is used of the shortening of an animal’s tail by severing one or more of the vertebrae. The English Kennel Club (Rules, 1927) disqualifies from prize-winning dogs whose tails have been docked, with the exception of varieties of terriers, spaniels, etc., and such other breeds as may be determined by the committee. The prisoners’ dock, a railed-in enclosure in which prisoners are

placed during trial, is apparently derived from Flem. dok, pen or hutch. It occurs in 1610 as “‘bail-dock,” a room at the Old Bailey left open at the top.

DOCKET, in law, a brief summary of a case, or a memorandum of legal decisions; also the alphabetical list of cases down for trial, or of suits pending. Such cases are said to be “on the docket.” In commerce a docket is a warrant from the customhouse, stating that the duty on goods entered has been paid, or the label fastened to goods, showing their destination, value, etc., and, generally, any endorsement on the back of a document, briefly stating its contents. |

DOCKS.

The principal function of a commercial port is to

provide means whereby cargoes may be discharged from and loaded into vessels frequenting it for the purpose. The transfer of goods may be from ship to quay warehouses and other storage places; or to wagons on the quays; or to river and canal craft lying alongside the ship; and vice versa. The facilities provided must be in sheltered positions and suitable appliances are necessary for the convenient and expeditious handling of cargoes. A basin constructed for these purposes, surrounded by quay walls, is known as a dock. The term is specially applied to basins, at places with a large range of tide, usually more than rsft., in which the water is maintained at a fairly uniform level by gates, which are closed when the tide begins to fall as at the docks of Liverpool (Plate I., fig. 9) and Havre. (The word “dock” should, strictly speaking, be applied only to wet-docks closed by gates, and to dry-docks and floating docks used for the repair of vessels. It is, however, commonly and popularly employed in a wider sense and — [Gr. doxu%, “a hand’s breadth”], a form of is so used in this article.) Sometimes, however, at both river and verse, consisting of dochmsi or pentasyllabic feet (usually u--u-), sea-coast ports with lesser range of tide such as Glasgow, Hamburg, Rouen, Southampton and New York, dock gates are disin English, “rébél, slaves, rébél.” DOCK, in botany, the name applied to the plants constituting pensed with, and open basins and river quays serve for the aca section of the genus Rumex, family Polygonaceae. They are bi- commodation of vessels. In tideless seas, such as the Mediterennial or perennial herbs with a stout rootstock, and glabrous ranean, the rivers are usually barred by deltas at their outlets, linear-lanceolate. ør oblong-lanceolate leaves with a rounded, ob- like the Rhone and Tiber, and thus rendered inaccessible. Ports tuse or hollowed base and a more or less wavy or crisped margin. have often been established on the coasts of such seas by conThe flowers are arranged in more or less crowded whorls, the structing open basins protected by breakwaters, as at Marseilles, whole forming a panicle; they are generally perfect, with six Genoa and Naples. Open basins, however, are precisely the same sepals, six stamens and a three-sided ovary bearing three styles as closed docks, except for the absence of dock gates. with much-divided stigmas. The fruit is a triangular nut envelThe accommodation for shipping in basins in river ports is so

DOCKS frequently supplemented by river quays, that closed docks, open basins and river quays and wharves are all naturally included in the general consideration of dock works. The present article therefore comprehends brief descriptions of wet-docks and basins and their approaches; locks and entrances; quay walls, piers and wharves; dry docks and slipways; dock and lock gates and caissons; the equipment and machinery of docks; and the methods of handling cargo in them. Reference is made to Naval docks but SCALE oF Mites

467

made at Bristol as early as 1626 and remained in use until 1687; and in 1656 a larger dry dock was built at Portsmouth. Open tidal basins formed by excavating in the banks of a river, such as the Thames, and surrounded by wharves or primitive timber faced quays, had been in use since the 15th century, and these were sometimes known as docks. But the first closed wet dock was one at Blackwall, which is mentioned by Pepys in 1661;

and at Dunkirk a wet dock of 44 acres with closing gates was made in 1686. An Act of Parliament was obtained in 1696 for the building of the Howland dock at Rotherhithe on the Thames, which was later absorbed in the Surrey Commercial docks. The earliest wet dock at Liverpool, the Old Dock, was built about 1708-10—the exact date is uncertain—and was the pioneer of the great series of docks since constructed in the river Mersey. Bristol followed with 2 wet dock, begun in 1712; but at that port, the “Trench,” an artificial cut forming a new channel

DOCK WATER LEVEL

—

áSDocr Borron

-—— -—— -— CONCRETE

The docks, opened in 1928, extend from Kruisschans to the old docks at Antwerp higher up the river. The inset is a typica! cross-section of the quay walls In the Bassin Canal and other new dooks at Antwerp

for these see also the article DocKyarps AND NavAL Bases. For cognate subjects see the articles HARBOURS, BREAKWATER, RIVER

ENGINEERING, JETTY, CANALS and Port OPERATIONS.

Early Dock Construction.—Some account of ancient har-

for the river Frome into the Avon, with quays and wharves along its bank, was made as far back as 1247. This cut became the harbour of Bristol and from its quay Cabot sailed in 1497, on the voyage which resulted in his discovery of the mainland of North America. (For details of early history see The Development of Harbour and Dock Engineering, Sir C. R. S. Kirkpatrick’s Vernon-Harcourt Lecture, Inst. C.E. 1926; and Bélidor’s Architecture Hydraulique, Paris, 1737—53.) It was not until the beginning of the 19th century that the era of systematic dock construction began which kept pace with the steady development of shipbuilding and maritime transport throughout the past century, and still continues to do so. Dimensions of Shipping.—In designing new port works, it is essential to look forward to the possible future requirements of vessels. The necessity for such forethought is shown by the progressive increase in the size, not only of the largest ocean liners but, also, of cargo carrying ships. The “City of Rome,” launched in 1881, was 56oft. long, 524ft. beam and had a maximum draught of 274ft.; the “Campania” and “Lucania,” of 1893, measured 600 by 65ft. At the close of the 19th century a cargo vessel of over sooft. in length did not exist: the limiting draught of the Suez canal was 274{t., and the largest merchant ship afloat, excepting those in the Atlantic trade, was 530 by 61ft. and 28ft. draught. The period of 1§ years which preceded the World War was marked by great advances. In 1g10 the largest merchant ship afloat was the “Mauretania” of 30,696 gross tons, 762ft. long and 88ft. beam; but, excluding transatlantic liners, the largest cargo carrying ship did not exceed 13,000 tons. In 1914 merchant ships far exceeding the dimensions of the “Mauretania” were either afloat or building. Harbour authorities, not only of those ports which accommodated the great transatlantic liners but in many other parts of the world, were engaged in increasing their facilities to serve shipping of far larger dimensions than any which had hitherto used their navigable waters. During the war period harbour development throughout the world was arrested and confined, in the main, to works of a nature essential to the objects of the belligerents.

bour works will be found in the article HarBours. The earliest Since 1914 no ships of greater dimensions than the largest of in the Port of London were probably the quays or wharves those built or building at that date have been laid down; and, the in formed cuts small were These “hithes” of Saxon times. although the advent of the 1oooft. ship having a draught apbank of the river, their sides being protected by rude piling. The proaching 45ft. must be contemplated, it is unlikely that the next Dow. Queenhithe as such names, word is still preserved in place

few years will see any great increase in the maximum dimensions of transatlantic liners. The dimensions of the largest of these, the ‘‘Majestic” (ex “Bismarck’’), laid down before the war but not dry-dock of form y elementar an of 1434 in records are There completed until 1921, are 56,551 gross tons, 915-5ft. length, 100-1 at Southampton which seems to have been a narrow embayment ft. beam, and maximum draught 38-9ft. The “Leviathan” (ex fell, tide the as then, and tide high et placed was ship a in which wall of clay, timber and brushwood “Vaterland”) has been loaded to 41ft. draught. On the other hand gate dock and Puddle dock were ancient hithes but the word dock

was not used in the sense of a closed dock until the 15th century.

enclosed by a temporary a considerable increase is likely in the number of cargo-carrying built across the mouth. The first permanent dry dock, with ships of large capacity. In 1899 the largest general cargo vessel in h primitive gates staunched with clay, was built at Portsmout afloat had a gross tonnage of under 8,000 and was 47oft. in length. 1496. This dock was large enough to take in the “Sovereign, the In 1928 ships of this class over 6ooft. long and 72ft. beam and of biggest warship of the time. Later the dock was enlarged and in 18,000 to 20,000 tons gross were not uncommon. (See SHIpPit. in docked was tons & Dieu” of 1,000

1523, the “Henri Grace

In the Port of London no dry docks, other than those of the

early temporary kind, were constructed until the middle of the 17th century when there were dry docks with gates at Deptford, Blackwall and Woolwich, as well as at Chatham. One such was

BUILDING.)

Depth of Water.—The deepening and widening of the Suez canal in recent years has enabled ships of the largest class to

trade with eastern ports. The canal has now (1928) been deep-

> AN

SS Y TRANSPORT ARMY .S

AN

XX SOAS

ANR

SS

SN

X

a N . ES a` swe. i

SNSS

RExEXXXXI TERMINALS C? INC. Sos XRX

ATLANTIC TIDE WATER —X XS

X

SN

NANAS lN RCN RS

& >

e

SY So

RAN ARRANSRN AN —* ae ARRAY ERE RNANN FF

RENAN

ANY ANAANAARAARS

ESOS OAH HO SRA

SE

SSI SAN

A

WR

AS

SIO CQ 78X Ss

—

SSNs

. oyWy)

Sy

SS X

ISWw N

B

Na

|5 SySN

Y

NN

SS LULLY NORTON C9 MNS & N

ANN

NY

aQ ©

N

SS

Y R RMA areas

—S&

—

S

ey — — E

SS

ASAN

SS

—

SS N

—RXX —

SW ass XN X

SSS 8 YCEO

vaot

TT

See a SA atadRees Raos Sips rere: .

\ Ñ:

OREN čSSS OSD

eh he te th SS nnn Se

Lf CERN *

4*

—

CLG LLL

fAN

"FIRSTSY AVENUE AYEN +S

— it:

TINS Je AAA

0OVENSEAS Pi MERS A CAR—*

FiG. 2.—PLAN OF THE PORT OF NEW YORK SHOWING DEVELOPMENT OF WATER ARE OPEN PILED STRUCTURES WITH 30 FT. DEPTH OF WATER AT LOW TIDE

ened throughout to 394ft., and it is practicable for ships drawing 33ft. to pass through it. Further improvements in progress in 1928 will provide for a draught of 35ft. and there is no reasonable limitation to the capacity of the canal. Concurrently with the deepening and widening of the Suez canal the more important

ports of the Far East have been developed with the object of accommodating the largest ship capable of passing through it. The opening in 1914 of the Panama canal, having a navigable depth of 4oft., has also had an important bearing on the development of harbours in the Far East and on the Pacific coasts of America. The general result is that, whereas in 1900 a navigable depth of 3oft. was considered ample for practically all requirements, a depth of at least 35ft. is now regarded'as essential in harbours of the first class and, in special cases, including the ports used by transatlantic liners, depths exceeding goft. are aimed at. Effect of Depth on Cost of Works.—The

cost of construct-

ing port works in general shows an increase approximately proportional to the ratios of the cubes of the draughts of the largest ships for which they are designed. (See L. H. Savile, 13th International Congress of Navigation, London, 1923.) It is thus obvious that the problem of providing port accommodation for shipping of the largest class is one of considerable importance from the point of view of finance, and may become one of balance between the relative economy of ships of large draught and cargo capacity, and the capital cost of port construction.

Sites for Docks.—Low-lying land adjoining a tidal river or

estuary frequently provides suitable sites for docks. The position, being more or less inland, is sheltered; the low level reduces the excavation required for forming the docks, and enables the excavated materials to be utilized in raising the ground at the

sides for quays; and the river furnishes a sheltered approach channel. Notable instances are the docks of the ports of London, Liverpool, South Wales, Southampton, Hull, Belfast, St. Nazaire, Rotterdam, Antwerp and Hamburg (fig. 12). Sometimes docks are partially formed on foreshores reclaimed from estuaries, as at Hull, Grimsby, Cardiff, Rosyth Dockyard, Liverpool, Leith and Havre; whilst at Bristol, a curved portion of the river Avon was appropriated for a dock, and a straight cut made for the river. By carrying docks across sharp bends of tidal rivers, upper and lower entrances can be provided; and of this the London, Surrey Commercial, West India, and Victoria and Albert docks are examples on the Thames, and Chatham dockyard on the Medway. The enlargement of the port of Antwerp is a recent instance. A series of enclosed docks, extending from Kruisschans, on the Scheldt 7m. below the city, to the old dock system higher up the

FRONT

IN UPPER

BAY, BROOKLYN.

MOST OF THE PIERS

river at Antwerp, cuts off a bend of the river and was opened for traffic in 1927. Occasionally, when a tidal river has a shallow entrance, docks, formed on its foreshore adjoining the sea-coast, are provided with a sheltered entrance direct from the sea as in the Havre docks at

the outlet of the Seine. Many old ports were first established on sandy coasts where a creek, maintained by the influx and efflux of the tide from low-lying spaces near the shore, afforded some shelter and an outlet to the sea across the beach. Some of these, such as Calais, Dunkirk and Ostend, have had their access improved by parallel jetties and dredging; and docks have been readily formed in the low-lying land only separated by sand dunes from the sea. (See HARBOURS.) In sheltered places on the sea-coast, docks are sometimes constructed on low-lying land bordering the shore, with direct access to the sea, as at Barrow, Hartlepool, Swansea and Bombay. In the Mediterranean open basins have been formed in the sea, by establishing quays along the foreshore, from which wide, solid jetties, lined with quay walls, are carried into the sea at intervals at right angles to the shore. Such basins are sheltered by an outlying breakwater parallel to the coast, and are reached at each end through the openings left between the projecting jetties and the breakwater, as at Marseilles and Trieste, and at the extensions at Genoa (see HARBOURS). In some of these ports additional accommodation has been obtained by constructing wide quays along the inner face of the breakwater (g.v.). Where, however, the basins are formed within the partial protection of a bay, as in the old ports of Genoa and Naples, the requisite additional shelter has been provided by converging breakwaters across the opening of

the bay, and an entrance to the port is left between the breakwaters.

The two deep arms of the sea at New York, known as the Hudson and East rivers, are so protected by Staten Island and

Long Island that it has been only necessary to form open basins by projecting jetties or piers into them from the west and east shores of Manhattan island, and from the New Jersey and Brooklyn shores, at intervals, to provide adequate accommodation for Atlantic liners and the sea-going trade of New York (Plate I., figs. 4, 5). Somewhat similar conditions obtain in many of the great natural harbours in other parts of the world, as, for instance, in Sydney harbour and at San Francisco. Dock Extensions.—In designing dock works, it is expedient to make provision, as far as possible, for future extensions as the trade of the port increases. Generally this can be effected alongside tidal rivers and estuaries by utilizing sites lower down the

—

Extensions | Springs rise (3 Feet

—

(1928)edged thus...

i

gry

A Wy

iy Y

|i|CORPORATIO LAND

9

BE RECLAIMED DOCK PREMISE O

iS

CRACKWNORE HEAD

MAGAZINE

j

LA

À

“a

7

A

~.. THE OYMP — `SS — ——

m

e.

NX

s —

FiG. 3.—DIAGRAM

SHOWING

THE PLAN

OF SOUTHAMPTON

DOCKS

river, or reclaiming unoccupied foreshores of an estuary, as adopted for extensions of the ports of Liverpool, Hull and Havre. At ports on the sea-coast of tideless seas, it is only necessary to extend the outlying breakwater parallel to the shore line, and form additional basins under its shelter, as at Marseilles and Genoa (for plans see HaRBours). Quays also along rivers furnish val-

effected. Thus, where the tidal range is very large, as in the Severn estuary, the approach channels to some of the South Wales ports are nearly dry at low water of spring tides. It would be impracticable to make these ports accessible near low tide, except for small craft, whereas at high water, even of neap tides, vessels of

uable opportunities of extending the accommodation of ports. Ports, however, established inland, like Manchester, though extremely serviceable in converting an inland city into a seaport, are at the disadvantage of having to acquire very valuable land for

it has become increasingly important to provide in tidal ports channels of sufficient depth to permit the access of large ships to the closed docks at all states of the tide and this has been effected at many ports such as Liverpool, London and Havre.

large draught can enter the docks.

Nevertheless, in recent years,

any extensions that may be required; but, nevertheless, some com-

—

pensation is afforded by the complete shelter in which the extensions can be carried out, when compared with Liverpool, where the additions to the docks can only be effected by costly reclamation works along the foreshore to the north, in increasingly exposed situations.

`

ON

Pica

l

TTS

L.M S.R.NORTH ————

*

at —

“

—

MERSEY GOODS

—

—— —

a —

—

aE r

Y

E

“.

STATION

*

Venice being situated upon an island of limited area in a lagoon has secured the extension of its dock facilities by the construction of an entirely new port on the adjoining mainland. New York, in view of the congestion of traffic at the piers in the upper areas of the harbour, is developing large districts such as Staten island and Jamaica bay nearer the sea entrance. APPROACH

CHANNELS

The accessibility of a port depends upon several factors, such foreshora Deepened as the depth of its approach channel, which also determines the to22 ft below LW RIVER MERSEY Datum depth of the docks or basins to which it leads, for it is useless to Scare or Fancy give a depth to a dock much in excess of the depth down to which Fic. 4.—PLAN OF NORTHERN END OF DOCKS SYSTEM AT LIVERPOOL there is a prospect of carrying the channel by which it is reached. INCLUDING THE GLADSTONE DOCK OPENED IN 1927 The great augmentation, however, in the power and capacity of modern dredgers, and especially of suction dredgers not only Liverpool.—In the Merscy, with a rise of 31ft. at equinoctial in sand but also in soft clay, together with the increasing draught spring tides, the deep channel between Liverpool and Birkenhead of vessels, has resulted in a considerable increase being made in | and into the outer estuary of the river in Liverpool bay is maintained by the powerful tidal scour resulting from the filling and the available depth of rivers and channels leading to docks. It is therefore necessary to make due allowance for the possi- emptying of the large inner estuary. Access to the river has been bility of a reasonable improvement in determining the depth to rendered possible, at any state of the tide (except in the case of be given to a new dock. On the other hand, there is a limit to the the largest vessels at and near low water) by dredging a channel deepening of an approach channel, depending upon its length, the through the Mersey bar; the minimum depth in the bar channels local conditions as regards silting, and the resources and prospects is about 27ft. at mean low water spring tides (see RIVER ENGIof trade of the port, for every addition to the depth generally NEERING and Harsours) but the docks, with the exception of those communicating with the new Gladstone dock, cannot be involves a corresponding increase in the cost of maintenance. In Tidal Ports.—At tidal ports the maximum available depth entered by large vessels till the water has risen above half-tide for vessels should be reckoned from high water of the lowest neap level, and the gates are closed directly after high water. Vessels of tidés, as the standard which is certain to be reached at high tide. light draught are, however, able to pass in and out of the older The period during which docks can be entered at each tide depends docks from about 3 hours before to 3 hours after high water by upon the nature of the approach channel, the extent of the tidal using the locks. The opening of the Gladstone dock in 1927 allows range, and the manner in which the entrance to the docks is ships of moderate size to enter it and the docks with which it com2* —

——

*

470

DOCKS

|

municates at all states of tide through the new deep lock. A floating landing-stage, nearly half a mile in length, in front of the centre of the docks, connected with the shore by several hinged bridges and rising and falling with the tide, enables the Atlantic liners using the port to come alongside and take on board or disembark their passengers at all times except at low water of

spring tides in the case of vessels of large draught. The channel MPR Yo eee ee

-o

are not able on exceptional occasions to admit draught than the basins have been formed to Inland Ports —Occasionally an old port, the of which has become inadequate for modern

a vessel of larger accommodate. approach channel vessels, or from

which the sea has receded, has been provided with deep access from the sea by a ship-canal, as exemplified by Amsterdam and Bruges; whilst Manchester has become a sea-port by similar works (see MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL).

In such cases, however,

perfectly sheltered open basins are formed inland at the head of the ship canal, in the most convenient available site; and the size of vessels that can use the port depends wholly on the dimensions and facility of access of the ship canal. THE DESIGN OF DOCKS Docks require to be so designed that they may provide the maximum length of quays in proportion to the water area consistent with easy access for vessels to the quays. Often, however, the space available does not admit of the adoption of the best forms, and the design has to be made as suitable as practicable under the existing conditions.

Planning.—On this account, and owing to the small size of vessels in former times, the docks of old ports present a great aie

wee N ve į

*

r

*

X

LENGTH 1000'9* winte

rae

—

=.

no'o”

DaPTH 40'a“BtLew

f

eae?

ars,

6

yer

variety in size and arrangement, being for the most part narrow and small, forming a sort of string of docks communicating with one another, and provided with locks or entrances at suitable points for their common use. Such conditions are noticeable in

*

n

T.N WON CILLE

M

5

*

a

CARGO JETTY

iy

F

DATING LAND? STG Building 1928.

R

I

VER

T

HAME

8m

FIG. 5.—TILBURY DOCKS, THE PORT OF LONDON alongside the part of the stage used by large vessels has a depth of 32ft. at the lowest low water.

In Rivers and Estuaries.—Comparatively small tidal rivers offer the best opportunity of a considerable improvement in the approach channel to a port; for they can in many cases be converted into artificially deep channels by dredging. Thus, systematic, continuous dredging in the Tyne and the Clyde has provided deep channels at low water where formerly the river bed almost dried at low tide. A channel carried across an estuary to deep water requires constant dredging to maintain its depth.

In large tidal rivers and

estuaries, therefore, docks should be placed alongside a concave bank which the deep navigable channel hugs, as effected at Hull and Antwerp; or close to a permanently deep channel in an estuary, such as chosen for Garston and the entrance to the Manchester ship canal at Eastham in the inner Mersey estuary, and for the Grimsby and Immingham docks in the Humber. Occasionally, extensive draining works and dredging have to be executed to form an adequately deep channel through a shifting estuary and shallow river, as, for instance, on the Weser to Bremerhaven and Bremen; on the Seine to Honfleur and Rouen; and on the Tees to Middlesborough and Stockton (see RIVER ENGINEERING). Southampton.—Southampton possesses the very rare combination of advantages of a well-sheltered and fairly deep estuary, a rise of only 13ft. at spring tides, a double high water, and a position at the head of Southampton Water at the confluence of two rivers; so that, with a moderate amount of dredging and the construction of quays, with a depth of over goft. in front of them at low water, it is possible for vessels of the largest draught to come alongside or Jeave the quays at any state of the tide. This circumstance has enabled Southampton to attract many of the Atlantic steamships formerly running to Liverpool. In Tideless Seas.—Ports on tideless seas have to be placed where deep water approaches the shore and, if possible, where there is an absence of littoral drift. The basins of such ports are always accessible for vessels of the draught they provide for, but they require most efficient protection and, unlike tidal ports, they

the older London and Liverpool docks. Where the conditions of site permit, the ideal plan for a commercial dock comprises an ample vestibule or turning basin and a series of wide parallel piers or quays with intervening water spaces or branch docks arranged like the teeth of a comb, but inclined slightly towards the approach channel. Vestibule planning has been embodied in the lay-out of many large modern docks including those of Manchester, Dunkirk, Hull and the open basins at Glasgow. It is also the characteristic feature of modern ports in tideless seas enclosed by protection works as at Marseilles.

Liverpool.—The later Liverpool docks at the northern end of

the series, including the Gladstone dock (Plate II., fig. 5) have been constructed on the vestibule plan with branches. Some of the older docks adjoining them to the south have been remodelled so as to form series of branch docks opening into vestibule docks alongside the river wall. The Gladstone dock includes a vestibule or turning dock, a graving dock, also usable as a wet dock, two branch docks and a large deep water lock giving access from the river. The water area is 58} acres and the quayage about 3m. jn

ae

oo

100

Dock BOTTOM

FIG. 6.—CROSS SECTION OF SOUTH QUAY AND ISLAND JETTIES OF KING GEORGE V. DOCK, LONDON, OPENED IN 1921

length. A lock between the adjoining Hornby dock and the new dock makes it possible for ships to enter and leave some of the older docks by way of the deep river lock. Port of London.—Though narrow timber jetties were introduced long ago in some of the wider London docks for increasing the quay space, no definite planning arrangement was adopted in building the large Victoria and Albert docks between 1859 and

1880. The Victoria dock was made wide, with solid jetties pro-

vided with warehouses projecting from the northern quay wall, thereby affording accommodation for vessels lying end on to the

DOCKS

A

oe Te:NDA

WAC

b

— —

Ra

wii.

—

——

EpEuesd ‘uIseqyIo] Pue Yop

jBUiW4aL 0J ye

Jnl HIY 02

WiNIj01}9g *YD0G “WepsaysUy°AjeI] "g |VIY MAAjO UOSPNH 4BAIY SIIA JE 'UIJOQOH MON yoop pues 'INOQIEH Buimoys ySeQ JƏAlH “S4dId °G S4¥D0Q 40 ysng MIIA jo

137eMYeIq uj ‘punoiba3ioj Z oijnespAyBusyeos “s}s!0yY “E

yym 4}3jUS s9385 3e BDURLQUA UO `| Y ‘“Aasuae "s pnay MIHAJO MAN YIO,

sY200 38 zipue ynog

ZINSVdROD JNNJIUJV ‘3SIVoNVeS IZ! LV3US ONIATS 'SIDIAMES (6) 'SWTI4083V ‘CLT

AIUANS

ONIMSZ

PLATE II

DOCKS

481. TOTON PORTAL CRANE

29-Ton Portal Caane

a Cas Leva,

/

am

=|DA

Gy aus mn

l

n

Wi

Le

'

—W

1

NOO Y

f

wal, 0

ss

tl

asa ad

i

N ann an

-

—

ORIGINAL BEACH Leven

om

ae

rosheapy

-rns

CROSS-SECTION EXCEPT IN WAY OF PumP Room

SCALE ©

FIG. 27.—CROSS

SECTION

9

THROUGH

20

OF

FEET. 40

so

PUMP ROOM OF DRY DOCK AT THE KINGS DOCK,

to be formed in the side of the entrance into which the caisson may be withdrawn when the passage is to be opened. In a few cases, e.g., a dry dock at Dundee, floating caissons have been hinged at one end and arranged to swing out into a recess in the dock wall. Floating caissons are in use for closing many dry docks. They are also often provided at wet docks for emergency -use and for closing entrances when a sliding caisson is, or gates are, taken out for repairs (fig. 24).

_ One of the earliest examples of a rolling caisson was used at the

Garvel dry dock, Greenock, in 1874. Other instances of their use are at the entrance lock of the Bruges ship canal, the Congella dry dock, Durban (1925) (fig. 25); the Kruisschans lock, Antwerp (1927); and the new Ymuiden lock (1928). The three caissons at the latter are the largest in the world. — For closing tbe entrances of large dry docks sliding caissons have been adopted in many recent instances (see table III.). They

are employed less frequently in the case of wet docks and locks,

SWANSEA,

1924

but of this use there are, however, important examples. Thus, most of the recent naval wet dock entrances in Great Britain, including Rosyth and Portsmouth, are closed by sliding caissons as is also

the 140ft. entrance, made in 1917, at Cammell Laird & Co.’s fitting out dock at Tranmere on the Mersey. Among commercial docks they are in use at Bremen and Bremerhaven, and at the Ramsden dock, Barrow. A recent cxample is the Calcutta lock (building, 1928). | A floating caisson is occasionally made to draw back into a camber and in this form differs but slightly from a sliding caisson. The large dry dock at Havre (1927) is closed by a caisson of this type. Sliding or rolling caissons, although more costly than simple floating caissons, are more easily and rapidly moved. In situations where it is necessary to provide for carrying a road or railway over a sliding or rolling caisson, one or other of twa methods is usually adopted for effecting this. In the first the camber is covered by a fixed roof carrying the rail tracks, and a lower-

482

DOCKS

ing platform forms the deck of the caisson and is depressed before the latter is hauled into the recess (fig. 25). In the alternative arrangement the roof of the camber itself is carried on elevating jacks which raise it sufficiently to allow the caisson to be run in under it, only the guard railings at the sides of the caisson deck being lowered. A modification of this arrangement is used in British naval docks. The ways on which the caisson slides are CENTRE LINE OF PIER

MOVABLE 3O-CWT.ELECTRIC ROOF CRANE

e

K WiaoF Pirn, 315

AA a.

MAXIMUM HiGH WATER

id

Ib

MINIMUM HIGH WATER WIDTH OF BRANCH DOCK 400 FEET

ie

L Mg "

tS

F:hear -E poh ~

a

FIG. 28.—GLADSTONE DOCK, LIVERPOOL. HALF SECTION THROUGH BRANCH DOCK AND QUAY SHED SHOWING MOVABLE ROOF CRANE

THE

formed on a gradient sloping downwards into the camber and the movable deck is hinged at the inner end and raised at the outer end to allow the caisson to pass under it. The caisson when in the

camber is at a level which will allow the deck to be again lowered into its normal position flush with the coping. Sliding and rolling caissons are hauled in and out of the cambers by means of wire ropes or chains and hauling machinery. The large sliding caisson at Portsmouth is hauled by compressed air motors; those at Rosyth, the Gladstone dry dock, Liverpool, and the Congella dock, Durban, in South Africa, are operated electrically. Relative Advantages of Gates and Caissons.—On the whole gates are easier to move and work than caissons and occupy

— ——

SKYLIGHTS =~

these two conditions have to be provided for the advantages are decidedly in favour of the caisson. DRY DOCKS, ETC. Provision has often to be made at ports for the repairs of vessels frequenting them. The primitive method of effecting repairs and cleaning was by careening the vessel or by beaching. The simplest structure designed for the purpose of effecting minor under-water repairs and cleaning is the gridiron, still employed in some ports, where the tidal rise is suitable, for vessels of moderate size. It is a level platform of timber beams, constructed on a firm foundation, on which the ship settles with a falling tide and can then be inspected at low water. Slipways.—Inclined slipways, up which a vessel of moderate size, resting in a cradle on wheels, can be drawn out of the water above the reach of the tide for cleaning or repairs, are used in many ports in all parts of the world. The foundations for the rails on which the cradle travels must be firm and unyielding. The rails are laid at gradients which vary from 1 in 15 to 1 in 25, the usual slope being about 1 in 20. The contrivance was patented by Thomas Morton of Leith, in 1818. He constructed many “patent slips,” as they are often called, in European ports. Hydraulic hauling machines were first used for slipways about 1850. Previous to that time horses or steam engines and gearing were used. In modern examples electric hauling gear is frequently employed. A few slipways have been constructed to haul up ships broadside on, the cradle being borne on a series of transverse rails instead of on rails laid parallel with the centre line of the ship which is the usual practice. Slipways have been built in Europe to take vessels displacing up to about 4,500 tons; but in North American waters there are examples having astill larger capacity.

Slip-docks.—When the vessel is partially withdrawn from the water by means of a cradle on ways and the tide is excluded from the upper part of the slipway by a pair of gates and side walls, thus effecting an economy in its length, the arrangement is called a slip-dock. They are, however, rare in modern ports.

Dry Docks.—A dry dock is the usual means provided for enabling the cleaning and repairing of vessels to be carried out (v. supra for early examples). Dry docks are sometimes known as graving docks but the former term is now more often used in British ports. The word “graving” originally denoted the cleaning

—

BEAM FOR TACKLE Le

Lom, A— a —— E

PLATFORM ELEVATORS, CHUTES HATCHES. ETc.

ad olad

— pa pas

ee

er

PLATFORM

A

n m

J WL

ii iiw

ac

me

ee

fe

wow

PORTABLE ELECTRIC WINCH

i ei ;u;Y

JNN|

A

TEENY —

DREDGED BERTH 30 FEET DEEP

‘

FiG. 29.—PLAN MENTS

OF CARGO

FOR ''BURTONING'"

so

9

PIER, PHILADELPHIA,

U.S.A,

CARGO

SCALE OF FEET

*

Fest Deap

(1915), A TYPICAL PIER IN ATLANTIC PORTS OF THE U.S.A., SHOWING ARRANGE.

less time in opening and closing. They necessitate a longer lock of a ship’s bottom by — or —— and coating with tar. or entrance passage than caissons because of the space required A dry dock is a narrow basin, closed by gates or by a caisson, for the gate recesses; but, on the other hand, a sliding or rolling in which a vessel may be placed and from which the water may caisson requires a long camber at the side of the entrance. Cais- be pumped or let out, leaving the vessel dry and supported on sons are somewhat more costly than gates, but they can conveni- blocks. A dry dock is sometimes used, especially in naval dockently be made to afford accommodation for rail and road traffic yards, for building ships. Many old dry docks were built of across an entrance and thus obviate the necessity of a swing timber, and there are several such still in use in the port of bridge in some cases. Moreover, they can be constructed to take London. In the United States timber dry docks are in common water pressure on both sides, thus doing the work of two pairs of use even for large vessels. The typical modern dry dock, however, gates. An instance of this is the new lock at Ymuiden. Where consists of concrete side walls, resembling those of a lock, but

DOCKS

483

stepped back towards the top, with a substantial concrete floor upon which the keel blocks, and sometimes bilge blocks also, rest (figs. 26 and 27). The floor usually has a slight fall from back to front, and from the centre to the sides, to facilitate drainage. Dry docks should, for preference, be founded on a solid im-

pervious stratum, but this is not always possible. It is often impracticable to obviate the presence under the dock bottom of water which may exert a hydrostatic upward pressure when the dock is pumped out. Such conditions are usually met in one or other of two ways. The floor may be made comparatively thin with vents formed in it or low down in the side walls to relieve the pressure of the water which is allowed to leak into the dock

Tasre III. Dry Docks

Available

Port, name and date of opening

London, King George V.

dock, 1921

London, Tilbury (building 1928) . Southampton, Trafalgar, 1905 .

floor in way of the keel blocks, and, in some cases, under the whole of the floor and side walls also. In any case the floor must be of sufficient strength to bear the weight of the heaviest ship

Rosyth, H. M. Teml, 19I5 .

1,132 x 197ft. which was floated into position over the site of the

dock, previously dredged to the required depth, and there sunk in place. The caisson was constructed on levelled ground within a containing embankment and portions of the floor and side walls were built in it before it was floated out to the permanent site. The stepped courses provided in the upper parts of the side walls of a dry dock are called “altars” and are used for the support of side shores between them and the ship.

Culverts, controlled

by sluice gates (fig. 20), are built in the side walls of the entrance for flooding the dock when it is necessary to let a ship out. Centrifugal pumps—usually electrically driven in modern docks— are employed for pumping out the dock and maintaining effective drainage. The water flows to the pump sump chamber and from the pumps to the outside of the dry dock through culverts. (See figs. 26 and 27). In many old docks, in positions where the tidal range is suitable, water is run out as the tide falls; but in modern practice it is customary to provide for pumping out the whole of the water in about 3 hours—more or less.

In ports where the tidal rise is considerable and there are wet docks, it is preferable, when practicable, to construct a dry dock with its entrance from within the wet dock and not from the tideway. There are many advantages attending this arrangement: still water for manoeuvring the ship; availability for use at all states of the tide; and comparative freedom from siltation may be instanced. In situations where a dry dock is entered from tidal water of considerable range, it is desirable to provide for holding up the water inside the dock above the level of the falling tide in order that ample time shall always be available for shoring and other dock operations. Equipment of Dry Docks.—The machinery employed at dry docks for working gates, caissons, sluices and capstans is generally on the*same lines as for entrance locks. It is necessary, however, to equip a dry dock, in addition to the pumps already referred to, with powerful cranes, travelling along the dock side, to deal with the heavy lifts sometimes necessary in effecting ship repairs (see fig. 27). As an example of such provision the Trafalgar dry dock at Southampton has an electric travelling portal crane lifting 50 tons at a radius of 87ft. Most of the modern dry docks thus far constructed are also well equipped for working electric and compressed air tools. Examples of Dry Docks.—The following table (III.) gives particulars of some typical large modern dry docks :—

Depth over sills0or blocks} at H. W. O.|

5

S. T. or max-

mel

and is dealt with by drainage pumps. The alternative is to make the dock floor and walls of sufficient weight and dimensions to resist the maximum pressure due to saturation of the surrounding soil. That is to say, the floor must act as an inverted arch and the whole body of the dock when empty must be of sufficient weight to resist the tendency to flotation. In bad ground and when the floor is thin, bearing piles are often driven under the dock

which the dock can take in, concentrated on the lines of the supporting blocks. Thus far very few dry docks have been built of reinforced concrete, forming a rigid box, usually supported on piling. A dry dock at Havre (see table III.), opened in 1927, is of particular interest on account of the method adopted for its construction on a deep stratum of sand and silt. The entire dock structure was built in and upon a huge steel caisson framework

Š i

Avonmouth, Royal Edward dock, 1908 .

Method of closing

imum dock

level

ft.

ft.

750

35

Floating ship type caisson

750

374

do.

Q912

35

Sliding caisson

879

35

Floating ship type son

890

cais-

40

Sliding cais-

Bombay, Hughes, 1914 . | 1000

30}

Floating

, Liverpool, Gladstone, 1913|

1O50

434

Boston, U. S. A., NaN 1920

caisson Sliding caisson

1170

43

Floating ship

son

,

type caisson

1026 . . | 1150 St. John (N. B.) 1023 1105 Durban, Congella, 192 5 1150

40 42 41

Havre, 1927

1023

52%

SADADA Canal, Balboa, Q16 — H. M. Dock-

do. do. Rolling caisson Floating box caisson

1044

414

Gates

44

Sliding caisson

Esquimalt

(Victoria),

yard (building 1928). | 1000 |

—

—⸗

*

Floating Docks. -Iloating dey docks are used in some situations where there is no site available for an ordinary dry dock or where special conditions render the floating structure more convenient or economical. They possess the advantage of mobility and, during the World War, large floating docks were moved from ports where they were not urgently needed to places such as the Tyne and Cromarty firth where they could be more usefully employed. It is only necessary to find a sheltered site, with a sufficient depth of water, for conducting the operations of a floating dock. But, although a floating dock may he self-contained with workshops in its walls, or be served by a separate floating work-

shop, experience shows that to obtain the full advantage it is advisable to have an establishment on shore. This tends to restrict the choice of site.

Furthermore, a floating dock can often be

built and placed in service in a fraction of the time which would be necessary to construct an ordinary dry dock. The largest floating dock in the world (1928) is that at Southampton completed in 1924. It has an overall length of 86oft.; clear inside width of 1304ft.; and a total lifting power of 60,000 tons. The dock can be submerged to take in ships drawing 38ft., and the berth where it is moored is dredged to a depth of 61ft. at L.W.O.S.T. It has docked the largest ship afloat (see Proc., Inst. C.E. 1925). Unfortunately the dredging of such deep pits below the general level of the harbour bed as are required in some situations for a floating dock of very large dimensions is sometimes followed by rapid silting and this has occurred at Southampton where redredging has been necessary at intervals of less than 2 years. Another large floating dock of 50,000 tons lifting capacity was built on the Tyne in 1927-28 for the Singapore naval base. (See also section in this article Floating Docks.) NAVAL DOCKS The dockyard at Rosyth, on the north side of the Firth of Forth, is the most modern example of naval dock construction

in Great Britain. The works had been commenced in 1909 and,

484

DOCKS

although a large part of the accommodation was made available for the fleet by the summer of 1915, construction continued until 1921. The dockyard occupies a site on the foreshore of the Firth above the Forth bridge and comprises a closed basin or dock of 564ac., an entrance lock, three dry docks, and tidal basins and in addition, there is a tidal entrance to the basin 115ft. wide at sill level (see Proc., Inst. C.E. 1927). To meet the growing needs of the navy new locks and a dry dock were constructed at Portsmouth shortly before the war, the dimensions of which are practically identical with those at Rosyth. The largest of the Devonport locks and dry docks, in use in 1928,

be said to be modern developments of transport, at any rate in regard to the working of bulk cargoes. The bulk shipment of wheat at such ports as Montreal, New York, Vancouver and Port

Arthur has necessitated the building of vast granaries (g.v.) and elevators, some of them holding over 110,000 tons and ca-

pable of loading into ships at a rate of 3,000 tons per hour. For the discharge of grain pneumatic and bucket elevators and electric conveyors and large storage warehouses, the working of which is almost entirely automatic, are provided at many ports. Floating pneumatic elevators for discharging grain from ships into

lighters or to shore granaries are largely employed. Appliances for the shipment and discharge of ores have been developed to a high standard of efficiency in some of the ports of the United States. Both in America and in European ports grabs and transporters are used for discharging ore cargoes. Mechanical handling is employed at docks where chilled and frozen meat is imported on a large scale, as in the port of London. Electric conveyors, runways and hoists carry the carcasses from the ship’s hold to the cold rooms in large stores adjoining or near the quays with quired for a repair base; in addition there will be a store base with a minimum of manual labour (see REFRIGERATION). Oil Export and Import.—The transport of oil in bulk (see sheds, etc., and an oil installation with all necessary facilities for PETROLEUM) is a product of the 2oth century. At all ports fuelling. where tank steamers discharge, the oil berths are isolated and the THE EQUIPMENT OF DOCKS arrangements for storage on shore must be such as to minimize Railways and Roads.—lIn order to deal expeditiously with the risk of fire and its spreading. The sea transport of petroleum the cargoes and goods brought into and despatched from docks, in barrels is on a very small scale compared with bulk cargoes. numerous sidings communicating with the railways of the district The latter are loaded by being pumped from large storage tanks are arranged along the quays. In ports where a large railway to the ship through mains. Ports such as Los Angeles in California, Corpus Christi in traffic is dealt with it is necessary to provide, within or near the dock area, marshalling yards and standage sidings if congestion Texas and Abadan in the Persian Gulf have been created since the beginning of the century for the shipment of bulk oil cargoes. of traffic on the quays is to be avoided. The “lay-out” of the railways in a dock area calls for much Los Angeles has been made, as a port, since the opening of the skill and ingenuity, both in planning and in the arrangement of Panama canal and the bulk of its seaborne trade of over 23 gradients, to secure economical and rapid working. Moreover, in million tons annually is the export of oil. According to official busy ports of modern construction it is usual to provide at least statistics it is now the second port of the United States in point of three lines of rails on those quays where goods are worked direct tonnage. Continuous quayage being unnecessary, the berths at which from ship to railway truck, or vice versa, and not through transit sheds. This arrangement allows two roads to be used for standing tankers load and discharge are usually alongside isolated jetties wagons while one is a running road. The growth of motor road or dolphins connected with the shore by light piled structures transport has made it necessary to afford liberal accommodation on which the pipe mains are carried. Provision for the bunkering for heavy lorries both on quays and at the side of transit sheds of ships using oil fuel is made at many ports, special oil jetties and warehouses, and the provision of adequate road access has being set apart for this purpose. In ports such as London, situated at a considerable distance become a matter of primary importance. The tendency in all modern dock construction is, in fact, to provide much wider quay from the mouth of a tidal river, oil berths are usually isolated spaces than was formerly the practice. Even in the port of New in the lower reaches seaward of the dock areas. In some ports, York where the old long, narrow pier is the characteristic feature however, this is not possible and at Stanlow, near Ellesmere, on the Manchester ship canal, a special petroleum dock, provided of the quay accommodation, wide piers are now being built. Warehouses, etc —The arrangement and nature of store and with a floating isolating gate or boom across the entrance, has transit sheds, warehouses, etc., varies at every port, depending been constructed with the object of preventing the flow of oil largely on the local trade and traffic conditions. At Liverpool beyond the limits of the dock. Similar provision is made in other three-storey sheds with roof cranes have been built at the new ports. Coal Shipping Ports.—At docks whose principal export trade Gladstone docks (fig. 28). At the Manchester docks there are large quay-side warehouses of five floors and in some North is coal, the arrangement of quays and berths is planned with American ports transit sheds with as many as 8 and 9g floors. special reference to the running of coal wagons to and from the Where double sided piers and quays are constructed, widths of shipping points. (For bunkering of ships see BUNKERING OF from 300 to over sooft. are usual in order to provide ample space SHrps.) In the ports of north-east England high level coal for sheds and warehouses which frequently have rail and road “staiths” are much used, mainly on account of the high elevation of tracks on both sides. A typical example of such construction in the ground in the neighbourhood of the shipping berths, as, for innorthern Pacific ports is the Ballantyne pier at Vancouver (fig. stance, on the river Tyne. At many high-level staiths such as 18). The piers at New York and in some of the other Atlantic those at Dunston on the Tyne and at Blyth, which are built ports of the United States are, however, usualty buik without parallel to the river bank, trains of wagons are brought on to the open quay spaces on the water fronts. Oftem the transit sheds staith and discharged successively by means of shoots intoevessels cover practically the whole surface, and roadways and rail tracks, lying alongside. In situations where the elevation of the surwhen provided, are constructed inside the building. Piers with rounding ground is insufficient to provide for gravity discharge open quay-side spaces and rail tracks are, however, becoming more from staiths to the hatchways of large modern vessels, hydraulic hoists (electric hoists are sometimes used in American and concommon in the Atlantic ports. Appliances for Special Trades—Elaborate and costly plants tinental ports, but in Great Britain hydraulic hoists are almost for loading, discharging and storing special classes of cargo have exclusively employed) are often provided, as in the docks of been established at ports in ail parts of the world where such South Wales and Scotland as well as at north-east coast ports. cargoes are dealt with in large quantities. Among them may be Wagons are brought to the shipping points at quay level, or over instanced coal, grain, ores and oi] in bulk; and chilled meat and a graded gantry structure raised sufficiently high above the quay fruit. With the exception of coal all these classes of trafic may to avoid obstruction of the quay space. were of somewhat smaller dimensions but in that year the entrance to the Keyham dock was widened from 95 to 125ft. In 1922 the Admiralty initiated a scheme for the construction of a naval base at Singapore. Although some preliminary works and dredging were carried out in the interval, it was not until 1928 that the building of the main works was begun. The dockyard will include deep-water berths for ships under repair, a dry dock and floating dock with the necessary shops, power station, etc., re-

DOCKS The coal hoist is contained in a steel latticework tower erected on the dock side. The tower may be either fixed in position or capable of limited movement along the quay so as to suit the position of a ship's hatchway. The loaded wagon is raised on a cradle or platform to the required height for the discharge of the coal through adjustable steel shoots into the ship’s hold. In some ports the practice is for wagons to discharge through bottom doors; in others the wagons are fitted with end doors and are tipped on a cradle in the hoist. The running of wagons to and from the staith or hoist is, wherever possible, assisted by

suitable grading of the tracks. Empty wagons are sometimes run off from the hoist at a higher level than the loaded wagon roads and run by gravity to the empty sidings. Electric and hydraulic capstans are also used for working places. Electric conveyors are much used in some cases raising it from quay-level, as They are also used at some coal staiths

the wagons at shipping

the shipment of coal, in at Hull and Manchester. in order to increase the height of the point of delivery of the coal. In this way they are employed at Dunston and other Tyne shipping places. Some of the modern coal shipping appliances in British ports, as at Newport, are capable of loading coal into a ship at the rate of 850 tons per hour and at elevations of over 7s5ft. above high water. In a few English ports, including Liverpool and Cardiff, some coal is shipped by means of cranes lifting wagons or containers and emptying them over the ship’s hatchway. At Goole (see CANALS and CANALIZED RIVERS) small compartment boats containing coal are raised by hoists and discharged into the waiting

485

the American type of large coal cars and mechanical trimming enables ships to be loaded with coal at some of the best equipped U. S. A. ports more rapidly than in British ports where the time rate for a complete cargo does not often exceed 600 tons per hour and is usually less on account of delays in trimming the coal between decks. The best American shipping plants have, in this respect, an advantage of at least ṣo% over the Tyne and South Wales ports. Power for Dock Machinery, etc.—Though different sources of power are sometimes made use of at different parts of the same port, it is generally most convenient to work the various Installations by one form of power from a central station. This applies in particular to installations of dock-side cranes. The adaptability and flexibility of electric power has led to its general adoption, and its use for cranes and other mechanical appliances at docks has become almost universal. Even at numerous other important ports where hydraulic power is available at the docks, electric appliances are now being installed side by side with hydraulic equipment. Hydraulic power for dock appliances is more commonly used in Great Britain than in American ports and on the continent _of Europe. It possesses undoubted advantages for operating gateopening machinery, large sluices, coal hoists, capstans, swing bridges and some other forms of dock equipment.

Appliances for Loading and Unloading Ships.—In addition to the provision of high speed electric cranes or cargo hoists on quays and wharves in most European and North American ports, the equipment of warehouses and transit sheds with electric “run about” and overhead cranes, runways, loaders, conveyors ships. The wharf or jetty on which the coaling staith or hoist is and hoists is becoming general. (See Proceedings X11Ith Intererected is frequently constructed over and in front of a stone national Navigation Congress, London, 1923.) In the Far East, pitched slope in order to avoid the necessity of building a con- however, even at ports handling a large volume of trade, cargo tinuous deep water wall. This plan has been adopted at Swansea, is still generally discharged by means of ships’ derricks and dealt Barry Dock, Newport and at many of the Tyne staiths. At the with on shore by manual labour. Again, in some ports, notably King’s dock, Swansea, and at the King George dock, Hull, some of those of London, Rotterdam and Amsterdam, a large proportion the coaling jetties are arranged en echelon; thus, in effect, increas- of the cargoes is loaded or discharged overside from or into lighting the length of available berthing space by permitting one vessel ers and barges, and at Rotterdam sea-going ships lying at moorings in the river or basins frequently take in or discharge the partially to overlap that of another in the adjoining berth. Up to about 1910 the use in the United Kingdom of high whole of their cargo from or to large Rhine barges without going capacity coal wagons carrying 20 tons was uncommon, the usual alongside a quay. maximum load being 10 tons. The large wagon is, however, slowly The rapid loading and discharge of ships, thus enabling a replacing the older, uneconomical, small wagon at coal shipping quick “turn round” of the ship to be made, is of the utmost imports. Practically all coal hoists and other shipping appliances portance both to the ship owner and the dock authority. The constructed in Great Britain since the war have been designed capital sum represented by a modern cargo ship and a dock berth for the 20-ton wagon. Anti-breakage appliances, designed to mini- is very large, and if the average time of loading or discharge of mize the breakage of coal in falling from the shoot into the ship’s a ship can be reduced from, say 4 to 2 days, by the installation hold, are often used at ports where grades of coal, the value of of appropriate mechanical appliances, the revenue earning capacity which is seriously deteriorated by breakage, are shipped. Their of the berth is increased theoretically by 100%, and that of the ship in proportion to the reduction effected in the time required use reduces the speed of loading. In America railway freight cars are of much larger capacity for the voyage. At quays working general cargo in busy ports a liberal but than in Europe and coal cars carrying up to 120 tons are in use. The shipment of coal is effected both by hoists and conveyor not extravagant provision of cranes is one for every 100 or 120 belts as in the United Kingdom, but the tipping arrangements feet of quay. The traffic capacity of docks varies within very provided for the cars are on a much larger scale; and it is cus- wide limits and depends largely on the nature of the principal tomary to discharge them by means of revolving “‘tipplers” or exports and imports and on seasonal variations of traffic. In a “dumpers” into large hoppers whence the coal is delivered to the well equipped port through which a large volume of mixed traffic ship, either direct or over conveyor belts, through shoots as re- passes, it is not too much to aim ata traffic intensity of 300 tons quired. The large hoppers serve as reservoirs to equalize the rate of cargo per foot of quay per annum. During the last 18 months of supply. In some cases the coal is dumped from railroad cars of the war the ports in northern France operated by the British on the low level into very large pier cars which are raised by army passed an import tonnage of well over 1 ton per day per foot hoists and are tipped over hoppers at a high level. A coal shipping of quay frontage. Cranes—Dockside cranes for general cargo purposes are installation on the belt system, put into service at Baltimore in 1918 by the Baltimore and Ohio Railway, employs self-trimming frequently of the portal type, travelling on rails laid upon the loaders which shoot the coal at high velocity in any desired quay with space between the legs (which carry the crane platdirection between decks. Somewhat similar mechanical trimmers form) for railway wagons to pass under. In some docks where are in daily use at the several other coal ports of the American warehouses are near to the face of the dock wall, travelling cranes continent. i of semi-portal type are employed: one pair of the crane legs By these means, in conjunction with highly developed ar- travels on rails laid near the quay edge and the other pair on rangements for dumping cars and belt feeding, the rate of ship- elevated rails fixed to the wall of the building. As a result this ment of coal has been largely augmented. The Baltimore pier leaves nearly the whole quay space free for the passage of transis double-sided, zooft. long and has four main coal loading towers. port. Cargo cranes must be raised high enough above the quay surOver 40,000 tons have been loaded at it in one day. The use of

DOCKS

486

face to enable their jibs to command the hatchways of ships rising high above the water level. For general purposes cranes of 14, 3 and § ton lifting capacity are most commonly used, but for special purposes much more powerful travelling cranes are provided. Floating and fixed cranes of great capacity are employed for dealing with exceptional loads. Some floating cranes lifting 250 tons are in use and at least one fixed crane, that at the

Philadelphia Navy yard, is capable of lifting 350 tons. Some modern dockside warehouses have been equipped with electric cranes travelling on the flat roof of the building and arranged to work cargo to and from the several floors of the warehouse through hatchways formed in them and in the roof as at the Gladstone docks, Liverpool.

In New York and some other ports of the United States, particularly on the Atlantic coast, quay-side cranes are in use to a limited extent only. The bulk of the working of general cargo is effected by a process called ‘“Burtoning.” This consists of the joint working of the load by means of a ship’s derrick and a fixed cargo mast or hoist attached to the wall of the pier shed which is built out close to the water front. Electric current for dock side cranes is taken either from con-

ductors in conduits laid below the quay surface or fixed to the walls of quay-side buildings, or by means of flexible cables from

plug boxes at points on the quay.

(See also CRANES.)

A useful and modern survey of the subject of Cargo Handling at Ports is H. A. Reed's Vernon-Harcourt Lecture 1928, Inst. of Civil Engineers. BiıBLIoOCRArHY.—For dock and port construction during the 19th century see L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Harbours & Docks, 2 vols. (1885); C. Colson, Docks & Dock Construction (1894); Quinnette de Rochemont, Cours de Travunx Maritimes, 3 vols. (1900); C. de Cordemoy, Les Ports Modernes, 2 vols. (1900); Ports Maritimes de Vitalie (Milan, 1905) Fr. & Ital. editions. More recent works of general engineering description are:—G. de Joly and C. Laroche, Travaux Maritimes, vols. 2 & 3, Encyclopédie de Génie Civil (1922) the best modern gencral treatise; and Brysson Cunningham, Dock Engineering (1922). Several volumes of the series Handbuch der Ingenier Wissenschaften (Engelmann) Leipzig, 1912 et seg. deal with docks and dock equipment and are well illustrated. For U.S.A. ports the series of reports and plans issued 1921 et seg. by the War Department should be consulted. C. Greene, Wharves & Piers, New York, 1917, contains good descriptions of American practice. W. H. Hunter’s Dock & Lock Machinery, London 1921, is an excellent work on the mechanical operation of gates, caissons, sluices, etc. For cargo handling see B. Cunningham, Cargo Handling at Ports (1923) and Port ministration and Operation (1925); and R. S. MacElwee, Port evelopment (1925) and Ports & Terminal Facilities (1926). The Reports of the Committee of the Inst. of Civil Engineers on the Deterioration of Structures exposed to the action of sea water (1920 et seq.) are valuable and authentic. The best American work on the

and is known as a “camel” dock, from the name of the Cronstadt hulk. The first obvious improvement was to construct a dock specially for the purpose insteatl of utilizing a hulk. The plate shows a dock of this type built by Christopher Watson in 1785 at Rotherhithe. The useful life of timber docks is surprisingly long. The engraving from which the accompanying picture was made is dated 1820, or 44 years after the dock was built, and it is not known how many years of life it had after this was first built and used. The next step in the evolution of the modern floating dock was CAOMH = to make the walls and bottom hollow, and thus buoyant.

(fash

As early

as 1809 a patent was taken out for a hollow iron dock, but there

J FIG. 1.—‘‘SECTIONAL’’ pocK, THE EARLIEST OF THE SELF-DOCKING

the matter rested for many years. The first hollow docks were

TYPE,

constructed

MADE

UP OF

INDIVIDUAL

SEC.

of

timber

in

the

MONS SA AINED: TOSETHER United States, the earliest of any note being that in the navy yard at Portsmouth, Maine, which was built in 1848. These early timber docks suffered from the fact that they would not readily sink low enough to allow a ship to enter them. The walls therefore were fitted with a deck inside them above the normal water line forming chambers into which water could be pumped in addition to the amount which could flow in by gravity, thus overcoming the natural buoyancy of the timber. This drawback ceased to exist when iron was substituted for wood in the construction of the hull, but the same system of pumping water into the walls was followed for some years.

ln 1866 iron docks began to be freely built from the designs of George Banks Rennie, James Campbell, and others, which were worked at Cartagena, Saigon, Callao, Bermuda, and other places. The most notable of these was Campbell’s dock at Bermuda, then and for many years the largest floating dock in the world. It had a length of 381ft. and a lifting power of 10,000 tons, and was in use up to the year 1905. In addition to the buoyancy due to the fact that the structure of the dock was hollow, further lifting power was obtained by means of gates, which could be put in place at each end when the ship was partly lifted, water being pumped out from the space between them exactly as was done in the very earliest type of floating dock. In 1876 a new problem in docking ships was presented by the construction of Admiral Popoff’s circular ironclads in the Black sea. The diameter of the largest of these was 120ft., and no dock in the world had a width of entrance enough to admit a vessel of such beam. This problem was solved by Clark and Standfield, subject is Marine Structures, Report of Committee, National Re- who devised a floating dock with only one side, the loss of stabilsearch Council (1924). The Port of London and its history are well ity entailed by the absence of the other side being compensated described in works by Sir J. Broodbank, 2 vols. (1921), and D. J. for by a floating outrigger attached to the dock by two sets of Owen (1927). The Proceedings of the International Navigation Congresses contain many important papers. Exhaustive bibliographic hinged parallel arms. This was called a “depositing” dock. The lists are issucd periodically (since 1908) by the International Associa——— — pontoon or horizontal portion of tion of Navigation Congresses, Brussels. See also passim, the Prothe dock, upon which the ship ceedings of the Inst. C.E. and of similar American and European rested, instead of being a conInstitutions and Societics and British technical journals such as The tinuous platform, consisted of a Engineer, Engineering and The Dock and Harbour Authority. Lloyds Register (annually) contains world lists of wet docks, basins, dry series of fingers with a space of docks, etc., with dimensions. Graving Docks, Floating Docks and sft. between them, each finger Patent Slips in the British Empire, London, H.M. Stationery office, is being 72ft. long. By detaching FIG. 2.—SECTIONAL PONTOON DOCK compiled under Admiralty-authority. Revised editions are issued at WHICH HAS THE WALLS, DOCK, AND some of these from the wall of intervals. Also F. M. Du-Plat-Taylor, Docks, asi — qs PONTOON CONTINUOUS, THUS LESS. the dock and attaching them to (1928). ENING

POSSIBILITY OF BREAKAGE

the ends of others, a platform 144ft. wide could be made, and upon this the circular ironclads A floating dock is a steel, iron or timber floating construction were lifted. A staging had been built along the shore, with the designed to raise ships out of the water, that their under-water spacing of the grids corresponding to the distance between the portions may be inspected and, if need be, painted or repaired. The fingers of the dock, so that by towing the dock with the ship on it earliest known form was evolved by an English captain during the sideways to the staging the fingers and the grids were interlaced. reign of Peter the Great in the harbour of Cronstadt. His ship If then the dock were lowered, the ship was deposited on the being in need of repairs, and no facilities being available, he bought staging, and the dock was free to be towed away to lift another an old hulk which he gutted completely, and fitted with a water- ship and deposit it on a further length of staging. Examples of tight gate at the stern. He then berthed his ship inside the hollow these depositing docks are still to be found at Nicolaieff, Vladishell thus formed and, after closing the gate, pumped out the vostok, Barcelona and Kobe. The dock at Kobe was built princiwater remaining inside. He was thus able to repair his own ship in pally for dealing with immense monoliths of teinforced concrete, the dry. This type of dock continued in use for the next 150 years, which were built on the staging, lifted off by the dock, and towed FLOATING

DOCKS

487

SWINGING GANGWAY

VALVE Lirtiee GEAR

—C

KA

SUCTION PIPE

|oMRVCOCA

TIINa/A

E-r

es

LH —

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

SECTIONAL View ~~

ee

FIG. 3.—END AND SECTIONAL VIEWS OF THE SOUTHAMPTON DOCK, SHOWING MACHINERY, BOOMS, ONE OF TWO CRANES AND GANGWAYS away to the site of the quay wall, where they were sunk in position, thus allowing the quay wall to be built of blocks weighing upwards of 6,000 tons. An outcome of the depositing dock was the “off-shore.” This is also a single-sided dock, but the pontoon is a continuous structure, and the floating outrigger is replaced by braced vertical columns on shore. Many of these docks have been built, most of them being very rapid in operation. The most common type of floating dock is the double-sided dock, of which there are many kinds distinguished by the means employed to arrange them for self-docking. It is obvious that a floating iron or steel structure must from time to time be got out of the water for repainting if its life is to be prolonged. As a rule a floating dock is too wide to go into any other dock, even if such be available, so all but the very smallest are designed to be able to lift each portion of themselves out of the water in turn. Self-docking Docks.—The earliest of the self-docking docks was the “sectional.” In this case the dock was built of a number

riveted joints with butt covers above it. Thus the dock forms one continuous whole, with very great longitudinal strength to withstand the stresses set up in the structure during the operation of docking a ship, or the much greater stresses which may occur during an ocean voyage. When it is required to self-dock, the joints between the sections are unmade, and the sections successively

lifted upon the rest of the dock. The self-docking of a single-sided dock is very simple. There is a transverse joint at the centre of its length which when unmade enables one half to be lifted, so to speak, on to the lap of the other. General Description.—A typical modern floating dock may be said to be a large rectangular hollow steel trough. The principal functions of the vertical sides of the trough, which form the walls of the dock, are to give stability to the dock when it is being worked without a ship on it, to contain the machinery required to

of separate and independent sections which were held together

generally by chains, the length of each section being such that it

could be turned sideways and lifted by two other sections. This

system has the drawback that it has no longitudinal strength,

and the risk of straining the ship by uneven pumping is considerable. Accidents have occurred due to the breaking of the connections between the different sections.

A much better form, generally known by the name of its inventor as the “Rennie” or “sectional pontoon” dock, has the walls continuous, thus forming a stiff girder the whole length of the dock, and the pontoon divided up as in the case of the “sectional” dock, the joint between the walls and pontoons being horizontal. This type of dock has been built to take ships up to 25,000 tons, but it is better adapted for smaller sizes, more particularly if they have to be towed across the ocean to their final destination. The strongest and at the same time the lightest form of selfdocking dock is known as the “sectional box.” This was evolved also by Clark and Standfield, and is the type used by them for the 60,000-ton dock at Southampton, which was built to take the largest Atlantic liners as well as battleships. It is similar to the “sectional” dock, but the sections are attached together all round their complete profile by bolted joints below the water line and

FIG. 4.—DEPOSITING DOCK OR ‘‘SECTIONAL BOX,’’ THE STRONGEST TYPE OF DOCK, ABLE TO WITHSTAND GREAT FORCE AND STRAIN BY MEANS OF THE BOLTED AND RIVETED JOINTS WHICH JOIN THE SECTIONS

lift the ship, to form platforms from which to berth the ship, and to give longitudinal strength. The horizontal portion of the trough, or pontoon, forms the platform upon which the ship rests, and provides the buoyancy which lifts the ship out of the water. The pontoon is extensively subdivided by watertight bulkheads to ensure stability, and the walls are also divided, but to a lesser extent.

The underlying principle upon which the working of a floating dock depends is that if, say, a ton is removed froma floating structure, that structure exerts an upward pressure of one ton. The

4.88

DOCK

WARRANT—DOCKYARDS

main machinery of a floating dock, therefore, consists of a number of centrifugal pumps placed as low down as possible in the pontoon, and worked by steam, electric or other prime movers, situated on the top of the walls; and it is the throwing out of the water by these pumps which causes the ship gradually to emerge from the sea. In order that the ship may be kept level, each subdivision of the dock has separate suction pipes and valves, all the rods actuating the valves being brought together in the valve-house. Fig. 3 represents two views of the Southampton floating dock, one seen from the end and the other as the dock would appear if cut in two. The arrangement of the machinery can be clearly seen in the left-hand view. In the motor house on the top deck is shown an electric motor, which by means of a vertical shaft drives a centrifugal pump seated on a cast-iron pipe running the full length of the dock. Branching from this pipe are other pipes leading to different watertight compartments. The water flowing through these branch pipes is, as shown in the drawing, regulated by a valve, the rod actuating this being carried nearly to the top

of the wall, where it is attached to a pneumatic press by which it is worked. The admission of air to these presses is electrically controlled from the valve-house. In the Southampton dock there are 56 of these compartment valves, and 14 electrically-driven pumps. On the top of one of the motor houses is the valve-house, from which all the machinery of the dock—valves and motors—is operated, so that the dockmaster can perform the whole operation of lifting a ship without leaving his post. The side-shores are shown touching the sides of the vessel; they consist of lattice girders which can be moved in and out electrically, and are geared together across the dock. When they are pushed home as shown in the drawing it is known that the ship is accurately in the centre of the dock.

In order to lift materials on and off the dock or ship,

there is an electrically driven travelling crane on the top of each wall, only one being shown in the drawing for the sake of clearness. The Q. SS. “Berengaria” of 52,706 tons is representative of the large type vessels which may be adequately docked with similar arrangements. In docking the “Berengaria,” there are to the left of the dock booms by which the dock is moored, and gangways give access to the top of the wall of the dock and to the pontoon deck. (Q. SS. means a steamship with four [Lat. quattuor] propellers.) The following operations are performed in lifting of a ship on a floating dock:—(1) Water is admitted to the interior of the dock until it is sufficiently deeply sunk to allow the ship to be brought in; (2) the ship is brought in and centred; (3) water is pumped out of the dock until it is bearing firmly on the keel of the ship; (4) the bilge-blocks or side supports are put in place under the bottom of the ship to keep her steady; (5) water is pumped out of the dock until the deck is above sea level. The life of a floating dock depends very largely upon the amount of care which is bestowed upon it, but in general a life of from 40 to 50 years may be looked for. Floating docks are constructed of all sizes according to the requirements of the port where they are to be worked; from 300 tons lifting power up to 60,000 tons were the limits in 1928, but

if ships increase in size there is no physical or economic reason why floating docks should not do likewise. At the beginning of 1928 nine floating docks were in existence capable of lifting ships of 30,000 tons and upwards. The cost of a floating dock per ton of lifting power tends to vary inversely as the total capacity of the dock. The very largest docks will cost about £6—10s. per ton of ship to be lifted, whereas a dock of 1,000 tons will cost approximately £22 per ton. These figures do not include the cost of dredging. (S. F. S.)

DOCK WARRANT, in law, a document by which the owner

AND

NAVAL

BASES

goods described in it. A dock warrant is liable to a stamp duty, which may be denoted by an adhesive stamp, to be cancelled by the person by whom the instrument is executed or issued. DOCKYARDS AND NAVAL BASES. Every navy, both in~peace and in war, requires dockyards and bases where repairs can be executed, ammunition, fuel and stores supplied, and where the needs of the personnel can be provided for. This is true also for the mercantile fleets which are served impartially by the great commercial ports and repair yards of the world, but the term “dockyard” is usually now applied only to the national establishments for the building and upkeep of warships. In its fullest sense a dockyard is an establishment which builds and equips warships, and has complete facilities for docking and repairing them. It supplies and perhaps manufactures armaments and ammunition, provides general and victualling stores and fuel and also contains training, medical and other establishments for the service of the personnel, It is however, only the few large home dockyards in each country which are so completely equipped, and even in these only a small proportion of warships are now actually built. Government dockyards are now mainly used for fitting out and commissioning new ships and for the upkeep of the fleets. In most countries, private firms manufacture guns and armour, engines and boilers and often carry the building of ships to the final stages before delivering them to the Government establishments for completion. Other dockyards (e¢.g., Malta) have no special facilities for building ships but are very completely equipped for the maintenance of a large fleet. Others again, though maintaining the status of dockyards, are capable only of minor repairs and of supplying stores, ammunition and fuel; these smaller establishments are really fortified naval bases or fuelling stations (g.v.). Every Government dockyard is a naval base, but the converse is not true. A modern fleet must have a base from which to operate: and the first requirements of a base are a safe harbour for the auxiliary craft attendant upon the fleet, and a protected fleet anchorage where the ships can, without molestation, replenish with fuel, stores and ammunition and give rest and recreation to the crews. Every dockyard or naval base must be defended by sufficient fixed and mobile local defences to protect it from attack by submarines or torpedo craft, from predatory raids by a few cruisers and from attack from the air. The security of any dockyard or base, however, must depend, ultimately, upon the ability

of the fleet which it serves to maintain the command of the sea. Great Britain.—Until the beginning of the 16th century England had no regular establishment for the Navy and possessed neither arsenals nor dockyards. The fleet was composed of a few

“King’s ships” supplemented by ships provided by the seaport towns. These towns were charged with the maintenance of the fighting ships when they were laid up and there are evidences of dockyards, or of something answering thereto, at the Cinque Ports as early as the 13th century. In 1238 the keepers of the

King’s galleys were ordered to build a house at Winchelsea for the safe custody of the vessels. In 1243 the Sheriff of Sussex was ordered to enlarge a house at Rye in which the King’s galleys were kept and ten years later the bailiffs of Rye and Winchelsea were ordered to repair these buildings. As the fighting ships developed from the galley to the larger sailing ships there appear to have been depots for both ships and stores maintained at Southampton and Portsmouth, and Henry VII., who laid the foundations of Britain’s sea power, built the first dry dock at the latter

place in 1495. Henry VIII., in 1509, purchased land at Wool-

wich and Deptford upon which the building of the first royal dockyards was started and in 1540 the Royal Dockyard at Portsmouth was founded around the site of the dry dock of Henry VII. Queen Elizabeth started the dockyards at Chatham and Sheerness and

of a marine or river dock certifies that the holder is entitled to both were considerably extended by Charles IJ. after the Restoragoods imported and warehoused in the docks. In the Factors Act tion. Plymouth, although its ships played so great a part in 1889, it is included in the phrase “document of title” and is defined Elizabethan times, did not become a royal dockyard until 1689, as any document or writing, being evidence of the title of any when William III. commenced the Plymouth dock at Devonport. person therein named .. . to the property in any goods or mer- The small dockyard at Pembroke was founded in 1814 and was _ ¢handise: lying ‘in any warehouse or wharf and signed or certified followed by the establishment at Haulbowline (Queenstown). Until 1832 the royal dockyards remained under the control of - by the person having the custody of the goods. It passes by indorsement and’dlelivery, and transfers the absolute right to the the Navy Board, which had been founded in 1546 by King Henry

—

DOCKYARDS

AND

= VIII. The Admiralty were responsible only for the fleet at sea and this dual control of the Navy had many disadvantages. It led to extravagance and allowed mismanagement and corruption which, several times in the history of the country, came near to bringing about national disaster. With the Reform Bill in 1832, the Admiralty and the Navy Office were amalgamated and the present system of dockyard administration came into being. During the roth century a gradual change came over the dockyards with the transition from sail to steam and many additions were made to meet the needs of the modern fleet. The most important improvements at any one period were brought about by the Naval Works Act of 1895, which sanctioned a large number of new works.

Defensive harbours were commenced

at Portland,

Dover and Gibraltar and also dockyard extensions at the latter place. At Devonport dockyard the great Keyham extension was started and new works were put in hand at Hongkong and Simon’s Town. At the same time the building of naval barracks at the three home ports began, together with new hospitals at Chatham, Haslar and Haulbowline and colleges at Dartmouth and Keyham. The growing German menace in the North sea, in the opening years of the present century, compelled the Admiralty to seek a new base on the east coast, farther north and easier of approach than Chatham. In 1903 the Government approved the creation of a new naval dockyard at Rosyth on the Firth of Forth. The outbreak of the World War found this base far from complete and the defence of the anchorage against submarines, in common with

NAVAL

BASES

489

to that part of the British empire that lies east of Suez. Without such a base there would be a grave risk in sending heavy ships so far from docking and repairing facilities, for Malta, the nearest large dockyard, is 6,000m. from Singapore. The importance of this dockyard to the sea security of the empire is perhaps not yet fully understood in England, but in Australia and New Zealand and the British possessions in the Far East its necessity is fully appreciated. The work of creating it was put in hand in 1923, checked for a year in 1924 and restarted in the following year. The estimated cost of the new base is £9,000,000. Dockyard Administration.—The system under which British

dockyards are administered is uniform for all, whether the yards are large or small, at home or abroad. The control of all dockyards is vested in the controller of the navy (the third sea lord). At the Admiralty, working under the controller are the director of naval construction, by whom all ships are designed, and the engineering, ordnance, torpedo, electrical and other technical departments, each responsible for the design of its own material. The director of dockyards, also working under the controller, is

the Admiralty official under whose instructions the work in the dockyards goes on, involving the control of an army of artisans and labourers and the keeping of costing accounts. Instructions emanate from the Admiralty, the details are left to the dockyard

officials and in practice there is considerable decentralization. Each dockyard is under the charge of an admiral or a captain superintendent, according to its size. His deputy as a rule acts as King’s harbour master and is responsible for the berthing and moving of ships in the port. The chief dockyard officers are the constructive manager, the engineer manager, the naval store officer, the electrical engineer, whose names explain their duties, the civil engineer, in charge of all buildings, docks, basins, etc., the cashier, expense accounts officer and medical officers. Technical matters regarding guns and torpedoes are supervised by the captains of the local gunnery and torpedo schools. There being close personal communication between responsible officers, rapid decisions can be taken in matters arising between the departments as the work progresses and operations are thus conducted with ease and efficiency.

other naval anchorages, had been almost entirely neglected. The work was pressed on and before the end of the war, a very fine dockyard had been completed. Its facilities were such that the biggest ships of the Grand Fleet could be docked and refitted there whilst a large fleet could lie in safety behind boom defences. In 1914 Great Britain possessed large dockyards at Portsmouth, Plymouth, Chatham and Malta, as well as the uncompleted works at Rosyth, at all of which the largest ships could be docked. Smaller establishments existed, in home waters, at Sheerness, Portland, Haulbowline and Pembroke. At Gibraltar, Hongkong, Bermuda, Simon’s Town (Cape of Good Hope) and Sydney (N.S.W.) were dockyards of old standing with dry docks for the France.—The French coast is divided into five arrondissements largest ships and there were minor establishments at Ascension, Wei-Hai-Wei, Colombo, Bombay and Calcutta, the two last men- having the headquarters at the naval ports of Cherbourg, Brest, tioned belonging to the Indian Government. Yet, with all this Toulon, Lorient and Rochefort. All these are building and fittingarray of permanent dockyards, the World War made necessary out yards. Corsica has naval bases at Ajaccio, Porto Vecchio and the establishment of other naval bases. Scapa Flow became the Bonifacio. On the African coast there are docking facilities at main base of the Grand Fleet equipped only for storing, ammu- Algiers and fortified bases at Oran and Bizerta. There are naval nitioning and “running repairs.” Cromarty Firth became the establishments at Saigon and Hai-phong in the Far East and at second base of the fleet and with the aid of a large floating dock Diego Suarez in Madagascar. There is a gun foundry at Ruelle: was able to complete the repairs of the biggest ships badly dam- steel works at Guerigny, where anchors, cables and armour plates aged in battle. Harwich, Dover and Immingham acted as bases are made: machinery works are at Indret, an island in the River for light forces and Mudros, Alexandria and other places became Loire, and there are many private shipbuilding establishments. In each arrondissement the wee-admiral, who is the naval prebases during particular operations. With the surrender of the German fleet and the changes brought about by post war condi- fect, is the representative of the minister of marine and has full tions, Rosyth lost its importance. The great dockyard was re- direction and command of the arsenal. He is commander-induced to a condition of care and maintenance and so remains. In chief and governor designate in time of war, but his authority the interests of economy and the general reduction of armaments does not extend to ships belonging to organized squadrons. The the dockyards at Haulbowline and Pembroke were closed down naval prefect is assisted by a rear-admiral as chief of the staff whose special functions are the efficiency of the personnel of the - and a reduction in establishment was made at other places. The result of the World War brought about a re-orientation in fleet, whilst the “major-general,” who is usually another rearBritish sea power and the growth in the size of capital ships has admiral, is concerned with the material. There are also directors necessitated the provision of a base in the Far East, capable of of stores, of naval construction, of the medical service, of naval maintaining a modern fleet. Hongkong, the only base in those ordnance and of works as well as of the submarine defences waters for British naval forces, is quite inadequate and, moreover, which include torpedoes, mines and torpedo-boats. The prefect under the Washington Treaty, no additions or improvements directs the operation of the whole dockyard and port and is recan be made there. The agreement, however, prescribed certain sponsible for the efficiency of ships there in reserve. Germany.—lIn the first years of the present century, during exact limits which definitely excluded Singapore from any prohibitions. That port has been selected for the new dockyard because the expansion of the German fleet, two great modern dockyards it lies upon the flank of the sea route to Australia and New Zea- were built at Wilhelmshaven on the North sea and at Kiel in the land, while behind it are the waters of the Indian ocean and the Baltic with a ship canal connecting the two. Smaller establishgreat British possessions that lie around them. Singapore threat- ments were maintained at Cuxhaven, Bremerhaven, Flensburg, ens fo one, for it is as far from Japan as Gibraltar is from New Swinemiinde, Danzig and at Kiao-Chau in the Far East. The York and it is very nearly antipodal to the latter place. But it last-named two were lost to Germany as the result of the World ensures that, if need be, a battle fleet with all its attendant War, and with the disappearance of the German fleet as an auxiliaries can be moved into such a position as to afford security important one, all the dockyards have been much reduced.

490

DOCKYARDS

AND NAVAL BASES

The chief official at each German dockyard is the superintendent, who is a rear-admiral or captain directly responsible to

the naval secretary of State. Under the superintendent's orders are the captuin of the fleet reserve, the directors of ordnance, torpedoes, navigation, naval construction, engineering and harbour works, besides other officers. Considerable progress is being made in the re-organization of the German Navy, within the limits of the Versailles Treaty. Important private shipyards exist at Elbing in East Prussia, at Bredow, near Stettin, at Bremen and at Hamburg, which though primarily commercial are all capable of building warships. Italy.—The Italian Navy is particularly well equipped with modern dockyards. The chief establishment is at Spezia, where there are four large docks and two large building slips in a very

Minor Naval Powers.—Naval dockyards are maintained by all the Powers who possess fleets, but those in European waters which have not been mentioned above are of secondary importance and are only capable of serving the small navies that they maintain. In South America, although the dockyards themselves are small, the largest capital ships can be docked at Buenos Aires and Puerto Belgrano in Argentina, at Rio de Janeiro in Brazil and at Talcuhuano in Chile. (S. T. H. W.)

UNITED STATES The shore establishments under control of the navy department are known as navy yards and naval stations. The navy yards are equipped with dry-docks, and shops for general repairs and alterations to vessels of the fleet. They are also provided with buildcompletely equipped dockyard. At Naples there are small dry ing ways for the construction of new vessels. Each yard is docks with building slips at the subsidiary establishment at equipped for the manufacture of certain equipment used in the Castellamare, across the bay. Taranto and Venice both possess naval service and has a supply department for supplying stores large docks and building slips. A small naval base exists at Mad- and equipment to vessels in active commission and for outfitting dalena in Sardinia and, as the result of the World War, the new vessels. There are several important naval stations established valuable Austrian dockyards at Trieste and Pola became Italian for special purposes. Navy Yards.—There are eight navy yards within the contiproperty. The Italian Government has no gun or torpedo factories, most of the ordnance being made by the Armstrong firm nental limits of the United States. Of these, six are on the Atlantic at Pozzuoli and torpedoes by Schwarzkopf at Venice, whilst coast and two on the Pacific coast. Those on the Atlantic coast armour plates are supplied by the important steel works at Terni. are situated at Portsmouth, N.H. (Kittery, Me.); Boston, Mass.; Machinery is supplied by private firms of which there are large New York (Brooklyn), N.Y.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Norfolk, Va.; and numbers. Charleston, S.C. Those on the West coast are situated at Mare Japan.—The first dockyafd was established in Japan in 1866 island, Calif., and Bremerton, Wash. Naval Stations are located at New Orleans, La.; Guantanamo, at Yokosuka, and this still remains the principal establishment in the country. At first, French naval constructors and engineers Cuba; St. Thomas, Virgin islands; San Diego, Calif.; Pearl Harwere employed but, in 1875, the Japanese took the administration bor, Hawaii; Tutuila, Samoa; Guam; Cavite and Olongapo, P.I. into their own hands. At that time the largest ship that could be Of these stations, Pearl Harbor, Cavite and Olongapo are fitted constructed in Japan was 5,000 tons, but the dockyard expanded similarly to navy yards for the minor repairs of vessels of the rapidly and is now able to build and dock the largest and most fleet. The stations at Pearl Harbor and Olongapo have drymodern ships. Until after the close of the Russo-Japanese War; docks; that of Olongapo being the floating dry-dock “Dewey.” in 1905, all the important ships of the Japanese fleet were built Submarine Bases are located at New London, Conn.; Hampin Great Britain, France, Germany or the United States. In that ton Roads, Va.; Key West, Fla.; Coco Solo, Canal Zone; San year a large first-class cruiser was launched at the new dockyard Pedro, Calif.; Astoria, Ore.; Pearl Harbor, Hawaii; and Cavite, at Kure and since then the Japanese have only gone abroad for P.I. These bases are fitted with small machine shops and barthe first ship of each new type. These have been copied in their racks for officers and enlisted men, and bear the same relation to own establishments, which are thoroughly equipped for producing submarines as a mother ship. The station at New London has a ships and material second to none, in spite of the fact that a school for the instruction of officers and enlisted men in submarine large proportion of the raw material has to come from abroad. work. Besides Yokosuka, there are now large modern dockyards at Naval Operating Bases are located at Hampton Roads, Va.; Kure, where an armour plate factory has been established; at Key West, Fla.; Canal Zone; San Diego, Calif.; San Francisco, Sasebo and at Maizuru. Ryojun (Port Arthur) became Japanese Calif.; Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. These bases are centres from after the war with Russia, and there are other naval establishments which men of war can operate and be maintained in time of peace at Masampo, Takeshiki (Tsushima Is.), Ominato and at Bako in or war, and they afford anchorage space for a large number of the Pescadores. Docking facilities for large ships also exist at vessels. Tokyo, Yokohama and Uraga. Naval Air Stations are located at Anacostia, D.C.; Hampton Soviet Russia.—Of the present state of the Russian dockyards Roads, Va.; Chatham, Mass.; Squantum, Mass.; Lakehurst, N.J.; very little is known. Before the break up of Russia, important Cape May, N.J.; Pensacola, Fla.; Canal Zone; San Diego, Calif.: dockyards existed at Kronstadt and Petrograd and at Nikolayev Sand Point, Wash.; Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. These stations are in the Black sea, with lesser establishments at Archangel, Sevasto- fitted with hangars, small machine shops and landing fields for the pol, Batum, Baku, Vladivostock, Reval, Libau and Sveaborg. The general repair and operations of shore base aircraft. Training Stations, for training newly enlisted men, are located World War removed the last-named three from Russian possession and the naval effectiveness of the remainder is now probably at Newport, R.I.; Hampton Roads, Va.; San Diego, Calif., and negligible. Ordnance and steel works exist at Obukhov and Putilov Great Lakes, Ill. but their output is at present unimportant. Naval Hospitals are located at Portsmouth; N.H.; Boston, Spain.—The Spanish dockyards at Ferrol, Cartagena and Cadiz Mass.; Newport, R.I.; New York, N.Y.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Washare old establishments which, of recent years, have not kept pace ington, D.C.; Annapolis, Md.; Norfolk, Va.; San Diego, Calif.; with the times. The fleet is, however, now being steadily mod- Mare island, Calif.; Bremerton, Wash.; Pearl Harbor, Hawaii; ernized and will, in the not far distant future, become a factor Cavite, P.I. Other Special Stations are: the Naval War college at Newin the balance of sea power amongst the States with a Mediterranean littoral. At both Ferrol and Cartagena there are large port, for the instruction of officers; Naval academy at Annapolis, dry docks. The larger ships are built at Ferrol, Cartagena deal- Md., for the training and education of midshipmen prior to com- . ` ing only with torpedo craft and gunboats; both dockyards are missioning as officers; Engineering Experimental station at Anbeing brought up to date. The dockyard at La Carraca (Cadiz) napolis, Md.; and Experimental Laboratory at Bellevue, D.C., for has four dry docks but no building slips and is used chiefly as a experimental work in engineering; Aircraft factory, Philadelphia, base for. s and torpedo craft. There is a small naval Pa., for building and testing of aircraft; Torpedo stations at establishment t Port Mahon in the Balearic Islands and con- Newport, R.I., Alexandria, Va., and Keyport, Wash., for building, T commercial building and repair yards belonging to private repairing and testing of torpedoes, and torpedo parts; Naval Gun rms at Barcelona, Gijon, Santander and Bilbao. factory, Washington, D.C., for construction of naval ordnance;

DOCTOR—DOCTRINAIRES Naval Ordnance plant, South Charleston, W.Va., for the manu-

facture of armour and gun forgings; powder factory, Indian Head, Md., for the manufacture of powder; Naval Proving ground, Dahigren, Va., for testing of naval ordnance; Naval Mine depot, Yorktown, Va., for the storage of mines and explosives; Helium plant, Fort Worth, Texas, for the production of helium gas used in lighter-than-air craft; Naval observatory, Washington, D.C., for the purpose of furnishing astronomical data and nautical instruments to naval vessels and aircraft and furnishing time signals. Fueling depots have been established at Melville, R.I.; Yorktown, Va.; La Playa, Calif.; Tiburon, California. The officer ordered to command a navy yard or naval station is the commandant. He is usually a rear admiral and is the representative of the navy department in all matters within the limits of his command and is responsible for business transacted therein. The principal aids to the commandant are the captain of the yard and the manager. The captain of the yard, who is next in succession to command, has general charge of the water-front, yard craft and ships moored there, the police force, fire department and other purely military activities as distinct from industrial activities. The manager is the officer in charge of the industrial activities, including the labour force, productive shops and offices. He is directly responsible to the commandant for all industrial work performed at the yard. Under the manager are the inside super-

intendent, outside superintendent, plant superintendent and accounting superintendent. The other yard heads of departments are known as supply officer, public works officer, medical officer. ' With few exceptions, the entire working force of the yards and stations is employed under the rules of the civil service. All are graded under a uniform efficiency-marking system. The employment is continuous as long as funds and work are available. Upon decrease of funds or work the force is reduced by discharging those having lowest efficiency ratings. Veterans are given a prefer-

ence in case of discharge when their efficiency rating is good or better. The wages are, by law, required to be based upon the wages paid for corresponding trades in the vicinity of the local yards and stations. The wage scale is revised each year by a local wage board and a departmental wage board. In addition to all national and executive order holidays, each yard employee is granted 30 days’ leave each year with full pay. Eight hours constitute a day’s work and employees are paid 50% additional for all overtime and holiday work. Overtime is only authorized in case

491

degree began to be conferred in medicine. The tendency since has been to extend it to all faculties in French and English universities; while in Germany, in the faculty of arts, it has replaced the old title of magister. Doctors of the Church are certain saints whose doctrinal writings have obtained, by the universal consent of the Church or by papal decree, a special authority. In the case of the great schoolmen a characteristic qualification was added to the title doctor; e.g., “angelicus” (Aquinas), “mellifuus” (Bernard). The doctors of the Church are: for the East, SS. Athanasius, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom; for the West, SS. Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Gregory the Great, Anselm, Bernard, Bonaventura and Thomas Aquinas. To these St. Alphonso dei Liguori was added by Pope Pius IX.

DOCTORS’ COMMONS, the name formerly applied to a

society of ecclesiastical lawyers in London, forming a distinct profession for the practice of the civil and canon Jaws. Some members of the profession purchased in 1567 a site near St. Paul’s, on which at their own expense they erected houses (destroyed in the Great Fire, but rebuilt in 16072) for the residence of the judges and advocates, and proper buildings for holding the ecclesiastical and admiralty courts. In 1708 a royal charter was obtained by virtue of which the then members of the society and their successors were incorporated under the name and title: of “The College of Doctors of Law exercent in the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts.” The college consisted of a president (the dean of Arches for the time being) and of those doctors of law of the Universities of Oxford or Cambridge, who had been admitted advocates in pursuance of the rescript of the archbishop of Canterbury, and elected fellows in the manner prescribed by the charter. There were also attached to the college 34 proctors, whose duties were analogous to those of solicitors. The judges of the archiepiscopal courts were always selected from this college. By the Court of Probate Act, 1857, the college was empowered to sell its real and personal estate and to surrender its charter, and it was enacted that on such surrender the college should be dissolved and its property distributed among the members. The college was accordingly dissolved, and the various ecclesiastical courts which sat at Doctors’ Commons are now open to the whole bar.

DOCTRINAIRES,

the name given to the leaders of the

moderate and constitutional Royalists in France after the second restoration of Louis XVIII. in 1815. In 1816 the Nain jaune réfugié, a French paper published at. Brussels by Bonapartist and Liberal exiles, began to speak of Royer-Collard as the “doctrinaire.” The “doctrinaires” was a popular name for a religious order founded in 1592 by César de Bus. The nickname for M. Royer€ollard was well chosen, for he made it his business to preach a doctrine and an orthodoxy. The rapid extension of the name to his colleagues proves that it had more than a personal application. The duc de Richelieu and M. de Serre had been

of extraordinary emergencies when necessary to save life or Government property. The nature and extent of repair work necessary upon naval vessels is submitted by commanding officers to the commandant of the yard who approves those that can be accomplished with the funds allotted by the various bureaus of the navy department. Alterations must be approved by the department and funds allotted before being undertaken by yards. Navy yards are permitted to do work for other Government departments when such work does not interfere with naval work. Royalist émigrés; MM. Royer-Collard himself, Lainé, and Maine They are not permitted to compete with private plants for private de Biran had sat in the revolutionary assemblies; Pasquier work and can only undertake private work with departmental ap- Beugnot, de Barante, Cuvier, Mounier, Guizot, and Decazes had proval when such work is in the nature of an emergency and can been imperial officials; but they were closely united hy political not be performed by any private plants in the vicinity. principle, and all were noted for the dialectical rigidity of their The department has under its control 64 radio stations and 57 arguments. Their ideal was a king who frankly accepted the radio compass stations. The radio stations are for naval commu- results of the Revolution, and who governed in a liberal spirit, nications and do not compete with private stations. The compass with the advice of a chamber elected by a very limited constitustations are available to merchant as well as naval vessels, upon ency. Their views were set forth by Guizot in 1816 in his treatise request direct to station, furnishing bearings and position. Du gouvernement représentatif et de létat actuel de la France. (Y. S. W.) The history of the Doctrinaires as a separate political party began

DOCTOR

(Lat. for “teacher”), the title conferred by the

highest university degree. Originally there were only two degrees, those of bachelor and master, and the title doctor was given to certain masters as a merely honorary appellation. At Bologna it seems to have been conferred in the faculty of law as early as the 12th century. Paris conferred the degree in the faculty of divinity, according to Antony Wood, some time after 1150. In England it

was introduced in the 13th century; and both in England and on the Continent it was long confined to the faculties of Jaw and

divinity.

It was not until the 14th century that the doctor’s

in 1816 and ended in 1830. In 1816 they obtained the co-opera-

tion of Louis XVIII., who had been frightened by the violence of the reactionary majority in the chamber of 1815. In 1830 they were destroyed by Charles X. when he took the reactionary prince de Polignac as his minister and entered on the conflict with Liberalism which ended in his overthrow. During the revolution of 1830 the Doctrinaires became absorbed in the Qrleanists. (See France: History.) The word “doctrinaire” has become naturalized in English as applied, in a slightly contemptuous sense, to a theorist, as distinguished from a practical man.

492

DOCUMENT—DODECANESE

DOCUMENT, strictly, in law, that which can serve as evidence or proof, and is written or printed, or has an inscription or any significance that can be “read”; thus a picture, authenticated photograph, seal or the like would furnish “documentary evidence.” More generally the word is used for written or printed papers that provide information or evidence on a subject. (See DIPLoMATIC; and EVIDENCE.)

DODD, WILLIAM

(1729-1777), English divine, was born

at Bourne, Lincs., in May 1729. He was admitted a sizar of Clare hall, Cambridge, in 1745, and took the degree of B.A. in 1750, being 15th wrangler. He entered the church, received rapid preferment, and was also tutor to Philip Stanhope, earl of Chesterfield. An effort by his wife to bribe the wife of the lord chancellor drove him from England for some time. He returned in 1776, and, being in financial straits, forged a bond for £4,200 on his former pupil, Lord Chesterfield. He was sentenced to death, and was executed at Tyburn on June 27, 1777. Samuel Johnson was very zealous in pleading for a pardon, and a petition from the City of London received 23,000 signatures. Dr. Dodd wrote one or two comedies and a popular book, the Beauties of Shakespeare (1752). A list of his 55 writings and an account of the writer is included in the Thoughts in Prison, a poem written in prison before his execution. e See P. Fitzgerald, A Famous Forgery (1865).

DODDER, the popular name of the annual, rootless, leafless, twining, parasitic plants forming the genus Cuscuta, formerly regarded as representing a distinct family Cuscutaceae, but now included in the Convolvulaceae. The genus contains nearly 100 species and is widely distributed in the temperate and warmer parts of the earth. The slender thread-like stem is white, yellow, or red in colour, bears no leaves, and in the seedling stage attaches itself by suckers to the stem or leaves of some other

By this means water is drawn from the wood and nutriment from the bast of the host. The dodder then soon ceases to have any connection with the ground. As it grows, it throws out fresh suckers, establishing itself very firmly on the host-plant. After making a few turns round one shoot the dodder finds its way to another, and thus it continues twining and branching till it resembles “fine, closely-tangled, wet catgut.” The injury done to flax, clover, hop and bean crops by species of dodder is often very great. C. europaea, the greater dodder (see fig.) is parasitic on nettles, thistles, vetches and the hop; C. epilinum, on flax; C. epithymum, on furze, ling and thyme. C. trifolii, the clover dodder, is probably a sub-species of the last mentioned. In the United States and Canada about 30 species occur, a few of which have been naturalized from the Old World. Among the native species are the love-vine (C. Gronovii), common on herbs and low shrubs in the Eastern States and adjacent Canada; the glomerate dodder (C. paradoxa), which forms dense ropes of flowers on tall herbs in the Central States; and the marsh dodder (C. salina), abundant in salt marshes of the Pacific coast, forming golden patches on various saline herbs.

DODDRIDGE,

PHILIP

(1702-1751),

English Noncon-

formist divine, was born in London on June 26, 1702. He was educated at the academy for dissenters at Kibworth in Leicestershire. In 1729, at a general meeting of Nonconformist ministers, he was chosen to conduct the academy, then newly established at Market Harborough. In the same year he became minister of the independent congregation at Northampton. He died in Lisbon on Oct. 26, 1751. Doddridge wrote The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul (1745), which best illustrates his religious genius, and has been widely translated. He was the author of many well-known and justly admired hymns, e.g., “O God of Bethel, by whose hand.” See Memoirs, by Rev. Job Orton (1766); Letters to and from Dr. Doddridge, by Rev. Thomas Stedman (1790) ; and Correspondence and Diary, in § vols., by his grandson, John Doddridge Humphreys (1829). The best life is Stanford’s Philip Doddridge (1880). Doddridge’s academy is now represented by New college, Hampstead, where is a large collection of his manuscripts.

DODDS, ALFRED

AMÉDÉE

(1842-1922), French gen-

eral, was born at St. Louis, Senegal, on Feb. 6, 1842, of AngloFrench origin. He was educated at Carcassonne and at St. Cyr, and in 1864 joined the marine infantry as a sub-lieutenant. He served as a company commander in the Franco-German War, was taken prisoner at Sedan but escaped, and took part in the cam-

BY

COURTESY

DODDER

OF

MESERE.

(CUSCUTA

GUSTAV

FISCHER

EUROPAEA),

A PARASITIC

PLANT

ON A WILLOW

TWIG

In the small figure Is seen a transverse section of the host-plant, showing the

contact of the dodder with the tissues of the host, which it finally destroys

plant round which it twines and from which it derives its nourishment. It bears clusters of small flowers with a four- or fivetoothed calyx, a cup-shaped corolla with four or five stamens inserted on its tube, and sometimes a ring of scales below the sta-

paigns of the Loire and of the East. In 1872 he was sent to West Africa, and except when on active service in Cochin China (1878) and Tong-king (1883), he remained on duty in Senegal for the next 20 years, taking a prominent part in the operations which brought the countries of the Upper Senegal and Upper Niger under French rule. He led the expeditions against the Boal and Kayor (1889), the Serreres (1890) and the Futa (1891), and from 1888 to 1891 was colonel commanding the troops in Senegal. At the close of 1891 he returned to France to command the eighth marine infantry at Toulon. In April 1892 Dodds was selected to command the expeditionary force in Dahomey; he occupied Abomey, the hostile capital, in November, and in a second campaign (1894) he completed the subjugation of the country. He was then appointed inspector-general of the marine infantry, and after a tour of the French colonies was given the command of the XX. (Colonial) Army Corps, becoming inspector-general of colonial troops. From 1904 to 1914 he was a member of the Conseil Supérieur de Guerre. He died in Paris on July 18, 1922.

DODECAHEDRON: see Sotmps, GEOMETRIC. DODECANESE (twelve islands), in the Aegean sea are

situated near the coast of Asia Minor and are a possession of

Italy. The term first appears in the 9th century and was used in the middle ages for the Cyclades. Since the Italian occupation it mens; the two-celled ovary becomes when ripe a capsule splitting has been applied to “the 13 southern Sporades,” consisting of the by a ring just above the base. The seeds are angular and contain a 13 (not 12) islands of Rhodes, Cos, Kalymnos, Leros, Nisyros, thread-like spirally coiled embryo which bears no cotyledons. On Télos, Symé, Khalké, Astypalaia, Karpathos, Kasos, Patmos and coming in cémtact with the living stem of some other plant the Lipsos. The two first and the last were not included in the mediseedling dodder throws out a sucker, which penetrates the host, aeval ‘“‘dodecanese,” which, however, comprised Nikaria and its tissues establishing organic union with the tissues of the host. Castellorizo. Turkish firmans from 1652 to 1835 conferred or con-

DODECASTYLE—DODGSON firmed their fiscal privileges, and local Greek authorities collected a lump annual sum as tribute to the Porte. These privileges, despite occasional infringements in 1869, 1886 and 1893, continued down to the Turkish Revolution. The Young Turks, in 1909, abolished them, but in 1912, when the islands ceased to belong to Turkey,

this decision had not yet been carried out. In that year the Italians, then at war with Turkey and meeting with difficulties in Libya, occupied the 13 islands after a single battle at Psinthos in Rhodes, in which they were aided by the islanders, believing in the promises of General Ameglio and Admiral Presbitero, that “autonomy” would follow the abolition of Turkish rule. Indeed, an Insular Assembly met at Patmos, and proclaimed the “Autonomous State of the Aegean” with its own flag. The first Treaty of Lausanne, in Oct. 1912, pledged Italy to evacuate the islands as soon as the Turks had evacuated Libya. Signor Giolitti, when Premier, sincerely repudiated the idea of “annexing territories of Greek nationality” and Sir Edward Grey, in 1913, declared that their fate ‘interested all the Great Powers.” Nevertheless, the 8th article of the secret Treaty of London of 1915, which secured Italy’s entrance into the World

War, gave her full sovereignty over the islands.

A convention

was, however, made between M. Venizelos and Senator Tittoni (then Foreign Minister) on July 29, 1919, which was to have

simultaneous effect with the subsequent Treaty of Sévres, and which ceded 12 of the islands to Greece, and provided that Rhodes, the thirteenth, should have “a wide local autonomy.” A further treaty was signed on Aug. 10, 1920, by M. Venizelos and Count Bonin at Sévres. It confirmed the above, and added that Rhodes should, 15 years later, become Greek also if Great

Britain should have ceded Cyprus to Greece, and a Rhodian plebiscite, held under the supervision of the League of Nations, should have decided for union. Meanwhile Italy pledged herself to give to the islands within two months a “wide local autonomy.” In 1922, however, Senator Tittoni’s successor, Count Sforza, denounced these agreements on the ground that circumstances had changed, and the fall of M. Venizelos strengthened the determination of the Italians to remain, despite Lord Curzon’s stiff note of Oct. 15, 1922, intimating that the cession of Jubaland by Great Britain to Italy was conditional upon the Italian settlement of the question of the Dodecanese with Greece. This position, however, was abandoned by Mr. Ramsay MacDonald. Meanwhile the Treaty of Sévres formally assigned the Dodecanese to Italy, which by article 15 of the second Treaty of Lausanne not only obtained the recognition by Turkey of her full sov-

ereignty over “the 13 islands,” but also the ratification of her occupation (during the World War) of Castellorizo. The Metropolitan of Rhodes was expelled in 1921, and, after an exile of three years, was allowed to return and remain only on condition that he severed his connection with the Oecumenical Patriarch. The Italian plan was to create an autocephalous church for the Dodecanese on the mistaken precedent of Cyprus, which was ecclesiastically autocephalous many centuries before the

493

privilèges, etc. (Athens, 1912); cece Handbooks, vol. xi., No. 64; The Turkish Islands (1920); Sk. Zervos, Rhodes, capitale “ Dodécanèse (1920); M. D. — The Island of Roses and her eleven sisters (1922 F ia and Foreign State Papers, 1920, vol. cxziii., pp. 1078-80 (r9i (W. M.)

DODECASTYL

the term given to a portico that has 12

columns in front, or to a building whose chief feature is such a

portico. DÖDERLEIN, LUDWIG (1791-1863), German philologist, born at Jena on Dec. 19, 1791, son of J. C. Döderlein, pro-

fessor of theology; studied at Munich, Heidelberg, Erlangen and Berlin. He lectured on philology at Berne (1815-19), and Er-

langen (1819), where he died on Nov. 9, 1863. He is best known

by his Lateinische Synonymen und Etymologien (1826-1838), and his Homerisches Glossarium (1850-58).

DODGE CITY, a city of south-western Kansas, U.S.A., on

the Arkansas river, at an altitude of 2,478ft.; the county seat of Ford county. It is on Federal highways 50S and 154, and is served by the Rock Island and the Santa Fe railways. The population in 1925 (State census) was 6,099 (93% native white). It has railroad shops, flour-mills, a dressed poultry plant and creameries, and is the supply centre for a large agricultural and stockraising area. The meridian separating “central” from “mountain” time passes through the city. Dodge City was settled about 1872 and incorporated in 1875. It was a famous frontier town on the old Santa Fe trail, the rendezvous of picturesque characters, the centre of important freighting lines and headquarters of the cattle business. At the peak, in 1884, herds aggregating 8,000,000 head of cattle passed through from Texas, in charge of 3,000 men. There were immense herds of buffalo in this region. Hunting parties often killed 250 in a day, and the first trains often had to wait hours while a herd crossed the track. The first winter after the Santa Fe came through, 200,000 buffalo hides were shipped from Dodge City. At some stations in the vicinity shipments of buffalo bones in 1875 averaged a car load a day. On the river 5m. E. of the city is old Ft. Dodge, an important frontier garrison, now the State home for disabled volunteer soldiers.

DODGSON,

CHARLES

LUTWIDGE

(“Lewis

Car-

ROLL”) (1832-1898), English mathematician and author, son of the Rev. Charles Dodgson, vicar of Daresbury, Cheshire, was born in that village. The literary life of “Lewis Carroll” became familiar to a wide circle of readers, but the private life of Charles

Lutwidge Dodgson was retired and practically uneventful. After four years at Rugby, Dodgson matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, in May 1850. He took a first class in the final mathe-

matical school in 1854, and the following year was appointed

mathematical lecturer at Christ Church, a post he continued to fill till 1881. His earliest publications, beginning with A Syllabus of Plane Algebraical Geometry (1860), and The Formulae of Plane Trigonometry (1861), were exclusively mathematical; but late in the year 1865 he published, under the pseudonym of “Lewis Carroll,” Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, which has become an English classic. It was an open secret that the original British occupation. The death of the Patriarch, however, preof “Alice” was a daughter of Dean Liddell. Alice was followed (in vented the execution of this arrangement, which would have been the “Lewis Carroll” series) by Phantasmagoria (1869); Through uncanonical without his consent and contrary to the example of the Looking-Glass (1871); The Hunting of the Snark (1876); Protestant England in the Ionian Islands and of Catholic Austria Rhyme and Reason (1883); A Tangled Tale (1885); and Sylvie in Bosnia and Hercegovina. Another regulation in 1925 com- and Bruno (in two parts, 1889 and 1893). He wrote skits on pelled all inhabitants of the Dodecanese to take Italian nationalOxford subjects from time to time. The Dynamics of a Particle ity, although, with the exceptions of the Muslims and Jews in was written on the occasion of the contest between Gladstone and Rhodes, they are all practically of Greek race. The fortification Mr. Gathorne Hardy (afterwards earl of Cranbrook); and The of Leros as a naval base and the establishment of a university New Belfry in ridicule of the erection put up at Christ Church at Rhodes point to the permanence of the Italian occupation, for the bells that were removed from the cathedral tower. While which is the chief obstacle to Graeco-Italian friendship. The “Lewis Carroll’ was delighting children of all ages, C. L. Dodgson islands, with the exception of the sponge-fishing industry of periodically published mathematical works—An Elementary Kalymnos and Symé, have small economic value, and the pro- Treatise on Determinants (1867); Euclid, Book V., proved Algehibition of sponge-fishing off the north coast of Africa by the braically (1874); Euclid and his Modern Rivals (1879), the Italians in 1916, since withdrawn, not only injured the islands work on which his reputation as a mathematician largely rests; economically but also diminished their population, now only and Curiosa Mathematica (1888). Though the fact of his authorabout 80,000, by emigration. Besides, however, the strategic im- ship of the “Alice” books was well known, he invariably stated, portance of Leros in view of possible Italian expansion in Asia when occasion called for such a pronouncement, that ‘Mr. DodgMinor, Astypalaia has two harbours. son neither claimed nor acknowledged any connection with the Brersoonarey.—Jeanne Z. Stéphanopoli, Les Mes de PEgée, leurs books not published under his name.” His memory is appro-

494

DODO—DODSLEY

priately kept green by a cot in the Children’s Hospital, Great Ormond street, London, which was endowed perpetually by a

who was carried away by the Phoenicians, but says that thé local legend substitutes a black dove, in which he tries to find a rational

Wonderland was sold by Dean Liddell’s daughter in April 1928

Zeus, a consort named Dione (see further Zzus; OracLE; DIONE). The ruins, a theatre, town walls and other buildings were identified by Wordsworth in 1832, and excavated by Constantin Carapanos after 1875. The topographical asd architectural results are disappointing; either the site always retained its simplicity, or else its buildings have been very completely destroyed. South of the hill, on which are the town walls east of the theatre, and towards the eastern end of a plateau about 200 yd. long and so yd. wide are the remains of the temple of Zeus; pronaos, cella and opisthodomus, about 130 ft. by 8o ft. over all. Some lower drums of internal columns of the cella still rest on their foundations. No trace of external colonnade was found. It had been converted into a church. In and around it were found Statuettes and decorative bronzes, many bearing dedications to Zeus Naius and Dione, many small tablets of lead which contained questions put to the oracle. Below the terrace was a precinct, flanked with porticoes over 100 yd. in length and breadth, of irregular shape. One of the buildings on the south-western side contained a pedestal or altar, and is described by Carapanos as a temple of Aphrodite. In front of the porticoes are rows of pedestals, which once bore statues and other dedications. At the southern corner is a gate, flanked with two towers, between which are placed two coarse limestone drums. If thése belong to the original gateway, it must have been of a very rough character. The smaller antiquities are now in the National Museum in Athens. Among the dedications are weapons dedicated by King Pyrrhus from the spoils of the Romans. The temple of Dodona was destroyed by the Aetolians in 219 B.C., but the oracle survived to the times of Pausanias and the emperor Julian.

public subscription.

The beautifully written ms. of Alice in meaning. In historical times there was worshipped, together with

for £15,400. See S. D. Collingwood, Life and Letters of Lewis Carroll (1898).

DODO, a large bird formerly inhabiting the island of Mauritius, but now extinct—the Didus ineptus of Linnaeus. The Dutch called them Walgvögels, i.e., nauseous birds, because no cooking made them palatable. A com-

pendious bibliography of notices of the bird up to the year 1848, will be found in the classical work, The Dodo and its Kindred, by H. E. Strickland and A. G. Melville (London, 1848), and the list was continued by G. R. von Frauenfeld Neu aufgefundene

Abbildung des Dronte (Wien, 1868) for 20 years later. The last evidence we have of the dodo’s existence is furnished by a journal kept by Benj. Harry and now

FROM

WILLIAM

DODO

SCLATTER,

“THE

IBIS”

(DIDUS INEPTUS)

Native to Mauritius, the Dodo was exterminated about 16681. It was nearly the size of a swan, and filghtless, living In the island forests

in the British Museum (mss. Addit. 3,668, 11 D). This shows its survival till 1681, but the writer’s sole remark upon it is that its “flesh is very hard.” Professor Reinhardt was the first to suggest the affinity of the dodo to the pigeons (Columbidae) and Sir R. Owen’s examination of the material discovered in a mud pool by G. Clark in 1865 confirmed this. In 1889 Th. Sauzier, acting for the Government of Mauritius, sent a great number of bones from the same swamp to Sir Edward Newton. From these the first correctly restored and properly mounted skeleton was prepared and sent to Paris, to be forwarded to the museum of Mauritius. Good specimens are in the British Museum, at Paris and at Cambridge, England. The huge blackish bill of the dodo terminated in a large, horny hook; the cheeks were partly bare, the stout, short legs yellow. The plumage was dark ash-coloured, with whitish breast and tail, yellowish white wings (incapable of flight). The short tail formed a curly tuft.

The dodo inhabited forests and laid one large white egg on a

mass of grass. Man and the hogs and other animals he imported effected its.extermination. The nearest ally of the dodo was the solitaire (g.v.) of Rodriguez, also now extinct.

DODONA, in Epirus, the seat of the most ancient and vener-

able of all Hellenic sanctuaries. Its ruins are at Dramisos, near Tsacharovista. Though the Greeks of the south looked on the inhabitants of Epirus as barbarians nevertheless for Dodona they

maintained a certain reverence.

Its temple was dedicated to

Zeus, and connected with it was an oracle which would seem to

date from early times; for the method of gathering responses was by listening to the rustling of an old oak tree: perhaps a remnant of very ancient tree-worship. Sometimes, however, auguries were taken from doves in the branches, the murmur of a fountain, or the clanging of brazen caldrons hung round the tree or temple. Croesus proposed to this oracle his well-known question; Lysander sought from it sanction for his ambitions; Athens frequently appealed to its authority. But the most frequent votaries were the Acarnanians and Aetolians, with the Boeotians, who claimed a

special connection with the district. Dodona is spoken of in the Jizad as the abode of Selli who sleep on the ground and wash not their feet, and the Odyssey has an imaginary visit of Odysseus to the oracle. A Hesiodic fragment describes Dodonaea or Hellopia as a district full of cornfields, of herds and flocks and of shepherds, where is built on an extremity (é’ égyartin) Dodona, where Zeus dwells in the stem

of an oak (@yyésji. The priestesses were called doves (xéAeaz)

and Herodotus tej a story which he learned at Egyptian Thebes,

that the oracle of Dodona was founded by an Egyptian priestess

See C. Wordsworth, Greece (1839), p. 247; Constantin Carapanos, Dodone et ses ruines (Paris, 1878). For the oracle inscriptions, see

E. S. Roberts in Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. i., p. 228.

DODS, MARCUS (1834-1909), Scottish divine and biblical scholar, was born at Belford, Northumberland, on April 11, 1834. He studied at Edinburgh and was licensed in 1858. In 1864 he became minister of Renfield Free Church, Glasgow, where he worked for 25 years and in 1889 was appointed professor of New Testament exegesis in New college, Edinburgh, of which he became principal on the death of Dr. Rainy in 1907. He died in Edinburgh on April 26, 1909. A sermon on inspiration (1878) brought on him a charge of unorthodoxy; shortly before his election to the Edinburgh professorship he was summoned before the General Assembly, but the charge was dropped bya large majority, and in 1891 he received the honorary degree of D.D. from Edinburgh university. He edited Lange’s Life of Christ in English

(Edinburgh, 1864, 6 vols.), Augustine’s works (1872-76), and,

with Dr. Alexander Whyte, Clark’s “Handbooks for Bible Classes” series. In the Expositor’s Bible series he edited Genesis and I Corinthians, and he was also a contributor to the ninth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica and Hastings’ Dictionary of the Bible. Among other important works are: The Epistle to the Seven Churches (1865) ; Israel’s Iron Age (1874) ; Mohammed, Buddha and Christ (1877) ; Handbook on Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi (1879); The Gospel according to St. John (1897), in the Expositor’s Greek Testament; The Bible, its Origin and Nature (1904). See his Early Letters (1910) and Later Letters (1911).

DODSLEY, ROBERT (1703-1764), English bookseller and miscellaneous writer, was born near Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, where his father was master of the free school. He is said to have

been apprenticed to a stocking-weaver in Mansfield, from whom he ran away, taking service as a footman. In 1729 Dodsley published his first work, Servitude, a Poem . . . written by a Footman, with a preface and postscript ascribed to Daniel Defoe; and a collection of short poems, A Muse in Livery, or the Footman's Miscellany, was published by subscription in 1732, Dodsley’s | patrons comprising many persons of high rank. This was followed by a satirical farce called The Toyshop (Covent Garden, 1735).

DODSWORTH—DOG

495

With the help of his friends—Pope lent him £100—Dodsley set up as a publisher at the ‘“‘Tully’s Head” in Pall Mall in 1735. One of his first publications was Dr. Johnson’s London, for which he gave 10 guineas in 1738. He published many of Johnson’s works, and he suggested and helped to finance the English Dictionary.

Origin and Antiquity—The origin of domesticated dogs

Works of English Poets, vol. xv. (1810). See also Charles Knight, Shadows of the Old Booksellers (1865) pp. 189-216; E. Solly, in The Bibliographer, v. (1884) pp. 57-61; Austin Dobson, “At Tully’s Head” in Eighteenth Century Vignettes (2nd series, 1894) ; R. Straus, Robert Dodsiley, Poet, Publisher and Playwright (1910).

progenitor of domesticated breeds. From the investigation of caves, middens and lake dwellings,

His chief works on classical chronology are: A Discourse concerning Sanchoniathon’s Phoenician History (1681), Annales Thucydidei et Xenophontei (1702); Chronologia Graeco-Romana pro hy pothesibus Dion. Halicarnassei (1692); Annales Velleiani, Quintilianet, Statiani (1698) ; and a larger treatise entitled De veteribus Graecorum Roman-

with native species in many countries of the world.

has been often discussed, and it cannot be claimed that absolute unanimity has as yet been reached. The theory which, until a few years ago, received the support of most competent judges was that two or more existing wild species, like the wolf and the Pope also made over to Dodsley his interest in his letters. In 1738 jackal, were concerned in their parentage. But recently there has the publication of Paul Whitehead’s. Manners, voted scandalous been a steady convergence towards the conclusion that they are by the Lords, led to a short imprisonment. Dodsley also founded descended from a single species, namely, the common wolf, which several literary periodicals: The Museum (1746-67, 3 vols.); existed in the countries of Europe in which we first find evidences The Preceptor containing a general course of education (1748, 2 of the domestication of the dog. The view that European and vols.), with an introduction by Dr. Johnson; The World (1753-56, North African jackals were probable contributors to the strain 4 vols.); and The Annual Register, founded in 1758 with Edmund has been discredited by Gerritt Miller’s demonstration that Burke as editor. Dodsley is, however, best known as the editor Jackals differ from dogs in the structure of the teeth, the crown of two collections: Select Collection of Old Plays (12 vols., 1744; of the last two upper crushing teeth havigg a well developed, 2nd edition with notes by Isaac Reed, 12 vols., 1780; 4th edition, ridge or “cingulum” on the outer side and the lower cutting tooth by W. C. Hazlitt, 1874-76, 15 vols.); and A Collection of Poems a comparatively high cusp on the inner side of the blade. The by Several Hands (1748, 3 vols.), which passed through many teeth of the wolf, on the other hand, agree in every structural editions. In 1737 his King and the Miller of Mansfeld, a-“dra- detail with those of domesticated dogs, except that they are matic tale” of King Henry II., was produced at Drury Lane; the relatively larger. It cannot, however, be maintained that Miller's sequel, Sir John Cockle at Court, a farce, appeared in 1738. In contention that the wolf was the sole progenitor of the domesti1745 he published a collection of his dramatic works, and some cated dog rests upon absolutely conclusive evidence; and if it poems which had been issued separately, in one volume under the be held that the ancestor of our dogs was a species differing from modest title of Trifles; and this was followed by other poems and the wolf in the size of the teeth and possibly other characters, plays. His tragedy of Cleone (1758) had a long run at Covent like the greater uniformity and smoothness of the coat, and that Garden, 2,000 copies being sold on the day of publication and it the resemblance of certain breeds, like Eskimos, to the wolf, is due passed through four editions within the year. In 1759 Dodsley to subsequent crossing with that species, it would be difficult to set retired, leaving the conduct of the business to his brother James aside the hypothesis, except on the grounds of the improbability (1724-97), with whom he had been many years in partnership. of such a species being wholly reclaimed from the wild state. In He died at Durham while on a visit to his friend the Rev. Joseph support of this view, however, it may be said that the dingo, which was introduced into Australia by the aborigines from southern Spence. Dodsley’s poems are reprinted with a memoir in A. Chalmers’s Asia at a remote epoch, closely agrees in type with the possible

it is known that Europeans of the New Stone Age possessed a breed of dogs; and a similar breed has been traced through the DODSWORTH, ROGER (1585-1654), English antiquary, successive ages of Bronze and Iron. But it is not until we reach was born near Oswaldkirk, Yorkshire, the son of Matthew Dods- historic times that accurate information of the external form of worth, registrar of York cathedral. He collected a vast store of domesticated dogs is forthcoming. From the oldest records supmaterials for a history of Yorkshire, a Monasticon Anglicanum, plied by Chaldacan and Egyptian monuments, it is manifest that and an English baronage. The second of these was published several distinct varieties had been developed 4,000-5,000 years with considerable additions by Sir William Dugdale (2 vols., ago. Slender dogs of the greyhound type, and a short-legged 1655 and 1661). The mss. were left to Thomas, third Lord Fair- breed like a smooth Aberdeen are depicted in Egypt; and the fax, who by his will bequeathed them (160 volumes in all) to Assyrians of about 600 b.c. had mastiff-like hounds. The Greeks the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Portions have been printed by and Romans of the classical period had dogs of different kinds; the Yorkshire Archaeological Society (Dodsworth’s Yorkshire and the Europeans who first visited Australia, Polynesia, New Notes, 1884) and the Chetham Society (copies of Lancashire Zealand and America found domesticated dogs in possession of the natives, a discovery attesting that the dog was the companion post-mortem inquisitions, 1875~1876). DODWELL, HENRY (1641-1711), scholar, theologian and of man in his early wanderings from Europe and Asia. It is also controversial writer, was born at Dublin. He became a fellow of certain that in the middle ages and later, European breeds of Trinity college, Dublin, but having conscientious objections to various types were introduced into America and elsewhere; and taking orders he relinquished his fellowship in 1666. In 1688 he naturalists have claimed that in many countries there is a close was elected Camden professor of history at Oxford, but in 1691 resemblance between the domesticated breeds and native wild was deprived of his professorship for refusing to take the oath of species. Resemblance between the pariah dogs of the east and the allegiance to William and Mary. He retired to Shottesbrooke Asiatic jackal has been repeatedly noticed. A similar likeness has and devoted himself to the study of chronology and ecclesiastical been observed between dogs and jackals in Africa, between Eskimo polity. He was regarded as one of the greatest champions of the dogs and the North American wolf, the Hare Indian dogs and non-jurors; but afterwards promulgated the doctrine that the the prairie wolf, and between the domesticated dogs of Guiana soul is naturally mortal, and that immortality could be enjoyed and the native crab-eating dog. These resemblances are mainly accountable for the theory of the multiple specific origin of only by those who had been baptised by one set of regularly domesticated breeds, but they are equally explicable on the theory ordained clergy, being thus a privilege from which dissenters were of the origin of domesticated dogs from a single wild source, thei hopelessly excluded. early differentiation into a variety of breeds, and their crossing MODERN

BREEDS

Of modern European breeds, probably the Alsatian (some: orum@que Cyclis (1701). times called the Police dog), which differs mainly from the wol DOG. Although the word “dog” is believed to have been in its finer head, smaller teeth and shorter, more uniform coat originally applied to a particular English breed, it is now used in comes nearest to the ancestral type. From this breed it is evi a general sense to connote all the domesticated varieties of the dent that the selective agency of man has produced breeds o toological genus Canis, of which the wolf (Canis lupus) and the dogs differing profoundly from the prototype. To enumerate all the breeds of dogs owned by savage an northern jackal (Canis aureus) of Europe and Asia are familiar wild species. The accepted zoological name is Canis familiaris. semi-civilized peoples would be impossible. Nor is it possibi

496

DOG

to mention all of those admitted by the Kennel club. How and and neatly folded. But in some of the Balearic islands there is a where and when most breeds arose is unknown; and since their smooth-coated breed, with large erect ears, recalling greyhounds true affinities are by no means clearly understood, no satisfactory depicted on the Egyptian monuments and possibly lineally declassification can be drawn up. Roughly they may be assigned to scended from them. To the east, in Arabia, Persia and Afghanisthe following groups. It must be remembered, however, that, tan, there are breeds ofgreyhounds, known as Salukis, which vary unless size is an obstacle to pairing, all the breeds are mutually locally in the amount of coat they carry but differ from European fertile, and that since some well-known and recognized breeds breeds in having large, pendulous, hound-like ears. There is also have been formed by deliberately crossing dogs belonging to two a powerful type of greyhound in India, known as the Rampur. distinct groups, many intermediate types exist which cannot be A small edition of the English greyhound, used for rabbits, is definitely affiliated with either. Most of the groups, moreover, called the whippet; and the smallest breed of all, the toy Italian contain degenerate breeds, now fostered as pets or toys, and in greyhound, was once very popular as a pet. It is one of the few these the essential characteristics of the group are frequently dwarfed races which retains the elegance and beauty of its obscured. prototype. The Schnauzer is one of the newer breeds, and are of two The Mastiff Group.—From ancient Babylonian monuments it sizes—Schnauzers and Miniature Schnauzers. They are a very is evident that the mastiff is a very old breed which has altered popular breed, rough-coated and coming originally from the city in no important particulars from several centuries B.C. to the of Munich. present time. It is the Molossus of classical writers. In England The Eskimo Group.—To this group belong a number of in the middle ages it was known as the band-dog or ban-dog, while breeds mostly found in the northern districts of Europe, Asia its French title, matin, is still in use. By the ancient Assyrians it and America. They have pricked ears, and some of them very was used for hunting, but in more modern times it was chiefly closely resemble wolves not only in general build, shape of head employed as a watch-dog. The existing breed is a powerfully built, and size, but in the texture and colour of the coat—resemblances smooth-coated dog, large specimens standing 2 ft. 6 in. at the due either to direct inheritance from the wolf or to crossing with shoulder and weighing as much as 170 lb. The head is high and ‘that animal. The bushy tail, however, is habitually carried tightly massive, its width being about two-thirds of its length owing to curled over the loins, which is never the case in wolves. The the shortening of the muzzle, which is very deep; and its skin is best-known breed is the Eskimo of North America, which has more or less wrinkled; the ears are small, pendulous, but set been declared to be nothing but a wolf reclaimed from a wild rather high on the head; the body is long, the legs strong and set state. Like the wolf it does not bark, and in typical examples wide apart, and the tail is tapering and carried low. the coat consists, as in wolves, of coarse, shaggy, long hair rising The mastiff was used in the middle ages for bear-baiting and from a thick coat of underwool. Throughout Siberia the larger bull-baiting, and the bulldog of that period, represented by the dogs of this type, which, however, do bark, are known by the existing dogue de Bordeaux, a breed smaller than the mastiff and general name of Laika and, like the Eskimo, these dogs are used with a more abbreviated muzzle, was derived from it. The grofor sport and draught purposes, and sometimes as sheep-dogs. tesque modern bulldog is a dwarfed, degenerate type of the latter, Other Asiatic breeds are the Samoyede, which is generally white bred solely to suit the taste of fanciers. Several breeds are recogand is used for draught and reindeer-herding, and the Chow, which nized. The ordinary type, which is well known, weighs about ṣo is broader in the head, shorter in the muzzle and blue-tongued. lb., but miniature breeds may be less than half that weight. The Somewhat similar to the Samoyede, but less thickly coated, is so-called French toy bulldog has erect, so-called “bat” ears. Judgthe Naga, used as a sheep-dog in Assam. Two breeds are of out- ing from its appearance, the pug is also a diminutive representative standing interest in Europe, namely, the Norwegian elkhound and of the mastiff stock, although the tail is curled tightly over the the Pomeranian, the latter, to which the name Spitz properly be- loins. longs, being now best known by the toy variety which may weigh Whether the so-called Tibetan mastiff is akin to the typical no more than 4 or § lb. mastiff or not is an open question. The two have many points in The Sheep-dog Group.—Though some breeds of the Eskimo common and are tolerably similar in size; but the Tibetan dog group, like the elkhound, are used for herding sheep, as well as has a fuller coat and a bushy tail, typically carried in a curl over . Other purposes, this group-name may be applied to such dogs as the back. These dogs are used as watch-dogs; but throughout a the Alsatian and some French, Belgian and Hungarian sheep-dogs, greater part of the Himalayas similar breeds are employed as typical examples of which, on account of the drooping tail, are sheep-dogs. even more like wolves than the average Eskimo, although the Connecting the mastiff group with the greyhound group is the coat is usually much closer and shorter. Collies must also be re- great dane, or German boarhound, which is believed to have ferred here. Typical specimens have been deprived of much of originated in a cross between the mastiff and greyhound, yielding their wolf-like aspect by the folding of the ear; but the likeness a breed combining in a measure the size and strength of the between a prick-eared, rough-coated collie and a wolf is unmistak- former with the speed of the latter; and from an imported Gerable. The old English sheep-dog is frequently associated with the man boarhound, crossed with a rough coated sheep-dog of a collie, a Scotch breed, but apparently without justification. At type common in Switzerland, is believed to have arisen the original all events the modern breed is a totally distinct type. It is a St. Bernard dog which may take after either of its parents in shaggy, long-coated dog, the hair concealing the eyes, typically being smooth or rough coated. But there is probably a strain of with a naturally abbreviated tail, and is peculiarly built about Newfoundland or Pyrenean in the modern breed. the hindquarters owing in a large measure to the low setting The Terrier Group has a number of breeds differing so of the hocks. profoundly from each other that the extreme types have hardly a The Greyhound Group.—The greyhound, as known from character in common. It is linked with the mastiff group through ancient Egyptian monuments, existed several thousand years B.c. the bull-terrier which was originally produced by crossing the - and has come down to us with very little structural change. The bulldog with the white English terrier. Other strains, like greygroup comprises many breeds, notable for swiftness of foot and hound, pointer and Dalmatian, were also, it is said, added to give running prey by sight. They are strongly but lightly built, with size and eliminate the defective bulldog physiognomy. The result long narrow head, long powerful limbs, and the tail is carried low. at all events has been a hardy dog of exceptional courage and Familiar European breeds are the English greyhound with a strength. The Boston Terrier had a similar origin, but the smooth, short coat; the Scottish deerhound, a larger and more head in this breed has retained many of the bulldog characterpowerful dog, with a shaggy coat; the Irish wolfhound, similar to istics. With the hound group the terriers are connected through the deerhound but still larger, standing 2 ft. 6 in. or more at the the Airedale, which resulted from a cross between the ottershoulder; and the Russian wolfhound, or borzoi, which is as high hound and a localterrier of the Airevalley. This is the largest but not so powerful as the Irish breed and has a long, silky coat of the terriers, but apart from size the original breed did not and a flat head. In these breeds the ears are small, set well back differ greatly from rough-coated Welsh or Irish terriers. Another

DOG

PLATE I

i

ys

f

—9

raal Aihannmat

—

BY COURTESY OF (2) (ii) W. A. CROCKETT

MISS

THOMSON-GLOVER,

(3)

W.

N.

TOD,

(8)

W.

K.

TAUNTON;

PHOTOGRAPHS,

NON-SPORTING 1. Team of North American Eskimo dogs, harnessed to a sleigh. This breed of Eskimo is a wolf-like dog with a full rough coat, 21-22 in. highs about 50 Ib. It is used chiefiy for draught purposes 2. Samoyede, an Asiatic breed of the Eskimo group, used in its native

country

(the shores of the Arctic Ocean

for draught and reindeer herding. owned by Miss Thomson-Glover

19-21

between

Ob and Yenisei)

in. high: 50 Ib. “Sea Mist”

3. Old English sheep dog, with a profuse coat, the halr almost conceal-

(1)

EWING

GALLOWAY,

—

(4,

&,

6,

——

7,

10)

—

L.

t.

:

ey,

atia; :on [

E oe ARM

b

i

ot a a,tae eT

—

TAUSKEY,

(9)

4.

A.

STROWHMEYVER,

BREEDS temper. It is often trained and used by life gurads for help in saving drowning persons. 28 In. high; 140-150 Ib.

7. St. Bernard, a large watch dog, at one time trained by the monks of the Hospice of St. Bernard on Mont Blanc to rescue climbers lost

on the mountainside.

25-28 in. high; 145-150 Ib.

8. Mastiff, powerfully built, smooth coated watch dog, with high massive head and wrinkled skin, weighing about 170 Ibs. Over 30 in. high.

Owned by W. K. Taunton

ing the eyes. About 22 in. high. It is still used as a shepherd's dog in England. Champion, owned by W. N. Todd

9. German sheep dog, a large and handsomely built dog, with a short smooth coat, 22-26 in. high. “Hamilton Anne von Humboldtpark,”’

4. Collie, a Scotch sheep dog, with abundant coat and pricked ears, bearing remote though unmistakable resemblance to @ wolf; 22-24 in.

champion In Germany and Holland, owned by J » Cox Brady 10. Pinscher Doberman, the original police dog of Germany, still used

high

5. Briard, ' a French

dog used for sheep herding

has a long wiry coat,

in grizzle, chestnut

and as a watch or black,

is about

dog. 22

It ins.

there for that purpose. It is of medium size, with a short smooth coat, in black with tan markings 11. : Great Dane, : connectin g the mastiff group with the greyhound group; . a camnanion

doa.

with

a strona

handanma

bodv.

and

a short

slaak

PLATE II

BY COURTESY STROWMEYER,

DOG

OF

(5) COPR.

H. ©. SWANSON,

(P)

R. L. HAYS,

(10)

G. M.

LIVINGSTON;

PHOTOGRAPHS,

(1, 2, 4, €, 7, 11, 12, 14, 15)

L,

l. TAUSKEY,

(3)

THOMAS

FALL,

(8,

13)

H.

A.

JR.

SPORTING l. Irish Wolfhound, 36 In. high. 2. Russian Wolfhound, 32 In. high. 3. Greyhound, 26 in. high, ‘Queen of Venton,” F. J. Brimley, owner. mms

—

aa

-

a

s

a

A

aà

*

DOGS Kean, owner. 9. Foxhound, 24 in. high, Ch. “Royal Tramp," A. G. Rolfe, owner. 10. Basset Hound, 12-14 in. high. 11. Chesapeake Bay dog. 12. Oasi

arunrs

3142

Panbasn

Cmanial

4a

im

hh I ook

14

Baaalia

12

-Ik

497 to the huge Pyrenean sheep and cattle dog, which, despite its thick coat, has many of the mastiff attributes; and possibly from this dog, taken to North America in the middle ages, arose the Newfoundland. But there were certainly smaller dogs on that Other northern terriers are the Scottish or Aberdeen, a rough- island, differing from the modern type and probably the same as coated, short-legged, prick-eared breed; the dandie dinmont, the Labrador “retriever.” From one of these, imported from somewhat similar to the latter in build but with a larger head and Newfoundland, was produced, apparently by a setter cross, the now at all events with drooping ears, and the Skye terrier, also strain of flat-coated retrievers. A similar dog crossed with a iel yielded the curly-coated retriever. similar to the Aberdeen but with a long coat, also Cairn Terriers, — Group.—The poodle is notable for its peculiar and West Highland White Terriers. The best known English breeds are the fox-terrier, which may be smooth or wire-haired, oncaai of a thick covering of curls on the head, limbs, body and the black-and-tan or Manchester terrier, breeds differing and tail. The curls are sometimes lengthened into ringlets or cords from the northern types in being comparatively long in the reaching the ground. The dog is well set up, with long legs, muzleg and generally active and swift of foot. There are also toy zle and pendulous ears, and has a well carried, shapely head. It terriers differing from the normal type, as is usual with toys, in appears to be of German origin and to have been used as a waterhaving the cranium globular and the muzzle reduced. The Brussels dog for flushing and retrieving game. It, or a similar curly-coated on is a diminutive rough-coated type. water-dog, was probably the ancestor of the so-called Irish waterThe Hound Group.—tThe typical breeds of the group are pow- spaniel which shows great resemblance to the poodle except in erfully built dogs with strong legs, a hard smooth coat, long head having a whip-tail, and a long sweeping hind leg with the hock and muzzle, low-set, pendulous ears and pendulous upper lips or set low down, as in the English sheep-dog. The English water“flews.” They were originally bred for following the quarry by spaniel arose apparently from a cross between a similar water-dog scent, which is in them exceptionally keen. There was at least and a true spaniel. Additional groups might perhaps with advanone breed of this type of dog, called the St. Hubert, in France tage be established for aberrant breeds. One that is of special before the Conquest; and there are good reasons for the belief interest is the Schipperke, a small, black, Belgian breed which that English breeds of the present day are traceable to the im- typically has no trace of a tail. For the rest it is a compactly portation of these dogs by William I. From them were derived built dog with a somewhat foxy head and erect ears. (R. I. P.) the‘ talbot and the old English staghound, both now extinct, and SETTERS AND POINTERS IN AMERICA the bloodhound which still survives. The bloodhound, which cxhibits the hound characters of the head in the most exaggerated Setters and pointers in America, while the offspring of a parent form, has the keenest scent of all dogs, but is heavily built and stock that had its origin in European countries, are the evolution lacking in speed. There seem to have been other breeds in this of American sportsmen. This was effected mainly through the country in the Middle ages known as the southern and northern natural course of adaptation to a new environment where upland hounds; and a large breed was used for stags and smaller breeds, game shooting varied greatly from Old Country methods, and harriers and beagles, for hares. Harriers and beagles are often partly through field trials and bench shows. described as small types of foxhound, the beagle being the most In that division of bird dogs known as setters, or long-haired diminutive of all true hounds. But stag-hunting and hare-hunting varieties, three groups are recognized as distinct breeds, the are much older sports than fox-hunting, and harriers. and beagles, English, the Irish and the Gordon. Other appellations are used to which were followed on foot, are older breeds than the modern designate certain strains of English setters. After 1870 two outfoxhound which was probably developed by crossing one of the old standing strains of English setters began to be imported, the English hounds of the bloodhound type with the greyhound to Laveracks and the variety later called Llewellins. The Lavegive speed in the pursuit of the fox over open country. The racks, an old-established strain, were already decadent, but they result was a very perfect type of hound, combining the attributes were handsome dogs, with soft, silky coats and a general air of of its parents, swift, strong and keen-scented and so adaptable good breeding. The effete Laveracks were crossed with a puissant that it has superseded the staghound and is rapidly replacing strain known as the Duke-Rhoebe combination and the resulting the old rough-coated otter-hound, which retains more of the progeny soon began winning in British field trials. R. Purcellcharacters of the original hound. Llewellin, a breeder of setters near Shrewsbury, England, fostered Another type of hound is the bassett, which was imported from the cross with great success. Dogs of this strain swept the bench France about half a century ago but is now in disrepute. It shows and field competitions of the United States and Canada, deviates from the hound type in being exceedingly short in the and American admirers fixed the name of “Lewellin” upon those leg, a character in which it resembles the diminutive German on American soil, proclaiming it a distinct breed of setter. Time dachshund, or badger-dog, now a household pet, which has many has given the name a definite sanction. It embraces all setters hound-like characters, although its right to a place in this category descended in direct lines from the original Duke-Rhoebe-Lavehas been disputed | rack cross without admixture of other blood. These so-called The pointer has many of the physical attributes of the fox- Liewellins are seen in all sizes from small, 20 lb. creatures to hound which lend support to the view that it was derived mainly dogs weighing 70 Ib. No special markings distinguish them from from that breed. It may be added that the attitudes assumed by other English setters and they are found in all colours, white, the pointer and setter when marking down birds are mere modifica- black and tan, white and black, orange and white, chestnut and tions of the behaviour of a wolf when aware by scent or sight of white, blue ticked or orange ticked. the near proximity of game. Those sportsmen who catered principally to bench shows, The Spaniel Group.—This group, with its long, low-set pendu- endeavoured to breed a more uniform type, but they erred in the lous ears, full or pendulous upper lips, long muzzle and habit of otkeF extreme by producing exaggerated heads with deep flews and hunting by scent, has much in common with the hounds although abnormal depth of muzzle, heavy shoulders and profuse coats. Dogs of this kind beautified the benches, but as a rule were too differing from them in possessing a long, soft and silky coat. The least modified breed of this group is the setter, which must slow and unwieldy for field trials. Unless breeders endeavour probably be regarded as the original stock of the different breeds to meet on common ground and strive to amalgamate types in of spaniels, the Clumber, cocker, springer and others, including the effort to produce a happy medium, the English setter in the degenerate toys, such as the Blenheim and King Charles’, America will forever be divided against itself with adherents and possibly the Pekingese of China and Tibet, although, like favouring both types. The Gordon and the Irish setter are distinct species and while many oriental breeds, these have bushy tails curled on the back. The Newfoundland breed has been assigned to the spaniel- neither became as popular as the English variety, both have adgroup; but apparently without good reason. In size and other mirers. The Gordon is black and tan in colour and of a heavier _ Characters the breed at the present time shows many resemblances and larger mould than the other varieties, while the typical

498.

DOG-BANE—DOG-FISH

Irish setter is deep mahogany red and more rough-and-ready in appearance. After the early days iin field trials, when the speedier and flashier Llewellins were in vogue, neither the Gordon nor the Irish were seen to any extent in field competitions, but on the show benches they are still very popular. Pointers in America have a pioneer history somewhat analogous. to the ‘setters. Authentic importations came to the United States about the same time as the first Laveracks and Llewellins. It was the late Edward Dexter, of Buzzard’s Bay, Mass., who had the first decisive success in field trials with this short-haired breed of bird dog, when he produced Rip Rap, Jingo, Maid of Kent and others, in the ’808 and early ‘gos. Since then the pointer has made rapid strides both in field and show competition. So remarkable has the progress of the breed been, that it has more than held its own with the best of setters. The success of the two famous bitches, Mary Montrose and Becky Broom Hill, are outstanding examples, for both have won the national championship, the greatest event in field trials, three times, a feat no setter has been able to equal thus far. Pointer breeders carefully eschewed fads, but made their breeding selections from the best available strains, taking individuality and blood lines that would blend into consideration, rather than attempting to build up pedigrees of fashionable names. The pointer to-day is a vast improvement over his ancestors of 50 years ago and as long as breeders continue to follow along the lines as exemplified by the late Edward Dexter and a few others who succeeded him, there is no reason to believe that the breed will recede from the high position it now occupies in field trials, at bench shows and as a gun dog. (A. F. Ho.) THE AMERICAN FOXHOUND

The American foxhound is a breed developed chiefly from 18th and 19th century importations of hounds from England and less numerous importations from Ireland and France. He is essentially a field dog, bred for performance rather than bench show type, and is employed in hunting both the red and grey fox in three distinct modes. He is also used in hunting wolf and coyote in the West, wildcat and mountain lion wherever found, and deer and moose when the State or provincial laws permit, and occasionally in running artificially laid drags. In type the American foxhound is lighter and finer in lines than either the English foxhound or Kerry beagle, has a narrower chest, less bone, straight legs not knuckled over, fox-like rather than cat-like feet, a longer and thinner muzzle, more pendant and thinner ears, a rougher coat in a variety of colours and markings such as black and tan, liver, black, blue-tick, red, white, the “tri-colour” black, white and tan or ring neck, etc., depending to some extent on the particular “strain” to which the individual belongs. He is invariably less set in type than the English foxhound, with a greater variety between litter mates in size, conformation and colour. American foxhounds come in many sizes. The generally accepted standard of the American Foxhound

Club is 22 in. to 25 in. for dogs and 21 to 24 in. for bitches. Breeders of the American foxhound concur in their emphasis on “nose” to find and carry the trail, whether the country be arid or moist and the day hot or cold; on initiative to spread, hunt and find their own fox without man’s help in making a cast or in “lifting”; and on cry or tongue which makes following a pack possible in rough or wooded country where it cannot be seen. They seek performance and therefore look first for character, individuality and class, as shown by the head, eye and carriage; for the sensitive hunting nose, square muzzle and deep flews; for the clean, strong neck that indicates good cry, and for the sloping, muscular shoulders and strongly muscled thighs that spell activity and speed. The deep chest and well sprung ribs make for stamina. A moderately long, muscular, arched back is desirable, as are strong, well let down stifles, and firm

In the only English-American test match between the packs of recognized masters of foxhounds, the Grafton hounds, an American pack, of which Harry Worcester Smith, leader of the Irish pack, was Master, in 1905 took the $2,000 stake and silver plate over the draft English pack of the Middlesex foxhounds of Massachusetts. See H. W. Smith, “The True American Foxhound,” The Foxhound,

English Quarterly (April ona} J. B. Thomas, Hounds and Hunting — the var $ (1928); J. C. Newcomb, “The American Ancestry of Our Native aae nternational Foxhunters Stud Book, vol.

iv. (1926).

(J. C.N.)

DOG-BANE (Apocynum androsaemifolium), N. American plant of the dog-bane family (Apocynaceae), called also spreading dog-bane, honey-bloom, wild

ipecac and American fly-trap, native to fields and thickets from Quebec to British Columbia and southward to Georgia, Missouri, Arizona and California. It is a rather slender, herbaceous perennial, ı ft. to 4 ft. high, with I widely branching stems, opposite, oval, slightly pointed leaves, and numerous, small, bell-shaped pink BY COURTESY TION SOCIETY

NORTH

OF

WILD

AMERICAN

HERBACEOUS

PLANT

FLOWER

PRESERVA.

flowers, with darker stripes inside, borne in clusters at the

DOG-BANE,

AN

ends of the branches. When in blossom from late June to August

VALUED

FOR

jt is one of the most delicately

THE TONIC PROPERTIES OF ITS ROOT beautiful of North American wild flowers. (See APOCYNACEAE; HEMP.)

DOG DAYS: see Srrrvs. DOGE, the title of the chief magistrate in the extinct repub-

lics of Venice and Genoa. For the character of the office at Venice see the articles COMMUNE, MEDIAEVAL; BUCENTAUR. In Genoa the institution of the doge dates from 1339. At first he was elected without restriction and by popular suffrage, holding office for life; but after the reform effected by Andrea Doria. (g.v.) in 1528 the term of his office was reduced to two years. At the same time plebeians were declared ineligible, and the appointment of the doge was entrusted to the members of the great and the little councils, who employed for this purpose a machinery almost as complex as that of the later Venetians. See B. Cecchetti, 11 Doge di Venezia (1864); E. Musatti, Storia della promissione ducale (Padua, 1888); and H. F. Brown, Venice: a Historical Sketch (1893).

DOG-FISH, a name applied to several species of the smaller

sharks, and given owing to the habit these fishes have of pursuing or hunting their prey in packs. The small-spotted dog-fish or rough hound (Scyllium canicula) and the large-spotted or nurse hound (Scylium catulus) are also known as ground-sharks. They keep near the sea bottom, feeding chiefly on the smaller fishes and crustacea. They differ from the majority of sharks in being oviparous. The eggs are enclosed in semi-transparent horny cases, often called “mermaids’ purses” and these have tendril-like prolongations from each of the four corners, by means of which they are moored to sea-weeds or other fixed objects, until the young dog-fish is ready to make its exit. The larger of these species attains a length of 4 to sft., the smaller rarely more than 30 inches. The picked dog-fish (Acanthias vulgaris) is abundant in the temperate seas of both hemispheres, and on both sides of the Atlantic. It attains a length of 4ft., but the usual length is 2 to 3ft., the female, as in most sharks, being larger than the male.

The body is round and tapering, and the mouth is placed ventrally some distance from the end of the snout. There are two dorsal fins, each armed anteriorly with a sharp spine. This species is viviparous, the female producing five to nine young at a feet with toes set close so as not easily to be bruised or made birth; the young when born are 9 to roin. long and similar to the sore. parents, except in size. The picked dog-fish is gregarious, and is As American foxhounds were developed to meet the needs of abundant at all seasons everywhere on the British coasts. the country, importations became less necessary, and advocates even more than other dog-fish, are the special enemies of the fishof the American foxhound for hunting in America more numerous. erman, injuring his nets, removing the hooks from his lines, and

PLATE IT]

By

counTESY OF (2) MRS. V. A. M. MANNOOCH; PHOTOGRAPHS,

(3, 115 14) 7. FALL, (4, 5, ©. 7, 6, ©. 10, 12, 13) b. J. TAUSKEY

EXAMPLES 1. Afghan

hound,

but lightly

of the eastern built, with

fully bred for hunting.

group

of the greyhound

a long narrow

head

and

About 27 in. high.

OF family,

powerful

Owned

VARIOUS strong

legs; care-

by Miss Manson

2. Chow, a pet dog, broad in head and short in muzzle, with a black or blue tongue; a Chinese breed of the Eskimo group. About 20 in. high. Champion "Choonan Brilliantina’’ owned by Mrs. V. Mannooch Saluqi or gazelle hound of the eastern group of the greyhound family,

used for hunting. French

Bulldog,

About 25 in. high.

strongly

built, compact

Owned and

by Miss Doxford

well

balanced,

weighing

about 22 pounds and 18!.2 in. high. It has a fine smooth coat Bulldog, an excellent watch dog, possessing tenacity and endurance and weighing about 50 pounds;

about 18 in. high.

It was originally used

for bull-bating and dog-fighting Boston Terrier, closely related to the bulldog; 14-20 in. high Black and Tan Terrier, a small fighting dog used for rat hunting. It weighs about 20 Ibs. and has a jet black coat marked with mahogany

BREEDS

OF

DOGS

9. Dachshund, a short haired and smooth coated dog with short crooked legs, turned out feet and long folding ears. It is used both as a household

pet and

as a hunting

dog.

8-10

in. high;

10. Whippet,

a small greyhound developed for rabbit straight running. About 18!-5 in. high; 21 Ib.

about

coursing

11. Papillon, a toy dog of diminutive

proportions, weighing pounds. Its ears, erect, resemble partially opened butterfly. Owned by Mrs. F. A. Pope

20 and

Ib. for

from 4 to 7 wings of a

12. Griffon (Brussels), an alert and precocious toy dog, weighing about 5l Ibs. Its head is covered with coarse hair and it has a moustache, beard and side whiskers

13. Pomeranian,

a small

wolf-like

dog,

weighing

not over

4 or 5 Ibs.

it has a coarse fur coat, usually white or black

14. Pekingese, a Chinese lap dog, lion-like in colour and shape, weighing

PLATE IV

UUS,

Cute

—R Bile

we

` watt

soe Ct

4

BY

COURTESY

OF

(8)

M.

B.

BIXLEY,

(12)

T.

PEARSALL

FIELD;

PHOTOGRAPHS,

(1.

3.

6.

Feb

1.

TAUSKEY,

g

(2.

a

4)

H.

A

STROHMEVER,

JR.,

(10,

il

COPR.

THOMAS

FALL

TERRIERS 1. Smooth leader.” Airedale

Fox

Terrier.

3. Irish Terrier. Terrier “E. Tom

2

Wire-haired

Fox Terrier Ch. ‘‘Warily

Gang-

4 Welsh Terrier Grand Ch. “Limelight.” Tige,” winner of 13 chailenge certificates.

5. 6.

brae Badge." 9. Sealyham Terrier Ch. ‘‘Homestall Diana,’’ Lord Dewar, owner. 10. Kerry Blue Terrier, the Earl of Kenmore, owner. 11. Bull Terrier, Mr. Grey, owner, 12. Manchester Terrier Ch. “Kearney Rose.”

DOGGER BANK

499 BATTLE

THE DOGGER

OF

BANK

JANUARY 24 1915

1ST. AND 2ND. BATTLE CRUIBER SQUADRONG INDIVIDUAL BATTLE CRUISERS 2ND. Lent Crue SQUADRON

:

aM

seemeneene

ba

Be

N

GcaLe of YARDS SCALE OF MILES

N

sayanN ingar On Langnade SY Rage from Uroonwte

HART

OF STEAMING

TRACKS

OF

BRITISH

ne ne

AND

GERMAN

a

BATTLE

a

CRUISERS

IN ACTION

Admiral Beatty, with the 1st and 2nd battie-cruiser squadrons, surprised Admiral Hipper, commanding the German 1st scouting group, near the Dogger Bank, in the North Sea, on Jan. 24, 1915. A running fight ensued, the German squadron making for port under full steam as soon as they sighted Beatty's ships. The “BiUoher” was finally sunk by two térpedoes from the “‘Arethusa,” and the ‘“Seydiitz” was seriously damaged. The approach of the German High-Sea Fleet enabled Hipper to escape without further loss. German casualties were 954 killed, 90 wounded, and 189 taken prisoners; the British, 15 killed and 32 wounded

. Spoiling his fish. They are eaten, both fresh and salted, on the west coast of England, and are sold regularly in the French markets. Of recent years an attempt has been made to sell them in London under the name of “flake.” (See SELACHIANS, FIsuH.)

DOGGER BANK, an extensive shoal in the North Sea, about

60 m. E. of the coast of Northumberland, England. The depth of water, in some parts only 6 fathoms, is generally from 10 to 20 fathoms. It is well known as a fishing ground. The origin of the name is obscure; but the middle Dutch dogger signifies a trawling vessel, and was formerly applied to two-masted vessels employed in the North Sea fisheries, and also to their crews (doggermen) and the fish taken (dogger-fish). Off the south end of the bank an engagement took place between English and Dutch fleets in 1781. Here on Oct. 21, 1904, during the Russo-Japanese War, some British trawlers were fired on by the Russian Baltic fleet. An acute crisis between Britain and Russia followed. The affair was settled by an international commission which reported on Feb. 25, 1905. Compensation was paid by the Russian government.

enough in the “Southampton.” He was to proceed to a rendezvous in lat. 55deg. 12min. north, long. 3deg. 12min. east, 180m. from Heligoland, where he was to meet Commodore Tyrwhitt with three light cruisers and 30 destroyers of the Harwich force. The 3rd Battle Squadron, of seven “King Edwards,” left Rosyth and Ad-

miral Jellicoe put to sea from Scapa with the battle-fleet at 9 p.m. In heavy guns Beatty’s force was decidedly superior, mounting 24 13-5-in. and 16 12-in. against Hipper’s 8 12-in., 20 11-in. and 16 8.2-in. | The Fight Begins—Beatty reached the rendezvous at 7 A.M. It was a crisp winter morning with a calm sea and good visibility. The battle cruisers were in single line ahead with Goodenough’s light cruisers two miles on the port bow. Course was then altered to south by west at 18 knots. Ten minutes later “Arethusa,” Tyrwhitt’s flagship, was sighted southeast about seven miles on

the port bow. guns was seen hind Tyrwhitt, “Kolberg,” on the southeast.

She had hardly been identified when the flash of

to the south-south-east. “Aurora,” some 15m. behad met and engaged the German light cruiser the port bow of Hipper’s squadron coming from Each received a couple of hits and “Kolberg” retired at 7:25 A.M. At the sound of the guns, Beatty ordered the light cruisers to chase to south. “Southampton” had barely gone two miles when she sighted “Aurora” on her starboard bow and, a few minutes later, German battle-cruisers on the port bow to the south-east.

BATTLE OF THE DOGGER BANK This naval action was fought during the World War on Jan. 24, 1915, near the Dogger Bank in the North Sea between British and German battle-cruisers and light forces. Reports from America at this time had led the Germans to think that a plan for blocking their harbours was afoot and RearAdmiral Hipper was despatched at nightfall on Jan. 23 to recon- Dense clouds of smoke were pouring from their funnels and they noitre off the Dogger Bank. His force consisted of four battle- were evidently raising steam for full speed. It was then 7:50 A.M. cruisers of the rst scouting group, “Seydlitz” (flag), “Derfflinger,” Beatty’s appearance had come on Hipper as a surprise and, turn“Moltke” and “Bliicher,” with four light cruisers and 19 de- ing to the southeast, the latter ran for home. Pursuit of the Germans.—At 8:30 a.m. Beatty’s position was stroyers. Before the ships left the Jade, their strength and intentions had been revealed by their own wireless and Vice-Admiral lat. 54deg. somin. north, long. 3deg. 40min. east, and the two had Beatty left the Forth to intercept them at 6 p.m. on the 23rd. settled down to a long rush towards Heligoland, 140m. away. The With him were the five battle-cruisers of the rst and 2nd Battle British battle-cruisers were in single line ahead on a south-east by Cruiser Squadrons, the “Lion” (flag), “Tiger,” “Princess Royal,” south course, working up to full speed. Hipper was 11m. sharp “New Zealand” and “Indomitable,” and the four light cruisers of on “Lion’s” port bow, in full flight on a south-south-east course. the rst Light Cruiser Squadron under Commodore W. E. Good- In speed Beatty’s squadron had a decided superiority. It was

500

DOGGETT “Lion” was taken in tow by “Indomitable” and, screened by light cruisers and destroyers, reached Rosyth safely the next morning. On the British side the result was regarded as disappointing, but it must be remembered that, with the exception of

able to maintain a seagoing speed of 26 knots, while Hipper was limited at first to 23 or 24. At 8:52, when the range of “Bliicher” had come down to 22,000yd., “Lion” opened fire and at 9:05 hoisted the signal to engage. The German battle-cruisers were then forming on a line of bearing to port. At 9:09 Hipper opened -fire as “Lion” scored her first hit on “Blücher.”

“Blücher,” the enemy’s speed was not seriously diminished when the action was broken off. The forces engaged were as follows: BRITISH rst Battle Cruiser Squadron. “Lion” (flag), Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty, Captain Alfred Chatfield, 28 knots. “Princess Royal,” Captain Osmond de B. Brock, 28 knots. “Tiger,” Captain Henry B. Pelly, 30 knots. Armament of each ship 8 13-5-in., 16 4-in. (“Tiger” 16 6-inch). and Battle Cruiser Squadron. “New Zealand” (flag), Rear-Admiral Sir Archibald Moore, Captain Lionel Halsey, 25 knots. “Indomitable,” Captain Francis W. Kennedy, 25 knots. Armament of each ship 8 12-in., 16 4-inch.

The action ran on to the southeast with the range gradually decreasing, but it was not till 9:28 that the Germans scored their first hit on “Lion,” sending an 1ı1-in. shell through her waterline aft. At 9:43 a 13-5-in. shell crashed through the quarter deck of “Seydlitz,” penetrated the after turret and, exploding inside, set fire to the charges in the working chamber. The flames went roaring through the turret, passed through a small door into the adjoining one, set fire to the charges there and, wrapping both turrets in a sheet of flame, slew as one every man inside. “Blücher” was having trouble with her engines at this time and about 10 A.M. drew out of the line, labouring heavily. At 10:22 Beatty, to bring the rear of his line into action, ordered the battle-cruisers to form on a line of bearing north-northwest and to proceed at utmost speed. “Lion” had eased to 24 knots to let the ships in the rear come up, and, as the enemy

had turned slightly away, the range was increasing. At 10:30 a salvo fell on “Blücher”; a shell penetrated the central ammunition passage, set fire to the cartridges and sent a flash of flame through | the fore turrets. The main steam pipe was damaged, her speed came down to 17 knots and she gradually dropped behind, enveloped in smoke. The Action Broken Off.—The remainder of the enemy were, clearly, bent on escape and, to this end, concentrated their fire chiefly on the leading British ship, the “Lion,” which between 10:35 and 10:50 was repeatedly hit with heavy shell, with the result that she started to drop astern, while the other battle-

cruisers raced past her. At 11 a.m. the flagship received such heavy injuries that she was thrown definitely out of the fight. Beatty, however, still retained control. Just before this the periscope of an enemy submarine was reported on the starboard bow, and at 10:54 he had made asignal to alter course 8 points (90°) to port to a course north by east. This was the initial cause of the action being broken off. The usual submarine warning was not made by the “Lion,” thereby mystifying the other ships and Rear-Admiral Sir A. G. H. W. Moore, the second in command, as to the reason for the manoeuvre, and making it doubly difficult for the signals intended to convey Beatty’s subsequent wishes to be interpreted. These, made at 11:02, were an endeavour by the latter to get the

squadron to turn back again three points to the north-east, followed by a signal “Attack the enemy’s rear.” The form in which the signals were displayed, however, was such that they were understood to mean that the ships were to attack the enemy bearing north-east, which was the “Blücher.” This ship was by now disabled and rapidly drifting astern of her companions. Beatty made a final effort to turn the squadron back on to the

course of pursuit by signalling “Keep closer to the enemy,” but which enemy was not specified. By now, however, the “Lion” was so far astern that Moore, in the “New Zealand,” could not read the flagship’s signal. Fire was therefore concentrated on the unfortunate “Blücher,” while Hipper, with the remainder of the

_German force, having turned to the east-south-east, drew rapidly out of range. At 11:38 the “Arethusa” came up and fired two torpedoes into the “Blücher.” She ceased firing and, listing heavily, ablaze fore and aft, she sank at 12:13. Hipper was out of sight some fifteen miles off, so Moore formed the battle-cruisers into line ahead and steered to the westward. Beatty by this time had transferred his flag to the destroyer “Attack” and was racing after his squadron. He reached “Princess Royal” at 12:30 and hoisted his flag, but pursuit was then

hopeless and a warning had been received of the approach of the High Sea Fleet. He therefore gave up all idea of renewing the action. Hippef made for home and got in touch with the High Sea Fleet about 2:30 P.M. “Blücher” had been lost, “Seydlitz” seriously damaged and “Derfflinger” hit. On the British side “Lion” had been put out of action and “Tiger” damaged.

Admiral Jẹllicoe with the battle-fieet met Beatty at 4:30 P.m.

rst Light Cruiser Squadron. “Southampton,” Commodore W. E. Goodenough, Commander E. A. Rushton. “Birmingham,” Captain Arthur A. Duff. “Nottingham,” Captain Charles B. Miller. “Lowestoft,” Captain Theobald W. Kennedy. Armament of each ship g 6-in., “Southampton” 8 6-in.; 25'5 knots. Harwich Flotillas. “Arethusa,” Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt. roth Flotilla: “Meteor” (Commodore Hon. Herbert Mead), “Miranda,” “Milne,” “Mentor,” “Mastiff,” “Minos,” “Morris”; speed 34 knots.

3rd_ Flotilla:

“Undaunted”

(Captain Francis

St. John),

“Lookout,” “Lysander,” “Landrail,” “Laurel,” “Liberty,” “Laertes,” “Lucifer,” “Lawford,” “Lydia,” “Louis,” ‘“Legion,” “Lark”; speed 29 knots. ist Flotilla: “Aurora” (Captain Wilmot S. Nicholson), “Acheron,” “Attack,” “Hydra,” “Ariel,” “Forester,” “Defender,” “Druid, X “Hornet, ” “Tigress, " “Sandfly, * “Jackal,” “Goshawk, " “Phoenix, » “Lapwing”; speed 27 knots.

GERMAN Ist Scouting Group (battle-cruisers). “Seydlitz,”’ Rear-Admiral Hipper, 10 r1-in., 12 §-9-in., 26-5 - knots.

“Derfflinger,” 8 12-in.,.12 §-9-in., 26-5 knots. “Moltke,” 10 ri-in., 12 §-9-in., 25 knots. ‘Bliicher,” 12 8-2-in., 8 §-9-in., 24 knots. and Scouting Group (light cruisers). “Graudenz,” “Stralsund,” “Kolberg,” “Rostock.” Casualties —“Blücher,” which sank, received about 40 hits and 2 torpedoes, had 792 of her crew killed, 45 wounded and 18ọ taken prisoner. “Seydlitz” sustained 3 hits, had 159 killed and 33 wounded. “Derfflinger” was only hit once, and “Kolberg” twice, the latter having 3 killed and 2 wounded. On the British side “Lion” was put out of action with 12 hits; 1 killed and 20 wounded. “Tiger” received 7 hits, having 10 killed and rr wounded: “Aurora” received 2 hits and “Meteor” sustained l hit, with 4 killed and 1 wounded. The British fired 1,154 rounds of heavy gun ammunition, of which 708 were armour-piercing shell, 77 common, 365 high explosive and 4 shrapnel. The Germans fired 976 rounds from their heavy guns. BrsriocraPHy.—Sir J. S. Corbett, History of the Great War: Naval Operations, vol. 2 (1921); A. B. Filson Young, With the Battle Cruisers (1921); see also the German official publication, Krieg sur See: Nordsee, vol. 3.

DOGGETT

or DOGGET, THOMAS

(4. 1721), English

actor, was born in Dublin, and made his first appearance in London in 1691 as Nincompoop i in D'Urfey’s Love for Money. He followed Betterton to Lincoln’s Inn Fields, creating the part of

DOG LICENCES—DOGMA Ben, especially written for him, in Congreve’s Love for Love, with which the theatre opened (1695); and next year played Young Hobb in his own The Country Wake. He was associated

with Cibber and others in the management of the Haymarket and Drury Lane, and he continued to play comedy parts at the former until his retirement in 1713. In 1715 he founded the prize of “Doggett’s Coat and Badge,” “in commemoration of his Majesty King George’s happy Accession to the Brittish Throne.” The prize was a red coat with a large silver badge on the arm, bearing the white horse of Hanover, and the race had to be rowed annually on Aug. 1 on the Thames, by six young watermen who were not to have exceeded the time of their apprenticeship by twelve months. The names of the winners have only been preserved since 1791. The race is still rowed each year, but under modified conditions. The date of his death is variously given as Sept. and Oct. 1721.

501

the universe of dogma. In the New Testament the word means decree, although the Greek fathers early misunderstood it. The older philosophical use, for the leading and inviolate principles of any system, is best illustrated by the /pse dixit of the Pythagoreans; whatever their master had said was final. German theolo-

gians have sought to define the word for their own purpose by drawing a line round those doctrines which deserve to be called dogmas and by separating them from the region of open questions. According to W. Herrmann (opening p. of Dogmatik in Die Kultur der Gegenwart), “We must not mainly understand by a ‘Dogma’ a definition upon Church authority. Such a definition is only the last stage in a long process, which has all along been actuated by the thought of a revealed doctrine. And that conception is the main element in ‘Dogma.’” In contrast with this F. Loofs (Leitfaden zum Studium der Dogmengeschichte, ed. 4, p. 9) holds that “Dogmas are those affirmations of religious faith

See Thomas Doggett, Deceased (1908).

whose

DOG LICENCES.

members or at least from its teachers.” Harnack in his great History of Dogma prefers a more historical definition. Dogma is

The great growth of dog-keeping is re-

vealed by the record of the dog licence duties, which show that the dog populations have become enormous. In Great Britain dogs over six months old must have a licence which costs 7s. 6d. a year. Dogs used as guides by blind persons, sheep and cattle dogs, and hounds under 12 months old which have not hunted, are exempt. In 1926, 2,865,367 dog licences were taken out, but

it is probable that there are about four million dogs in Great Britain. The penalty for non-compliance with the law is a fine up to £5. The licences are issued at post offices, and their revenue goes to the local authorities in whose areas the receiving post office is situated. The law requires also that dog collars should be engraved with their owners’ names and addresses, but it is not strictly enforced. In Great Britain there is no way of telling

acknowledgment

a Church

expressly requires from its

(1) a creation of Greek thought on the soil of the gospel and (2) kindred mediaeval findings, but (3) it is transformed or disappears in Socinianism rationalism, exercise of Something

Protestantism through deepening religious insight, in and the Enlightenment through the dominance of in the post-Tridentine church through more sweeping authority. Each of these definitions has its merits. is to be said also for the view that, in the modern

Church of Rome, we have dogmatism superlatively developed— partly just because that Church forbids one to draw a hard and fast line separating dogmas from pious opinions, or formulated dogmas from unformulated; all the Church's teaching being infallibly and dogmatically true. The choice of a definition can only be made by balancing advantages against disadvantages. if a particular dog is licensed or not. As to dogmatic theology, all that need be said is that it is the In the Irish Free State dogs must be licensed when one month old and in Northern Ireland when six months old; in each case most widely accepted name for the systematic statement of Christian doctrines—and not merely of dogmas, if dogmas are to be the licence costs 55. ; In the British oversea Dominions dog licensing is general. In separated off from the floating mass of theories. When the Church inherited the Jewish scriptures, it took over Canada each province by statute empowers its municipalities to impose a dog tax. Thus in Ontario the licence costs $2 for a an instalment of dogma, and one beset for it hy special difficulties dog and $4 for a bitch, a higher duty being imposed when more too little recognized by theologians—a book holy and divine, and than one animal is kept. In Australia licences vary little; in yet not the perfect revelation of God! When, in controversy Victoria all dogs are taxed at 5s. a year; in South Australia a with Gnosticism, a collection of New Testament writings was dog is licensed at 5s., a bitch at 7s. 6d. All dogs must wear a added to the “Old Testament,” the inheritance grew; and the collar or tab unless kept for hunting or coursing. In South Africa dogmatic postulate, that all scriptures contain the same teaching, the tax is high, being 12s. 6d. in Natal and 1os. in the Transvaal, became no easier to vindicate. One cannot deny that Calvinism where there is a £5 tax on all dogs with a greyhound strain that in the past or that Fundamentalism in the present is in a very high degree dogmatic. For each of these, the corpus of scripture can be used for hunting. In Germany all dogs are taxed, the amounts varying in the is the sum total of dogma; and to the scripture every thought of different districts, being usually small in villages and high in the man is to bow. The Catholic ethos adds other things—an embig towns, and the law is strictly enforced. In Berlin the dog tax phasis on sacraments; a gathering up of the contents of the Bible is £3 in English money. Sheep dogs on German farms go free (with unconfessed modifications) into creeds; a franker announceof tax. A metal disc bearing the number of the licence must be ment of church authority. In these features of Catholicism there appears to be a fuller realization of the dogmatic temper than attached to each dog’s collar. In the United States licences are issued variously by a State, where appeal is made to the Bible alone. Harnack has good reason for insisting on the fundamental imcounty or municipality. Enforcement of the ordinances requiring registration of dogs is usually within the police powers conferred portance of the great Eastern dogmas, Trinity and Incarnation. upon local corporations, but some States, such as Pennsylvania These expressed the piety of Eastern Catholicism; and they and Connecticut, have general laws on the subject. Registration passed into the mediaeval West and even into historic Protestantof dogs above the age of six months, except those in kennels, for ism as presuppositions—only presuppositions, but as such indiswhich there are special regulations, is usually required annually. pensable. And yet, in their original shaping, the West had played A stated fee is paid to the city, county or State officer for the no small part, when curiously hard questions were raised by the licence, the applicant receiving a tag which must be attached to East. It has been felicitously observed that “the East thought the animal’s collar as evidence of such registration. In case the tag that everything could be explained; and the West, that nothing is lost, a duplicate may be obtained, but failure to register a dog, needed to be explained.” Even at the first General Council (Nicea, 325) it appears certain that Western minds brushed aside under most ordinances, authorizes the officers to kill it. DOGMA, DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. Theology, like Eastern scruples in imposing the watchword “homoousios’—a political economy, has no technical terminology, but seeks to use term with questionable associations, but a term which not even the language of ordinary life in a specialized sense. Colloquially, the slipperiness of the Arians could evade. So again, at Chalcedon

to assert dogmatically is contrasted with speaking tentatively. But also, dogmatism is contrasted with proof. “I’m not arguing with you, I’m telling you”—he who so speaks is, reasonably or unreasonably, dogmatic. The claim of accuracy akin to that of science and of authoritativeness akin to that of law, are the two poles of

(451) and at the First Trullan Council (680), the West threw in the dogmatic watchword round which crystallization ensued. The Councils of Constantinople (381) and Ephesus (431) were more Eastern. The adoption of a non-Biblical phtase at Nicea, constituted a landmark in the growth of dogma; it is true, since

502

DOGMATISM

the Church—the universal Church speaking by its bishops—says so; though the Bible does not! Even at Nicea there was a small obstinate minority. Oliver Wendell Holmes draws the inference

that Catholic unanimity means “a majority vote” (followed by excommunication of the few). Similarly, from Nicea onwards, formulated dogma is accompanied by anathemas. We have good reason for including in our definition of dogma this mark—dogma (for all who receive it) is an affirmation which it is sinful to deny, or to challenge, or to ignore. It is a singularly ominous claim. Another landmark is established for us by the so-called Athanasian creed—a (probably later) Western summary and elaboration of Eastern results, with two well-marked divisions concerning

the Trinity and concerning the Person of Christ. It is “before all things” necessary to be accurate in minute detail regarding these doctrines. Sacraments are not so much as named. Indeed, except in the “one baptism for the remission of sins” of the “NiceneConstantinopolitan” creed, the great early creeds are strangely silent concerning sacraments; although no Catholic mind could ever doubt that it is “he that believeth and is baptized” who shall be saved. In one sense, then, the Athanasian creed marks a climax. It puts the claim of dogma amazingly high. Though it has not forgotten that Christ is “to judge... all men. . . according to their own works,” orthodoxy is “before all things necessary.” Yet the mediaeval West goes on to alter the balance of emphasis in several ways. First, it works out the theory of sacraments in fuller detail—numbers them as seven; specifies them one by one; includes in its findings the staggering miracle of transubstantiation. And in all these points the East accepts results from the

West. Sacraments will not save if an obex or hindrance is wil-

fully interposed (e.g., by deliberate purpose of mortal sin); and the doctrine of reception in voto—heaven taking the will for the deed—seems to shake the theory to its foundation. But the emphasis is laid upon the necessity of sacraments, even at the expense of doctrine. For, secondly, implicit faith may suffice lay Christians—may possibly suffice many of the clergy. It is a popular error, though shared by some well educated persons, to speak of implicit “obedience.” Fides implicita is the ‘correct phrase. By assenting in general terms to Church teaching, while believing explicitly the minimum creed of Heb. xi. 6, one believes by implication whatever else is de fide. We even meet with the position that there is merit before God in believing heretically, if one honestly supposes that one’s heretical view is taught by the Church. All this is a notable counter-stroke to the detailed dogmatism of the Athanasian creed. One understands the motives at work; but it is not with God that ‘we have to do,” still less with conscience, but with—the Church. There is no shadow of

excuse in the theory for dissent from Church teaching. Ignorance is encouraged; bad mistakes are excused; but submission is exacted to the uttermost.

The third mediaeval innovation is the Thomist doctrine of mystery. While reason and conscience warrant theistic belief, revelation includes things which reason cannot grasp. Again one comprehends the motive; but again one observes how the significance of the Church is aggrandized by the new doctrine. An enemy might say that doctrines which are “mysterious” in the technical sense are the fossilized remains of what once was living thought. We have a formula; true; but what does the formula contain? No child of the Church dare seek to answer. If the

know Christ cannot be caught in the snare of any human authorsty. While Luther was incomparably the most daring, all the early reformers hesitated over the great Greek dogmas—but all alike brushed théir hesitations aside, and reimposed upon the mod- ern time the presuppositions of their fathers. Similarly, the Protestant doctrine of inspiration grew steadily harder. An imperfect but valuable attempt to cofistrue Christianity as a thing of experience was made by Schleiermacher; and the school of Ritschl has even more carefully sought after “Anschluss an Luther.” Historically it is a fair question whether Protestant evangelicalism ought to speak of dogmas at all. This means that doctrine is for it a less thing than Christian life, and that “we know in part.” The Council of Trent (1545-63) for the first time dogmatically places unwritten tradition side by side with scripture; it also subordinates scripture text and interpretation to the Church’s authority. After the period of general relaxation in the 18th century, movements of reaction everywhere set in. In the Church of Rome Pius IX. (1854) proclaimed de suo the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin, and the Council of the Vatican (1870) recognized the Pope’s personal authority as equal to that of any council. In quaint technical language, his formal pronouncements are “irreformable.” Thus dogma makes quite clear that the “development” of which J. H. Newman and others speak is purely

one of accretion. Nothing can be cancelled. Nothing can be bettered—it is divinely perfect. Alike in 1854 and in 1870, the decreta claim to reiterate a. “divinely revealed doctrine” or “dogma.” The Vatican council also makes Thomist apologetic de fide. (1) Theism is demonstrable.

But (2) there are unintel-

ligible mysteries in revealed faith. The former position seems highly complicated. It is now a dogma that, dogmatic revelation apart, reason itself proves the being of God, if you hesitate over this, anathema sis. The highroad of reason is prescribed to you, authoritatively; and the goal is also prescribed. If your reason docs not lead you to the goal, anathema sis. And if you fail to recognize mysteries above “though not contrary to” reason, anathema sis, When for the first time a closure was introduced into the House of Commons, Lord Salisbury “did not believe the Liberals were sharpening a scimitar in order to cut bread and butter.” The Church of Rome since 1871 has possessed the keenest possible cutting weapon, but has cut with it—nothing. The dogmatic impulse seems to have temporarily exhausted itself in placing the Pope upon his pinnacle. At the opposite theological extreme from Roman Catholicism, radical Protestantism shows a germ or a vestige of dogma, or at any rate a real parallel to dogma, if it asserts (with G. B. Foster) the Finality of the Christian Religion. It has been proposed by an eminent scientific writer, Dr. Whitehead, that we should speak of the “dogmas” of science, and should recognize that these must from time to time be “changed.” Apparently, the first principles underlying scientific theory are working hypotheses. Such things of course are endlessly modifiable. But a student of theology must hold that it will not tend to clearness of thought if working hypotheses are called “dogmas.” LITERATURE.—Matthew

Arnold's Literature and Dogma

(1873) is

important fer litcrary usage: cf. A. B. Bruce, Chicf End of Revelation. Classical and early Christian usages, E. Hatch, Hibbert Lect. (1888), pp. 119, 120; J. B. Lightfoot on Colossians ii. 14 (20); W. Schmidt,

progress of dogmatic definition means the condemnation of views which in the past were innocent, the goal of the dogmatic progress seems to lie altogether beyond the region of knowledge. Genius in Protestant theology was confined almost entirely to Luther; and even he in later life stiffened and hardened. When he proclaims that justification by faith is in itself the articulus stantis vel cadentis ecclesiae—“article” is a frequent synonym for dogma—he is seeking to gather up a multitude of authoritative dicta in one thrilling personal experience. So too when he graduates the books of the New Testament he is claiming to go beyond the letter even of scriptural authority in the strength of his knowledge of the gospel of salvation. In words of his, which are written on his monument at Worms, and which might be called

Das Dogma und seine Beurteilung in der neueren Dogmengeschichte (1898)—a pamphlet protesting against what Loofs terms the “generally accepted view.” Articles in the (Roman Catholic) Kirchenlexikon of Wetzer and Welte, 2nd ed. (by Hergenrdther and Kaulen), 1882-1901. Arts. “Dogmatik” (J. Köstlin), “Dogmengeschichte” (F. Loofs) in Herzog-Hauck’s Encykl. f. prot. Theol. (vol. iv., 1898). Art. “Glaubensartikel” in previous ed. (Herzog-Plitt, vol. v., 1879) by C. F. Kling and L. F. Schoeberlein. Along with Foster, Troeltsch should be studied; English summaries in R. S. Sleigh’s Sufficiency of Christianity and Ernst Troeltsch, and briefly in a paper on Troeltsch by the present writer, Congregational Quarterly (April, 1925). J. M. E. McTaggart’s Some Dogmas of Religion interprets dogma as claiming ultimate absolute truth. (See also THEoLocy.) (R. Ma.)

the undying charter of evangelica] Protestantism, Those who truly

of any belief, especially of those ultimate or fundamental beliefs

Dogmatik, vol. i. (1895)—many

quotations in extenso; C. Stange,

DOGMATISM is the uncritical acceptance and application

DOGON—DOHERTY known as principles. In philosophy the term has been applied by Kant (g.v.) rather sweepingly to most preceding systems of philosophy on account of their alleged neglect to examine “critically” the nature and bounds of human knowledge as a preliminary step to their construction.

DOGON, 2 light-skinned patrilineal people of medium stat-

593

ing 1 to 5 yellow flowers 1 in. to 2 in. long. The avalanche lily (E. montanum), common in alpine meadows in Washington and Oregon, is a smaller plant with white flowers.

DOG-TOOTH, in architecture, a band decoration of adjoin-

ing, projecting triangles, called, from its saw-tooth

shape, in

French, dent de scie. Early examples of this decoration are found

ure (also known as Habe) in the Bandiagara highland and Hombori hills districts of the French Sudan. Their language, with many dialects, is related to Mandinga. The villages are independent and ruled by an elected sacerdotal headman (Hogon), assisted by a council of elders and dignitaries (seru). In certain groups girls belong to their maternal uncle. The family estate is first inherited by the brother of the deceased who succeeds to the family headship. Personal property (according to its male or female character) passes to the son or daughter. They are excellent husbandmen, do some cattle-raising, are animists and offer seasonal sacrifices, with, quite recently, human victims. Each village is protected by a sacred animal. There are traces of totemism and the dead are placed in cliff caverns.

in Syria and in the Mesopotamian valley, e.g., in the palace front at Rabbath-Ammon (built either in the last years of the Sassanian dynasty or in the early part of the Mohammedan rule), where it is used on arch mouldings; and in a highly decorative form, in the palace of Machitta of the eighth century. It is found widely during the Romanesque period throughout Europe, and is particularly common in Norman work in France and England, appearing as the chevron (g.v.) and zig-zag. In many cases it appears in arch mouldings as a series of projecting pyramids, the sides decorated with foliage. To its supposed resemblance, in this form, to a dog’s tooth violet, some people incorrectly attribute the origin of

See Arnaud, “Notes sur Bandiagara et de Hombori

the genus Cornus, of the family Cornaceae, comprising some 60 species found chiefly in north temperate regions. They are mostly

et Trad. pop. (1921).

les montagnards Habe des Cercles de (Soudan Français),” Revue @’Ethnogr.

DOGRA, an inhabitant of the Duggar tract in the foot-hills,

now mostly comprised in the Jammu territory of Kashmir, India. Duggar appears to mean the “land between two lakes.” Sanskritized as Drigarh-desh, it is unknown to literature. The Duggar is inhabited by a number of castes, including Brahmans, about five classes of Rajpiits with numerous septs and the usual under castes. The Dogra who enlists in the Indian army is or should be a Rajput of some degree from this or the adjacent sub-Himalayan tracts. He is an excellent soldier and the Dogra regiments have had a high reputation since the first Sikh war.

DOGS, ISLE OF, a district of East London, England, on the

north bank of the Thames, forming the southern extremity of the metropolitan borough of Poplar (q.v.). It is enclosed on three

sides by a bend of the Thames formed by Limehouse, Greenwich and Blackwall reaches, and includes Millwall (with Millwall dock)

on the west and Cubitt Town on the east; the West India docks across its northern end make of it almost an island. Greenwich Tunnel (1902) for pedestrians and vehicles passes under the river here. The whole district is occupied by docks, riverside works and poor houses. The origin of the name is not certainly known.

DOG’S MERCURY, a perennial herb of the family Euphor-

biaceae, mainly found in Europe and northern Africa. It has a creeping root and lance-shaped leaves and grows to a height of about one foot. The root contains certain colouring substances and is highly poisonous. The term is sometimes used to define Chenopodium which is cultivated as a pot-herb and commonly called mercury. Acalypha or three-sided mercury also belongs to this family. See also EUPHORBIACEAE.

DOG STAR: see Srrrvs. DOG’S-TOOTH VIOLET,

the name given to a genus

(Erythronium) of beautiful plants of the lily family (Liliaceae) comprising about 1§ species, all, except one, North American. They are low herbs with unbranched stems which spring from

deep corms and bear near the surface of the ground a pair of unequal leaves, often mottled with dark splotches, and large,

its name.

(See BYZANTINE

AND ROMANESQUE

ARCHITECTURE.)

DOGWOOD, the name applied to shrubs and small trees of

hardy shrubs usually with handsome foliage and attractive flowers and fruits. Several are widely cultivated as summer and autumn ornamentals and also for the winter effect of their brightly coloured branches. The common European dogwood, prick-wood, skewer-wood, cornel or dogberry (C. sanguinea) is a shrub reaching a height of 8 ft. or 9 ft. frequent in hedges, thickets and plantations in Great Britain. egg-shaped, pointed, about 2 red in autumn; the flowers The berries are small, of a

Its branches are dark red; the leaves in. long by 14 in. broad, and turning are dull white in terminal clusters. black-purple colour, bitter and one-

seeded, and contain a considerable percentage of oil. The white wood is very hard, and, like that of various other dogwoods, is used for making ladder-spokes, wheel-work, skewers, forks and other implements. About 20 species are native to North America, mostly found east of the Rocky Mountains, only six occurring on the Pacific coast. Of these the most striking are the flowering dogwood (C. florida), of the eastern and southern United States, one of the most beautiful of American flowering trees, and its very similar counterpart, the western dogwood (C. Nuttallii), of the Pacific Coast. Both are usually small trees 10 ft. to 15 ft. high, but occasionally 40 ft. or more, bearing in early spring a profusion of flower-heads each surrounded by four flowering bracts (involucre) 1 in. to 3 in. long, usually white but varying to rose-red, giving the head the appearance of a flower 2 in. to 5 in. across. The redflowered (involucred) forms of C. florida are extensively propagated for ornament. Other well-known North American species are the red-osier dogwood or kinnikinnick (C, stolonifera), found across the continent; and the silky dogwood (C. Amomum), the panicled dogwood (C. racemosa), and the alternate-leaved or pagoda dogwood (C. alternifolia) natives of the eastern States and adjacent Canada. There are also two low almost herbaceous species, the dwarf cornel or bunch-berry (C. canadensis), found from Newfoundland to Alaska south to Virginia and California, and the northern or Lapland cornel (C. suecica), native across Canada and northward to the Arctic zone and also in Scotland, northern

Europe and Asia, both of which bear clustered brilliant red fruits, those of the latter are eaten by the Eskimos. The widely planted Cornelian cherry (C. mas), a native of species, a delicate spring-bloomer, with rose-purple flowers, is planted in borders and rockeries. The best known representative Europe and northern Asia, is a handsome shrub with glossy folinodding, lily-like, mostly solitary flowers on slender stalks. The European dog’s-tooth violet (E. dens-canis), the only Old World

in eastern North America is the yellow dog’s tooth violet (Æ. americanum), known also as yellow adder’s-tongue and troutlily, with yellow flowers, } in. to 14 in. long, on stalks 6 in. to 8 in. high. This handsome spring wild flower is native to moist woods from Nova Scotia to Minnesota and southward to Florida and

Arkansas. The similar but smaller white dog’s-tooth violet (Æ. albidum), called also white adder’s-tongue, with white flowers, occurs in low woodlands from Ontario to Minnesota and southward to Georgia and Texas. A conspicuous species in the Rocky Mountain region is the large-flowered dog’s-tooth violet or glacierlily (E. grandifiorum), with flower-stalks 8 in. to 16 in. tall, bear-

age, yellow flowers in clusters, and shining scarlet edible fruits,

which are made into preserves. The Japanese Kousa (C. Kousa), native to eastern Asia, with creamy-white flowering bracts 3 in. across and fruits united in a globular head, is also grown as an ornamental shrub. The Jamaica dogwood, the root-bark of which is poisonous is Piscidia Erythrina, of the family Leguminosae. DOHERTY, CHARLES JOSEPH (1855), Canadian politician, was born at Montreal on May 11, 1855 and educated at McGill University. Called to the Quebec bar in 1877, he became a Q.C. in 1887 and was a puisne judge of the Superior Court of Quebec from 1891 to 1906. He was first elected to the

504

DOHERTY—DOLDRUMS

of its design, for its stained-glass windows of the 13th century and for the finely sculptured tomb of Bishop Thomas James (d. 1504). About 14 m. from the town is the pierre du Champ Dolent, a menhir some 30 ft. in height; not far off stands the great granite rock of Mont Dol, over 200 ft. in height, surmounted by the cult task of administering the Military Service Act. In 1918 he statue and chapel of Notre-Dame de l'Espérance. Dol has trade accompanied the prime minister to the Peace Conference at Paris, in grain, vegetables and fruit, and there are salt-marshes. Tanning and in 1920 was one of the Canadian representatives at the and leather-currying are carried on. League of Nations. He was appointed to the Privy Council, DOLABELLA, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS, Roman general and son-in-law of Cicero, was born about 70 B.c. in the civil wars London, in the same year. DOHERTY, HUGH LAWRENCE (1875-1919), English he at first took the side of Pompey, but afterwards went over to lawn-tennis player, was born at Clapham, London, on Oct. 5, Caesar and was present at Pharsalus. To escape the demands of 1875. He was educated at Westminster school and Trinity college, his creditors he introduced (as tribune) a bill proposing that all Cambridge. At Cambridge he and his brother, Reginald F. debts should be cancelled. This was resisted by his colleagues Doherty (1872~1911), made their names as tennis players. They and led to disturbances in Rome. Caesar, on his return from were undoubtedly among the greatest and most artistic players of Alexandria, seeing the expediency of removing Dolabella from their day, and their joint work On Lawn Tennis (1903) is a Rome, took him as one of his generals in the expedition to classic of the game. The elder brother held the All England Africa and Spain. On Caesar’s death Dolabella seized the consulsingles championship at Wimbledon from 1897=1900, and the ship (which had already been conditionally promised him), and, younger from 1902-06, when he resigned the title. Playing in by making friends with Brutus and the other assassins, was condoubles, the brothers were champions from 1897 to 1905, being firmed in his office. When, however, M. Antonius offered him the only once defeated, by S. H. Smith and F. L. Riseley, in 1902. command of the expedition against the Parthians and the proH. L. Doherty won the American national championship in 1903. vince of Syria he changed sides at once. His journey to the During the war he was in the anti-aircraft service, and the hard province was marked by plundering, extortion, and the murder work entailed probably hastened his death, which took place on of C. Trebonius, proconsul of Asia, who refused to allow him Aug. II, 1919. | to enter Smyrna. He was thereupon declared a public enemy and DOHNÁNYI, ERNST VON (1877+), Hungarian superseded by C. Cassius (the murderer of Caesar), who attacked composer, pianist and conductor, was born at Bratislava (Press- him in Laodicea. On the capture of the place, Dolabella ordered burg) on July 27, 1877. He studied at the Budapest Royal one of his soldiers to kill him (43). Throughout his life he was Academy, and was for a short time a pupil of Eugen d’Albert. a profligate and a spendthrift. See Cicero’s Letters (ed. Tyrrell and Purser) ; G. Boissier, Cicero and He attracted notice by his first pianoforte quintet as early as Friends (Eng. trans. 1807); Orelli, Onomasticon Tulianum; Dio 1895. He was appointed professor of the pianoforte at the Berlin his Cassius xli, 40, xlii. 2ọ, xliii. 51, xliv, 22, xlvi. 40, xlvii. 30; Appian, Hochschule (1908) and director of the Academy at Budapest in Bell. civ. iii. 7, iv. 60. 1919. He became conductor of the Philharmonic orchestra of |: DOLCE, LUDOVICO or LUIGI (1508-1568 or 1569), Budapest, and conducted with notable success in the United Italian writer, was a native of Venice. He wrote some 70 works, States. The style of his compositions is conservative and individual and carries on the romantic traditions of the roth century. but is remembered chiefly for his Marianna, a tragedy from the Among his principal works may be mentioned Die Schleier der life of Herod, which was recast in French by Tristan and by VolPierrette (ballet pantomime); Tante Simona (comic opera, 1912); taire, and still keeps a place on the stage. Four licentious comedies, ll Ragazzo (1541), ll Capitano (1545), Ji Marito (1560), Jl RufDer Turmder Woijwoden (opera, 1922); also orchestral and chamber music and songs, all of a high order and giving him a fiano (1560), and seven of Seneca’s tragedies complete the list of his dramatic efforts. place among the first composers of his day. As a pianist he also See A. Salza, Delle commedie di Ludovico Dolce (1899). takes high rank. DOLCI, CARLO or CARLINO (1616-1686), Italian DOHRN, ANTON (1840-1909), German zoologist, was born on Dec. 29, 1840, at Stettin, the son of Karl Dohrn, coleopterist, painter, was born in Florence on May 25, 1616, and died there on and editor of Linnae Entomologia (16 vols., 1846—66). After Jan. 17, 1686. He was a disciple of Jacopo Vignali; and when only studying at Jena, under Haeckel, he devoted himself to the investi- Iz years of age he attempted a whole figure of St. John, and a gation of marine animals, and in 1870 founded the famous head of the infant Christ. His portrait of his mother displayed a zoological station at Naples. He died on Sept. 26, 1909, at new and delicate style which brought him extensive employment Munich. His publications are Untersuchungen über Bau u. Ent- at Florence and in other parts of Italy. Carlo Dolci holds somewhat the same rank in the Florentine wicklung der Arthropoden (1870); Der Ursprung der Wirbelthiere (1875); and Studien zur Urgeschichte des Wirbelthierkörpers that Sassoferrato does in the Roman school. Without the possession of much genius, invention or elevation of type, both these (1882). DOIRAN, BATTLE OF, 1917. This abortive offensive by artists produced highly wrought pictures, extremely attractive to the British on the Doiran sector on April 24, 1917, and the subse- some tastes. Many of his pictures represent the patient suffering quent attempts is described under SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS. The of Christ, or the sorrows of the Mater Dolorosa. Dolci was, in British forces were here launched against the most formidable fact, from early youth, exceedingly pious; it is said that during positions with the idea of easing the way, by attracting enemy Passion week every year he painted a half-figure of the Saviour. reserves, for a decisive Allied stroke elsewhere—which was sus- Among his best works are the “St. Sebastian”; the “Four Evangelists,” at Florence; “Christ Breaking the Bread,” in the marpended almost before it began.

House of Commons as a Conservative member for the St. Anne’s Division of Montreal in 1908 and became Minister of Justice in Sir Robert Borden’s Government in 1911, a post which he held until 1921. He joined the Unionist Government in Dec. 1917 and, as acting Prime Minister and Minister of Justice, he had the difh-

DOL, a town of north-western France, in the department of quess of Exeter’s collection at Burleigh; the “St. Cecilia” in Dres-

Ille-et-Vilaine, 36 m. N. of Rennes on the Ouest-Etat railway. Pop. (1926) 3,724. The town was unsuccessfully besieged by William the Conqueror, taken by Henry IT. in 1164 and by Guy de Thouars in 1204. In 1793 the Vendeans there defeated the republican forces who had taken refuge within its walls. The bishopric was suppressed in 1790. Dol is situated to the southwest of the rich agricultural district known as the marsh of Dol, where market-gardening is especially flourishing. Picturesque houses of the 14th and rsth centuries still stand with projecting upper storeys. The grey granite cathedral, mainly 13th century, dedicated to St. Samson, is interesting for the English character

den; an “Adoration of the Magi”; and in especial “St. Andrew praying before his Crucifixion,” in Florence, his most important composition, painted in 1646. There are examples also in the National gallery and Dulwich gallery, London; and at Rome, Vienna, Munich, Berlin and Leningrad.

DOLDRUMS, the shifting zone of equatorial calms or variable airs between the trade winds. The weather is hot, moist and extremely dispiriting with heavy and frequent rainfall usually accompanied by thunderstorms. In the old days, sailing vessels sometimes lay helplessly becalmed for weeks with the crew “in the doldrums” (“in the dumps”).

DOLE—DOLERITE DOLE, SANFORD BALLARD

(1844-1926), jurist and

statesman of the Hawaiian Islands, was born in Honolulu on April 23, 1844, the son of American missionaries. After studying law in Boston he returned to Hawaii to become one of its leading lawyers, a member of the legislature from 1884 to 1887, and a leader

505

for, were not uncommon in England. At Wath, near Ripon, a testator in 1810 ordered that 4o penny loaves should be thrown from the church leads at midnight on every Christmas eve. The best known dole in the United States is the “Leake dole of bread.” John Leake, a millionaire, dying in 1792, left £1,000 to Trinity

in the reform movement which secured the Constitution of 1887.

church, New York, the income to be laid out in wheaten loaves and distributed every Sabbath morning after service. (X.) Dole in Unemployment.—While, as explained above, a dole is strictly a charitable gift, usually of food, the term came in Great Britain after the World War to be applied loosely to the various kinds of weekly payments to the unemployed. These payments were first made on a national scale under the out-of-work donation scheme which was instituted immediately after the Armistice in 1918, and inasmuch as the scheme was entirely non-contributory, the term “dole” might be regarded as not inappropriate. The expression “dole” in relation to donation payments obtained currency soon after the scheme began. The scheme applied not only to unemployed ex-members of the Forces who had served during the World War, but to civilian unemployed workers also. The payments came wholly from the Exchequer and amounted to £62,448,000 (£40,723,000 to ex-members of the Forces and £21,725,000 to civilians). The scheme for DOLE, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement civilians was in existence for the year Nov. 1918 to Nov. 1919. in the department of Jura, 29 m. S.E. of Dijon on the Paris-Lyon For ex-members of the Forces it continued until March 1021. By what may be described as a natural, or at least an easy, railway. Pop. (1926), 14,877. Dôle, the ancient Dola, was in Roman times the meeting place of several roads, and considerable transition the term “dole” was afterwards applied to the weekly remains have been found there; in the later middle ages, till payments made under the National Unemployment Insurance 1648, it was the capital of Franche Comté and seat of a parlement scheme (see UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE). This general scheme and a university; but in 1479 the town was taken and destroyed of insurance against unemployment was, however, on a contribuby Louis XI. It subsequently came into the hands of Maximilian tory basis from its inception. The contributing parties were the of Austria, and in 1530 was fortified by Charles V. In 1668 and employer, the employed person, and the Exchequer, the share of 1674 it was captured by the French and lost its parlement and the contribution borne on national funds being only one-fifth of university, both of which were transferred by Louis XIV. to the whole. (The Exchequer share was later increased and Besancon. Dole occupies the slope of a hill overlooking the forest amounted at one period to approximately three-tenths of the of Chaux, on the right bank of the Doubs, and of the canal from whole.) From 1920 to Nov. 1927, over £220,000,000 were conthe Rhone to the Rhine which accompanies that river. The steep, tributed by employers and workers and over £83,000,000 by the narrow streets, contain many old houses recalling, in their archi- Exchequer. Unemployment Benefits Subscribed For.—The unemploytecture, the Spanish occupation of the town. The church of Notre Dame is Gothic of the 16th century. The college, once a Jesuit ment insurance scheme was launched on what may be called a establishment contains the brary and a museum of paintings and. strictly insurance basis, persons who contributed to it being enhas a chapel of the Renaissance period; the Hotel-Dieu and hotel titled when unemployed to receive benefit in proportion to their de ville are both 17th century buildings; and the law court occu- contributions, subject to a maximum period in each year. Owing, pies an old convent of the Cordeliers. In the courtyard of the however, to the scheme coming into operation just when the severe hotel de ville stands an old tower dating from the rsth century. industrial depression began, it became necessary to graft on to it The birth of Louis Pasteur (1822) in the town is commemorated a supplementary scheme under which bencfit might be drawn by by a monument, and there is also a monument to Jules Grévy. persons who would normally have contributed to the scheme but Dole is the scat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance who, owing to the slump, either had not paid a sufficient number and of commerce. Metal-founding and the manufacture of pumps, of contributions or had exhausted their benefit rights. The term kitchen-ranges and other iron goods, chemical products, machin- “dole” was soon commonly applied to this extra or uncovenanted ery, blue and blacking, and pastry, are among the industries. benefit, and it almost inevitably became associated with the insurThere is a good trade in agricultural produce and live stock, and ance scheme as a whole, to which, however, as an insurance in wood, iron, coal and the stone of the vicinity. Wine is largely scheme it is quite inappropriate. The term has also been applied to payments by the Poor Law produced in the district. DOLE, a portion, a distribution of gifts, especially of food authorities for relief of the able-bodied unemployed—an applicaand money, given in charity (O.E. dal, cf. mod. “deal”). The tion which, having regard to the nature of the payments, is more distribution of alms to the local poor at funerals was a universal justified than one referring to the unemployment insurance custom in the middle ages. Thus in 1399 Eleanor, duchess of scheme. Generally, it may be said that from the year 1919 the term Gloucester, ordered in her will that 15 poor men should carry torches at her funeral, “each having a gown and hood lined with “dole” has been loosely applied to payment made from national white, breeches of blue cloth, shoes and a shirt, and £20 amongst or local funds to the unemployed and even to benefits paid from them.” Later, doles usually took the form of bequests of land or insurance funds to which the recipients themselves contribute (J. F. G. P.) money, the interest or rent of which was to be annually employed heavily. DOLERITE is a word which has carried more than one in charity. Often the distribution took place at the grave of the donor. Lenten doles were also formerly common. A will of 1537 meaning. It was originally applied by Haüy (from Gr. dodepds bade a barrel of white herrings and a case of red herrings be deceptive) to coarse-grained basalts with little or no glass, but it given yearly to the poor of Clavering, Essex, to help them tide is now usually taken to indicate intrusive rocks, of basic compoover the fast. A pilgrim’s dole of bread and ale can be claimed sition belonging to the hypabyssal group, and therefore intrusions by all wayfarers at the Hospital of St. Cross, Winchester. This and not lavas. It is, however, sometimes difħcult to ascertain

Also in 1887 he was appointed an associate justice of the supreme court, which office he held until the monarchy was overthrown in 1893 by a revolution of which Dole was himself a leader. In May, 1893, he was elected by the Constitutional Convention as the first president of the Republic of Hawaii. With firmness and wisdom he guided the Republic through a difficult period, suppressing revolutions and stabilizing the governmental machinery. When President Cleveland demanded the restoration of Queen Liliuokani to the throne Dole refused to yield, claiming that Cleveland was without authority to act. In 1898 he went to Washington in the interests of annexation, and when that event took place in 1900 Dole was appointed by President McKinley as the first territorial governor. In 1903 he became United States district judge of Hawaii and in 1909 was reappointed to a second term. At its expiration in 1915 he retired to private life in Honolulu, where he died on June 9, 1926.

is said to have been founded by William of Wykeham. Emerson, when visiting Winchester, claimed and received the dole. What were known as scrambling doles, so called because the meat and bread distributed were thrown among the poor to be scrambled

whether a particular sheet is an intrusion or a lava-flow, because in the later stages of volcanicity the lava does not always reach the surface, but may be injected among the earlier flows. The dolerite group includes both cale-alkaline and alkaline

DOLET— DOLLAR

506

varieties, of which the former are by far the commoner. Their proceeded from his press—ancient and modern, sacred and secuessential minerals are a basic plagioclase felspar (usually ranging lar, from the New Testament in Latin to Rabelais in French. from andesine to anorthite, the most typical] being labradorite) After being thrice imprisoned for atheism, he was tortured and and augite; the more basic varieties contain olivine, while in more burnt at Paris on Aug. 3, 3546. On his way to the stake, he is said acid types a little alkali-felspar and quartz may be present, often to have composed the punning pentameter—Non dolet ipse Dolet, as micropegmatite (g.v.). Original hornblende is not very sed pia turba dolet. common, though the augite is often more or less converted to Whether Dolet was a Protestant or an anti-Christian rationalist hornblende by secondary changes. In some varieties enstatite is debatable. He was condemned by Calvin but many of his or hypersthene are found, often with quartz. The commonest books were of a religious character, and he repeatedly advocated accessories are ilmenite and apatite. In the alkaline dolerites, the reading of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue. often called teschenites, there is rather more alkali-felspar and See A. F. Didot, Essai sur la typographie (1852); L. Michel, Dolet (1889); R. C. Christie, Étienne Dolet, the Martyr of the Renaissance either nepheline or more commonly analcite. (2nd ed. 1889, bibl.); O. Galtier, Etienne Dolet (1908), and pt. 3 The dolerites are dark-coloured, heavy rocks, most commonly of even grain, though sometimes carrying phenocrysts of felspar, of J. C. Dawson’s Toulouse in the Renaissance (New York, 1923). augite or olivine. The structure is typically ophitic; ż.e., the DOLGELLY, a market and county town of Merionethshire, crystals of felspar of prismatic form are enclosed in large plates Wales, situated on the streams Wnion and Aran, at the north base of augite, giving a sort of shimmery appearance. The centre of a of Cador Idris, on the G.W. railway. Pop. of urban district comparatively large mass may approach a gabbro in texture, (1921), 2,013. It consists of small squares and narrow streets, while the margins are often of very fine grain, or even glassy, with a grammar school (1665), market hall and assize hall. There owing to chilling during intrusion by the cold country rock. is a little manufacture of flannel and coarse woollens. An ancient Dolerites may form small bosses and laccoliths, thus merging house has associations with Owain Glyn Dwr, who established into the gabbros, but the most typical manner of occurrence is as relations with the Continent from here in 1404. Hengwrt, a mansills and dikes, varying in thickness or width from a mere film sion near the ruins of Cymmer Abbey, has given its name to a to hundreds of feet. Often there is to be observed a considerable famous collection of Welch mss. once housed there, and now in the variation in composition from the centre to the margins of a large National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth. intrusion, owing to differentiation of the magma during cooling, DOLGORUKI, VASSILI LUKICH, Count (1672-1739),

the basic minerals concentrating near the margin, while felspar,

including orthoclase or albite and even quartz may be found at the centre. Again it is not infrequent to find an injection of some acid rock in the same dike-fissure, or forming a parallel sheet or sill. This phenomenon is due to differentiation before crystallization. The ordinary dolerites, poor in alkalis and correspondingly rich in lime, are undoubtedly the most abundant of all basic intrusives. They occur in great quantity along with surface flows of basalt in innumerable localities. In Britain dolerites, mostly carrying Olivine, are abundant in the Tertiary volcanic province of western Scotland and north-eastern Ireland, as well as among the carboniferous eruptives of the central valley of Scotland. Wellknown examples of enstatite-dolerite (with quartz) are the Great Whin Sill of northern England, and Penmaenmawr in north Wales. By far the greatest known development of dolerite, however, is that of the Karroo region, Natal, etc., in South Africa,

where individual sheets may be thousands of feet thick. Alkaline dolerites (teschenites) are less common; the type example is that of Teschen in Moravia, while a good many occurrences are known in Scotland, of both carboniferous and Tertiary age, and in the English midlands (Clee hills, etc.). The dolerites are of considerable economic value, as when fresh the stone is hard, heavy and tough, being well-suited for paving setts and road metal. In America and in mining literature generally the dolerites are often called diabase, but this name is not to be recommended, owing to the different senses in which it has been used in past times. (R. H. Ra.)

DOLET,

ETIENNE

printer, was born at Orleans.

(1509-1546),

French

scholar

and

After studying at Paris and Padua,

he became secretary in 1530 to the bishop of Limoges, who was French ambassador to the republic of Venice. He then studied law at Toulouse. In 1535 he entered the lists against Erasmus in the famous Ciceronian controversy, by publishing a Dialogus de tmitatione Ciceroniana; and the following year saw his Commentariolum linguae Latinae. This work was dedicated to Francis I., who gave him the privilege of printing during ten years any works in Latin, Greek, Italian or French, which were the product of his own pen or had received his supervision; and accordingly, on his release from an imprisonment occasioned by his justifiable homicide of a painter named Compaing, he began at Lyons his typographical and editorial labours. He started by publishing a Cato christianus, or Christian moralist, in which he made profession of his creed. The catholicity of his literary appreciation, in spite of his ultra-Ciceronianism, was soon displayed by the works which

Russian diplomatist and minister, was one of the first group of

young Russians whom Peter the Great sent abroad to be educated. On his return home he entered the diplomatic service, and served on a series of important missions. During the reign of Peter II. (1727-30) Dolgoruki was appointed a member of the supreme privy council, and, after procuring the banishment of Menshikov, he took charge of the young emperor, whom he would have forced to marry his niece Catherine but for Peter’s sudden death. He then drew up a letter purporting to be the last will of the emperor, appointing Catherine Dolgoruki his successor, but had to abandon the scheme as impracticable. He supported the election of Anne of Courland to the throne on condition that she first signed nine “articles of limitation” which left the supreme power in the hands of the Russian council. Anne, who repudiated the “articles” on the first opportunity, never forgave Dolgoruki. He was banished first to his country seat and then to the Solovetsky monastery. Nine years later the charge of forging the will of Peter II. was revived, and he was tortured and then beheaded at Novgorod on Nov. 8, 1739. See Robert Nisbet Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (1895).

DOLHAIN, the most eastern town of Belgium, situated on the Vesdre, north-east of Verviers and close to the Prussian frontier. It is quite a modern town, occupying the site of the lower town of the ancient city of Limburg, which was destroyed by Louis

XIV. in 1675. On a rocky eminence above Dolhain are still to be seen the fine ruins of the old castle of Limburg, the cradle

of the ancient family of that name from which sprang the Luxemburg family and several emperors of Germany. At a short distance from Dolhain is the famous dam of the Gileppe, the vast reservoir constructed to supply Verviers with water free from lime for its cloth manufactures.

DOLICHOCEPHALIC

(long-headed),

a term

denoting

skulls the diameter of which from side to side, or the transverse diameter, is 75% or less of the longitudinal diameter or that from front to back taken as 100.

DOLLAR, burgh and parish, Clackmannanshire, Scotland, 6

m. N.E. of Alloa by the L.N.E.R., not far from the Devon. Pop. (1991) 1,584. The village is beautifully situated. It has a well known school, the academy, housed in a fine mass of buildings of the Grecian order (opened about 1819). DOLLAR, a silver coin at one time current in many European countries, and adopted under varying forms of the name elsewhere. The word “dollar” is a modifed form of thaler, which, with the variant forms (daler, dalar, daalder, tallero, etc.), is said to be a shortened form of Joachimsthaler. This Joachimsthaler was the name given to a coin intended to be the silver equivalent

DOLLAR

STABILIZATION

of the gold gulden, a coin current in Germany from the 14th century. In 1516 a rich silver mine was discovered in Joachimsthal (Joachim’s dale), a mining district of Bohemia, and the count of Schlitz, by whom it was appropriated, caused a great number of silver coins to be struck (the first having the date 1518), bearing an efigy of St. Joachim, hence the name. The Joachimsthaler was also sometimes known as the Schisckenthaler. The first use of the word dollar in English was as applied to this silver coin, the thaler, which was current in Germany at various values from the 16th century onwards, as well as, more particularly, to the unit of the German monetary union from 1857 to 1873, when the mark was substituted for the thaler. The Spanish piece-of-eight (real) was also commonly referred to as a dollar. When the Bank of England suspended cash payments in 1797 and the scarcity of coin was very great, a large number of these Spanish coins, which were held by the Bank, were put into circulation, after having been countermarked at the Mint with a small oval bust of George III., such as was used by the Goldsmiths’ Company for marking plate. Others were simply overstamped with the initials G. R. enclosed in a shield. In 1804 the Maundy penny head set in an octagonal compartment was employed. Several millions of these coins were issued. These Spanish pieces-of-eight were also current in the Spanish-American

507

recipients of fixed incomes suffer injustice. The sufferers include savings-bank

depositors,

bondholders

and salaried classes.

On

the other hand, when prices fall, it is other classes, such as debtors, stockholders, farmers and independent business men generally, who suffer. The indirect effects of falling or rising prices, t.e., of a rising or falling dollar, are equally bad. These indirect effects include industrial discontent, due either to the high cost of living or to unemployment and economic crises.

colonies, and were very largely used in the British North American colonies. As the reckoning was by pounds, shillings and pence in the British-American colonies, great inconveniences naturally

Hitherto there was ample excuse for the unstable monetary units of various countries, in that no instrument for measuring their aberrations had been devised. Likewise, until weighing scales were invented weights could not be standardized, and until instruments for measuring electrical magnitudes were invented, electrical units could not be standardized. But for some years the index number of prices has provided a fairly accurate Instrument for measuring the value of the dollar in terms of its power to purchase goods. An index number of prices is a figure which shows, for a specific period of time or on a specific date, the average percentage increase or decrease of prices. One of the most suggestive signs of the times is that this instrument for measuring changes in the purchasing power of money has been utilized in adjusting wages and salaries to the cost of living, and a number of industrial and financial concerns, and some private and official agencies, have amended wages on the basis of an index number of the prices of commoditics. The principle was also employed in adjusting the terms of the Dawes Settlement for Germany, and

arose, but these were to some extent lessened by the adoption of a tariff list, by which the various gold and silver coins circulating

in connection with at least one bond issue, that of the Rand Kardex Co., and one lease contract.

were rated. In 1787 the dollar was introduced as the unit in the United States, and it has remained as the standard of value either in silver or gold in that country. For the history of the various changes in the weights and value of the coin see NUMISMATICS. The Spanish piece-of-eight was also the ancestor of the Mexican dollar, the Newfoundland dollar, the British dollar circulating in Hongkong and the Straits Settlements, and the dollar of the South American republics.

DOLLAR STABILIZATION.

Under the existing currency

system, the so-called “level of prices” is largely at the mercy of monetary and credit conditions. The purchasing power of money has always been unstable, because a unit of money, as at present determined, is not a unit of purchasing power but only a unit containing a certain weight of gold or silver. Other units—the yard, pound, bushel, etc.—were once as unstable as monetary units, but,

one after another, they have all been stabilized or standardized. Short weights and measures cheat the buyer; long weights, the seller. So a unit of money which changes in value or purchasing power is always playing havoc between contracting parties. The following table shows how the level of prices and the purchasing power of the dollar have fluctuated, according to Prof. Irving Fisher’s index number of wholesale prices. Purchasing Index number of prices in %, of power of the dollar in pre-war pre-war, t.e.,

1913 = 100%, 1860.

1865 (high) 1896 (low)

.

es ‘a

1913

ue

OS

90

205 66

cents, 1.6., 1913 = 100%).

105

49 152

100

1920, May (high).

1922, Jan. (low) . 1923, April (high). Dec. (low) 1924, June (low)

. (high

1925, Feb.(igh) 1926, Pent —

average

April average May, rst week and week

.

An Unsatisfactory System—wWhen prices are rising, 1.¢., when the purchasing power of the dollar is falling, creditors and

It has been contended by some economists that this principle may be utilized more generally in the future to safeguard the parties to agreements made at one date to pay moncy at another date. Such corrections would gradually break down the popular superstition that “a dollar is a dollar,” for every time the dollar is corrected it is convicted of needing corrections; ultimately the correction might be applied, not, as at present, as a patch on the dollar from the outside, but by incorporating it in the dollar itself. Various methods for this have been proposed. A Suggested Remedy.—The one perhaps best known is Prof. Irving Fisher’s proposal to vary the weight of the gold dollar so as to keep its purchasing power invariable. Instead of a gold dollar of constant weight and fineness and varying purchasing power, what is needed, he contends, is a dollar of constant purchasing power, and, therefore, of varying weight. It is not proposed, of course, to remint gold coins, but simply to count an ounce of fine gold as being the equivalent, not always of $20.67 (as at present), but of as much more or less than that sum as is required from time to time to keep the purchasing power of the dollar constant. In other words, the proposal is to vary the price of gold according to its worth relative to other commodities, instead of, as at present, keeping it artificially constant at $20.67 an oz. pure, or £3 178. 104d. an oz. 44 fine. Thus, if Mexico should adopt the monetary unit of the United States, instead of its present unit containing half the weight of gold in the United States dollar, the price level in Mexico, other things being equal, would be halved. Again, if the United States should adopt the Mexican dollar as its monetary unit, the price level in the United States would be doubled—that is, the buying power of the dollar varies with the amount of gold in it. If this principle be admitted, Prof. Fisher contends that it follows that the dollar’s buying power—that is, the level of prices—can be controlled. It can be kept from changing greatly just as easily as it could be made to change by periodical adjustments of the price of gold, each adjustment being made in accordance with the index numbers of prices. By this method, in conjunction with a sound banking system, Prof. Fisher contends that variations of more than one or two per cent. could normally be prevented. An alternative plan, which is simpler, has been proposed by Prof. Lehfeldt of South Africa. This consists in essence in the

international control of gold mining so that the supply of gold may be adjusted to maintain a fixed price level. It is also highly desirable that co-operation in the shape of credit control should exist in banking systems. This of itself can

DOLLING-—-DOLLINGER

508

be an effective method of stabilizing the dollar without any gold adjustments so long as there is a superabundant reserve of gold kept out of use.

This method of control is already being prac-

tised by the Federal Reserve System and by the Bank of England, in accordance with the recommendations of the Genoa Economic Conference of 1922. This should prepare the way for a more complete stabilization later. When a superabundance of gold no longer exists, deflation may become imminent unless the number

of gold dollars can be increased by a reduction in the gold weight of the individual dollar. (See CURRENCY; INDEX NUMBERS.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Irving Fisher, The Purchasing Power of Mone (1911); Irving Fisher, Stabilizing the Dollar (1920); Gustav Cassel, Money and Foreign Exchange after 1914 (1922); William T. Foster and Waddill Catchings, Money — 1923); J. M. Keynes, A Tract on Monetary Reform (1923); A. Lehfeldt, Restoration of the

World’s Currencies (1923); M. K ‘Graham, Gold (1925); J. R. Bel-

lerby, Monetary Stability (1925). See also the publications of the Stable Money Association, New York. (I. F.)

DOLLING,

ROBERT

WILLIAM

RADCLYFFE

(1851-1902), English divine, known as Father Dolling, was born at Magheralin, Co. Down, and educated at Harrow and Cambridge. He was ordained in 1883 to a curacy at Corscombe, Dorset, but resided in London as head of St. Martin’s mission, Stepney. In 1885 he accepted the charge of St. Agatha’s, Landport, the Winchester college mission, his reforms there being depicted in his Ten Years in a Portsmouth Slum (1896). In 1885 he resigned,

owing

to the bishop

of Winchester’s

refusal

to

sanction his ritual. In 1897 he visited America and in 1898 became vicar of St. Saviour’s, Poplar, retaining that living until his death. See C. E. Osborne, Life of Fr. Dolling (2nd ed., 1905).

DOLLINGER, JOHANN JOSEPH IGNAZ VON (1799-1890), German theologian and church historian, was born at Bamberg, Bavaria, on Feb. 28, 1799, and was educated at the

Würzburg gymnasium and at Bamberg. On April 5, 1822 he was ordained priest. In 1823 he became professor of ecclesiastical history and canon law in the lyceum at Aschaffenburg, and in 1826 professor of theology at Munich, where he spent the rest of his life. He entered into relations with the well-known French Liberal Catholic, Lamennais, whose views on the reconciliation of the Roman Catholic Church with the principles of modern society had aroused much suspicion in ultramontane circles. In 1832 Lamennais, with his friends Lacordaire and Montalembert, visited Germany, with a view to bringing about a modification of the Roman Catholic attitude to modern problems. In 1838 he published a treatise against mixed marriages, and in his works on The Reformation (3 vols. Regensburg, 1846-48) and on Luther (1851, Eng. tr., 1853) he is very severe on the Protestant leaders. In 1842 he entered into correspondence with the leaders of the Tractarian movement in England, notably with Pusey, Gladstone and Hope Scott; and two years later was made representative of his university in the second chamber of the Bavarian legislature. In 1847, in consequence of the fall from power of the Abel ministry in Bavaria, with which he had been in close relations, he was removed from his professorship at Munich, but in 1849 was invited to occupy the chair of ecclesiastical history. He was a delegate to the national German assembly at Frankfort in 1848. It has been said that his change p relations to the Papacy dated from the Italian war in 1859, but no sufficient reason has been given for this statement. He was unfavourably impressed by the promulgation (1854) of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin, and he disliked the attitude of the zealots for the restoration of the temporal sovereignty of the pope. In 1863 he invited 100 theologians to discuss at Malines the question which Lamennais and Lacordaire had already raised in France, namely, the attitude that should be assumed by the Roman Catholic Church towards modern problems and modern science. His strong liberalism and the anti-ultramontane and antiJesuit attitude which he displayed at this conference led the pope to suppress it after four days session. On Dec. 8, 1864 Pius IX. issued the Syllabus (qg.v.), in the 13th thesis of which he condemned certain of Dollinger’s views. It was in connection with

.

the problems raised at the conference that Dollinger published his Past and Present of Catholic Theology (1863) and his Universitees Past and Present (Munich, 1867). We now approach the critical period of Ddllinger’s life. The headquarters of the opposition to the movement for the declaration of papal infallibility which was now mooted in many quarters was Germany, and its leader was Dollinger. Among the group were his intimate friends Johann Friedrich (g.v.) and J. N. Huber, in Bavaria. In the rest of Germany he found many supporters, chiefly professors in the Catholic faculty of theology at Bonn, among whom were the famous canonist von Schulte, Franz

Heinrich Reusch, the ecclesiastical historian Joseph Langen, as well as J. H. Reinkens, afterwards bishop of the Old Catholic Church in Germany, Knoodt, and other distinguished scholars; and, in Switzerland, Prof. Edward Herzog, who became Old (or, as it is sometimes called, Christ-) Catholic bishop in Switzerland. Early in 1869 the famous Letters of Janus, written by Ddllinger in conjunction with Huber and Friedrich (which were at once translated into English; 2nd ed. Das Papsttum, 1891), began to appear. The Letters pointed out the tendency of the Syllabus towards obscurantism and papal despotism, and marshalled the evidence against papal infallibility, a subject which had been placed on the agenda of the Vatican Council fixed for Dec. 8, 1869. During its session the world was kept informed of what was going on in the Letters of Quirinus, by Dollinger and Huber, who were supplied with information by. Augustin Theiner, the librarian at the Vatican, then in disgrace with the pope for his outspoken Liberalism. The dogma was carried by an overwhelming majority, and the dissentient bishops, one by one submitted (see VATICAN CoUNCIL). Dollinger, understanding infallibility to apply to all official exercise of the supreme magisterium, including encyclicals, headed a protest by 44 Munich professors, and convened a congress at Nuremberg, which met in Aug. 1870 and is-

sued a declaration adverse to the Vatican decrees. The archbishop of Munich called upon Ddllinger to submit. Dollinger answered (Nov. 28, 1871) that the decrees were opposed to Holy Scripture, to the traditions of the Church for the first 1,000 years, to historical evidence, to the decrees of the general councils, and to the existing relations of the Roman Catholic Church to the state in every country in the world. “As a Christian, as a theologian, as an historian, and as a citizen,” he added, “I cannot accept this doctrine.”

The archbishop replied (April, 1871) by excommunicating Dollinger (see VATICAN CoUNCIL and INFALLIBILITY,), who was thereupon almost unanimously elected rector-magnificus of the univer-

sity of Munich while Oxford, Edinburgh and Marburg universities conferred upon him the honorary degree of doctor of laws and Vienna that of philosophy. The Bavarian clergy invited Bishop Loos of the Jansenist Church in Holland, which for ‘more than 150 years had existed independent of the Papacy and had adopted the name of “Old Catholic,” to hold confirmations in Bavaria. The offer was accepted, and the three Dutch Old Catholic bishops declared themselves ready to consecrate a bishop, if it were de-

sired. The momentous question was discussed at a meeting of the opponents of the Vatican decrees, when Dollinger voted against the proposition, and withdrew from any further steps towards the promotion of the movement. He declined to initiate a schism (see Otp CaTHOLICs). Dollinger’s attitude to the new community was not very clearly defined. His addresses on the reunion of the Churches, delivered at the Bonn Conference of 1872, show that he was not hostile to _ the newly formed communion, in whose interest the conference was held; in 1874 and again in union Conferences held there and from the British Isles and from latter of these two conferences,

1875, he presided over the Reattended by leading ecclesiastics the Orthodox Church. At the when Dollinger was seventy-six

years of age, he delivered a series of addresses in German and English, in which he discussed the state of theology on the continent, the reunion question, and the religious condition of the various countries of Europe in which the Roman Catholic Church held sway, and he succeeded in inducing the Orientals, Anglicans and Old Catholics present to accept, a formula of concord, drawn

509

DOLLOND—DOLLS from the writings of the leading theologians of the Greek Church, on the question of the Procession of the Holy Spirit. During his last years of retirement he wrote, in conjunction with his friend Reusch, Geschichte der Moralstreitigkeiten in der romisch-katholischen Kirche seit dem sechzeknien Jahrhundert mit Beitragen

sur Geschichte und Charakteristik des Jessitenordens (Nordlin-

gen, 1889). Ddllinger died in Munich on Jan. 14, 1890, at nearly ninety-one. He declined to receive the sacraments from the parish priest at the cost of submission, but the last offices were performed by his friend Professor Friedrich. In addition to the works referred to in the foregoing sketch, we may mention The Eucharist in the First Three Centuries (Mainz, 1826); a Church History (1836, Eng. trans., 1840); Hippolytus and Callistus (1854, Eng. trans., 1876); First Age of Christianity (1860); The Church and the Churches (Munich, 1861); Lectures on the Reunion of the Churches; The Vatican Decrees; Studies in European History (tr. M. Warre, 1890); Miscellaneous Addresses (tr. M. Warre, 1894). See L. von Kobell, Conversations of Dr. Dollinger (tr. by K. Gould, 1892); and J. Friedrich, Ignaz von Dollinger (Munich, 1899-1901).

DOLLOND,

JOHN

similar toy images of warriors,

which are displayed at their festivals on the third of March. In Korea little girls make their

(1706-1761), F.R.S. (1761), English

optician, was the son of a Huguenot refugee, a silk-weaver at Spitalfields, London, where he was born on June 10, 1706. He followed his father’s trade, but found time to acquire a knowledge of Latin, Greek, mathematics, physics, anatomy and other subjects. In 1752 he abandoned silk-weaving and joined his eldest son, Peter Dollond (1730-1820), who in 1750 had started in business as a maker of optical instruments. His reputation grew rapidly, and in 1761 he was appointed optician to the king. In 1758 he published an ‘Account of some experiments concerning the different refrangibility of light” (Phil. Trans., 1758), describing the experiments that led him to the discovery of a means of constructing achromatic lenses by the combination of crown and flint glasses. Following the suggestion of Leonard Euler and the experiments of Samuel Klingenstjerna (1698-1765) Dollond commenced a series of tests on achromatism. Early in 1757 he succeeded in producing refraction without colour by the aid of glass and water lenses, and a few months later he obtained the same result by a combination of glasses of different refrangibilities (see TELESCOPE). Dollond also published two papers on apparatus for measuring small angles (Phil. Trans., 1753, 1754). He died in London on Nov. 30, 1761.

DOLLS.

obvious adaptation of the shaved willow sticks formerly set up on the banks of streams as scapegoats at the annual purification ceremony. An actual scapegoat doll, which was dressed and fed and generally treated as though alive, was given to mothers in old Japan to ward off evil from their children. Women desiring children presented dolls essentially emblems of maternity, at a certain shrine. Apart from these “magical” dolls, Japanese girl children have ordinary dolls as well as ceremonial dolls symbolizing the imperial court, which are not played with but exhibited formally at the girls’ festival on May 5. Japanese boys have

The doll, the familiar toy puppet of childhood, is one

of the oldest of human institutions. Common among both savage and civilized people, its antiquity is attested by Egyptian, Greek and Roman remains, among which small figures of clay, wood, bone and ivory are identifed as dolls from being found in children’s graves. Dolls are among the first inventions of children, having been doubtless improvised in the earliest instances from natural objects such as sticks and stones. Aboriginal America and Japan are the chief sources of information. The child’s doll occurs among the American Indians as the image of a deity, made of wood, regarded as sacred and entrusted to the child in its religious instruction. Such dolls, carved to represent the masked dancers who personate the gods, are used to-day throughout the Pueblo area of the United States in New Mexico and Arizona, and in a derived form among the Pomo in California. They are also treated with great respect by the Pueblos, their sale being forbidden. The dolls of the Keres Indians of Laguna and Cochiti are not elaborately carved

or dressed, being flat or rounded billets, identical in form with the prayer sticks employed as ceremonial offerings. The Navajo who occupy the adjacent territory look with superstitious fear upon the Pueblo doll and use a wooden effigy representing a Hopi doll to work evil upon an enemy. Indian mothers among the Chippewa put feathers in the form of a child in the cradle of a dead infant, carrying this about with them and treating it as though living. The Eskimo and northern Indians make children’s dolls of bone, ivory and mammoth teeth, and dress them in fur

and hide. Small clothed clay dolls are found in ancient Peruvian graves. The beaded buckskin dolls of the Plains and other Indians appear to have been inspired by white influence. In Japan a primitive type of child’s doll consists of a shaved willow stick with shavings or strings for hair, and paper clothes, an

BY COURTREY ICAN INDIAN

OF

YHE

MUSKUM

OF

THES

AMER.

PRIMITIVE TYPES OF DOLLS OF THE CARAJA INDIANS, BRAZIL

own dolls and cut a bamboo pipe stem about 5 in. long, in the top of which they put long grass, salted and made fine like hair. They never give these a face but sometimes paste a little white powder in its place. They dress the stick in clothes like those worn by women and sometimes put a pin, made by themselves,

in the hair. The children’s festival in Korea occurs on April 8, celebrated in Japan as the birthday of Buddha. On this occasion, the Koreans make an image of a woman of paper with a rounded base made of clay so that it stands erect. In Japan the corresponding toy is identified as the Buddhist Daruma and is purchased by boys at the festival of a certain temple. One which rises quickly to a vertical position is selected. The face is painted, but instead of eyes, two white paper discs are pasted. This doll is carried home, placed on the “god shelf” and a prayer is said. The god is promised eyes if he answers the prayer, and, this accomplished, black dots are made with ink on the vacant eye discs. In China

this toy is made to represent an actor and described as a drunken man. Among the Hindus and Mohammedans in India, where infant marriage prevails, elaborately dressed dolls with belongings are among the presents given to a girl at marriage. Their use is general throughout the Mohammedan East in spite of the laws of Islam which forbid the representation of the human figure. The nine year old wife of Mohammed, Aischa, brought her dolls when

she entered his harem and the Prophet himself is said to have played with them. Mohammedan women in Baghdad are said to see a Spirit in every doll that may bring harm to their children. Dolls, therefore, are not given to children as toys, but little girls, following their instincts, make dolls of pillows and blocks of wood. In Persia girls make their dolls of pieces of folded cotton which they clothe and mark with features. Here, too, an image of a doll is, it is said, sometimes placed in a temple at the time of its erection to secure its continued welfare. Dolls are common in Africa, where certain forms are peculiar to certain regions and their use by children as toys is complicated by magical observances. Their general appearance’ is similar to the carved wooden fetishes to which they seem genetically related. Among the Fingo of the Orange Free State, a girl is given a doll when she becomes of age, which she keeps until she has a child. Then her mother gives her another doll which she keeps until she has a second child. Analogous to the scapegoat dolls of old Japan, these dolls are considered sacred and not parted with.

As regards Christian Europe there is little direct information, although dolls are known to have existed, as has been previously indicated, from Roman time. It is known also that in earlier centuries those used as playthings were connected’ with images of the saints and were associated with the Christmas festival. A structure representing the scene of the Nativity was erected in churches and private houses, where the Christ child was displayed in its cradle with more or less elaborately costumed figures of the Holy Family, the Magi

510

DOLMAN—DOLOMITES

and their retainers.

These reached a point of great elaboration

in the 17th and 18th centuries, as shown in the collection in the

Bavarian National museum in Munich. And this custom still sur-

vives in France, Spain, Italy and all other Catholic countries. Toy fairs are held in the streets and purely secular dolls are sold side by side with toy images representing the Holy Infant, the Virgin Mary, St. Joseph, St. Nicholas and St. Christopher and other saints associated with this season. In Protestant Europe the doll’s house seems to have replaced the créche, the krippe and the nacimiento of France, Germany and Spain and is highly developed, as may be seen in the Germanic National museum in Niirnberg, the South Kensington museum in London and in museums of Holland and Belgium. As regards manufacture of dolls the Netherlands and the Tyrol have long been leading centres of the industry in Europe, while it may be noted further that dolls intended to illustrate seasonal fashions constitute a branch of the industry which came into existence much earlier than might be generally supposed. During the World War elaborately costumed dolls of the latter type, made very often by women artists as a means of livelihood in the period of distress, and bought by adults for ornamental purposes, if not as playthings, were produced in large numbers and acquired great popularity as gifts and keepsakes among the well-to-do. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Fritz Rumpf, Spielzug der Volker (Berlin, 1922); Esther Singleton, Dolls (New York, 1927); H. R. D’Allemagne, Histoire des Jouets (Paris, 1927) ; Richard Andree, Ethnograpische Parallelen (Leipzig, 1889); J. Walter Fewkes, Jnternat. Archiv. f. Ethnog. vii. 45 (1894); Mrs. F. Nevill Jackson, Toys of Other Days (London,

1908).

(S. Cv.)

DOLMAN, originally a long, loose garment left unfastened

galley on which he was serving, and in the duel that ensued killed him. He was condemned to death, but in consideration of his youth was pardoned, after nine months’ imprisonment. In 1775 he published his Recherches sur la pesanteur des corps è diferentes distances du centre de la terre, and soon after threw up his commission in the carabineers, and in 1777 accompanied the basis (afterwards Cardinal L. R. E.) de Rohan to Portugal. In the following years he visited Spain, Sicily, the Pyrenees and Calabria, the scientific results being given in a series of important works. In 1789 and 1790 he studied the Alps, and the mineral dolomite (named after him) was described by Dolomieu in 1791. He returned to France in that year, bringing with him rich collections of minerals. On Sept. 14, 1792, his friend, the duc de la Rochefoucauld was assassinated at Forges, and Dolomieu retired with the widow and daughter of the duke to their estate of Roche Guyon. In 1798 he accompanied Bonaparte’s expedition to Egypt, but ill health compelled his return. On the way home he was captured, and imprisoned at Naples in a pestilential dungeon,

where he remained 21 months. Deprived of writing materials, he made a piece of wood his pen, and with the smoke of his lamp for ink he wrote upon the margins of a Bible, the only book he still possessed, his treatise Sur la philosophie minéralogique et sur Vespéce minérale (1801). He died at ChAateau-Neuf, Saéne-etLoire, on Nov. 26, 1801. See Lacépède, “Éloge historique de Dolomieu,” in Mémoires de la classe des sciences de l'Institut (1806); Thomson, in Annals of Philo-

sophy, vol. xii. p. 161 (1808).

DOLOMITE,

a mineral species consisting of calcium and

magnesium carbonate, CaMg(CO,),, and occurring as rhomboin front, and with narrow sleeves. It is worn generally by the hedral crystals or large rock-masses. Analyses of most wellTurks, and is not unlike a cassock in shape. The name was given crystallized specimens correspond closely with the above formula, to the uniform jacket, worn by hussars, and slung from the the two carbonates being present in equal molecular proportions (CaCO,,54-35; MgCO,,45-65%). Normal dolomite is thus not an shoulders with the sleeves hanging loose. DOLMEN, the term used of a certain type of prehistoric isomorphous mixture of calcium and magnesium carbonates, but monuments, which usually consists of several great stone slabs a double salt. In crystalline form it is very similar to calcite, set edgewise in the earth to support a flat stone which serves as belonging to the same group of rhombohedral carbonates; the a roof. The structure was designed as a burial chamber and is primitive rhombohedron, parallel to the faces of which there are typical of the Neolithic period in Europe. The word is Celtic in perfect cleavages, has interfacial angles of 73° 45’. A specially origin but probably is not Breton; the Welsh equivalent of the characteristic feature is that this rhombohedron is frequently the word is Cromlech. Dolmens, althoygh found in covered form only form present on the crystals (in calcite it is rare except in as far East as Japan are mainly confined to Europe and Northern combination with other forms); the faces are also usually curved, Africa. There are many examples in the British Isles. See BAR- sometimes to an extraordinary degree, giving rise to saddle-shaped crystals. In the degree of symmetry possessed by the crystals Row and Borlase, The Dolmens of Ireland (1897). DOLMETSCH, ARNOLD (1858), French musician, there is, however, an important difference between calcite and was born at le Mans in 1858. He studied under Vieuxtemps in dolomite; the latter is hemihedral with parallel faces, having only Brussels and later at the Royal College of Music in London. His an axis of triad symmetry and a centre of symmetry. Dolomite is both harder (H = 3.5-4) and denser (sp. gr. 2-85) keen interest in old music and obsolete instruments took the practical form of research among the manuscripts in the British than calcite. The two minerals may also be readily distinguished Museum and other collections on the one hand and of collecting by the fact that dolomite is not acted upon by cold, dilute acids. and repairing the instruments themselves on the other, To re- Crystals of dolomite vary from transparent to translucent, and construct new instruments on the lines of the old was the next often exhibit a pearly lustre, especially when the faces are curved; step, and to this end he worked from 1902 to 1909 at the Chicker- the colour is usually white or yellowish. The crystallized mineral was first examined chemically by ing factory in Boston, U.S.A., and from 1g11 to 1914 at the Gavaud factory in Paris. In 1914 he returned to London, where P. Woulfe in 1779, and was named compound-spar by R. Kirwan he became a familiar figure in the musical world by virtue of his in 1784; other early names are bitter-spar, rhomb-spar and pearlinteresting revivals of early English music and his ingenious re- spar (but these included other rhombohedral carbonates). The constructions: of harpsichords and clavichords. He has now a name dolomite (dolomie of N. T. de Saussure, 1792) is in honour workshop at Haslemere in Surrey, where he also organizes annual of the French geologist, D. G. Dolomieu; this name was originally festivals of old chamber music of the 16th, 17th and 18th cen- applied to the rock only, but was later extended to the crystallized turies. On these occasions the fortnight’s programmes are carried mineral, first in the form dolomite-spar. In the white crystalline dolomite-rock of the Binnenthal near through, with but little outside assistance, by Dolmetsch and his family, the members of which he has trained to take their Brieg in Switzerland beautiful water-clear crystals of dolomite parts in a concert of viols or recorders or in any combination of are found; and crystallized masses occur embedded in serpentine, instruments for which the selected works were originally written. talc-schist and other magnesian silicate rocks. The best crystalAmong Dolmetsch’s published works are: Select English Songs and lized specimens are, however, usually found in metalliferous Dialogues of the XVI, and XVII. Centuries and The Interpretation deposits; for example, in the iron mines of Traversella near of the Music of the XVI. and XVII. Centuries (1915).

Ivrea, Piedmont (as large twinned rhombohedra) and Cleator Moor, Cumberland; in the deposits of lead and zinc ores at French geologist and mineralogist, Alston, Cumberland, Laxey in the Isle of Man and Joplin in (L. J. S.) Tour-du-Pin, Isére, on June 24, Missouri. DOLOMITES, THE, a mountain district in the South infancy a member of the Order of he quarrelled with a knight of the Tirolese Alps, and a subdivision of the Alps. The mountains are

DOLOMIEU, DEODAT GUY SILVAIN TANCREDE

GRATET

DE (1750-1801),

was born at Dolomieu, near 1750. He was admitted in his Malta. In his nineteenth year

DOLLS

PLATE

5. Coptic of doll bone. ard half inches high seven one6. Chinese dolls, ‘‘tilting’’ made represent to actors

EGYPTIAN ASIATIC AND DOLLS

dolls, Indian wedding used presents brides sometimes child to as

4. THE 45: ROYAL ARCHAEOLOGY UNTARIO OF MUSEUM

TR FNANCE ae Se EE

me her

imaa

eke.

"e
2: Ie ie

PSE VIVO —

E

——

=

~~

ai. Fj

(i INDIAN MAHOMMEDAN TOMB

OF ALTAMASH,

FRENCH GOTHIC

DELMI

SOUTH

yo3 E bwx

.

J

TRANSEPT DOORWAY.

TURKISH

AMIENS

CATHEDRAL

MOa

OS beberle PASHA

PARAAN

;DRAN1a3

a.

. a

A Veo

TEDA.k i

X

,

—

Fal

player should learn is to distrust the ob-

L A

i

ei

hibited in the following examples, each of which has been selected

vious); 15-19! (Black could dispose of Fig. 3.— ‘First Posi- on account of some striking combination, brilliant idea or other the two-for-one threat by playing 8-12, TION.’ WHITE TO PLAY artistic merit displayed. Game No. 1 AYRSHIRE LASSIE OPENING but that course is unnecessary, as he can AND WIN 411215 25-18 10°15 22-17 bis 18 24-6 make a three-for-three exchange which gains a King and leads to a 0624—20 3-8 23-19 13-22 24°20 2-9 won game), 24-15; 16—19! 23-16; 9-14, 18-9; 11-25 (the man on 8-11 26-22 6-10 26°17 18-27 17-10 g is safely pocketed to-be taken next move), 32-27 (to the uninc itiated White’s game does not look entirely hopeless, but trial will 28-24 5-9 at 27-23 11-16 31-24 8-11 show that he is in a very bad way however he may play); 5-14 9—13 30-26 Q-14 20°11 10°23 Drawn 22-18 1—5 18-9 7-10 20710 R. Jordan (stronger than taking 6-13), 27-23; 6-10, 16-12; 8=11, 28-24; 15-22 32-28 5714 29: 25 12 19 25-29 (crowns; Black has not been in a great hurry to do this, but @. 11-15, 24-20 forms the “Ayrshire Lassie” opening, so named has first massed the body of his men into a solid position), 24-19 Wyllie. It is generally held to admit of unusual scope for the display (the exchange by 30-25; 29-22, 26-17 affords a little more fight, d critical and brilliant combinations. but with the White forces fatally squandered); 14-18 (the first 6. 16-20, 25-22, 20-27, 31-24, 8-11, 17-13, 2:0, 21-17, 14721, 22-17 move of a useful four-for-four stroke, the mechanism of which 21-25, 17-14, 10-17, 19-1. Drawn. should be remembered), 23-14; 10-17, 21-14; 29-25! 30-21; Game No. 2 PAISLEY OPENING Played between E. R. Jacques and D. Campbell I1~16, 20-11; 7-30 Black wins with great ease, as White can only 11-16 17-14 16-23 25-22 20-27 23-18 run his men down the board with an almost unbroken “crown24-19 10-17 26~19 9-11 14-9 14-23 head” facing them and a free King behind them. 8-11 21-14 4-8 19-15 7-14 21-7 The trap which White falls into in the above game when playing 28-24 11-16 29-25 12~16 9-6 3-10 16-20 25-21 13-17 1§-10 I-10 26~3 27-24 at the 12th move is of very common occurrence, and is 22-17 31-26 2-7-8 18-9 27-31 known by the quaint designation of the “Goose Walk.” It is easily 9-13 23-18 9-13 27-23 §-14 3-7 avoided by moving 21-17, and so drawing the game. White wins. There are a few points in connection with Draughts which are (a) Black’s “side — has not paid him very well, and his forces subject to much misapprehension among those who have little are now badly di

DRAUGHTS

622

dictory. Beyond recommending the student to play towards the

No. 3 Lamp AND LADY »

YIK1§ 23-19 8-11

22-17

9-13

A classic, by J. Steel, Kilbirnie, Scotland 17214 4-8 26-23 12-16 10-17 24-19 >° 16-20 19-12 21-14 13-17 31-26-a 7-10

15-18

28-24

18-22-b

19-15

11-16

25~18

14-7

centre of the board in preference to the sides they say little, pre12~3 2—7 3-10

6-31

3-28

Black wins. (a) Plausible but loses. (b) “The Steel Shot.” No. 4 Bristo, Cross Played at Halifax, Yorkshire, between C. Horsfall (Black) and S. Greenslade (White) 11-16 12-16 16—23-a 11-16 7-11 6-31 23-18 17-14 17-13 31-26 26-19 13-6 16-19 8-12 4-8 16—20 3-8 1-26

ferring instead to recommend a plunge into the columns of figures (representing moves) which bulk so largely in every book on Draughts.

There are several coherent general schemes for bearing the men well understood by experienced players. (Note, however, that such schemes do not constitute anything like a complete theory of

play.) The more important are: 1. Play a centre-of-the-board game, i.e., move to the middle, bringing up the side men as supports, and try to divide the adversary’s men by driving a wedge into his formation. 2. Play to the sides. encouraging the opponent to take up a central position, but with the view of surrounding his front and undermining his supports. 3. Play to occupy the squares 24-15 22-17 28-24 25-22 12-3 30-23 14 and 19 with supported men, as such formation will attack the 10-19 19-23 8—11 12-16-b 2-97 11-16 opposing double corner and secure one’s own. 4. Play to attack 21-17 26-19 24-19 19-12 3-10 the single corner by establishing a supported piece (if Black) Black wins. on 18, or (if White) on 15. 5. Play to keep the game open, (a) Enterprising play. A man so thrust forward is a menace if it can be maintained. (b) Notice how the man on 23 is completely especially in the centre, by making judicious exchanges, and surrounded. Now begins a lovely combination. refrain from any pronounced attack or defence (especially attack). No. § OLp FOURTEENTH There are other general plans, some of which cannot be quite Played at Buffalo, U.S.A., en eens (Black) and Hodges so simply described as the above, but as the experienced player ite very well knows they are all subject to the qualification of 11215 18-9 11-15 26—23 28—32 7~14-d tf permitted or as far as may be possible and prudent. Nos. 1 and 23-19 5-14 19-16 24-28 19-15 6-10-e 2, for instance, are reciprocal to some extent, and the one may 8-11 26-23 12-10 20-16 32-28 14-7 be met by the other in many cases without advantage to either. 22-17 1-6 23-16 1§—24 15211 32~28 They are opposed very prettily for instance, in certain lines of 4-8 30-26-a 15-19 23-19 28-32 21-14 25-22 27-23 14-18 11-7-b 22-25 the “Old Fourteenth” (11-15, 23-19; 8-11, 22-17; 4-8 forms the Q-13 32227 8-11 22-15 3-10 29-22 opening, usually continued 17-13, 1§—18, 24-20; 11-15, 28~24; 27-23 2-6 16-12 13-22 2-7 24~27 8-11, 26-23, etc.). No. 3 was the subject of a serious attempt 6-9 24-20 19-24 15211 Q-13 31-24 by the American champion, N. W. Banks, to develop a system 23-18 15-24 23-19 10-14 12-8 28-26 9-14 28-190 11-15 1122 14-17-C of play as described, and he shows many applications of it in his Black wins. book Scientific Checkers (1923). The idea was not original with (a) Evidently this is inferior, but the (b) A bid for freedom. (c) Very fine. he would be a man down permanently. the White pieces from the board. No. 6 Cross The following is an example

subsequent play is masterly. (d) Taking the other way, (e) This stroke removes all

Banks, but he carried it further than any previous writer, without much practical success, however, as his advocacy tended to make him overrate the scheme, which he recommended in some games where stronger play was demonstrable. The number 3 plan is well exemplified from Black's point of view in the “Dyke” opening of a “Block”: (11-15, 22-17; I§—19, 23-16; 12—19, 24-15; 10-19, etc.). No. 4 11215 30-26 15219 27-24 6-10 29-25 is not as feasible as some of the others, but is developed by Black 23-18 9-13 18-14 8-12 27-23 77141 24-20 10—15 25-21 2-0 fairly strongly in the ‘““Maid of the Mill” opening (11-15, 22-17; 26-23 12—16 23-18 1-6 31-27 8-11, 17-13; 15-18, 23-14; 9-18—seldom permitted by White, 3-7 21-17 6-9 32-27 4-8 who can easily evade it). No. 5 is often the style of thing which and White wins, having the last move. It is now Black’s turn to play, and having no move available, he has lost. A counterpart “block” occurs as a result of compromise or desire to keep the draw in with no piece taken on cither sidc is sure to end in a White win. sight: it leads to the adoption of such openings as the “Defiance” The game, however, is only a freak. (11-15, 23-19; 9-14, 27-23 avoiding many complications conGeneral Principles.—The foregoing games are entertaining sequent on 22-17 and usually continued 8-11, 22-18, the exchange enough, but such spectacular play is rare between accomplished of two-for-two leading to an open game). Before leaving this discussion of system the following example players, although great skill, as well as vigilance, is required to avoid falling occasionally into some subtly prepared stroke. Nov- of the success of the second scheme when opposed to the first may ices often lose games by stroke play—sometimes indeed they be cited as worthy of more than casual examination. It is selected are allowed to make an inviting stroke on their own account, to show that such advice as “play to the centre” and “do not play only to find that the resulting position runs badly against them. to the sides” is not capable of universal application, but is also a Strokes and combinations are used by experts as fhreats, and are. splendid exposition of Draughts. useful adjuncts to position play, their avoidance by the opponent No. 7 ALBEMARLE probably entailing some precautionary move on his part which It is uncertain who was the first to show the win in the main play if not entirely inferior will not improve the strength of his game. of this game. Setting traps, however, which if avoided will allow the adversary

an improved position, is strictly eschewed by good players. Of general theory which can be expressed in anything like precise terms there is none. The game is not amenable to treatment by any of the methods of pure mathematics, which seems strange at first, because above everything it demands, constantly, the most exact calculation. The circumstance is fortunate. Investigation of the possibilities and potentialities of the game depends entirely on practical analysis—actual trial and selection of moves in given positions. Such research is being carried on without ceasing by hundreds of busy brains throughout the world, merely

11-15 22-17 8-11 17-13 4-8 a1-17-a

9-14-b 25221

7211 30-26-d

13-16 32-28

8-12 27-23

9-18 21-1

1§-38-c 29-25 11215 26-22

2-7 24-20 5-9 28-24

16—19-¢ 23-16 18-23 26-19

3-8 23~2 23-18-f 817-14 14-23 17-14 White wins.

(a) An uncommon opening, but the position after the next two

moves can arise in several ways. (b) The best move is 15-18—an application of scheme No.4 (c) Although this move is suggested by scheme No. 1 it bä outright. A draw is obtainable by 15-19, 24-15; 10-19 (11-18 —

multiplying the available data, without getting an inch nearer any 17-10; 6-15, 23-16; 1a~—19, which is according to scheme No. (d) The win is forced by a logical application of scheme Šio. 2. conclusion, except the probability that one does not exist. This man is the pivot of both wings. The authors of textbooks, therefore, are chary of giving general (e) An attempt to break the cordon—the only chance. advice, and such as they offer is obscure and sometimes contra(f) This counter sacrifice ensures the win.

DRAUGHTS To resume our consideration of general principles it is safe to say that the main thing which the experienced player keeps in view (assuming that he is opposed by an adversary of equal skill) is the probable state of his end-game, which indeed he begins tentatively to forecast as soon as a few of the opening moves have been made. Normally Draughts is a shortish game,

and one or two crises quickly bring about the ending, which if not presenting some feature of difficulty may sme as well be declared drawn at once. To be sure of a draw, however, a player must not be in any numerical inferiority, and must be able to see his way to crown his remaining men, as any man unable to obtain a clear course is a possible source of weakness. Strength in the end-game consists

|

have

from

is now generally styled the English game, but the so-called Polish game was evolved and introduced in Paris about the year 1721, superseding the older form. The Polish game spread from France to Holland, Flanders and Switzerland, and its influence is traceable in the German and Russian games. In the meantime the Italians also evolved their own special rules. The records of English Draughts begin with William Payne (1756) and its form was permanently fixed by Joshua Sturges (1800). Comparatively neglected in the south of England in the beginning, it was developed successfully in Scotland and the north of England. The rise of modern master-play dates from Andrew Anderson, who retired about 1850, after playing five matches

(four of which he won) with the celebrated James Wyllie, another

of being able to occupy the centre of the | board with Kings, pinning backward men Fie. 4.—“FOURTN POSIof the opponent’s forces to the side sion" squares, and preventing any Kings he may

623

(a) White to move and win

actively co-operating with (>) Slack to moveand draw

each other. With a strong ending of such scope a player will be able to dictate réplies, force advantageous exchanges, prevent the release of the tied-up men, and eventually exhaust the moves of the last one or two badly placed pieces belonging to his opponent. The “play to the centre and avoid the sides” advice thus becomes intelligible in the ending, however doubtful of application it may be in many cases earlier in the game. In the mid-game therefore the chief object is to shape an end-game with favourable possibilities. Skill to do this may only be acquired by hard practice and judicious book-work. The End Game.—Perhaps higher qualities are required in playing for the end-game than in actually manipulating the endgame when it has arrived. End-play requires great exactitude and much patience, but its principles are well known, as a number of root endings constantly recur and their handling is purely a matter of technique. Several of these root end-games have special names such as First, Second, Third and Fourth Positions, Payne's Draw, Barker’s Triangle, Bowen’s Twins, Strickland’s Position, the Mackintosh Position, etc., etc. End-play largely depends upon calculating the influence of “the move” (“opposition” or “vantage” as it is sometimes called) which consists in ascertaining, after pairing off the forces, piece against piece, which party will have the last move. The virtue of “having the move” is that the opponent’s pieces, being obliged to give way, ultimately become confined and held unless “the move” can be altered or a defensive stronghold established. . Two root endings, in which the play is not of an elementary nature, are diagramed as examples. In “First Position” the stronger party has two Kings against King and man. The defending player has his King in the opposing

Scotsman. Wyllie assumed the title of champion, but the honour was wrested from him by Robert Martins (a Cornishman), only to be regained. A young American named Robert D. Yates defeated both Wyllie and Martins in set matches in 1876-77, but retired, and the title reverted to Wyllie. James Ferrie (of Glasgow) finally defeated Wyllie for the world’s championship in 1894. Ferrie lost by the odd game in 40 to Richard Jordan (of Edinburgh) in 1896. The latter died unbeaten in 1909 but it should be mentioned that an American champion, Charles F. Bar-

ker, played a drawn match with him in 1900. The present holder and successor to Jordan is Robert Stewart of Blairadam, Fifeshire. Organization—The game is fairly well organized in all English-speaking countries, including the United States, but there is no supreme parliament recognized. There are many bodies

such as State and county associations, and city and town clubs, Institutes and recreation clubs generally have draughts circles, and the game has a big following. All the national associations promote periodical tournaments and international team matches have been played. There is an annual British Counties’ Championship for teams of 12 players. Varieties of the Game—-What we have been describing is the English form of the game. The Spanish game is played in a similar manner, but with the following exceptions: (a) The board is placed with the double corner to the left (an English board in the looking-glass, as it were); (b) the King can move over any number of unoccupied squares on the same diagonal; (c) It is compulsory to capture the greatest number of pieces which may be en prise at any play, which of course limits or eliminates choice when there are pieces en prise in more than one direction. The long moves of the King vastly increase his power in comparison with the ordinary man. The Spanish game, although still practised, is BLACK

BLACK

WHITE

WHITE

double corner, and his man held up somewhere on his left wing,

perhaps farther back than shown. The attacking player (who must have “the move”) can drive the King out of the double corner or compel the man to advance, and this course on trial will be found to lead to the win. With the backward man on the other wing the game is drawn. In Fourth Position the defending player is a man short, but can draw with “the move” in his favour by simple repetition.

When the attack has “the move” he can construct the following

in a backward state and has never been properly developed. The most recent authority is Dr. M. Carceles Sabater (Madrid, 1904). The /talian game differs from the Spanish game (from which it was probably derived) in the powers of the King. The Italian King History.—The records of the game do not go back farther moves precisely the same as an English King (subject however than the invention of the art of printing. All conjecture as to its to the maximum take being compulsory) but is immune from origin is purely speculative, and its ancient history (if any) is capture by a man. The Italian game is a very “live” proposition, lost. It is not doubted that board games were played in ancient and analytical discoveries in the English game are readily adapted Egypt, Greece and Rome, but there is no evidence that such games by the Italian players. The modern authorities are G. Bassani (La Dama Scientifica, Milan, 1919) and L. Avigliano (7! Giuoco vesembled Draughts, even in rudimentary form. della Dama, 1918, and La Doma nei Giuoco Moderno, Milan, The Spanish authors are the i 1927). century. The Spanish game The Polish game is the form most popular on the Continent. described. The eariy French situation: Black man on 21, Kings, 20, 22, 28; White man on 30, Kings 27, 32. Black to play wins by the sacrifice 22-26, 30-23, 28-24, etc. The single White man may be a King without altering the essentials.

624

DRAUPADI—DRAVIDIAN

LANGUAGES

We have already referred to its origin; it appeared in France, but “A Panchila, and wife of the five Pandava heroes in the Mahdbone of its earliest exponents in Paris was a Pole. It is played upon irata. `

a board of 100 squares, 50 being used; 20 men a side; double corner to the right. The King (.e., Dame or Queen) has the same powers as the Spanish King, extended to the larger board. The

DRAVE

or Drava (Ger. Drau), one of the principal right-

bank affluents of the Danube. It rises below the Innichner Eck, in Tirol, at an altitude of over 4,000 ft., runs eastward, and forms men, whilst moving forward as in the English game, take both the longest longitudinal valley of the Alps, the Drau Thal. The backward and forward. The maximum take is compulsory, and in Drave is 450 m. long; at Marburg it is joined by the Mur. The capturing play a man may touch the back rank without crowning valley of the Drave was the chief road through which the invadif further pieces remain to be taken. The “huff” has been abol- ing peoples of the East, such as the Huns, the Slavs and the Turks, ished. The characteristic feature of the Polish game is the back- penetrated the Alpine countries. The Drave flows through Carinward take of the man, which players used to the English, Spanish thia and Styria, and forms the boundary between Hungary and or Italian rules find both novel and puzzling. Polish Draughts is a Yugoslavia from Varaždin to near Osijek. At its mouth the magnificent game, well suited to the genius and scientific bent of Drave attains a breadth of 1,055 ft. and a depth of 20 ft. The the French and Dutch peoples. One of the declared objects of the Drave is navigable for rafts only from Villach, and for river French Draughts Association is to convert the draughts players of steamers from Barcs, a distance of 95 m. The principal towns other countries to the use of the 100 squared board and the Polish on the Drave and its affluents are Klagenfurt, Graz, Maribor and rules. The literature of the Polish game is voluminous, although it Osijek. (See DANUBE.) DRAVIDIAN, a name only applied in Indian usage to the certainly falls short of the output of books devoted to the English game. Amongst the older French authors Manoury (about 1780) is “Southern” group of the Brahmans g.v. But “Dravidian” is still in good repute, and his book has been many times reprinted. applied, unfortunately, to the indigenous peoples of India south of the Vindhyas and the northern half of Ceylon; it should be Le Damier by G. Balédent (Amiens, 1881-87) is a monumental work in four volumes, and later French treatises of value which confined to the languages of this area. At least four different are readily procurable are those of Barteling, Chiland, Weiss, Felix stocks have contributed elements in their population. The earliest Jean, etc. The best Dutch writers have produced much progres- is dark, short, with wavy hair, broad noses and long heads, so sive work, and after Van Embden (the ancient authority) should that some have detected affinities with Negroids. This stock, be mentioned the modern treatises of Broekkamp, De Haas and represented by Kadirs and Kurumbas, is akin to the Veddas and Battefeld, Springer and De Jongh. The Polish game is served by to Australian peoples and to the Semang and Sakai (see FURTHER Asta). Other elements are physically distinct and we have in no less than four monthly magazines. The German game is the Polish game on the smaller (8x8) the Nambutiri Brahmans the purest Aryan stock. The range of board, and does not call for much special comment. The treatises culture is equally wide. The Dravidians occupy the oldest geoof J. Dufresne and H. Credner may be referred to, but neither is logical formation in India, the medley of forest-clad ranges, tervery modern. This game, by the way, has some minor vogue in raced plateaux, and undulating plains, from the Vindhyas to Cape Comorin, and among them we find the construction of dolmens, the United States. The Russian game is also minor Polish, with two important dif- the use of the boomerang, kinship in the female line, totemism ferences. The choice which may be exercised in capturing is free, and many primitive usages. But in the same are found a high i.e., is identical with the English rule. A man on reaching the back degree of civilization, with a remarkable literature and evidence rank in capturing is promoted on touching the crowņping square of artistic skill. E. Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India, i. (exhaustive inand immediately functions as a King, continuing that play as a King. “Shashki,” as it is called, is immensely popular in Russia, troduction), 1909; Cambridge History of India vol. 1. (1923); R. D. Dixon, Racial History of Mankind (1921). and has a fairly good body of literature and a monthly magazine published in Moscow. DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGES, the name given to a colIn Canada the Montreal or Quebec game is the favourite of the lection of Indian languages comprising all the principal forms of French-speaking people, who refer to it as “Le Jeu Canadien.” It speech of Southern India (Sanskrit Dravida). Their territory, is a major form of the Polish game, with identical rules, played which includes the northern half of Ceylon, extends northwards on a 12x12 board with 72 playing squares and 30 men aside. This up to an irregular line drawn from a point on the Arabian sea game is also practised in the New England States of the U.S.A. by about 100m. below Goa along the Western Ghats as far as the French community. Two Montreal newspapers, La Presse and Kolhapur, thence north-east through Hyderabad, and farther eastLa Patrie publish three or four columns weekly devoted to it, and wards to the Bay of Bengal. Farther to the north, Dravidian include problems and games as well as news. Roby’s Manuel is a dialects are spoken by small tribes in the Central Provinces and current authority which should be mentioned. Chota Nagpur, and up to the banks of the Ganges in the RajThe Turkish game is different from all other varieties in that the mahal hills. A Dravidian dialect is, finally, spoken by the Brahiis moves of the men are played laterally and forward (but not back- of Baluchistan in the far north-west. ward) in a straight direction instead of diagonally and thus all the Classification.—Tamil and Malayalam can be considered as 64 squares are used in play. The opposing men, 16 to a side, to two dialects of one and the same language, which is, in its turn, commence, are ranged on the second and third ranks, the back and closely related to Kanarese. Tulu, Kodagu, Toda, and Kota lie two middle ranks being vacant. The takes operate in the same between Tamil-Malayalam and Kanarese, though more nearly way as the moves, 3.e., forward or sideways. The maximum take related to the latter than to the former. The same is the case is compulsory and the pieces are removed one by one as captured. with Kurukh and Malto, while Kui and Gondi gradually approach The King has a sweep of any number of squares. This game is Telugu, which latter language seems to have branched off from practised in the North of Africa, Stamboul and the Levant, but its the common stock at an early date. Finally, the Brahui dialect literature is practically negligible, although some highly interesting of Baluchistan has been so much influenced by other languages mss. are in existence. that it is no longer a pure Dravidian form of speech. The Losing game (in English or foreign forms) is a reversal of The Dravidian languages are gradually losing ground in the the ordinary rules, as the name implies. north, where they meet with Aryan forms of speech. This process BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J. A. Kear (the Elder), Sturges’ Guide to the Game has been going on from time immemorial, but it is still possible of Draughts, and ed. rev. (1899) ; F. Dunne, Draughts Praxis (1912); to trace a Dravidian element in the Aryan languages of North J. Alexander, The Encyclopaedia of Draughts, and ed. (ed. f. A. Kear, 1916-19) ; J. Lees, Lees’ Guide to the Game of Draughts (1924) ; India. The Dravidian languages form an isolated group, and it has not M. F. Tescheleit, Master Play of the Draught Board, Pt. 2 (1926); J. Gould, The Game of Draughts. Problems, etc. (1927), and The been possible to prove a connection with any other family of lanCame K —— Historic and Memorable Matches from ... 1847. guages. Such attempts have been made with reference to the 4 . (1927). Munda family, the Tibeto-Burman languages, the Ural-Altaic lanDRAUPADI, in Hindu legend daughter of Drupada, king guages, and the dialects spoken by the aborigines of the Australian

DRAWBACK

625

continent. The arguments adduced have not, however, proved to be sufficient. The Dravidian family has several characteristic features of its own. The phonetic systems of the smaller dialects deserve close study and analysis. In general the pronunciation is soft and mellifiuous. 3 Main Features—In Dravidian words a line above a vowel shows that it is long. The dotted consonants f¢, ¢, and # are pronounced by striking the tip of the tongue against the centre of the hard palate. The dotted / is distinguished from / in a similar way. Its sound, however, differs in the different districts.

or else by adding words meaning male, female, respectively, to the name of the animal—processes which do not, strictly speaking, fall under the head of grammar.

A Greek x marks the sound of ch in “loch”; 5 is the English sh;

vitt-dl, “from a house.” The case terminations are the same in the singular and in the plural. The genitive, which precedes the governing noun, is often identical with the oblique base, or else it is formed by adding suffixes. The numeral system is decimal and higher numbers are counted in tens; thus Tamil pattu, “ten”; iru-badu, “‘two-tens,” “twenty.” The personal pronoun of the first person in most dialects has a double form in the plural, one including and the other excluding the person addressed. Thus, Tamil näm, “we,” i.e., I and you;

c the ch in “church”; and ri is an r which is used as a vowel. Abruptness and hard combinations of sounds are avoided. There is a distinct tendency to avoid pronouncing a short consonant at the end of a word, a very short vowel being often added after it. Thus the pronoun of the third person singular, which is avan, ‘he,” in Tamil, is pronounced avanu in Kanarese; the Sanskrit word väk, “speech,” is borrowed in the form vāku in Tamil; the word gurram, “horse,” is commonly pronounced gurramu in Telugu, and so on. Combinations of consonants are further avoided in many

cases. This tendency is illustrated by the changes undergone by some borrowed words. Thus the Sanskrit word brdhmana, “a Brahman,” becomes bardmana in Kanarese and pirdmena in Tamil; the Sanskrit Dramida, “Dravidian,” is borrowed by Tamil under the form Tirdmida. Dramida which also occurs as Dravida is in its turn developed from an older Damija which is identical with the word Tamir, Tamil. The forms pirémana and Tirdmida in Tamil illustrate another feature of Dravidian enunciation. There is a tendency in all of them, and in Tamil and Malayalam it has become a law, against any word being permitted to begin with a stopped voice consonant (g,j.d,d,b), the corresponding voiceless sounds (k,c,t,t,p, respectively) being substituted. In the middle of a word or compound on the other hand, every consonant must be voiced. Thus the Sanskrit word danta, ‘‘tooth,” has been borrowed by Tamil in the form tandam, and the Telugu anna, “elder brother,” tammulu, “younger brother,” become when compounded annadammulu, “elder and younger brothers.” There is no strongly marked accent on any one syllable, though there is a slight stress upon the first one. In some dialects this equilibrium between the different parts of a word is accompanied by a tendency to approach to each other the sound of vowels in consecutive syllables. This tendency, which has been called the “law of harmonic sequence,” is most apparent in Telugu, where the short x of certain suffixes is replaced by į when the preceding syllable contains one of the vowels 4 (short and long) and ei. Compare the dative suffix ku, ki, in gurramu-ku, ‘to a horse”; but tammuni-ki “to a younger brother.” This tendency does not, however, play a prominent role in the Dravidian languages. Words are formed from roots and bases by means of suffixed formative additions. The root itself generally remains unchanged throughout. Thus from the Tamil base per, “great,” we can form

adjectives such as per-iya and per-um, “great”; verbs such as per-u-gu, “to become increased”; per-u-kku “to cause to increase,” and so on. Many bases can be used at will as nouns, as adjectives, and as verbs. Thus the Tamil kadu can mean “sharpness,” “sharp,” and “to be sharp.”

Other bases are, of course, more

restricted in

their respective spheres. The inflexion of words is effected by agglutination; ż.e., various additions are sufħxed to the base in order to form what we would call cases and tenses. Such additions probably once were separate words. Most of them are, however, now only used as suffixes. Thus from the Tamil base kôn, “king,” we can form an accusative kon-ei, a verb kén-en, “I am king,” and so on. Dravidian nouns are divided into two classes, which Tamil grammarians called high-caste and casteless respectively. The former includes those nouns which denote beings endowed with reason, the latter all others. Gender is only distinguished in the former class, while all casteless nouns are neuter. The gender of animals (which are irrational) must accordingly be distinguished by using different words for the male and the female,

There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. The latter is formed by adding suffixes. It, however, often remains unmarked in the case of casteless nouns. ` Cases are formed by adding postpositions and suffixes, usually to a modified form of the noun which is commonly called the oblique base. Thus we have the Tamil maram, “tree,” maratt-dl, “from

a tree’;

maratt-u-kku,

“to a tree,” vidu, “a house”;

nangal, ‘we,’ i.e., I and they.

There is no relative pronoun. Relative clauses are effected by using relative participles. Thus in Telugu the sentence “the book which you gave to me" must be translated miru nāku iccina pustakamu,

ie., “you

such participles in use.

me-to

given

book.”

There

are

several

Thus from the Telugu verb koffa “to

strike,” are formed kott ut-unna, “that strikes,” koftti-t-na, “that struck,” kotte, ‘that would strike,” “that usually strikes.” By adding pronouns, or the terminations of pronouns, to such forms, nouns are derived which denote the person who performs the action. Thus from Telugu kofte and vddu, “he,” is formed kofte vädu, “one who usually strikes.” Such forms are used as ordinary verbs, and the usual verbal forms of Dravidian languages can broadly be described as such nouns of agency. Thus, the Telugu kottinadu, “he struck,” can be translated literally “a striker in the past.” Verbal tenses distinguish the person and number of the subject

by adding abbreviated forms of the personal pronouns.

Thus

in Kanarcse we have mddid-enu, “I did,” mddid-i, “thou didst,” magid-evu, “we did”; mddid-aru, “they did.” One of the most characteristic features of the Dravidian verb is the separate negative conjugation. It usually has only one tense and is formed by adding the personal terminations to a negative base. Thus, Kanarese mdd-enu, “I did not,” mdd-evu, “we did not”; mdd-aru, “they did not.” | The vocabulary has adopted numerous Aryan loan-words. This was a necessary consequence of the early connection with the superior Aryan civilization. The oldest Dravidian literature is largely indebted to the Aryans, though it goes back to a very early date. Tamil, Malayalam, Kanarese, and Telugu are the principal literary languages. The language of literature in all of them differs considerably from the colloquial. The oldest known specimen of a Dravidian language occurs in a Greek play which is preserved in a papyrus of the 2nd century a.p. The exact period to which the indigenous literature can be traced back, on the other hand, has not been fixed with certainty. BisiiocraPny.—Bishop R. Caldwell, A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages (1856; 2nd edit., 1875); G. A. Grierson, Linguistic Survey of India, vol. iv. ‘Munda and Dravidian Languages” (Calcutta, 1906), pp. 277 and ff. by Sten Konow. M. K. V. Subbaya, Indian Antiquary (1909-11), Primer of Dravidian Phonology and Comparative —— of Dravidian languages; A. Meillet and M. Cohen, Les Langues du Monde (1924); Dravidic Studies (University of Madras) from 1919; W. Schmidt, Die Sprachfamilien und die Sprachenkreise der Erde (1927).

DRAWBACK, the repayment of a duty, previously exacted, when excisable goods are exported or foreign goods re-exported. The object of a drawback is to enable commodities which are subject to taxation to be exported and sold in a foreign country on the same terms as goods from countries where they are untaxed. It differs from a bounty in that the latter enables com-

modities to be sold abroad at less than their cost price; under certain conditions, however, the giving of a drawback

has an

ai

peo

ʻ

bay

*

A

a

“DRAWING

7 1

z

N

O

es equivalent to that of a bounty. The earlier tarifis contained. ality of the artist. Dae a elaborate tables of the drawbacks allowed on the exportation or line better than another as why you dike one friend better thai re-exportation of commodities, but so far as the United Kingdom — nevertheless, there isnodoubtof yourpreference in th is concerned the system of “bonded warehouses” practically abol| ma ished drawbacks, as commodities can be warehoused (placed “in — this beauty of abstract line we find the age-old neces bond”) until required for subsequent exportation. WareHousE; and cf. REBATE.)

DRAWING,

(See Bonpep

the art of delineation or of portrayal by means

of lines, is so primitive that its history is practically that of man. That it was practised 50,000 years ago we know but for how long before that, it is difficult to establish. Its beginnings, however, must have been early, for one of the first things a child will busy its hands with is the making of marks in the dirt, and the walls of many a schoolhouse or home stand as mute witnesses to the inherent tendency of man to draw. It is a deep-rooted instinct whose satisfaction gives great pleasure. Early Art—In the beginning the primitive mind with its usual groping for essentials was satisfied with simple structural lines and, at times, outlines of those objects wherein the structure was less evident. The cave-man drew his pictures of men just as the child does—with the inverted Y i for the body and legs, a cross-

piece for the arms and a circle Fie, 1.—CHILD'S DRAWING SHOW-

for the head, part of his drawing ING NATURAL DEVELOPMENT OF showing structure and part out- MOTION line. The first of these drawings of the child are always without

consideration of motion but it does not take long before, with the addition of feet, the figure is walking and soon the arms are brought to the front. Thus we see the early beginnings of the three elements which are essential to all drawing, if it is to please man who has for thousands of generations and from childhood up been trained to expect them: structure, outline and motion. (See fig. 1.) In order to draw the human figure successfully the artist must first learn about its bony structure. He must master the knowledge of the lengths of the various units and of their possibilities for movement (see DrawInc: Anatomy). But his work does not cease in this study of structure. Trees spread their branches in certain characteristic ways each of which is slightly different, and in fact each type of leaf has its own anatomy as has every animal, bird and flower. Rocks must be closely examined and their origin understood or they cannot be given the proper structure. The artist cannot slight this work or his drawing will be unconvincing. He must spend much time in finding out how things were put together or how they grew and why. In speaking of outline we should think first of line itself. It has been contended that “It cannot be reasonably held that one purely abstract line or curve is more beautiful than another, for the simple reason that people have no common ground upon which to establish the nature of abstract beauty.” This is, of course, false, for if there were no common ground in truth there would be very little incentive to draw

other than as a simple record. But to put into words just what this beauty consists of, is a difficult task. Fig. 2 illustrates two lines. It will be agreed that one is more Fie.

sity for outlining objects, and when asked to describe a ‘thing our minds at once turn to its shape. Its consistency, its struc ture, its movement are all often secondary unless

FIG. 3.—DIAGRAM SHOWING (A) DEFICIENCY OF OUTLINE ALONE (B) NECESSITY FOR STRUCTURE IN ORDER TO MAKE FORM UNDERSTANDABLE r

e

themselves strongly. The artist has only his eyes to help him in this work but a knowledge of what lies within is also an aid to him.

The author on drawing makes use of an interesting illustration

given herewith, to show how hard it often is to guess the shape of an object by its silhouette alone. (See fig. 3). As soon as the three lines are added which indicate its structure it is obvious in shape. It is sometimes possible to erect an imaginary structure which is of help and artists often resort to this means. For instance, in the drawing of a vase as illustrated herewith the straight lines might be sketched in lightly and would be of some assistance in judging both curves and proportions. In other words a sort of scaffolding is first erected and then the outline drawn upon it. After a little practice the scaffolding need not be drawn for the artist can visualize it without the aid of actual lines. Another help

FIG. 4.—-TWO REPRESENTATIONS OF THE SAME STATUE ILLUSTRATING TNE VALUE OF A SILNOUETTED FIGURE (LEFT) OVER A STRAIGHT RENDERING (RIGHT) IN OBSERVING FORM

2.—LINES

WHICH.

beautiful than the other. One has a sure- ARE ESSENTIALLY BEAU-

in drawing the silhouette of an objectis to reverse the idea and look at the silhouette of the background instead This process is

ness and sensitive taper while the other ")’Ut AND UNSEAUTIFOL | often employed by sculptors in their work and is undoubtedly of wanders in a hesitant and aimless manner without object, without

character. Perhaps that is it. Perhaps a line can have character and therefore can show those beauties and weaknesses which we see in the characters of our fellows. This is undoubtedly possible, for no two men can draw a line exactly alike and certainly into the lines of each must creep something of the man himself (see TECHNIQUE In Ant). Therefore, beauty of line does exist but is difficult to analyae,;as it is dependent upon the person-

some assistance to them. But all of these are simply suggested aids to seeing, * it takes practice tg,be able to draw what one

sees.

(See fig.

dhe

"alu

DRAWING

FROM

BRIDGMAN.

“CONSTRUCTIVE

PLATE I

ANATOMY”

DRAWINGS

OF THE

FIGURE

IN MOVEMENT

Upper left. Unchanging masses of the head, torso and pelvis, to be conceived

as blocks, and the turning or twisting of these blocks of masses Upper right. Blocked movements of the figure, showing tilting of the masses

AND

STUDIES

OF

THE

HAND

Lower Jeft. Studies of the hand on the wrist Indicating power or force Lower right. Studies of the hand showing rhythm

Prater II

FROM

BRIDGMAN,

DRAWING

"CONSTRUCTIVE

ANATOMY"

MECHANISM OF ARM AND FINGER JOINTS AND DIAGRAM OF THE BACK OF THE NECK Upper left. Mechanism of finger joints and knuckles. Upper right. Wooden device used to Illustrate the crossing of radius over uina. (1) Humerus, armbone. (2) Ulna, forearm,

little finger side.

(3)

Radius, forearm, thumb

side.

Lower left.

627 to the fact that these works give some idea of the man himself. There is also the medium used, be it drypoint, graphite, etching, lithograph, crayon or brush, and each medium has advantages and disadvantages. The drypoint line is strong and delicate without much flexibility but with a burr which is distinctive. The etched line has a sure clean-cut quality, but neither admit the soft shading possible with the pencil and the crayon or the flexibility of the brush. Fhe appropriateness of the medium and its adaptation to the subject expressed are considerations often neglected, for artists sometimes become used to one medium alone and never find out the possibilities of the others. Finally there are the mood and character of the subject to be expressed. line showing its motion, and he feels that an animal is “not him- The woodlands which Corot chose to paint seemed to be a part self” in a drawing, if not shown in typical movement. of an enchanted world. The jagged rocks crashing into heaven Composition Closely related to these three fundamental which Li Lung Mien so deftly rendered with his brush are like requirements in good drawing is a fourth which came into the con- flames crackling against the sky. These artists added much of sciousness of man undoubtedly at a later date, but thousands of their own imagination to what already existed; but it is neveryears ago, that is, composition. No doubt the first artists drew theless necessary to have something to start with, and without without any consideration of a boundary or limitation to their having seen the elms of France Corot would have found it difficult as would Li Lung Mien without the rough mountains of work, but at some time in the dim past, in the decoration of — na. a clay vase or some other object, a discovery was made that Good taste is the perfect fusion of the personality of the artist the design was related to the space in which it was executed. Slowly through thousands of years drawings were developed through long years of practice into a skilful wielding of the tool, which seemed to be a part of the structure of the limitations or which in turn expresses the vital and inner meaning of the object borders themselves; outlines were so related that the eye of the

portrayed with all due attention to its structure, its typical sil-

houette and motion, with appropriate and reasonable composition. When a thing is drawn in good taste one can see what the artist felt while drawing and what his reactions were to the subject shown. Each. mark on the paper not only tells how he felt and what his mood was, but what he saw in the mood of the subject. If his subject be a gladiator he may haye felt the glory of battle, the vigorous strength, the cruel beauty of the contest; or on the other hand he may have felt the pity and pathos of the inevitable destruction of so beautiful a body. In the one case his strokes would be sharp and vigorous; in the other heavy and dull. Moreover the composition, structure and movement would also reflect both the artist's feelings and those of the subject; both the artist’s soul and that of the subject for it is only in this dual — finely balanced that we ever find the really great works of art. Some artists fail in good taste because they are so self-centred more meaning than have those proportions which the eye does not that they portray everything with too much of themselves and understand. Rhythmical or parallel movements are interesting too little of the subject in the work. Others fail because they methods of accenting what seem to be the most typical lines are so weak that they attempt a totally different treatment for and are often used. Perfect symmetry is tiring. It is as each subject and have nothing to say about any. A drawing may though one were to sit upright in a chair for a long time. The also be in good taste in its expression of line, in its balance of the balance should then be thrown to a greater or lesser degree subjective and objective, but fail because the composition has away from the centre to indicate the movement of the picture and not been studied to express this condition and is therefore not give it ease. The story is told of a famous artist in Japan who appropriate. Drawing is like music: it has tempo, key, pitch was asked to paint a screen for the —— showing crows in and many other elements, all of which, when perfectly handled flight. He at length painted one crow just di ring off of the by a master, make for beauty; but which, in the hands of one fourth panel, leaving the other three unto Thus composi- untrained or unfeeling, may prove terrible pitfalls. Three Dimensions.—In this discussion nothing has been said tion helped the movement of the drawing, and the finished work of the attempt to portray three dimensions on a two dimensional is famous. | If these four simple laws of drawing are observed, it is possible surface (see Perspective). It is the consensus of opinion that a that the finished work will be excellent, but, if any one be omitted, work of fine drawing can be just as great in two as in three this is impossible. Man has for so long learned to observe struc- dimensions. Nay, it has often been pointed out that drawing ture, outline, movement and composition that the most casual is fundamentally two dimensional art and that the introduction observer feels a lack, if the work does not show them all. Good of the third dimension savours of trickeries, and either builds odelling, perspective and all other considerations ,can be neg- lumps on the two dimensional surface or pushes holes into it. However, since the discovery of perspective, such superb trickery lected, and yet though there is no doubt that these do add toits appeal. But is it that a great vogue for its use has sprung up, and in the these four elements donot in themselves make a great work of art development of realistic painting which found its apex in the eee a a Seen early 19th century much was done to make man expect the third dimension in drawing. Others, led perhaps by Cézanne, have In considering taste it is first necessary to attempted to give an even greater feeling of solidity to objects p or any outstanding by the use of exaggeration and distortion. This is all interesting a ee or or his style is a great and may, in thousands of years to come, grow so into the consciousness of man that children drawing in the sand with a stick will spontaneous ly depict the third dimension, but at present it | is a comparatively new development and has not yet penetrated deeply enough to make it one of the fundamental requisites. A observer was held within the limited area and led from one important detail to another, and it was found that movement was somewhat assisted by the proper placing of figures in the surrounding border. Much has been written about composition. The Far Eastern artist is perhaps its greatest master. After observing carefully the object to be drawn, he sits and looks at the piece of silk or paper upon which he is to work and plans where he is to place the main features. He does not start at once to sketch as do many of our western artists, for he has found that once the pencil or brush is touched to paper one’s ideas crystallize and it is difficult to get away from the slightest commitment. It is, therefore, much better to keep the mind at first in a fluid state so that the final arrangement can be unhampered and things can take their proper relationship. Simple proportions in composition are easy to grasp and have

628

DRAWING

work of art can be a masterpiece if drawn in only two dimensions and does not gain an appreciable aesthetic advantage, if drawn in ree. The Teaching of Drawing.—Owing to a faulty understanding of terms and a general misunderstanding of the underlying principles of art there has been a great effort in the last generation to teach “originality” and individual expression in all the arts. One might as well try to teach character or soul. These are things which grow through the years and which cannot be taught. The result is a chaotic condition hampered by the belief that artists are born, and that they express their “gift” suddenly and without the work which a careful study of the lives of all great masters proves to be necessary. Some schools do not feel it is necessary to teach the pupils the fundamentals of art, so cautious are they in the foolish effort to protect their pupils’ freedom. Therefore it seems necessary to consider the sane and proper method which should be followed in the instruction of others or of self. First of all, become friendly with a ruler. A large part of the artist’s work consists in measuring with the eye, and it is imperative that the eye be trained to accuracy. Only by judging distances and proportions and then checking one’s judgment by measurement can this accuracy be obtained. A good plan for the beginner is to purchase a drawing board, T square, triangles, compasses and pair of medium size calipers. With these instruments an attempt should be made to draw vases of simple form so that the eye may be trained to see curves and proportions. For example (see fig. 5) after the piece of paper is fixed to the board with thumb-tacks (drawing pins) so that its lower edge is in line with the T square when pressed in place at the left side of the board, a line is drawn near the bottom to act as base line

training and much hard though interesting work that real efficies can be accomplished, but new beauties ‘will reward the stud at every turn as he begins to train his eye to see. There is ti enough later to try certain distortions or caricatures of the to gain points which it is wished to stress. These dist tions must be upon correct drawing, or they will not convincing. During this training the student should constan observe masterpieces of various kinds, and remember that mast pieces are not only paintings which hang in museums but vas sculpture, furniture and all of the thousand and one other thi: which show the touch of real art. The East should be studi as well as the West and every thing which especially appe should be copied; for it will be found that one sees into a thi much more, if it is actually copied, than one can by any amot of mere looking at it. Through all of this study, the princip which were first pointed out should be kept in mind and attempt should be made at all times to incorporate them in t actual work as it goes along. (W. E. Cx.) —

WING, ANATOMICAL.

The study of the anator

of the human body is approached by the artist and the anatom from different points of view. The former, by a process of artis!

selection, seeks the ideal and adopts the proportions which gi the most pleasing effect, while the latter desires to know only t mean, or average, of a large series of measurements. PARATIVE ANATOMY.)

(See Co:

ARTISTIC ANATOMY The representation of the anatomical form of man as appli to the Graphic Arts may be called Artistic Anatomy. This for

of illustration may be divided into three groups: (1) The sch matic, (2) That which represents the subject exactly, (3) TI to the diameter of the base. This line is then divided in half and ideal conception or the ideal figure, constructed from the me: a perpendicular is erected at its centre, upon which the height proportion of several types. The schematic drawing is one which represents in outline tl of the vase is laid off; at this point another horizontal line is drawn, upon which is laid off the diameter of the lip centred main characteristics of the object. It may be drawn with litt immediately above the base. The ruler is then stood perpendicular or no regard as to the exact knowledge ef the form. It has bee to the table upon which the vase stands and moved until it of use in setting forth certain physiologic principles by the gener touches the side of the vase at a point where it is widest, and form and location of the organs of the body, and especially use another horizontal line is drawn with the T square, the same dis- in post-mortem and zoqtomic comparisons. The true drawings occur particularly in pathologic anatom: tance from the base line as this point is from the table. With the where various and unknown forms are sought and where certai calipers this widest diameter is organs have to be shown in the individual, as in the case of huma found and it is laid off on this embryology and comparative anatomy. | line. Similar measurements are The representation of the ideal is the only form suitable fc taken of the narrowest diameters teaching—and the very development of this figuration corresponc and of their height from the and upon this line a portion is measured off with a ruler, equal

with the growth of the science of anatomy in all its periods. Th

table, and finally the curves are

type: of drawing presupposes a vast amount of previous stud of the human figure. It cannot come out of a period in which th artistic development overshadows that of the science of anatom This vague feeling for beauty, with a corresponding neglect c the real, was evidenced in an early period of anatomical illustra tion, when conditions favoured an artistic point of view, as wa the case in the first half of the 16th century. This, howeve!

drawn in, touching those curves which have been established. It will be surprising to the beginner to find how accurate his

first drawing is, if done in this manner. It will also be surprising to find how quickly he can grasp the amount of concavity or convexity of a curve no matter

changed as the cold scientific and extensive dissection was prac

tised during the 17th and 18th centuries. It is only the combina

in what position it may occur;

and to grasp its changes into another curve after he has drawn a number of vases. He will begin FIG. 5.—DRAWING OF VASE SHOW. to see where one curve becomes ING METHOD OF TAKING MEASUREMENTS more abrupt and another more gentle in its course. Looking back upon his first drawing, he will see all the slight delicacies of line which he missed, and will begin to appreciate the fine innuendoes the potter had put into the vase, which had at first completely escaped his eye. The modernist may criticize this method and say that it will make the student a slave to the ruler. This is not true, for as time goes on the student needs fewer and fewer actual measurements, until at length he can draw a vase on any scale accurately. It is then time to attempt more complicated forms and these too should be measured at first. The greatest sculptors d

entirely trust their eyes for this work, and it is only

tion of these two tendencies which can satisfactorily serve th advanced science of anatomy and the modern art of drawing bringing to perfection through exactness of detail and ceaseles observation a comprehension of beauty in the entire figure. In artistic anatomy, nothing else is of value to the artist bu the idealized drawing. The more he eliminates unessential, th

better; the keener his eye for the unnecessary, the bigger hi vision of the true needs of the artist. The unnecessary is harm ful, and the artist’s presentation of too much anatomy makes o him a professional anatomist. Of immediate necessity is the stud)

of the antique, or the older plaster models of Greek figures, fo:

in drawing the nude the young artist visualizes the actual healthy form in all its fulness of life and movement, thus adding an ele ment which can never be supplied by purely anatomic delineation The development of artistic anatomy was not of outstanding

by W%mg | consequence before the 16tl century. Onlya few anatomical en-

DRAWING

FROM

BRIDGMAN,

“CONSTRUCTIVE

ANATOMY”

STUDIES

IN CONSTRUCTION

OF THE

Upper left. Blocked construction of the head Upper right. Heads seen in different perspectives VII. 628

PLATE ITT

HEAD,

EYE,

NOSE

AND

MOUTH

Lower left. Construction of the eye Lower right. Construction of the mouth

PLATE IV

FROM

BRIDGMAN,

DR AWING

“CONSTRUCTIVE

ANATOMY”

DRAWINGS ILLUSTRATING THE MECHANISM OF MOVEMENT Upper left. Back of hand, showing movement of the hand on the wrist. Upper right. The muscles of the arm and forearm: (1) Coraco-brachialis, (2) Biceps, (3) Brachialis anticus, (4) Pronater radii teres, (5) Flexors grouped, (6) Supinator longus. Lower left. Flexing ef leg on thigh. Lower right. Comparative movements of hands and feet

629

—

ws of architecture, as in the dome of the foot, the pillars of the legs, etc.; ics, such as the hinges of the elbows, the Ligaments constitute the retaining or and express other laws of mechanics. Muscles action by their contraction or shortening and are ex-

In | pressed in the laws of dynamics and power, as well as the laws view ofthis,artisticanatomymaybedivided intothefollowing of leverage. In giving herewith only an outline of the construction of the To the 16th Century.—Anatomical drawings of the Classic main parts of the body, the author presupposes a rudimentary Period and the Middle Ages were known, and even mentioned by knowledge of drawing, on the part of the student, and offers the Aristotle, but so few have come to us for study that the subject following, in connection with the illustrations only as a further | guide in studying the elements of anatomy and becoming more cannot be adequately covered. Before the time of B commonly called Berenger of Carpi, about 1521, most of the adept in the art of drawing. The Hand.—In drawing the hand the artist must realize that, attempts were schematic drawings for medical observation, artistic anatomy remaining in the background as a private study and

depending largely upon professional anatomists for its development.

The 16th Century-——Although the name Berengario belongs only to the annals of medicine and will be remembered as the most zealous and eminent in cultivating the anatomy of the human body, it was his day, and that of Vesalius (1514-64), that marked the beginning of the attempt to free the anatomical drawing from schematic and arbitrary features and recognized its place in art. This artistic anatomy, was promoted by both artist and anatomist for the sole purpose of instruction. It was during this period that the Italian School of Anatomy reached its height of interest in the woodcut; it was during this period that sculpture and painting adopted proportions of the human body never before developed» it was during this period that Michelangelo lived. Other 16th century artists who contributed to the study of anatomical figures were Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Titian and Diirer. The 17th Century—aA comparative study of the antique,a clinging to Vesalian patterns, and the advent of independent publications on artistic anatomy mark the development of the study in the 17th century. A closer training in details and an effort toward the artistically perfect reproduction may also be included. 18th-19th Century—Albinus (1697-1770) was one of the

most famous teachers of anatomy in Europe, his classroom at the Leyden School of Anatomy being frequented not only by students but by many practising physicians. The Leyden school exerted untold influence in creating a greater exactness in all de-

tails. The styles of both Vesalius and Albinus were used as patterns in anatomical drawing, many independent attempts proving unsuccessful. About 1778 combinations of utmost anatomic truths with artistically beautiful reproductions were brought out. The adoption of the steel engraving, lithography, the daguerreotype, as well as the revival of the woodcut in an improved form, meant an advance in the art; the exclusive use of the Albinian patterns gave rise to a greater independence. In fact, 1778 may be given as the beginning

of the period in which the most valuable material on artistic anatomy was produced. Modern scientific medicine had gained

its stride and was already moving swiftly toward the goal of a well-organized body of real knowledge capable of continuous

growth. And this development may be shown in the bibliographic

list as given below, the chain running from the first half of the

18th century to the present day. This bibliographic account gives the distinctive examples of anatomic illustration, including the modern work in both the technical and the artistic.

TECHNIQUE For the young student of anatomy as applied to art the simple drawing is the most effective in learning to construct the buman figure. The eye must follow a line or a plane or a mass, which in construction becomes a moving line, a moving plane, a moving mass. But the mental construction must precede the physical, „And in this the concept of mass must come first, that of the plane second, that of line last.

Certain laws enterinto the functioning ofthevarious organs of the , just as pronounced as they are in controlling any. other . To the bones, for example, which make up the

as in the human figure, there is an action and inaction side, When the thumb side is the action side the little finger is the inaction side. The inaction construction line runs straight down the arm to the base of the little finger. The action construction line runs down the arm to the base of the thumb at the wrist, from there out to the middle of the joint, at the widest part of the hand; thence to the knuckle of the first finger, then to that of the second finger, and then joins the inaction line at the little finger. However, with the hand still prone, when it is drawn from the body the thumb side becomes the inaction side and is straight with the arm, while the little finger, corresponding previously to the thumb, is at almost right angles with it. The inaction construction line now runs straight to the middle joint of the thumb, while the action line runs to the wrist on the little finger side, thence to the first joint. The Fingers—Each of the four fingers has three bones. The middle finger is the longest and largest, because in the clasped hand it is opposite the thumb and with ‘it bears the chief burden. The little finger is the smallest and shortest and most freely movable for the opposite reason. The middle joint of each finger is the largest, and, like all the bones of the body, the bones of the finger are narrower in the shaft than at the ends. In the clenched fist it is the end of the bone of the hand that is exposed to make the knuckle. Each of the three joints moves about one right angle except the last, which moves slightly less. The movements of the joints are also limited to one plane, except the lower one, which has also a slight lateral movement, as shown when the fingers are spread. The Thumb.—The centre of all the activities of the fingers, the hand, and the forearm, is the thumb. The fingers, gathered together, form a corona around its tip. Spread out, they radiate from a common centre at its base; and a line connecting their tips forms a curve whose centre is the same point. This is true of the rows of joints also. The thumb has three joints, and its bones are heavier and its joints more rugged than those of the fingers. It is pyramidal at the base, narrow in the middle, pearshaped at the end. The ball faces to the front more than sideways. The thumb reaches to the middle joint of the first finger. The last segment bends sharply back, its joint having about one right angle of movement, and only in ome plane. The middle segment is square with rounded edges, smaller than the other two, with a small pad. Its joint is also limited to one plane. The basal segment is rounded and bulged on all sides. The joint of its base is a saddle joint, with the free and easy movement of onc in a

The Arm.—The forearm has two bones, lying side by side. One, the radius, is large at the wrist and the other, the ulna, is large at the elbow. Diagonally opposite the thumb, on the ulna, is a bump of bone which is the pivot for both the radius and also the thumb. Muscles must lie above the joint they move, so the muscles that bulge the forearm are mainly the flexors and extensors of the wrist and hand. The flexors and pronators form the inner mass at the elbow, the extensors and supinators form the outer mass, Both the above masses arise from the condyles of the humerus, which is the bone of the upper arm. The part of the humerus near the shoulder is rounded and enlarged, where it joins the

shoulder blade. The lower end is flattened out sideways to give

630

DRAWING

attachment to the ulna and radius, forming the condyles. The shaft itself is straight and nearly round, and is entirely covered with muscles except at the condyles. The Shoulder.—The deltoid muscle, triangular in shape, gives form to the shoulder. Just below the base is a ripple which marks the head of the arm bone. The masses of the shoulder, arm, forearm and hand do not join directly end to end with each other, but overlap and lie at various angles. They are joined bywedges and wedging movements. Constructing these masses first as blocks, we will have the mass of the shoulder, or deltoid muscle, with its long diameter sloping down and out, leveled off at the end; its broad side facing up and out; its narrow edge straight forward. The mass of the forearm overlaps the end of the arm on the outside by a wedge that rises a third of the way up the arm, reaches a broad apex at the broadest part of the forearm and tapers to the wrist, pointing always to the thumb; and on the inside by a wedge that rises back of the arm and points to the little finger. In the lower half of the forearm, the thin edge of the mass, toward the thumb, is made by a continuation of this wedge from the outside. In the back view of the arm, the mass of the shoulder sits across its top as in the front view. The Neck.—Curving slightly forward, the neck rises from the sloping platform of the shoulders. The strength of the neck is at the back of the head, this portion being somewhat flat and overhung by the base of the skull. The sternomastoid muscles descend from the bony prominences back of the ears to meet almost at the root of the neck, forming a triangle whose base is the canopy of the chin. In this triangle below is the thyroid gland, larger in women, and above it the angular cartilage of the larynx, or Adam’s apple, larger in men. The Head.—Both the oval and the cube have been used by artists as a basis for drawing the head, but the cube seems preferable in that the oval is too indefinite and offers no points for comparison, no basis for measurement, and the eye does not fix on any point in a curved line. The block not only carries the sense of mass, but provides a ground plan on which any form may be built, as well as its perspective and foreshortening. The element of bilateral symmetry enters the drawing of the head. A vertical line in the centre divides the head or the trunk into parts equal, opposite and complemental. The right eye is the counterpart of the left; the two halves of the nose are symmetrical; the limbs, except for changes of position, are nearly exact though reversed duplicates of each other. The cranium, the skeleton of the face, and the jaw constitute the masses of the head. Into the rounded mass of the cranium sets the narrower mass of the forehead bounded by the temples at the sides and by the brows below. From the lower outer corners of the forehead the wedge of the cheek bones begins, moves outward and downward until it just passes the curve of the cranium, then down and in, in a long sweep, to the corner of the chin.

in — — narrowed in raised in scorn, wrinkling the skin over The ears, the mouth, the lips,andthechin,all offervariations in construction, and it is through comparison with others that the art of drawing them can best be acquired. The Trunk.—The upper part of the body is built around a bony cage called the thorax, conical in shape, and flattened in front. The walls of this cage are the ribs, twelve on each side, fastening to the spine behind and to the sternum or breast bone in front. The first seven are called true ribs, the next three false, and the last two floating ribs. The masses of the torso are the chest, the abdomen or pelvis, and between them the epigastrum, the first two comparatively stable, the middle one quite movable. The shoulders are also movable, changing the lines of the first mass and bulging the pectoral muscles, but the mass itself changes little except the slight change in respiration. The mass of the abdomen is even more unchanging The Torso.—In profile the torso presents three masses: the chest, the waist and the abdomen. The mass of the chest is bounded above by the line of the collar bones; below, by a line following the cartilages of the ribs. This mass is widened by the expansion of the chest in breathing, and the shoulder moves freely over it, carrying the shoulder blade, collar bone and muscles. The back view of the torso presents numerous depressions and prominences, due to its bony structure and the crossing and recrossing of a number of thin layers of muscles, The outside layers manifest themselves only when in action, and for this reason the spine, the shoulder-blade, and the hip-bone are the landmarks of this region. The Lower Limbs.—The thigh, the leg, and the foot constitute the lower limb. The thigh bone is the longest and strongest bone of the body, and the mass of the thigh is inclined inward from hip to knee, and is slightly beveled toward the knee from front, back and outside. Below the knee is the shin bone, the ridge of which descends straight down the front of the leg, a sharp edge toward the outside, a flat surface toward the inside, which at the ankle bends in to become the inner ankle bone. The outer bone of the foreleg soon overlaid by a gracefully bulging muscular mass, emerges again to become the outer ankle bone. Two large muscles form the mass on the back of the leg. The Foot.—In action, the foot comes almost into straight line with the leg, but when settling upon the ground it bends to keep flat with the ground. A series of arches form the symmetry of the foot, the function of these arches being that of weight-bearing. The five arches of the foot converge on the heel, the toes being flying buttresses to them. The balls of the foot form a transverse arch. The inner arches of the foot are successively higher, forming half of a transverse arch whose completion is in the opposite foot. (See ANATOMY, COMPARATIVE; ILLUSTRATION; SCULPTURE.)

The two cheek bones together form the central mass of the face, in the middle of which rises the nose. The planes of the head are those of the forehead, sloping upward BIBLIOGRAPHY .——Francesco Bertinatti, Elementi di anatomia fsiand backward to become the cranium. The sides turn sharply to ologica applicati alle a arté figurative, Torino: P. Marietti, 1837, the plane of the temples. The plane of the face, divided by the i. v. 8. Atlas— fol. Richard Lewis ean, — of the Use of Artists, London: nose, is broken on each side by a line from the outer corner of the cheek bone to the centre of the upper lip, making two smaller H. Renshaw, 1841, 8. 47 pp., 10 p William Wetmore Storey (1810-95), The Proportion of the Human planes. The outer of these tends to become the plane of the jaw, Figure, According to a Cannon, for Practical Use. London: Chapman which is again divided, etc. The relations of these masses and & Hall, 1866, roy. 8. 4. Ty 63 pp., 7tab. planes is to the moulding of a head what architecture is to a house. Robert F uman TOR in Art and Anthropomeiry. M. 1883, They vary in proportion with each individual and now must be Cambri — Rimmer, King, — — Kegan, Paul, Trench and William Art nn carefully compared with a mental standard. Co., 1884. fol. 2 p. 1., 81 pl. The Eye.—Below the eyebrow, on the lid, are three planes, Julius Constantin Ernst Kollmann (x aye98) Pie Plastische Anatomie wedging into each other at different angles. The first is from the | des menschlichon Körpers, für Kints ae Kunst. : Veit und Comp., 1886, roy. 8. By the — bridge of the nose to the eye. The second is from the brow to the Ilustrated with lithographs from hand-drawings, photocheek bone, which is again divided into two smaller planes, one — from the nude, ethnic studies of — features — on sloping toward the root of the nose, the other directed toward ech etc. The text, like Hyrtl’s, is of un historic interest, and joining with the cheek bone. The lower lid is stable; it is the and des special chapters on the anatomy of infant, human rtions, and ethnic morph . Among the usedaxe upper lid that moves. It may be wrinkled and slightly lifted inties. ow, Rubenstein and other ward, bulging w the inner end of the lid. The cornea is alCuyer, Anatomie Artistique du Corps Humain. Planches ways curtained Sy the upper lid, in part. The immovable masses — B. Balliare et Fils, 1386, vii—208 17pl

af the foreba

nose and cheek bones form a strong setting for PeCharles orRacket A

E

TraiteST Anatomie, PAnthropolos

Prate V

DRAWING

AEPA

ANATOMICAL

STUDIES

1-6. Illustrate the method of applying the egg-shape to a profile by means

ELEMENTARY DRAWING 14—15. Show the construction of nose and eye

7-13.

17. Shows six stages in a single step illustrating balance i walking

of a square

Are variations controlled square

by the principle of the egg-shape and

FOR

A DREPY, +. RSEESOT.

16. Shows the proportional

18-22.

measurements

Illustrate distribution

of weight

of male and female forms

in figure at rest and

in action

.

É D.

} aux

Beaux- Arip. Paris: : Renogard,

eh:

* F

=

a

1886.

631

oe.

ae

Yi

human head should be drawn by means of the egg. With the pro-

ed by pen drawings (in black and white and | — G.L. Rothet.

beginner will discover that all types of heads, fat, thin and » may be drawn over the square chart with only minor variations in line. The baby and the gorilla are opposite extremes and _ formes -exterieures: mouvements. Paris: E. Plon, Nourrit etCle.ripe,fol.vi2 ieph present exceptions to the rule for placing the eye on the half-way — Physiologie A1 ue de FHommes en M point. 3895, 8. 6 The “Greek Ideal” divided the human figure into eight divisions, "Ps Richer (18o ), Nouvelle Anatomie Artistique du Corps each equal to one head in height; but actually it is seven and one ` Mumain, Paris: Plon. 1906. sm. 4 vi—=177 p. und Fehler der mensch- half heads high. The woman’s head is smaller, but the divisions ut. : W. Braumuller, 1891, 8. 1 p. 1, 151 pp. By of the body are in similar proportion. Note that in the figure of the professor of physiology at Vienna. A book of unusually attracti the man the shoulders are wider than the hips, and the woman’s and informing character, illustrated with 29 hips are wider than her shoulders. singular er by Herrmann Paar. English t Taking up these two figures in action, the young artist must Charles Roth, The Siudent’s Atlas of Artistic Anatomy. sa —— C. E. Fitzgerald. London: H. Grevel & Co., 3891, learn to look at the figure as a whole; he must consider the one line which expresses the motion he desires, and forget that the Arthur Theseus: A Handbook on Anatomy for Art Students. figure is made of arms and legs and torso. He must also consider Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1896. 8. A work of solid merit which has o

), Anatomie Artistione

reached its fourth edition. Illustrated with superb photographic plates of the nude, in brown tone, each plate having o a ma of underlying muscles, with legends. The male and female models were chosen not for excessive muscularity, but for all-round symmetry — proportion. Far and away, the best model treatise on the subject in

balance. The distribution of weight is directly over the feet, no

matter how heavy the load. Without carrying a weight, the chin of the figure is directly over the foot which aware the a ig P. H. St.

DRAWING, ENGINEERING,

the general term for the .

Carl Heinrich Stratz, Die Schinkeit des weiblichen Körpers, Stutt- drawing used in the industrial world by engineers and designers, gart, F. Enke, 1898. A treatise on artistic anatomy, based upon direct |mechanical, architectural, structural, etc., as the formula in which photography of le models. is expressed and recorded the ideas and information ‘necessary for Der Körper des Kindes. Für Eltern, Erzieher, Aertze und Künstler. the building of machines and structures. It is distinguished from Stuttgart: F. Enke, 1903, 8. eon” 2 pl. An admirable study

-

drawing as a fine art in that it is not pictorial representation but a complete graphical language in which exact and positive information is given regarding every detail of the structure or machine to be built. Since it describes the object as it actually is to be and does not show it in pictorial form as it would appear to the 72 pp. Illustrated with parti-coloured drawings and photographs. George McClelland. Anatomy in Its Relation to Art; an exposition eye it can be read and understood only by one trained in its use. of the bones and muscles of the human body, with especial reference When this language is written exactly and accurately it is done to their influence upon its actions and external forms. Philadelphia: with the aid of mathematical instruments and is called mechanical A. M. Slocum Co., 1900, 4. 142 pp., 41 1., 126 pl. Illustrated by drawing. When done freehand it is known as technical sketching. 338 original drawings and photographs made by the author. The drawings are mostly rude diagrammatic sketches. The photographs As it cannot be read aloud like a written language it must be interare elegant, well-selected album-pictures of the nude, many of them preted by forming a mental image of the subject represented, and duplicating the poses and thus demonstrating the excellent anatomy the engineer in reading a drawing that would appear to be only a of many antique and modern statues. complicated mass of lines has as clear a picture of the structure Robert J. Colenzo. Landmarks in Artistic Anatomy. London: Bailliere, Tindall and Cox, 1902, sm. 4. vi. (i-1)—s6 pp. 6 outlines pl. standing in space as if it were actually before him. Apart from Robert Wilson Shufeldt (1850). Studies of the Human Form, its practical utility, the value of teaching drawing in the schools for Artists, Sculptors and Scientists. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Co., is in the training of this constructive imagination, the perceptive 1908, roy. 8. xxxi.—664 pp. Illustrated by photographs of nude models. ability to think in three dimensions, to visualize quickly and accuSir Alfred D. Fripp and Ralph Thompson. Human Anatomy for rately, to build up a clear mental image, a training useful not only Art Students, with drawings by Innes Fripp and an paes on comparative anatomy by Harry Dixon. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippencott to professional designers but to all who may be interested in Co., 191r, 12. 296 pp. Contains 151 illustrations, among which are technical industries: 23 effective photographs from the nude. The basis of engineering drawing is orthographic projection, J=e Henry Vanderpool (1857-1911). The Human Figure, London, which may be defined as the method of representing the exact 1913, 8. ; Edwin George Lutz. Practical Art Anatomy. New York: Charles shape of an object by two or more views on planes at right angles Scribner’s Sons, 1918, 8. vii.—254 pp. Ilustrated with very rudimentary to each other, by dropping perpendiculars from the object to of surface anatomy of the female y in children, illustrated by photographs from the nude. James M. Dunlop. Anatomical Diagrams in the Use of Art Students, arranged with analytical notes, and with introductory preface by John Cleland. London: George Bell & Sons, 1899, roy. 8. 4P. Ls;

outline drawings by the author. rge B. Brids . Constructive Anatomy. Pelham, New York. Bridgman Publishers 1 gt Q-—213 . il. 400 bds. George B. B ridgman. The Book ofOne Hundred Hands. Pelham, New York. Bridgman Publishers 1921—172 pp. il. 400 bds. George B. Bridgman. Bridgman’s Life Drawing. Pelham, New York.

Bridgman Publishers 1924—172 pp. 2 il. 300 bds. Edward C. Bridgman; Geo. B. Bridgman (Pelham, er | E. C. Br.; G. B. Br.)

Elementary.——The young artist is primarily interested in making drawings of people, faces and particularly, profiles. A series of charts giving the simple and fundamental rules of proportion is show as apractical n means of starting him in this art. For the profile, a square is drawn and divided into four equal squares, and the eyes, nose, mouth, chin and ear are placed upon

the planes. There are two systems in use; the first and older is ; first angle projection, in which the object is assumed to be placed in the first quadrant of the four dihedral angles formed by the intersection of two reference planes called the co-ordinate planes or planes of projection, fig.

1 (cf. Descriptive GzoMETRY), | and its points projected to these planes, the horizontal plane (H) FiG. 1.—THE THEORETICAL PLANES OF PROJECTION, SHOWING THE then revolved to coincide with the FOUR ANGLES vertical plane (V), the two being represented by the plane of the drawing paper. A third or profile this chart as shown in the progressive illustrations. When the plane (P) perpendicular to the H and V planes is used for a head is complete, the student will discern the egg-shape, which third view if necessary. Fig. 2 shows an object in the first angle ishisfirst and constant principle, and which should bepractised and fig. 3 the resulting arrangement of views when the planes constantly until an egg can be drawn perfectly with one sweep of are opened. This is the system in present use in Great Britain the hand, rtions can soon be found on an egg-shape without and other European countries except the Netherlands. It was “the aid of a square. Next, the full face is attempted, following used in the United States until about 1890 when the industrial the same principles.of proportion. It will be observed that the works began to change to the newer system of third angle profive | jection which in a few years entirely replaced the former method.

i

Fhe two-thirds view and all other variations of the Itissignificant that this movement originated in ttshops instead

632

DRAWING

of in the colleges, after experiments with workmen demonstrated that they could read third angle drawings much more easily than those made in the first angle. Third angle, or, as it is called in Europe, Aeneas projection, assumes the object to be placed in the third quadrant of the co-ordinate planes, and the observer to be looking through the planes at the object, as shown in fig. 4. These planes when opened into one plane give an arrangement of views as in fig. 5. Thus the object may be thought of as surrounded by a glass box with its sides hinged to each other (fig. 6), the object projected to these sides and the box opened up into one plane. In both systems the projection on the front plane is known as the front view,

elevation or vertical projection, that on the top plane the top view, plan or horizontal projec-

FIG. 2.—AN OBJECT IN THE FIRST ANGLE, PROJECTED TO THE PLANES

tion, that on the side plane as the side view or end view, side or end elevation or profile projection. For a simple object two views are often sufficient, others may require three or more. Sometimes the left side view can be used to better advantage than the right side. In some cases the bottom view, and more rarely the back view will be required. Fig. 7 shows the box as it opens and indicates the positions of these different views. It is a growing practice in the United States to teach elementary projection drawing without reference to the planes of projection, by explaining that the problem is to represent a solid, with three dimensions, on a flat sheet

of paper having only two dimensions, in such a way as to tell its exact shape, and that this is done by drawing a system of “views” of the object as seen from different positions and arranging these views in a definite manner, each view showing two of the three dimensions. Taking, for example, the block shown in pic- FIG. 3.—POSITION OF VIEWS IN torial form in fig. 8, if the ob- FIRGT-ANGLE PROJECTION server imagine himself as in a position directly in front (theoretically at an infinite distance, practically at a reasonable seeing distance but imagining the rays of light from each point to his eye as parallel) its front view would appear as in fig. 9a. This view tells the length and height but not the width of the block nor the depth of the notch. Then let the observer change his position so as to look down from directly above the block. He will see the top view (fig. gb), giving the length and width, and the shape of the notch. It is neces— sary to have another view from the side in this case to show the shape of the triangular part. Fig. asada gc is the right side view. These J three views arranged in their natural position with the top view IU) directly above the front view — and the right side view to the right of the front view, completely describe the shape of the block. FiG. 4.—AN OBJECT IN THE THIRD Note that in the top and side ANGLE, PROJECTED TO THE PLANES views the front of the block always faces toward the front view. The argument for this teaching method is that the student visualizes the object itself without being confused in trying to visualize the projections. Its success is indicated in that some engineering schools are now teaching the whole subject of descriptive geometry without using the reference planes. `Ys ~`

`~ —2 —

~

— ewe ee ww

`~

`S

Reading a Drawing.—A line on a drawing always indicates either an intersection of two surfaces, as in the projection of a prism, or a contour, as in the projection of a cylinder (fig. 10), a visible edge being represented by a full line and an invisible one

by a “dotted” line, i.e., a line made up of short dashes. One cannot read a drawing by looking at one view. Each line on the view (except a contour line) denotes an abrupt change in direction, but the corresponding part of another view must be consulted to tell what the change is. For example, a circle on a front view might mean either a hole or a projecting boss. A glance at the side view or top view will tell immediately which it is. In reading a drawing one should first gain a general idea of the shape of the object by a rapid survey of all the views given, then should select for more careful study the FiG. 5.——POSITION OF VIEWS IN view that best shows the char- THIRD-ANGLE PROJECTION acteristic shape, and by referring back and forth to the adjacent views see what each line represents. In looking at any view one should always imagine that it is the object itself, not a flat projection of it, that is seen, and in glancing from one view to another the reader should imagine himself as moving around the object and looking at it from the direction the view was taken. Auxiliary Views.—A surface is shown in its true shape when projected on a plane parallel to it. In the majority of cases an object may be placed with its principal facesparalleltothethree

Fig. 6.—TRANSPARENT BOX, ILLUS-

reference planes and be fully TRATING THE THEORY OF THIRD. described by the regular views. ANGLE PROJECTION Sometimes however the object may have one or more inclined faces whose true shape it is desirable or necessary to show, especially if irregular in outline. This is done by making an auxiliary view looking straight against the surface, that is, imagining a projection on an extra or auxiliary plane parallel to the inclined

FiG. 7.—THE BOX PARTLY OPENED INTO THE PLANE OF THE PAPER, SHOWING THE RELATIVE POSITIONS OF TOP, FRONT, LEFT, RIGHT, REAR AND BOTTOM VIEWS

surface, therefore perpendicular to the same reference plane to which the inclined surface is perpendicular, and revolving it into the plane of the paper. There are three kinds of auxiliary views, first auxiliary elevations (fig. 11), made on planes which are perpendicular to the horizontal plane but at an angle with the

vertical plane, or in other words the kind of views that would be seen if one walked around the object starting from the position at which the front view is seen. Thus an

auxiliary elevation would have the same F'G. 8.—DIRECTION OF

height as the front view. The second kind, “'*¥®

called sometimes left and right auxiliary views, are used much more frequently. They are made on planes perpendicular to V but inclined to H. Fig. 12 is an example, showing that the width of the auxiliary view is the same as the width of the top view. Third, font and rear auxiliary views, on planes perpendicu-

DRAWING lar to the profile plane but inclined to H and V, in which the width of the auxiliary view is the same as the width of the front view (fig. 13). Often an auxiliary view will save making one or more of the regular views and at the same time show the shape or construction of the object to better advantage. They are used extensively in the drawing of machine parts and usually are only partial views showing the inclined surface alone. In fig. 14 a front view, partial top view and two partial auxiliary views, describe the shape of the piece in the

simplest way. Sectional Views.—When an object is solid or the interior simple the invisible parts can be represented satisfactorily by dotted lines, but if there is much interior detail, especially if the FIG. 9.—FRONT. TOP AND RIGHT object is made in more than one SIDE VIEWS OF BLOCK piece, the dotted lines become confusing and hard to read. In such cases a view is made “in section,” as if for that particular view a part of the object were supposed to be cut away and removed; exposing the interior. This view is known as a sectional view or simply a section. If the object is symmetrical the cutting plane is usually passed through one of the main axes and the front half imagined as removed. The exposed cut surface of the material is indicated by “section-lining” or “cross-hatching” with uniformly spaced fine lines. It must be understood clearly that in thus removing the front portion in order to show the sectional view this portion is not removed from the other views.

633

specifications as to materials, finish, etc. (4) A descriptive title. Often as in architectural and structural drawing the notes of ma-

terials and workmanship are too extensive to be lettered on the

drawings so are made up separately in typewritten or printed

form and are called the specifications, hence the term “drawings

and specifications.” Working drawings are divided into two general classes, assembly drawings and detail drawings. An assembly drawing is, as its name implies, a drawing of the machine or structure put together, showing the relative positions of the different parts (fig. 18). Its particular use is in the erection of the structure. It may give the allover dimensions and distances from centre to centre or part to part of the different pieces, showing their relation to each other, usually indicating the different FIG. 12.—RIGHT AUXILIARY VIEW, parts by “piece numbers,” often PROJECTED FROM THE FRONT VIEW enclosed in circles. It frequently includes a “bill of materials,” a tabulated statement of all the parts used, including stock parts such as bolts, screws, cotters, etc. Classified under the general term of assembly drawings would be

other forms, as the design drawing, the preliminary layout, full size if possible, on which the scheming, inventing and designing are worked out accurately after freehand sketches and calculations have determined the general idea. From it the detail drawings of each piece are made. Sometimes the finished assembly drawing is traced from the design drawing, more often it is redrawn, perhaps to smaller scale to fit a standard

Fig. 15 shows in pictorial

form a casting intersected by a cutting plane and its appearance when the front half is removed; fig. 16 shows the two views of the casting, the front view in section. The edge of the cutting plane is indicated by the line symbol of a dash and two dots, with

reference letters and arrows showing the direction in which the view is taken. The LINES cutting plane need not be in a single continuous plane but may be offset in any part of its length to go Fic.

_

LINES

10.—-INTERSECTION AND CONTOUR

through some detail. Shafts, bolts, nuts, keys, rods, rivets and the like whose axes occur in the plane of the section are left in full and not sectioned. Adjacent pieces are section-lined in opposite directions, and are often brought out more clearly by varying the pitch, using closer spacing for smaller pieces. The same piece in different views or in different parts of the same view should always be section-lined identically in direction and spacing. A common and economical way of showing an object which is symmetrical about a centre line is by making what is called a half section, drawing one side in section and the other in full. In such a view dotted lines are unnecessary. Kevolved sections, made by passing a cutting plane through some detail such as a rib or the arm of a wheel and turning it in place are often used (fig. 17). Detail sections Fic. 11.—-AUXILIARY ELEVATION, are for the same purpose but inPROJECTED FROM TOP VIEW stead of being drawn on the view they are set off to some adjacent place on the paper. The cutting plane, with reference letters, should always be indicated. Phantom sections are exterior views with the interior construction brought out by dotted cross-hatching. ~ A working drawing is a drawing that gives all the information necessary for the complete construction of the object represented. It includes (1) The full representation of the shape of every part of the object (orthographic projection). (2) The size of every part, in figures (dimensioning). (3) Explanatory notes giving

sheet,

using

the detail drawings to work from,

thereby checking their correctness. An outline assembly is used to show the appearance of the machine, sometimes for catalogue

or other illustrative purposes. Piping, wiring and oiling diagrams are also forms of assembly FIG. 13.—-FRONT AUXILIARY VIEW, drawings. An assembly working PROJECTED FROM SIDE VIEW drawing showing fully the dimensions and construction of each piece as well as their relative posi—

—

—

tions, so that no separate detail drawings are needed, may be made for a simple machine. A unit assembly drawing is a drawing of a related group of parts, in a complicated machine or structure. A detail drawing is a complete description of each separate piece, giving its shape, size, material and finish, what shop operations are necessary, what limits of accuracy are demanded and how many of each are wanted (fig. 19). Sometimes smaller parts of the same material or character are grouped together, as forgings on one sheet, special bolts and screws on another, etc., but in large production the accepted practice in a set of drawings is

to have each piece, no matter how small, on a separate sheet. In commercial drafting, accuracy and speed are the two reFig. 14.——FRONT VIEW, WITH PAR- quirements. The drafting room is TIAL TOP VIEW AND PARTIAL AUK. an expensive department. There ILIARY VIEWS are therefore many conventional methods or idioms and abbreviations of the language, with which the draftsman must be familiar. There are also allowable violations of the strict principles of projection when added clearness may be gained. One of the timesaving conventions is in the representation of screw threads. The

helical curves are never drawn except on screws of very large

diameter, but are conventionalized into straight lines, and on screws less than perhaps an inch in diameter the thread contours are omitted, the threaded portion of a shaft being represented by one of a number of conventional symbols, of which three are shown in fig. 20, A being the commonest. As another example: in making working drawings of gears and toothed wheels the

DRAWING Gra) E)Ce)Ceo)Cee) GdGoe)Gr) Qen)GS A] D k 7

=

——

O/T,

Mk Tf)

—

CLINE

= SSSSSS SYN L

be

uw

7

ae

SY NAYlan SPN BANS Ws

aN

man:

co

*

A ZA 7

ae vai SSS WHb

y

*

—

NG N

am A

RANNAS

gan) (ere)(ory JSSSSS om —

———

> 696)

iim|

9 I ©) & FIG. 18.—ASSEMBLY

DRAWING

teeth are not drawn but are represented by drawing the pitch circle, addendum and root circles. On detail drawings for cast gears the full-size outline of one tooth is added and for cut gears the blank is drawn with notes and dimensions giving full information.

FIGS.

15 & 16.—SHOWING

THE

CUTTING

PLANE

AND

SECTION

ON

WITH

PIECK NUMBERS

scale reduction is used on working drawings even if the object be only slightly larger than could be drawn in full size, and is generally worked with the full size scale by halving the dimensions. If this is too large for the paper the drawing is made to the scale of 3”=1’, commonly called quarter-size. Thisi As the first scale of the usual commercial set. Others are 14”; 1”; 4”; 4”; 9”; 1”; fs’; 4”; and i” to the foot. Drawings to odd proportions as

A-A

On patent drawings, however, all the teeth on a gear must be shown. Fig. 21 is an illustration of the violation of theory, in which the true projection of the sectional view is not as good an explanation of the piece as the preferred form in the second view. PINION When a cutting plane passes through a rib (fig. 22), a true section, MACH. STEEL 1 REQ'D A is heavy and misleading. The usual ~. #6223 method is to omit the section lines from the rib, B, as if the cutting plane were just in FIG. 19.——DETAIL DRAWING front of it. Another method sometimes used is to section the rib as at C. There 9” =T, 4”=1’, etc., are not used except in rare cases when it is have been a number of different codes of desired to make it difficult or impossible for a workman to symbols proposed and published for the measure them with an ordinary rule. The scale 4”=1’ is a usual indication of different metals and materials one for ordinary house plans and is often in section, but there is no established unicalled by architects ‘“‘quarter-inch-scale,” versal standard. At the present time, howmeaning not quarter size but that oneever, all the countries where drawings are quarter inch on the drawing represents one made have either officially adopted each its foot on the building. For plotting and own standard set of rules and symbols for a map drawing the civil engineer’s scale of all the conventions used in drawing, as oe 17.—A REVOLVED decimal parts, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 threads, finish, dimensioning, materials, — to the inch, is used but this scale should F'G. 20.—THREAD SYMetc., or are working on such standards through the Government never be used for machine or structural "°H or the engineering societies. work. Drawings in the metric system are not made to half-size or Scales.—In representing objects which are larger than can be quarter-size. The first regular scale smaller than full size is onedrawn to their natural or “full size” on the paper, it is necessary fifth size, then one-tenth size, although sometimes the scale of 1 to to reduce the dimensions on the drawing proportionally, and for at is used. The unit of measurement is the millimetre and figures

this purpose the so-called architect’s scale of proportional feet and inches is used. The first reduction is to what is commonly called “half-size,” or correctly speaking “to the scale of 6%=1’. This

are all understood to be millimetres, without any indicating mark.

Dimensioning.—After the correct representation of the object by its projections, that is, telling the shape, the entire value of

DRAWING the drawing as a working drawing lies in the dimensions, i.c., telling the size. Successful dimensioning requires not only a knowledge of the principles and conventions but an acquaintance with the shop processes which enter into the construction. A dimension line is usually made as a fine full line terminated by carefully made arrow-heads which indicate exactly the points to which the dimension is taken. Some use a dash line and some a red line for dimension lines. On machine drawings a space for the A

CAAA

j

AAA

Aide

edd

635

general tolerance is oftefi stated in a note near the title. Before being sent to the shop a working drawing is carefully checked for errors and omissions. A first check of the pencil drawing is made by the chief designer, who knows the price at which the machine is to be made and checks the design and its mechanism for soundness and economy, sees if existing patterns for any parts can be used, checks for correct representation, ¢.z., adequate lubrication. He sees that every piece is correctly described, checks all dimensions by scaling and computation, checks for tolerances, checks for finishes, checks for specifications of material, looks for interferences and clearances, sees that small.

D

PT}

P ad

T

Tre

FiG. 21.—TRUE

SECTION AND ITS PRACTICAL

MODIFICATION

figures is left in the dimension line; in structural and much - architectural practice the figure is placed above a continuous dimension line. Extension or witness lines not touching the outline, indicate the distance measured when the dimension is placed outside the figure. In dimensioning there are some conventional practices which have come to represent good form to such an extent as to have the force of rules:

FiG. 22.—-A, TRUE SECTION THROUGH A RIB; B, THE USUAL METHOD OF DRAWING SUCH SECTION; C, AN ALTERNATE METNOD

details are standard and stock sizes where possible, checks the title and bill of material. Working drawings are always duplicated for shop use by some 1. Dimensions on horizontal and inclined dimension lines should read from left to right; those on vertical lines from bottom to top; printing process, and the original is not allowed to be taken out of i.e., so as to be read from the right hand side of the sheet. the office. The great majority are blueprinted. Photostat prints, 3. Preferably keep dimensions outside the view unless added clear- and reproductions made by various forms of gelatine, stencil and ness, simplicity and ease of reading will result from placing them lithographic processes are also used. Drawings are usually made inside. They should for appearance’s sake be kept off the cut surfaces of sections. When necessary to be placed there the section-lining is in pencil on cream or buff detail paper and traced, either for economitted around the numbers.

3. Feet and inches are designated thus, s’—3”. When a dimension is in even feet it is indicated thus 5’-0”. 4. Fractions are always made with horizontal division lines. s. Dimensions should generally be placed between views. 6. Do-not repeat dimensions unless there is a special reason for it.

omy on tracing paper, or on tracing cloth, a transparentized cotton

fabric which gives a better print and is much more durable. One-plane Projection.—Orthographic projection with its two or more views describes an object completely, but requires an effort of the geometrical imagination to visualize its appearance. ». Do not crowd dimensions. On the other hand, a picture of the object showing it as it would 8. In general give dimensions from or about centre lines. Never appear to the eye can be made by perspective drawing, but locate holes or other machine operations from the edge of unfinished is not useful as a working drawing as its lines cannot be meascas tings. g. Never give dimensions to the edge of a circular part but always ured directly. To obtain the pictorial effect of perspective drawfrom centre to centre. ing with the possibility of measuring the principal lines several 10. If it is practicable to locate a point by dimensioning from two kinds of one plane projection or conventional picture methods centre lines do not give an angular dimension. have been devised. With the combined advantages are some seri11. Never use a centre line as a dimension line. ous disadvantages which limit their useful12. Never use a line of the drawing as a dimension line. ness. They are distorted until the appear13. Do not allow a dimension line to cross an extension line unless unavoidable. ance is often unpleasant, only certain lines 14. The diameter of the “bolt circle” of holes in circular flanges can be measured, the execution requires is given, with the number and size of holes. more time, and it is difficult to add many 15. Give the diameter of a circle, not the radius. figured dimensions, but with all this, a 16. Give the radius of an arc, marking it R or Rad. 17. Never place a dimension so that it is crossed by a line. knowledge of these methods and facility in Fits and Tolerances——With the demand for interchangetheir use is of great value to the draughtsability and quantity production the exact size in decimals is speciman. Mechanital or structural details not clear in orthographic projection may be fied for “essential dimensions” with the amount of “tolerance” Fio. 223.- 130 ELTRIC drawn pictorially or illustrated by suppleover and under which will be allowed by the inspector, since it is PROJECTION OF A CUBE mentary pictorial views. Technical illusnot possible to work to an absolutely accurate dimension. These limits are set by the engineering department and placed on the trations, patent office drawings, layouts, piping and wiring diadrawing, and the shop follows orders explicitly. In fitting one grams, preliminary free-hand sketches, etc., can all be done piece with another, as a shaft and hub, the diameters in decimals advantageously in one-plane projection. Aside from perspective with allowed tolerances are given for each, superseding the older drawing there are two general divisions of pictorial projection, practice of leaving the amount of allowance for different kinds of azonometric projection with its divisions into isometric, dimetric —

—

—

—

fits to the machine shop. Much experience in manufacturing is and trimetric, and oblique projection with several variations. needed as well as a study of the particular mechanism involved before the draughtsman is able to know just the accuracy necessary and to specify proper tolerance. When unnecessarily small tolerances are set the cost of manufacture is greatly increased. The

Axonometric projection, theoretically, is simply a form of orthographic projection in which only one plane is used, so placed with relation to the object that a rectangular solid projected on it would show three faces. Usually the object is considered as turned from

DRAWING

636

its natural position and the vertical plane taken as the plane of projection. Imagine a vertical plane with a cube behind (or in front) of it, having one face parallel to the plane. Its projection will be a square. Rotate the cube about its vertical axis through any angle less than go°, the projection will now show two faces, foreshortened. From this position tilt the cube forward any amount and three faces will show on the projection. There are thus an infinite number of axonometric positions, only a few of which are ever used as a basis for drawing. The simplest of these is the “isometric” (equal measure) position, where the three faces are

foreshortened equally, as would occur if the cube were rotated about the vertical axis through 45° then tilted for- Fié. 24.—ISOMETRIC ward until the edge OC (fig. 23) is fore- CIRCLE. FOUR-CENTRED shortened equally with OA and OB thus —— —* making the body diagonal from O perpendicular to the plane of projection. (This makes the top face slope 35°-16’ approx.) The three lines of the front corner, OA, OB, OC, make equal angles with each other and are called the isometric axes. Since parallel lines have their projections parallel, the other edges of the cube will be respectively parallel to these axes. Any line parallel to an isometric axis is called an isometric line. The planes of the faces of the cube and all planes parallel to them are called isometric planes. It will thus be noticed that any line or plane which in its regular orthographic projection is perpendicular to either of the reference planes, will be an isometric line or plane. In this isometric projection the lines have been foreshortened to approximately yyy of their length and to measure them would require a special scale. In all practical use of the isometric system this foreshortened scale is not used but the full scale lengths are laid off on the axes.

This gives a figure FIG.

25.—ISOMETRIC

SKETCH

ON

slightly larger but of exactly the REVERSED AXES same shape and is called isometric drawing. As the effect of increased size is usually of no consequence and the advantage of measuring the lines with standard scales is of such great convenience, isometric drawing is used almost exclusively instead of isometric projection. In making an isometric drawing the axes are first drawn, 120° apart, drawing one vertical and the other two with the 30° triangle. On these three lines are measured the length, breadth and thickness of the object. Lines not parallel to one of the isometric axes are called non-isometric lines. The one important rule is, measurements can be made only on isometric lines. Since a non-isometric line does not appear in its true length its extremities must be located by isometric co-ordinates. A circle on any isometric plane will ap-

pear as an ellipse, and is usually drawn as a four-centred approximation with the construction of

FIG. 26.—ISOMETRIC

HALF-SECTION

7 and 41 degrees. Fig. 27 is a drawing in this system. Trimetric drawing, with three unequal axes, has little if any practical value. Oblique Projection is a one-plane method in which the projecting lines are parallel but make an angle other than 90° with the

picture plane. Suppose the reference cube to be set with one face

parallel to the picture plane and the projectors to make an angle of 45° with the plane, in any direction. The face parallel to the picture plane would be projected in its true size and the edges perpendicular to the plane would be projected in their true length. This system with 45° projectors is sometimes called cavalier projection. It is similar to isometric drawing in having three axes representing three mutually perpendicular lines, upon which measurements can be made. Two of the axes are always at right angles to each other, being in a plane parallel to the picture plane. The third or cross axis may be at any angle, 30° or 45° being generally used. Any face parallel to the picture plane will evidently be pro27.—DIMETRIC jected without distortion, an advantage FiG. DRAWING over isometric of particular value in the representation of objects with circular or irregular outline, thus objects should always be placed with their characteristic contour parallel to the picture plane (fig. 28). Oblique drawing always gives the distorted effect of excessive thickness. A variation called cabinet drawing devised to overcome this effect is an oblique projection, with the projectors assumed at such an angle that all measurements in the direction of the cross axis are reduced one-half (fig. 29), which makes easy measure-

ment but the effect is often too thin. Other ratios such as 4 or 4 may be used with more pleasing effect. The cross axes may be at any angle, but areusually made either 30° or 45°. A_ special system of oblique projection

called clinographic projection,

——

Fig. 28

used in drawing mineral crystals in crystallography, is based on the axes of a cube first revolved about a vertical axis through an angle whose tangent is 4, then projected obliquely to the vertical plane with the eye (at an infinite distance) elevated through an angle whose tangent is 4.

Execution.—As drawing instruments are used for all accurate work, the first requirement in making a drawing is the ability to use them with facility and in good form. The drawing table, with softwood top or carrying a softwood drawing board, should be set so that the light comes from the left, the paper held in place with thumb tacks, and a hard pencil selected, sharpened to a long sharp point. A T-square, 45° and 30°—60° triangles, compasses, dividers, scale, pencil eraser and sandpaper pad should be at hand. Horizontal lines are drawn with the T-square guided by the left edge of the drawing board, and

vertical lines are drawn with the triangle set fig. 24. It is sometimes desirable to show the lower face of an object, by tilting it back instead of against the T-square, always with the perforward, and drawing it on reversed axes. Fig. 25 shows a sketch pendicular edge nearest the head of the on reversed axes. Isometric drawings are from their pictorial square and toward the light (fig. 30). These F!6. 29.—CABINET nature usually outside views but sometimes an isometric section lines are always drawn up from the bottom DRAWING or half-section can be employed to good advantage. The cutting to top, consequently their location points should be made at the planes are taken as isometric planes. Fig. 26 is a half-section, made bottom. With the triangles against the T-square, lines at 30°, 45° and 60° may be drawn, and the two triangles may be used by outlining the figure, then cutting out the front quarter. The reference cube can be turned into any number of positions in combination for angles of 15° and 75°, directly (fig. 31). where two edges would be equally foreshortened and the third t Thus any multiple of 15° may be drawn and a circle may be a different length, and any one of these positions might be taken ai divided with the 45° triangle into 4 or 8 parts, with the.-60° a basis for a system of dimetric drawing. A simple dimetric post- triangle into 6 or 12 parts and with both into 24 parts. The tion is one with the ratios 1:1:4. In this position the tangents o dividers, used for transferring distances, etc., are manipulated with the angles of the axes are 4 and § making the angles approximately one hand, and opened by pinching at the chamfer with the thumb

DRAWING AND ‘QUARTERING—DRAYTON

637

$

and second finger. This puts them in correct position with the thumb and forefinger on the outside of the legs and the second and third fingers on the inside (fig. 32). The compasses are manipulated in the same way, adjusting to the radius marked on the paper, then raising the hand to the handle and drawing the circle (clockwise) in one sweep by rolling the handle with the

legibility and speed.

Lettering is not mechanical drawing and

the use of “geometrical” letters, “block” letters, etc., made of

straight lines and ruled with T-square and triangles is not approved in good practice. The “commercial gothic” or “sans serif” letter made freehand in a single stroke, either vertical or inclined is the style almost universally used. Technical Sketching.—From its use in connection with art thumb and forefinger, inclining the word sketch suggests a free or incomplete or careless renderthe compasses slightly in the ing of some idea. This is not its direction of the line (fig. 33). In meaning in engineering drawing. making a working diagram the A sketch is a working drawing order of pencilling should be made freehand, a quick expression somewhat as follows: first, make of graphic language, but complete a preliminary freehand layout in its information. In all mesketch, estimating the position and chanical thinking in invention, all space required for each view; secpreliminary designing, all exee geet Ta. (a ond, decide the scale to be used; planation and instruction of the third, draw the centre lines for designer to the draftsman, TEO each view and block in the views sketching is the mode of expreswith the principal outlines; sion. It represents the mastery of \ be M fourth, finish the projections, carthe language, gained only after rying them on together; fifth proficiency in mechanical exedraw all dimension lines, then cution. Sketches of machine parts ‘FIG. 30.—DRAWING A VERTICAL put in the dimensions; sixth, lay would be made in orthographic LINE out the title; seventh, check the projection, explanatory of illusdrawing as carefully as possible. trative sketches either in orthoAfter being made in pencil, drawings, except when inked on the FIG. 38.—DRAWING A CIRCLE WITH graphic or in one of the pictorial THE COMPASSES paper, as patent drawings or display drawings, are traced for methods. Design sketches are blueprinting or other method of reproduction. When intended often made on co-ordinate paper. The memory for form may be to be used perhaps only once, as strengthened and the capacity for “stored observation” greatly tool-room drawings, architectural increased by systematic practice in sketching from memory, details, etc., they are very com- studying a drawing or casting with close concentration until every monly traced in firm pencil lines detail is stored for future visualization, then making an accurate on tracing paper. Production sketch without further reference to the original and comparing drawings and works of permanent it when finished. See also Enctvalue are traced in ink on tracing NEERING; RENDERING, ARCHITECcloth. The ruling pen is always TURAL; DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY; used with drawing ink and guidSuN Copyinc; BLUE-PRINT. ing edge, either T-square or tri(T. E. F.) angle. To fill it touch the quill DRAWING AND QUARfiller of the ink bottle between the TERING, part of the penalty nibs, being careful not to get any anciently ordained in England Fic. 31.COMBINATION FOR 18° ink on the outside of the blades. for treason. Until 1870 the full

f

BN TE ANGELES

|

The pen is held as in fig. 34 and

punishment

for the crime

was

34.—POSITION OF THE RULING the width of line adjusted by turning the screw. The pen is held FIG. that the culprit be dragged on a PEN against the straight-edge with the blades parallel to it and in a plane hurdle to the place of execution; perpendicular to the paper. If the ink refuses to flow it is because that he be hanged by the neck but not till he was dead; that he it has dried and clogged in the point of the pen. If pinching the should be disembowelled or drawn and his entrails burned before blades slightly or touching the his eyes; that his head be cut off and his body divided into four pen on the finger does not start it, parts or quartered. This brutal penalty was first inflicted in 1284 it should be wiped out and fresh on the Welsh prince David, and a few years later on Sir William ink supplied. Faulty lines may Wallace. Edward Marcus Despard and his six accomplices were occur by pressing the pen too hard in 1803 hanged, drawn and quartered for conspiring to assassinate against the T-square, by sloping George III. The sentence was last passed (though not carried out) the pen away from the T-square, upon the Fenians Burke and O’Brien in 1867. or by having it too close to the DRAWING-ROOM, the English name generally employed blade, when the ink will run un- for a room used in a dwelling-house for the reception of comder; by having ink on the outside pany. It is a shortened form of the 16th and 17th century of the blade; by not keeping the “withdrawing room,” and originated in the setting apart of a blades parallel to the line, or by room for the ladies of the household, to which they withdrew letting the triangle slip into the from the dining-room. Fig. 32.—HANDLING THE DIVIDERS wet line. Visible outlines should DRAW-PLATE, a plate of hardened steel with a series of be Strong full lines, invisible lines much lighter lines made with holes, with converging sides, graded in size and of similar shape, short dashes. Centre lines of long dash and dot, and dimension through which metal is drawn in manufacturing wire (q.v.). lines are made either of the same weight as invisible lines or still DRAYTON, MICHAEL (1563-1631), English poet, was finer. Inking should be done in a systematic order, first, all born at Hartshill, Warwickshire, and settled in London about visible circles, beginning with the smallest; second, full lines, 1590. His first volume of poems, The Harmony of the Church, horizontal, vertical, inclined; third, dotted circles and lines; appeared in 1591; the whole edition, with the exception of 40 fourth, centre lines; fifth, extension and dimension lines: sixth, copies seized by the archbishop of Canterbury, was destroyed by arrow heads and dimensions; seventh, section lines; eighth, notes public order. In /dea; the Shepherd’s Garland (1593), a collection and title; ninth, border; tenth, check the tracing. of nine pastorals, and /dea’s Mirror (1594), a cycle of 64 sonnets, In lettering a working drawing the two requirements are |he celebrated his love for a Warwickshire lady. The Legend of

638

DREADN OUGHT—DREAM

Piers Gaveston (1593) is the first of Drayton’s historical poems; it was followed by Mortimeriados (1596), written in ottava rima and afterwards enlarged as The Barons’ Wars (1603); The Legend of Robert, Duke of Normandy (1596); and England's Heroical Epistles (1597) modelled on Ovid. Drayton had been in high favour with Elizabeth, but his overtures to James I. were rejected, and his pique found expression in The Owl (1604), an unsuccessful satire. In 1606 he made a collection of poems entitled Poems Lyric and Pastoral, including among other hitherto unpyblished works, his famous “Ballad of Agincourt.” As early as 1508 he had formed the plan of celebrating all the points of topographical or antiquarian interest in the island of Great Britain. In 1613, the first part of this vast work was published under the title of Poly-Olbion, 18 books being produced, to which Selden supplied notes. The success of this, his most famous work, was at first small, and the 12 more books of the second part only appeared in 1622. This completed the survey of England, and the poet, who had hoped “to crown Scotland with flowers,” and arrive at last at the Orcades, never crossed the Tweed. In 1627 he published another of his miscellaneous volumes, and this contains some of his most characteristic and exquisite writing. It consists of the following pieces: The Battle of Agincourt, an historical poem in ottava rima (not to be confused with his ballad on the same subject), and The Misertes of Queen Margaret, written in the same verse and manner; Nimphidia, the Court of Faery, a most graceful little epic of fairyland; The Quest of Cinthia and The Shepherd’s Sirena, two lyrical pastorals; and finally The Moon Calf, a sort of satire. Of these Nimphidéa is perhaps the best thing Drayton ever wrote, except his famous ballad on the battle of Agincourt; it is quite unique of its kind and full of rare fantastic fancy. The last of Drayton’s voluminous publications was The Muses’ Elizium in 1630. He died in London and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Drayton corresponded familiarly with Drummond; Ben Jonson, William Browne, George Wither and others were among his friends. There is a tradition that he was a friend of Shakespeare, supported by a statement of John Ward, once vicar of Stratford-on-Avon, that “Shakespear, Drayton and Ben Jonson had a merry meeting, and it seems, drank too hard, for Shakespear died of a feavour there contracted.” He had a share, with Munday, Chettle and Wilson, in writing Sir John Oldcastle, which was printed in 1600. The poet with whom it is most natural to compare Drayton is Daniel; he is more rough and vigorous, more varied and more daring than the latter, but Daniel surpasses him in grace, delicacy and judgment. In their elegies and epistles, however, the two writers frequently resemble each other. Drayton, however, approaches the very first poets of the Elizabethan era in his charming Nimphidia, a poem which inspired Herrick with his sweet fairy fancies and stands alone of its kind in English literature; while some of his odes and lyrics are inspired by noble feeling and virile imagination. In 1748 a folio edition of Drayton’s complete works was published under the editorial supervision of William Oldys, and again in 1753 there appeared an issue in four volumes. But these were very unintelligently and inaccurately prepared. A complete edition of Drayton’s works with variant readings was projected by Richard Hooper in 1876, but 3 vols. only were completed; a volume of selection, edited by A. H. Bullen, appeared in 1883. See especially Oliver Elton, Michacl Drayton (1905). (E. G.)

DREADNOUGHT: see BATTLESHIP. DREAM, the state of consciousness during sleep; it may also

be defined as a hallucination or illusion peculiarly associated with the condition of sleep, but not necessarily confined to that state (from a root dreug, connected with Ger. éréigen, to deceive). In sleep the withdrawal of the mind from the external world is more complete and the objectivity of the dream images is usually unquestioned, whereas in the waking state the hallucination is usually recognized as such; we may, however, be conscious that we are dreaming, and thus in a measure be aware of the hallucinatory character of our percepts. The physiological nature of sleep (9.0.;

-.

see also Musciz and Nerve) and of dreaming is cbecure. Asa rule the control over.the voluntary muscles in dreams is slight; the sleep-walker is the exception and not the rule, and the motor actiyjty represented in the dream is seldom realized inpractice, largely, no doubt, because we are ignerant, under these circumstances, of the spatial relations of our bodies. Among the psychological problems raised by dreams are the condition of attention, which is variously regarded as altogether absent or as fixed, the extent of mental control, and the relation of ideas and motor impulses. There is present in all dreams a certain amount of dissociation of consciousness, or of obstructed association, which may manifest itself in the preliminary stage of drowsiness by such phenomena as the apparent transformation or inversion of the words of a book. We may distinguish two types of dreams, (a) representative or centrally initiated, (6) presentative or due to the stimulation of the end organs of sense. In both cases, the dream having once been initiated, we are concerned with a combination of ideas suggested by resemblances or other associative elements. The false reasoning of dreams is due in the first place to the absence, to a large extent, of the memory elements on which our ordinary reasoning depends, and, secondly, to the absence of the normal supply of sensory elements. Apparent Objectivity of Dreams—In waking life we distinguish ideas or mental images from real objects by the fact that we are able under normal circumstances to dismiss the former at will. In sleep, on the other hand, we have, in the first place, no real objects with which to compare the images, which therefore take on a character of reality comparable to the hallucination of waking life; moreover, powers of visualization and other faculties are enhanced in sleep, so that the strength of dream images considerably exceeds those of ordinary mental images; changes in powers of attention, volition and memory help to increase the hallucinatory force of the dream. In the second place, the ideas of our dreams are presented in the form of images, which we are unable to dismiss; we therefore mistake them for realities, exactly as the sufferer from delirium tremens in waking life is apt to regard his phantoms as real. Representative Dreams.—Centrally initiated dreams may be due to a kind of automatic excitation of the cerebral regions, especially in the case of those clearly arising from the occupations or sensations of the day or the hours immediate]y preceding the dream. To the same cause we may attribute the recalling of images apparently long since forgotten. Some of these revivals of memory may be due to the fact that links of association which are insufficient to restore an idea to consciousness in the waking

state may suffice to do so in sleep. Just as a good visualizer in his waking moments may call up an object never clearly seen and yet distinguish the parts, so in sleep, as L. F. A. Maury (181 7~92) and others have shown, an image may be more distinct in a dream than it was originally presented (see also below,

Memory).

Presentative Dreams-—The dreams due to real sensations, more or less metamorphosed, may arise (a) from the states of the internal organs, (6) from muscular states, (c) from sensations due to the circulation, etc., or (d) from the ordinary cause

of the action of external stimuli on the organs of sense. (a) The state of the stomach, heart, etc., has long been recas important in the causation of dreams (see below, Classical Views). The common sensation of flying seems to be due in many cases to the disturbance of these organs setting up sensations resembling those feltin rapidly ascending or descending, as in a swing or a lift. Indigestionis a frequent cause of nightmare—the name given to oppressive and horrible dreams—and bodily discomfort is sometimes translated into the moral regton, giving rise to the dream that a murder has been committed. (b) Dreams of flying, etc., have also been attributed to the condition of the muscles during sleep; W. Wundt remarks that the movements of the body, such as breathing, extensions of the limbs and so on, must give rise to dream fancies; the awkward position of thelimbs may also excite images. (c) Especially important, probably, for the dreams of the early part of the night are the retinal conditions to which are due the séusions Aypnagogiques. of the

DREAM preliminary drowsy stage; but probably Ladd goes too far im maintaining that entoptic stimuli, either intra- or extra-organic in origin, condition all dreams. /liusions kypnagogigues, termed popularly “faces in the dark,” of which Maury has given a full account, are the not uncommon sensations experienced, usually visual and seen with both open and closed eyes, in the interval between retiring to rest and actually falling asleep; they are comparable to the crystal-gazing visions of waking moments; though mainly visual they may also affect other senses. Besides the eye the ear may supply material for dreams, when the circulation of the blood suggests rushing waters or similar ideas. (d)

639

found whose dream ideas and scenes show a power of reasoning

and orderliness equal to that of a scene imagined or experienced in ordinary life. In some cases the reasoning power may attain a higher level than that of the ordinary conscious life. In a wellauthenticated case Prof. Hilprecht was able in a dream to solve a diffculty connected with two Babylonian inscriptions, which had not previously been recógnizsed as complementary to each other; a point of peculiar interest is the dramatic form in which the information came to him—an old Babylonian priest appeared in his dream and gave him the clue to the problem (see also below, Personality), Memory in Dreams.—Although prima facie the dream It is a matter of common observation that the temperature of the surface of the body determines in many cases the character memory is fragmentary and far less complete than the waking of the dreams, the real circumstances, as might be expected from memory, it is by no means uncommon to find a revival in sleep the general character of the dream state, being exaggerated. In of early, apparently quite forgotten, experiences: more striking the same way the pressure of bed-clothes, obstruction of the is the recollection in dreams of matters never supraliminally (see supply of air, etc., may serve as the starting-point of dreams. SUBLIMINAL SELF) apperceived at all. ‘The relation between the memory in dreams and in the hypnotic The common dream of being unclothed may perhaps be due to this cause, the sensations associated with clothing being absent trance is curious: suggestions given in the trance may be accepted or so far modified as to be ymrecognizable. In the same way the and then forgotten or never remembered in ordinary life; this absence of foot-gear may account for some dreams of flying. It does not prevent them from reappearing occasionally in dreams; is possible to test the influence of external stimuli by direct conversely dreams forgotten in ordinary life may be remembered experiment; Maury made a number of trials with the aid of an in the hypnotic trance. These dream memories of other states of consciousness suggest that dreams are sometimes the product of assistant. Rapidity of Dreams—lIt has often been asserted that we a deeper stratum of the personality than comes into play in ordidream with extreme rapidity; but this statement is by no means nary waking life. It must be remembered in this connection that borne out by experiment. In a trial recorded by J. Claviére the we judge of our dream consciousness by our waking recollections, beginning of the dream was accurately fixed by the sounding not directly, and our recollection of our dreams is extraordinarily of an alarm clock, which rang, then was silent for 22sec., and then fragmentary; we do not know how far our dream memory really began to ring continuously; the dream scene was in a theatre, extends. Connected with memory of other states is the question and he found by actual trial that the time required in the of memory in dreams of ‘previous dream states; occasionally a dream for the performance of the scenes during the interval of separate chain of memory, analogous to a secondary personality, silence was about the same as in ordinary life. Spontaneous seems to be formed. We may be also conscious that we have dreams seem to show a different state of things; it must be re- been dreaming, and subsequently, without intermediate waking, membered that (1) dreams are commonly a succession of images, relate as a dream the dream previously experienced. In spite of the number of which cannot be legitimately compared with the the irrationality of dreams in general, it by no means follows that number of extra-organic stimuli which would correspond to them the earlier and later portions of a dream do not cohere; we may in ordinary life; the real comparison is with mental images; and interpolate an episode and again take up the first motive, exactly (2) the rapidity of association varies enormously in ordinary as happens in real life. The strength of the dream memory is waking life. No proof, therefore, that some dreams are slow shown by the recurrence of images in dreams; a picture, the page can show that this mentation in others is not extremely rapid. of a book, or other image may be reproduced before our eyes The most commonly quoted case is one of Maury’s; a bed-pole several times in the course of a dream without the slightest alterfell on his neck, and (so it is stated) he dreamt of the French ation, although the waking consciousness would be quite incapable Revolution, the scenes culminating in the fall of the guillotine of such a feat of visualizing. In this connection may be mentioned on his neck; this has been held to show that (1) dreams are the phenomenon of redreaming; the same dream may recur either extremely rapid; and (2) we construct a dream story leading on the same or on different nights; this seems to be in many cases up to the external stimulus which is assumed to have originated pathological or due to drugs, but may also occur under normal the dream. But Maury’s dream was not recorded till many years conditions. Personality —As a rule the personality of the dreamer is unafter it had occurred; there is nothing to show that the dream, in this as in other similar cases, was not in progress when the changed; but it also happens that the confusion of identity obbed-pole fell, which thus by mere coincidence would have inter- served with regard to other objects embraces the dreamer himvened at the psychological moment; Maury’s memory on waking self; he imagines himself to be some one else; he is alternately may have been to some extent hallucinatory. But there are records actor and observer; he may see himself playing a part or may of waking states, not necessarily abnormal, in which time-percep- divest himself of his body and wander incorporeally. Ordinary tion is disturbed and brief incidents seem interminably long; dreams, however, do not go beyond a splitting of personality; on the other hand, it appears from the experiences of persons re- we hold conversations, and are intensely surprised at the uttercovered from drowning that there is great rapidity of ideation ances of a dream figure, which, however, is merely an alter ego. before the extinction of consciousness; the same rapidity of As in the case of Hilprecht (see above) the information given by another part of the personality may not only appear but actually thought has been observed in a fall from a bicycle. Reason in Dreams-——Studies of dreams of normal individuals be novel. Supernormal Dreams—lIn addition to dreams in which based on large collections of instances are singularly few in number; such as there are indicate great variations in the source there is a revival of memory or a rise into consciousness of facts of dream thoughts and images, in the coherence of the dream, previously only subliminally cognized, a certain number of dreams and in the powers of memory. In ordinary life attention dominates are on record in which telepathy (g.v.) seems to play a part; the images presented; in dreams heterogeneous and disconnected much of the evidence is, however, discounted by the possibility elements are often combined; a resemblance need not even have of hallucinatory memory. Another class of dreams (prodromic) been consciously recognized for the mind to combine two im- is that in which the abnormal bodily states of the dreamer are pressions in a dream; for example, an aching tooth may (ac- brought to his knowledge in sleep, sometimes in a symbolical córding to the dream) be extracted, and found to resemble rocks form; thus a dream of battle or sanguinary conflict may presage om the sea-shore, which bad not struck the waking mind as in a haemorrhage. The increased power of suggestion which is the any way like teeth. ce and incoherence are not, how- | normal accompaniment of the hypnotic trance may make its Eyer a necessary characteristic of dreams, and individuals are |appearance in dreams, and exercise either a curative influence or

DREAM act capriciously in producing hysteria and the tropic changes

known as “stigmata.” We may meet with various forms of hyperaesthesia in dreams; quite apart from the recovery of sight by those who have lost it. wholly or in part (see below,

Dreams of the Blind), we find that the powers of the senses may undergo an intensification, and, c.g., the power of appreciating music be enormously enhanced in persons usually indifferent to it. Mention must also be made of the experience of R. L. Stevenson, who tells in Across the Plains how by self-suggestion he was able to secure from his dreams the motives of some of his best romances. Voluntary Action in Dreams.—Connected with dreams voluntarily influenced is the question of how far dreams once initiated are modifiable at the will of the dreamer.

Some few observers,

like F. W. H. Myers and Dr. F. van Eeden, record that they can at longer or shorter intervals control their actions in their dreams, though usually to a less extent than their imagined actions in waking life. Dr. van Eeden, for example, tells us that he has what he calls a “clear dream” once a month and is able to predetermine what he will do when he becomes aware that he is dreaming.

Dreams of Children—Opinions differ widely as to the age at which children begin to dream; G. Compayré maintains that dreaming has been observed in the fourth month, but reflex action is always a possible explanation of the observed facts. S. de Sanctis found that in boys of eleven only one out of cight said that he dreamt seldom, as against: four out of seven at the age of six; but we cannot exclude the possibility that dreams were frequent but forgotten. Dreams of the Old-—In normal individuals above the age of 65

de Sanctis found dreams were rare; atmospheric influences seem to be important elements in causing them; memory of them is weak; they are emotionally poor, and deal with long past scenes.

Dreams of Adults.—Any attempt to record or influence our

dreams may be complicated by (a) direct suggestion, leading to

the production of the phenomena for which we are looking, and (b) indirect suggestion leading to the more lively recollection of dreams in general and of certain dreams in particular. Consequently it cannot be assumed that the facts thus ascertained represent the normal conditions. According to F. Heerwagen's statistics women sleep more lightly and dream more than men; the frequency of dreams is proportional to their vividness; women who dream sleep longer than those who do not; dreams tend to become less frequent with advancing age. In the matter of complication of dream experiences the sexes are about equal; daily life supplies more material in the dreams of men; nearly twice as many women as men remember their dreams clearly, a fact which hangs together to some extent with the vividness of the dreams, though it by no means follows that a vivid dream is well remembered. There are great variations in the emotional character of dreams; some observers report twice as many unpleasant dreams as the reverse; in other cases the emotions seem to be absent; others again have none but pleasing dreams. Individual experience also varies very largely as to the time when most dreams are expericnced; in some cases the great majority are subsequent to 6:30 a.M.; others find that quite half occur before 4 A.M. Dreams of the Neuropathic, Insane, Idiots, ete.—Much attention has been given to the dreams of hysterical subjects. It

appears that their dreams are specially liable to exercise an influence over their waking life, perhaps because they do not distinguish them, any more than their waking hallucinations, from

reality. P. Janet maintains that the cause of hysteria may be sought in a dream. The dreams of the hysterical have a tendency to recur. Epileptic subjects dream less than the hysterical, and their dreams are seldom of a terrifying nature; certain dreams

seem to take the place of an epileptic attack. Dreaming seems to be rare in idiots. De Sanctis divides paranoiacs into three classes: (a) those with systematized delusions, (5) those with frequent hallucinations, and (c) degeneratcs—the dreams of the first class resemble their delusions; the second class is distinguished by the complexity of its dreams; the third by their vividness, by their

delusions of megalomania, and by their influence on daily life. Alcoholic subjects have vivid and terrifymg dreams, characterized by the frequent appearance of animals in them, and delirium tremens may originate during sleep. Dreams of the Blind, Deaf, etc.—As regards visual dreams the blind fall into three classes—(1) those who are blind from birth or become blind before the age of five; (2) those who become blind at the “critical age” from five to seven; (3) those who become blind after the age of seven. The dreams of the first class are non-visual; but in the dreams of Helen Keller there are traces of a visual content; the second class sometimes has visual dreams; the third class does not differ from normal persons, though visual dreams may fade away after many years of blindness. In the case of the partially blind the clearness of vision in a dream exceeds that of normal life when the partial loss of sight occurred in the sixth or later years. The education of Helen Keller is interesting from another point of view; after losing the senses of sight and hearing in infancy she began her education at seven years and was able to articulate at eleven; it is recorded that she “talked” in her dreams soon after. This accords with the experience of normal individuals who acquire a foreign language. Her extraordinary memory enables her to recall faintly some traces of the sunlit period of her life, but they hardly affect her dreams, so far as can be judged. The dreams of the blind, according to the records of F. Hitschmann, present some peculiarities; animals as well as man speak; toothache and bodily pains are perceived as such; impersonal dreaming, taking the form of a drama or reading aloud, is found; and he had a strong tendency to reproduce or create verse. Dreams of Animals——We are naturally reduced to inference in dealing with animals as with very young children: but various observations seem to show that dreams are common in older dogs, especially after hunting expeditions; in young dogs sleep seems to be quieter; dogs accustomed to the chase seem to dream more than other kinds. Dreams Among the Non-European Peoples.—In the lower

stages of culture the dream is regarded as no less real and its personages as no less objective than those of the ordinary waking life; this is due in the main to the habit of mind of such peoples (see ANIMISM), but possibly in some measure also to the occurrence of veridical dreams (see TELEPATHY). In either case the savage explanation is animistic, and animism is commonly assumed to have been developed very largely as a result of theorizing dreams. Two explanations of a dream are found among the lower races: (1) that the soul of the dreamer goes out, and visits his friends, living or dead, his old haunts or unfamiliar scenes and so on; (2) that the souls of the dead and others come to visit him, either of their own motion or at divine command. In either of the latter cases or at a higher stage of culture when the dream is regarded as god-sent, though no longer explained in terms of animism, it is often regarded as oracular (see ORACLE), the explanation being sometimes symbolical, sometimes simple. There are two classes of dreams which have a special importance in the lower cultures: (1) the dream or vision of the initiation fast; and (2) the dream caused by the process known as

incubation, which is often analogous to the initiation fast. In many parts of North America the individual Indian acquires a tutelary spirit, known as manito or nagual, by his initiation dream or vision; the idea being, perhaps, that the spirit by the act of appearing shows its subjection to the will of the man. Similarly, the magician acquires his familiar in North America, Australia and elsewhere by dreaming of an animal. Incubation consists in retiring to sleep in a temple, sometimes on the top of a mountain or other unusual spot, in order to obtain a revelation through a dream. Fasting, continence and other observances are frequently prescribed as preliminaries. Certain classes of dreams have, especially in the middle ages, been attributed to the influence of evil spirits (see DemoNnoLocy ). cal and Mediaeval Views of Dreams.—Side by side with the prevalent animistic view of dreams we find in antiquity and among the semi-civilized attempts at philosophical or physio| logical explanations of dreams. Democritus, from whom the

AND DREDGING

641

Schlaf und Trawmsustinde.

For super-normal dreams sse F. W, H.

Myers, Human

Persenality, vol. i, and Proc. S.P.R. viii. 363. For

voluntary dreams sce Proc. SPR. "iv. aq:, xvii. ria. On prophetic dreams ste Torn 361; Bull. Soc. Anth. (Paris, 1901), 196 | See 228; Rev. de synthèse historique (1901), 1$1, etc. On tion see Deubner, ne; Maury, Le Magie. On the dreams of Indians see Handbook of A con dIudians

—— 1907), 46. “Dreams” and “Manito.” On the intera a ee pretation of dreams see Freud, Die Traumdeutung. Other works noise like thunder. Plato, too, connects | are F. Greenwood, Imagination in Dreams; Hutchinson. Dreams ormal waking operations ond their Meanings. (N. W. T) , admits this only for dreams which take DREDGERS AND DREDGING. Dredging is the name ‘remainder being supernatural. Cicero, given to that branch of excavation which deals with the process of removing materials lying under water and disposing of them according to the requirements of the work in hand. The machines employed by engineers to that end are termed dredgers (dredges in America) and the term dredging plant covers not only the that some dreams might be divine, but held that others were dredging machines themselves but much auxiliary apparatus empremonitory of diseased states of the body. Galen took the same ployed in connection therewith. The ceuseless struggle of man’s view in some of his speculations. efforts against the mighty forces of nature involves an infinite Symbolical interpretations are combined with pathological no variety of attack and a vast expenditure of wealth. Spurred by less than animistic interpretations of dreams; they are also ex- the demands for increased facilities for shipping, and assisted by tremely common among the lower classes in Europe at the the great advances of mechanical science, dredgers have developed present day, but in this case no consistent explanation of their rapidly from primitive tools to powerful and costly appliances. importance for the divination of future events is usually discoverApplications of Dredging. —Although dredging machinery iis, able. Among the Greeks Plato in the Timacus (ch. xlvi., xlvii.) from the nature of its duties, mounted on floating craft in the ins dreams as prophetic visions received by the lower appe- great majority of instances, the term does not exclude subtitive soul through the liver; their interpretation requires intelli- aqueous excavation by plant mounted on land. Dredging may be gence. The Stoics seem to have held that dreams may be a divine divided broadly into two classes according to the object for which revelation and more than one volume on the interpretation of it is employed, viz., (a) as a means of removing material for the dreams has come down to us, the most important being perhaps purpose of increasing existing depths of water or reclaiming lowthe "Ovecpoxpiriad of Daldianus Artemidorus. We find parallels lying ground, and (b) as a means of mining for making available to this in a Muslim work by Gabdorrachaman, translated by earths useful in themselves or because they contain precious conPierre Vattier under the name of Ontrocrite mussuiman, and in stituents; but its field covers a multitude of purposes within the the numerous books on the interpretation of dreams which cir- bounds of these two main divisions, and the following uses to culate at the present day. In Siam dream books are found (/ntern. which the plant may be put will! illustrate the wide scope of Archiv fur Anthr. viii. 150); one of the functions of the Australian dredging operations. medicine man is to decide how a dream is to be interpreted. Material Shifting Dredgers—The creation and maintenance of Modern Views.—The doctrine of Descartes that existence satisfactory depths of water in harbours, docks, rivers and canals depended upon thought naturally ied his followers to maintain for the purposes of navigation; the removal of material for the that the mind is always thinking and consequently that dreaming foundations of marine and river works and for the preparation of is continuous. Locke replied to this that men are not always sites for floating docks; the deepening, widening and straightenconscious of dreaming, and it is hard to be conceived that the ing of rivers to increase or conserve their discharging capacity; soul of the sleeping man should this moment be thinking, while the cutting of drainage and irrigation canals; the removal of mathe soul of the waking man cannot recollect in the next moment terial for the reclamation of low-lying land or the formation of a jot of all those thoughts. That we always dream was main- dykes, levees or dams. tained by Leibniz, Kant, Sir. W. Hamilton and others; the latter Mining Dredgers.—The recovery of gold from rivers or placer refutes the argument of Locke by the just observation that the deposits, also A tin and other heavy metals; the rafsing somnambulist has certainly been conscious, but fails to recall the of gravel, sand and clay for building and industrial purposes. fact when he returns to the normal state. tics of Materiais Dealt with.—Dredgers have It bas been commonly held by metaphysicians that the nature been constructed to deal, in varying degrees of efficiency, with of dreams is explained by the suspension of volition during sleep; anything from mud to rock. The materials when removed from Dugald Stewart asserts that it is not wholly dormant but loses the bottom are termed “spoil” and naturally occur in endless its hold on the faculties, and he thus accounts for the incoherence variety of kinds and mixture of kinds. In general, however, the of dreams and the apparent reality of dream images. natural basins of alluvial deposits forming the rivers and bays Cudworth, from the orderly sequence of dream combinations in which harbours and other marine works are mostly sited, are the situations peculiar to dredging operations. Sand and mud are the most common materials met with in dredging, forming the bulk of obstruction to navigation and of accumulations in and

about harbours and river channels. Materials other than sand and mud are more difficult to dredge. Clay and loam are classed as loose materials but can scarcely be regarded as “free-getting”’

as they may be somewhat difficult to dislodge from the apparatus

Hi

stimulation ofthe brain by the internal regions of through the sympathetic nervous system. fsmed atlas Geeks ees ts — of space, time, causality, etc.

when being discharged. Further along the scale of compactness comes a wide and rather indefinite class of mixtures of loam and boulders in various degrees of cementation. They are resistant to penetration and cause difficulty owing to size of the boulders. Gravel is often found in dense layers strongly compacted with sand, and this together with indurated sand, is difficult to disintegrate, but once penetrated removal is comparatively easy. Conglomerates, consisting of pebbles held together by natural forms of cement, and solid rock will require either the application of excessive — in the dredging tool or previous disintegration by percussion or blasting, with subsequent dredging of the débris.

|

b42

DREDGERS

AND DREDGING

—

WINCH. ear an an am man

Gee:

am ae

a

—

—— ——⸗ =- o mu w w a e a Q a m m m m w a qe w a a Àp œ aa

naman ep en a te

ENGINES

an

ae ae

HOPPER

BUCKET LADDER ` Boom

“A” Frame

r

TUGNTASLE

A5— SS aa

SWINGING WINCH HOISTING WINCH

ae

—

me——

—.

BOILER

aX

Canadanaa aa tne et ae a

—

GUIDE SPUD ANCHOR Spupe (2)

~~

BACKING Rope

| Arm Hostina Roe —— 7

—

FAILING SHOOT

REVOLVING SCREEN igs

Owrawutg BOX

BUCKET

Wanane Pans

F INITIAL POSITION

fis è

dard. NRichards DIAGRAMS

SHOWING

DREDGERS

IN ACTION

AND METHODS

Fig. 1.—Aotion of Buoket Ladder Hopper Dredger. Fig. 2.—Aotion of Suction Dredger. Dredger for the recovery of tin.

Fig. 5.—Moorings arranged for dredging

OF OPERATION

Fig. 3.—Action

a given area at one setting.

of Dipper Dredger. Fig. 6.—Method

Fig. 4.—Mining

of dredging

on the

“Walking Spud" system

Classification of Dredging Plant.—Dredgers fall into two main Classifications according to the conditions under which they operate, viz., sea-going vessels and vessels for inland water service.» The former are generally ship-shape vessels constructed as far as possible in the accepted manner for withstanding sea conditions and ocean voyages, and carrying their own propelling machinery. The latter class is of lighter construction partaking more of the box or pontoon form and generally lacking propelling machinery. There are, of course, intermediate types, and in general it may be said that dredging vessels of whatever type require to be more strongly constructed to withstand the working stresses to which they are subject than vessels for commercial purposes. Mining dredgers as a class are of the inland type. A further classification is possible according to the system on which they dispose of the dredged materials. “Stationary” dredgers discharge their spoil into barges brought alongside, or to river banks or shore either directly or through long shoots or pipes. “Hopper” dredgers _geceive the spoil into a specially formed hold or hopper in the of the dredger and, when fyll, proceed to sea or other con-

strictly within the definition of a dredger, in that they do no more than loosen without raising the spoil to the surface, yet serve to carry out in some measure with the help of moving water, the work of dredging. The Ladder Dredger—The main feature of the ladder dredger is a continuous chain of buckets running round a rigid frame called the ladder extending down from the ship to the bottom of the water, as shown in fig. 1. The buckets run empty down the underside of the ladder, dig into the material as they turn round the end, and return full along the top side of the ladder. On reaching the top each bucket, as it turns over, discharges its contents into a shoot which conveys the spoil to the vessel’s own hopper, or to a barge, or in some cases to the shore. The revolving members at each end of the ladder are called tumblers and the top tumbler drives the bucket chain. The ladder of the typical ladder dredger is hinged at the top to a high structure on

the vessel, the height of which is regulated by the requirements of

site to “dump” their load. The inland dredger class as a $is of the stationary type, but sea-going dredgers are of

the discharging operation, and extends downwards at an angle not exceeding 45° through an open recess or well in the hull, the lower end being supported by rope tackle which serves to adjust it to the dredging depth required or to raise it up entirely when it is desired to steam away. The Suction Dredger.—On the other hand the suction

mypes of Plant.—The basic types of dredging machine mecket ladder dredger, the suction or hydraulic dredger, the dippag,sdredger and the grab dredger. In addition, dredging

dredger, shown in fig. 2, depends on quite different agencies for its operation. Whereas the ladder dredger removes and raises the material mechanically, the suction or hydraulic dredger, as its name implies, relies on suction to lift the material to the surface. ‘The device consists essentially of an air-tight suction pipe, one end of which is lowered down to the bed of the sea or river, and the other connected with a centrifugal pump. The

Rjgnt

often nec@jaitates the employment of a variety of auxiliary. plants,

and —

yaumber of appliances which, —

*f falling

DREDGERS

AND

DREDGING

643

fatter comprises a casing within which an impeller or fanis re- operated jigs. This operation allows the heavy tin to sink to volved at high speed and by its action expels the contents, whether the bottom of the pans while the lighter soil remains in suspension air or water, outwards from the centre through an outlet on the in the water and passes overboard through a tail shoot. The metal periphery or rim of the casing, thereby causing a partial vacuum is collected from the pans at intervals. Prime Movers.—Steam is the universal motive power used on at the centre, to which the suction pipe is attached. The atmospheric pressure on the water outside proceeds to repair this vacuum by forcing water in through the only available route, viz., the suction pipe, and the water in its mad rush into the pipe agitates and carries with it a proportion of solids. In some situations, means are provided at the suction pipe end, or nozzle, of disintegrating or actually cutting the compact materials to enable them to come under the influence of the so-called suction. The Dipper Dredger—The dipper and grab dredgers are also of the bucket type, but more intermittent in operation than the ladder dredger. The dipper dredger is illustrated diagrammatically in fig. 3. The principal features of the dipper dredger are the bucket and the arm to which it is attached, the boom which supports and guides the arm and which is mounted on a turntable so that dredging can be undertaken round a wide arc and the load deposited to either side, the hoisting rope which

passes over a sheave at the boom head and gives the required excavating movement to the bucket, and the backing rope by means of which the vessel may be turned and moved forward using the bucket resting on the bottom as an anchor. The bucket has a hinged bottom, the catch of which is released by a hand rope to dump the load. To counteract the heavy digging reactions the vessel is made to rest on the bottom partly independent of water support on two anchor spuds, and a guide or poling spud is provided at the stern. The Grab Dredger.—-The grab dredger employs a slewing crane to operate its bucket which latter is in two parts hinged

together, and controlled by levers and chains or ropes. The bucket is dropped to the bottom in an open condition by means of one rope, digs in partially by virtue of its own weight, and completes its bite by means of the strong leverage effected by the other rope on the two halves when the crane begins to hoist. By holding on the hoist or “holding” rope and releasing the “closing” rope the bucket opens and discharges its contents. Some grabs are specially arranged to operate with one rope only, discharge being effected by means of a tripping device suspended from the jib head. Auxiliary Plant and Miscellaneous Appliances.—The auxiliary plant often to be found in connection with dredgers is of two types, one of which is employed before dredging and the other after. Examples of the former are rock-breakers and _ rock-

dredging plant, being particularly well adapted to the rough and fluctuating character of the work. Steam plant is comparatively simple and well understood, while its inherent flexibility is an invaluable characteristic for dredging operations, enabling it to accommodate itself conveniently to the constantly varying power requirements and, if need be, to sustain a heavy pressure on the tool when the latter has been brought to a dead stop by the severity of the work. The internal-combustion oil engine is finding some application in situations where economy of space and fuel are vital considerations, but, although suitable for driving centrifugal dredging pumps, is not yet the equal of steam plant for the majority of dredging applications. In general, its lower range of flexibility and inferior capabilities of sustained power at low speeds, together with the high pressures possible, necessitate the introduction of safeguards which operate to reduce the economy and convenience to be expected from its higher thermal efficiency and self-contained character. The diesel-clectric drive in which the oil engine operates under favourable conditions as a prime mover for the electric secondary machinery, which drives the various motions, has also been applied and possesses characteristics more suited to many dredging machines than the direct oil engine drive, although with the added cost and complication of

electrical equipment. The electric drive pure and simple is in use in the tin-mining areas where many dredgers are supplied through cables from a central generating station. Selection of Dredging Plant.-~It will be evident that the selection of dredging plant to satisfy the requirements of different

localities and different circumstances needs the exercise of sound judgment. The ladder dredger is eminently adapted for dealing up to great depths with all classes of material from mud to the softer varieties of rock, including small boulders, and of preparing a level bottom. Its mechanism tends to make it very heavy and cumbrous, with correspondingly heavy capital cost and upkeep charges. It may, however, be regarded as the universal large dredging tool and is preferred in a great number of cases where

accuracy of work in a wide variety of materials is required and 141% eos. veweman

Pes aa

—wae ‘on

i

j

oyaa da

5

EAN

—*

P

B

3

a

' a “3 ou

Ae + Bs. ~ anaga

drillers used to disintegrate rock by hammering or prepare it for blasting so that it may be dredged. The rock-breaker consists of a pointed heavy steel ram which is dropped through a guide repeatedly on the same spot, being raised by means of a rope operated by a special winch. Auxiliary plant used in the disposal of the dredged spoil comprises barges, either self-propelling or with tugs; reclamation vessels for delivering the spoil ashore; pipelines, floating and on shore; and shoots. The miscellaneous appli-

ances comprise snag pullers, grapnels, rakes and harrows, mechanical stirrers, water jets and other devices for placing the material into suspension so that it may be carried away by river flow or by the ebb tide. Being for the most part makeshift devices and not capable of extended applications they do not exhibit any marked degree of development. The Mining Dredger—The mining dredger for the recovery of precious metals is generally an adaptation of the Ladder Dredger. It is often to be found at considerable distances from a river, having cut its way through the land and deposited the spoil behind it, in effect carrying with it the pool in which it floats. A typical tin dredger is shown in fig. 4. The earth brought up by the buckets is discharged into a perforated cylindrical revolving screen which disintegrates it and allows the heavier téin-laden soil to drop through the perforations into a distributing box, while the large rough materials pass out of the screen and are discharged over thestern by a belt conveyor. The soil from the distributing box, together with an ample supply of water, is led by shoots into pans in which it is agitated by mechanically

e

ams a

ope ame

aeina

CANAL coueresy of WASHINGTON Orrick OF PANAMA DIPPER DREDGER AT WORK IN A "SLIDE" IN CULEBRA CUT DURING THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PANAMA CANAL

it can be kept fully employed, provided its bulk and widespread moorings are not of grave consequence. Seventy feet is the maximum dredging depth in sea works and this the ladder dredger can tackle. Some of the mining dredgers, however, work down to 100 feet and more. In more restricted situations and for less extensive projects the grab dredger will generally prove more economical in first cost and upkeep, and is well suited to

maintenance work and work of an intermittent nature or in awkward situations. The dipper dredger is as capable as the ladder dredger of dealing with all classes of materials and as a

DREDGERS ANI tool for really difficult individual tasks at depths up to some 3s5ft. has no equal, owing to the great force which can be exerted

:

with the cutting edge of its bucket and the large capacity, some- | spud

times up to 15cu.yd., of the latter. The grab dredger is not so powerful but can dredge at great depths exceeding any other type, and is eminently suitable for pioneer inland work. The suction dredger succeeds when large quantities of soft materials have to be dealt with, provided there is no objection to the large admixture of |

F í Ẹ 2

SẸ

i 5 : H ‘l ESR eeli + af B

Fa

water. Quantity not quality is its leading characteristic, for ít| breast mooring. The two spuds thus act as legs and the dredger effects its object in free-flowing materials by excavating large “walks” forward. Fig. 6 illustrates this method. holes in the bottom. The irregularities are subsequently lev- | Bar Dr edging.—A particular case in which a different method is the dredging of a navigable channel through a elled down by sea or river action, thus effecting an increase in | is employed the depth of water. In the more compact sands a series of high- bar blocking a river entrance. Here large quantities require to be pressure water jets around the nozzle serve to break up the mate- removed under arduous open sea conditions, precluding in most rial sufficiently, but in clay and similar substances a rotary cutter cases the employment of such a rigid structure as a bucket ladder, is required and serves to increase the accuracy of dredging to as or in some cases even the use of moorings. The suction dredger is great a degree as any dredger can attain. By reason of the large eminently adapted to this work as its suction pipe can be made quantity of water, often 90% of the total volume pumped, the flexibly jointed, thus relieving the ship of any bumping stresses. suction dredger is relatively inefficient, but the operation is con- The dredger simply steams to the dredging position, lowers the

E

tinuous and has the valuable property of enabling, when required, the spoil to be discharged direct through a pipe system to considerable distances without expensive re-handling. The majority of all types of dredgers have their excavating member so located in is generally performed in some 30 to 40 minutes even with the largest hoppers up to 4,000 tons or more capacity. Without advance of the hull that the vessel can cut its own flotation. Methods of Dredging.—In the case of the bucket dredger further ado the dredger steams out to sea, deposits the load practically only one general method of dredging is pursued. The through the doors arranged in the bottom, and returns to carry vessel is moored by means of six anchors and chain cables set out out the same procedure. In those cases where the sand will not run as shown diagrammatically in fig. 5. The head and stern moor- freely to the suction pipe, the latter requires to be made somewhat ings are much longer than the side moorings, and the vessel more rigid and is fitted with a drag head or cutting edge. The swings to or pivots about the head mooring A and is dragged dredger steams slowly ahead, and the drag head slices off the slowly transversely by one pair of side moorings C and D. On material to a depth of 18 inches or two feet to bring it under the reaching the limit of the cut to that side the vessel is advanced influence of the suction pipe. This is of course a rough operation, about six feet by pulling on the head mooring, the stern line being as the result is simply the cutting of a series of longitudinal furpaid out to correspond, and the vessel is dragged across to the rows. In such situations the bar is often of sufficient width to other side of the cut by side moorings E and F, the other side permit of a full load being obtained in one cut. The drag method moorings C and D being paid out the while. This operation goes on is also employed successfully where the area is large and the until the head chain becomes too short and the angles of the side depth to be removed small, and it is capable of more accurate chains tend to become ineffective, when the vessel is pulled back work than ordinary suction dredging. by the stern mooring B to commence a fresh series of cuts at a

lower depth or, if the required depth has been reached, dredging is stopped for the time being and the whole of the anchors taken up and relaid in a fresh position. The depth of cut is on the average about 18 inches and the handling of the moorings is effected by steam winches. The excellent control of operations which this method gives permits of very accurate dredging. In reality the dredged area would at first present the appearance of a ploughed field with exaggerated furrows, but sea or current action soon levels out the ridges. Influence of Tide and Weather.—In a sea-way the whole operation is highly skilled, as the dredging master must adjust the depth of his ladder to the varying tide level so as to keep the work uniform, and it will be appreciated that inclement conditions

will make it exceedingly difficult to maintain a level bottom. In

practice, work is not generally permissible when the swell attains some two feet in height, owing to the structure being exposed to immense stresses from the ladder bumping on the bottom. It

Stationary Dredging—In the case of the dipper dredger which relies on spuds, no external moorings are necessary. The dredging machinery being arranged on a turntable, cuts are taken round an arc of some go° or more while the vessel remains stationary. The anchor spuds are then lifted and the vessel moved up to suit the next series of cuts by means of the backing rope and the stern spud acting after the manner of a punt pole. The anchor spuds are then re-set and dredging operations continued. A development of the suction dredger employs a suction pipe mounted on a turntable after the manner of a dipper dredger, and operates on a similar method, the hull being kept stationary during the progress of each arc of cut either by moorings or by spuds. The grab dredger is another example of this system of operation, butrequires some three or four moorings only to retain and adjust its position at its work, the dredging reactions being purely vertical. Determination of Work Done.—The work done by dredgers is measured either “in the solid” or “in the loose” as the two methods are termed. ee ee ee

will be ap that this system of dredging constitutes a serious jon to shipping in a narrow waterway, more when barges are | to remove the «poil, and that the levels of the excavation. Measurement in the loose is based on a operation of lifting and relaying moorings on a fresh field is a determination of ‘the amount of spoil actually issuing from the heavyr ing. A hopper dredger will present less of an dredger, either from theknown capacity of thebarges or obstacle but loses, for dredging, the time occupied in transporting pipe-line work, the dredgings to the dumping site and returning to its work. When the hopper.is full, the three forward chains are coupled together and let go, and similarly with the three stern moorings, the ends being attached to mark buoys. The operation of picking up these moorings again and connecting them to the winches is also one of considerable moment.

Suction Dtedging.—The suction dredger operates generally

on the same principles as the bucket dredger, but in some cases the six anchér moorings are dispensed with in favour of two “walking” spuds, placed abreast some distance apart at the stera, **

fia.

DREDGERS

BY

COURTESY

OF

C(t.

THE

YLIBA

MAMUPFAT TUBING

CO

,

(2.

4)

THE

GOLD

RANDOLPM

AND

PERKING

AND

CO

CHANNEL

(3,

THE

WAYWARD

DREDGES

CO.

(8,

AT

6)

TOR

ELLICOVY

MACHINE

4. Large dipper dredge at work

2. Gold dredge in Bonanza Creek, Yukon, a forerunner of dredge in fig. 1.

5. Hydraulic pipe-line dredge, showing arm dredging head revolves, digging silt pipe located within dredging arm. seen the discharge pipe, leading from

gravel

3. Orange-peel

dredge dipping

up siag from side of pier.

In this form of

dredge the hoist controls a bucket divided into triangular sections pointed at base. When lowered the bucket is open until it strikes into bed of material. then closed upon the material. The filled bucket is shown being carried over wall of the pier fice

COMP.

WORK

1. Digging ladder of a large gold dredge. The steel derrick supports the ladder arm, around which the bucket chain travels. Shell buckets raise the gold-bearing sand of river bed for panning within dredge house. The size of the machine is evident by comparison with the figures at left Right, bucket chain removing gold-bearing sand from creek bed; centre, power and separating house; left, discharge conveyor dumping

WIT

,

DREDGING

in the Panama

canal.

This type of dredge

operates like a steam shovel, scooping up material from bed of waterway and depositing it in barge at side. A trap door in the bucket scoop is operated by a chain of rope under the movable arm in the

swinging hoist

6. Hydraulic

raised which At left dredge

above surface. The spiral is drawn by suction into edge of picture may be to barge or to land

dredge driven by Diesel engine used in shallow water.

dredge is shown removing grass-grown bank from river channel. pipe line may be seen (right) in the rear of the dredge, supported pontoons reaching the shore

The A by

DREISER-—-DRENTE Disposal of Spoil—The disposal ofspoil demands close con-|not, however, follow until 1911. It had been written asarelief

sideration as it has an important effect on the cost of dredging. | from editorial work, and its publication found Dreiser now de» Where it is desired simply to get rid of as in the im- | voting himself entirely to literature. In 1912 be brought out The

$

requisite |Financier, the first of two books based upon the career of the

deposit it in magnate, Charlies T. Yerkes. The second, The Titan, folwill find its | lowed in 1914. In the year between Dreiser published A Treveller | For this | ct Forty, an autobiographical volume, the fruit of a first trip or towed, may be | abroad. The Genius, in 1925, was a long and detailed study of the sea the spoil which it ex- | ruthless type of artistic temperament. This was fallowed by number of | Dreiser’s first venture into intimate drama, Plays of the Natural out. The | and Supernatural, and the same year, 1916, brought forth A vary almoat | Hoosier Holiday, based upon arevisiting of his native State. Subit i such an | sequent volumes included Free end Other Stories (1918) and The expensive item ofplant as a dredger fully employed if at all possi- | Hand of the Potter, a tragedy (1918); Twelve Men (1919); Hey, ble, and the use of hopper dredgers is only resorted to when at- | Rub-a-Dub-Dub (1920); A Book about Myself (1922) and The tendant barge traffic iseither impracticable on account of inclem- | Color of a Great City (1923). In 1925 the publication of As ent conditions or likely to cause serious additional obstruction | Assericen Tragedy, based upon an actual American crime, brought to navigation in a busy and restricted waterway. The hopper | Dreiser his first widespread popular recognition. The novel was type is useful also in the smaller sizes for general maintenance | dramatized by Patrick Kearney, presented by the Theatre Guild,

work as a self-contained unit. In those cases where the distance | and proved the sensational play of the season.

to the dumping site does notexceed a mile or two or where the | Theodore Dreiser was in 1928 probably the most important material is required for reclamation purposes, towed barges are |realist writing fiction in the United States, and this, in spite of the used, while for long distances, large speedy selfbarges | fact that he has been called ‘the most suppressed and insuppress-

ible writer in America,” and the more important fact that he can

deposited directly on the banks through long shoots, but direct method is more generally applicable to the ma for wide waterways and to the dipper or grab dredgers channels. For the important work of reclaiming land is dredger and a long pipe-line are generally employed so long as free-getting materials are to be dealt with. The portion of pipe-line from the dredger to the shore is made in sections 30 to soft. long, flexibly connected together by ball and socket joints so as to permit the dredger its necessary range of movement. Each

i

E

section of the pipe is carried on a pontoon and the floating pipeline connects to a shore delivery pipe-line laid directly on the ground or mounted on trestles. If harder materials must necessarily be used or the conditions of exposure or obstruction to navigation preclude the use of a pipe-line, it becomes necessary to

employ a fleet consisting of a cutter-suction or ladder dredger and a special reclamation vessel with barges as the connecting links. The reclamation vessel is in most respects equipped like a suction dredger except that its suction pipe is arranged over one side so as to dip into a barge; it is moored to a wharf or staging on the other side and its discharge pipe is flexibly connected direct to the rapa acti at By this means low-lying areas situated up to 6,000 feet from the water-front can be reclaimed, ap at still further distances by the — of — —ee pain pede

subject further will nd the nas

—— Dred T Dia (1912) ; C. Earl, G ee a n ee Pumps 47Suction Dredgers Mc okin ;— Henae & Costs

of Raoevaion (1923); P.M.

Dredging — (1937) The writer is indebted to to the many firms in who have furnished of

————

hardly be said to have achieved a style, his writing being often heavy-handed and clumsy. His large mai ny, vendor attention to detail, the cumulative effect he gains by ) presentation of the exact truth are qualities that would not in themselves account for the stature he has attained as a novelist. A greater quality than these is to be found in the deep human sympathy underlying his treatment even of the most sordid and sombre human affairs. It goes hand in hand with a sincerity that has never swerved. The manner of Dreiser's writing has been the subject of much criticiam from an artistic point of view; but there is general agreement as to the value of his super-reportorial presentation of some of the most significant aspects of modern American civilisation. He builds solidly the story, for the most part, of tragic lives, tracing their inevitable course every step of the way and refraining from any comment save that implicit in the lives

—

He has achieved a remarkable @etachment in his

ng

A brother of Theodore Dreiser was the late Paul Dresser, the popular song-writer. A collection of his best songs has recently appeared with an introduction written by Dreiser. Further biographical and bibliographical material upon this novelist may be found in Burton Rascoe'’'s Theodore Dreiser (1925), in Bessie

Graham's The Bookmon’s Manual (1924) and in H. L. Mencken's A Book of Prefaces (1917).

(W. R. Bez.)

DRELINCOURT, CHARLES (1595-1669), French Prot-

estant divine, born at"Sedan on July 10, 1595, became minister of the Reformed Church at Charenton. His Catechism (Catéchisme ou instruction familière, 1652) and Christian's Defense against the Fears of Death (Consolations de l'âme fidèle contre les frayeurs de la mort, 1651) became well-known in England by means of translations, which were vety fragu@iitly reprin

hasbeen said that Defoe wrotehis fiction

Mrs Veal (A True

Relation of the Apparition a Mrs. Veal), who came from the other world to recommend the perusal of Drelincourt on Death, for the express purpose of promoting tHe sale of the English translation of the Consolations, to the fourth edition of which

; ta

o

aon S a

Drelincourt died on Nov. 3,

a province of Holland, bounded north and north-

land; area, 1,028 sq.m.; pop. (1926) 222,785. Drente is a sandy plateau forming the nucleus of tbe surrounding provinces.

The sandy soll is covered with bleak moorland, patches of wood, and by the strip of fertile clay and grase-land which is found slong the river banks, and by the areas

646

DRESDEN

i

) where it ends in the ridge the Hondsrug (Dog’s Back) along the were sold to the government. Owing to its geographical isolation, the development of eastern border. The watershed runs from east to west, along the line of the Orange canal. The southern streams are all col- has remained behind that of the other provinces of the lected at two points on the southern borders, namely, at Meppel lands, and the character and customs of the people and Koevorden, whence they communicate with the Zwarte Water conservative. Assen is the chief town. In the south are and the Vecht respectively by means of the Meppeler Diep and and Koevorden. Hoogeveen, situated between these two, owes its the Koevorden canal. The Steenwyker Aa, however, enters the origin to the fen reclamation which was begun here in 1625. Zuider Zee independently. The northern rivers all flow into Extensive fir woods have been laid out in the neighbourhood. Groningen. Zuidlaren, at the northern end of the Hondsrug, has an important History.—The megalithic sepulchral mounds, the Hune- market. The railway from Amsterdam to Groningen traverses bedden, particularly along the western edge of the Hondsrug Drente: branch lines connect Meppel with Leeuwarden and Assen suggest the early settlement of the region. In the sth and 6th with Delfzýl. centuries the country was overrun by Saxon tribes, and later on DRESDEN, a city of Germany, capital of the republic of was governed by counts under the Frankish and German kings. Saxony, 71 m. È.S.E. from Leipzig and 111 m. S. from Berlin by In 1046 the emperor Henry III. gave the countship to the bishop railway. Pop. (1925) 619,157, mainly Lutheran. It lies 402 ft. and chapter of Utrecht, who governed it through the burgrave, or above the Baltic, in a broad valley on both banks of the Elbe. chAtelain, of Koevorden, a dignity which became hereditary after The prospect of cupolas, towers, spires and copper green roofs 1143 in the family of Ludolf or Roelof, brother of Heribert of is of striking beauty. On the left bank of the river are the AltBierum, bishop of Utrecht (11381150). After 1232 the count- stadt (old town) with old and new suburbs, and the Friedrichship passed to Henry I. of Borculo (1232-1261). In 1395 Reinald stadt (separated from the Altstadt by a long railway viaduct); IV. (d. 1410) of Borculo-Koevorden was deposed by Bishop Fred- on the right, the Neustadt (new town), Antonstadt, and Albererick of Utrecht, and the country was henceforth administered stadt. Five fne bridges connect the Altstadt and Neustadt. The by an episcopal official (amptman). With its popularly elected beautiful central bridge—the Alte or Augustusbriicke—with 16 assembly of twenty-four Etten (jurati) Drente remained prac- arches, built in 1727-1731, and 1,420 ft. long, has been demolished tically independent. In 1522 it was conquered by Duke Charles (1906) and replaced by a wider structure. Up-stream are the of Gelderland, from whom it was taken by the emperor Charles two modern Albert and KGnigin Carola bridges, and, down-stream, V. in 1536, and from that time it became part of the Habsburg the Marien and the Eisenbahn (railway) bridges. dominions. History.—Dresden (Old Slav Dresga, forest, Drezgajan, forDrente took part in the revolt of the Netherlands, but owing est-dwellers), which is known to have existed in 1206, is of Slato its poverty and sparse population, it had no separate repre- vonic origin, and was originally founded on the right bank of the sentation in the assembly of the states general. It was subdued Elbe, on the site of the present Neustadt, which is thus actually by the Spaniards in 1580, but reconquered by Maurice of Nassau the old town. It became the capital of Henry the Illustrious, marin 1594. Drente retained its local independence and had its own grave of Meissen, in 1270, but belonged for some time after his stadtholder. At the general assembly of 1651 Drente unsuccess- death, first to Wenceslaus of Bohemia, and next to the margrave fully claimed admission as a province. After the deaths of of Brandenburg. Early in the 14th century it was restored to the William II. (1650) and of William III. (1702) Drente remained margrave of Meissen. On the division of Saxony in 1485 it for a time without a stadtholder, but in 1722 William Charles fell to the Albertine line, which has since held it. Having been Henry, who had become prince of Orange, was elected. His burned almost to the ground in 1491, it was rebuilt; and in the descendants held the office, which was declared hereditary, until 16th century the fortifications were begun and gradually extended. the French conquest in 1795. In 1796 Drente at length obtained John George IT., in the 17th century, formed the Grosser Garten, representation in the states general. Between 1806 and 1813 and otherwise greatly improved the town; in the first half of the Drente, with the rest of the Netherlands, was incorporated in 18th century, Augustus I. and Augustus II., kings of Poland as the French empire, and, with part of Groningen, formed the well as electors of Saxony, modernized Dresden. The Neustadt, department of Ems Occidental. With the accession of William I. which had been burned down in the 17th century, was founded as king of the Netherlands it was restored to its old position as a anew by Augustus I.; he also founded Friedrichstadt. The town province of the new kingdom. was bombarded in 1760 during the Seven Years’ War. Napoleon Two industries have for centuries been associated with the made it a centre of operations in 1813, and one buttress and two barren heaths and sodden fens so usually found together on the arches of the old bridge were blown up. The dismantling of the sand-grounds, namely, the cultivation of buckwheat and peat- fortifications, begun by the French in 1810, was completed after digging. The latter being directed:algo towards the draining of the 1817, and gardens and promenades made. Many buildings were land and its subsequent use foriggitivation. The soil thus pre- completed or founded by King Anthony, from whom Antonstadt pared is, however, soon exhausted: Potatoes, rye, oats, beans derives its name. Dresden again suffered severely during the revoand peas are cultivated. In connection with the cultivation of lution of 1849, but all traces of the disturbances which then took lace were soon effaced. In 1866 it was occupied by the Prussians, potatoes, the by-products (spirits, „potato meal, etc.), are important. Furthermore, agriculture is accompanied on the sand- who did not finally evacuate it until the spring of the following grounds by the rearing of a poor type of sheep and cattle, which year. There was a good dea! of fighting in the streets during the assist in fertilizing the soil. The breeding of pigs is also widely year of 1919. Situation and Buildings.—Dresden is often called “German practised. Of the fen-colonies in Drente the best known are those of Frederiksoord and Veenhuisen. Florence,” because of its situation, its art treasures snd tbe eduOwing to the general condition of poverty which prevailed cational advantages it offers. Within two decades (1880-1900) the after the French evacuation early in the roth century, attention capital almost at a single bound advanced into the front rank of was turned to the unreclaimed. heath-lands in the eastern prov- German commercial and industrial! towns; but while gaining in inces, and the Society of Ch began by establishing the free prosperity it has lost much of its mediaeval aspect, and old buildagricultural colony of Frederilgioord, about 10 m. N. of Meppel. ings in the heart of the Altstadt have been swept away. The In addition, various industries, such as mat and rope making, Theaterplatz in the Altstadt is especially fne. The most imposing churches include the Roman Catholic Hofand jute and cotton weaving were introduced. In later times forest culture was added, and the Gerard Adriaan van Swieten kirche, built (1739-1751) by C. Chiaveri, in rococo style, with 300 ft. high. It contains a fine organ and pictures, the schools of forestry, agriculture and horticulture were established. a tower On the Neumarkt is the To this colony were added those of Willemsoord and Kolonie VII. sande being sinned wih g9 Fai with stone cupola rising 311 ft.; close to the Akin Overysel, and Wilhelminasoord partly in Friesland. The colony Frauenkirche, by fire in — of Veenhuisen lies about 7 m. N.W., of Assen, and was founded markt, the Kreuskirche, rebuilt after destruction by a cupola; by the same society in 18a3. In 185ọ, the Veenhuisen estates also with a lofty tower surmounted

ai

DRESDEN

i

k

| aa” D

Soe

oe oe




Y

© A,

ip

d

— yen FPS ae)J

7

Vc(or partly) from the Caucasus hy

—5

|i

9 sea, wore characteristic headgear

L\ TY J — lilira weyegg, man “eee Fig. 3.—wINCANS IN THE TOMB OF USER-AMON.

RHYTON

AND

WITH

MINOAN

STANDING

overran the Minoan lands at the end of the Bronze age, coming perhaps from Europe, perhaps

BULL-

BULL

of their own, tbe Philistines a

high feathered cap, the Shardana a round helmet with crescent and ball as insignia. They may have shaved their heads or worn short hair,

as

it is never

shown

long

in the Minoan and the (shorter)

carly classical Greek (Iron age) fashion. The kilt was common to them as also to the Hittites of Anatolia. puttees, or high boots like those still universally worn in thorny and During the early classical period, Greek men wore their hair stony Crete, of soft white leather. The arms and neck were deco- long, but not so long as the Minoans. Generally reaching the small rated with bracelets and necklaces of gold or silver, or stone and of the back, it was worn either hanging in loose ringlets (somekyenos (glass heads). Then, next to the narrow waist, the most times with a band at the neck), or else braided in two plaits that characteristic note of Minoan male costume, the hair, was evidently were wound round the head (we bave no instance of this fashion worn at its full natural length. Occasionally it is seen cut short, in Minoan times), rolled round a headband, or knotted in a at the back of. the bead. Short hair did not come into but this would seem to be so only in the case of mourning men aaafthos and priests; the latter seem to bave worn long robes, confined fashion until the second quarter of the fifth century, after the

DRESS

62

‘Persian wars, and then was retained (except, as now, in the of priests) for 1,000 years, throughout Roman periods until the fall of the Roman Empire, “barbarian” fashion of long hair came in again. A difference tween Minoan and classical Greek costume isseen in the f the early Greek men often went more or naked; ally exposed their persons in a way that the Minoans never did. We have only onecertain representation of a naked Minoan, and he is swimming, and one doubtful, the “Blue Boy” or saffron-gatherer

on a fresco from Knossos. There is none of women (see below). Women’s hair in the early Iron age was always worn banging,

in tresses, over the shoulders, sometimes confined at the neck by a band. (For classical Greek dress see section “Greek and Roman.”’) : eS

Minoan women wore a heavy petticoat-like skirted and flounced

garment reaching the ankles and a sort of short-sleeved “souave” jacket, sometimes with a tight belt like the men. This dress was gaily ornamented with patterned designs. The flounces of the ‘skirt make it resemble curiously the fashionable European skirts of the ‘708

—

and ’8os (Boston statuette of a goddess).

The breasts‘were exposed or protected by

sheaths. But po representation of a nude

woman exists. W cloak with a high “Medici” collar behiei is represented. On the head are various

erally the hair flowed Mose represented as clipped cay, than that of the men, s been unshorn from childhod its length; the hair of the wàr reaches the waist. It is not ofie

oY covntnsy tuetun

oF

WHE

LEIDEN

Fie, 4.—BRONZE FIGURE OF A YOUTH WEARING A PETASOS

case of the women until the La® period (c. 1500 B.C.) when we gee a court fashion of bare heads with the hair partly knotted befind, partly falling at the sides in comparatively short curls, the fashion much resembling that of the touch of the French Second Ey Empress Eugénie (Knossos frescoes). were often worn, of a type resembling those of classical times

(ibid., Mycenae; Tiryns frescoes). Necklaces of gold, lapis and

glaes of the peculiar Minoan blue (Ayanos), were of course worn, and possibly ear-rings by the women. We have only one representation of a man wearing ear-rings, and that is doubtful (cupbearer fresco, Knossos). Egyptian and Asiatic men and women both wore ear-rings and ear-studs, the Egyptians from about 1500 B.c., and not before. Elaborate gold hairpins were used by the Minoan women; golden hairpins of simpler form also by the men, as we see from their discovery with weapons in tombs of men at Mycenae. They would of course be as necessary for the heavy male coiffure as for the women’s hair, The women’s shoes are rather a doubtful point; probably their feet were usually unshod. Priestesses wore long waisted robes which were also worn by priests, apparently, or temple-musicians of the male sex, as in Lydia. When they participated in the games, as in the religious sport of the bull-leaping (ray |) the girls wore the young men’s dress of tight belt and waistclout (Knossos fresco, etc.). costume than the female, resentations of men, and the

costumes to certain paiiode

The femala*cost

an the male, though in the Early Iron Greek age women still

wore a full skirt tightly confined atthe waist, just asthe sien dften wote

a tight belt round the waist in the Mincas

Bustaocearay-~J. Å.

L. Myres, ASN.

P. Wace, dGeeton Sietvetss i Kie —

1927);

(London. 1928).

. Hall,

Civilisation

. reece

—

;

EGYPTIAN COSTUME

f

`

Until the 18th Dynasty men in the way of costume wore a simple white kilt, which under the 12th Dynasty was often made very high, so that it began almost immediately under the armpits. It was often starched and stiff in the case of persons of some rank. Kings wore more particoloured garments, of the same general type; in archaic days unconventional clothes were apparently worn by them, which later fell out of use. In early days the natural hair was worn long, and the kings kept it in a linen bag of characteristic shape, to exclude the dust, with a pigtail behind, which in later times was retained as a specifically royal headdress, pigtail and all, although the head was really shaved and a short wig worn. Wigs were probably introduced very early, and it may well be imagined that the discomfort of thick and long hair in the Egyptian climate conduced to their invention. We certainly find them in use as early as the Old Kingdom, and a fringe of false hair was found in a 1st Dynasty tomb at Abydos. Under the 4th and sth Dynasties a short wig of curls cut step-wise was popular; wigless heads are rare. Under the 11th, we have at the British museum two companion figures of a noble wearing each a different type of kilt, and one a short wig, the other a skullcap. Under the rath Dynasty the hair was kept shorn close to the skull rather than shaved, and the wig was of a longer and very conventional type; men are often represented without it. Under the 13th Dynasty the wig grows longer still, and either it (or possibly the natural hair?) is dressed in three masses, one over each shoulder, the third down the back, something like contemporary female fashion (see below), but not plaited. Under the 18th Dynasty the long natural hair was commonly worn again, sometimes simply parted in the middle and combed down over the shoulders, but far more usually surmounted by a short wig, so that we see the natural hair falling in front of the ears to the level of the chin or shoulder, while the short artificial wig above it is cut off diagonally across the ears, and forms a equare fringe of curls in front. Many men however undoubtedly shaved the head, as of old, and wore nothing but a wig, usually imitating the combed wig and long hair fashion, the shoulderlocks being stiff curls as artificial as the rest. In the Ramesside period all men of position appear to have shaved the head and

rf Fie S.—GHARDINA l

1 GUARDS

/N\theOld Kingdom, cameinagain Under i WITH first a modification —

Rames-

Prate UT

: epl

.

“4 —

—

—R as '

a ce Ee aa

bn

"e "5 nn

4 v

-

A

Phos

i

P

—

te

aa

—

k

Oe vi,

—

ws —

a?

*

Mia

Maty

ia

$

;|

ee!

PVPS

eee

rE ee

rH

©

ey

rTBe

veyraryrrs'*

1

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

DIRECTOR

Of

THK

VICTORIA

AND

ALBERT

eA

Mucus

TUNICS

AND

CLOAK,

LATE

EGYPTIAN

1. Cloak from Egypt, Graeco-Roman period, 3rd or 4th century B.C. It is of linen cloth, faced with interwoven loops in linen and purple woul, and oblong in shape. It served also as a shroud for the dead 2. Child's linen tunic from Akhmim, Egypt, 4th or 5th century B.C. The tapestry-woven ornaments are in purple waol and linen thread

3. Man's linen tunic from Akhmim, Egypt. 3rd or 4th century B.C. The two purple stripes. indicating the rank of Roman senator, and the double sleeve-bands are tapestry woven in purple wool and undyed linen

OO

Ne ORI

*

ů

—

PLATE IV

BY

COURTESY

OF

INE

DIRECTOR

OF

THE

VICTURIA

AND

ALBERT

MisEUM

ENGLISH

DRESS,

16TH

1. Coat and trunks (1681) made for Sir Thomas Isham's wedding, but never worn. The drab-coloured silk brocade is woven in silver-gilt thread and cream-coloured slik 2. Lady's dress and petticoat (early 18th silk, embroidered with coloured silks

century),

of coffee-coloured

3. Back of lady's dress, Elizabethan (1558-1603). The silk brocade woven in eetours on a cream-coloured ground and slashed

Is

TO

18TH

CENTURY

4. Man's coat, early 18th century 5. Glove, said to be of Henry VIII.’s era, but possibly suggested

by the style

Scotland

and

coloured

silks,

rose

gold and silver 6. Shoe

and

clog

of decoration

of England.

silver-gilt

thread

and

the

of James

alternating

|.'s, as

thistle

of

The

satin

cuff, embroidered

with

and

seed

pearls,

is fringed

with

brocaded

front

lace

(early

18th

century),

silk damask

and

GREEK.AND ROMAN)

DRESS

653

through a hole in which theplait emerged, asa religious

certainly centinued to shave their heads, and go without wigs.

worn till Roman days. Peasants habitually wore t

long time afterwards. The female mummies of this and later

Caps, or hats, except occasionally a light skullcap, were not |ìn order to wear certain headdresses with convenience, for a time usually exhibit a mixture of real and false hair whea the

hair more orlesslong, and usually worked naked or

closeas they doto-day. waist clout, fittin g

“hair” is not wholly a wig. But one woman, an unknown person

Dynasty men’s dress became more elaborate kr) buried in the tomb of Amenhotep Il., has very long natural waist clout or kilt a long linen robe was worn, carefully fluted or . Small girls often wore part of their natural hair plaited at gauffred, depending from just below the ) side to signify youth like the boy's sidelock, or even often had in complete imitation of the boys navel, while a cape or semi-sleeved jacket

troduced from Asia and were worn after the middie of the dynasty as ordinarily by men asby women. The studs (of rosette | `

Necklaces, car-studs,

aR

shape) were large and made a great hole

in the lobe, which is always indicated in *«r*"

elaborately-patterned caped or shawled garments were worn. Women often seem to have worn a lily on their heads, and both mummies. Later on, after the 20th p Dynasty, these great ear-studs were no longer worn by men, head, which is carefully represented in the tombpaintings and stelae., In Roman times women (and men at feasts) and after the 22nd women also seem to have wore large wreaths; Greek costume was then no doubt largely But small ear-rings were inly worn by worm by both sezes. Otherwise only the queens wore anything in women under the Saites, though the piercing of the way of a headdress (see above). ` (H. R. H.) for them was not noticeable enough to be represented in statues. Shoes, or sandals of reed or palm-fibre were now GREEK AND ROMAN for the better classes; cartier the feet had always been bare. Sources of information about the dress of the ancient Greeks The elaborate dress of the 18th Dynasty persisted with and Romans are to be found in their literature, their sculpture and alteration till Ptolemaic times, although under the Saites their painted vases. Existing examples, though mostly provincial are often represented archaistically as wearing only the kilt, as and late in origin, are also of some historical interest. In primiunder the Old Kingdom. In Roman times a new fashioned gar- tive times, among both the Greeks and Romans one voluminous ment with dagged borders leaving one shoulder bare, was intro- cloak was thought sufficient dress for a man, and even in later duced. The royal crown proper g, which remained the same times it was the only garment regarded as indispensable. A tunic or shift was nevertheless worn by men, women and children. At from the 1st Dynasty till Roman times, was composed oftwo first it appears to have been sleeveless, but individual fancy and parts, J the upper, white, for Upper Egypt, and y , red, for variations due to colonization or conquest caused much diversity in apparel. Among the Romans the tunic was often ornamented. Lower Egypt. A peculiar blue royal helm, Ly was introduced The tunica palmata was worn at triumphs. Men of senatorial rank under the 18th Dynasty. wore a tunic with a double stripe in purple down the front (tunica Women—tThe early dress of women was a close-fitting gar- laticlavia). Knights had a narrow stripe from each shoulder ment, often blue, with a yoke over the shoulders and a “hobble” downwards (tunica angusticlavia). In this latter form the tunic skirt. Wigs were early worn over the natural hair which is shown went into common use. A man’s linen tunic of Graeco-Roman parted in the middle beneath it in a 4th Dynasty statue in the times from Egypt (fig. 1) has the two purple woolen stripes as British Museum. Except under the 13th Dynasty, when the men’s well as double sleeve-bands. Other tunics found in Egypt were coiffure was as long as that of the women, the women’s wigs were more elaborately embellished. One for a child (fig. 2) has in adalways longer than the men’s. Under the sath the hair, real or dition a roundel on each shoulder, and two others both on front false, was worn in a peculiar style, in two masses, bound with and back. In course of time the simple slit for thrusting the | or cut away in front. Two tunics were sometimes worn; as t and probably always among the peasantry) no other garment was considered necessary. The cloak, worn over the tunic, varied much at different times } plaits. This coiffure conand places. Among the Greeks it usually took the form of a large tinued till the 18th Dynasty, oblong cloth wrapped about the body so as to envelop it from the when it was succeeded by a more neck to the ankles. The Romans used a similar garment, known flowing coiffure of plaits and as the pallium. But the distinctive Roman cloak was the toga, a curls. Certainly women somelarge cloth in the form of the segment of a circle (rather less than times had shaven heads beneath a semi-circle) worn with the straight side uppermost. One end came forward over the left shoulder reaching nearly to the ground. was then passed round the back, over (or under)

7 statuary of is time, and found on Fi6. 6" TNENEADORESS

EbE

EF

:Fzef

arm, and the front, the other end being thrown left s There were variations in of according to time and place. polls, | The toga oga was when there was work to be done. In later times it became a ceremonial garment, gradually losing its

id Ë $ i $ i iE f f i Ẹ

,| i||! g

oF

¥

until it was no more than an ornamental

worn few shreds of men’s and

-|

Q,

Fo

, these specimens from the Crimea De aR erg

ady Per D

a age

654

DRESS

[MEDIAEVAL AND MODERN

are mostly coloured (generally purple or green). Some are plain

earlier in France or Italy, where many fashions originated, and or striped; others have woven, embroidered or painted designs. they would tend to survive later in the north. What may be described as “tailoring,” as distinct from drapThe ornamentation includes deities, figures on horseback, chariots, ing, comes into notice about the end of the 13th century. Garbirds; vines, honeysuckle and scrolls. In Graeco-Roman Egypt the cloak is oblong, and often of ample ments then begin to be shaped more to the body, leaving less dimensions. It is variously ornamented, with figures, animals, liberty of adjustment to the wearer. In the latter part of the birds, fishes, trees, plants, foliage and conventional patterns. A 14th century “dagging” (the cutting of the edges of the garments remarkably fine example, of linen, with purple ornamentation in into fanciful shapes) takes an exaggerated form, which it keeps looped woolen weaving, is here illustrated (fig. 3). The Roman for half a century or more. For head-coverings the plain white wimple began to give way, cloak was put to a variety of uses. It might be spread over a bed or couch or laid on the floor. It served also as a shroud for towards the end of the 14th century, to elaborate head-dresses— burial. Those found in Egypt have all been used at last for en- the horned, the mitre, the turban—culminating in the fantastic veloping the dead. The tunic and cloak were the chief garments steeple head-dress or “hennin” of the later 15th century, from of Greek and Roman times, but various others were worn in dif- France. In the 14th century men wore a kind of hood turned ferent places and on particular occasions. One among them, the sideways on the head. This was followed by a closefitting cap chlamys, may be mentioned. It was a kind of short mantle or which, towards the third quarter of the 15th century, was heightscarf, apparently more ornamented (as a rule) than the large ened so as to resemble the Turkish “fez” after which it became cloak. In shape it seems to have been either a narrow oblong or lower and flatter. the segment of a circle. The garments of the Greek and Roman Shoes, which in early times were for the most part of fur or women were more voluminous than the men’s, but otherwise they leather, tied by thongs round the instep or ankles, gradually took did not differ greatly in classical times. Instead of the toga, form with sole and uppers approximately more or less to the women wore the stola, with the pallium over it. Men often went barefooted, but leather or wood sandals and buskins were worn. Women wore shoes, and carried fans and parasols. Knitted socks, and knitted or netted caps, hair-nets and bags have been found in abundance in Egypt. Caps of fur and leather, and broad-brimmed hats, were worn on occasion. Brooches, clasps and girdles were used, especially by the women, but the skill of the wearer in

shape of the foot, until in the 14th century a tendency to bring the toes to a sharp point is noticeable. In the later years of this century the uppers were sometimes pierced in fanciful shapes. Chaucer refers to this practice when he speaks of the priest Absalon having ‘“‘Paul’s windows carven on the shoes.” Shoes with Gothic tracery over the instep were shown in the wall paintings representing King Edward III. and members of his family, for-

adjusting the cloak seems to have been chiefly relied on for keeping it in position.

merly in St. Stephen's chapel at Westminster. At the end of the century the shoes of Richard II. are covered with quatrefoils and

MEDIAEVAL AND MODERN

discs. The “Cracowe” or “poulaine,” from Poland, with pointed toes of greatly exaggerated length, then followed, until at the

The tunic and cloak, which were the principal garments worn in end of the 15th century the fashion ran to the opposite extreme. 16th and 17th Centuries—lIn the first half of the 16th cenGreek and Roman times, continued to hold their place, with modifications, for many centuries. As the tunic became the chief gar- tury took place the meeting of the French and English kings at the ‘ment, it was sometimes elaborately decorated. One early Christian “Field of the Cloth of Gold.” This phrase only reflects general writer speaks of people wearing garments on which animals, for- tendencies of the time, when fashionable men’s clothes were ests, mountains or huntsmen were figured, while on others were loaded with jewels, and they are said to have spent their fortunes biblical scenes. Late pagan and early Christian garments, found upon their clothes. Early in the 16th century the hose were in Egypt, have ornamentation of this nature. divided into stockings (bas-de-chausses) and trunk-hose (hautMediaeval.—aAt the time of the Norman conquest of England de-chausses). The trunk-hose went through various phases, looser the dress of men and women consisted of a couple of tunics and or tighter, shorter or longer, following caprice rather than any a loose cloak. The chief innovation was the tight “chausses” or progressive evolution. hose enveloping the legs; in classical antiquity trousers were a The slitting of men’s sleeves at the elbow or shoulder, to display barbarian garb. From the two tunics were evolved the jackets, the garment underneath, was not unusual in the 15th century, but pourpoints, jupons, jerkins and doublets of later times, and from “slashing” in small parallel cuts is a feature of the next century. the short cloaks the various over-garments, often taking fanciful By the time of Charles I. the slashes became long slits, sometimes shapes in the middle ages. Patterned materials were often used, extending for practically the whole length of the sleeves, before though apparently not quite so much as they were afterwards. It disappearing altogether. In the latter half of the 16th century is probable that the initials and devices personal to the wearer, men’s garments began to be “bombasted” with cotton-wool, hair seen in the r4th and 15th centuries, were for the most part of or sawdust. They form a contrast to the dress of Van Dyck’'s embroidery. They might occur once on the sleeve or shoulder, or sitters a few years later. The air of elegant refinement, which they would be powdered over the whole garment. The large must have been due in some degree to the dress itself, is so noticepainted portrait of Richard IZ. of England in the sanctuary at able in this artist’s portraits, that far on in the following century Westminster Abbey shows his robe powdered with crowned R's, painters would endeavour to recapture some of this glamour by and presumably the letters sometimes to be seen on the dresses representing their sitters in similar garb. Women's farthingales, of unidentified individuals in paintings and tapestries had a per- in the latter half of the 16th century, extended their skirts to very sonal significance. Another portrait of this king, on the celebrated ample size. The euphuism of the time is reflected in dress, and diptych in the possession of the earls of Pembroke at Wilton, exaggerated conceits form the subject of embroidery. In a porshows his mantle covered with crouching harts. The white hart trait of Queen Elizabeth in the possession of the marquis of was his personal badge, and again it explains other instances of Salisbury at Hatfield house, her cloak is embroidered all over such devices, though it should be remembered that fanciful repre- with human eyes and ears which, with a serpent on the sleeve, sentations of this kind formed part of the general repertory of the betokened the vigilance and wisdom of the wearer. A more repattern-designer in mediaeval times. By the middle of the 15th strained type of ornamentation, chiefly used for linen garments, century, rich velvets, with variations of the lobed “Gothic” pat- such as tunics and men’s and women’s caps, was done entirely tern, often inwrought with gold thread, were much used for in black silk thread. Hence it gained the name of blackwork. It is said to have been brought to England by Catherine of costume among the well-to-do.

Only a summary statement of the changes which dress went

through during the middle ages and later times can be given here.

Aragon. Naturalistic flowers were a favourite motive, but badges,

rebuses, book-illustrations of enigmatic import, and all kinds of fanciful conceits were also included. As time went on, richness but generally saaking it holds good for western Europe, and was added by the use of heavy gold thread for stems and other (where applicabl#}'to America. Some developments might occur details, and later in the century bright colours replaced the black.

The following outline has more particular reference to England,

2>

RJE

He,

rele, Im

—·

a

asg.

CSS

+B

`

— — — — — —

AYHNLIN3SD

—

Bu:ju:EG ay, parapmod “Gim yOiy “42038 yogel P-N: PID Pul A14537D3s4 Pesapwod di0

—

a

obusAjimty paatibu3 Ag pstmpg BHEARS4398f:4 umd Pajjisy $9ATd)$ pO PHR Fu} |iNj SPFS MOGI SIAIIjT Pik Jy}4 Juda DR IRPI IZS SIINA)

NYDIYSWY ‘SS3Y0HLBt

—

TIETE

Jua

Vil

PLATE

ayy pus jO 2u}

SOR

—

—

DRESS a

V

ETI E y

PLATE VI

DRESS

a r

fi

S

:

i4 8

„e

— —

BY

COURTESY

—

OF

Ch,

——

4,

>),

——

©)

THA

Gitar

TUM

OF

THe

Vi

—

TONNIA

AND

—

—

WOMEN’S l. Lady's

scoond

dress

Chinose

painted

siik,

England

—

DRESS, The

period

i cc

—

MUSEUM

tè

18TH is

the

half of the 18th cantury

2. An American 3. An

of

— ——

ALBIN?

6

American

yellow silk

century

dress,

THA

MET MORO

AND 4.

TAN

19TH

Late

Mao

Èi M

ut

AKT,

cass

NEM

cece

capcom

cama

a

YURA

CENTURIES

Victorian

dress,

England

(1880),

made

of silk

with

flounces

of

tassel! trimming

19th century dress (1810), of checked blue silk 18th

3

“Robe

& la Francaise,’

of flowered

5. Gold gauze dress of the era of George IV. (1820-30) 6. Victorian

dress.

England

(c.

1865-70).

This

evening

gown

of silk

gauze shows the polonaise and the fringe trimming of the period

Prater Vil

DRESS —

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

——

—

—

—

——

— — —.M——— — — ——

— — ·— ——— — — — — —

SGawh

FOR

Tred

EWE

TL, OF AD. A BHIiTAmMwIA

THE

Bt

CHANGING

CAR

SoMa mH OF

SILHOUETTE

,

IN

WOMEN’S

Upper lefe. 1900. “The Grecian bend.” Small. laced waist. curved hips and “bustle” required long. trailing bell skirts. draped sleeves and large scoop hats, perched high on the artificial pompadour. Upper right. 1905. Softer outlines. New features are the long, pointed waist, swirling skirts, chiffon or fur boas, high choker collars and smaller hats with feathers, stiff aigrettes of quills.

DRESS:

AFTERNOON

COSTUMES,

1900-09

Lower left. 1907. The Greek influence in draperies and tunics. Broader waists, shorter skirts and large hats above masses of curled hair appear. Lower right. 1909. Moyen Age costume, with straighter lines, short sleeves, open neck and huge. plumed hat

Prate VIII

DRESS

—

tow

MAGS `

£

t

*

Bt aaa te yet

a Opry ay — a

we DRAWN

FOR

TNE

ENCYCLOPADIA

BRITANNICA

THE

BY

ERÉ

(ROMNAIN

CHANGING

DE

`

ORE

me ate

nae

oe

=e

*7 *

Sy Vey * o Cana a

.

IN

WOMEN'S

,

,

: try

|

TIRTORF)

SILHOUETTE

a

sly

onal

—

DRESS

1910. La Robe Directoire. with its prototype of 1798. The classic influence appears in the short waist, scant skirt trailing at feet. tunic, flowing scarf, tow, round neck, and high head-dress, with hair curled and banded with ribbon

FAR EASTERN]

DRESS

In this form, chiefly for floral patterns, it survived well into the 17th century.

The development of the frill at the neck into the great starched and pleated ruff, with its supporting standard, is a noticeable feature of the time. Completely encircling the neck at first, towards the end of the 16th century it was sometimes worn open in front. Soon afterwards it was replaced by the falling collar, but the encircling ruff and the open ruff were still worn well into the 17th century, as so many Dutch portraits bear witness. Brims are added to men's caps early in the 16th century, and modifications rapidly succeed one another. In the second half of the century men and women wore higher and stiffer headdresses. The 17th century brings in the “steeple” hat, and then the

leather hat with broad brim and feathers. The broad-toed shoe with parallel slits or slashes is followed by a shoe in which the tilting at the heel begins. A solid corked sole comes first, then a space is cut through under the instep, to be followed by a separate heel-piece. Children’s portraits show that it was customary to dress boys and girls, even those of a tender age, very much in imitation of their elders. About 1660 an important change took place in men’s garments, when coat and vest were first evolved as distinct garments in France. This fashion was carried to England by Charles II. At first the vest was long, reaching to the knees and sleeved. The coat was slightly longer. The coat and waistcoat of the present day are directly descended from these garments. Men's dress of about 1680 is exemplified by the suit of brocade shown in fig. 3, Plate I. The trunk-hose are full, though very soon after they might have been worn narrower, anticipating the buckled knee-breeches of the 18th century. About this time, instead of the natural hair falling to the shoulders, men took to wearing the large periwigs

so characteristic of the portraits of Louis XIV. and his contemporaries; at the end of the century they tower over the brow, giving added height to the wearer. Cravats, often of rich lace, now replace the falling collar. A notable fashion originating in France took its name from the battle of Steinkerque, fought in 1692. The French officers dressing in haste, it is said, tied their fine lace cravats loosely about their necks. This fashion spread to other countries, both for men and women, and lasted some

years. Women’s skirts were full at this time, and bodices were laced in front, sometimes with an embroidered stomacher. Hat-brims

were now cocked, developing at the end of the century into the three-cornered hat. Muffs were carried both by men and women in the 17th century, and in various forms they continued in use by women well into the present century. Gloves first became conspicuous in the 16th century, when they were often elaborately embroidered and sometimes embellished with pearls and jewels as well. In the 17th century, when the frill at the wrist gave place to the turned-back linen cuff, large gauntlets were added to the gloves, giving scope for embroidery in the style of the time. A pair of gloves was a customary gift at the New Year, and pains were taken to render them worthy of acceptance. Such gloves were usually of leather, but subsequently various lighter materials were used, and gloves might reach beyond the elbow when sleeves were short. 18th Century—At the beginning of the 18th century the

skirts of men's coats had become fuller and the sleeves had wide cuffs. The sleeved waistcoat was shortened, and at times it was richly embroidered. In course of time the sleeves disappear. As the century advances a distant approximation to the frock-coat of later times is discernible, but the materials continue to be rich. Velvet, often woven in tiny diaper patterns, was much used. When the material was plainer, elaborate embroidery in silk, often embellished with glass pastes and spangles, was usual for fashionable dress. During the course of the century, the skirts of the coat and the corners of the waistcoat were cut away in front, reducing the form more nearly to that of morning-dress of the present day. Embroidery was used for ladies’ dresses, especially for the

655

underskirts rendered visible by the open front of the dress. The silk brocades of Lyons or Spitalfields, with floral patterns in bright colours, came into use. Indian dyed or embroidered cottons, and Chinese painted silks (Plate II., fig. 2). witnesses to the growing commerce between the maritime nations of Europe and the Far East, were made into dresses, causing much searching of heart among weavers at home, who succeeded in getting restrictive enactments put into force. Towards the middle of the century skirts became very ample, being supported by very wide hoops. The sack or sacque, a loose dress falling straight from the shoulders, continued in use during the greater part of the century. It had originated about 30 years earlicr, when Pepys's wife “first put on her French gown called a sac.” Later dresses, too, came from France. A letter of the year 1715 from Sarah, duchess of Marlborough to Lord Stair, ambassador at Paris, is still extant—asking him to obtain “two pair more of bodys and a night-gown” for her, and a-mantcau and petticoat for her grandchild. In the latter half of the 18th century women wore their hair, or wigs, dressed high above the head and powdered, and again men's wigs became larger, but they were already doomed, and Pitt’s powder tax of 1795 practically put an end to them. 19th Century.—By the opening of the roth century, the change in men's outlook had swept away much of the overloaded finery of the past and garments more supple and better suited for active life came into use. Men's coats are cut away in front

in a manner large and the cut square. trousers. The

resembling the modern dress-coat, the lapels are collar is high and deep. Waistcoats are short and Knee-breeches are lengthened into the modern cocked hat of the 18th century is replaced by the

top-hat. The old full dress, moreover, gradually gives way to what we now call the lounge suit, used more and more for all occasions.

Women’s dress at the opening of the century is marked by a graceful simplicity, with high waist and low neck. A lower waist and puffed sleeves follow. Meanwhile skirts were widening, until the “crinolines" took their most exaggerated form shortly after the middle of the century. Then followed various adaptations of 18th century styles. About 1880 the projecting “bustle” at the back was in full popularity. Fringes, trimmings, flounces and long trains were in use during the latter part of the century. Bistiocrariny.—-J. R. Planché, Cyclopacdia of Costume (1876); A. Racinet, Costume Historique (1888); Victoria and Albert Museum, Old English Costumes (1915), selected from collection formed by Talbot Hughes; F. M. Kelly and R. Schwabe, Historic ee igs

FAR EASTERN The appearance, customs and personal characteristics of Chinese, Japanese and Koreans are distinctly different, and this has consequently brought about dissimilarities in the dress. Only within the last few decades when European costumes have to some extent been adopted, has there been any tendency to uniformity in style. China.—All classes in China wear a san (jacket) and koo (trousers), the combination being similar to the Western pyjamas. There are three kinds of each-—the single, the lined and the wadded with cotton, to suit the season of the year. To the san is attached a narrow collar-band. The ma kua is the ordinary jacket with loose sleeves for the common people, and the baishin, a sort of vest, is worn over it. The po is a long gown and the qua a larger

and longer ma kua. The po kua is the official full dress of men, while the lung po, or dragon gown, was worn by the emperor at State ceremonies. There are several other gowns in use—the

Chang san in summer, chiao in spring and autumn and taminou in winter. When it is very cold the pipao, or fur coat, takes the place of the taminou. The to pang, another kind of overcoat of silk or fur, is worn by the wealthy. There are all kinds of coats embroidered with dragons, moons,

stars, hills, mountains, waters and flowers. Each design has its peculiar symbolism; frequently it is a Buddhistic emblem or the representation of some philosophical concept, such as the “waves of eternity.” The mandarins were specially privileged to wear

i [i1 i— pf;TH ii i T È 8 i; 5 ii] af| tig f Fg i

DRESS d-embvoidered clothes, end sometimes the emperor granted the.

nine orders of mandarins the distinction of wearing a peacock feather on the het.

ii

|f

F]

7 Red is a symbol for happiness, aad thus we fnd tbe bride wearimg an elaborate gown of red; the tassel on the top of men’s hats and the cord on their quemes are red. | The mo tan, or hat, is df silk or of a tissue ofvery fine cane 8 covered with hair, chiefly that of domestic cattle. There are innumerable sorts of hats for children such as lo hu so, or tiger hat. The jong guen hat worn by brides has pearl, agate and jade H decorations. 7 Hsieh are shoes and keueh ksieh are high ones made ofsatin or velvet, with no heels and black. The stockings or wa tex 2 are made by fastening two pieces of white cotton to a leather sole. combinations ofthesearevery popular forwomen. |

z

Japan——In a.D, 283 two women weavers were sent from Korea

to Japan to teach the making of figured silks and brocades. The ho, or ceremonial garment of the Japanese emperor and nobles, has an ancient origin; the Chinese seamstresses came to Japan, about A.D. goo and made this with silk imported from China. Emperor Yuryaku (A.D. 457-479) reformed the national dress and, in the reign of Emperor Suiko (A.D. 593), rank was signified by distinctive head-gear, a custom imitated from that of the Chinese Tang dynasty (A.p. 638-906). Costumes were evolved for civilians, ecclesiastics and the militia, differing in colour, patterns, the length of sleeves and tbe style of hairdressing.

i

iiif| : —

at TEE

i

$

$ d

& i fE ie sE FE

are the most common materials. Mud-coloured or white grasscloth is also used for the dress of mourners. The usual shoe is the shin; it is low and made of leather and cotton or silk. The court shin is similarly made but higher. Fancy wooden shoes (samak-shie) are worn in stormy weather. There is — an elastic and convenient sandal (jip-shin) for working peopie. | Hats (kat) are of very fine split bamboo and silk, so delicately

The kasane, or loose tunic, was worn with a short lower garment woven that it is impossible to distinguish the materials. Sometimes called the akome. The kakama was a loose skirt reaching only a horse-hair is used in place of silk in more ordinary hats. All hats few inches below the knees over the skita-gutsu, or socks. The are black except those used for mourning which are white. The whole style of head-gear was called suberahashi. Kammuri, a cere- kwan is an indoor hat, pyramidal in form and woven in varied moniel headdress, was secured by kanjashi, or pins and the geometrical patterns. The court hat is high and oval, fitting yeboshi, or cap, was worn over it. The court ladies wore the gos, tightly over the head and with a wing on each side. a garment of embroidered silk, and over it the karaginu, which was Women improvise hats from scarves or boys’ jackets. They

a short tunic. Over this again, but at the back only, was another

smaller garment known as the mo. These persisted until the Meiji era (1868-1912), when, among many radical changes, the emperor himself began to wear Western dress and in 1885 ordered his court to do the same. The ladies always wear the kimono, a loose gown with a neck-

piece called an eri, and Jong sleeves, the garment being fastened by a belt. Since the Heian period (794-1159) women have in general

dispensed with the Aakama, and to-day the female dress for social occasions consists of an underskirt, two or three outer garments and a haori, or interlined silk coat, over the upper part. The obi, a belt about 3 yd. long and 10 in. wide, winds about the figure two or three times. A silk band or gold buckle keeps the bow from shifting at the back. Tabi, or socks, are secured above the ankle. The cord by which sandals, or sori, are fastened passes between

have, however, the wkyyang, a sort of winter cap which is longer at the back than in the front. This is also used by men and children. (Y. K.) MODERN The evolution of modern feminine dress, corresponding closely to the emancipation of women at the beginning of the 20th century, provides one of the most captivating pages in the history of modern civilization. One often considers ridiculous the fashions of other days, but one has only to live the past over impartially to understand that all changes in fashion are rungs in a ladder leading to an inconstant ideal. At the rung on which we stand today the air is more pure, so to speak, and movement more free.

Fashions of 1900-20.—In 1900 one could hardly breathe freely

for dust raised by skirts (Pl. I., ig. 1). Women wore frilled underclothes unknown to-day. The body was imprisoned in s corset the first and second toes. Coco-nut oil is used by women as a that pushed the bust forward and the lower part of the body out

pomade in rolling the hair. Men in rural districts are barefooted, seldom wear sori or the wooden clogs called geta, and in the hot season they wear almost no clothing. The common-jacket and trousers of cotton crêpe, blue or white in colour, a large grass hat called kasa and straw sori are the ordinary dress. Korea.—Among the six departments of the Korean Government was the board of rites, whose duty was to regulate, describe and govern the ceremonial code of polite society, including dress. Koreans dressed according to the class to which they belonged, and in each class distinct costumes were used by those of different ages. The whole fashion was changed with the coming of a new dynasty. During the Ree Cho period (1392-1910) the character— — of garments was white, slightly tinged with a faint s ue

A chugori (jacket) and baji (trousers) are worn by all classes.

The tooroomaki, a long flowing tunic, goes over these to anywhere between the knees and ankles; the higher the man’s position, the more garments he wears. All these are of varying thickness to suit

the weather. Women’s chugori do fot desgenc ing space for a waist-band, or kuridi, iii

woven by hand. | There is a formal dress, the cha

y

we men carry manuscripts, writing a

long sleeves

behind. The hair was dressed so as to follow the movement of the body. The neck was stiffened by a collar with whalebone stays. The sleeves, bodice and hat were trimmed with puffs and frills, details that at first view appeared useless but that helped to con-

bodices were shaped to a point in front and the complicated dresses (Pl. I., fig. 2) were covered with a profusion of puffs and frills. The hat was perched on the side of the head above a display of hair extravagantly curled; it was frequently trimmed with a cluster of feathers, a mode ofdelicate hat-trimming that, changing

i

g E

if

iiae

baHIR

DRESS

Pate IN

La

aCr E

ee Pa aSES er ee L EL SeESS O

—* ©oe re

oer Sere) Ae 5 Poet ~ CE

EE

bE E

h TTT POF — EERTE

**

FOR

VNE

EWCYCLOP ASIA

BRITANNICA

THE

BY

easyvé

(Romain

CHANGING

BE

T:BTOFF)

SILHOUETTE

IN WOMEN’S

DRESS

Its influence appears In the 1912. The Empire gown, recalling the Napoleonic era (1804-15). high waist, sloping shoulders, low décolletage, Turkish-trouser skirts, flowing mantle and turban. A strong Oriental influence is indicated in design and ornament

VIL. 656

DRESS

PLATE X

1

\

4 i i

f |

ae

DRAWN

FOR

THE

ENCYCLOPÆDIA

N

BRITANNICA

BY

ERTE

(ROMAIN

THE

DE

YIRTOFF)

CHANGING

SILHOUETTE

Upper left. 1913.

The Oriental influence on costume. The “hobble skirt’ Is stylized, with tunlo, high eollar and tight sleeves Upper right. 1914. Afternoon costume. The figure, in full tunic over narrow skirt, and loose kimono blouse, draped turban and the feathers

gains

height

from

the

IN

WOMEN'S

DRESS

Lower left. 1917.

The barre! dress, with shorter skirt. normal waist and wide hips, recalling the panniers of the 18th century Lower right. 1921. Evening costume, with waist-line at the hips, loose, free lines and side draperies. The smooth high hair, with the comb and earrings, shows a Spanish influence

:

i

the dress and all the accessories that complete a costume; beautiful jewel may give birth to the idea of a dress, just as a dress may lead to the creation of jewels appropriate to it (Pi. VIL., , | fig. 14). Among all the sources of inspiration for creators of models, however, the past remains unexhausted, and even recently, when the modern and straight line has reigned, the past has not lost its rights. The past has appeared especially in what are called robes de style—dresses with puffed skirts, prompted from 1840—-

that the development of fashion was at its highest point, that the past had been forgotten. In the history of modern fashion the years 1912-14 are quite characteristic. The enormous

modernized and simplified (Pl. VI., fig. 15). The tendency to simplify feminine costume, which is so characteristic of this epoch, is due especially to the influence of sport. Sport, too, accounts for attempts to imitate masculine dress. Trousers appeared in sports costumes. Smocks with short skirts attempted to take the place of evening dresses. In 1926 all women were seen with small felt hats differing but slightly from those worn by men. Traces of this masculine influence will remain in feminine costume for a long time because woman has adopted two articles from man’s wardrobe, viz., the sweater (Pi. VIIL., fig. 16) and the pyjama (PI. VIII., fg. 17).

influence of the theatre (see Trzatricat Costume) upon fashion can be noticed. It attained its whole development about this time. In fact, once the World War had started in earnest, MEN'S DRESS theatres less pomp, and fashion had to nourish itself by its own means. Changes in men’s dress have always been preceded by those in The period from 1914-30 is the least notable in the history of feminine fashions, the two changes bearing a slight resemblance. fashion. In 1914 (Pi. IV., fig. 8) the tight skirt surmounted by a Just as the women in 1900 could not breathe freely because of wide and much longer tunic could still be seen. The following year their costume, which interfered with their movements, the men the narrow skirt was suppressed and the tunic alone remained. during the same period were imprisoned in their stiff collars, From this period there is no general line of fashion; wide crinoline worn extremely high, making breathing difficult and interfering skirts were worn as well as tightly draped dresses with long trains. with the circulation of the blood. The stiff collar became lower

The year 1917 alone created a specific line inthis period of revo- when women's dress began to free women's necks. It was some lution in fashion. It produced the barrel dress (Pl. IV., fig. 9), time before the soft collar was adopted by the men, which was which was not seen the following year but which, nevertheless, for

some time afterwards, left its traces in a draped movement, recalling draperies of the paniers of the 18th century. From 1914-20 there was nothing worthy of entry in the history of fashion; the theatres giving no new styles, old styles were recalled. The New Line—Still novelty was sought and in 1921 the new line—the low waist (Pl. IV., fig. 10)— was found. At the same time the skirt was lengthened slightly. The hair, drawn away from the forehead, formed a high chignon often held by a Spanish

comb. The Spanish influence made itself felt, not only in combs and headdress, and for a time women draped themselves in Spanish shawis, very often using these in place of evening cloaks. In 1923 the low-waist dress was transformed into a quite straight dress called the tube dress (PL V., ig. 11), and from this sbortened tube dress was born the costume—the straight and short dress (Pi. V., fig. 12)-—which until 1929 remained without many changes.

At its birth in 1924 it was quite simple; so much so, fndeed, that it demanded equal simplicity in dressing the hair, which

women began to cut like men. Dresses being simple in shape and

trimming, the feminine costume failed to fall into a dreadful dullness. Feminine elegance was saved by research in accessories and by the use of new materials. Fashion began to demand matching not only the dress, coat and hat, but scarves, gloves, shoes and handbags also; the large dressmaking firms began to make false ma

at first worn only in the country or for travelling, but about 1913 it was often seen at elegant parties. The soft hat began to compete with the bowler-hat and the top-hat. The exigencies of hygiene and sport brought into favour an open-neck type of shirt, while many men dispensed with the wearing of a hat. The changes which have appeared in masculine attire during those 25 years have affected only the length and width of the coats and trousers. At the beginning of the century the straight and short coat was fastened very high; the straight trousers, without any marked crease and without turn-ups, were worn very long. It was only a few years after 1900 that the turn-up, or cuff, appeared at the bottom of the trousers, as well as the middle crease. Towards 19:0 the coats were bag-shaped, or very wide, fastened with one button, placed very low and uncovering the waistcoat. Fancy waistcoats were the fashion. A short time after the creation of the high waistline in women’s clothes, the waistline in men’s coats was well-marked and placed very high; the trousers were much shorter and narrower around the bottom. When the waistline in women's dress was lowered, about 1920, men’s coats followed the change, but the waistline still remained marked. Then the waistline disappeared completely; coats were very close-fitting at the hips (still following the changes of women's dress), and shoulders became very wide and square, like “coat-hangers.” This new silhouette is no doubt inspired by sport. Trousers developed an exaggerated width at the bottom, giving a flaring effect with their close-fitting waist and bips. The frock coat has gradually disappeared since the beginning of the century, and the dinner jacket has taken its place. The acces-' sories of the man’s wardrobe have become more varied, and one may see that men, like women, are seeking harmony in all dress

special | details. Ties are of all colours and designs, harmonizing with

each suit. The handkerchief matches the tie; the sotks match the

. | suit. Shoes respond to the influence of sport and are comfortable forthis reason; there is also a great variety, as inthe case of the , | women . There is no longer any noticeable difference between worn by men men’s and women’s scarves. The jewels occasionally on ; materiais are a source of inspiration for the creation of a model: |show great refinement. With these slight changes in the principal k

658

DRESSER—DRESS MANUFACTURING

part of the costume and with the big changes in detail, the physical appearance of men has undergone considerable alteration in the zoth century. The suppression of the beard and moustache has completely changed the face, and has caused men to take more care of their appearance.

Special beauty products for

the skin and hair are not uncommon. It seems as if these changes lead to a far-off aim by two parallel roads. In 1928 the woman js still ahead in the race, and the aim of both men and women is harmony in the costumes of the sexes. That harmony may be achieved if the feminine dress takes a step toward the masculine,

s. 7

now no more than a trade term, not necessarily suggestive of the place of origin, but applied to all dressers of this type. In Eurepe, they are most frequently found in the houses of small yeomen and substantial farmers, into which fashion penetrated slowly. In the United States, the term dresser is more applied to a piece of bedroom furniture consisting of a chest of or bureau, with a mirror attached—a sort of dressingapplication has no doubt been brought about by its convenience in dressing or attiring one’s self.

i

$ p

li

DRESSING STATION, a military term for the place

or vice versa. Thanks to sport, both steps are being taken. If wounded are collected and attended to by the medical the feminine costume is simplified under the influence of sport, of a field ambulance. It is thus normally next in rear of the : the masculine dress under the same influence has become brighter; “first-aid,” or “regimental aid post.” DRESS MANUFACTURING. No phase in the history sports costumes are varied and highly coloured, and many original points are allowed; men’s sports wear rivals that of the women. of dress is more remarkable than that which has been witnessed The Reaction.—But this kind of stabilization in the shape of in the opening of the 2oth century. Class distinctions, in so far dresses could not last for ever. Two solutions presented them- as they are indicated outwardly by dress, have disappeared. It is selves: (1) continuation in the development of the straight line not easy to detect differences of degree among the great bulk of and the transformation of the short skirt into trousers; (2) a the people. Partly, this is due to the spread of democratic ideas reaction of fashion. The reaction (Pl. VIII., fig. 18) began to and institutions. Cheap means of transport, for example, bring all appear in 1928. The line has tendencies to become more feminine; classes together. The intermixing produces similarity in style of the skirt, very irregular, has begun to lengthen, sometimes behind, sometimes in side panels; on evening dresses even short trains are seen; draperies have reappeared, as well as panels forming scarves. The small masculine felt hat has already been forgotten and has been replaced by small hats of varied aspects, fitting the head closely and hiding the boyish headdress of cut hair. Will short hair be able to resist this reaction? Evidently, like all other fashions, it will not last forever. During the period of transition evening headdresses, which, like the small hats, will take the shape of the head, will reappear. The waist line will be a little more pronounced, taking its normal place, and the skirt, which cannot be shortened more, will therefore be lengthened, though certainly not to the length of those of 1900. The silhouette of 1900 is dead, as are also many little ways familiar to it—the way of raising the dress, the way of puffing the hair, the way of arranging the veil. Other ways, born of the modern costume, replace them— the way of the cigarette, the way of the lip-stick and powder, the masculine movement of the hand in flattening the hair, and a special movement—very fugitive and characteristic of the epoch --that of the watch bracelet. (R. ve T.-E.)

attire. Partly, also, the cause is economic. There are more wageearners, at better rates of pay. There has been a tremendous increase in the number of women wage-earners. Every one has more money available to spend on dress. Mass-Production of Clothes—A not less important cause is the mass-production of clothing. This both created a demand and developed in response to it. That section of the public of modest means who would have been slow to leave their clerical blueserge, their homespun, their corduroys and large feathers—the mark of their occupation or class—have been educated into buying copies of the garments worn by the better-to-do, copies produced under the factery system by the hundred thousand. The men's ready-made clothing industry is a phenomenon; in the women’s trade, dress everywhere has been completely revolutionized. Thirty years ago the woman of means had recourse exclusively to the dressmaker, the sempstress, the ladies’ tailor. The latest fashions from Paris were reproduced for her by them, from actual models brought over or illustrated in the fashion journals. It was all hand process and slow, and “the latest” never percolated through to the mass of the female population.

Then arose the

DRESSER, in furniture, a form of sideboard. The name is trade movement which was to alter all this. It had actually begun derived from the Fr. dressoir, a piece of furniture used to range or dresser the more costly appointments of the table. The appliance is the direct descendant of the credence and the buffet, and is, indeed, a much more legitimate inheritor of their functions than the modern sideboard, which, as we know it, is practically an 18th-century invention. It developed into its present shape about the second quarter of the 17th century, and has since then changed but little. As a piece of movable furniture it was made rarely, if at all, after the beginning of the 19th century until the revival of interest in what is called “farmhouse furniture” at the very beginning of the 20th century led in the first place to the construction of many imitation antique dressers from derelict pieces of old oak, and especially from panels of chests, and in the second to the making of avowed imitations. The dresser conformed to a model which varied only in detail and in ornament. Its simple and agreeable form consisted of a long and rather narrow table or slab, with drawers or cupboards beneath and a tall upright closed-in back arranged with a varying number of shallow shelves for the reception of plates; hooks for mugs were often fixed upon the face of these shelves. Towards the end of the 17th century small cupboards were often added to the superstructure. The majority of these dressers were made of oak. but when, early in the Georgian period mahogany came into general use, they were

frequently inlaid with that wood; holly and box were also used

for inlaying, most frequently in the shape of plain bands or lines. A peculiarly effective combination of oak and mahogany is found in the dressers, as in other “farmhouse furniture,” made on the borders of Staffordshire and Shropshire. The excellence of the work of this kind in that district and in the country lying west of

in Germany two or three decades earlier, and was bound up with the improvements then being made in textile machinery and with the state of employment. A number of retail shopkeepers dealing in dress materials and articles of clothing found employment for their workers by starting the manufacture of “stock size” garments when orders for made-to-measure clothes were scarce. They were so successful and the service proved so popular that establishments were opened solely for this branch of manufacture. Factories were started in the provinces. Nearly the whole of the trade at first was confined to mantles, the basic and staple garment from which this now remarkable industry has grown. The German Industry.—In the '70s the industry in Germany was well-established and important. In Berlin alone same 60 firms catered for it, and already were turning their attention from the home to the foreign market. The value of the total output in 1871 reached 30 million marks, and the number of workers employed, amounting to some 35,000, exceeded the number of those engaged ìn any other German industry at the time. In 187$ Great Britain bought three million marks’ worth; in 1876 double that quantity ; and two years later ten million marks’ worth, the rate of importation thereafter steadily increasing untilin 1897 the purchases reached a figure in excess of 88 million marks. From that date Germany has beenlosing hermonopoly of the world’s markets. Almost every one of the chief importing countries—-Great Britain. the United States, Austria, Italy, Switserland, Holland, the Scandinavian countries—began to offer compe— Manufactories, one by one, were — opened; and alth :

it may perhaps explain the expression ‘Welsh dresser,” which is touched, manufacturers in other countries set set themselves steadily

3527

Ou

“CZK HUIL

IAY ft

aQny

YROIQ ul

J2yqq

“ssasp

Gu:moys ayy §$4s328

Butin

UNII O}

“QYpPOQuusDsdaas

@.tasa’ 32 2

¥YH:Bszys“Sdusy

3HL

3.a

wWosy

ONISNVHOD

MOAB 2. FC 68

sdPpMoys Cy

SjpYUE

3LLSNOWTIS

a2MZz HSseltVT

NI

Bni

S.NSWOM

$31 s0989928 PUR [HA] uv! Ayarsea pur “ssaujinyg 946:(s 4q “QZET ~! 42i *POadr1Os “4180300 Souls 34H8)8538 Pus ApisijGusig “stasp psOys 3468438 INL FZET-SZET

SS3yu0

NAVIG VOA

PLate NI

DRESS

PLATE XIV

hoe aA

——— at bial.

a

eega MEpy

e

Ee —— s yee n

AA

uh Pe

AR

py een

e

„n

t,

ut

i:

a

ae yt

ages Bo

aa, n My

ot

A ify

1

a ‘

I

et t

gt

ge

x

at a

i *

wet

Le

|

|

— — ———— — — — — — ——

-2

*J

— — — —

at

oe

ie, —

She

4

-

a—8

k

sifod. g

iE

pi f

i

vy T , Bi ‘ieti A era — 4

aate

DRAWN

ail

NE EAA

FOR

TNE

f

Ae

ge

:

r

E"iEo

E pi 5

ENCYCLOPADIA

AE ay eat Mie Beavat oo at 7 Bs BRITANNICA

BY

ERTE

THE

(ROMAIN

FL DE

lis NL REN atid ae vi

a —

—

iat SNORE

pat

ear oe

ey

ott

SEE

TIRTOFF)

CHANGING

SILHOUETTE

IN

WOMEN'S

1928. Evening costume, with geometric designs. The broken lines, the pointed and design of the jewels show the interrelation between a costume and its

DRESS hem-line of the skirt, appropriate accessories

aa heNae

Sg as

———

DREUX

,*

posture and girth, the requisite fullness or reduction of material and measurement being provided, in their minute differences, by no chance or rule-of-thumb methods but on a scientifically-based system of anthropometric variation—such as, for example, that propounded by the late Dr. Henry Wampen to the effect that, in the case of abnormal figures, height or depth quantities are to be calculated from a scale based on the height of the figure, while width quantities are to be based on the breast circumference. In comparison, the manufacturers of other countries were slow ingly, still it was a compromise and benefited the maker on the to realize how much the future success of the trade depended upon spot who made exclusively for, and knew precisely, the needs of their ability to cater for the almost infinite series of gradations in the human figure, with the result that for a long time, as in Enghis own womenkind. Growth of American and British Costume Trade.—The land, the chief customers for “ready-mades” were those of “stock - industry abroad began to get into stride, particularly in the United size” proportions rather than those not of the average. SeekStates and the United Kingdom. For the latter, 1897 appears to ing to meet all requirements, the United States took the lead, and have been the pivot year, for, after spending on German mantles still retains it, so far as bulk production on the biggest scale is no jess than 88 million marks, British consumers bought from the concerned, and to its enterprise in this particular section of the same source in 1898 only 65-3 million marks’ worth, while in 1899 industry is due to no small extent the fact that American women the drop was bigger still—to 28-4 millions. The decline in subse- are among the most amartly-dressed of any women in the world. American methods of production in both the women's and men's quent years was in smaller ratio, but steady, until the World War, when the cutting off of supplies from Germany stimulated ready-to-wear trade, involving so or more principal separate manufacturers elsewhere to supplant entirely the products of that processes, hand and mechanical, and numerous minor operations, country, not only at home but in foreign markets. After the War American methods of subdivision of labour, and also the types of German “ready-mades” began very slowly to regain their former plant used in the States, are now models for the apparel industry markets, the volume of imports from that country into the United in all countries. It is difficult to estimate the precise extent of Kingdom, e.g., being valued at about half a million pounds sterling; the actual figure ten years after the outbreak of hostilities (1924)—as shown by the Board of Trade official import and export list classification of women's and girls’ outer garments of woven fabrics: (a) costumes, dresses, coats, skirts and the like, and (b) mantles and cloaks—was £345.806.

Machine-made Clothes.—Concurrently with the rise of the industry tHroughout the world, manufacturing processes *underwent remarkable development, and it may be said that there are now few figures and tastes which cannot be suited from the up-todate manufacturer's stock. The style, fit and finish of even the cheapest “lines” have come to be a technical triumph. Costly and elaborate machinery and processes enable garments to be turned out markedly superior to the bulk of the old-time dressmaker's or hand-tailored product, and quality for quality (speaking of maferial) at about half cost. The term “mantle,” originally in general use, by which was understood in the main a loose-fitting coat or cloak, usually sleeveless and worn over the dress, is becoming obsolete. It is still in some use, as broadly denoting the industry, but in England manufacturers prefer to be identified with the “coat and costume” and in America with the ‘‘cloak and suit” trade, in order to get away from a word which associates the

product too closely with the early German cheap trade. The coat, deriving from the mantle, is now important, but the costume and

suit, the complete dress consisting of coat and skirt, are the basis of the industry. The trade owes much, however, in connection with the devising

and perfecting of scientific, speedy and efficient processes of production to America. American manufacturers set a standard of excellence in this field, in the making of apparel, both for men and women, for all the world to follow. They were the first to realize the great possibilities of the trade and to determine to remove from it the deserved reproach which hitherto had attached to “ready-mades” and all too often had signified “slop made.” They saw that it need only be a question of research, organization “and patient improvement of mechanical processes to enable their factories to turn out garments to suit the figure, purse and taste of every conceivable type and class of wearer, and it is well

|

l

recognized now that in the United States, above all cbuntries, the woman shopper can walk info a store and in the majority of cases be supplied from an

f

the trade in America, as the census returns associate together manufacturers in related branches of trade. Taking as some guide the corporation income tax returns which the United States authorities have published in recent years, we find that in 1924 the number of corporations in the women's and children's clothing and suit industry was put at 1,664, and that they paid tax on profits of $8,210,038. As the figure 1,664 is the fourth highest, in regard to the number of corporations engaged per industry, in a list taken from a report obtained for the purpose of this article, it is clear that the American cloak and suit trade, comprising private firms in addition to corporations, constitutes a very important part of the manufacturing activities of the United States as a whole. English Styles—There is a certain demand for English styles in women’s costumes in the United States. In 1926 the purchases of such garments from the U.K. amounted to £59,330; the U.K. in return purchasing in 1925 (last available figures) £15,771 worth of U.S. costumes, etc. To return to the trade of the United Kingdom, women's readyto-wear garments of the category under discussion are bought principally from (in addition to Germany, figures for which have already been given) France, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, the Netherlands, Italy and Czechoslovakia. In 1924 the British imports from France were valued at £3,087,000. In estimating values, also, the course of the French franc since the World War needs to be borne in mind, together with the low cost of labour as compared with that of the United Kingdom. In 1926 the British exports of fabric garments were worth £1,890,000. The British colonies and dominions are by far the best customers of the British costume manufacturer. As to the geographical distribution of the trade in the United Kingdom, London is an important centre as regards both manufacturing and distribution. For wholesale distribution, the earliest and still a considerable centre is St. Paul's churchyard, Cannon street, Friday street and Old Change, London. At the manufacturing end, the industry is also firmly established in a number of provincial towns and areas, including Manchester (where a speciality is the raincoat and waterproof), Leeds, Glasgow, Bristol, Birmingham and Bradford. (C. J. 8.)

DREUX, a town of north-western France, capital of an

arrondissement in the department of Eure-et-Loir, 27 m. N.N.W. ef Chartres by rail. Pop. (1926) 9,555. Dreux was the capital of Gallic tribe of the Durocasses. In 1188 it was taken and

by the English; and in 1562 Gaspard de Coligny, and

Loui» I., prince of Condé, were defeated there by Anne de Montand Francis, duke of Guise. In 1593 Henry IV. captured the town. It was occupied by the Germans in Oct. 1870.

ny

DREW—DREYER was later evacuated, and again taken, on Nov. 17, by General von Tresckow. In the roth century Dreux was the chief town of a countship, which Odo, count of Chartres, ceded to King Robert. Later, Louis VI. gave it to his son Robert, whose grandson Peter of Dreux, younger brother of Count Robert III., became duke of Brittany by his marriage with Alix, daughter of Constance of Brittany by her second husband Guy of Thouars. By the marriage of the countess Jeanne II. with Louis, viscount of Thouars (d. 1370), the Capetian countship of Dreux passed into the Thouars family. In 1377 and 1378, however, Perronelle and Marguerite, two of the three co-heiresses of Jeanne, sold their shares of the countship to King Charles V. Charles VI. gave it to Arnaud Amanien d’Albret, but took it back in order to give it to his brother Louis of Orleans (1407); later he gave it back to the lords of Albret. Francis of Cleves laid claim to it in the 16th century as heir of the d’Albrets of Orval, but the parlement of Paris declared the countship to be crown property. It was given to Catherine de’ Medici (1539), then to Francis, duke of Alencon (1569); it was pledged to Charles de Bourbon, count of Soissons, and through him passed to the houses of Orleans, Vendôme and Condé. Dreux stands on the Blaise, which there divides ‘into several arms. It is overlooked from the north by a hill with a ruined mediaeval castle, within the enclosure of which is a gorgeous chapel, begun in 1816 by the dowager duchess of Orleans, and completed and adorned by Louis Philippe. It contains the tombs of the Orleans family, chief among them that of Louis Philippe, whose remains were removed from England to Dreux in 1876. The sculptures on the tombs and the stained glass of the chapel windows are masterpieces of modern art. The older of the two hétels de ville of Dreux was built in the early 16th century, chiefly by Clément Métezau, the founder of a famous family of architects, natives of the town. It is notable for the carvings of the facade and for the staircase. The church of St. Pierre is Gothic and contains good stained glass and other works of art. Dreux is the seat of a sub-prefect. Among the public institutions are tribunals of first instance and of commerce. The manufacture of boots and electric fittings and metalfounding are carried on, and there is also a trade in wheat and poultry (X.) Battle of Dreux (1562).—The battle of Dreux was the first regular engagement of the Huguenot Wars in France, and it was fought on Dec. 19, 1562. Henry Il., king of France, was accidentally killed at a tourney in 1559, and was succeeded by his ten year old son, Charles IX., whose mother, Catherine de’ Medici, claimed the right to conduct the government. On March 1, 1562, the duke of Guise massacred 60 Huguenots at Vassy and the leaders of the reformed faith, Condé and Admiral de Coligny, appealed to the Queen but received no satisfaction. War now began, the Huguenots being declared rebels. As they were vastly in the minority they sought assistance from England and Germany, obtaining promises of money from the first, and 9,000 reiters and landsknechts from the second. Leaving d’Andelot and his 9,000 Germans at Orléans, in November, Condé made a dash for Paris, but found Guise and Saint-André already there. To gain time to collect her forces, the Queen-mother made overtures for peace, but as no result was reached, on Dec. ro Condé moved on Chartrea, the royal army following and threatening Orléans. Condé now wished to counter-march on Paris, but Coligny persuaded him to move into Normandy and join hands with an English force which had landed there. Thus it came about that the army marched on Dreux. There the Huguenots found their road blocked, and though inferior in numbers were compelled to accept battle, for as Coligny said: “We must now look to our hands to save us, not to our feet.” On each side the left wing was victorious. In all some 6,000 were killed or wounded, and though no true decision was gained the royalists held the feld, Marshal Saint-André and the duke of Nevers were killed on the royalist side, and Condé was taken prisoner. After the battle Coligny withdrew his men in good order to Beaugency. The forces engaged were approximately 4,000 horse and 8,000 infantry on the side of the Huguenots, and 3,000 horse and 13,000 infantry on that of the royalists.

Aumale, Hist. des Princes de Condé siècles (1864) ; The Cambridge Modern

les XVIme et XVifme , voL ili,HOPE: p)

DREW, dedana ahay i Aa

ae —

oe (1827-1862) was born in Dublin and made his first New York ce in 1846. ee with success in all the American cities, and was manager of the Arch street theatre inPhiladeipbia. He visited England in 1855, and Australia in 1859; he died in Philadelphia. His wife, Lourse Lang Drew (1820-1897), was the daughter of a London actor, and in 1827 went to America, appearing as the Duke of York to the elder Booth’s Richard ITI., and as Albert to Edwin Forrest's

William Tell. After this she starred as a child actress, and then as leading lady. She had been twice married before she became Mrs. Drew in 1850. From 1861 to 1892 she had the management of the Arch street theatre in Philadelphia. In 1880 she toured

with Joseph Jefferson in his elaborate revival of The Rivals,

playing Mrs. Malaprop to perfection. She had three children, John, Sidney and Georgiana, wife of Maurice Barrymore (18471905), and mother of Lionel, Ethel and John Barrymore, all actors.

The eldest son, Jonn Drew (1853-1927), began his stage career under his mother’s management in Philadelphia as Plumper in Cool as a Cucumber, March 22, 1873; and after playing with Edwin Booth and others, became leading man in Augustin Daly’s company in 1879. His association with this company, and with Ada Rehan as the leading lady, constituted a brilliant period in recent stage history, his Petruchio being only one, though perhaps the most striking,-of a series of famous impersonations. In 1892 he left Daly’s company, and began a career as a “star,” appearing among other plays in A Marriage of Convenience, One Summer Day, Rickard Carvel, Much Ado About Nothing, The Will, The Circle (1921-23), School for Scandal (1923), Trelawney of the Wells (1925-26-27). He died in San Francisco (Calif.), July 9; 3977,while = tour. r i — e amous Wallet of Time ENZ a

DREW

Actor-Families

in America

(1

ced.

;

Winter,

a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of

the vale It rises on the plateau of Hohenstein in East Prus-

sia, 5 m. S.W. of the town of Hohenstein. After passing through the lake of Drewenz (7 m. long), it flows south-west through flat marshy country, and forms, from just below the town of Strassburg to that of Leibitsch, a distance of 30 m., the frontier be-

tween East Prussia and Poland. After a course of 148 m. it enters the Vistula from the right, a little above the fortress of Thorn.

DREWS, ARTHUR (186s-

—_—+),German philosopher, was

born on Nov. 1 at Utersen, Holstein, and was educated at Munich, Berlin, Heidelberg and Halle. Since 1898 he has been professor at the polytechnic academy in Karlsruhe. His contributions to the critical appreciation and history of philosophy are Die deutsche

Spekulation seit Kant (1893); Kants Naturphilosophie (1894);

Das Ich als Grundproblem der Metaphysik (1899); Das Lebenswerk E. V. Hartmanns (1907); Nietssches Philosophie (1904); Plotin (1908); Die Philosophie im 19. Jhr. (1912); Gesch. des Monismus tm Altertum (1913). His support of concrete monism and an ultimate Being devoid of consciousness and personality is best seen in his Die Religion als Selbstbewusstsein Gottes (1906); Der Monismus (1908) and Freie Religion (3rd ed., 1921). DREXEL, ANTHONY JOSEPH (1826-1893), American banker, was-born in Philadelphia (Pa.) Sept. 13, 1826. He was the son of Francis M. Drexel (1792-1863), founder of the bankinghouse of Drexel and Co. Anthony, with his brothers Francis and

Joseph, succeeded to the control of the business, and organised

the banking-houses of Drexel, Morgan and Co., New York, and of Drexel, Harjes and Co., Paris. In 1864 with George W. Childs he thePhiladelphia Public Ledger, andwithhimin 1892 founded the Printers’ Home for union men at Colorado In 189: he founded and endowed the Drexel institute of Art,ScienceandIndustry inPhiladelphia He died at Carisbad,

Germany, June 30, 1893. DREYER,

JOHN LOUIS EMIL

(1852-1926), Danish

astronomer, was born at Copenhagen on Feb. 13, 1352, and was in his native town. In 1874 he became astronomer at See Kervyn de Lettenhove, Les Huguenots et les Gueux (1885); educated

f

Bo

iE i al f z

|F

E

i z3

E

forward

of Tunisia. About that time, Col. deputy director of the information branch, brought

a letter apparently from Col. Paniasardi, the Italian mil-

itary attaché. Dreyfus was referred to in it in terms which, had it been genuine, would have left no doubt of his guilt. The letter was, however, a forgery, and the discovery of this fact led to the

first revision of the case. Col. Picquart, before starting for Africa, of Second Armagh Catalogue of 3,300 Stere (1886). had told the whole story to his friend the lawyer, M. Leblois. ral Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars,” Leblois discussed it with Scheurer-Kestner, a well known politipublished in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society cian who was vice president of the senate. He became convinced is the author of a number of

(1888), with supplements in 1895 and 1908, is a standard work.

of Dreyfus's innocence, and began to agitate in his favour. At the

same time (Nov. 1897) Mathieu Dreyfus had by the merest

36th century (1890), and prepared a complete edition of Tycho Brahe's work, Tycho Brake Opera Omnia. The first volume was published in 1913; ten volumes appeared before Dreyer's death, and the remaining four were complete in manuscript. Dreyer held many academic honours. He died on Sept. 14, 1926.

DREYFUS, ALFRED

(18s9-

_—+), French soldier, was

born on Oct. 9, 1859, the son of a Mulhouse manufacturer. After studying at the école polytechnique, he centered the army as a lieutenant of artillery. He became a captain in 1889, passed through the école supérieure de la guerre (staff college), and received an appointment in the Ministry of War. His name is famous because of the judicial error of which he was the victim, which was repaired only after an agitation which disturbed France for many years and aroused deep feeling all over the world. During the summer of 1894, an anonymous letter abstracted from the German embassy was communicated to the Ministry of War. It had been addressed to the military attaché, Col. von Schwarskoppen. This letter known as the bordereau, or schedule, because it had originally been written as a covering letter to certain military memoranda, enumerated the documents which its writer hoped to send to Schwarzkoppen. A French officer was evidently betraying his country. It happened unfortunately that the writing of the bordereau was like that of Dreyfus. Suspicion fell upon him, and he was arrested on Oct. 15. He always maintained his innocence, but by reason of the similarity of the hand-writing, appearances were against him. Actual evidence was, however, extremely scanty. For this reason, Gen. Mercier, the minister of war, placed before the members of the court-martial secret documents, utterly valueless as evidence, but which could not fail to impress them. This was done unknown to the prisoner and his counsel, the famous M. Demange, and the fact did not leak out until several years later. On Dec. 22, 1894, Alfred Dreyfus was unanimously found guilty and condemned to detention for life in a fortified area. On March 15, 1895, he was interned on Devil's island, one of the archipelago of the Safety islands off the coast of Guiana. His family never ceased to believe in his innocence. His brother, Mathieu Dreyfus, convinced a terrible judicial error had been committed, strove incessantly to have the case reviewed. This could not be done, however, unless some new facts were brought to light. An official at the Ministry of War, entirely unconnected with the Dreyfus family, made the necessary discovery. Col. Picquart was the head of the information branch which had to do with the affairs of the secret service. In March 1896 he became possessed of the fragments of an express letter which Col. von had tom up

|

f

E

3i

Dreyfus, was in Esterhasy’s hand-writing fus was innocent and Esterhazy guilty, before his superior officers, Gen. de Boisdeffre the chief and deputy chief of the general stall. They,

chance come to realise that the writing of the borderean was that of Esterhazy. On Nov. 15, 1897, he wrote to the minister of

war accusing Esterhazy of the crime for which his brother had been condemned. The general staff was unwilling to own that a mistake had been made. Eaterhasy was formally court-martialled, but his acquittal was secured. At the same time a press campaign of extraordinary violence broke out against those who were working for the revision of the 1894 sentence. They were represented as traitors to their country. Col. Picquart was thrown into prison on the pretext that he bad communicated confidential papers to a civilian (M. Leblois). The cause of Dreyfus had, neve , gained many supporters, especially in intellectual circles. Georges Clemenceau and Francis H. Preasensé in the newly founded l'Aurore, and Yves Guyot, Joseph Reinach and others in the Siècle set on foot an agitation which did not cease till justice had been done. On Jan, 13, 1898, two days after Esterhasy's acquittal, Zola published in J’Awrore under the title

“J'accuse” the famous open letter to the president of the republic, in which he denounced the efforts which were being made to stifle the truth. At the instance of the Ministry of War, proceedings were taken against him. The case was heard. in February. His lawyers, Labori and Albert Clemenceau, brother of the statesman,

called many witnesses to the innocence of Dreyfus and convinced a large section of the public. But opinion on the whole was still unfavourable. Zola was condemned to a year's imprisonment. He later took refuge in England for a time. As the call for revision grew more and more insistent, Cavai-

gnac, minister for war in Brisson's cabinet, tried to arrest it by reading aloud in the chamber on July 7, 1898, the alleged Jetter from Panizsardi which had been brought forward by Col. Henry some months before. Soon after, however, on Aug. 30, it was made clear that it had been forged by its seeming discoverer, who was arrested and committed suicide in his cell at Mt. Valérien. This decided the Government to lay the demand made by Mme. Dreyfus for revision of the original sentence before the court of appeal. After months of enquiry, the court annulled the sentence of 1894 and ordered a new trial before a court-martial at Rennes. Little by little the cause of Dreyfus was gaining ground. Loubet, who became president of the republic on the death of Felix Faure in Feb. 1899, was favourably inclined to it, as was also the cabinet of Waldeck Rousseau, which came into power in June. But

feeling still ran high, especially in military circles. Dreyfus was brought back from Guiana. The new trial lasted a month. On Sept. 9, 1899, the court-martial at Rennes by five votes to two delivered an incoherent judgment by which Dreyfus was found guilty with extenuating circumstances, and condemned to ten ’ imprisonment. This amazed the general public. On Sept. 19 the Government decided to pardon Dreyfus. He was immediately set atliberty, and after a short stay at Geneva, settled in

i

At the end of 1903 further facts which came to light led

a demand for a second hearing by the court of appeal, and a long and detailed enquiry. On July 12, 1906, the court appeal finally quashed the sentence of 1894. Dreyfus was completely rehabilitated. A Government measure reinstating him in the army with the of major of artillery was immediately He was employed for a year in a military office at St. Denis near Paris and resigned in July 1907. In June 1908, on the

662

DRIBURG—DRILLING

occasion of the transfer of the ashes of Zola in the Pantheon, an anti-Semite journalist, Gregori, fired two shots at him, one of which wounded him slightly. He re-entered the army during the World War, was promoted lieutenant-colonel in 1918, and shortly afterwards an officer of the Legion of Honour. Since that time he has lived in retirement.

and cotton, and commonly bleached and finished stiff. The word

is a shortened form of “drilling,” from the German drillich, or

“three-threaded,” and is so named because the weave originally

used in its construction is what is termed the three-leaf twill, nine repeats of which appear in the accompanying figure, while immediately below the design is an intersection of all the nine threads OGRAPHY.—Dreyfus’s letters written in captivity have been with the first pick. It is essentially a warp-faced fabric; that is, published under the title Lettres d’un Innocent (1898). His memoirs the upper surface is composed mostly of entitled Cing années de ma vie appeared in 1901. The shorthand warp threads. In the figure it will be seen reports of the various trials have been published (some by the Libraire that two out of every three threads apStack of Paris and others by the Ligue des Droits de l'homme). See pear on the surface, and, by introducing also Joseph Reinach, Histoire de l'affaire Dreyfus (7 vols., 1901-1911); Theodore Reinach, Histoire sommaire de Pafaire Dreyfus (1924); and a greater number of threads per inch than an anti-Dreyfusite work by Dutrait-Crozon, Précis de FafitreDreyfus picks per inch, the weft is made to oc(1909). cupy a still more subordinate position so far as the upper surface of the cloth is DRIBURG, a town and spa of Germany, in Prussian Westconcerned. Although the weave shown is phalia, pleasantly situated on the Aa and the railway Soeststill extensively used in this branch, there Hoxter-Berlin. Pop. (1925) 3,000. It has glass manufactures. TWO DRILL DESIGNS are others, e.g., the four-thread and the It is celebrated for its saline-ferruginous springs, discovered in Three-leaf twill, a warpfive-thread weaves, which are employed 766, and since 1779 largely frequented in summer. In the vicinity faced fabric for the production of this cloth. Large are the ruins of Iburg, a castle destroyed by Charlemagne in 775, quantities of drill are shipped to the Eastern markets and to and bestowed by him upon the bishopric of Paderborn. DRIESCH, HANS (1867— _—+), German biologist and phi- other subtropical centres. It is also used for military tropical losopher, was born on Oct 28, 1867, at Kreuznach. After study- uniforms, and for jackets, overalls, etc. In agriculture, a furrow in which seed may be sown is known as ing at Hamburg, Freiburg, Munich and Jena, he travelled in the Far East, and from 1891 to 1900 worked in the zoological sta- a drill. The word is somewhat doubtful in origin. It may be the tion of Naples. He then settled in Heidelberg where in 1909 he same as an obsolete word “drill,” to trickle, flow in drops, also became privat-docent and in 1911 professor of philosophy. In a small stream or flow of water, a rill, and is possibly an altered 1920 he was made professor at Cologne and in 1921 at Berlin. form of “trill.” Drill is also the name of an agricultural machine Driesch began as a disciple of Haeckel but through the influence used for sowing seed or distributing manure (see CULTIVATING MACHINERY). (See also AGRICULTURE: AGRICULTURAL Maof G. Wolff and W. Roux came to support. a dynamic vitalism. His doctrine that the functions of protoplasm cannot be ex- CHINERY: SOWING.) DRILL, Papio leucophoeus, a large baboon inhabiting the plained mechanically was the outcome of experiments on the blastula of the sea-urchin, which showed that any fragment cut coast of Guinea. It is smaller and less fierce than its relative, at random always gave a complete embryo and on the restitution the mandrill, and is further distinguished by the black colour of of animal parts. From these he concluded that the organism must the bare face. DRILLING, PETROLEUM. Until comparatively rebe a harmonious equipotential system possessing a vital individualizing entelechy which works through the matter with a view cently petroleum drilling was carried on by various adaptations of to the whole. He also maintained that instinct and action are the cable tool or “rod and drop tool” method. (For details of inexplicable mechanically. His anti-mechanism in the psychologi- this, as well as for other methods of boring, see Borinc.) The cal sphere is seen in his Leib und Seele (Leipzig, 1920. Eng. trans. hydraulic rotary system of drilling has grown in popularity until with a full bibliography of his works, 1927). His other important it 1s now extensively used in most of the mid-continent, gulf-coast works are Analytische Theorie der organischen Entwicklung and California fields in the United States. It was first employed (Leipzig, 1894); Science and Philosophy of the Organism (Gif- particularly where soft formations were the rule. The developford Lectures, 1907-8); History and Theory of Vitalism (1914); ment of hard rock drilling bits for use with rotary equipment has The Problem of Individuality (1914); Wissen und Denken extended its field of usefulness until there is scarcely any type of (Leipzig, 1919); The Crisis in Psychology (Princeton Lectures, rock ordinarily encountered in the American oil-fields that cannot

Toata

be satisfactorily drilled. Construction.— Essentially, the construction of a rotary drill DRIFFIELD (officially Great Driffield), urban district, Buckrose parliamentary division, East Riding of Yorkshire, England. is as follows: the bit, of various designs, is screwed to a line of It is 194 m. N. of Hull, with which it is connected by a navigable drill pipe, at the upper end of which is a grief stem or rod of canal. Population of urban district (1921) 5,674. The town is square section, 30 to soft. long. The latter passes through a square served by the L.N.E. railway and is a junction for several branch hole in a rotary table, which acts as a horizontal gear-wheel and is lines. It is a market town, the centre of an agricultural! district, ipa driven by an engine or motor. Thus, while being rotated. e grief stem is free to move up or down, for feeding and for and manufactures oil-cake. The town is rich in historical associaraising or lowering: it is attached by a swivel and block to a rope tions and has an excellent museum. passing over a pulley on a tall derrick, and thence to a drum on DRIFT: see Gracia Perio. DRILL. In military science, the word drillen was used in the driving engine. The wash-water, pumped down the hollow rod, Dutch, German and Danish from the 17th century for training is gentivally “mud-laden”; i.e. mixed with clay, to increase its in military exercises and was adopted into English in the same specifie‘gravity, thus tending to prevent caving of the sides of the sense. The origin of the application seems to be in the primary ree a to seal off water-bearing or other strata, as may be sense of “to turn round,” from the turning of the troops in their ————— operation of the common rotary bit reevolutions and from the turning of the weapons in the soldiers’ hands. Drill is, formally, the preparation of soldiers for their sembles boring with an auger except that mud-laden water "is duties in war by the practice or rehearsal of movements in mili- pumped, under high pressure, downward within the rotary drill and jetted out with great force through two small apertures tary order and the handling of arms; and, psychologically, the }{ method of producing in the individual soldier habits of self- {4% “the rotary bit against the bottom of the hole. This fluid then control and of mechanically precise actions under disturbing con- | ‘urns outside the drill pipe to the surface, carrying the borings ditions, and of rendering the common instinctive will of a body $With it and, subjected to the pounding and the wobbling motion of men, large or small, amenable to the control of, and susceptibil ofthe rotarydrillpipe,plasters and stabilizes theunlined walls of to a stimulus imparted by its commander's will. (SteAnu} |ithe bore-hole as it is drill’. 42° INFANTRY; ROMAN ARMY.) The objective sought ist drillingi 1925).

In textiles, drill is the name of a fabric made in both ind|tooldrilling, although @e methods ofprocedure areradically

DRINK

BILL—DRINKING VESSELS

different. Whereas the power plant of a cable-tool outfit transmits power through several intervening appliances, imparting to the drilling bit a vertical reciprocating motion, the similar power

plant of a rotary outfit, bymeans ofdifferent appliances, imparts| to the rotary bit a continuous rotary motion. Instead of —

Liquors

rarily suspending drilling to bail outthe detritus as with cable | ee Se The hydraulic circulating system is sometimes adopted as a modification of the cable-tool system of drilling. The principle embodies the addition of mud-fiushing, a | — ORT

British spirits at 1308. per proof gallon . Other ditto. 2...

: ‘ : : ; cessfully developed in 1922 in California, A : ’ electric power first

15,376 1,705 12,88:

Beer at 1448. per bulk barrel (including Irish imports) a a se Wine at 308. per gallon . . .

26,200 16,628

Cider, perry, etc. (say)

fundamental characteristic of rotary drill-

ing, to regular cable-tool methods. “For prospecting work and for drilling wells in shallow territory, even to depths of 2,sooft., portable and semi-portable drilling machines are often ROTARY DRILL BITS used. These drilling machines employ the cable-tool method but are much lighter than the standard outfit. The Hild Automatic—Electric rotary drilling was first suc-

663

A aay, Per head.

;

F l

The expenditure and consumption in England and Wales (which are not separable) and in Scotland were about :—

Pom Ree

—

——

—

2La ERR

Expenditure "er head

. 1£271,285,000 6.18.0.

. aut per head | (proof | Spirits gallon)

e i e en saaie TA © Beat

£27,515,000 12,0, o5 50

0:96

having been applied to a hand-fed rotary outfit. More recently eee — head (tk gallons) | the Hild automatic differential electric drive has been developed. | | Absolute alcohol per head (gallona) It has the additional great advantage of drilling a straighter hole

than can be drilled by hand, and at a greater speed. The pressure

£0.15.

o 125

a 0°74

:

—

The total consumption of absolute alcohol ia Great Britain was

on the bit is automatically varied according to the resistance en- | 20Ut 51490 million gallons, as compared with about 77 millions

countered in the formation, thereby eliminating to a great extent |" 1913. beer being taken at 5-5%% standard barrel; spirits 51.1% human variability. The automatic outfit consists of a differential |Prof gallon; and wine at 18%. Of the quantity consumed about

gear unit with a 75 hop. drilling motor, a 35 h.p. regulating motor and necessary control equipment.

80% was taken in becr, 14% in spirits and 6% in wines, ctc. The taxation collected on the liquors consumed in 1927 was

Close spacing of wells occurring in town-lot drilling has forci- |about £1 28,500,000, or 43% of the total expenditure. bly drawn attention to the amount of drift or divergence from | The following figures are given for comparison, and show the

perpendicular in rotary holes. The effect of the different types of | 4PProximate expenditure in Great Britain, the duties on liquor and

bits on hole divergence is being studied and promises to be an | he balance after deducting such duties:— interesting field for investigation. A method of surveying drill Expendit Taxali

okol

holes devised by Alexander Anderson is being extensively used.

Deep Wells.—In 1925 the world’s deep rotary well record was

broken when the Miley Oil company drilled its Athens No. 6 in California to a depth of 7.591 feet. Casing was successfully landed at that depth and the well was put on production. This was still the world’s deepest-producing well. The record as to depth was broken in 1927 by the Chanslor-Canheld Midway Oil company's Olinda 96 in California, which was drilled to 8,201ft. but oil was not struck. Previous to this, the deepest hole was one drilled by cable tools and completed at a depth of 7,756 feet.

ae Ea AN

Ree

drink — /

Seg e EAE *Subject to excess profits duty.

|.

e

cineion

-duties)

re ee

(oou's omitted) -

(G. B.W.)

a — Develo 7 and — — DRINKING VESSELS. Nature provided the primitive man teDrillingProducti parce: Dr ae, Hand. | With various forms of drinking vessels, such as the coco-nut, the

book of the Petroleum Industry; L., S. Sands, Oil Field Development | gourd, eggs of the larger birds, shells and even the human skull, and Petroleum Production; L. C. Uren, “Petroleum Production |many of which have been of such practical use that they have

ineering,” Bulletin No. 6, vol. vili., American Petroleum Institute; | lasted to the present day. The first artificial drinking vessels were W. H. Jeffery, Deep Well Drilling. (L. M. F) | so similar to those used for food, that it is difficult to make a DRINK BILL. In Great Britain, this term has for many | definite line of distinction. ‘The races of the Neolithic and Bronze years been applied to an annual statement issued up to 1909 by| ages furnished vessels of pottery of a beaker-like form, and later the late Dr. Dawson Burns and since that date by the United | prehistoric times produced vessels of gold, bronze and other Kingdom Alliance, showing the annual expenditure on and con- | materials, which seem to have been used as drinking vessels. sumption of alcoholic liquors in the United Kingdom; since 1923 An early Victorian specimen, resembling a tea-cup on a high

in Great Britain. The statement is based on the quantities of | foot, was found by Schliemann in his exploration of the superbeer, spirits and wine retained for home consumption in Great | imposed cities of Troy. It is of clay, but similar forms found at Britain in the calendar year, as shown in the trade returns issued | Tiryns and Mycenae are of gold. Schliemann was especially by the customs and excise, and does not include exports or re-ex- | interested in a tall, trumpet-shaped cup with two earlike loop ports of such liquors. The unit taken for beer is the 36gal. barrel | handles; a sauce-boat shaped vessel of gold, made with a lip for as sold. The number of such barrels is larger than the correspond- ; pouring or drinking at each end, and with two loop handles; and ing number of standard barrels which is the unit of taxation. The | others of gold, silver and electrum, three of which were shaped materials which produce 1,000 standard barrels of 1,055° spe- | like 18th-century coffee cups without handles. cific gravity before fermentation in 1926-27 in fact produced | Gothic and Scandinavian Types.—The practice of burying 1,269 selling barrels. The unit taken for spirits is the proof gal- | with the dead warrior any property that he might need has prelon. Spirits are, however, sokd on the average at 30° under proof, | served to our day the actual vessels in use by the pagan northmen or 142-8 selling gallons for every 100 proof gallons, so that the | who pervaded northern Europe from the 4th century onward. total gallons of liquid actually consumed as spirits in 1927 was | Among the belongings surrounding one Saxon chieftain were five not 12,881,000 as stated below but 18,394,000 gallons, or the | cows’ horns and four glass cups. The horns were 2 ft. long, and equivalent of about 110 million bottles of whiskey. richly mounted at the mouth and at the point with silver bands The following is the Drink Bill for the calendar year 1927:— | embossed and gilt. The glasses were of a trumpet shape, with a

DRINKS— DRIVER small foot, while the sides were ornamented with tubes bent down- animals, the head generally removable so as to form a smeli cap. - ward and open on the inner side, so that theliquid would fill them. Stags, lions, bears and various birds are often found. A .commea Another type was a simple cone of glass, sometimes ornamented type of Switserland and South Germany was that of a figure of in wood, carrying on his back a large basket, with an applied spiral glass thread, or festoons of white glass a peasant, generally imbedded in the body of the vessel, Still a third form was that of the “tumbler,” a plain cup or bowl widely expanded at the mouth and with a rounded base, so that it could only be set down when empty. There are in the museums many other contemporary varieties, plain cylindrical goblets, generally with ornamental glass threads on the outside, and a more usual type has an orangeshaped body with a wide, plain mouth. In Belgium, France and Germany the same types occur, also additional forms that do not occur in England—one of which is a drinking glass in the shape of a hunting horn with glass threads forming an ornamental design on the outside. These glass drinking vessels were popular, but a large number of small pottery vessels were found, and in one grave at Broomfield, in Essex, two small wooden cups were found. Horns as drinking vessels retained their popularity at all times, actual horns being supplanted later by horn-shaped vessels. Church Vessels——The drinking vessel possessing the most established history is doubtless the chalice of the Christian Church. Upon early Christian tombstones are found such vessels, apparently with a symbolic intention. But it is not until about the 6th century that the sacred vessels assumed a definite form. From that time date the Jost golden chalices of Monza, representations of which still exist in that city; and the famous chalice of Gourdon in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris is probably of about the same time. All of these are two-handled with a vaseshaped body supported on a high base. Two glass vases of exactly this two-handled form are in the Slade collection at the British

which edged with silver formed the drinking cup. A curious fancy was to make cups in the form of a globe. These are of historic value, because they show the state of geographical or astronomical knowledge at the time. Glass cups were not common in England until the 16th century, Venice having practically a monopoly of the supply. The relations of Venice with the East were of so intimate a character that the earlier forms of Venetian glasses were nearly identical with those of the Mohammedan East. This period saw various kinds of wine glasses and goblets with enamelled and lace designs; tankards, practical but seldom graceful; beakers, resembling our modern tumblers and a common type among the Arabians. In the 17th and 18th centuries a great impetus was given to the production of curious drinking vessels, not in the sense of supplanting the many varieties of the past, but as an interesting innovation. Cups of leather, generally in the form of a lady’s shoe, were common. Flagons, or “black jacks’ were also of leather. The material that lent itself to a greater possibility in the field

of art was that of pottery. In England at various potting centres a great number of cups called “tygs” were made. These were large mugs with three or four handles, so that the cup could be passed from one to another. Some of these have quaint devices and inscriptions. “Puzzle jugs” afforded a good deal of amusement at this time. They were jugs with open-work around the neck, and a variety of spouts, only one of which led to the liquid. The Chinese still cling to the rhinoceros horn as an object of someMuseum, and may well have been chalices. This form seems to what archaic form, believing it to be an antidote for poison. The have been succeeded by a goblet with straight lines and without beautiful amber hue and the thickness of the horn, together with handles. Then came the rounded cup-shaped bowl] as seen in the the various carved decorations, make it a vessel of unusual inwell-known Kremsmunster chalice. An interesting silver vessel, terest. Tea-cups with no handles, and much thinner than coffee probably a chalice, found at Trewbiddle, in Cornwall, is in the cups, were made in China in the 18th century. British Museum. It is a plain semi-oval, and dates from the oth The 19th and 2oth centuries have seen the manufacture and use century. The 13th century chalice was usually a broad, shallow of most every form of drinking vessel that the ancient and cup, on a conical base. These gradually became taller, with a bowl mediaeval times produced, after changing the shapes and materials smaller in proportion, so that in the 17th century both the civil only as a matter of commercial interest. Glass is the most widely and religious vessels had lost all sense of true artistic proportions. used material, being cheaper and more practicable, while clay is In Britain chalices ceased to be used in the English church in the a better material when it comes to retaining heat or cold. (See reign of Edward VI. and were replaced by communion cups. The also Grass; Porrerms AND PORCELAINS; SILVERSMITHS’ AND chalices of the early centuries were made of various materials, GoLpsmMiTHs’ Worx.) glass being more practicable, with gold and silver as preferences DRINKS, SOFT: see Aznatep Waress. when they could be obtained. DRINK FIC: see Liquor Laws. Mediaeval Vessels for Common Uses.—Wooden veseels, of DRINKWATER, JOHN (1882_), British poet, playwhich mazer bowls seem to have predominated, were commonly wright and critic, born at Leytonstone, Essex, June 1, 1882, and used in the r4th, 15th and 16th centuries. In the latter century educated at the Oxford high school. After 12 years’ work as an they began to take on elaborate mountings, and then, as other insurance clerk, he devoted himself to theatrical enterprise, and materials came into use among the wealthy, they began to lose became manager and producer to the Pilgrim Players, who detheir popularity. Crystal, agate and other hard stones, ivory and veloped into the Birmingham Repertory Theatre Co. His first Chinese porcelain, were all in use, as well as the precious metals. volume of poems appeared in 1906 and his first play, Cophetua Of the cups that are preserved in the British Museum, the royal (in verse), in 1911. He subsequently published several volumes gold cup of the kings of England and France is of interest. It is of verse, critical studies on William Morris (1912), Swenburue of nearly pure gold with a broad bowl and a high foot, the cover (1913) and others, and several plays, of which Abrakam Lincoln pyramidal. The subjects represented on its ornamentation are (1918) was produced with success both in London and in scenes from the life of St. Agnes, in two rows, one on the cover the United States. Among his later plays were the ‘chronicle and one outside the bowl; on the foot are the symbols of the four dramas” Oliver Cromwell (1921), Mary Stuart (1922) and Robert Evangelists, and around the base a coronal of leaves alternating E. Les (1923), each of which was performed in London. In with pearls; the cover originally had a similar adjunct, but it has 1923 his Collected Poems (2 vol.) were published, and in 1925 unf ortunately been cut away. Its history has been traced from The Muse in Council, a collection of essays, and his Collected Plays (2 vol.). In 1925 The Pilgrim of Eternity: Byron—e Conthe time when it was made, about 1380, to the present time. 16th-18th Century Types.—Drinking vessels of the 15th and fict, his most important prose work, made its appearance. In 1928

16th centuries were of so many shapes, materials and decorations that most every type can be placed in that period. There were all sorts of adaptations, such as the ostrich egg mounted on elaborate silver, the coco-nut used in the same way and Chinese and other Oriental wares turned into cups and vases of various forms. Actual horns, provided with feet so as to serve as standing cups, were quite common. The elegant natural curve of the bern, often mounted with great richness, added still to the charm of the

side or soffit, so that water will drip from its outer not run back to the wall of the building. When used

arch or opening, it is known as a hood mould or label mould.

| D — vine and Hebrew scholar, vessel, German silversmiths made many vessels in the forms gé. 1846. He was educatedaf TR.

(1846-1914),

in Southampton on Oct. 2,

:and New college, Oxford.

DRIVER'S INSURANCE—DRIVING

665

e was 8 fellow (1870) and a tutor (1875) of New college, and a means of communication between different parts of Great 883 succeeded Pusey as regius professor of Hebrew and Britain; but those who made use of them did so as a matter of of Christ Church. ee a necessity and not for enjoyment. But by the beginning of the ) committee (1876-84) and examining chaplain to roth century the improvement in carriage-building and road-conbishop of Southwell (1884-1904). He died on Feb. 36, 1914. struction alike had greatly diminished the discomfort of travel: . Driver devoted his life to the study, both textual and critical, and interest in driving for its own sake grew so rapidly that in f the Old ‘Testament. Among his numerous works are commen- 1807 the first association of amateur coachmen was formed. on the books of the Old Testament. His /ntrod. to the Liter- The two principal driving clubs in recent times have been the ature of the Old Test. (187, gth ed., 1913) became a standard Four-in-Hand and Coaching Clubs. The former was founded in work, and exercised great influence on scholars. His other 1854 by the then duke of Beaufort, and such was its popularity most important work in Hebrew scholarship is to be found in his that the club could not entertain a quarter of the applications contributions to the Oxford Heb. and Eng. Lexicon of the O.T. for membership. In 1870 therefore the Coaching Club was formed (1906). A bibliography of his works is given in appendix B to with the duke of Beaufort as president. The meets of these two Cooke's edition of /deals of the Prophets (1915). clubs in Hyde Park were in pre-war days a great feature of the DRIVER'S INSURANCE: see Insvnance, Mra- London season, and on two or three occasions the Coaching Club LANROUS. } mustered more than 30 coaches. The Four-in-Hand Club after DRIVING, a word used in a restricted sense for the art of an existence of over 70 years was dissolved in 10926, but the controlling and directing draught animals from a coach or other Junior Club in 1927 continued to be well supported, and in this conveyance or movable machine to which they are harnessed for year some 10 to 12 members drove their drags to the three meets the purpose of traction (from “to drive”; ie. generally to pro- which were held. The club at this time numbered 4: members. Road-coaching has for long been a popular pastime amongst pel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages). This has been an occupation practised since horsemen in the British Isles. Following the supersession of the domesticated animals were first put to this use. In various parts stage-coaches by railways an important revival of coaching was of the world a number of different animals have been, and still initiated in 1866, and up to the time of the World War there are, so employed; of these the horse, ox, mule and ass are the were numerous well-appointed stage-coaches running daily in and most common, though their place is taken by the reindeer in out of London, notably on the Brighton and Portsmouth roads. northern latitudes, and by the Eskimo dog in arctic and antarctic On July 13, 1888, J. Selby, the well-known professional coachregions. The driving of each of these requires special skill, only man, performed his celebrated feat of driving the “Old Times” to be acquired by practice combined with knowledge of the coach from London to Brighton and back in 7hrs. and somina. This drive worked out at an average pace of 13-79m. per hour, characteristics peculiar to the several animals employed. Under all these different conditions driving is a work of utility, horses being changed so smartly that with 8 teams and 14 changes of economic value to civilised society. But from very early the latter took altogether only 6mins. rasecs. Since the war, times driving, especially of horses, has also been regarded as a owing to economic conditions and the great increase in motor sport or pastime. This probably arose in the first instance from trafic most of these coaches have been compelled to come off the its association with battle. In the earliest historical records, such road, but in 1927 the “Old Berkeley” and “Venture” coaches, as the Old Testament and the Homeric poems, the driver of the running respectively to Boxhill and Hampton Court had successchariot fills a place of importance in the economy of war; and on ful seasons (see COACHING). In modern driving, one, two or four horses are usually emhis skill and efficiency the fate of kings, and even of kingdoms, must often have d . The statement in the Book of Kings ployed. When a greater number than four is put in harness, as that Jehu the son of Nimshi was recognized from a distance by his in the case of the state equipages of royal personages on occastyle of driving appears to indicate that the warrior himself on sions of ceremony, the horses are not driven but are controlled occasion took the place of the professional charioteer; and al- by “postillions’ mounted on the near-side horse of each pair. though it would be unsafe to infer from the story that the pleas- When two horses are used they may either be placed side by ure derived from the occupation was his motive for doing so, side, in “double harness,” which is the commoner mode of drivthe name of this king of Israel has become the eponym of drivers. ing a pair of horses, or one following the other, in a “tandem.” Among the Greeks at an equally early period driving was a recog- Four horses, or “four-in-hand,” are harnessed in two pairs, one nized form of sport, to the popularity of which Horace after- following the other, and called respectively the “leaders” and the wards made allusion. Racing between teams of horses harnessed “wheelers.” Though it is a less difficult accomplishment to drive a single to war-chariots took the place occupied by saddle-horse racing and

apre

i

FA ay

American trotting races (see Horsz-Ractnc) in the sport of modern times. The clement of danger doubtless gave pleasurable excitement to chariot racing and kept alive its association with incidents familiar in war; just as at a later period, when the institution of chivalry had given the armed knight on horseback a conspicuous place in mediaeval warfare, the tournament be-

allusion by contemporary royalist writers; but two needed before much enjoyment could be found in driving, from utility. These were the invention of carriages and the construction of roads with smooth and solid surface. The

horse than a tandem or four-in-hand, or even a pair, it neverthe-

less requires both knowledge and the skill that practice alone confers. The driver should have some knowledge of equine character, and complete familiarity with every part of the harness he uses, and with the purpose which each buckle or strap is intended to serve. The indefinable quality known in horsemanship as “good hands” is, partiy at least, the result of learning the correct position for the arm and hand that holds the reins. The reins are heid in the left hand, which shouid be kept at about the level of the lowest button of tbe driver's waistcoat, and near the body though not pressed against it. The driving hand shouid be reached forward more than a few inches, nor raised as the breast. The upper arm should lie loosely against the orearm horizontal across the front of the body, formor thereabouts at the elbow-joint, tbe wrist , and the back of the hand and knuckles facing outtowards the horses. In this position the three joints of the form a kind of automatic spring that secures the “give” to movement of the horse’s mouth which, in conjunction with

tri TI

i

Fats

+

H

Fene

666

=

|

DRIVING

}

ity of the bit. Pulling horses must be restrained by a strong draw reins, thus disposed, from the right to the left hand, the: —— on their bits, such as would bring other animals to a standstill. man should shorten them till he just feels his But under no circumstances, no matter how sluggish the horses and hold back his leaders sufficiently to slag heap qui are, should the reins be allowed to lie slack. The driver should ening their traces. Then, when be has taken the whip — therefore always just “feel his horse’s mouth” as lightly as pos- socket in his right hand, he is ready to start . This is an opersible; he then has the animal well under control in readiness for ation requiring careful management, to secure that leaders and every emergency, while avoiding such a pull on the mouth as wheelers start simultaneously; for if the leaders start first they will be drawn up sharp by their bits. The moment it is desired would cause a high-spirited horse to chafe and fret. These principles are common to all branches of the art of driv- to start, the team should be given their heads and the “office” ing, whether of one, two or four horses. When they are observed to start by the coachman at once easing his left hand. When once no great difficulty confronts the coachman who is content with started a further adjustment of the reins is usually necessary. single or double harness, provided he has acquired the eye for The driver should see that his team is going straight. If the pace and distance, and the instinctive realization of the length leaders and wheelers are not exactly on the same line, this or that of the carriage behind him, without which he may suffer colli- rein must be shortened or lengthened as the case may require; sion with other vehicles, or allow insufficient room in turning a and it is to be noticed that as the near-wheeler’s and off-leader’s corner or entering a gateway. For before he can have had the reins lie together between the same fingers, a simultaneous shortpractice by which alone this knowledge is to be gained, the begin- ening or lengthening of these two reins will usually produce the ner will have learnt such elementary facts as that his horses desired result. With rare exceptions, reins should be shortened or must be held well in hand going down hill and given their heads lengthened by pushing them back or drawing them forward with on an ascent, and to be sparing in the use of the hand-brake, the right hand in front of the driving hand, and not from behind with which most modern carriages are provided. This apparatus it. As soon as the team is in motion the leaders may be let out is most useful in case of emergency, or for taking weight off the till they draw their traces taut; but draught should be taken off carriage on a really steep descent; but the habit which too many them on falling ground or while rounding a corner. In rounding coachmen fall into of using the brake on every trifling decline a corner a loop of the leaders’ rein, on the side to which the should be avoided. Its effect is that the horses are continually do- turn is to be made, is taken up by the right hand and placed ing collar-work, and are thus deprived of the relief which ought under the left thumb. This “points the leaders,” who accordingly to be given them by occasional light pole or shaft work instead. make the required turn, while at the same time the right hand Tandem and Four-in-hand—When the ambition of the bears lightly on the reins of the opposite side, to prevent them amateur coachman leads him to attempt a tandem or four-in- making the turn too sharply for safety to the coach behind them. hand he enters on a much more complex department of the art When the turn is made the driver’s left thumb releases the loop of driving. In the first place he has now four reins instead of and the team returns to the straight formation. A circumstance two to manipulate, and the increase of weight on his hand, espe- useful to bear in mind is that the swingle-bars are wider than the cially when four horses are being driven, requires considerable maximum width of the coach; consequently the driver knows that strength of wrist to support it without tiring. It is of the first provided the team and coach are going straight, wherever the bars importance, moreover, that he should know instinctively the posi- can pass through with safety—and as they are before his eyes the tion in his hand of each of the reins, and be able automatically calculation is easy—the coach will safely follow. The Use of the Whip.—A necessary part of driving four and instantaneously to lay a finger on any one of them. The driver who has to look at his reins to find the off-side leader's horses or tandem is the proper use of the whip. The novice, berein, or who touches the near-side wheeler’s in mistake for it, is fore beginning to drive, should acquire the knack—which can only in peril of a catastrophe. It is therefore essential that the reins be learnt by practical instruction and experiment—of catching should be correctly disposed between the fingers of the left hand, up the thong of the whip on to the stick by a flick of the wrist. and that the driver should as quickly as possible accustom him- Practice and considerable dexterity are required in using the whip self to handle them automatically. The coachman should take on the leaders without at the same time touching, or at all events, the reins in his hand before mounting the box-seat, as otherwise alarming or fretting, the wheelers. The thong of the whip should his team may make oa start without his having the means to reach the leaders from beneath the swingle-bar. This demands control them. It is customary to hitch the reins, ready for him skill and accuracy, especially when striking the near leader, but to take them on or through the off-side terret (the ring on the no coachman is competent to drive four horses until he is able pad through which the rein runs) of the wheeler—the off-side to touch with the whip any particular horse that may require it, wheeler in four-in-hand. Standing on the ground beside the off- and no other. Essential as is proficiency in the use of the whip when driving side wheel of his carriage, ready to mount to the box-seat, the coachman, after drawing up his reins till he almost feels the four horses, it is even more imperative for the driver of tandem. horses’ mouths, must then let out about a foot of slack in his For in four-in-hand the leaders act in some measure as a restraint off-side reins, in order that when on his seat he may find all the upon each other’s freedom of action, whereas the leader in tandem reins as nearly as possible equal in length in his hand. The reins is entirely independent and therefore more difficult to control. In the usual method of harnessing a tandem the lead traces should then be transferred to the right hand disposed as they will be in the left when ready to start, but one finger lower down; draw direct from the wheeler’s trace buckles. They should never the first finger will then be free to hold on to the footboard in be attached to the shafts, as this is a dangerous practice. The mounting the box. When replaced in the left hand after mount- above method entails a considerable length of trace, and a traceing, the leaders’ reins should be separated by the forefinger, and bearing-strap passing over the leader’s loins is a necessity. Another the wheelers’ by the middle finger. The near-leader’s rein will method consists in having two swingle-bars similar to those then be uppermost of the four, between the forefinger and thumb; used in four-in-hand, by means of which the leader's traces can then between the forefinger and middle finger are two reins to- be reduced to the same length as those of the wheeler. A tandem, owing to the greater freedom of the leader from gether—the off-leader’s and the near-wheeler’s in the order named; while at the bottom, between the middle and third fingers, is the control, requires in a sense more delicate handling than a fouroff-wheeler’s rein. It will be found that held thus the reins spread in-hand, but the latter supplies the coachman with problems of immediately in front of the hand in such a way that each sev- greater difficulty, and so of greater interest, if only for the reahe has to deal with the various temperaments of four eral rein, and each pair of reins—two near-side, two off-side, son that two wheelers’, or two leaders’-—can be conveniently manipulated; horses instead of only two, while the weight on the hand is and the proficient driver can instinctively and instantaneously obviously more severe, and a heavy coach load entails extra grasp any of them he chooses with his right hand without hav- precautions for safety, espegially in driving down hill. In Great ing to turn his eyes from the road before him to the reins in his. Britain the coach-and-four isghe more popular, hand. Having seated himself on the box and transferred thd: BısLocrarny.—See Fuler, 'Esssy on Wheel Carriages (1828);

iH

DROBISCH—DROIT ADMINISTRATIF Dotald Walker, British Manly Exercises: in which

Racing orenowfrstdescribed (1834); William Bridges

Driving,

Eng-

i Hiistory, Materials, Construction The Equestrian: A Handbook of Horsemanship, containing

lish

Tk Carriages: their

1837);

arn

es for Riding, Driving end the —

; J. H. Walsh (“St

"), Riding end a

the —

11005); A

CN Oor, The Handy Horse Book; or Prectical Instruction in

Driving, and the Management of the Horse i866). 1871-81); H. J. Helm, American Roadsters and Trottin

—

(1878); E. M. Strat-

ton, The World on Wheels (1878); F.ng ae th, Works on Horses and

Equitation: A aes rt ati Recorda Hippoioty a The Duke of Beaufort, Driving (The B ton Library, 1889), taining a bibliography; Capt. C. Morley Knight, Hints on Driving (1894); James A. Garland, The Private Stable (and ed., 1902).

DROBISCH, MORITZ

WILHELM

(X; G.W)

(1802-1896), Ger-

man philosopher and mathematician, was born on Aug. 16, 1802, in Leipzig, where he became professor of mathematics in 1826, professor of philosophy in 1842 and where he died on Sept. 30, 1896. He regards logic, whose business is the establishment of the general laws of thought, as a formal science independent of psychology. Religion is, for him, the expression of man's desire to escape from the impulses of nature to a divine being whose existence is better demonstrated by the ethical than the teleological proof. Drobisch's support of Herbart appears in his Beiträge cur Orientirung uber Herbart’s System der Philosophie (1834) and in Neue Darstellung der Logik (1836). He also wrote Grundlehren der Religions-philosophie (1840); Empirische Psychologie

(1842);

Quacstionum

mathematico-psychologicarum

spec. 1-V. (1836-39) and Uber die mathematische Bestimmung der musikalischen Intervalle (1846). See Neubert, M. W. Drobisch (Leipzig, 1902).

DROESHOUT, MARTIN, engraver, born in 1601 and bap-

667

proximity to Dublin, the seat of government and of the Irish parliament, induced them to prefer it toArdmacha inter Hibermicos. Near Drogheda, in later times, was the primatés castle and summer palace at Termonfeckin, some ruins of which remain. The ancient fortifications of Drogheda have disappeared save that St. Lawrence gateway remains almost perfect, and there are ruins of the West or Butler gate. St. Peter's chapel formerly served as the cathedral of the modern Roman Catholic archbishopric of Armagh. There was formerly an archiepiscopal palace in the town, built about 1620; and the Dominicans, the Franciscans, the Augustinians, the Carmelites and the Knights of St. John had monastic establishments. Of the Dominican monastery (1224) there still exists the Magdalen tower; while of the Augustinian abbey of St. Mary d'Urso (1206) there are the tower and a pointed arch. There is a blue-coat school, founded about 1727, the present buildings dating from 1870. The industrial establishments comprise cotton, flax and flour mills, sawmills, tanneries, salt and soap-works, breweries, chemical manure and engineering works. The town is the headquarters of the valuable Boyne salmon-fishery. A brisk sea trade is carried on in agricultural produce.

DROHOBYCZ, a Polish town in the province of Lemberg,

capital of a district which contains the largest oilfield in the country. Pop. (1921), 26,700. Oil was first found at Boryalaw and Tustanowice in 1904, and reached its highest production in 1909. The oilfield produced (1924) 673,277 tons, 78% of the whole Polish production, and employed 6,457 workmen. Drohobycz has a factory of mineral oil, the largest oil refinery in Poland, and is connected by pipe lines with the chief wells. It also produces mincral gas, gasolene (petrol) and ozokerite.

DROIT, a icgal title, claim or due; a term used in English

tized in London on April 26, 1601, was son of Michiel Droeshout law in the phrase droits of admiralty, certain rights or perquisites and probably the pupil of his father and elder brother Jobn, both assigned by the Crown to the lord high admiral. (See also Waecx. ) engravers. Martin's title to fame is his engraved portrait of Wil- The most important of these in modern times consisted of ships liam Shakespeare (signed Afartin Droeshout sculpsit), which and goods captured in port in time of war; others were flotsam, appeared in the precious first folio edition of Shakespeare's plays jetsam, ligan, treasure, deodand, derelict within the admiral's printed in London in 1623. The engraver was only 15 years old at’ jurisdiction; all fines, forfeitures, ransoms, recognizances and the time of Shakespeare's death and the portrait was therefore pecuniary punishments; all sturgeons, whales, porpoises, dolphins, not done from life. (See SHAKESPEARE Portraits.) Martin grampuses and such large fishes, with the share of some prizes— Droeshout's later work is superior to this portrait. We may men- such shares being afterwards called “tenths,” in imitation of the 4ton his portraits of John Howson, Bishop of Durham, and of French, who gave their admiral a droit de dixième. The droits of John Donne. He also illustrated Captain John Smith's “True admiralty were definitely surrendered to the Crown by Prince Travels” (1630).

See S. Colvin, Early Engravings in England, 1905; A. M. Hind,

George of Denmark, when lord high admiral of England in 1702.

In prize law droits of admiralty are distinguished from droits

List of the Works of Line-Engravings in England (1905); Cat. of of the Crown which, before 1914, were granted to the captors of

Engr. Brit. Portraits in the Britisk Museum.

DROGHEDA

(dréch’é-da), municipal borough and seaport,

on the southern border of Co. Louth, Ireland, on the river Boyne, about 4 m. from its mouth in Drogheda bay, and 314 m. N. by W. from Dublin by rail. Pop. (1926), 12,688.

The earliest notices call the town Inver-Colpa or the Port of Colpa; the present name signifies “The Bridge over the Ford.” A synod was convened here in 1152 by the papal legate, Cardinal Paparo; in 1224 was founded a Dominican friary, of which there are still remains; and in 1228 the two divisions of the town received separate incorporation from Henry III. In 1412, Henry IV. granted a charter autborizing tbe combination of the two towns. In the reign of Edward III. Drogheda was classed with Dublin, Waterford and Kilkenny as one of the four staple towns of Ireland. Richard II. received in its Dominican friary the submissions of O'Neal, O’Donnell and other chieftains of Ulster and Leinster. The right of coining money was bestowed on the town, and several parliaments were held there, including one in 1495, when Poyning's laws were enacted. In the civil wars of 1641 the place was besieged by O’Neal, but was relieved. In 1649 it was captured by Cromwell and the inhabitants brutally massacred. In 1690 it was garrisoned by King James's army, but after the battle of the Boyne it surrendered without a struggle. Drogheda ceased

ships and cargoes captured at sea by duly commissioned ships of war.

(See H. C. Rothery, Prize Droits, being A Report to H.M.

Treasury on Droits of the Crown and of Admiralty in Time of

War [1915]; also the Law Quarterly Review, vol. xxxii., p. 38, and the Naval Prize Act, 1918; also Holdsworth, ZMistory of English Law, vol. i. pp. 559-5601.) The term droit is also used in various legal connections (for French law, see France: Law), such as the droit of angary (g.v.),

the droit d'achat (right of pre-emption) in the case of contraband (g.v.), the feudal droit de bris (see Wreck), the droit de régale or ancient royal privilege of claiming the revenues and patronage of a vacant bishopric, and the feudal droits of seigniory generally.

DROIT

ADMINISTRATIF.

French administrative law

may be described as that section of law which establishes the different administrative organs of the State and defines their powers as regards individuals. It will thus be noticed at once that there

is a very close connection between French constitutional and administrative law since in the former the general plan of the

operation of the powers inherent in the State is set out whereas in the latter the various organizations by which these powers are

enforced are detailed, or-——in another phrase—in constitutional law are to be found the principles whose application is enacted through the channels of administrative law. to be a parliamentary borough in 1885, and a county of itself France is for administrative purposes divided into “départements” which are subdivided into “arrondissements.” The latter iù 1898. From the close of the 12thcentury, and forsome time after are again subdivided into “cantons” with a further subdivision the Reformation, the primates of Ireland lived in Drogheda. Its into “communes.” These different administrative divisions are

668

= DROIT ADMINISTRATIF

not, however, of equal importance. The “départements” and the “communes” are at the same time electoral constituencies, administrative units and so-called “personnes morales.” The “arrondissements” are neither “personnes morales” nor administrative units. The “cantons” are neither legal nor administrative units although they elect a councillor to the conseil général and to the conseil d'arrondissement. The “communes” form an administrative centre of great activity. “Droit administratif” is, therefore, concerned with the general interests of the State, the regional interests of the “départements” | acting independently of the executive, whose functions and powers and the local interests of the “communes,” although for reasons are defined in the Code Administratif, whereas under the English of economy it is often enforced by the same agents as in the case rule of law Government departments often exercise in camera, of the “préfet” of a “département” who is at the same time an and without an oral bearing of the applicant, semi-judicial funcagent of the State and of the “département.” tions under Statutory Powers which, in practice, confer on them There are several classes of administrative organs, the author- the power of judging their own cause without appeal. ities entrusted with the execution of administrative decisions (‘‘preOnly cases in which a definite right has been violated can be fets” and “sous-prefets”), mayors, deliberative councils, which heard before the administrative tribunals; where private interests must be subdivided into deliberative councils proper, namely, those only are concerned appeal can be made only to representatives of who have power to take executive decisions (conseil général, the administration, following the hierarchical order upwards. As conseil d'arrondissement and conseil municipal) and consulting regards the cases which come before the administrative tribunals councils (conseil de préfecture, conseil d'état), and finally admin- these are divided into four classes: first, those in which the istrative tribunals entrusted with jurisdiction. tribunal examines the matter as regards both law and fact, and The acts of administrative authority are fundamentally divided decides if a decision is to be upbeld or replaced by another; into two classes, acts of authority proper or, as they are some- secondly, those in which the tribunal has to decide if any administimes called, unilateral administrative acts, by means of which trative act was ultra vires, in which case it quashes the decision: the administration orders or prohibits some action by the subject thirdly, those in which the tribunal is called upon to interpret the of its administration, as for instance the order of a mayor pro- scope and intention of an administrative act; and, fourthly, those hibiting processions in the territory of his commune, and acts of in which the tribunal has power to impose a penalty in cases where administration proper by means of which the administrative public property has been encroached upon, or a legal usufruct of authorities ensure the safeguard of the property of “personnes public utility unobserved. It must be noticed that this last class morales administratives” and enforce contracts, the nature of of case constitutes an infraction of the rule that every illegal act these acts being from a legal point of view the same as those of of any kind, the commission of which entails a penalty, falls within a private citizen. Appeals against acts of so-called authority proper the provisions of the Penal Code and must be tried before the are, however, within the jurisdiction of the administrative tribu- ordinary judicial tribunals. nals, whereas disputes arising out of acts of so-called administraThe fundamental principle of the separation of the judicial and tion proper are tried before the ordinary judicial tribunals. administrative authorities was enacted by the law of Aug. 24, Acts of authority proper are subdivided into “actes individuels” 1790, sec. 2 Art. 13 which enacts that the judges may not in any and “actes réglementaires.” “Actes individuels” are those con- way interfere with the operations of the administrative corps, or cerning a particular individual in connection with a defined object. summon before them administrators to answer for acts done in “Actes réglementaires” are tbose by which the administrative carrying out their proper duties. This principle has been so far authority imposes certain restrictions on a body of individuals. developed that if during the course of an action before the ordiThe right to do “actes réglementaires” is entrusted as regards the nary judicial tribunals a question arises which might prejudice a whole State to the president of the republic, as regards the “dé- decision of the administrative tribunals, the hearing must be suspartements” to the “préfets” and as the “communes” to pended pending a decision by the latter. In cases, however, of the mayors. This subdivision of acts of authority proper is im- “expropriation” on grounds of public utility, in which a decision portant as regards jurisdiction, for only “actes individuels” can be must be given by the judicial tribunal, the latter may refuse to appealed against before the ordinary administrative tribunals. The make an order if all the legal formalities required have not been sole means of attacking an “acte réglementaire” is before the duly carried out by the administrative authorities. conseil d'état which may order it to be cancelled as ulira vires. Finally certain matters which should, according to their nature, Private individuals are protected against officials by their power be brought before the judicial tribunals have by law been allotted of prosecution before the Criminal Courts in certain cases (Art. to administrative tribunals, ¢.g., questions arising out of the con166-195, Crim. Code) and their right of bringing an action before tracting for public works, the sale of any part of the national the ordinary judicial tribunals where an official is personally liable, domain and the declaration of the State as a debtor. as the responsibility for acts done by an official is only assumed by Administrative tribunals are divided into tribunals of first the administration in cases where the fault is inherent in the serv- instance and those of appeal. The mayor and the council of the ice, and thirdly by appeal to the administrative tribunals. prefecture always constitute tribunals of first instance. The “preIt is true that in case of tort French citisens can only sue fets” and the competent minister constitute sometimes tribunals officials of the State in their official capacity in the ordinary of first instance and sometimes tribunals of appeal. The conseil courts when the act complained of is alleged to have been com- d'état is in principle an appeal tribunal, although in certain cases mitted “with malice,” and that in the absence of “malice” the it is a court of first and last instance, and even a court of cassation. private citisen must seek his remedy before an administrative The cour des comptes except in one instance is a court offirst and tribunal. It is, however, interesting to compare generally the rights last instance. These tribunals are also subdivided into tribunals of a French citizen with those of a British subject who, in dealing competent to hear and determine all matters which have not been with State officials or civil servants, finds that he is, in many cases, specially reserved, and special tribunals forthe trial of-the latter powerless owing to the immunity these persons enjoy as regards class of cases. the consequences of acts done in their official capacity. French Ordinary tribunals are in the first instance that of the compeAdministrative Law may be said to be based on the recognition of tent minister and in the second instance the consedi d'état. Special the fact that the State, regarded as a “personne morale,” has two tribunals for the cases are the council of the distinct entities, and that in its politic capacity it is a “person” prefecture, the “prefet,” the “sub prefet” and the mayor. who is responsible forthe torts of its servants as well as for conwith special functions are those of the cow tracts made by them on its behalf, and that consequently it may

be sued, if not in the ordinary courts, before the administrative

DROITWICH—DRONFIELD

669

that'of the sanitary police, that forexcess values andthet forthe Rhone and Drôme. Fruit culture is much practised. Olives and

Pop. (2921). 4,558. It is served also by the L.M. stands on theriver Salwarpe, a tributary of the Severn, by canal. There are three wW

z a

5

p

È

i

Š g

town probably owes its name and origin. Droitwich a considerable reputation as a are Royal Brine baths, St. Andrew’s baths and a hospital. Owing to the pumping of the brine there

tet FO

figs are grown in the south; the cultivation of mulberries and wainuts is more widely spread. The rearing of sikworms in Drôme is very important. The Montélimar district is noted for its truffles. Mineral products include lignite, blende, galena, calamine, freestone, lime, cement, potter’s clay and kaolin. Brick and tile works, potteries and porcelain manufactories exist in several localities. Industries flour-milling, distilling, wood-sawing, turnery and dyeing. The chief textile industry is the preparation and weaving of silk, which is carried on in a number of towns. Woollen and cotton goods are also manufactured. Leather working and boot-making, carried on on a large scale at Romans, are important, also the manufacture of machinery, hats, confectionery and paper. Drôme exports fruit, nuts, oil, cheese, wine, wool,

—live stock and its manufactured articles; the chief import is coal. It is served by the Paria-Lyon railway, and the Rhone and Isére furnish over 100 m. of navigable waterway. The canal de la Bourne, the only one in the department, is used for purposes of irrigation oniy. Drôme is divided into the arrondissements of Valence, Die, Montélimar and Nyons, comprising 29 cantons and 378 communes. The capital is Valence, the seat of a bishopric of the province of Avignon. The department forms part of the académie (educational division) of Grenoble, where its court of appeal is also located, and of the region of the XIV. army corps (Lyons). Besides Valence, the chief towns of the department are Die, Montélimar, Crest and Romans. Nyons is a smal! industrial town with a mediaeval bridge and remains of ramparta. Suse-la-Rousse is dominated by a fine chdteau with fortifications of the tath and 14th centuries; in the interior the buildings are in the Renaissance style. At St. Donat there are remains of the palace of the kings of cisjuran Burgundy; though but Httle of the building is of an earlier date than the 11th century, it is the oldest example

BESS

subsidence of the ground, detrimental to the buildings, and new

houses are mostly built in the suburbs. In the pleasant wellwooded district surrounding Droitwich the most notewo points are Hindlip Hall, 3 m. S., where (in a former mansion conspirators in the Gunpowder Plot defied search for eight days (1605); and Westwood, a fine hall of Elisabethan and Carolean date on the site of a Benedictine nunnery, 1 m. west of Droitwich, which offered a retreat to many Royalists during the Commonwealth. Area, 1,705 acres. A Roman villa, with various relics, has been discovered bere, but it is doubtful how far the Romans made use of the brine springs, which are also mentioned in several charters before the Conquest. At the time of the Domesday Survey all the salt springs

belonged to the king, who received a yearly farm of £65, but the manor was divided between several churches and tenantsin-chief. The burgesses of Droitwich (Wic, Salturic, Wich) are of civil architecture in France. The churches of Léoncel, St. Resmentioned in the Domesday Survey. The town is first called a titut and La Garde-Adhémar, all of Romanesque architecture, borough in the pipe roll of Henry II., but the burgesses did not are also of antiquarian interest. St. Paul-Trois-Ch&teaux, an old receive their first charter until 1215, when King John demanded Roman town, once the seat of a bishopric, has a Romanesque a fee-farm of £100. The payment of the fee-farm gradually cathedral. At Grignan there are remains of the Renaissance lapsed in the 18th century. In mediaeval times Droitwich was chateau where Madame de Sévigné died. At Trin there is a governed by two bailifs and twelve jurats. Queen Mary sacrificial altar of A.D. 184. granted the incorporation charter in 1554 under the name of the DROMEDARY, 2 name for swift riding camels, of cither bailiffs and burgesses. James J. in 1625 granted fuller charter, the Arabian (one-humped) or the Bactrian (two-humped) specics. which remained the governing charter until the Municipal Re- See CAMEL. form Act. King John’s charter granted the burgesses a fair on DROMICEIDAE: sse Euv. the feast of SS. Andrew and Nicholas lasting for eight days, but DROMORE, a market town of Co. Down, Ireland, on the two fairs on the vigil and Upper Lagan, 174 m. S.W. of Belfast by rail. Pop. of urban - | district (1921), 2,364. The bishopric here grew out of an abbey of Canons Regular attributed to St. Colman in the 6th century, and was united in 1842 to Down and Connor, The town and a department of south-east France, formed of parts cathedra] were wholly destroyed during the insurrection of 1641, iné and Provence, and bounded on the west by the and the present church was built by Bishop Jeremy Taylor in Rhone, which separates it from Ardéche, north and north-east by 1661. Remains of a castle and earthworks are to be seen, together Isére, east by Hautes-Alpes, south-east by Basses-Alpes and south with a large rath, or encampment, known as the Great Fort. The by Vaucluse; area 2,533 8q.m.; pop. (1926) 263,750. Dréme is town gives its name to a Roman Catholic diocese. Manufacture watered by tributaries of including the Isère , iD in the of linen is the chief industry. DROMOS, the open air passage, enclosed between stone walls, leading down to the entrance of Greek “beehive” tombs.

DRONE, in music, the bass pipe or pipes of instruments of

ẸE

the bagpipe type, having no lateral boles and therefore giving out note without intermission as long as there is wind in the forming a continuous pedal, or drone bass. The drone instead of a mouthpiece, a socket fitted with a beating ted or short pipe immovably fixed in into a stock inser ure of the bag. There are allusions in the Greek classics t to the existence of a pipe with a drone, either of or the bagpipe type.

igsBEE

‘DRONFIELD, urban district, north-eastern parliamentary

Derbyshire, 6 m. S. of Shefheld, on the . Pop. (1921) 4,434. It is on the river Drone, a S. tributary of the Rother. In-the district are numerous coal mines works. The church of St. John the Baptist, a good example of Decorated work, with

670

|

DRONGO—DROP ‘FORGING

Drop forging is essentially a moulding operation, the metal ‘be Perpendicular additions. the aid ofmachines at a sufficient heat to brin DRONGO or King Crow, an Old World group of birds of —— the family Dicruridae; the plumage is usually black and the tail it to a plastic condition, but never to the molten condition neces forked. The drongos inhabit Africa, south-eastern Asia and the sary for the production of castings. Drop forged articles are ‘fre Malayan region to Australia. The largest genus, Dicrurus, includes the black drongo (D. ater), the ashy drongo (D. longicaudatus), and the white-bellied drongo. Drongos are mimicked

by three species of drongo-cuckoos (Surniculus), which lay their eggs in the drongos’ nests.

DROP FORGING.

quently confused with castings, but the manufacturing process i entirely different. The hammer used indrop forging operations consists of a forge or cast block of steel, commonly called the “tup” and weighin,

Drop forging is the production in quan-

tity of articles in metal by means of a falling weight forcing the heated material into a die. It is only within the last 60 years or so that drop forging as it is known to-day has been practised. Since the beginning of this century great development has taken place owing to the growth of the motor industry and the increasing demand for mechanical transport. An enormous number of the parts of an automobile are now drop forged, e.g., the engine crankshaft, connecting rods, bearing caps, tappets, rockers, valves, flywheels, gears, actuating forks, couplings, levers and lever brackets. On the chassis, the front axles, back axle casings, swivels, stub axles, , wheel hubs, steering levers, brake levers, pedal levers and plates, ` differential gears and pinions, brake shoes and brackets are all

FIG. 2.—DROP-FORGED ROD BEFORE AND AFTER FLASH WAS BEEN REMOVED When the metal is being forged, a oertain amount, known as the “fash,” is pressed out at junction of dies (upper figure). It is removed by trimming tools, and the finished forging is then ready for machining

(lower figure)

anything from 1 cwt. to 3 or 4 tons, which is lifted to a height an then allowed to fall or “drop” on to the anvil block by its ow weight. The fall is controlled by guide rods or slides bolted to, c fixed in, the anvil block. The lifting apparatus varies in detai but in its essentials consists of pulleys exerting a variable frictio pull on a belt connected with the tup, manipulated with cords c levers usually by hand (fig. 1). The hammers mostly used i Great Britain are those delivering a gravitation blow bya fallin weight impinging on an unyielding anvil, but steam hammers a1 also used, where the tup is attached to a piston rod and propelle downwards and lifted up by means of steam or compressed ai The anvil receives the whole of the energy delivered by the han mer whenever a blow is struck except the small amount absorbe in compressing the stamping, and therefore the ratio of the weigt of the hammer to the weight of the anvil block is of great impo tance; a minimum ratio of 15 to 1: is usual, i.e, a ı ton hamme will have a 15 ton anvil block and so on. Die Block.—For the manufacture of a drop forged article, in

pressions are sunk in two die blocks to the exact shape and size c the pattern required. Careful attention is paid to the cutting ¢ these dies which are frequently of a very intricate pattern; ver

FiG.

1.—DIAGRAM

OF TYPICAL

DROP

NAMMER

WITH

STEAM

LIFTER

Weighing anything from 1 owt. to 4 tone, the anvil being at loast 25 times as heavy, the hammer or “tup” ls raised by iifting arma operated by steam wer. Guide rods fixed la the anvil contro! ite fall

expensive steel is usually employed and highly skilled workme are engaged. One die is fixed in the tup and the other is fixed o to the anvil block by means of poppet pins or keys; the metal t be forged, which has previously been heated in an adjacent furnac to a malleable condition, is placed between these dies, and sever: blows in quick succession are struck by the hammer, thus for ing the metal evenly into the die impressions. The number « blows required must be gauged with some accuracy by tł stamper; too few blows will not obtain uniform strength in th forging, while too many will shorten the life of the dies. A ce tain quantity of metal is extruded at the point where the two di meet, and this surplus metal, called the “flash” or “fin,” is n moved on completion of the forging operation by means of a pa of trimming tools fixed in a press; one of these tools resembles tl pattern of the article required and the other is made hollow to ti outline of the pattern at the point of the flash (fig. 2). The for ing, placed in the press, is forced through the hollow tool by ti solid one and the flash is cut off, the forging being subsequent! returned to the hammer for one more blow to correct any possib

made by this method, even small articles such as wind-screen pillars, wing-nuts and stainless door-handles being made under the drop hammer. The development of aviation finds much employment for drop forging in connection with propeller hubs, crankshafts, connecting rods, valves, brackets, gears, etc. Great accuTacy is demanded for this work, both for weight and strength; very fine limits are imposed, and the forgings are subjected to severe tests by the Aeronautical Inspection Directorate. Many other industries use drop forged es, common products being scissor blanks, surgical instruments Ë heavy gears for railway wogk. trimming operation.

ee

.

ee

ee ee

a

`

em— —

`I Z GA wW pog Gop

43620) : B wuwu Siji Aq

B3JN:2A3 9a

A

$5.70

sNVSAO? ?`

Dni

RACGI:B Sat&

DULY Ayiaes8

Ç °C

eS eo

snedmO-> 1à Jai

34I

2GiCN20 ABUEBS>

[Guswswysy ‘p Pjood Gujuswis} pdjjOsjUG2 Aq puey

D9NINWNWIYL S3SS3ud put‘P Buiwusis,:sessesd ‘¢ jou Wik3}IS GOsp :wwty 0340) 40 mOjq

DNI9YOd3-dO0OYA SYINWVH GNV dBNYYSQns 10) OPOS ‘samod sdcip Aq

ANVR? E’ B

——

98780

— —

GaVu

—*

Bes

—

SCS FT

——

aBMISG ANt

—

ASBLBAC? SO il? 9 >

=Q x

ab

A*©Q CZ È TER OY Eee

` DROP FORGING

67 I

On the completion of the forging operation, the forgings are the ram. The lower end of the board is fastened to the upper usually subjected to heat treatment to relieve the metal of any portion of theram and theupper end oftheboard travels between strains setup during stamping and also to render it most suitable two rolls which revolve in opposite directions. Automatic mechanism is provided so that the rolls alternately squeese the board and, revolving, lift it. The rolls are then spread apart, allowing the ram to fall. The steam drop hammer (Plate I. fig. 5) utilises a steam cylinder for the lifting mechanism, the piston rod taking the place of the board and the ram being fastened to the lower

forging to see that the grain is worked into a position parallel to Fie. 3.—DROP-FORGED CRANKthe principal stresses likely to SHAFT. SHOWING GRAIN ARRANGED

occur in the article to be forged.

TO FOLLOW CONTOUR OF CRANK-

Grain must never be allowed to SHAFT run transversely to the axis of the greatest bending stress (fig. 3). This is one of the great advantages of drop forgings over castings. In a casting, where the metal is melted down and poured into a mould, the structure becomes crystalline and not fibrous; but in FIG. S.—FORGING AND TRIMMING DIES FOR A CROSSHEAD SUPPORT FORGING a drop forging, always made from bars or billets which have the grain running longitudinally, very careful attention is paid to the end of the piston rod. The air drop hammer is fundamentally the disposition of this grain, so that if there is a bending stress it goes same as the steam hammer, but uses compressed air instead of across the longitudinal grain and not between it. steam. Drop forgings are made in many metals; besides the various For forging with the drop hammer there is used a set of tools alloy steels, stainless steels and iron, brass, yellow metal, cuproknown as forging dies, which are blocks of steel used in pairs. nickel, aluminium, duralumin, magnesium, etc., are used. Con- The dies are cut or dug out so that when the two cut-out blocks siderable progress has been made with the forging of these light are put face to face, the hollow included between them has the alloys. Some of them are exceedingly difficult to forge, and the exact shape of the forging which they are designed to produce. greatest accuracy in gauging the forging — 5 DE (See fig. 5.) One of the dies is solidly fastened to the base or anvil, while the other is fastened to the lower end of the ram. The overhead mechanism of a drop hammer is automatic. The IN THE UNITED STATES Drop forging is divided into four classes, dependent on the hammer travels to the top of its stroke and is released, causing type of machine used. They are: (1) trip hammer forging; (2) the die block fastened to it to strike against the one on the base, after which the ram is instantly raised. The operation of drop drop hammer forging; (3) upsetting; and (4) press forging. Trip hammer forging is done with a power-driven sledge forging consists of heating any suitable metal to a temperature hammer so arranged that successive blows strike in exactly the at which it is malleable, placing it on the lower die block and same place. The helve type of trip hammer consists of (1) a allowing the upper die block to fall on it repeatedly, forcing the base or anvil on which there is held a die; and (2) an arm or metal into the shape defined by the sunk or cut-out portion of the helve fixed at one end, the other end of which is mechanically dies. The making of drop forgings can be considered as divided raised and lowered. On the moving end of the helve there is into (1) the making of the dies and (2) the productii "ethe we fastened a second die which strikes against the die held on the forgings. Die Making.—In making dies it must be rememberedl ‘that: anvil. Another type of helve hammer makes use of an auxiliary ram between the helve and the upper die. The ram operates be- is not possible to forge all shapes. No holc or depressión $n tween vertical guides and is loosely connected to the helve. The drop forging may be larger at the bottom than at the top, aladvantages of a trip hammer are the rapidity with which it though it may be smaller. In actual practice it must be slightly delivers its blows and the ease with which the operator can in- smaller by an amount equal to the “draft,” as‘the angle at the stantly change the force of the blow from zero to the maximum side of every depression is called. No surface of a drop forging of the machine. Typical examples of the type of forgings made may be parallel to the path of travel of the dies, but must depart by this process are the various types of chisels, punches and picks. from parallelism by an amount not less than the draft angle and in the direction which will make all parts of the forging smaller at

the bottom of the impression in each die than at the top. The usual draft angle in drop forging is 7°. It is possible to forge many different kinds of materials, among them being iron, copper, certain of the brasses, bronze, aluminium, monel metal, nickel and a great number of alloys of these and similar metals. By far the greatest number of forgings are made from steel and its alloys. Typical examples are wrenches, pliers, chisels, hammers, parts of machines of all kinds and automobile connecting rods, crank shafts, manifold flanges and clevis bolts. The die design is influenced by the quantity whick $i.to be made FIG. 4.—TRIP HAMMER DIES FOR FORGING COLD CHISELS. SHOWING at one setting of the dies as well as by the quantity: eventually THREE SIZES OF CHISELS PRODUCED IN SUCH DIES wanted. Dies may be so designed as to make two or utbre — Fig. 4 shows a typical pair of trip hammer dies used to forge cold at once, later to be cut apart by trimming. Since mëtal is f while hot and shrinks in cooling, that fact must be allowed $ when making dies. All forging dies are made larger than the Lice which the piece is to be when cold, by an amount equal to the

inkage. The cutting of die blocks proceeds in several stages,

* kesigned to the end that the final or finishing stage will produce the exact forging wanted. After the finishing cut is made and the impression is completed,

672

DROPSY—-DROSERACEAE

the accuracy of the work is tested by placing the two die blocks löi)dropeics

—n

face to faceand pouring melted lead into the impression and allow- dropsy, or dropsy which depends on causes acting on the system large, is duechieflytodiseasesofthebeart,kidneys orhunga, ing it to harden; afterwards, this lead cast which has the shape of at ee en ee ' the desired forging is examined. The quantity of forgings which See

one pair of dies will produce varies from perhaps 100 pieces under

the worst to perhaps 500,000 under the best conditions. The normal life for steel pieces lies between 10,000 and 40,000.

Upsetting is done with a drop hammer by making a hole in the bottom die and placing in the hole a bar longer than the depth of the hole and allowing the upper die to strike it. This mushrooms the end. When it is desired to have an upset other than at the end of the bar the lower die may be designed in two halves so that one may be removed and the forging taken out. Special machines embodying these principles are called upsetters, bulldozers or forging machines. In the operation of such a machine a bar is heated and placed in the opening between the two halves of a pair of gripping dies, one of which may be fixed or both may be movable. The two halves of the die come together tightly gripping the bar and then the ram is forced against the end,

binclpious irori(o arteries1o ilieveis,and, so soon as this has reached a sufficient degree, dropsy in the form ‘of local oedema begins to appear at whatever may be the most dependent part of the body—the instep and ankle in the upright position, the lower part of the back or the lungs if the patient be inbed—-and this

tends gradually to increase till ali the cavities of the body are invaded by the serous accumulation. The diseases of the lungs which produce dropsy are those which obstruct the passage of the blood through them, such as emphysema and fibrosis, and thus act precisely like disease of the heart in transferring the blood pressure from the arteries to the veins, inducing dropsy in exactiy a similar manner. The dropsy of renal disease is dependent for the most part on an excess of exudation, due largely to an increase of arterupsetting it and also forcing the metal to fill any shaped impres- ial and cardiac tension. This in its turn produces arterial thickension which may be in the gripping dies. The ram then returns and ing and cardiac hypertrophy, which, if the case be sufficiently prolonged, brings about a natural removal of the fluid. In kidney cases, the gripping dies open for the operator to remove the piece. Press forgings arc made in toggle joint or hydraulic presses in the absence of cardiac disease, the dropsy appears first about using dies in the same gencral manner as in the drop hammer the loose cellular tissue surrounding the eyes. For the treatment of dropsy the reader is referred to the articles method, the difference being that a slow push is used instead of the quick, heavy blow of a ram. Presses are also used for sizing on the diseases of which it is a symptom. Briefly, tapping of the forgings, taking the place of cold striking in a drop hammer. (See abdomen or puncture of the legs are resorted to in severe cases. Dehydration by diet may be valuable when the dropsy is other Presses and PRESSWORK.) (H. K.) DROPSY, the name given to a collection of serous fluid in than renal. ‘And there is the routine treatment by drugs, purgative, all or any of the cavities of the body, or in the meshes of its tissues. diaphoretic and diuretic as the symptoms of the case may demand. Differing from the preceding is epidemic dropsy, the first reDropsy of the subcutancous connective tissue is termed oedema when it is localized and limited in extent; when diffuse it is termed corded outbreak of which occurred in Calcutta in the year 1877. anasarca; the term oedema is also applied to dropsies of some of It disappeared during the hot weather of the following year, only the internal organs, notably the lungs. Hydrocephalus signifies an to recur over a wider area in the cold months of 1878 to 1870, accumulation of fluid within the ventricles of the brain or in the and once again in the cold of 1879 to 1880. Since then only isolated arachnoid cavity; Aydrothorax, a collection in the pleural cavities; cases have been recorded in the immediate neighbourhood of Calhydropericardium, in the pericardium; ascites, in the peritoneum. cutta, though epidemics have broken out in other places. At the Dropsy (excluding “epidemic dropsy,” for which see below) is a end of 1902 an outbreak occurred in the Barisal gaol, Bengal, in symptom and not a specific disease, being the exaggeration of a which nearly one-third of the cases ended fatally. Dropsy was an normal condition. Fluid, known as lymph, is continually passing invariable feature, and was either the first symptom or occurred through the capillary walls into the tissues, and in health this is early. The lower limbs were fitet ‘affected, trunk and upper limbs removed as fast as it is exuded, in one or more of three ways; part later in severe cases, the face very rarely. It was accompanied by is used in the nutrition of the tissues, part is returned to the general pyrexia, gastro-enteritis, deep-seated pains in limbs and body, and circulation by the veins, and part by the lymphatics. Any accumu- burning and pricking of the skin. Various rashes appeared early lation constitutes dropsy and is a sign of disease, though not a in the attack, while eczema, desquamation and even ulceration disease in itself. The serous effusions due to inflammation are not supervened later. Anaemia was very marked, giving rise in Mauriincluded under the term dropsy. A dropsical fluid varies consider- tius to the name of acute anaemic dropsy. The duration of the ably in composition according to its position in the body, but only disease was very variable, the limits being three weeks and three slightly according to the disease which has given rise to it. Its months. Death was often sudden, resulting chiefly from cardiac specific gravity ranges betwen 1,008 and 3,018; the mineral salts and respiratory complications. Probably it is a vitamin-deficiency present are the same in amount and kind as those of blood and do disease akin to beri-beri. not vary with the position of the exudation. quantity of DROPWORT, in botany, the common name for Uimaria albumin, however, depends much on the position of the , and Filipendula (family Rosaceae), found in dry pastures. It is a slightly on the underlying disease. In oedema the fluid contains. perennial herb, with much-divided, radical leaves and an erect only traces, whereas a pleura) or peritoneal effusion is always highly stem, 2 to 3 ft. high, bearing a loose terminal inflorescence of small albuminous. Also an effusion due to heart disease contains more white flowers, closely resembling those of the nearly allied Ulmaria albumin than one due to kidney disease. In appearance the fluid palustris, or meadowsweet. Water dropwort, Oenentke crocata (family Umbelliferae), is a may be colourless, greenish or reddish from the presence of blood

pigment, or yellowish from the presence of bile pigment; transparent or opalescent or milky from the presence of fatty matter

tall, herbaceous plant growing in marshes and ditches. The stem,

which springs from a cluster of thickened roots, is stout, branched, hollow and 2 to 5 ft. high; the leaves are large and pinnately divided, and the flowers are borne in a compound umbel, the long sure being raised beyond a certain point owing te venous obstruc- rays dense, partial umbels of small white flowers. The tion. This may be due to thrombosis of a v as in phlegmasia PO which is very poisonous, is often mistaken for celery. dolens (white leg), retardation of venous ci tion as in varicose veins, or obstruction of a vein due to the pressure of an aneurism or tumour. Cardiac and renal dropsy are more complicated in origin, but cardiac dropsy is probably due to diminished absorption, and renal dropsy, when unassociated with heart failure, to in- cluding about 90species, ‘hasthree British andseven North Amerderived from the chyle. The simplest cause of dropsy is purely mechanical, blood pres-

creased exudation. But the starting-point of acute renal — icanrepresentatives, known as sundews (g.v.). Dionaea, witha of the dropsy sometimes occurring ia diabetes, and that of chloro- single species, isVenus’ fly-trap (9.v.). Aldrovenda, also ioWIROAN sis is the toxic condition of the —

For accounts of the various one species, isa water-plant, lacking roots.

` DROSOPHILA, a geus of fies — — Sev- — without — showed implacable hostility to the Girondins, eral species, and in’ perticular the fruit-fy, D. melanogaster, and proposed the slaughter of all English residents in France. ‘He have become widely known on account of the exhaustive investi- was captured at the siege of Maubeuge, and imprisoned at Spieoftheir hereditary constitution by T. H. Morgan and his berg tillthe close of 1795. He then became a member of the Coun(See Genz; Genetics; Hereorry.) cil of Five Hundred, and was named secretary. Drouet was impliOFF, ANNETTE ELISABETH, cated in the conspiracy of Babeuf, and was imprisoned; but he vou (1797-1848), German poet, was born at the family made his escape into Switzerland, and thence to Teneriffe. There Hiilshoff near Miinster in Westphalia on Jan. ro, 1797. he took part in the successful resistance to the attempt of Nelson Her early mental training was influenced her cousin, on the island, in 1797, and later visited India. The First Empire von Droste au Vischering, archbishop of Cologne (see below), and found in him a docile sub-prefect of Ste.-Menchould. After the she received a liberal education. After prolonged visits among second Restoration he had to leave France. Returning secretly he the intellectual circles at Coblenz, Bonn and Cologne she retired settled at Macon, under the name of Merger and a guise of piety, and died there on April rr, 1824. to the estate of Ruschhaus near Miinster, belongi See G. Lendtre, Le Drame de Varennes (Paris, 1905), mother’s family. In 1841, owing to delicate health, she went to reside in the house of her brother-in-law, the well-known scholar,

DROWNING

AND LIFE SAVING.

To “drown” is to

Joseph, Freiherr von Lassberg (1770-1855), at Schloss Meers- suffer or inflict death by submersion in water, or figuratively to burg on the lake of Constance, where she met Levin Schiicking submerge entirely in water or some other liquid. As a form of capital punishment it persisted in (g.v.), and there she died on May 24, 1848. Annette von DrosteEurope till the 18th century. Hiiishoff is, beyond doubt, the most gifted and original of GerDeath from drowning is the reman women poets. Her verse is strong and vigorous, but often sult of asphyxia from inhalation unmusical even to harshness; one looks in vain for a touch of of water during the violent efsentimentality or melting sweetness in it. As a lyric poet she is forts to breathe, Owing to lack of at ber best when she is able to attune her thoughts to the sober oxygen and accumulation of carlandscape of the Westphalian moorlands of her home. Her narbonic acid gas the blood soon berative poetry, and especially Das Hospiz auf dem Grossen St. comes intensely venous and by - Bernard and Die Schlacht im Loener Bruch (both 1838), belongs poisoning the respiratory and to the best German poetry of its kind. She was a strict Roman cardiac centres in the medulla Catholic, and her religious poems, published in 1853, after her oblongata brings them to a standdeath, under the title Das fetsthche Jahr, nebst einem Anhang still, Sometimes death occurs religiöser Gedichte, enjoyed great popularity. FIG. 1.—RESCUER'S RELEASE Annette von Droste-Hiilshoff's Gedichte were first published in 1844 When held by wriets, reseuer should from primary syncope. When a person unable to swim during her lifetime. Collected editions of her works were edited by turn both arme simultaneously against falls into the water, he usually E. von Droste-Hiilshoff (Miinster, 1886). The Ausgewdhlte Gedichte drewntng person's thumbs were edited by W. von Scholz (Lei 1901). See, among the many rises to the surface, throws up his arms and calls for help. This, monographs on Annette von Droste-t Levin Schlick- with the water swallowed, will make him sink. Struggling will be ing (and ed., Hanover, 1871), by H. Hueffer (Gotha, 1871; 3rd ed. by Cardauns, 1911), Gabriele Reuter (1905), and A. Balkenhol (aca): prolonged a few seconds, and then probably cease for a time, alFor her correspondence see the Sdmth Briefe (edit. Cardauns, lowing him to rise again, though perhaps not sufficiently high to 1909), and 23 Neue Droste-Hiilshof{ Briefe (edit. M. Schneider, 1923). get another breath of air. If still conscious, he will renew his

DROSTE-VISCHERING, CLEMENS AUGUST,

Banon von (1773-1845), German Roman Catholic divine, was born at Miinster on Jan. 21, 1773,.and entered the priesthood in 1798, being elected vicar-general by the local chapter in 1807. This office he resigned in 1313 through his opposition to Napoleon, but assumed it again after the battle of Waterloo (1815) until a disagreement with the Prussian Government in 1820 led to his

abdication. In 1835, he was appointed archbishop of Cologne, but a further quarrel with the Prussian Government over mixed marriages led to his imprisonment for two years. Droste was not re-installed but was obliged to accept a coadjutor. His chief works were: Uber die Religionsfretheit der Katholiken (1817), and Uber den Frieden unter der Kirche and den Staaten (1843).

struggle, more feebly perhaps, but with the same result. As soon as insensibility occurs, the body sinks altogether, owing to the loss of air and the filling of the stomach with water. The general belief that a drowning person must rise three times before he finally sinks is a fallacy. Before diving in to rescue a drowning person the boots and heavy clothing should be discarded if possible, and where a leap has to be made from a height, or the depth of the water is unknown, it is best to drop in feet first. Where weeds abound prog-

See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk., and H. Kipper, “Droste-Vischering” in Frankfurter Zcitgemässe Broschüren (Hamm, 1908).

DROUAIS, JEAN GERMAIN

ress should be made in the direction of the stream. The danger of being clutched by a drowning ~ man is best avoided by approach-

(1763-1788), French his-

torical painter, was born in Paris. His father, Francois Hubert Drouais, and his grandfather, Hubert Drouais, were well-known

portrait painters; and be studied first under his father, then under Brenet, and finally under David. He accompanied David to Rome, where he was influenced by the remains of ancient art and by the works of Raphael. Goethe, who was at Rome when the picture

ing him from behind, but if seized, hand en chin, pushes away the head

tbe rescuer must keep uppermost, as this makes the effort of effecting a release much easier. If tbe rescuer be held by the wrists, he must turn both arms simultaneously against the drowning person’s thumbs, and bring arms at right angles to = body (fig. 1). If he be clutched neck he must take a deep breath, Wan well over the drowning person, piace one© handin the smallofhipbackandpass

R

DROUET, JEAN BAPTISTE (1763718234), French revolu- the other over thehehabi

—

wasborn at Ste.-Menehould, where his father

rg arm, pinch the nostrils and at the same time with the palm of the hand on the chin push the head away with all possible force (fig. 2). One of the most clutches is that round the body and arms or round the so tackled the rescuer should lean well over the take a breath as before, and either withdraw

upward direction in front of his body, or cise way as when releasing oneself when clutched

b74 ;

i

H

5 4

DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING.

round the neck, In any case one hand must be placed on the drowning man’s shoulder, and the palm of the other hand against his chin, and at the same time one knee should be brought up against the lower part of his chest. Then, with a strong and sudden push, the arms and legs should be stretched out straight and the whole weight of the body thrown backwards. This sudden and totally unexpected action will break the clutch (fig. 3). There are several methods of carrying a person through the water, the easiest being that applied to a quiescent person. Then the person assisted should place his arms on the rescuer’s shoulders, close to the neck, with the FiG. 3.—-RESCUER'S RELEASE arms. at full stretch, lie on his If seized round body and arms, place back perfectly still, with the head one hand on drowning man's shoulder, well back. The rescuer will the other on his ohin, and press knee then be uppermost, and having his against lower part of his chest. Then arms and legs free can, with the push backward suddenly breast stroke, make rapid progress to the shore (fig. 4). When a drowning person is not struggling, but seems likely to do so when approached, the best method is to turn him on his

overthelowerpartoftheback (on thelowest ‘dhe: celeta each

side (fig. 8), and then gradually throws the weight of his body forward onto them so as to produce firm pressure (fig. 9)—which

must not be violent—upon the patient’s chest. By this means the air, and water if any, are driven out of the patient’s lungs. Immediately thereafter the operator raises his body slowly so as to remove the pressure, but the hands are left in position. This

FIG. 6.—METNOD PERSON

OF RESCUING

FIG.

7.—RESCUING

RESISTS

WHO STRUGGLES VIOLENTLY

Turn drowning person on back and support his arms above elbow in a lifted position. Use back stroke

METHOD

PERSON

SHOWN

IN

Slip hands under armpits,

WHO FIG,

6

then raise

arms at right angles to body and proceed as before

forward and backward movement is repeated every four or five seconds; in other words, the body of the operator is swayed slowly forwards and backwards upon the arms from twelve to fifteen

back, place the hands on either side of his face and swim with the

back stroke, always taking care to keep the man’s face above water (fig. 5). If the man be struggling and difficult to manage, he should be turned on his back as before, and a firm hold taken of his arms just above his elbows. Then the man’s arms

should be drawn up at right angles to his body and the rescuer should use the back stroke (fig. 6). If the arms be diffi-

FIG. 6.—ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION, IST MOVEMENT

(SCHAFER

Fig. 9.—-ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION, 2ND MOVEMENT (SCHAFER METHOD)

METHOD)

Throw body forward, producing firm pressure. Then resume first position

Straddie person, face downward and place hands on lower pert of back

cult to grasp, or the struggling FIG. 4.—-METNOD OF RESCUING A prevent a firm hold, the res- QUIESCENT PERSON The drowning person should Ile on his cucr should slip his hands un- back, with arms on resover's shoulders. der the armpits of the drown- Rescuer ls uppermost and, with arms ing person, and place them on his and lege free, can use the breast stroke chest or round his arms, which he should raise at right angles to his body (fig. 7). In carrying a person through the water, it is advantageous to keep his elbows well out from the sides, as this expunds the chest, inflates the lungs and adds to his buoyancy. If the drowning person has sunk the rescuer should look for bubbles before diving in and remember that in running water they rise obliquely. When a drowning person is recovered on the bottom, the rescuer should seize him by the head or shoulders, place the left foot on the ground and the right knee in the small of his back, and then, with a vigorous push, come to the surface. Fia. S.—-METHOD OF RESCUING When the rescuer reaches land PERSON LIKELY TO STRUGGLE with an insensible person, arti- Turn drowning person on back and, ficial respiration must be em- keeping his head above water, use ployed. The system first in vogue back stroke (1774) was inserting the pipe of a pair of bellows into one nostril and closing the other. Air was forced into the lungs and then expelled by pressing the chest, thus imitating respiration. About the

middle of the roth century came the methods of Marshall Hall,

of Silvester, and of Howard. These have been superseded by the

simpler and more effective method, worked out experimentally by Professor E. A. Schäfer of Edinburgh and adopted by the Royal Life Saving Society. . Professor Schifer describes the method as follows: Lay the subject face downwards on the ground, then without stopping to remove the clothing the operator should at once place himself in position astride or at one side of the subject, facing his head and

kneeling upon one or both knees. He then places his hands fat | ate

times a minute, and should be continued for at least half an hour, or until the natural respirations are resumed, Whilst one person is carrying out artificial respiration in this way, others may, if there be opportunity, busy themselves with applying hot flannels to the body and limbs, and hot bottles to the feet, but no attempt should be made to remove the wet clothing or to give any restoratives by the mouth until natural breathing has recommenced, In his paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in December, 1903, Professor Schäfer gave the following table of the relative exchanges of air under different methods :—

Mode of respiration. f

Natural respiration (supine) Natural respiration (pronc) — “Schäfer” Felling e (pressure),‘ ‘Howard” batt pressure), «Marshal 1 Hall”

Rolling (without pressure), “Marshall Hall” Lo al — Pressure),

Number

per

minute.

13 12°5 13

¥3°6

Amount of | Amount of air air

exchanged | exchanged per

r

respiration.

minute.

C.C. 489 422 520

c.c. 6357 5275 6760

295

4012

13

254

3302

12

192

2304

12-8

178

2278

These experiments show that by far the most efficient method known of performing artificial respiration is that of intermittent

pressure upon the lower ribs with the subject face downward. It is the easiest to perform, and has the further great advantage tbat it can be effectively carried out by one person.

(See also ARTI-

FICIAL RESPIRATION.) the —— ” (vol. 87, Medico-Chirurgical Society's — E. A. Schäfer, RS, “Therelative efficiency of certain methods of perform-

ADDICTION

i in man” DRS

Reval

a

PaMeibod fortheTrea sA Meiho of Insiruction,

réception,”

Menora S

675 l'Académie

française;

Sainte-Beuve,

Causeries du lendi, t. iii; Michel Chevalier, Notice prefixed to the DROZ, NUMA (1844-1899), Swiss statesman, was born on

DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV (1808-1884), German

historian, was born on July 6, 1808 at Treptow, Pomerania, son Jan. 27, 1844, at La Chaux-de-Fonds. After teaching school, he of an armychaplain. Inhis childhood Droysen witnessed some became editor of National Suisse in 1864. Four years later he of the military operations during the War of Liberation, for his was made a member of the council of Neuchatel, in 1875 of the father was pastor at Greifenhagen, near Stettin, occupied by the Federal chamber, and in 188: and again in 1887 was president French in 1813. The impressions of these early years laid the of the Swiss Confederation. His works are L’/nstruction civique foundation of his ardent attachment to Prussia. He was educated (1886), Essais économiques (1895) and Etudes et portraits poliat the gymnasium of Stettin and at the University of Berlin. tigues (1895). DRUDE, PAUL KARL LUDWIG (1863-1906), German Droysen occupied various positions in the schools as well as at physicist, was born at Brunswick on July 12, 1863. He studied the University of: Berlin until 1840, and there his early works, on at Gottingen, Freiburg and Berlin. Drude was extraordinary Alexander the Great and on Hellenism, were mainly written. In 1840 Droysen succeeded F. C. Dahlmann (¢.v.), professor professor of physics at Leipzig (1894-1900), professor of physics of history at Kiel, and was drawn into the political movement at Giessen (1900-05), and finally, professor of physics at Berlin. for the defence of the rights of the Elbe duchies. In 1848 he was His most important work was his application of Maxwell's elecelected a member of the Frankfort parliament, and acted as secre- tromagnetic theory, as developed by Hers, to the problems of tary to the committee for drawing up the constitution. A deter- light, and a series of papers appeared between 1896 and 1899. mined supporter of Prussian ascendancy, he retired after the king Some of these were on the theory of magneto-optical phenomena of Prussia refused the imperial crown in 1849. In 1850, with of iron, nickel and cobalt (1897), on the theory of anomalous disCarl Samwer, he published a history of the dealings of Denmark persion (1898), on electric dispersion (1899), and on the optical with Schleswig-Holstein, Die Hersogthiimer Schleswig-Holstein constants of metals (3899). Later, Drude worked on electround das Königreich Dänemark seit dem Jahre 1806 (Hamburg, magnetic oscillations. He also wrote two well-known books, which 1850; Eng. trans. 1850), a book formative of German public have passed through many editions and have been translated into opinion on the rights of the duchies in their struggle with Den- English, Physik des Athers (1894) and Lehrbuch der Optik mark. After 1851 he had to leave Kiel, and he was appointed to a (1900). In 1g00 he succeeded Wiedemann as the editor of the professorship at Jena; in 1859 he was called to Berlin, where he Annalen der Physik. Drude committed suicide on July 5, 1906. DRUG, a district and town of British India in the Chhattisgarh remained till his death. In 1851 he brought out his admirable biography of Count Yorck von Wartenburg (1851-52) and then division of the Central Provinces. The district was formed in began his great work on the Geschichte der preussischen Politik 1906 from portions of the districts of Bilaspur and Raipur (qq.v.). (7 vols., 1855-86). It forms a complete history of the growth It has an area of 4.645 sq.m. and at that time the population, of the Prussian monarchy down to the year 1756. This, like all 676,000, showed a large decrease on the preceding census, but by Droysen’s work, shows a strongly marked individuality, and a 1921 it had recovered to 743,246. The district belongs to the great power of tracing the manner in which important dynamic Chhattisgarh rice plain and has the same undulating character, forces worked themselves out in history. Droysen died in Berlin but contains more wheat land than its neighbours. Several irrigaon June 19, 1884. His eldest son, Gustav (1838-1908) wrote tion storage reservoirs and the Tandula canal have been conGustav Adolf (Leipzig, 1869-70); Herzog Bernhard von Weimar structed by Government since the great famine of 1goo. There (Leipzig, 1885); an admirable Historischer Handatlas (Leipzig. are nine Zamindari estates in the district covering an arra of 1,800 1885), and several writings on various events of the Thirty Years’ aq. miles. Drug, the capital of the district, is the only town among 2,533 War. See M. Duncker, Johann Gustav Droysen, ein Nachruf (1886); ny Villages. Its population has greatly increased since it was made a district headquarters. namely, from 4.033 in 1901 to 11,274 in oe Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte (Leipzig 1921. It is a station on the Bengal-Nagpur railway and a rice 1906 DROZ, ANTOINE GUSTAVE (1832-1895). French man market has been established there, but its local indusfrics are of letters, son of the sculptor J. A. Droz (1807—1872). was born in petty. DRUG, any organic and inorganic substance used in the Paris. He was educated as an artist, and first exhibited in tbe Salon of 1857. A series of sketches dealing gaily and lightly with preparation of medicines, by itself or in combination with others, the intimacies of family life, published in the Vie parisienne and and either prepared by some method or used in a natural state issued in book form as Monsieur, Madame et Bébé (1866, Eng. (see PHARMACOLOGY and PHARMACOPOEIA). In a particular sense trans. 1887) won for the author immediate recognition and great “drug” is often used synonymously for narcotics or poisonous success. Entre nous (1867) was built on a similar plan, and was substances, and hence “to drug” means to stupefy or poison. DRUG ADDICTION may be defined as an overpowering later followed by a series of novels: Le Cahier bleu de Mile Cibot (1868); Autour d'une source (1869); Un Paquet de lettres impulse for narcotism or intoxication by any drug possessing nar(1870); Babolein (1872): Les Etangs (1875); L’Enfant (1885); cotic or intoxicating properties. It ia best exemplified by the overpowering influence possessed by opium and its preparations, Tristesses et sourires (1884). Droz died on Oct. 22, 1895. DROZ, FRANCOIS-XAVIER JOSEPH (1773-1850), and its alkaloids or derivatives such as morphine and heroin, and French writer on ethics and political science, was born at Be- by cocaine and substances containing it. Persons who have besancon, of a legal family. He gained the Montyon prize in come habituated to the continued use of these drugs find that 1823 by his work De la philosophie morale ou des différents sys- they have become enslaved to them, and that it is with the témes sur la science de la vie. The main doctrine inculcated in this greatest difficulty that their use can be abandoned. Addiction treatise isthat society will never be in a proper state till men have drugs cause very great mental and moral deterioration, usually been educated to thinkof their dutiesandnotoftheir rights. It progressive in character. Drug addiction is by no means confined to the above-named was followed in 1825 by Application de la morale à la philosophie

k

NABDINLIGN

6. “Paysage L'Orage’’

Undated, probably about 1512

by Albrecht Direr.

y

MUSEUM

1. “St. Jerome seated near a Poliard Willow” (1512) by Albrecht Durer, the first of three dry-points. From the impression of the second plate 2. "Holy Family” by Albrecht Durer.

—Xs

wad yt |

a number

THE

(1760)

(1848)

19TH

CENTURY

by Gabriel de St. Aubin.

Touched up

by Charles Jacque, a French etcher who

of dry-point

landscapes

with figures of horses

7. “Portrait of the Artist's Mother” (1822) by Andrew Geddes 8. Trial proof

(Oct. 7, 1877)

of “Windmill

Hill,” dry-point by Seymour

Haden, one of the leading English etchers of the 19th century 9. “Sunset 1863

in ireland”

(from

a very

rich imprint)

by Seymour

Haden,

sd near

a Pollard Willow,” 1522 (Bartsch 59, Dodgson’. 66),

compenic — the undated “Holy Family” of similar ions (Bartsch 43, Dodgson 67). Of the twolatter dry-points Pipe extant, for the burr wore off rapidly

majority efextantspecimens have been taken from the

ij

il —

ee ee e

ites. Of Dilrer's first work in this technique, ‘St. Jerome,” two proofs only exist ofa first state before the monogram (in the British Museum, and the Albertina, Vienna). These are of superior quality; the Albertina impression of the second plate is also very fine indeed. A fourth dry-point, “St. Veronica” (Bartsch 64), —

which figures in the older catalogues

WEE

of Dürer used dry-point, and that but sparingly. It is hardly found again in the history of German engraving until a much later date.

Italy.—In Italy also the process was used in early times, chiefly

dry-point, in a multiplicity of states, Of a celebrated recent drypoint by Muirhead Bone “A Spanish Good Friday,” there are no leas than 39 states, the engraver having repeatedly changed his mind about some detail, or thought of a fresh improvement that he could introduce, after he had begun to take proofs. Dry-point and Etching.—Dry-point has sometimes been used by line-engravers, instead of etching to which they far more frequently resort, in the first preparatory stage (outline) of plates which are subsequently to be finished with the burin. Much more usual is the combination of dry-point with etching. Such a combination may be made either for the purpose of the general enrichment of an etched plate, in a second or subsequent state, by the addition of the dry-point burr, or for the sake of introducing small corrections, which can be made far more easily, though less permanently, by the addition of a few touches or lines with the dry-point than by an additional biting of the etched plate, which involves stopping out or the laying of a fresh ground. Drypoint additions to an etched plate can be readily distinguished by a trained eye in early impressions, but they wear away gradually till all trace of them is lost, and it is the presence of a clearly visible dry-point work, with all the richness that it was intended to impart, that confers value on early impressions of such an etching as the “Hundred Guilder Print” of Rembrandt, in its second state, or on the single state of “Christ Healing the Sick” by the same artist, though both the rich early impressions and the bare late ones from the worn plate which has lost its burr have to be described as belonging to the same state.

HISTORY

by Andrea Schiavone, or Meldolla (1522282), an engraver who worked at Venice, and perhaps also by the monograminist H.E., for early impressions of his prints show signs of burr which in the usual later prints would not be suspected. Rembrandt.—In the Netherlands dry-point was hardly used, if at all, before the 17th century. Its varied uses, as described above, for the enrichment of the etched plate by the addition of burr to the etched line as well as for the production of pure dry-points, were first discovered and exploited by the greatest of all painter-etchers, Rembrandt, who in his middle period, from about 1639 onwards, used this technique increasingly, in a thoroughly personal manner, for the sake of substituting “colour” and warmth for the drier effect of the pure etchings of his earlier period. From 1640-50 Rembrandt used dry-point extensively for retouching his etched plates—"The Death of the Virgin” and the “Hundred Guilder Print” are examples taken from the beginning and close of this period—while in his last period (165061), plates wrought wholly in dry-point became more and more frequent. Among the finest of these must be reckoned “The Goldweigher’s Field" (1651); “The Vista” (1652); the two large plates, “The Three Crosses” and “Christ Presented to the People,” of 1653 and 1655 respectively and the “Portrait of Arnold Iboliux,” 1656. An impression of the exceedingly rare first state of this portrait, in the Rudge collection, sold at auction in Dec. 1924, realized the large sum of 3,600 guineas, the highest price hitherto paid at an auction for an etching, if not for a print of any kind. The 18th Century—After Rembrandt, no very considerable use of the dry-point was made by any of the great engravers for a lengthy period. The 17th century was in all countries an age of line-engraving and etching, while in the Low Countries, Ger-

In a retrospect of the use of pure dry-point during the centuries which have elapsed since the invention of engraving, it will appear many and England, the invention and development of mezzotint that its popularity has been intermittent, and that there have were claiming attention. In the 18th century dry-point was used periods during which, in one country or another, here and there by a number of painter-etchers, amateurs in their technique as compared with the professional engravers, who found if not in all countries, it has quite fallen out of favour. Earliest Work.—Its first, appearance is earlier than that of the medium congenial and probably took hints in their use of it from their study of Rembrandt. A beautiful example of such an 18th century dry-point is the portrait of himself, dated 1739, by Arthur Pond (reproduced, Print Collectors’ Quarterly, 1922, ix. 324). One of the little subjects illustrating the destruction by fire of the Foire de Saint Germain in 1762, by Gabriel de St. .| Aubin, is a dry-point which seems in its modernity a precursor of the :9th century. In the period which preceded what is known as “the revival of etching,” that is to say, during the first half of the 19th century, several English and Scottish etchers produced dry-points of remarkable merit. Among these were D. C Read, of Salisbury (1790-1821), E. T. Daniell, of Norwich (1804-42), and especially the two Scottish painter-etchers Andrew Geddes (1783-1844) and Sir David Wilkle (1785-1841). Of the last all the states of their plates with repro, will be found in the fifth and eleventh publications alpole Society, 1917 and 1923. Geddes’ “Portrait of the Artist's Mother,” his “Peckham Rye” and some otherlandscapes, and Wilkin's onepure dry-point, “The Lost

re5

I

Ẹ

ii

DRY POINT

b

Receipt” are of conspicuous merit if compared with the dry-points { ing a large number of prints of equal excellence, owing: teithe of any period. The French etcher, Charles Jacque, also produced, delicate character of the work compared with etching or tine wingDee 1850 a number of dry-point landscapes, with figures | engra or , of great beauty. Modern Work.—The etchers of the “revival,” both in France retent years) to the mixed plate, where dry-point is strengthened and England soon brought the dry-point, as well as etching, into and stiffened by engraved Hnes renewed favour. In the hands of Haden it yielded masterpieces is work obviously clearer and firmer in character than many pure like “Windmill Hill” and “Sunset in Ireland”; in those of Whistler dry-points, but lacking the particular chasm of the best dry-point “Finette,” the “Portrait of Axenfeld,” “Weary” and many more. prints where spontaneity and vivacity (not Legros, soon after 1860, produced ‘La Promenade du Convales- the burin) are most important assets. The best qualities of the cents,” “Femme se baignant les pieds,” “Pecheurs d’écrevisses,” two mediums are really incompatible. We cannot imagine a burin and many beautiful landscapes. His pupil, Strang, half a century line introduced into the masterpieces of dry-point wi fatal later, did much fine work in dry-point; so has Sir D. Y. Cameron, especially in his later work since 1903, and especially after 1910. Another master of the technique was Theodore Roussel (1847~ 1926). Of outstanding excellence among French dry-points of the late 19th century are those of the sculptor Auguste Rodin, whose portraits of Victor Hugo, of Henri Becque, of A. Proust, and “Allégorie du Printemps” and ‘‘La Ronde,” are among the

1

results. Dry-point is also used to lend to etched plates a ‘ or “accent,” or simply as the easiest method of making additions. The difficulty then is that the dry-point lines under the pressure of printing much earlier than the etched lines, and it becomes necessary to renew the dry-point work from time to time. From the pictorial point of view dry-point has the disadvantage of producing a picture too often “out of tone” and mastetpieces of the medium. The French painter and etcher, J. “spotty,” owing to the somewhat accidental emphasis of the burr. L. Forain, produced some superb dry-points about 1909-10 and From the point of view of style the dry-point needle is capable later. Among modern British engravers, Muirhead Bone is pre- of too many different kinds of strokes; yet these difficulties only eminent as a master of dry-point, in which medium almost the add to the fascination of trying to overcome them as they have whole of his very numerous plates since 1898 have been wrought. been overcome by the great masters of the art. Steel-facing and Printing His brother-in-law, Francis Dodd, since 1907, has done much good work in dry-point, and among later followers Henry Rushbury has come into the front rank. Another excellent engraver because it allows of larger editions being printed. The old steelin dry-point is Edmund Blampied; C. W. R. Nevinson pro- facing was heavy and clumsy compared with what is used to-day, duced work of great merit in this medium during the vee War. and must have injured the dry-point on its application. Then, too, (C. Do.) editions used to be printed from the copper and only after that steel-faced for a commoner kind of print. And the steel-faced ADVANCED TECHNIQUE plate being considered “fool-proof” was handed over to unintelliSome dry-point artists use a plate prepared or blackened as for gent printing—the fact not being recognized that a steel-faced etching, taking care to cut through the varnish to the metal sur- plate really requires more and not less care in printing. For the face underneath, and using the varying emphasis required by delicate tones of the printing ink are more difficult to estimate their design; for in dry-point everything must be drawn delicately with nicety on the less “sympathetic” surface of the steel. Still, or strongly by the artist himself as in ordinary drawing. The it is true that for certain plates requiring delicate tones of difñculty of working on the blackened plate is that it is not printing-ink to supplement the line work steel-facing is not apeasy to judge exactly what emphasis has been used in making the propriate. If steel-facing is determined on, this should be done lines, so the bare plate is more often used and a little weak black immediately the plate is completed and it should be remembered paint rubbed into the lines to mark their progress. Great care that the cleaner the plate and its lines have been kept during workshould be taken to do such inking of the lines as gently and as ing the better, as the plate has to be made chemically clean before sparingly as possible, as the burr is easily injured during the the electro-steeling and the smaller the amount of cleaning reprogress of an elaborate plate with the result that the earlier — the better for the preservation of the burr and the delicate portions of the work may look quite different from the later. Another difficulty will be found in the varying degrees of skarpPrinting dry-points is a difficult art for the line and its burr ness of the point used. A steel point requires resharpening fre- lends itself to many different styles of printing. Care should be quently and the sharpening may not be exactly the same each taken to give a clearness and purity to lines which so easily become time and this difference will be found refiected in the work. To clogged and heavy. The aim should be, while retaining the ink obviate this, a diamond or ruby point is frequently used and works caught by the burr, to remove all the smudginess and heavy tone very smoothly when in good condition. It is, however, somewhat between the lines. This can best be done by repeated hand-wiping brittle and apt to flake away in strong cross-hatching or by strik- of the plate from all directions while the plate is fairly warm. ing the edge of the plate. Dry-point printing—or rather the preparing of the plate for the Dry-point has several striking advantages over etching: (a) press—is thus a much slower process than etching printing, as so The work can be more easily judged on the bare plate, being much more careful hand-wiping is required. “Retroussage” positive in character, é.e., the lines appearing black (if filled in be sparingly used, as the ink on the burr is easily smudged. A with black paint) exactly as in the print. (b) Corrections are more easily made as the lines are shallower and the metal being thrown up in furrows and not removed from the plate, can be forced back into the groove with a burnisher. Additions to the work can be easily made since the plate requires no regrounding and rebiting as in etching. (c) A trial print can be easily taken at any stage of the work, though it should be remembered that the fewer trial proofs that are taken the better, as a dry-point may easily be worn out in the course of a protracted series of trial proofs. The point, the burnisher and the scraper are the three instruments used in dry-point: the use of the scraper is of much more importance than it is in etching, as the burr can be wholly or partly removed by it and the whele significance of the line altered. Some artists even remove the burr altogether and depend on the “servous” character of the dry-point Ene for their effect. One great disadvantage of dry-point is the difficulty of obtain-

:

Pirate I

DRY-POINT ETE

E EE

1A

Pegs

eae

ARROW acsso

|

nee

ee

awe

H 4ER fae,OE * Ure u Ey VS Bat ety

foa

k

a

—

yu

A

a

—

f BE ney Be

a

ey

panes

SOC

arn

fi —A

Rae

I R

i

x EER

SS

Maae

LnFi PE

at- ee

be

Vas

a

ree

ka

f

5

ARE

Te ear

eee

‘

*

s

:

er

ee

—

ian

-a '

SY COURTESY OF POLITAN MUSLUM

(1) OF

MISS P Brewis PHILIP, ART, NEw YORR (9, M

£7, PREOCRICK KEPPEL KNOLDLER B CO

AND

EXAMPLES

CO

OF

. INC

, (9.

THE

&

THE

THUNTPEZ

LP

DRY-POINT

Te

Berrie

MuSkuM,

(h,

6)

LOPR

W è DONNAIRR,

(0)

THE

METRO

TECHNIQUE

Dry-point Is generally classed as a variety of etching, though actually a kind of engraving. In dry-polnts nu acid is used on the plate, as in pure etching, but the lines are hollowed out of the copper with a sharp pointed instrument. The raised edge of copper turned up by the tooi is called the “burr.” This, in the printing, produces the soft velvety effect peculiar tu dry-puints

1. “Weary’’ 2. “Christ

a

by James Healing

Abbott

the Sick”

McNeill (the

Whistler, “Hundred

E e ER

finished in 1872 Guilder

Print”)

E

3. Portrait of Arnold Tholinx by Rembrandt, 1656 4. Portrait of Victor Hugo by Auguste Rodin

VII

692

(1840-1917)

5. Portrait of Henri Becaue by Auguste Rudin by Rem-

S

Portrait of Victor Hugo by Auguste

Rodin

"Third Avenue” by C. W. R. Nevinson, contemporary British . "The Vista” by Rembrandt, 1652

. “La Route aoan

d'Emmaus”

by J. L. Forain, contemporary

French

DRY QUENCHING—DRY- ROT like cutting of the fourth—there isno range comparable tothis inany otber system of making prints, and new triumphs of individual method in dry-point may yet have to be recorded. (See ETCHING, ENGRAVING. )

693

biast furnaces, foundry cupolas and domestic furnaces is the benefit resulting from the use of dry quenched coke. Breese from this coke can still be considered as a high quality fuel, while wet quenched coke breeze due to high moisture is very likely to Brersoonapuy.—W. P. Robins, E: C ’ ⸗ cause trouble in furnace operation. The dry-quenching process E. S. Lumsden, The Art ofEtching oe m ma may also be adapted for the purpose of cooling other hot products of the chemical industry such as calcium carbide, lime, cement clinker, etc., saving the sensible heat and improving the quality DRY QUENCHING is a process of cooling a hot solid sub(H. D. S.) stance without using a liquid in direct contact with the substance of the product. DRY ROT, a term applied to the decay of wood caused by to be quenched. The sensible heat in most of the cases can thereby economically be converted into useful energy and the quality of various kinds of fungi. Frequently the term is applied solely to the product improved. This process has been applied and devel- such decay as takes place in timber that has been worked or is oped primarily for the quenching of coke as itis discharged from in actual use: the present article deals solely with dry rot in this coke ovens at temperatures of 1,800° to 2,000° F. It was fora restricted sense. The fungi feed upon the wood, and thus cause long time common practice to sprinkle this hot coke with water it to become lighter in weight, weaker, more brittle and less elasor to submerge itin water to reduce its temperature sufficiently to tic, so that when struck the wood emits a muffled sound and prevent it from re-igniting and to facilitate handling and transpor- readily snaps. In more advanced stages of rot the wood is apt to tation. This method, however, has several disadvantages. The warp, and may show cracks (‘‘cross-shakes”) at right angles to coke takes up water, thereby considerably reducing its heating the grain and can greedily absorb liquids, ¢.g., water, and, comvalue. The wet quenching vapours are corrosive and affect steel paratively carly, the wood may show discolourations and lose and concrete construction, thereby largely increasing maintenance any characteristic scent. The fungi causing dry rot belong to the greai class that includes costs. They also carry coke dust high into the air and scatter it the familiar toadstools and mushroom. Thcy are composed of widely over the plant and the community. ° Methods—In the Sulzer system, the process of dry quench- very slender, hollow, jointed, closed tubes (Ayphae) which grow ing of the hot coke is accomplished by circulating an inert mix- in length and emit branches. These tubes permeate the wood, ture of gases in a closed cycle, first through the hot coke mass and outside this may also produce loose mould-like coatings, or where the gases extract the sensible heat, thence through a steam by interweaving can give rise to denser shects, nets, strings or boiler where the hot gases transfer the heat to the water in the more massive fruit-bodies shaped like cakes, brackets or mushboiler and convert it into steam. The cooled gases leaving the rooms. The fruit-bodies, which are casily visible to the naked eye, boiler are conducted back to the fan and again forced tbrough eject myriads of microscopic infectious germs, termed spores. the coke. The hot coke is conveyed to the dry quencher in more or less But spores are likewise produced by certain species of these regular intervals depending upon the schedule of discharge of the fungi quite apart from the fruit-bodies. Infection of wood may also take place by means other than by coke ovens. It is introduced through the top door of the coke container which holds a number of loads. Before a new load of coke spores. Certain species of fungi, including the most malignant is charged, an equal amount of cooled coke is withdrawn from the causal agent of dry rot in houses in Europe, Mertuius lacrymans bottom of the apparatus. The coke, therefore, is allcwed to re- (domesticus), not only grow inside the wood but cun more main in the container for several! hours gradually reaching lower rapidly spread over its surface, and advance over non-wooden cooling zones. The cooling gas is circulated by means of a fan con- surfaces, and, in the form of strings penetrate or perforate brick tinuously operating and flows through the coke mass in an upward walls, attacking wood that they reach. Contrasting with such direction, thereby performing the cooling in accordance with the contagious species are other merely infectious species that usually live only in the interior of the wood until they thrust their fruitcounterflow principle. The inert mixture of gas is formed when starting up the plant. bodies outside it; such internal decay is often difficult to detect, A small portion of coke is converted into a mixture of carbon as the superficial wood may be quite sound and normal in appearmonoxide and carbon dioxide whereby the oxygen of the air ance. Wood may be protected against dry rot by one or both of two within the system is completely consumed. The cooling gas therefore consists mainly of these products of combustion and methods: (1) sanitation: (2) antiseptic (fungicidal) treatment. nitrogen. Care must be taken that two doors are never open at Sanitation —Sanitation is the cheapest method of preventing, the same time in order to prevent air entering the system causing and sometimes of arresting. dry rot. One essential condition for combustion of coke. As long as only one door is open at a time, activity is a sufficient supply of air, as these fungi absorb oxythe pressure in the system adjusts itself to atmospheric pressure gen and give out carbonic acid and water. Although they can grow at that point, but no gas is pushed out nor air sucked in. However, in the absence of oxygen, they are readily killed by an accumulaon discharging cooled coke an equal volume of air enters the tion of carbon dioxide. During respiration certain species of fungi can produce water so vigorously that dry wood is thoroughly system. , Advantages—The principal benefit in dry quenching is the moistened and drops of water appear on the fungus itself (hence production of 400 to 500 Ib. of steam per 1,000 Ib. of coke the specific name of Merulius lacrymans). An adequate supply of water is required by the fungus, which quenched, this representing a saving that equals 25 to 40% of the fue] required to carbonize the coal. The steam may be used owes the main part of its weight to water and cannot take in in the by-product plant or for generating of power which may food unless this be dissolved in water. So far as dry rot in temeither cover the needs of the plant or be fed into the lines of a perate regions is concerned, in the dry air of deep coal pits and of warmed rooms wood may last for decades or centuries; whereas power company Ths oneciehei ol Cokekosbecadetermined byminy mva: dry rot is common in moist, shallower coal-pits, in moist cellars gators and can be considered as sufficiently established for prac- and damp ground-floors ; especially can it appear near escapes of water from water pipes or steam pipes, and in stuffy, feebly ventilated places; for instance under floors covered with linoleum. In 2 house fungus causing dry rot may be luxuriant on the hidden faces of floor-boards, panels and skirting-boards, but be entirely lacking on the visible faces of these in contact with drier air of rooms; so that dry rot may be widespread through a building although no fungus be visible until] the wood-work is disturbed. Fungi causing dry rot cannot attack wood that is cither too wet or too dry. Some species demand much moisture: among such

694

‘DUAL IGNITION—DUALISM |

are Coniophora cerebella (whose slender black threads are common on the surface of damp wood in houses) and a number of fungi that do not grow over the surface of the wood. These species are probably largely responsible for “wet rot,” a popular

term apparently applied to discoloured wood showing to the naked eye no fungus inside or outside the wood, no external

cross-shakes, but giving evidence of weakness and possibly former or present wetness (which caused the death and disappearance of any fungus formerly outside the wood). Other fungi, including Merulius lacrymans, produce considerable amounts of water and, transporting this, can thus moisten

distant wood; thus they can feed on drier wood. Where dry rot in a building is caused by fungi demanding much moisture, it may be arrested by merely cutting off the excessive supply of water; this will not suffice when Merulius lacrymans is the causal agent. Moreover cutting off the excess of moisture docs not necessarily cause death of the fungus inside the wood: when wood attacked by Merulins or when certain internal feeders have been thoroughly dried for months, the fungus inside the wood may awaken into activity if the wood be remoistened. Arrangements to secure a house against cxcess of dampness include: erection on a light pervious soil, provision of efficient dampcourses; care against absorption or condensation of water by and on the walls; under the ground floor, adequate ventilation and provision of a water-tight coating over the concrete; obvia-

tion of leakage or overflow from rain-water pipes and gutters outside the house, and water pipes and steam pipes indoors; proper construction of window casements to allow water to flow properly away from them; renewal of paint on external woodwork; and adequate maintenance of the roofing. Fungi causing dry rot are active only within certain ranges of temperature; but inasmuch as the temperatures prevailing in all

parts of a building, from cellar to roof, in temperate regions at times enable these fungi to be active, temperature from the practical point of view intervenes only as a means of eradication. Low temperatures (for instance the freezing point of water) at least in the case of Mcrulius lacrymans do not suffice to kill fungus or

spores. Higher temperatures (over 50° C.) are much more effective, so that infected wood can be sterilized by heat, especially

by steam, at temperatures below the boiling point of water.

A

painter'ss lamp suffices to sterilize infected surfaces, but an oxyacetylene flame, or some equivalent, is required for rapid steri-

lization of walls permeated with fungi causing dry rot. Antiseptic (Fungicidal) Treatment.—The decay of wood can be combated by the application of disinfectants and especially by substances: that are powerful fungicides. Among organic wood-preservatives the most familiar is socalled coal-tar “creosote oil,” which is very widely used out of doors to preserve railway-sleepers, paving blocks, telegraph-poles, etc. Its scent is too powerful and persistent to permit of its use indoors, so that in houses, etc., “creosote” is often replaced by somewhat similar preservatives from which the more volatile and strong-scented oils have been removed. Extremely powerful organic fungicides suitable for use on wood are dinitrophenol and sodium dinitrophenate, to which are added other substances, such as sodium fluoride, designed to render the mixture nonexplosive. On the other hand carbolic acid and formalin are too evanescent; and many other disinfectants used to destroy bacteria causing disease are too weak in action on fungi to act as timber preservatives. Among aqueous solutions of inorganic salts used to preserve wood are copper sulphate (which attacks iron), zinc chloride (which easily washes out and when too warm or strong destroys wood), corrosive sublimate (very poisonous), sodium fluoride, and acid (commercial) magnesium silico-fluoride (which attacks metals and glass). Of these inorganic salts the last two may be generally regarded as the best for use in houses. Tt is generally true that with increasing depth of penetration of the preservative into the wood, the greater is the durability conferred, but the more costly is` the process of treatment. Out of doors the preservative (usually;: yycreosote’ ) is driven Seep

into thick pieces of timber (such as sleepers, poles or pavi blocks) by pneumatic pressure or by immersion in hot tan Whereas wood-work in buildings is usually merely coated with | preservative, reliance being more economically based upon sa tation including proper methods of construction. (P. Gu.)

DUAL IGNITION: see INTERNAL ComBUSTION ENGINE. DUALISM, a philosophical term applied to all theories wh

attempt to explain facts by reference to two coexistent princip (from rare Lat. dualis, containing two, from duo). The te plays an important part in metaphysical, ethical and theologi: speculation.

In Metaphysics—Metaphysical dualism postulates the et

nal coexistence of mind and matter, as opposed to monism bc

idealistic and materialistic. Two forms of this dualism are he On the one hand it is said that mind and matter are absolute heterogeneous, and, therefore, that any causal relation betwe

them is ex hypothesi impossible. On the other, there is a hyp thetical dualism, according to which it is held that mind cann bridge over the chasm so far as to’ know matter in itself, thou it is compelled by its own laws of cause and effect to postula matter as the origin, if not the cause, of its sensations. It follo. that, for the thinking mind, matter is a necessary hypothes Hence the theory is a-kind of monism, inasmuch as it confessed does not assert the existence of matter save as an intellectu postulate for the thinking mind. Matter, in other words, must | assumed to exist, though mind cannot know it in itself. From th

question there emerges a second and more difficult problem. Co: sciousness, it is held, is of two main kinds, sensation and reaso

Sensation alone is insufficient to explain all our intellectual ph nomena; all sensation is momentary and individual (cf. EMPIR ctsM). How then are we to account for memory and the principk of necessity, similarity, universality? It is argued that there mu: be in the mind an enduring, primary faculty whereby we retai compare and group the presentations of sense. This faculty is priori, transcendental, and entirely separate from all the data « experience and sense-perception. Here then we have a dualisi

within experience. The mind is not to be regarded as a sensitize film which automatically records the impressions of the sense: It contains within itself this co-ordinating power which reacts upo and arranges the sense-given presentations. In Ethics and Theology.—In the domain of morals, dualisr postulates the separate existence of Good and Evil, as principle

of existence. In theology the appearance of dualism is sporadi and has not the fundamental, determining importance which i has in metaphysics. It is a result rather than a starting-point The old Zoroastrianism, and those Christian sects (¢.g., Mani chaeism) which were influenced by it, postulate two contendin, deities Ormuzd and Ahriman (Good and Evil), which war agains one another in influencing the conduct of men. So, in Christianity the existence of Satan as an evil influence, antagonistic to God involves a kind of dualism. But generally speaking this dualisn is permissive, inasmuch as it is always held that God will triumpl over Satan in His own time. So, in Zoroastrianism, the dualism is not ultimate, for Ahriman and Ormuzd are represented as the twin sons of Zervana Akarana, i.e., limitless time, wherein bot! will be finally absorbed. The postulate of an Evil Being arise: from the difficulty, at all times acutely felt by a certain type ol mind, of reconciling the existence of evil with the divine attributes of perfect goodness, full knowledge and infinite power. John Stuart Mill (Essay on Relsgston) preferred to disbelieve in the omnipotence of God rather than forgo the belief in His goodness. It follows from such a view that Satan is not the creation of God, but rather a power coeval in origin, over whose activity God has no absolute control. In Christology.—Dualism is also used in a special theological

sense to describe a doctrine of the Nestorian heresy. According to this doctrine the personality of Christ is twofold; the Divine Logos dwells as a distinct personality in the man Jesus Christ, the union of the two natures being analogous to the relation between the believer and the indwelling Holy Spirit. History of Metaphysical Dualism.— The earliest European thinkers (see Ion1an ScHOOL oF PuiLosopny) endeavoured to

Z

3

apye pn APOG40 A, Syria spershws jO diM

pooma

pjt ISNA

Hassace MW 4p Jur jO

AYA

lO

PREL Sia

S3S.pP jo etm BJA G-A qi q>:

Guj Aj:SRI GSA CP d4} JjuiDuj DTS Ge SOM

Ss. SII CDEsu sop dge

GacyyO Siy SILAS yM

SNBarypcs

“sured

SMINe IOF] SUBB MIISA Sawa P3

STNA E UCYBsidsas yy Sr

eg

suadysiow Asp

t.

pi

SWHO4S 4O

p

CÈ

Lj

y

24)

SNITAYSW)

y-wopysND ay Qymos gO Buung əy ssacoud yo

ISa jd yy

jE jo: P3}

44: jg

SNIMsa

fared ui

AG] C

JIES?yim 943 Apaajyesedastd hap 4:8 96 Fy} 2.ks Yilcmpcom ABs a9 Pas9acd Yam

pasodra 328)yc | jumJE ui usps Sa5By jo

6.553

(SNVAWAYOVT

I

“SUPLUIAIIEL Ə4ja

STIAο

FSGEMAAMIOEI

“Ppunos

IGIS $328) jO Bucs. wajyyo seadde 8NcOsny pmcsB

MsSGMPGOM YBnoyye 94}

DRY ROT PLATE

DUALITY—DUAL ORGANIZATION

695

reduce all the facts of the universe toa single material origin,

proof has been established, the second follows by duality, since such as Fire, Water, Air. It isonlygradually thetthereappears the determining elements of lines in terms of points are identical any recognition of a spiritual principle exercising a modifying or with those of points in terms of lines. The principle was first causal influence over inert matter. Anaxagoras was the first to recognized by Poncelet in the Journal fär Mathematik (1829), posthe tul existence ofReason (voids) as the sour ate ofce change and by Gergonne in the Annales de Mathématiques pures et and progress. Yet even he did not conceive this Reason as in- appliquées (1825—27), and first generally applied by Steiner in his

it was in reality only the most highly rarefied form corporeal;

of matter in existence. In Plato for the first time we find a truly dualistic conception of the universe. Asserting that Ideas alone really exist, he yet found it necessary to postulate a second principle of not-being, the groundwork of sensuous existence and of imperfection and evil. Herein he identified metaphysics and

Systematische Entwickelungen, (1832).

In geometry of three dimensions there is a corresponding duality between points and planes. In this case the line is self dual, as it is determined by any two distinct points on it or by any two distinct planes through it. Many other illustrations of the principle can be given. C:O groups, H

which by alkaline reducing agents are converted into PK oe

groups and their soluble alkali salts. In the suiphide-vat colours it is doubtless due to chains of sulphur atoms, similar to those present in ordinary sulphide dyes but not so easily reducible. Attempts have recently been made to simplify the dyeing operations for vat colours by preparing soluble stable derivatives of

waxes, varnishes, etc. (sudans and oil colours); while other mem-

bers of the class which are insoluble in oils are used for oil-colour and lithographic printing (hansa yellows, pigment red, monolite fast scarlet, typophor colours, etc.). Insoluble dye-stuffs of the indigoid and anthraquinone classes, especially prepared in a finely

divided condition, may also be similarly employed. The insolubility in water of these pigment dyes is due to the absence of strong salt-forming groups, either acid or basic. Cer-

tain soluble dye-stuffs can also be converted into insoluble compounds by precipitation as barium or aluminium salts (presence of SO:H, CO:H or OH groups), or as tannates, phosphates, silicates, phosphomolybdates (presence of N(CHs;)2 or other basic groups). The insoluble compounds thus formed are termed lakes or lake pigments, and are also largely used in the paint, wallpaper and printing-ink industries, the dye-stuffs particularly suited for these uses being the lithol yellows and reds, monolite yellows and reds, lake scarlets and many of the ordinary acid and basic colouring-matters.

IX. Acetate Sik Dyes.—The particular kind of artificial silk which consists of acetylcellulose and is known as celanese, is only dyed by a few acidic dye-stuffs and by some of the basic dyes. For the majority of the acidic dyes and for the entire class of the direct dyes this fibre exerts no affinity whatever. To over-

come the difficulties encountered in dyeing this material, special colouring-matters have been introduced. The first of these new classes were the ionamines, in which insoluble compounds of azo or anthraquinone series are converted into temporarily soluble derivatives by the introduction of methyl— w —sulphonic groups, CH,-SO,Na. These groups are split off during dyeing and the insoluble dye-stuff formed is absorbed by the fibre. Another class, the S.R.A. colours, consists of insoluble azo-dyes maintained in colloidal suspension by means of sulphonated castor oil; while in the duranol series the same principle is applied to insoluble dyes

their leuco-compounds containing “labile-acidic” groups, which: of the anthraquinone class. In addition to dyeing fast shades upon

derivatives can1 be applied to the fibre and afterwards treated | acetate silk, all these dyes have the further advantage, that they with an agent such as ferric chloride or nitrous acid, | exert no affinity for cotton, linen or viscose silk, and can there-

DYES, SYNT

806

fore be. employed together with. direct dyes for producing twocolour effects upon fabrics woven from thèse fibres together with acetate silk. X. Food Dyes—This class of dye application has been developed particularly in the United States where the Government officially “certifies” as to purity of even individual factory lots of a dozen selected dyes, in which case the lots in question can be sold as certified dyes. The selected dyes are mainly naphthol yellow S, yellow OB, poncean 3R, orange I, amaranth, tartrazine, guinea green B, erythrosine and indigo disulphonic acid. They are chosen for their harmlessness when properly made, and for their food (candy, iced drinks, confectionery) colouring ability. The

—

..2,000,000

Great Britain

ą4ṣopoo

France

.

.

Switzerland .

.

.

. 350000

. 350,000

Later landmarks in the development of the industry were the introduction (1880) by Read Holliday and Company of Para Red, the first dyestuff to be produced on the fibre, and the discovery in Germany in 1884 of Tartrazine as well as of Congo Red, the first colour having direct affinity for cotton. In 1885 only 20% of the synthetic dyestuffs consumed in Great Britain were of bome

manufacture. In 1880 Von Bayer succeeded in preparing indigo bysynthetic means. In 1897 after an expenditure of £900,000 had been inamount sold in the United States in 1926 was 141 tons valued at curred by the development work, synthetic indigo was marketed. At this time the annual value of the world's growth of indigo was $1,115,000 (£228,000). about £4,000,000; in India alone 1,400,000 acres of land were deBrsr1ocrapHy.—G. von Georgievics and E. Grandmougin, Text Book on Dye Chemistry; F. M. Rowe, The Colour Index (1924); J.C. voted to this crop, but a continuous decline set in and by 1912 the Cain, The Manufacture ofam erasetare Products for Dyes — and Indian area had fallen to 214,000 acres. The German production The Manufacture of Dyes (1919); H. E. Fierz-David,The Funda- of the synthetic product, which in 1900 was about 2,500 tons, had mental Processes of Dye Chemises. — from the Geta by FF. — increased to 39,000 tons in 1913. Cultivated indigo thus met the Mason (1921) and ünstlicher Organische Farbſtoße (1926); fate which 40 years earlier had befallen the madder root. Green, The Analysis of Dyestuffs (1916); A. Wahl and F. W. Ana Organic Ponur (1914); S. C. Bate, Synthesis of Bensene eee The Pre-War Output.—The position of the dyestuff industry (1926); A. Davidson, intermediates for Dyestu #2088) ;; E. de B. in 1913 is shown by the following statistics of production and Barnett, Anthracene and Anthraquinone ; Bunbury, Coal-tar consumption :-— Products (1926); Allens’ Commercial Organic Analysis (1928); O'Brien, Factory Practice in Manufacture of Aso Dyes aye A Everest, The Higher Coal-tar Hydrocarbons (1927)3 Census of D and Organic Chemicals (1924 et seg., US. Tariff Commission, ag ton); R Shreve, Dyes Classified by Intermediates (1922); H Bucherer, iheback der Farbenchemie (1914); R. Staeble, Die neueren Farbstoffe der Pigmentfarben-Industrie (1910) ;; O. Lange, Die Schwefel-Farbstoffe (1925); J. Formanek, Spekiralanalytische Nackweis kinstlicher organischer Farbstoffe (1900) ;; P. Friedlaender and H. E. Fierz-David, Fortschritte der meee oe) to

1925).

INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION

The genesis of the synthetic dyestuff industry is found in the discovery of aniline purple, or mauve, in 1856 by W. H. Perkin, in the course of an attempt to prepare quinine from aniline, Manufacture was commenced in the following yearby Perkin and Sons, at Greenford Green, near Harrow, England, and in Dec. 1857 this colour was in commercial use for the dyeing of silk. Two years later Verguin in France, also experimenting with aniline, obtained Magenta, which was followed by Violet Imperial and Bleu de Lyon (Girard and de Laire), and in 1862 by Nicholson’s Blue, the first soluble acid dye for wool, whilst in 1863 aniline yellow, the first representative of the vast group of azo colours, was introduced by Messrs. Simpson, Maule and Nicholson. At this period the manufacture of dyestuffs was mainly confined to England and France. The possibilities of the new industry, however, were attracting attention in other countries, and it was in Germany that the most fertile soil for its development was found. In 1868 Graebe and Liebermann made the important discovery that Alizarine (madder) could be prepared from anthracene, a constituent of coal tar, and the synthesis of the first natural colouring matter was effected. Manufacturing processes were patented simultaneously by Perkin in England, and in Germany by Caro, Graebe and Liebermann, and in 1869 production commenced. The rapidity with which the natural product was driven from the market is shown by the decline of the British imports of madder from 15,300 tons, value £690,000, in 1868, to 1,650 tons in 1878, the total value of the world’s madder trade in the former year being £2,000,000. Perkin and Sons produced 40 tons of Alizarine in 1870, and 435 tons in 1873. The Badische Aniline Company in Germany commenced production in 1871 with 150 tons, which during 1873 had risen to

|

Production of Dyestuffs in 1013 Country Germany Switzerland France U.K

U.S.A.

Other countries

Country Great Britain Germany.

.

France

Russia, Austria, Italy and Switzerland . U.S.A. . India China

The predominance of Germany at this time was even more pronounced than the above figures indicate, since a considerable proportion of the output shown for Switzerland, Great Britain and other countries was manufactured from “intermediates” which were of German origin. In Germany the organic chemical industry, of which dyestuffs manufacture was the mainstay, was developed on the broadest lines, supported by the banks, and

directed by University trained scientists. By 1880 two German works were employing sixty scientific chemists. In 1900 six firms employed 500 chemists, 350 engineers and technologists and 18,000 workpeople. In Great Britain at the latter date the corresponding figures were 30 to 40 chemists and 1,000 workpeople. Whereas between 1886 and 1900 German firms obtained 948 patents for the manufacture of dyes, British firms took out only 1,000 tons. ee to Large profits were now being ilde both in Great Britain and 86, the ratio of the number of patents closely elsewhere, and in 1874 Perkin retired from the business, which was that of the number of chemists employed. Modern Developments.—Such was the position in 1914 at taken over by Messrs. Brooke, Simpson and Spiller. Further important discoveries were announced from Germany with, in 1874, the outbreak of War. Britain was then importing annually, at a the Eosines, in 1876 Methydigse Blue, the first basic blue soluble cost of £2,000,000, dyes essential to industries producing geods in water, and in 1877 Malachie Green, the first green of real dye- valued at £200,000,000, upon which 1,500,000 workers were de> ing value; and the supremaggiiof the German manufacturers was pendent. The United States consumed annually 26,000: tons of by now definitely established: “The value of the production of dye- dyes of which 3,000 tons only were home manufacture, the total stuffs in 1878 isgiven, — £¥-4 50,000, participated in as follows :— consumption being valued at £4,000,000. In all countries from

DYES, SYNTHETIC |

807

e E a vealedrea The total production in bulk is seen to be practically the same shortage rapidly supervened. Industrialists realized that although | as for 1913, the German proportion having fallen from 83% to dyes were in respect of cost a minor item amongst their raw 44%, but the degree to which Germany has recovered her position materials, they were an essential commodity to make the products as an exporting country is to be noted. In value the German exports are 85%, and by weight 3252, of the 1913 figure. The In GreatBritain andtheUnitedStates stepswere quickly taken decline in quantity is accounted for by the loss of trade in the to stimulate production, and Government assistance was invoked. low priced bulk colours, whilst the high value of the exports in In the former country enemy patents were revoked, and the chief comparison with those of other countries, excepting Switserland, existing producers, Messrs. Levinstein Ltd. and Read Holliday and is due to concentration on the more expensive types of dye, in Co., rapidly expanded their output. The latter frm was bought particular of the vat colours, in the manufacture of which the out in 1915 by British Dyes Ltd. a company promoted with newer producing countries are as yet less able to compete. financial assistance by the Government and largely subscribed to The German effort to regain her former position in the interby the dyestuff consumers. Processes required to be worked out, national dye trade was furthered in 1925 by the formation of the buildings and plants constructed, chemists trained. Government Interessen Gemeinschaft Teerfarben Industrie A.G.—the I.G.— requirements for the war were paramount, these consisting not an amalgamation of the six largest dyestuff producing firms. The only of khaki and blue dyes for the army and navy, but of explo- capital stock of the I.G. is 1,100 million reich marks. It is affilisives. By 1917 the essential requirements of the country were ated with 81 companies, representing 62% of the total capitalization of the German Chemical Industry, and is carrying out an being fully met. Alizarin had been produced in quantity for — years by the British Alizarine Co., a company formed by the active policy of consolidation at home and development abroad. Turkey Red Dyers Association in response to a German threat to Agreements have becn concluded with the dye industries of France, increase largely the price. The British production of dyes in 1918 Russia, Spain and Japan, with the object of stabilizing prices and, amounted to 13,600 tons. In 1918 an amalgamation of British whilst assuring the present position of the home industry, safeDyes Ltd. and Levinstein Ltd. was effected under the style of guarding outlets for future German expansion. Corresponding British Dyestuffs Corporation, Ltd. A new company, Scottish movements towards consolidation in the industry are in progress, Dyes Ltd., concentrated on the production of the important fast or have been effected, in Italy and France. In Great Britain, the to light vat dyes produced from anthracene. France, Japan and year 1926 marked the formation of Imperial Chemical Industries, Italy, each formerly dependent upon German and Swiss supplies, Ltd., by the merging of Messrs. Brunner, Mond and Co., Ltd., similarly developed the industry, and by 19179 all the above Nobel Industries, Ltd., the United Alkali Co. and British Dyestuffs countries were capable of supplying, in bulk, 80% to over 90% of Corporation, Ltd., with a capitalization of 65,000,000, an amalgatheir home requirements, as well as of exporting considerable mation which by uniting the chief dye producing frm with the heavy chemical and explosive industries places it in a position quantities to the Chinese and Indian markets. and The world’s annual capacity to produce dyestuffs was now at corresponding in many respects to that of its irae (M. Ba.) 300,000 tons, almost twice the capacity in 1914. Over production American competitors. and severe competition were everywhere experienced with the BısLiocRapuY.—-W. M. Gardner, The British Coal Tar Industry return of the German colours to the market, and each of the pro- (1915); US. Tariff Commission, Census of Dyes: Annual Reports ducing countries adopted measures for protecting their home trade. (3917 to 1926); Censusoof the synthetic dycstuffs imported into the The United States, Italy and France, created high import duties. United Kingdom during the year 1913. Japan subsidized the industry and instituted a licence system of UNITED STATES import control. Great Britain by a Proclamation in 1919 In the United States prior to the World War about 104 dyes hibited imports except under licence from the Board of Trade. A were manufactured almost wholly from imported intermediates, test case, however, resulted in a judgment that this procedure was and dependence was largely upon German imports. The famine illegal, and throughout 1920 there was no restriction, dyes to the in coal-tar products which followed the outbreak of the war led value of £7,500,000 being imported. This severe blow dealt to the to the establishment of the manufacture of intermediates and dyes British industry was followed shortly by a world-wide slump in on a large scale, so that, by 1919, 250 and by 1925, 350 types of trade. The Dyestuff (Import Regulations) Act was passed, be- synthetic dyes were being manufactured. The indanthrene or vat coming operative in Jan. 1921, whereby for a period of ten years dyes have been the last to be offered by American manufacturers, importation of dyestuffs and intermediates was only permitted the output in 1924 of such vat dyes other than indigo being under licence. Licences are granted if the corresponding product 1,821,319 lb. This increased by 43% to 2,608,361 lb. in 1925. In is not offered by the home producer, and also on price grounds. 1923 production had reached so satisfactory a state that 96% of Initially the British manufacturer was required to supply at a domestic consumption was made in the country and there was in price not exceeding three and a half times the established pre-war addition an exportable surplus of 18,000,000 Ib. of dyestuffs. Since price, this factor having been since successively reduced to 3 1917 the annual progress of this branch of the chemical industry times, 2} times and in 1927 to twice the pre-war figure. has been published in detail in the annual census issued by the U.S. In 1923 the French occupation of the Ruhr, which resulted in tariff commission. the shutting down of the principal German factories and the Early in the war it became evident that many enemy-owned seizure and export of large stocks of dyes, was a disturbing factor American patents were being used to interfere with production inin the international dyestuff situation, and the first normal years cident to the successful prosecution of the war. These patents, subsequent to the war were those of 1924 and 1925. The statistics some 4,000 in number, were taken by the alien property custodian for the latter year are given below, those for 1926 being affected and later sold to the Chemical Foundation, Inc., formed for the by the coal strike in Great Britain. purpose of administering these patents for the public good. Any profits above 6% earned on a comparatively small capital stock Dyestuffs in 1925 are devoted to scientific research and educational activities. The Chemical Foundation, Inc., was later sued by the Government for the return of these patents, the case going to the Supreme Court, . and the Chemical Foundation being sustained in the district, the appellate, and the supreme courts. At an early date the manufac-

turers placed dependence upon scientific research, esta extensive laboratories for the purpose, and encouraged the training of suitable personnel through the establishment of numerous fellowshipsin educational institutions. Under the “Trading with the Enemy Act” of Oct. 1917, the President of the United States on Feb. 14, 1918, issued a procla-

DYETSKOYE

808

SELO--DYNAMICS

mation which excluded certain articles from import from specified countries except by license. Dyes and chemicals were included in this proclamation. The industry rapidly developed under this embargo, which remained in force until the passage of the Tariff Act, Sept. 21, 1922. Under this act coal-tar chemicals received special protection for two years. While the industry has been required to meet severe competition under this act with its decreased protection after the first two years, it has neverthcless made great strides, offering an increased number of dyes of all classes, entirely satisfactory in quality and at prices which have been steadily lowered until today tinctorial value equal to pre-war dyes is obtained at substantially lower costs. The chemical division of the bureau of foreign and domestic commerce of the U.S. Department of Commerce was established and has rendered great service to the indus-

Aniline & Soda-Fabrik, Ludwigshafen, Farbenfabriken vorm. Friedr. Bayer & Co., Leverkusen, Farbwerke vormals Meister Lucius & Briining, Hoechst, Aktiengese t fiir Anilinfabrikation Berlin, Chemische Fabrik Griesheim-Elektron, Frankfort-onMain, and Chemische Fabriken vorm. Weilerter Meer, Uerdingen Rhine). It is the largest German chemical industry undertaking and has absorbed other concerns. The company’s object is the production and sale of dye-stuffs, pharmaceutical and photographic articles, artificial silks, rich materials, metals, nitrogen compounds, benzine and products from the liquefaction of coal and chemical products of all kinds, also the working of other industrial undertakings. It is qualified to establish branches at home and abroad, to participate in other companies and undertakings and to take over wholly or partly their working. A working try, furnishing statistics as to imports by classes of dyes and by together in the United States of America was agreed to with the origin which have been of great value to those guiding the develop- Standard Oil Company of New Jersey with regard to the negotiament of the domestic dye industry. It has also served in obtain- tion of the mutual patents and processes in the territory of the ing promptly detailed information and the most diverse statistics. refining of crude oil. The company works with the Norsk HydroIn 1921 the Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturers Associa- Elektrisk Kvaelstofaktieselskab, Oslo in the manufacture of nitrotion of the United States was formed for the purpose of furthering gen. At the end of 1927 a regulation of production and sale of dyes the interests of the organic chemical industry and presenting in accordance with standardised viewpoints was agreed with the through the association the united efforts of many manufacturers. French dye industry. In 1928 the company was amalgamated In addition to so largely satisfying domestic demands, the Amer- with the Ansco Photoproducts Inc., New York. The share capital ican dye manufacturers have given a good account of themselves of the I. G. Farbenindustrie Aktiengesellschaft amounts to 1,100 in foreign markets, where they have had to win a share on the million Marks. Furthermore it has issued convertible Bonds up to quality of the products in the face of Jong-established preferences an amount of 250 million Marks. (W. J.) and prejudices. (H. E. H.) DYKE: see Drxe.

DYETSKOYE

SELO, a town in north Russia, formerly

Tsarskoye Selo, 15 m. south of Leningrad in lat. 59° 43’ N., long. 30° 24’ E., on the Duderhof Hills. Pop. (1926) 19,284. When Peter the Great took possession of the mouth of the Neva river, a Finnish village, Saarimois, stood on the site now occupied by the town and its Russified name, Sarskaya, was changed into Tsarskoye Selo (The Tsar’s Village) when Peter presented it to his wife, Catherine. It was later arranged as a summer abode by the Tsaritsas Elizabeth and Catherine II. and was subsequently used as such by the Imperial family. As a court residence, the town was the earliest Russian town to be supplied with the conveniences of modern civilization. The first Russian railway, built in 1837-8, connected it with Leningrad, and in 1887, it was lighted by electricity, the first town on the European continent to be so lighted. It also has the best system of water supply and sanitation in Russia, and on account of its cleanness, its good

sanitation and dry climate, it is a health resort. In 1917 the Tsar Nicholas IJ. and his family were imprisoned here from March to August, when they were transferred to Tobolsk. Under the Soviet government the former palaces and villas have been turned into museums, schools, hospitals and sanatoria for children. Its present name means Children’s Village and has been given to it

because in summer it is practically a children’s colony.

The

cathedral of St. Catherine, built by Thon in 1840, is a miniature

copy of that at Constantinople. The former imperial park, now the Dyetskoye Selo park, covers 1,680 acres. In it is the “old

palace,” built in 1724 by Rastrelli, and gorgeously decorated with mother-of-pearl, marble, amber, lapis lazuli, silver and gold, the gallery of Cameron, adorned with fine statues and entrance gates, numerous pavilions and kiosks, and a bronze statue of the

poet Pushkin, who was a scholar at the Lyceum. A second palace, the Alexander, was built by Catherine II. 1792-96, and designed by Guarenghi. The Chinese village, bridge and theatre were designed as a result of the interest in China taken by Catherine II. Behind the north wall of the park is the Federovsky Gorodok (Fedor town), built for the Tsar’s family 1914-17 by the architect Prestchinsky in old Russian style, and: now controlled by the Institute of Agronomy. The Fedor Cathedral was built by Pokrovsky in r912 in the Pskov-Novgorod style. For a

full description of the town, see “Guide to the Soviet Union” (Moscow, 192549! English).

DYEWORKS

AND

CHEMICAL

INDUSTRIES,

AMALGAMATION OF, The company known as I. G. Far-

benindustrie Aktiengesellschagt; ‘founded Dec. 2, 1925, embodies

the amalgamation of the Geigian tar dye factories (Badische

DYMOKE, the name of an English family holding the office of

king’s champion. The functions of the champion were to ride into Westminster Hall at the coronation banquet, and challenge all comers to impugn the king’s title. (See Campion.) The earliest record of the ceremony at the coronation of an English king dates

from the accession of Richard II. On this occasion the champion was Sir John Dymoke (d. 1381), who held the manor of Scrivelsby, Lincolnshire, in right of his wife Margaret, granddaughter

of Joan Ludlow, who was the daughter and co-heiress of Philip Marmion, last Baron Marmion. The Marmions claimed descent from the lords of Fontenay, hereditary champions of the dukes of Normandy, and held the castle of Tamworth, Leicestershire, and

the manor of Scrivelsby, Lincolnshire. The right to the championship was disputed with the Dymoke family by Sir Baldwin de Freville, lord of Tamworth, who was descended from an elder

daughter of Philip Marmion. The court of claims eventually decided in favour of the owners of Scrivelsby on the ground that Scrivelsby was held in grand serjeanty. Sir Thomas Dymoke (1428?—1471) joined a Lancastrian rising in 1469, and, with his brother-in-law Richard, Lord Willoughby and Welles, was beheaded in 1471 by order of Edward IV. after he had been induced to leave sanctuary on a promise of personal safety. The estates were restored to his son Sir Robert Dymoke (d. 1546), champion at the coronations of Richard III., Henry VII. and Henry VIII., who distinguished himself at the siege of Tournai and became treasurer of the kingdom. His descendants acted as champions at successive coronations. Lewis Dymoke (d. 1820) put in an unsuccessful claim before the House of Lords for the barony of Marmion. His nephew, Henry (1801-65) was champion at the coronation of George IV. He was accompanied on that occasion by the duke of Wellington and Lord Howard of Efingham. Henry Dymoke was created a baronet; he was succeeded by his brother John, rector of Scrivelsby (1804-73), whose son, Henry Lionel, died without issue in 1875, when the baronetcy became extinct, the estate passing to a collateral branch of the family. After the coronation of George IV. the ceremony was allowed to lapse, but at the coronation of King Edward VII. H. S. Dymoke bore the standard of England in Westminster Abbey.

DYNAMICS, a branch of mechanics. The term is usually

applied (as here) to the study of the motion of matter, but sometimes it includes statics, which is concerned with matter at rest.

The Fundamental Equation.—If we were to consider a material system isolated in space it would theoretically be

DYNAMICS possible (though perhaps not practicable) to describe the motion merely as related to the configuration. We more frequently consider, however, some arbitrary and not necessarily isolated portion of matter—a “dynamical system.” The motion of such a system depends not merely on its configuration but also upon matter external to the system. The effect of this external matter is most simply comprehended in the notion of force. And although ‘we could perhaps study the behaviour of a self-

809

Ofie5st Lay 4=- ôsbe o. ay Tt And generally the admissible displacements are subject to the equations obtained from (1) by writing 5é, for dé, and omitting the terms in di. We have then

S(X'bx+ Y'by+Z'5s) wo, (3) contained system without the aid of this notion, yet when once it has been introduced there is no good reason for restricting its where S denotes here, and throughout the present article, a sum-

mation over the particles of the system, and the equation holds for all sets of values of dx, dv, ds corresponding to admissible The measurement of mass and of force, Newton’s “Laws of Motion,” the idea of work, and the theory of the simplest sys- displacements. The forces which fall into this category are fatems—such as a single particle or rigid body under given forces, miliar from the theory of virtual work in statics. The most or two particles mutually attracting—are dealt with in the article important are (i.) the mutual reactions between pairs of particles MECHANICS. One particular case of two particles subject only whose distance apart is invariable, (ii.) the reactions between to their mutual attraction is of special interest and importance, perfectly smooth surfaces, and (iii.) the reactions between pernamely, when the attraction varies inversely as the square of fectly rough surfaces; in the last case the admissible displacethe distance between the particles. This is the famous “problem ments include only a relative motion of pure rolling. From (2) of two bodies.” The methods developed in the study of this and (3) we derive at once particular problem have had a profound effect on the history of S{(X — md)bx+ (¥ — my)by+(Z —më)ôc}] =o. (4) the whole subject. This is the fundamental equation of dynamics. It expresses In the present article we consider the general theory of systems of particles and rigid bodies. A rigid body is conceived of, for the fact that the work of the “kineta” (mè, my, m£) for any adour present purpose, as an aggregate of particles, finite in num- missible displacement is equal to the work of the “external” ber, set in a rigid imponderable frame. (It is hardly necessary forces, X, Y, Z. It is the immediate analogue for a dynamical to remind the reader that this conception, adequate for the system of d’Alembert's principle for a single rigid body. First Deductions from the Fundamental Equation.— purpose of dynamics, is totally inadequate in other connections.) Thus the whole system consists of a number (perhaps large, but It may happen that among the admissible displacements is essentially finite) of particles, each subject to forces, including included the displacement that the system actually suffers in a the reactions of other particles of the system; and these reactions small time succeeding the instant considered. This will be the must so adjust themselves that the necessary geometrical rela- case, for example, if a particle is constrained to move on a fixed tions imposed by the constitution of the system are fulfilled. smooth surface, but not if the particle moves on a variable It is easy to see of what form these relations are. For if we surface as in the example considered above. Suppose that this denote by &, &,---, &s~ the 3N co-ordinates of the N particles does hold, and consequently that we may write 4, y,¢@ for of the system referred to fixed rectangular axes, then we shall dx, dy, 6z in the equation (4). We have then have m relations of the type

— yn aT S(NE+V9+Z4)— =»

3N

>, 4+. dt,+a,dt =o,

ymI,2,°°*,m

(1)

a=}

where mt paai i

Bossert,

EB CHRISTIAN AUGUST GOTTLOB (2769-1845), a versatile German writer, was born at Belzig, near Wittenberg, on Jan. 12, 1769. His best works are Hannchen und die Kiicklein (1822), a narrative poem in ten parts, and an epic on the Creation, Der erste Mensch und die Erde (1828). He died at Dresden on May 13, 18485. His collected works Cainii Schriften) appeared in 29 volumes in 1830-31.

EBERHARD, JOHANN AUGUSTUS (1739-1809), German theologian and philosopher, was born at Halberstadt,

Lower Saxony, where his father was singing master at the church of St. Martin’s, and teacher of the school of the same name. He studied theology at the university of Halle, and toak ordera. At Berlin he formed a close friendship with Nicolai and Moses Mendelssohn. His Neue Apologie des Socrates (1772) hindered his preferment. But in 1774 he was appointed to the living of Charlottenburg, and in 1778 became professor of philosophy at Halle. He died on Jan. 6, 1809. His works include: Amyntor, eine Geschichte in Briefen (Berlin, 1782)—-written t counteract the influence of those sceptical and Epicurean principles in religion and morals then so prevalent in France, and rapidly spreading in Germany; Über die Zeichen der Aufklärung einer Nation, etc. (Halle, 1783); Theorie der —

Künste

und Wissenschaften, otc. (Halle, 1783, 3rd ed., 1790);

gemeine Geschichte der Philosophie, etc. (Halle, 1788; 2nd ed, with a continuation and chronological tables, 1796); Versuch einer all

wieineu deutschen Synonymik (Halle and eiprig, 1795-1802, 6 vols. 4th ed., 1852-53), long reckoned the best work on the synonyms o the German language (author's abridgment, z vol, Halle, 1802);

Handbuch der Aesthetik (Halle, 1803-05, 2nd ed., 1807—20). See F. Nicolai, Gedichinlsschrf auf J. A. Eberhord (Berlin and Stettin, 1810); also K. H. Jördens, Lexicon deutscher Dichter und Prosaisten.

EBERLEIN, GUSTAV (:847). A German sculptor born on July 14, 1847, at Spickershausen, Hanover. He studied at the Academy of Nuremberg and at Berlin under Blaeser, a follower of the classicist Rauch. After a visit to Rome in 1873 where he was attracted to the Baroque he joined the group of sculptors led by Reinhold Begas. In 1887 he became a member of the Berlin academy, in 1893 he was made professor and in 1897 he held an important exhibition of his work at the Berlin academy. His reputation rests chiefly upon his numerous public monuments, such as those of the emperor William I. (Mannheim, Elberfeld and Altona); Bismarck (Krefeld); Richard Wagner (Berlin); Goethe (Rome); Queen Luise (Tilsit). He also executed religious pieces such as the groups representing the life of Adam and Eve; and mythological pieces such as Pygmalion and Galatea. In 1898 he presented the Eberlein museum to Münden in his native Hanover, which contains a representative collection of his work. In 1892 he published Aus eines Bildners Seelenleben, Plastik, Malerei und Poesie. See A. Rosenberg, Eberlein (Bielefeld, 1903).

EBERLIN, JOHANN ERNST (1702-1762), German musician and composer, was born in Jettingen, Bavaria, on March 27, 1702, and became court organist to the prince-archbishop of . where he died on June 21, 1762. Most of his compositions were for the church (oratorios, etc.), but he also wrote some important fugues, sonatas and preludes, and his pieces were at one time highly valued by Mosart.

EBERS—EBERT

| 880

EBERS, GEORG MORITZ (1837-1898), German Egyptologist and novelist, was born in Berlin on March 1, 1837. At. Göttingen he studied jurisprudence, and at Berlin oriental languages and archaeology. He became in 1865 docent in Egyptian language and antiquities at Jena, and from 1870 to 1889 he was professor at Leipzig. He had made two scientific journeys to

Egypt, and his first work of importance, Agypten und die Biicher Moses, appeared in 1867-1868. In 1874 he edited the medical papyrus (“Papyrus Ebers”) which he had discovered in Thebes (tr. by H. Joachim, 1890). Ebers early conceived the idea of popularizing Egyptology by means of historical romances. Eine ägyptische Konigstochter (1864) had a great success. His: subsequent works of the same kind—Uarda (1877), Homo sum (1878), Die Schwestern (1880), Der Kaiser (1881), of which the scene is laid in Egypt at the time of Hadrian, Serapis (1885), Die Nilbraut (1887), and. Kleopatra (1894), were also popular. Ebers also turned his attention to other historical periods—especially the 16th century (Die Frau Bürgermeisterin, 1882; Die Gred, 1887)—without, however, attaining the success of his Egyptian novels. His other writings include a descriptive work on

Egypt (Agypten in Wort und Bild, 2nd ed., 1880), a guide to Egypt (1886) and a life (1885) of his old teacher, the Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius. He died at Tutzing, Bavaria, on Aug. 7, 1898. Ebers’s Gesammelte Werke appeared in 25 vols. at Stuttgart (18931895). Many of his books have been translated into English. For

his life see his Die Geschichte meines Lebens (Stuttgart, 1893); also R. — G. Ebers, der Forscher und Dichter (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1887).

EBERSWALDE,

a town of Germany, in the republic of

Prussia, 28 m. N.E. of Berlin by rail; on the Finow canal. Pop. (1925) 29,510. It received its municipal charter in 1257, but was sacked during the Thirty Years’ War. In 1747 Thuringian cutlers came to the town, but the cutlery industry has died out. About 4 m. to the north lies the Cistercian monastery of Chorin. The town has a 14th-century church. Industries include ironfounding and the making of roofing material and bricks. Trade is

in grain, wood and coal. In the immediate neighbourhood are an important brass-foundry and a Government paper-mill, in which paper for note money is manufactured. EBERT, ADOLF (1820-1890), German romance philologist, was born at Kassel on June 1, 1820. He was professor of romance languages in Marburg, and from 1862 onwards in Leipzig, where he died on July 1, 1890. He wrote a standard work on mediaeval literature, which is still indispensable to the student and has been the basis of much subsequent work by later writers, Allgemeine

Geschichte der Literatur im Abendlande (3 vols., 1884-87). From 1859-63 he edited, with F. Wolf, the Jahrbuch fur romantsche und englische Literatur.

EBERT,

FRIEDRICH

(1870-1925),

German

politician,

was born in’ Heidelberg on Nov. 4, 1870, the son of an impecunious tailor. He was an early recruit to the Socialist movement,

becoming a fluent speaker and a first-class trade union organizer, suffering persecution and boycott for the cause. He moved to Hanover, and later on to Bremen, where he joined the staff of the local paper of the party, and, having dropped his trade as a saddler, became labour secretary for Bremen. From 1905 Ebert played an important part in the direction of the Socialist Party. He entered the reichstag in 1912. A year later he became chairman of the party, which at that time was torn between the Ortho-

dox and Revisionists; his common sense was considered a guarantee for keeping the party together. At the outbreak of the World War, Ebert, deeply impressed by the danger of Russian victory, led the bulk of the party who voted for war credits. His common sense repudiated the optimistic pacificism of Haase and his followers, who later became the Independent Socialist Party. He ‘continued to strive, however, at home and abroad, especially at the Stockholm Conference in June 191 7, for a just peace. He became leader of the Majority Socialists in 1916 and chairman of the budget commission of the Reichstag in 1918. Though digapproving of the Peace of BrestLitovsk, he opposed strikto bring about peace. In Feb. 1918

strike, which threatened to become a national calamity. For the part he played at that time he was attacked later on by the Independents as well as by the representatives of the old order.

After Ludendorff’s collapse in Sept. 1918 Prince Max of Baden

formed the first parliamentary cabinet. Ebert induced his party te join at a time when Ludendorff’s insistence on an immediate demand for an armistice was already known. The negotiations about the armistice continued over a month. The suffering working classes began to be restless. When the plans to force a great naval battle became known, a mutiny took place at Kiel. Acting on Ebert’s advice, Prince Max sent Noske to Kiel who succeeded in re-establishing order. Ebert, knowing the historical attachment of the German people to monarchy, wanted a democratic parliamentary government, on English lines, but no republic. When the organized working men began to follow the Independents, Scheidemann

intimated

to Prince Max (Nov. 7) that the Socialists must withdraw from the cabinet, and that if the emperor did not abdicate by the 9th one of his sons, not the crown prince, should take his place. The emperor vacillated. By the oth the masses had got out of hand. The monarchy collapsed, but the knowledge of the abdication had not the desired effect. Scheidemann proclaimed the German republic, and Prince Max offered Ebert the chancellorship, which he accepted. He formed a Provisional Government consisting of three Independents and two Majority Socialists besides himself. From Nov. 1918 to Feb. 1919 it was touch and go whether Germany would be a democratic country or a soviet republic. The small group of German Bolshevists, the Spartacus Union, led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, insisted that Russia’s example should be followed, whilst the Independents did lip service to democracy, but wanted to postpone the elections. Ebert insisted on early elections for a constituent assembly, to give Germany a Democratic constitution. For nearly two months the Government had no power. The Spartacists had armed their adherents and repeatedly tried to imprison Ebert and his colleagues. Ebert called Noske to Berlin, who succeeded in quelling the December and the January risings by means of quickly organized volunteers. When the struggle was over, the elections to the national assembly took place quietly. Democracy had won the day, thanks to Ebert and the Moderate Socialists. It was but fitting that the assembly elected him the first provisional president of the German republic. Ebert stuck to his post when the Treaty of Versailles had to be signed and later when (March 1920), a military rising, the Kapp Putsch, took place. He left Berlin with his Government to return after the general strike had forced the leaders to surrender. Ebert’s appointment as president was provisional. He wanted to withdraw from office at the appointed time (1922) and to subject himself to a proper election. He bowed, probably unwisely from his point of view, to the wishes of the majority of the Reichstag, including the People’s Party, who asked him to accept office for a second term from their hands until 1925. When that term drew near its ehd, reactionary and radical forces had gained strength in Germany. This was shown by the result of the general election of May 1924. But by 1925, after stabilization had done its work, the situation had improved considerably; there appeared to be quite a fair chance that Ebert, if he chose to stand, might be re-elected. By that time Ebert had dropped the party leadership. He remained on friendly terms with his party, but he considered himself the representative of the German people as a whole. He

wielded the great but rather veiled power of the German president with consummate tact. His attitude when forming cabinets, and when reaching decisions was correct, constitutional and wise. He had gained the confidence of all persons with whom he came in contact. He had made: the office of the president influential, though not conspicuous. This artisan who had not had the academic training so greatly valued in Germany succeeded in getting a firm grasp on foreigü affairs. He saw a point quickly

and he knew how to deal with mig, Singularly modest and unassuming, his was the'dominant influeniiay. evertheless, in the many

he tried hard and fairly s@gtesdfully to put an end to the Berlin crises the German republic had to

patgéyrough in the years that

EBERT—EBNER-ESCHENBACH followed the peace. But: the fact that a plain man of the people was the head of the State did not commend itself to the reactionary elements of German society. A campaign of calumny was organized against him, accusing him of having fomented sedition and broken the back of the German army. He was forced to bring an action for

88r

EBINGEN, a town of Germany, in the republic of Württemberg, on the Schmiecha, a left-hand tributary of the Danube, 37 m. W. of Ulm by rail. It manufactures velvet and cottonvelvet (“Manchester”) goods, stockings, stays, hats, needles, tools, etc. There are also tanneries. Pop. 12,128. '

EBIONITES (Heb. ara “poor men”), a name given to the

ultra-Jewish party in the early Christian church. It is first met deutsche Zeitung a letter and footnote accusing Ebert. of treason- with in Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. i. 26. 2), who sheds no light on the able conduct in connection with the munition workers’ strike origin of the Ebionites, but says that while they admit the world in Jan. 1918. Rothard was found technically guilty, but the to have been made by the true God (in contrast to the Demiurge judge’s finding was unfavourable to Ebert. As the judge’s po- of the Gnostics), they held that Christ was a miraculously endowed litical bias was scarcely denied, the public, including the cabinet man, and rejected Paul as an apostate from the Mosaic Law to the sided with Ebert. The central Government and many State Gov- customs and ordinances of which, including circumcision, they ernments passed votes of confidence; the public assured him of steadily adhered. A similar account is given by Hippolytus (Haer. their sympathy, but the strain practically killed Ebert, who had vii. 35), who invents a founder named Ebion. Origen (Contra been suffering from repeated attacks of appendicitis. He did not Celsum, v. 61; In Matt. tom. xvi. 12) divides the Ebionites into wish to be operated upon before the case was over, and then it two classes according to their acceptance or rejection of the virgin birth of Jesus, but says that all alike reject the Pauline was too late. He died on Feb. 28, 1925, at Charlottenburg. Ebert was a very fortunate combination of the light-hearted epistles. This is confirmed by Eusebius, who adds that even those spirituality and sober shrewdness of the South German. He had who admitted the virgin birth did not accept the pre-existence of faith in ideas and ideals, but he believed in action and in organi- Jesus as Logos and Sophia. They kept both the Jewish Sabbath zation as well. There was passion in him, but there was common and the Christian Lord's day, and held extreme millenarian ideas sense; there was strength in him, and there was sober suavity. in which Jerusalem figured as the centre of the coming Messianic He was by no means a genius towering head and shoulders above kingdom. Epiphanius with his customary confusion makes two his fellow men. He was rather one of them, sharing their feel- separate sects, Ebionites and Nazarenes; both names, however, ings and their qualities so that they could trust him .completely, refer to the same people (the Jewish Christians of Syria), the being just far enough ahead of them to make them follow him, latter going back to the designation of apostolic times (Acts xxiv. 5), and the former being the term usually applied to them in the the true leader for an incipient democracy. libel against Herr Rothard, who had published in the Mittel-

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Richard

in .der

deutschen

Berger, Fraktionsspaltung

Sozialdemokratie

u. Parteikrisis

(München-Gladbach,

1916);

Philipps, Die Ursachen des deutschen Zusammenbruchs (1918); Die deutsche Nationalversammlung i. J. r920 in ihrer Arbeit für den Aufbau des neuen deutschen Volksstaates, herausg. v. E. Heilfron (1920) ; Gustav Noske, Von Kiel bis Kapp (1920) ; Philipp Scheidemann, Der Zusammenbruch (1921); Friedrich Ebert, Entwicklungsgeschichte der grossen politischen Parteien in Deutschland (Bonn, 1922); Adolf Koester, Fort mit der Dolchstoss-Legende. Warum wir 1918 nicht weiterkämpjen konnten (1922); Paul Kampfmeyer, Fritz Ebert (1923); Eduard Bernstein, Die Berliner Arbeiterbewegung 1890-1905 (1924); Friedrich Lenz, Die deutsche Sozialdemokratie (Stuttgart, 1924); Josef Wirth, Unsere politische Lage im deutschen Volksstaat (1924); Der Dolchstossprozess (Munich, 1925); Friedrich Ebert, Gesammelte Reden u. Schriften, herausg. v. Fritz Ebert jun. (Dresden, 1925); Philipps, Die Geschichte einer parlamentarischen Untersuchung 1919-25 (1925) ; Friedrich Ebert, AdGmpfe und Ziele. Aus seinem Nachlass (Dresden, 1927) ; Friedrich Ebert und seine Zeit. Ein Gedenkwerk er ersten Präsidenten der Deutschen Republik (Charlottenburg,

1928).

EBERT,

FRIEDRICH

ADOLF

(1791-1834),

German

bibliographer, was born at Taucha, near Leipzig, on July 9, 1791, the son of a Lutheran pastor. In 1813 he was attached to the

Leipzig University library, and in 1814 was appointed secretary to the Royal library of Dresden and, in 1827, after a short period of absence, chief librarian. The rich resources open to him in the Dresden library enabled him to undertake the work on which his reputation chiefly rests, the Allgemeines bibliographisches Lexikon (2 vols. 1821—30). This was the first work of the kind produced in Germany, and the most scientifc published anywhere.

Ebert was a contributor to various journals and took part in the editing of Ersch and Gruber’s great encyclopaedia. He died at Dresden on Nov. 13, 1834, in consequence of a fall from the ladder in his library. See the article in Ersch und Grubers Encyclopédie, and that in the Allg. deutsche Biog. by his successor in the post of chief librarian at Dresden, Schnorr von Carolsfeld.

EBER

KARL

JOSEPH

(1835-1926), bacteriologist,

was born in Würzburg where he studied under Kölliker and Virchow (gg.v.). He was called in 1874 to Zirich, and in 1881 to Halle. He made numerous important contributions to bacteriology

and pathology, and is still commemorated in the so-called “Eberth’s bacillus,” the organic cause of typhoid fever, which was first distinguished by him in 1880.

© See R. Benecke’s biography in Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift,

1915, LII., ror0-1012; works given in J. Page, Biographisches Lexikon

hervorragender Aerste (Vienna) 1901.

ecclesiastical literature of the 2nd and 3rd centuries. The origin of the Nazarenes or Ebionites as a distinct sect is

very obscure, but may be dated with much likelihood from the edict of Hadrian which in 135 finally scattered the old church of Jerusalem. While Christians of the type of Aristo of Pella and Hegesippus, on the snapping of the old ties, were gradually assimilated to the great church outside, the more conservative section became more and more isolated and exclusive. “It may have been then that they called themselves the Poor Men, probably as claiming to be the true representatives of those who had been blessed in the Sermon on the Mount, but possibly adding to the name other associations.” Out of touch with the main stream of the church they developed a new kind of pharisaism. Doctrinally they stood not so much for a theology as for a refusal of theology, and, rejecting the practical liberalism of Paul, became the natural heirs of those early Judaizers who had caused the apostle so much annoyance and trouble. Though there is insufficient justification for dividing the Ebionites into two separate and distinct communities, labelled respectively Ebionites and Nazarenes, we have good evidence, not only that there were grades of Christological thought among them, but that a considerable section, at the end of the 2nd century and the beginning of the 3rd, exchanged their simple Judaistic creed for a strange blend of Essenism, Gnosticism—as in the “Clementine” literature (q.v.) of the 3rd century—-and Christianity. See W. Beveridge, art. “Ebionism” in Hastings Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, with refs.; articles ‘“‘Ebioniten,” ‘Elkasaiten,” “Clementinen,” in Herzog-Hauck, Realenzyclopadie, with refs.; F. J. A. Hort, Judaistic Christianity (still valuable); Harnack, History of Dogma (Eng. tr., vol. i.); Lightfoot, “St. Paul and the Three” in Commentary on Galatians; Ottley, Doctrine of the Incarnation, pt. iii. § 2; and the general church histories.

EBNER-ESCHENBACH, MARIE, Freirrav von (18301916), Austrian novelist, was born at Zdislavi¢ in Moravia, on Sept. 13, 1830, the daughter of a Count Dubsky. She lost her

mother in early infancy, but received a careful intellectual training from two stepmothers. In 1848 she married the Austrian captain, and subsequent field-marshal, Moritz von Ebner-Eschenbach, and resided first at Vienna, then at Klosterbruck, where her husband had a military charge, and after 1860 again at Vienna.

Her first essay was with the drama Maria Stuart in Schottland,

which P. E. Devrient produced at the Karlsruhe theatre in 1860, but she found her true sphere in narrative. Commencing with Die Prinzessin von Banalien (1872), she graphically depicts in Božena (1876, 4th ed. 1899) and Das Gemeindekind (1887, 4th

882 ed. 1900) the surroundings of her Moravian home, and in Loti, chief works were Christliche Dogmatik (2 vols., 1851), Vorle-. die Uhrmacherin (1883, 4th ed. 1900), Zwei Comtessen (1885, sth sungen über praktische Theologie (1864), Handbuch der Christ. ed. 1898; Eng. trans. 1893), Unsitihubar (1890, 5th ed. 1900) and Kirchen- u. Dogmengesck. (4 vols. 1865-66), Apologetik (1874-. Glaubenslos? (1893) the life of the Austrian aristocracy in town 75, Eng. trans. 1886). He also edited and completed H. Olshausen’s and country. Later books are Neue Erzählungen (1881, 3rd ed. commentary, himself writing on the Epistle to the Hebrews, the 1894), Aphorismen (1880, 4th ed. 1895), Parabeln, Marchen und Feohannine Epistles and Revelation. He died atErlangen on July : | Gedichte (2nd ed. 1892), Aus Spdtherbsttagen (1901) and Agave 23, 1888. (1903). Frau von Ebner-Eschenbach’s incisive wit and masterly character-drawing give her a foremost place among the German writers of her time. She died in Vienna on March 12, 1916. See A. Bettelheim, “Marie von Ebner Eschenbach und Julius Rodenberg,” Deutsche Rundschau. Jahrg. 46, pp. 6-23 (Berlin, 1920); A. Bettelheim, Marie von Ebner Esc subach's Wirken und Vermächtnis (Leipzig, 1920).

EBONITE, a substance manufactured by over-vulcanizing rubber. Pure rubber is mixed with about 40% of sulphur by rolling, and the resulting mass heated for from six to ten hours at a temperature of 150°. The valuable material thus obtained is a non-conductor of electricity and resists many chemical reagents. (See RUBBER MANUFACTURE.)

EBONY, the wood of trees of the genus Diospyros (family

Ebenaceae), widely distributed in the tropical parts of the world. The best kinds are very heavy, deep black, and consist of heartwood only. On account of its colour, durability, hardness and susceptibility of polish, ebony is much used for cabinet work and inlaying, pianoforte-keys, knife-handles and turned articles. The best Indian and Ceylon ebony is furnished by D. Ebenum, which grows ìn abundance throughout the flat country west of Trincomalee in Ceylon. The tree is distinguished by the inferior width of its trunk, and its jet-black, charred-looking bark, beneath which the wood is perfectly white until the heart is reached. The wood is stated to excel all other varieties in the fineness and intensity of its dark colour. Although the centre of the tree alone is employed, reduced logs 1 to 3ft. in diameter can readily be procured. Much of the East Indian ebony is yielded by D. Melanoxylon (Coromandel ebony), a large tree attaining a height of 60 to 8oft., and 8 to roft. in circumference, with irregular rigid branches, and oblong or oblong-lanceolate leaves. The wood of D. tomentosa, a native of north Bengal, is black, hard and of great weight. D. montana, another Indian species, produces a yellowish-grey soft but durable wood. D. quaesita is the tree from which is obtained the wood known in Ceylon as Calamander. Its closeness of grain, great hardness and fine hazel-brown colour,

' EBRO

(anc. Iberus or Hiberus), the only one of the fi

great rivers of the Iberian Peninsula which flows into the Mediterranean. The Ebro;.approximately 465 m. in length, rises at Fuentibre, a hamlet among the Cantabrian mountains, in the province of Santander; at Reinosa, 4 m. E., it is joined on the right by the Hijar, and thus gains considerably in volume. It flows generally east by south through a tortuous valley as far as Miranda de Ebro. The chief cities on its banks are Logrofio, Calahorra, Tudela, Saragossa and Caspe. Near Mora in Catalonia it forces a way through the coastal mountains, and, passing Tortosa, falls into the Mediterranean about 80 m. S.W. of Barcelona. It drains an

area of nearly 32,000 sq.m. Its principal tributaries are—(right) the Jalon with its affluent the Jiloca, the Huerva, Aguas, Martin, Guadalope and Matarrafia; (left) the Ega, Aragon, Arba, Gallego and the Segre with its system of confluent rivers. The Ebro and

its tributaries have been utilized for irrigation since the Moorish conquest; the main stream becomes navigable by small boats about Tudela; but seafaring vessels cannot proceed farther than Tortosa. The great Imperial Canal, begun under the emperor Charles V., proceeds along the right bank from a point about 3 m. below Tudela, to El Burgo de Ebro, 5 m. below Saragossa; the irrigation canal of Tauste skirts the opposite bank for a shorter distance; and the San Carlos or New Canal affords direct com-

munication between Amposta at the head of the delta and the harbour of Los Alfaques. EBROIN (d. 681), Frankish “mayor of the palace,” was a Neustrian, and wished to impose the authority of Neustria over Burgundy and Austrasia. In 656, at the moment of his accession to power, Sigebert III., the king of Austrasia, had just died, and the Austrasian mayor of the palace, Grimoald, was attempting to usurp the authority. The great nobles, however, appealed to the king of Neustria, Clovis II., and unity was re-established. But in spite of a very firm policy Ebroïn was unable to maintain this unity, and while Clotaire III., son of Clovis II., reigned in Neustria and Burgundy, he was obliged in 660 to give the Austrasians a special king, Childeric II., brother of. Clotaire JIT., and mottled and striped with black, render it valuable for veneering a special mayor of the palace, Wulfoald. His efforts to maintain ' and furniture making. D. Dendo, a native of Angola, is a valu- the union of Neustria and Burgundy were opposed by the great able timber tree, 25 to 35ft. high, with a trunk 1 to 2ft. in Burgundian nobles, who rose under St. Leger (Leodegar), bishop diameter. The heart-wood is very black and hard and is known of Autun, defeated Ebroin, and interned him in the monastery of as black ebony, also as billet-wood, Gabun, Lagos, Calabar or Luxeuil (670). Soon, however, Leger was defeated by Wulfoald Niger ebony. What is termed Jamaica or American ebony, and and the Austrasians, and was himself confined at Luxeuil in 673. the green ebony of commerce, is produced by Brya Ebenus, Ebroin and Leger then left the cloister. Each looked for support a leguminous tree or shrub, having a trunk rarely more than qin. to a different Merovingian king, Ebroin even proclaiming a false in diameter, flexible spiny branches, and orange-yellow, sweet- Merovingian as sovereign. Leger was besieged in Autun, was scented flowers. The heart-wood is rich dark brown, heavier than forced to surrender and had his eyes put out, and, on Oct. 12, 678, he was put to death after undergoing prolonged tortures. The water, exceedingly hard and capable of receiving a high polish. Ebony was among the articles of merchandise brought to Tyre church honours him as a saint. After his death Ebroin became (Ezekiel xxvii. 15), and Herodotus states (iii. 97) that the Ethi- sole and absolute ruler of the Franks, imposing his authority over opians every three years sent a tribute of 200 logs of it to Persia, Burgundy and subduing the Austrasians, whom he defeated in By the ancients it was esteemed of equal value for durability 678 at Bois-du-Fay, near Laon. He was assassinated in 68r. See Liber historiae Francorum, edit. by B. Krusch, in Mon. Germ. with the cypress and cedar (see Pliny, Nat. Hist. xii. 9, xvi. 79). According to Solinus (Polyhistor, Paris, 1621), it was employed hist. script. rer. Merov. vol. ii.; Vita sancti Leodegarii, by Ursinus, a monk of St. Maixent (Migne, Patr. Latina, vol. xcvi.) ; “Vita metrica” by the kings of India for sceptres and images, also, on account in Poëtae Latini aevi Carolini, vol. iti. (Mon. Germ. hist.) ; J. B. Pitra, of its supposed antagonism to poison, for drinking-cups. The Histoire de Saint Léger (1846); and J. Friedrich, “Zur Gesch. des Proceedings of the Academy of ‘Munich hardness and black colour of the wood appear to have given rise Hausmeiers Ebroin,” in the 3 to the tradition, alluded to by Southey (Thalaba, i. 22), that the (1887, pp. 42-61). tree produced neither leaves nor fruit, and was never seen exposed to the sun. co

EBRARD, JOHANNES HEINRICH AUGUST (1818-

1888), German theologian, was born at Erlangen on Jan. 18, 1818. Educated in his native town and at Berlin, he became Privatdocent at Erlangen (1841) and then professor of theology at Ziirich (1844). From 1847~61 he held a similar post at Erlangen, where in 1875 he became pastor of the French reformed church. His

EBURACUM

or ExsorAcum

(probably a later. variant),

Roman name of York (g.v.) in England. Established about 75-80 as fortress of the Ninth legion and garrisoned (after the

annihilation of that legion about A.D. 118) by the Sixth legion,

it developed outside its wals a town of civil life, which later obtained Roman municipal rank and in the 4th century-was the seat of a Christian bishop. The fortress and town were separated by the Ouse. On the left bank, where the minster stands, was

ECA DE QUEIROZ—ECARTE the fortress, of which the walls can be partly traced. At: the west corner a bastian of the 4th century type (the so-called Multangular Tower) survives, while at the east corner an internal tower of earlier date has been uncovered.. The municipali the right bank near the present railway station. The place was important for its garrison and as an -administrative centre. The name is preserved in the abbreviated form Ebor in the official name of the archbishop of York, but the philological connexion between Eboracum and the modern name York is doubtful and has probably been complicated by Danish influence. (S. N. M.)

ECA DE QUEIROZ, JOSE MARIA (1843-1900), Por-

tuguese novelist, was born at Villa do Conde, his father being a retired judge. Entering the consular service in 1872, he went to Havana, and, after a tour in the United States, was transferred two years later to Newcastle-on-Tyne and in 1876 to Bristol. In 1888 he became Portuguese consul-general in Paris and died there in 1900. Queiroz in 1870, in collaboration with Ramalho Ortigão, wrote a sensational story, The Mystery of tke Cintra Road, but the first publication which brought him fame was The Farpas, a series of satirical and humorous sketches of various phases of social life. At this period French literature and French politics interested Queiroz profoundly, while he ignored the belles-lettres of his own country and its public affairs. He founded the Portuguese Realist-Naturalist school, of which he remained for the rest of his life the‘chief exponent, by a powerful romance, The Crime of Father Amaro, written in 1871 at Leiria but only issued in 1875. During a stay in England he produced two masterpieces, Cousin Basil and The Maias, but they show no traces of English influence, nor again are they French in tone, for his disillusionment progressed and was completed when he went to Paris and had to live under the régime of the Third Republic. Settling at Neuilly, the novelist became chronicler, critic and letter-writer as well, and in all these capacities Queiroz displayed a spontaneity, power and artistic finish unequalled in the literature of his country since the death of Garrett. Many of his pages descriptive of natural scenery, such for instance as the episode of the return to Tormes in The City and the Mountains, are classic examples of Portuguese prose. He manifested a predilection for middle-class types, but his portrait-gallery comprises men and women of all social conditions. Queiroz also wrote a number of short stories, some of which have been printed in a volume under the title of Contos. The gems of this remarkable collection are perhaps The Peculiarities of a Fair-haired Girl, A Lyric Poet, José Matthias and The Corpse. One of Queiroz’s romances and two of his short stories have been published in English. An unsatisfactory version of Cousin Basil, under the title Dragon’s Teeth, appeared at Boston, U.S.A., in 1889, while Sweet Miracle has had three editions in England and one in America, and there is also a translation of O Defunto (The Corpse), under the name of Our Lady of the Pillar. See J. Pereira de Sampais, A Geração Nova—Os Novellistas (Oporto, 1886), and Senhor Batalha Reis’s preface to some prose fragments of Queiroz edited by him and

named Prosas Barbaras (Oporto, 1903).

ECARTE (Fr. for “separated,” “discarded”), a game at cards, of modern origin, probably first played in the Paris salons in the first quarter of the 19th century. It is a development of a very old

card game called Ja triomphe or French-ruf. Ecarté is generally

played. by two persons, but a pool of three may be formed, the player who is out taking the place of the loser, and the winner of two consecutive games winning the pool. The small cards (from the two to the six, both inclusive) are removed from an ordinary pack. The players cut for deal, the higher having the choice. The king is highest, the ace ranking next below the knave. The dealer gives five cards to his adversary, and five to himself, by two at a time to each and by three at a time to each or vice versa. The eleventh card is turned up for trumps. If it is a king, the dealer scores one, at any time before the next deal. The non-dealer then looks at his cards. If

If he accepts, each player discards, face downwards, as many cards or “stock,” first to complete the non‘dealer’s hand to five,

883

cards as he thinks fit, and fresh ones are given from the undealt

then to complete the dealer’s. To ask for “a book” is to ask for

five cards. Similarly a second proposal may be made, and so on, until one player is satisfied with his hand. If the dealer refuses, the hand is played without discarding. If the non-dealer an-

nounces that he holds the king of trumps, he scores one; similarly, if the dealer holds the king and announces it, he scores one. The announcement must be made before playing one’s first card, or if that card be the king, on playing it. The non-dealer, being satisfied with his hand, leads a card. The dealer plays a card to it, the two cards thus played forming a trick. The winner of the trick leads to the next, and so on. The second to play to a trick must follow suit if able, and must win the trick if he can. The scores are for the king and for the majority of tricks. The player who wins three tricks scores one for the “point”; if he wins all five tricks, he scores two for the “vole.” If the non-dealer plays without proposing, or the dealer refuses the first proposal, and fails to win three tricks, the adversary scores two, but no more even if he wins the vole. The game is five up. The points are conveniently marked with a three-card and a two-card, as at euchre. The three is put face upwards with the two face downwards on the top of it. When one or two or three points are scored the top card is moved so as to expose them. At four, one pip of the two-card is put under the other card. Games may be recorded similarly. . Hints to Players.—The following hints may be of service to beginners :— Do not announce the king until in the act of playing your first card. The hands which should be played without proposing, called jeux de régle (standard hands), ought to be thoroughly known. They are as follows:— 1. All hands with three or more trumps, whatever the other cards. 2. Hands with two trumps which contain also:— ` (a) Any three cards of one plain suit; (b) Two cards of one plain suit, one being as high as a queen; (c) Two small cards of one suit, the fifth card being a king of another suit;

(d) Three high cards of different suits. 3. Hands with one trump, which contain also:— (a) King, queen, knave of one suit, and a small card of another;

(6) Four cards of one suit headed by king; (c) Three cards of one suit, headed by queen, and queen of another suit. 4. Hands with no trump, which contain three queens or cards of equal value in different suits, e.g., four court cards. g. Hands from which only two cards can be discarded without throwing a king or a trump.

Holding cards which make the point certain, propose. If you hold a jeu de règle, and one of the trumps is the king, propose, as your adversary cannot then take in the king. When discarding, throw out all cards except trumps and kings. If your adversary proposes you should accept, unless you are guarded in three suits (a queen being a sufficient guard), or in two suits with a trump, or in one suit with two trumps. Hence the rule

not to discard two cards, unless holding the king of trumps, applies to the dealer. The hands with which to refuse are the same as those with which to play witbout proposing, except as follows:— 1. Two trumps and three cards of one plain suit should not be

played unless the plain suit is headed by a court card. 2. One trump and a tierce major is too weak, unless the fifth card is a court card. With similar hands weaker in the tierce major suit, accept unless the fifth card is a queen. . 3. One trump and four cards of a plain suit is too weak to play.

4. One trump and two queens is too weak, unless both queens are singly guarded. g. One trump, queen of one suit, and knave guarded of another should not be played unless the queen is also guarded, or the card of the fourth suit is a court card. 6. One trump, a king and a queen, both unguarded, should not be

played, unless the fourth suit contains a card as high as an ace. ». Four court cards without a trump are too weak to play, unless are of three different suits. Refuse with three queens, if two are singly guarded; otherwise,

accept.

Lead from your guarded suit, and lead the highest. If the strong suit led is not trumped, power with it, unless with king of trumps, or queen (king not having been announced), or knave ace, when lead a trump before continuing your suit. i ‘You should not lead trumps at starting, unless you hold king or queen, knave, or knave ace, with court cards out of trumps.

ECBATANA—ECCEN

884

The score has to be considered. If the dealer is at four, and the king is not in your hand nor turned up, play any cards without

proposing which give an even chance of three tricks, ¢.g., a queen

a guarded knave, and a guarded ten. The same rule ’applies to the dealer’s refusal. At the adverse score of four, and king not being in hand or turned up, any hand with one trump should be played, unless the plain cards are very small and of different suits. If the non-dealer plays without proposing when he is four to three, and the dealer holds the king he ought not to mark it. The same rule applies to the non-dealer after a refusal, if the dealer is four to three. At the score of non-dealer three, dealer four, the dealer should refuse on moderate cards, as the player proposing at this score must have a very bad hand.

At four a forward game should not be played in trumps, as as there is no rE Hi in winning the vole.

Laws of carté.—The following laws are abridged from the revised code adopted by the Turf club: A cut must consist of at least two cards. Cards exposed in cutting, fresh cut. Order of distribution of cards, whether by three and two, or vice versa, once selected, dealer must “not change it during game. Player announcing king when he has not got it, and playing a card without declaring error, adversary may correct score and have hand over again. If offender wins point or vole that hand, he scores one less than he wins. Proposal, acceptance, or refusal made cannot be retracted. Cards discarded must not be looked at. Cards exposed in giving cards to non-dealer, he has option of taking them or of having next cards; dealer exposing his own cards, no penalty. Dealer turning up top card after giving cards, cannot refuse second discard. Dealer accepting when too few cards in stock to supply both, non-dealer may take cards, and dealer must play his hand. Card led in turn cannot be taken up again. Card played to a lead can only be taken up prior to another lead, to save revoke or to correct error of not winning trick. Card led out of turn may be taken up prior to its being played to. Player naming one suit and leading another, adversary has option of requiring suit named to be led. If offender has none, no penalty. Player abandoning hand, adversary is deemed to win remaining tricks and scores accordingly. If a player revokes or does not win trick when he-can do so, the adversary may correct score and have hand replayed. See Académie des jeux (various editions after the first quarter of

the roth century);

Hoyle’s Games Modernised

(ed. Lawrence H.

Dawson, 1928); Ch. Van-Tenac et Louis Delanoue, Traité du jeu de lécarté (Paris, 1845), translated in Bohn’s Handbook of Games

(1850); “Cavendish,” The Laws of Écarté, adopted by the Turf Club,

with a Treatise on the Game

(London, 1878) ; ; and Pocket Guide to

Ecarté (1897); R. Foster, Encyclopedia of Games (1916).

IC |

compositions, such as songs, sacred cantatas and chorales for four or five, and sometimes for seven, eight, or even nine voices. Their. polyphonic structure is remarkable and still excites the admiration of musicians. At the same time his works are instinct with a spirit of true religious feeling. Eccard and his school are inseparably ‘connected with the history of the Reformation and “Ein’ feste Burg” is only one of many Lutheran hymns for which he provided ee settings. G. A. von. Winterfeld, Der Evangelische Kirchengesang aa) PA G. Reichmann, Jok. Eccards weltliche Werke (Heidelberg, 1922

ECCELINO DA ROMANO (1194-1259), Ghibelline leader, and supporter of the emperor Frederick II, was born on April 25, 1194, of a German family settled in Italy in the first half of the 11th century. They were lords of Romano, near Padua. In 1226, at the head of a band of Ghibellines, Eccelino seized Verona and became podestà of the city. He lost Verona, but regained it in 1230; and in 1232 Frederick II. issued a charter confirming him in his possessions. In 1236-37 the emperor gave him the government of Vicenza, Padua and Treviso; and on Nov. 27, 1237, he shared in the victory over the Lombards at Cortenuova. In 1238 he married Frederick’s natural daughter, Selvaggia; in 1239 was appointed imperial vicar of the march of Treviso; but in the same year was excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX. After Frederick’s death in 1250 he supported his son, the German king Conrad IV. His cruelties had, however, aroused general disgust, and in 1254 he was again excommunicated. In 1256 Pope Alexander IV. proclaimed a crusade against him, which was led by Philip, archbishop of Ravenna. Eccelino lost Padua, but on Sept. 1, 1258, he defeated his enemies at Torricella. At Cassano on Sept. 27, 1259, Eccelino was wounded and taken prisoner. Enraged at his capture, he tore the bandages from his wounds, refused to take food and died at Soncino on Oct. 7, 1259. In the following year his brother Albert was put to death, and the Romano family became extinct. Eccelino, sometimes called the tyrant, acquired a reputation for cruelty that gained him a place in Dante’s /nferno; but his unswerving loyalty to Frederick II. contrasts favourably with many of his contemporaries. Eccelino is the subject of a novel by Cesare Cantu and of a drama by J. Eichendorff. See J. M. Gittermann, Esselino da Romano (Freiburg, 1890); S. a Storia d'Ezzelino IV. da Romano (Maddaloni, 1896); and F.Stieve, Ezzelino von Romano (Leipzig, 1909). See also Hampe Mittelalt. Geschichte (1922).

ECBATANA (Old Persian Hangmatdna), situated at the foot of Mount Orontes (Alwand), was the capital of Media and the summer residence of the Achaemenian kings, being afterwards also the Parthian capital. According to the Greeks (e.g., Herodotus, i., 96 ff.), it was founded by Deioces the Mede, but it appears to be mentioned in an inscription of Tiglath-Pileser I., who was much earlier. Though surrounded by seven walls and possessing a citadel, that was at the same time a treasure-house, it was captured by Cyrus from Astyages in 550 B.C., and was taken from the last Achaemenian by Alexander in 330 B.c. Amongst the Achaemenian relics found in the city in recent times is a trilingual inscription in which Artaxerxes Mnemon celebrated the building of a palace. The Ecbatana at which, according to Herodotus (iii., 64), Cambyses died, is probably a blunder for Hamath. See Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Persia (Eng. trans., 1892); M. Dieulafgy, L’Art antique de la Perse, pt. i. (1884); J. de Morgan, Mission scientifique en Perse, ii. (1894); W. Geiger and E. Kuhn, Grundriss der Trantichen Philologie, ii. (1896-1904). See also HAMADAN and Persia: Ancient History, (R. Lev.)

ECCARD, JOHANN

(1553-1611), German composer of

church music, was born at Mühlhausen, Thuringia, in 1553. He studied at Munich, under Orlando Lasso,iin whose company he is said to have visited Paris. In 1583 he became assistant conductor, and in 159ọ conductor, at Königsberg, to Georg Friedrich, margrave of Brandenburg-Anspach, and in 1608 he was called by the elector Joachim Friedrich to Berlin as chief conductor. He died at Königsberg in 1611. Eccard’s works consist exclusively of vocal

DIAGRAM

OF AN ECCENTRIC

USED IN STEAM

ENGINES,

SHOWING

PARTS

The ecoentrio converts rotary into reciprocating motion and moves the vaive

controlling the flow of steam and the exhaust to and from the cylinder

ECCENTRIC,

from two Greek words, meaning literally

“out from the centre,” and thus used to connote generally any deviation from the normal. In ancient astronomy the word

denotes gicircle round which a body revolves, but whose centre

is displaged from the visible centre of motion. In early times the ellipses $; which the planets revolve around the sun as focus could not be distinguished from circles, but the unequal angular motion due to ellipticity was observed. A point, -however, can be found on the major axis of the ellipse (namely theempty focus)

such|Haat the angular velocity of the planet about it is nearly

.ENSIS+-ECCLESIA

885

constant.

Tt was therefore supposed that the deferent ofthe episcopal residence from the 13th century until 1867. Blore Heath was — — of a defeat of the Lancastrians by the Yorkists in 14 Ip engineering, an eccentric is a disc mounted out of centre ECCLESIA. the general assembly of freemen in Athens on a shaft, to give reciprocating movement to a lever; it is an (exxAyola). In the primitive state the king was absolute, though agent much used in steam-engines and other mechanisms. It is his great nobles in council (see Bouts) were able to influence fixed with a key or screw on to the crankshaft and moves the him considerably. In the earliest times the free people, i.e., the valve-rod to and fro to control the flow of steam and the exhaust. fighting force of the state, were called together to ratify the Using two eccentrics with link-motion, the engine can be reversed, decisions of the king. In Athens, as in Rome, where the Plebs and the steam used expansively, ¢.g., in locomotives, when a obtained the codification of the laws (the Twelve Tables), it good rate of speed has been reached. A reversing eccentric is one was owing to the growing power of the people meeting in the with a slotted fitting whereby it can be moved in relation to the agora that Dracon was entrusted with the task of publishing a shaft, thus reversing the action of the valve to run the engine in code of law. The precise powers which Solon gave the people are not known. the opposite direction. This is but little used, however, the link motion having preference. Eccentrics are also fitted on the popu- The executive power (see ARCHON) was still vested in the Eupatlar drop-valve steam-engines, being located then on a shaft run- rid class (see EUPATRIDAE). It seems that, though the officials ning parallel with the cylinder. An eccentric is often employed of the state were still Eupatrid, the Ecclesia elected those of the to work a pump, and operate the slides of certain machines, such Eupatrids whom they could trust, and had the right of criticizing as those for shearing and punching. Eccentrics are used to work their official actions. Solon admitted the Thetes (see Soton) to the jaws of powerful rock- and stone-crushers, and to close quick- the Ecclesia, thus recognizing them as citizens. Under Cleisthenes (g.v.) the Ecclesia remained the sovereign power. The relation acting clamps and safety mechanisms that check slipping. ECCHELLENSIS (or EcuHE.LLENsis), ABRAHAM (c. of Boule and Ecclesia in the Cleisthenic democracy was of the 1600-1664), a learned Maronite, was born at Eckel, Syria. Edu- greatest importance. The Ecclesia alone, a heterogeneous body cated at Rome, he became professor of Arabic and Syriac in the of untrained citizens, could not have drawn up intelligible meascollege of the Propaganda at Rome, and in 1646 professor at the ures; the preliminary drafting was done by the Boule (¢.v.). In Collége de France. Invited to take part in the preparation of an the sth century the functions of the Ecclesia and the popular Arabic version of the Bible, Ecchellensis returned in 1652 to courts of justice were increased by the exigencies of empire. At

epicycle of ‘the planet moved uniformly in a circle about this point. For eccentric angle see ELLIPSE.

Rome, where he died. Of his Latin translations of Arabic works, the most important was the Chronicon Orientale of Ibnar-Rāhib (Paris, 1653), a history of the patriarchs of Alexandria. With Giovanni Borelli he wrote a Latin translation of the sth, 6th and qth books of the Conics of Apollonius of Perga (1661). He also published Eutychius vindicatus, sive Responsio ad Seldeni Origines (Rome, 1661). To Le Jay's polyglot Bible he contributed the Ara-

bic and Latin version of Ruth and the Arabic version of the third book of Maccabees.

ECCLES, municipal borough, Eccles parliamentary division,

Lancashire, England: 4m. W. of Manchester, of which it forms practically a suburb. Pop. (1921) 44,242. It is served by the L.M.S. railway. The Manchester Ship canal passes through. Before the Reformation the monks of Whalley abbey had a grange here at what is still called Monks’ Hall; and in 1864 many thousands of silver pennies of Henry III. and John of England and William I. of Scotland were discovered near the spot. From early

times “wakes” were held at Eccles, and bull-baiting, bear-baiting

and cock-fighting were carried on.

Under Elizabeth these festi-

vals were abolished, but were revived under James I., and maintained until late in the roth century. The church of St. Mary, believed to date from the 12th century, has been much restored. There are several modern churches and chapels, a town hall and numerous cotton mills, while silk-throwing and the manufacture of fustians and ginghams are also among the industries, and there are also large engine works. Eccles cakes have a wide reputation. Eccles was incorporated in 1892. The borough maintains the tramway service, etc., but water and gas are supplied from Manchester and Salford respectively.

ECCLESFIELD, township, Wortley rural district, Penistone parliamentary division, West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 5m. N. of Shefħeld on the LMS. and LNE. railways. Pop. (1921), 22,944. The church of St. Mary is Perpendicular, with a central tower. It contains excellent woodwork, and formerly bore the familiar title of the “Minster of the Moors.” Ecclesfield was

the seat of a Benedictine priory, which passed to the Carthusians in the 14th century. Cutlery and tools are largely manufactured, and there are coal-mines, paper-mills, and iron and fire-clay works.

ECCLESHALL, market town, Stone parliamentary division,

Staffordshire, England; 7 m. N.W. from Stafford, and 4 m. W. of Norton Bridge station on the L.M.S. main line. Pop. (1921) #630. The church of the Holy Trinity is principally Early English and has fine stained glass. Several bishops of Lichfield are buried here, as Eccleshall Castle, now in ruins, was the

the beginning of the 4th century B.C. the system of payment was introduced (sec below). Under Roman rule the powers of the Ecclesia and the popular courts were much diminished. They still assembled to elect strateg?, and, under Hadrian, had some small judicial duties, but as a governing body the Ecclesia died when Athens became a civitas libera under Roman protection. Constitution and Functions.—Throughout the period of Athenian greatness the Ecclesia was the sovereign power. The regular place of meeting was the Pnyx. From the sth century it met sometimes in the theatre, which in the 3rd century was the regular place. Special meetings were held at times at Peiraeus. Certain meetings, however, for voting ostracism (g.v.) and on questions affecting individual status took place in the agora. Meetings were (1) ordinary, (2) extraordinary, and (3) convened by special messengers

(kurtat sunklétoit and kataklétoi),

these last being called when it was desirable that the country people should attend. At ordinary meetings the attendance was practically confined to Athenian residents. According to Aristotle there were four meetings in each of the prytanies; probably only the first of these was called Kuria. In the kuria ekklésia of each month took place the Epicheirotonia (monthly inquiry) of

the state officials, and if it proved unsatisfactory a trial before the Heliaea (supreme court) was arranged; the council reported on the general security and the corn supply. In the sixth prytany of each year at the kuria ekklésia the question whether ostracism should take place that year was put to the vote. On occasions of sudden importance the herald of the council summoned the people with a trumpet, and sometimes special messengers were despatched to “bring in” the country people (kafakalein). All Athenians over the age of 18 years were eligible to attend the assembly, save those who for some reason had suffered atimia (loss of civil rights). The introduction of pay, which belongs to the early years of the 4th century, was a device to secure a larger attendance. The rate rose from one to two obols and then to three obols, while at the time of Aristotle it was one and a half drachmas for the kuria ekklésia and one drachma for other meetings.

Procedure.—The proceedings opened with formalities: the purification; the curse against all who should deceive the people; the report as to the weather omens. The assembly wag always dismissed if there were thunder, rain, or an eclipse. These formalities over, the Prytaneis communicated the probouleuma of the council, without which the Ecclesia could not debate. This recommendation either submitted definite proposals or merely brought the agenda before the assembly. It explained the business

886

ECCLESIASTES

in hand, which otherwise must often have been beyond the grasp of a miscellaneous assembly.

After the reading, a preliminary

vote was taken on the question whether the counail’s report should be accepted en bloc. If it was decided to discuss, the herald called upon people to speak. Any person, without distinction of age or position, might obtain leave to speak; any member of the assembly (1) might propose an amendment, (2) might draw up a new resolution founded on the principal motion, ($) might move the rejection of the motion and the substitution of another, (4) might bring in a motion asking the council for a recommendation on a particular matter, (5) might petition the council for leave to speak on a given matter to the assembly Voting usually was by show of hands and the decision of the assembly had absolute validity. These decisions were deposited in the Métrdon where state documents were preserved; peculiarly important decrees were inscribed also on a column (stélé) erected

on the Acropolis. The power cient. The real check on the the graphé paranomon. Any that he would proceed against

of the council was far from suffvagaries of amateur legislators was man was at liberty to give notice the mover of a given resolution. A

trial in a Heliastic court was then arranged, and the plaintiff had

to prove that the resolution in question contravened an existing law. If this contention was upheld by the court, the resolution was annulled and the defendant had to appear in a new trial for

assembly (ecclesia),a Gorgias, 452 £), and this is

sil

intended to represent him as a member of an assembly (Kaé&al) —not the Jewish congrega La quirers, suchasisreferred toinxii. 9-11, a sort of collegium, which he was the head; and as instructor of this body he gives his criticism of life. The author begins, indeed, by identifying his sage with King Solomon (i. 12, ii. 11, 120); but hesoon abandons this literary device, and speaks in his own name. The rendering “preacher” has a misleading connotation. of extracts from a sage’s notebook. It is, however, throughout (except in some later additions) by a definite thought, and pervaded by a definite tone of feeling. The keynote is given in the classic phrase with which the discussion opens and with which it closes: “Vanity of vanities (i.¢., — vanity), all is vanity!” Life, says the author, has nothing of permanent value

to offer. His attitude is not one of bitterness but of calm hopelessness, with an occasional tinge of disgust or contempt. He fancies that he has tried or observed everything in human ex-

the assessment of the penalty, which was usually a fine. Three

perience, and his deliberate conclusion is that nothing is worth

convictions under this law involved a certain loss of rights; the loser could no longer move a resolution in the Ecclesia. After the lapse of a year the mover of a resolution could not be attacked. In the 4th century the graphé paranomoén took the place of Ostracism. Revision of Laws.—In the 4th century the assembly annually took a general vote on the laws, to decide whether revision was necessary. If the decision was in favour of alteration, any private citizen might put up notice of amendments. The somotketa:, a panel selected by the prytaneis from the Heliaea, heard arguments for and against the changes proposed and voted accordingly; new laws so passed were liable to the graphé paranomon. Judicial Functions.—The Ecclesia heard cases of probolé and eisangelia (impeachment—see GreeK Law). The probolé was an action against sycophants and persons who had not kept their promises to the people or had disturbed a public festival. The verdict went by show of hands, but no legal consequences ensued; if the plaintiff demanded punishment he had to go to the Heliaea, which was not bound by the previous vote in the Ecclesia. Cases of eisengelia in which the penalty exceeded the legal competence of the council came before the Ecclesia in the form of a probouleuma. To prevent vexatious accusations, the accuser who failed to obtain one-fifth of the votes was fined 1,000 drachmas (£40). Summary.—The Ecclesia had absolute power save for the grapké paranomon, which constituted the dicasteries (jurymen)

doing. He believes in an all-powerful but indifferent God, and is himself an observer of society, standing aloof from its passions and ambitions, and interested only in pointing out their emptiness. This general view is set forth in a number of particular observations. 1. His fundamental proposition is that there is a fixed, unchangeable order in the world, a reign of inflexible law (i. 4-11, ili, I~I1, 14, 15, Vil. 13, Vili. 5-9); natural phenomena, such as sunrise and sunset, recur regularly; for everything in human experience a time has been set; all its phenomena are to be regarded not as utterances of a living, self-directing world, but as incidents in the work of a vast machine that rolls on for ever; there is an endless repetition—nothing is new, nothing is lost; God, the author of all, seeks out the past in order to make it once more present; it is impossible to add to or take from the contents of the world, impossible to change the nature of things; the result is unspeakable weariness—a depressing series of sights and sounds. No goal or purpose is discoverable in this eternal round. To what end was the world created? It is impossible to say. Such is Koheleth’s view of life, and it is obvious that such a conception of an aimless cosmos is thoroughly non-Jewish, if we may judge Jewish thought by the great body of the extant literature. 2. Further, says Koheleth, man is impelled to study the world, but under the condition that he shall never comprehend it (iii. II, Vii. 23, 24, viii. 16, 17). God has made the world an object of man’s thought, yet so that man can never find out the work that God has done (iii. 11). The reference seems to be not so much to the variety and complexity of phenomena as to the impossibility of construing them rationally or in such a way that man may foresee and provide for his future. Man is in the clutches of fate (ix. rz, 12); there is no observable relation between exertion and result in life; the race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong. 3. Human life, Koheleth declares, is unsatisfying. He inquired, he says, into everything that is done by men under the sun (i. 12-16); God has inflicted on men a restless desire for movement and work, yet life is but a catalogue of fruitless struggles. He gives anumber of illustrations. In his character of king he tried allthe bodily pleasures of life (ii. r-11); all these he set himself to enjoy in a rational way, but, when all was done, he cle ti it only to seethat it was weary and unprofitable. Dropping the

in one sense the sovereign power in the state. It dealt with all matters, home and foreign. It was in practice by no means a

representative assembly. The phrase used to describe a special assembly (kataklétos ekklésia) shows that ordinarily the country members did not attend. Thucydides says that 5,000 was the maximum attendance, though he is referring to the time when the number of citizens was reduced owing to the plague and the Sicilian expedition. The Ecclesia did not exercise the power of law-making (somothesia) in the strict sense but passed psephismata, which would in many cases be regarded as law in the modern sense. The Ecclesia also was concerned with the supervision of administration. — — on — AREOPAGUS; GREEK LAw, OSTRACISM.

. W. Headlam, Election by Lot at Athens (Cameee reon . Sandys’ edition of the Constitution of a —— i “Greek Constitutional Antiquities (trans. 1895); Graciesrt ndbook of Greek Constitutional History (x 30): , Whibley, , Companion to Greek Studies (1923), with useful bib og- réle of Solomon and speaking as an observer of life, the author

raphy.

declares (iv. 4) that the struggle forsuccess isthe result ef

ECCLESIASTES, one of the Wisdom Books of the Old rivalry among men, which has no worthy outcome. The securing

Testament (see Wispom LrrerATuRE). The book, as it stands, of riches is a fallacious achievement—naked man comes into is a collection of discourses, observations and aphorisms. The the world, naked he goes out.

1 f pi— JE i g3

S

$

887

;

h fools an a g E | ). The w constitution of society, in fact, to the sage a lamentable thing; the poor are oppressed, is full of their cries, and there is no helper (iv. 1);

strange social upheavals may be seen; the poor setin high places,

the rich cast down, slaves on horseback, princes on foot (x. 5-7). He permits himself a sweeping generalization (vii. 25-28) ; human beings as a rule are bad; one may occasionally find a good man, = never a good woman—woman is a snare and a curse. 4. The natural outcome of these experiences of the author is that he cannot recognize a moral government of the world. He finds, like Job, that there are good men who die prematurely notwithstanding their goodness, and bad men who live long not-

withstanding their badness (vii. 15); and in general there is no

may be so; but it would be strange if a writer who could say “in much wisdom is much grief” should deliberately laud wisdom. It may be added that there are in the book a number of aphorisms about fools (v. 3 [4], vii. 5, 6, x. 1-3, 19-15) quite in the style of the book of Proverbs, some of them contrasting the wise man and the fool; these appear to be the insertions of an editor. Further, it may be concluded with reasonable certainty that the passages that affirm a moral government of the world are additions by pious editors who wished to bring the book into harmony with the orthodox thought of the time. Many practical admonitions and homely aphorisms are scattered through the book: iv. 5, quiet is a blessing; iv. 9~12, two are better than one; iv. 17 (Eng. v. 1), be reverent in visiting the house of God (the temple and the connected buildings )—to listen (to the service of song or the reading of Scripture) is better than to offer a foolish (thoughtless) sacrifice; v. 1 (2), be sparing of words in addressing God; v. 1-5 (2-6), pay your vows—do not say to the priest’s messenger that you made a mistake; vii. 2-4, sorrow is better than mirth; vii. 16-18, be not over-righteous

(over-attentive to details of ritual and convention) or overmoral discrimination in the fortunes of men (viii. 14, ix. 2). 5. There is no sacredness or dignity in man or in human life; wicked (flagrantly neglectful of established beliefs and customs); man has no pre-eminence over beasts, seeing that he and they here “righteous” and “wicked” appear to be technical terms deshave the same final fate, die and pass into the dust, and no one ignating two parties in the Jewish world of the 2nd and rist cenknows what becomes of the spirit, whether in man’s case it goes turies B.c., the observers and the non-observers of the Jewish up to heaven, and in the case of beasts goes down into Sheol— ritual law; these parties represent in a general way the Pharisees death is practically the end-all; and so poor a thing is life that and the Sadducees; viii. 2-4, x. 20, it is well to obey kings and the dead are to be considered more fortunate than the living, and to be cautious in speaking about them, for there are talebearers more to be envied than either class is he who never came into everywhere; vii. 20, no man is free from sin; vii. 21, do not existence (iv. 2, 3). It is a special grievance that the wicked when listen to all that you may overhear, lest you hear yourself ill they die are buried with pomp and ceremony, while men who spoken of; ix. 4, a living dog is better than a dead lion; xi. 1-6, show prudence, and decision in business; do not sell all your have acted well are forgotten in the city (viii. ro). 6. That the author does not believe in a happy or active future goods on one venture; act promptly and hope for the best. Composition of the Book.—If the analysis given above is life appears in the passage (iv. 2, 3) quoted above. The old Hebrew view of the future excluded from Sheol the common correct, the book is not a unit; it contains passages mutually activities of life and also the worship of the national god (Isa. contradictory and not harmonizable. Various attempts have been xxxviii. 18); he goes even beyond this in his conception of the made to establish its unity. Other of the biblical Wisdom books blankness of existence in the underworld. The living, he says, (Job, Proverbs) are compilations—why not this? It is not necesat least know that they shall die, but the dead know nothing— sary to multiply authors, as is done, for example, by Siegfried, who supposes four principal writers (a pessimistic philosopher, the memory of them, their love, hate, envy, perishes, they have an Epicurean glossator, a sage who upholds the value of wisdom, no reward, no part in earthly life (ix. 5, 6); there is absolutely no and an orthodox editor) besides a number of annotators. Nor is knowledge and no work in Sheol (ix. 10). His conclusion is that it worth while to attempt a logical or symmetrical arrangement of men should do now with all their might what they have to do; the material. the future of man’s vital part, the spirit, is wholly uncertain. A simple and adequate view of the growth of the book has 7. His conception of God is in accord with these views. God been formulated by A. H. McNeile and followed by Barton. Its for him is the creator and ruler of the world, but hardly more; essence may be briefly stated. The original Koheleth, as has

he is the master of a vast machine that grinds out human destinies

without sympathy with man and without visible regard for what man deems justice—a being to be acknowledged as lord, not one to be loved. There can thus be no social contact between man and God, no communion of soul, no enthusiasm of service. Moral conduct is to be regulated not by divine law (of this nothing is said) but by human experience. The author’s theism is cold, spiritless, without influence on life. If now the question be asked what purpose or aim a man can have, seeing that there is nothing of permanent value in human work, an answer is given which recurs, like a refrain, from the beginning to the end of the book, and appears to be from the hand of the original author; after every description of the vanity of things comes the injunction to enjoy such pleasures as may fall to one’s lot (ii. 24, 25, iii. 12, 13, 22, V. 18, 19, viii. 15, ix. g~10, xi. 7, xii. 7). The opportunity and the power to enjoy are represented as being the gift of God; but this statement is not out of accord with the author’s general position, which is dis-

tinctly theistic. There are many sayings in the book that appear to be at variance with its fundamental thought. For example, wisdom is praised in a number of passages (iv. 13, vil. §, 12, 12, 19, Vili. 1,ix. 16, 17, X. 2, 3), though it is elsewhere denounced as worthless.

been indicated, was a very heretical work, nevertheless it was so brilliant and so in keeping with the mind of the Greek period

that it obtained a firm hold upon the intelligence of the age. Orthodoxy, however, could not allow it to continue unchallenged or unopposed. Two sets of additions, therefore, were attached to it. One of them consists of a series of conventional aphorisms of the sages inserted to give the work a more Hebraic tone and colouring. Examples of this sort are seen in iv. 55, 6, vii. 1-14. The second series is more positively and directly orthodox. It is in flat contradiction to the cold lifeless scepticism of Koheleth. It sets forth the traditional, positive and constructive view of life. It may be seen in such passages, for example, as iii. 17; iv. 17; xi. od, xii. 12, 13. Had it not been for the mollifying effect of such additions, it is hardly conceivable that Koheleth would

ever have entered the Canon, or held its place there long if it had found entry. Boke Date.—As to the date of tiie book, there is a gradual approach

to a consensus of opinion. The Solomonic authorship has long since been given up; the historical atmosphere—the silent assumption of

set ing

of the work and its

‘%jonotheism and monog-

amy, the non-national tone, the attitaye towards kings and

people, the picture of a complicated social life, thge-strain of

philosophic reflection—are wholly at variance with whatis known ‘It-may be said that the author, while denying that wisdom (prac- of the roth century B.c. and with the Hebrew-jiterature down to tical and level headedness) can give permanent satisfaction, yet admits itspractical value in the conduct of life. This

the sth or 4th century B.c. The introduction of Solomon, the ideal of wisdom, is a literary device of the later time and probably

888

ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONERS

i deceived nobody. The decisive considerations for the determina- made it popular, while its scepticism excited the. ' tion of the date are the language, the historical background and of pious conservatives. Possibly the Wisdom of Solomon (c. 50 the thought. The language belongs to the post-classical period of Hebrew. More than this, there are many resemblances be-

B.C.) was written partly as a reply to it. The claim of sacredness

made for it was warmly contested by some Jewish scholars. In tween the dialect of Koheleth and that of the Mishna. Not only spite of the relief afforded by orthodox additions, it was urged are new words employed, and old words in new significations, that its Epicurean sentiments contradicted the Torah and fa-but the grammatical structure has a modern stamp—some phrases voured heresy. Finally, by some process of reasoning not fully have the appearance of having been translated out of Aramaic recorded, the difficulties were set aside and the book was received into Hebrew. It is improbable that such Hebrew as that of into the sacred canon; but not until the synod of Jabneh in ap. Koheleth would have been written earlier than the 2nd century go was its right to remain in the canon officially and finally alB.C. (for details see Driver's Introduction). The general his- lowed. Jerome (on Eccl. xii. 13, 14) declares that the decisive torical situation, also, presupposed or referred to, is that of the fact was the orthodox statement at the end of the book; the one period from the year 200 B.C. to the beginning of our era; in important thing is to fear God and keep His commandments. It particular the familiar references to kings as a part of the social is not certain that it is quoted in the New Testament, but it apsystem, and to social dislocations (servants and princes changing pears to be included in Josephus’ list of sacred books. places, x. 7), suggest the troublous times of the later Greek and Maccabean rulers, of which the history of Josephus gives a good picture.

The conception of the world and of human life as controlled by natural law, a naturalistic cosmos, is alien not only to the prophetic and liturgical Hebrew literature but also to Hebrew thought in general. Whether borrowed or not, it must be late; and its resemblance to Greek ideas suggests Greek influence. The general air of Greek reflection seems unmistakable. The scepticism of Koheleth differs from that of Job in quality and scope; it is deliberate and calm, not wrung out by personal suffering; and it relates to the whole course and constitution of nature, not merely to the injustice of fortune. Such a conception has a Greek tinge, and would be found in Jewish circles, probably, not before the 2nd century B.c. A precise indication of date has been sought in certain supposed

references or allusions to historical facts. The mention of persons who do not sacrifice or take oaths (ix. 2) is held by some to point to the Essenes; if this be so, it is not chronologically precise, since we have not the means of determining the beginning of the movement of thought that issued in Essenism. So also the coincidences of thought with Ben-Sira (Ecclesiasticus) are not decisive: cf. iii. 14 with B.S. xviii. 6; 2-6 (3-7) with B.S. xxxiv. 1-7, vii. 19 with B.S. xxxvii. 14; x. 8 with B.S. xxvii. 26a; xi. 10 with B.S. xxx. 21; xii. 10, 11 with B.S. xxxix. 2 ff., xii. 13 with B.S. xliii. 27; if there be borrowing in these passages it is not clear on which side it lies, and it is not certain that there is borrowing— the thoughts may have been taken independently by the two authors from the same source. In any case since Ben-Sira belongs

to about 180 B.c., the date of Koheleth, so far as these coinci-

dences indicate it, would not be far from 200 B.c. The contrast made in x. 16 f. between a king who is a boy and one who is of

noble birth may allude to historical persons. Such identifications as have been proposed, however, do not fix the date of the book precisely; the author may have referred to events that happened before his time. The reign of Herod, a period of despotism and terror, and of strife between Jewish religious parties, is preferred by some scholars (Graetz, Cheyne and others) as best answering to the social situation depicted in the book, while still others (as Renan) decide for the reign of Alexander Jannaeus (104-78

BrnLiocraPHy.—Besides the general books on the Old Testament

and the Biblical Encyclopaedias, see in particular A. Lods, L’écclésiaste et la philosophie grecque (1891); A. H. McNeile, Introduction to — (1904); G. A. Barton in the — Crit. Comm. (1908). M. Jastrow, A Gentle Cynic (1919); H. Ranston, Ecclesiastes and the Early Greek Wisdom Literature (1925). (C.H.T.; J.M.P.S.)

ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONERS, in England, a body corporate, whose full title is “Ecclesiastical and Church Estates Commissioners for England,” invested with very important powers, under the operation of which extensive changes have been made in the distribution of the revenues of the Established Church. Their appointment was one of the results of the vigorous movements for the reform of public institutions which followed the Reform Act of 1832. In 1835 two commissions were appointed “to consider the state of the several dioceses of England and Wales, with reference to the amount of their revenues and the

more equal distribution of episcopal duties, and the prevention of the necessity of attaching by commendam to bishoprics certain benefices with cure of souls; and to consider also the state of the several cathedral and collegiate churches in England and Wales, with a view to the suggestion of such measures as might render them conducive to the efficiency of the established church, and to provide for the best mode of providing for the cure of souls, with special reference to the residence of the clergy on their respective benefices.” And it was enacted by an Act of 1835 that during the existence of the commission the profits of dignities and benefices without cure of souls becoming vacant should be paid over to the treasurer of Queen Anne’s Bounty. In consequence of the recommendation of these commissioners, a permanent commission was appointed by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1836 for the purpose of preparing and laying before the king in council such schemes as should appear to them to be best adapted for carrying into effect the alterations recited in the act. The new commission was constituted a corporation with power to purchase and hold lands for the purposes of the act, notwithstanding the statutes of mortmain. The first members of the commission were the two archbishops and three bishops, the lord chan-

cellor and the principal officers of state, and three laymen named in the act. The constitution of the commission was amended by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Acts, 1840-41, and 1868. The commis-

p.c.). The data are not numerous and distinct enough to settle sion consists of the two archbishops, all the bishops, the deans of the question beyond determining general limits; for reasons given Canterbury, St. Paul’s and Westminster, the lord chancellor, the above the book can hardly have been composed before 200 B.c., lord president of the council, the first lord of the treasury, the and if, as is probable, a Septuagint text shows the influence of chancellor of the exchequer, one of the principal secretaries of Aquila, it is to be put earlier than 50 B.c. Probably also, its State, the lord chief justice, the master of the rolls, and certain different parts are of different dates. lay members of the Church of England appointed by the crown Of the author nothing is known beyond the obvious fact that and by the archbishop of Canterbury. The crown also appoints . he was a man of wide observation and philosophic thought, of two laymen as church estates commissioners, and the archbishop of the Sadducean type in religion, but non-Jewish in his attitude Canterbury one. These three are the joint treasurers of the comtoward life. He was, doubtless, a man of high standing, but mission and form, with two members appointed by the commission, neither a king nor a high priest, certainly not the apostate priest the church estates committee. Alcimus (1 Macc. vil. ix.); nor was he necessarily a physician— The commission presents an annual report to parliament in there are no details in ch. xii. or elsewhere that any man of good which full inforngation is given as to its activities. Its main funcintelligence might not know. The book is a mixture of prose and tion at the present time is the management of the estates of the poetry, in about equal proportions. church in order to augment or endow benefices, etc. The following The fortunes of the book are not known in detail, but it is is a summary of the receipts and expenditure for the years 1924, clear that its mercjless criticism of life and its literary charm 1925 and 1926:—

ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION | decrees of Nicaea I. were at once enforced in this manner.

Recei pis

1924

Forward Estates.

; a

Dividends and interest

£

2925

£

1926

£

262,000

300,000

320,000

1,609,000

1,625,000

1,§02,000

2,886,000

3,012,000

2,942,000

1,015,000 =—-: 11,087,000

1,120,000

Expenditure

Benefices,

Archbishops,

1924

1925

1926

£

£

£

889 On the

other hand, the Arian reaction at court worked its objects by using the criminal spiritual jurisdiction of synods against the Catholics— . often packing the synods for the purpose. The acts of councils of this age are full of the trials of bishops not only for heresy but for immorality and common law crimes. The accusations are frequently unfounded; but the trials are already conducted in a certain regular forensic form. The secular authorities follow the precedent of Nicaea I. and intervene to supplement the spiritual sentence by administrative penalties. Sometimes an imperial officer of high rank is present at the synod, as an assessor to main-

tain order and advise upon points of procedure. The trial of Athanasius shows a further stage in the devclopment of ecclesiastical jurisdiction. Its significance is seen in the . Augmentations, etc. 625,000 642,000 605,000 ‘| council of Sardica (347), a council of practically the whole West Depreciation fund . 80,000 80,000 80,000 save Africa, which acquitted Athanasius after a full judicial inBalance forward 300,000 320,000 270,000 quiry. This council endeavoured to set up a system of appeals in the case of bishops, in which the see of Rome was made to play 2,886,000 3,012,000 2,942,000 a great part. “Out of honour to the memory of St. Peter,” a conECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION. The jurisdiction demned bishop may ask the intervention of Rome. If the bishop exercised by ecclesiastics, in taking cognizance of and deciding of Rome thinks the cause should be heard again, he is to appoint causes, over other ecclesiastics and over the laity. Before its judges; if otherwise, the original judgment is to be confirmed. union with the State, the power of the Church in this direction, Pending appeal, the appellant’s see is not to be filled up. as in others, was only spiritual. Coercive authority over their The tendency to give pre-eminence to Rome appears again in bodies or estates could only be given by concession from the an imperial letter to St. Flavian, who, in the judgment of the East, secular power. was bishop of Antioch, but who was rejected by the West and The fundamental principle of ecclesiastical jurisdiction with its Egypt, summoning him to Rome to be there judged by the “sanction” of excommunication will be found in the words at- bishops of the imperial city—a summons which St. Flavian did tributed to Christ in Matt. xviii. 15-18. These injunctions indicate not obey. the customs of the Christian Churches at an early stage in their The story of the administrative development of the Church in history. After the time of the Apostles, we find this criminal juris- the sth century is mainly the story of the final emergence and diction exercised by bishops individually over their respective constitution of the great “patriarchates,” as authorities superior “subjects’—-doubtless with the advice of their presbyters accord- to metropolitans and provincial synods. In consequence of the ing to the precept of St. Ignatius (c. 110). As neighbouring dio- occupants of the thrones of Constantinople and Alexandria fallceses coalesced into “provinces” and provinces into larger districts ing successively into opposite heresies, the question arose how (corresponding to the civil “dioceses” of the later Roman Em- “patriarchs” were to be judged. In both cases, as it seems, an pire), the provincial synods of bishops and the synods of the attempt was made by the bishop of Rome to depose the erring larger districts acquired a criminal jurisdiction, still purely spir- patriarch by his authority as primate of Christendom, acting in itual, of their own. The theory, as expressed in legal phrase by concert with a Western synod. In both cases, apparently, an Cyprian in the 3rd century, was that the apostolic power of dele- oecumenical synod ignored the Roman deposition and judged the gated sovereignty from the Lord, alike legislative and judicial, was alleged offences of the respective patriarchs in first and last inheld in joint-tenancy by the whole body of Catholic bishops. stance. The third and fourth oecumenical synods (Ephesus, 431; Even before the edict of Milan, at least as early as the latter Chalcedon, 451). were primarily tribunals for the trials of Neshalf of the 3rd century, the spiritual sentences of deposition from torius and Dioscorus; it was secondarily that they became organs office had sometimes indirect temporal consequences recognized of the universal episcopate for the definition of the faith, or by the secular courts. The classical example is the case of Paul legislative assemblies for the enactment of canons. Nothing is of Samosata, bishop of Antioch. It would seem that, in the more remarkable than their minute care as to observance of rules intervals of persecution, some rights of property were recognized of procedure. In both cases, imperial assessors were appointed. in the Christian Church and its officers; although the Church was At Chalcedon, on the other hand, the imperial commissioners an illegal society. After some previous abortive trials, Paul of decided points of order, kept the synod to the question, took the Samosata was deposed and excommunicated, in 269, by a great votes and adjourned the court. The fifth oecumenical council synod of the Antiochene district. Paul, notwithstanding his depo- came near to sitting in judgment over the pope. Vigilius, although sition, kept possession of the episcopal residence. The local church in Constantinople, refused to attend the sittings of the council. sought recovery of it before the tribunals of the Empire. The He was cited three times, in the canonical manner, and upon not judicial authorities requested a rescript from the emperor Aurelian appearing was threatened in the third session with anathema for the decision of the cause. Aurelian referred the matter to the (Hefele, Councils §§ 268 ff.). After the council, Justinian banished bishop of Rome and the bishops of Italy, who gave their award in the pope, until he accepted the council, which he ultimately did. The constitution of the patriarchal system resulted in the favour of the Antiochene Church. Roman Empire from Constantine.—With the “Nicene recognition of a certain right of appeal to Rome ftom the larger period” came a great development on the criminal side. A sys- part of the West. Britain remained outside that jurisdiction, the tem begins to be formed, and the secular arm supports the decrees Celtic churches of the British islands, after those islands were of the Church. The first trace of system is in the limited right abandoned by the Empire, pursuing a course of their own. In of appeal given by the first oecumenical council of Nicaea and the East, Constantinople, from its principality, acquired special its provision that episcopal sentences or those of provincial synods administrative pre-eminence, naturally followed, as in the case on appeal were to be recognized throughout the world. Still of Rome, by judicial pre-eminence. An example of this is found examination must be had whether persons have been expelled from in the ninth canon of Chalcedon, which ale illustrates the enforcethe congregation by any episcopal small-mindedness (uuxpoyvyxia), ment upon a clerical plaintiff in dispute with a brother cleric of or contentious spirit, or such-like harshness (dn6la), That this recourse to the arbitration of their ecclesiastical superior. The may be conveniently inquired into, synods are to be held every canon provides that any clerk having a complaint against another year, in each province, and. questions of this kind examined. And clerk must not pass by his own bishop and turn to secular as regards the secular arm, the practice arose of superadding ban- tribunals, but first lay bare his cause before him, so that by the ishment by the emperor to synodical condemnation. The dogmatic sentence of the bishop himself the dispute may be settled by Bishops, Administration, etc. ; . Appropriation for future

, 1,881,000

1,970,000

1,987,000

arbitrators acceptable to both parties. In the next century ja tinian put the other patriarchates on the same footing as Con-. stantinople. But the growth of a special “ori ginal” jurisdiction at Constantinople, which perhaps developed earlier than the corresponding institution at Rome, may be traced to the fact that

bishops from all parts were constantly in Constantinople.

The

The ecclesiastical and secular courts are kept dis

charter of William. the Conqueror pelle preai maa No bishop or archdeacon shall.any longer hold pleas in Hundred concerning episcopal lsw nor draw a cause which con cerns the rule of such to the judgment of men of the world’ (Stubbs, Select Charters, pert iii.). In France, where the bishop was a temporal baron, his feudal and his spiritual courts were kept by distinct officers. From the bishop, or his official, appeal lay to the metropolitan, who again could hear causes by his official. The Constitutions of Clarendon recognize this appeal (c. viii.). An appeal lay from the court of the metropolitan’ to

bishop of Constantinople, even before he became properly “patriarch,” would often assemble a synod from these visiting bishops, which acquired the technical name of civodos tvénuoton,, the synod of sojourners. This synod frequently decided questions belonging to other patriarchates. Theodosius I. began the system of giving secular authority to that of the primate. There were many disputes as to the existence Church tribunals. But it appears definitely in 425, when a con- of these primates (see Maitland, Canon Law in the Church of stitution of Theodosius II. provides that a recent decree of the England, p. 121). In England the dispute between Canterbury usurper John should be disregarded and that clerks whom he had and York was settled by making them both primates, giving brought before secular judges should be reserved for the episcopal Canterbury the further honour of being primate of all England. jurisdictions, “since it is not lawful to subject the ministers of In France the primatial sees and the course of appeals to them the divine office to the arbitrament of temporal powers.” Jus- were well established. In England the Constitutions of Clarendon added a provision tinian has a clearer perception of the demarcation between the spheres of spiritual and temporal law. His system is based on for appeal to the king, “and if the archbishop shall have failed in the principle that if the offence be ecclesiastical, needing ecclesias- doing justice recourse is to be had in the last resort (postremo) tical correction, the bishop shall take cognizance of it; but if a to our lord the king, that by his writ the controversy may be cleric be accused of a secular crime he shall be fitst accused be- ended in the court of the archbishop: because there must be no fore his bishop, who may depose him from his office and order, further process without the assent of our lord the king.” The and then the competent judge may take him and deal with him last words were an attempt to limit further appeal to Rome. It will be observed that the king does not hear the cause or adjudiaccording to the laws. Certain enactments of later Saxon times in England have been cate upon it. He merely corrects slackness or lack of doing justice sometimes spoken of as though they united together the temporal (Si archiepiscopus defecerit in justitia exhibenda) and by his writ and spiritual jurisdictions into one mixed tribunal deriving its (precepto) directs the controversy to be determined in the metroauthority from the State. In the latter part of the roth century, politan’s court. As Bishop Stubbs says (Report of Eccl. Comm. laws of Edgar provided that the bishop should be at the county vol. i, Hist. App. i.) : “The appeal to the king is merely a provision court and also the alderman, and that there each of them should for a rehearing before the archbishop, such failure to do justice put in use both God’s laws and the world’s law (Johnson’s Eng- being not so much applicable to an unfair decision as to the delays lish Canons, i. 411). This probably was, as Johnson suggests, that or refusal to proceed common at that time” (cf. Joyce, The Sword the bishop might enforce secular laws by ecclesiastical censure and the Keys, 2nd ed., pp. 19-20). The recursus ad principem, in and the alderman ecclesiastical laws with secular punishment. some form or other of appeal or application to the sovereign But the two jurisdictions were kept separate; for by another law or his lay judges, was at the end of the middle ages well known of Edgar it was provided that “in the most august assembly the over western Europe. This recourse in England sometimes took bishop and alderman should be present, and the one should inter- the form of the appeal to the king given by the Constitutions of pret to the people the law of God, the other the laws of men.” In Ciarendon, just mentioned, and later by the acts of Henry VIII; the meantime, however, on the Continent, Charlemagne under sometimes that of suing for writs of proksbstion or mandamus, the mistaken belief that he was following the authority of Con- which were granted by the king’s judges, either to restrain excess stantine I. and Theodosius I., had taken the serious step of em- of jurisdiction, or to compel the spiritual judge to exercise jurispowering bishops to act as real judges; and causes could be taken diction in cases where it seemed to the temporal court that he was failing in his duty. The appellatio tanguam ab abusu (appel from lay cognizance and transferred to the bishop’s tribunal. The Mediaeval System.—With the later 9th century we enter comme d’abus) in France was an application of a like nature. Lastly there was the appeal to the patriarchs, ż.e. in the upon a new epoch, and by the time of Gregory VII., in the rrth century, the tribunals have fallen into the hands of a regular class West to Rome. The distinguishing feature of this appeal was of canonists who are in fact professional church-lawyers in orders that the rule of the other appeals did not apply to it. In the (see CANON Law). The changes due to the adoption of the False regular course of those appeals an appellant could not leap the Decretals by Nicholas I. and the application of their principles intermediate stages; but he could at any stage go to this final by Hildebrand (afterwards Gregory VII.) are discussed elsewhere appeal, omesso medéo, as it was technically called. Van Espen (see HILDEBRAND; INVESTITURE; and kindred articles). The says: “The whole right of appeal to the Roman pontif omisso its origin in this principle, that the Roman mediaeval system, thus inaugurated, may be considered (1) in its medio had — hierarchy, (2) in the subject matter of its jurisdiction, (3) in its pontiff is ordinary of ordinaries, or, in other words, has immediate episcopal authority in all particular churches, and this principle penalties. (1) It is a system of courts. Much that had been done by had its own beginning from the False Decretals.” There was an bishops is now done in the course of regular judicial procedure; alleged original jurisdiction of the pope, which he exercised somethe court takes the place of the synod, which ceases to have times by permane@it legates, whom Gregory VII. and his succesjudicial work. The court of the metropolitan takes the place of sors established fa the chief countries of Europs, and to whom the provincial synod, except possibly for the trial of bishops, and were committed the legislative, executive and judicial powers of the spiritual “prince” in the districts assigned to them. After even this becomes doubtful. At first the bishop was the only judge in the diocesan court legates came special delegates appointed by the pope to hear a and he always remains a judge. But just as tbe king appoints particular cause. It was the general practice to appoint two or judges to hear placita coram rege ipso, and the feudal lord ap- three to sit together (Van Espen, pars iii. tit. v. c. 2, 37). These points his seneschal or steward, so the bishop appoints his official, might sub-delegate the whole cause or any part of it as they the “vicar-general” or “chancellor” (see CHANCELLOR). It was pleased (ibdd. 9-18). These courts were convenient, since it was gradually established that as a king should not hear causes but the custom to appoint delegates resident in theneighbourhood, and of sub-delegation, general or limited, simplified ques- ` commit them to his judges, so a bishop should not hear causes the.power of distance. In Belgium causes appealed to Rome badte be but appoint an official to hear them. In France the “parlements” tions ——— delegates (Van:Espen, Tene tit. v. c. $ were constantly insisting on the independence and irremovability of the official. c 2).

- ECCLESIASTICAL

JURISDICTION

801

p Therecould beanappealfrom thesedelegatesto thepope and Canon Law in the Churck of England (1898), in F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland’s History of English Law Before Edward I.

| (1898), and J. F. Stephen’s History of the Criminal Law of

England (1883). In regard to “clerks,” the great question at issue in England porie(Van Espen, pars iii.tit. iii. c. 5, 17-19); but in England was whether the ecclesiastical courts had exclusive jurisdiction the archbishop, either in synod, orwith some of hiscomprovincial in the case of criminous clerks, or the king’s court, or whether bishops concurring, tried and deposed bishops (see case of Bishop there was a concurrent jurisdiction. The Constitutions of ClarenPeacock and the other cases cited in Read v. Bishop of Lincoln, don, in which the general aim of Henry II. was to restore the 14 P.D. 148, and Phillimore, Eccl. Low, pp. 66 et seg.). The rights of the crown over the clergy, ordered that in all civil matrimonial cause between Henry VIII. and Catharine of Aragon matters, and in cases of dispute with laymen, the clergy shall be was the most famous English cause tried by delegates under the amenable to the royal courts (for text, see Mansi, Concilia, vol. “original” jurisdiction of the pope, and was ultimately “evoked” xxi. pp. 1187 sgg.; E. H. Landon, Manual of Councils, pp. 132 to Rome. The foreseen adverse termination of this long-drawn sgq.). The sympathies of the English church and nation were divided, for Becket was both violent and inconsistent in his cause led to Henry’s legislation. When the temporal courts interfered to prevent excess of juris- conduct of the case of the church against the Constitutions. But diction, they did so by prohibiting the ecclesiastical court from the king’s ungovernable temper broke out in a cry of rage that trying and the suitor from suing in that court. The pope could inspired four of his knights to steal away from his court and not be effectively prohibited, and no instance is recorded of a murder his enemy in Canterbury Cathedral; and the wave of prohibition to papal delegates. But suitors have been prohibited reaction caused by this appalling deed deprived the State of from appealing to the pope (see per Willes, J., in Mayor of many important rights only recovered at the Reformation. One London v. Cox, L.R. 2 H.L. 280). Whatever may have been of the worst evils of the later middle ages was the “Benefit the law, it is certain that, notwithstanding the statutes of Edw. of Clergy.” “Not only monks and parish priests, but professional IIT. and Rich. II., appeals to Rome and original trials by papal men, and an enormous crowd of menials and minor officers of delegates did go on, perhaps with the king’s licence; for the clerical establishments, and in later times anyone who could make statute 24 Hen. VIII. c. 12 recites that the hearing of appeals was some show of being able to read, were safe from the dread of any an usurpation by the pope and a grievous abuse, and proceeds serious penalty for such crimes as burglary, rape, and homicide, to take away the appeal in matrimonial, testamentary and tithe at any rate for the first offence. It was only too easy to obtain causes, and to hinder, by forbidding citation and process from minor orders, and the attraction to baser spirits of such privileges Rome, all original hearings also. The statute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 and protection was great” (G. M. Trevelyan, History of England, follows this up by taking away appeals in all other subjects of bk. ii. ch. ii.). The history of ecclesiastical jurisdiction on the continent of ecclesiastical jurisdiction. In 1438 the council of Basel took away all papal original Europe during the middle ages is inseparable from the history jurisdiction (save in certain reserved cases), evocation of causes of the Roman Catholic Church, of which indeed it is an essential to Rome, appeals to Rome omisso medio, and appeals to Rome part. The larger questions at issue are indicated in the articles altogether in many causes. Such appeals when permissible, except dealing with that subject: and the details may be studied in the “greater,” were to be tried by delegates on the spot (31st P. Fournier, Les oficialités au moyen âge (1880), M. Gaudry, Session; Mansi, Concilia, in loco). These proceedings at Basel Trasté de la législation des cultes (1856), J. P. Migne, Dictionwere regarded at Rome as of no effect. Nevertheless this decree naire de droit canonique (1844), and Tillemont, Mémoires pour and others were adopted by a French national council at Bourges servir à l'histoire ecclésiastique (1701~-12).° (3.) The penalties inflicted by ecclesiastical courts were techand promulgated by the king as a “Pragmatic Sanction” (q.v.). The parlements registered the Sanction and the effect was per- nically divided into punishments (poenae) and censures (cenmanent in France. Louis XI. and Charles VIII. sought to revoke surae), purely spiritual and remedial (see Van Espen, pars iii., it; but both parlements and states-general refused to recognize tit. xl. c. 1, 3; Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law, p. 1064). The the revoking decrees. In 1499 Louis XII. ordered the Pragmatic poenae were of various kinds. Apart from the case of heresy and to be inviolably observed. The parlements thereupon condemned kindred offences, the most extreme punishments were imprisonseveral private persons for obtaining bulls from Rome. In 1516 ment for life, in the bishop’s prison, or, on the other hand, a Concordat between Leo X. and Francis I. settled all these deposition or degradation from the ministry. In the cases of questions in the sense of the Pragmatic, substantially according heresy, apostasy and sorcery, the ecclesiastical courts sought to the Basel canon. By this Concordat, by an ordinance of the aid of the secular jurisdiction to superadd the punishment Francis I. in 1539, by two or three other royal edicts, and (above of death. Incorrigible offenders on these matters were “left” to all) by the practice of the parlements, explanatory of this legisla- the secular power. This provision of the fourth Lateran Council tion, and their arréts, the conflict of secular and ecclesiastical in 1215 was always interpreted to mean death (see Van Espen, Observationes in concilium Lateranense IV.; and, as to Engjurisdictions was settled until the Revolution. (2.) The subject matter over which the ecclesiastical courts had lish law and practice, Maitland, op. cit., Essay vi., and pp. jurisdiction was no longer purely “criminal” with a civil quasi- 161, 176). The “capital” punishment was generally (always in jurisdiction by way of arbitration. In the later middle ages these England) by burning. Burning was an English punishment for courts had jurisdiction over most questions, except indeed the some secular offences. The Concordat with Francis I. by which the pope gave up the then most important ones, those relating to real property. This civil jurisdiction was sometimes concurrent with that of the right of hearing appeals from France was not many years before secular courts, sometimes exclusive. In England, for example, in the legislation of Henry VIII. in England. Both monarchs proreference to marriage, it included the right to decide in questions ceeded on the same lines; but Francis I. got the pope’s consent: of the legitimacy of offspring; in reference to inheritance, the Henry VIII. acted in invitum, and in time went further. Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction in England.—The Statute of right to examine the administration of bequests of personal property and to intervene in cases of intestacy; the right of in- Appeals (24 Hen. VIII. c. 12) took away appeals to Rome in of tervention to enforce contractual promises made by oath or pledge causes testamentary and matrimonial. ‘and in regard to right of faith; as well as in many questions where the church as an tithes and oblations. A final appeal is given to the organization was directly concerned, as in the tenure of church of the particular province; but in causes touching the king a five i given to the Upper House of Convocation of the provlands,and questions of fitness or unfitness in thecaseof presen- appeal is ince. The “Act of Submission of the Clergy” (25 Hen. VIII. c. 19) took away all appeals to Rome and gave a further appeal, palia lie ofthe country,may be studied in F, W. Maitland’s “for lack of justice,” from the several courts of the archbishops necessarily conciliar. Generally they

892

ECCLESIASTICAL LAW

to the king in chancery. Thence a commission was to issue to ‘and stands to this day. It is a Presbyterian system, and the persons named therein to determine the appeal definitely. Henry Scottish Episcopal Church is a disestablished and voluntary body

VIII. exercised his. jurisdiction as Supreme Head through a vicargeneral. Edward VI. exercised original jurisdiction in spiritual causes by delegated commissions (see Archdeacon Hale, Precedents in Criminal Cases, p. xiviii.). Unless the king was to be regarded as an ecclesiastical person, they were not properly ecclesiastical courts; although spiritual persons might sit in them, for they sat only as royal commissioners. The same point has been taken by large bodies of clergy and laity in regard to the court of final appeal created by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 and its present successor, the judicial committee of Privy Council. At any rate the “original” jurisdiction claimed for the monarch personally and „his delegates, under Henry VIII. and Edward VI., has not permanently remained. In theory, Hooker’s contentions have been conceded that “kings cannot in their own proper persons decide questions about matters of faith and Christian religion” and that ‘‘they have not ordinary spiritual power” (Ecc. Pol. vii. 8, 1, 6; cf. xxxix. Articles, Art. 37). In the case of an “established” church, and in particular, of the Church of England as by law established, Hooker’s theory meets with important qualifications (see article ECCLESIASTICAL Law). The legal position of the clergy of the Church of England has been affected by a series of enactments of which the most important are the following: the “Church Discipline Act” (3 and 4 Vict. c. 86) creating the “consistory court”; the “Public Worship Regulation Act” (37 and 38 Vict. c. 85); and the “Clergy Discipline Act” (55 and 56 Vict. c. 32). The last remains of the old powers of ecclesiastical jurisdiction in reference to secular causes, have been removed during the 1oth century. (1) All matrimonial, testamentary and ab intestate jurisdiction has been tuken away by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 77 (testamentary, etc., England), c. 79 (testamentary, etc., Ireland), c. 85 (matrimonial, England); 33 & 34 Vict. c. 110 (matrimonial, Ireland). Matrimonial jurisdiction was taken from the bishop of Sodor and Man in 1884. (2) Since 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 71, tithe has become, except in a few rare cases, tithe rent charge, and its recovery has been entirely an operation of secular law. Most kinds of offerings are now recoverable in secular courts. (3) Administration of pious gifts has passed to the court of chancery. (4) The enforcement of contractual promises has long been abandoned by the courts Christian themselves. (5) Church rates can no longer be enforced by suit (31 & 32 Vict. c. 109). (6) Defamation was taken away in England by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 41, and in Ireland by 23 & 24 Vict. c. 32. (7) Laymen can no longer be tried in the spiritual courts for offences against clerks. (8) The jurisdiction for “brawling” in church, etc., is taken away by 23 & 24 Vict. c. 32 In the case of the laity (see A. J. Stephens, Ecclesiastical Statutes, i, 336). On the other hand the “Church of England Assembly

since 1690 (see PRESBYTERIANISM;. SCOTLAND, Cavxca OF; SCOTTISH EPISCOPAL CHURCH). Protestant Continental European States—With the Reformation in the 16th century, Church courts properly speaking disappeared from the non-episcopal religious communities which were established in Holland, in the Protestant states of Switzerland and of Germany, and in the then non-episcopal countries of Denmark and Norway. Discipline over ministers and other office-bearers was exercised by administrative methods in the form of trials before consistories or synods. To this extent ecclesiastical jurisdiction is still exercised in these countries. Consistories and synods have exercised discipline of a penitential kind over their lay members; but in later times their censures have generally ceased to carry temporal consequences. Ecclesiastical jurisdiction on the civil side for the trial of causes soon disappeared. The matter is now determined for all countries which have adopted codes, whether after the pattern of the Code Napoléon or otherwise. These countries have created a hierarchy of temporal courts competent to deal with every matter of which law takes

cognizance, and a penal code which embraces and deals with all crimes or delicts which the state recognizes as offences. Hence, even in countries where the Roman Church is established, such as Belgium and Italy, the most of the Latin republics of America, and the province of Quebec, and a fortiori where this Church is not established, there is now no discipline over the laity, except

penitential, and no jurisdiction exercised in civil suits, except possibly the matrimonial questions of princes (of which there was an example in the case of the late prince of Monaco). In Spain causes of nullity and divorce a thoro, in Portugal causes of nullity between Catholics are still for the court Christian (non-secular).

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The subject of ecclesiastical jurisdiction in modern times inevitably links itself onto the ecclesiastical and civil history of the countries concerned. On the general subject, see ECCLESIASTICAL Law; and, for further references, articles “Law, Christian” in Hastings’ Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. vii.: “Roman Catholic” and “Eastern” by Adrian Fortescue, and “Anglican” by A. J. Maclean. For the history of tbe principal codes see CANON Law. On the development of ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the Church of Rome see Roman CatTHoLic CHurcH, and (from other points of view) Trent, Council. oF; Vatican CoUNCIL; and ULTRAMONTANISM. With reference to the Eastern church, see ORTHODOX EASTERN Crurca; also Landon, Manual of Councils (1893), s.v. “Constantinople” and “Rome”; Mouravieff, History of the Russian Church, Eng. tr. 1842; Hackett, Orthodox Church in Cyprus (1901); Milasch, Das Kirchenrecht der morgenlandiscken Kirche (1905). With reference to the Anglican Church, see Blunt, Phillimore and Jones, Book of Church Law, 1899; W. E. Collins, Nature and Force of the Canon Law (Church Historical Society, no. xxxiv., 1898) ;; and the classical statement of Hooker, Ecclesiastical Polity, bk. viii. With reference to the middle ages, see the pam of the Cambridge Mediaeval History and the classical (Powers) Act, 1919,” defined the powers of the Church in refer- relative works of van Espen (Louvain, 1720): Jus ecclesiasticum universum; ence to internal affairs and facilitated Parliamentary sanction Observationes in Concilium Lateranense iv.; De recursu ad Principem. where this is required (see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF). See also other works mentioned in the course of the foregoing —

The position of a disestablished or an unestablished Church is comparatively modern, and has given rise to new jural conceptions. These Churches are collegia licita and come within the liberty of association so freely conceded in modern times. The relations of their bishops, priests or other ministers and lay officebearers inter se and to their lay folk depend upon contract; and these contracts will be enforced by the ordinary courts of law. A consensual ecclesiastical jurisdiction is thus created, which has to this extent temporal sanction. (See EcciesiasTicaL Law.) The case of Scotland presents special features. The Church had the same jurisdiction in Scotland and exercised it through similar courts to those which she had in England and France, till about 1570. As late as 1566 Archbishop Hamilton of Glasgow, upon his appointment, had restitution of his jurisdiction in the probate . of testaments and other matters (Keith, History of the Scottish - Bishops, Edinburgh, 1824, p. 38). There was an interval of uncertainty, with at any rate titular bishops, till 1592. Then parliament enacted a new system of Church courts which, though to some extent in its turn superseded by the revival of episcopacy under James VI., was revived:or ratified by the act of 1690, c. 7,

ECCLESIASTICAL LAW, in its broadest sense, the sum of the authoritative rules governing the Christian Church, whether in its internal polity or in its relations with the secular power. Since there are various churches, widely differing both in their

principles and practice, it follows that a like difference exists in their ecclesiastical Jaw, which is the outcome of their corporate consciousness as modified by their several relations to the secular authority. At the outset a distinction must be made between churches which are “established” and those that are “free.” The

ecclesiastical laws of the latter are, like the rules of a private society or club, the concern of the members of the church only, and come under the purview of the State only in so far as they

come in conflict with the secular law (e.g., polygamy among the Mormons, or violation of the trust-deeds under which the property of a church is held). In the case of “established” churches, on the other hand, whatever the principle on which the system is based, or the differencein its practical application, the essential conditions are that the ecclesiastical law is also the law of the land, the decisions of the church courts being enforced by the

EJE

”

»

T. à

8*

ECCI i

s

ESIASTICAL LAW

civil power. This holds good both of the Roman Catholic church, wherever this is recognized as the “State religion,” of the Oriental churches, whether closely identified with the State itself, or endowed with powers over particular nationalities within the State, and of the various Protestant churches established in Great Britain and on the Continent of Europe. Writers on the theory of ecclesiastical law, moreover, draw a fundamental distinction between that of the church of Rome and that of the Protestant national or territorial churches. This distinction is due to the claim of the Roman Catholic church to be the only church, her laws being thus of universal obligation;

whereas the laws of the various established Protestant churches

are valid—at least so far as legal obligation is concerned—only within the limits of the countries in which they are established. The practical effects of this distinction have been, and still are,

of enormous importance. The Roman Catholic church, even when recognized as the State religion, is nowhere “established” in the sense of being identified with the State, but is rather an imperium in imperio which negotiates on equal terms with the State, the results being embodied in concordats (q.v.) between the State and the pope as head of the church. The concordats are of the nature of truces in the perennial conflict between the spiritual and secular powers, and imply in principle no surrender of the claims of the one to those of the other. Protestant ecclesiastical law, then, is distinguished from that of

the Roman Catholic church (1) by being more limited in its scope, (2) by having for its authoritative source, not the church only or even mainly, but the church in more or less complete union with or subordination to the State, the latter being considered, equally with the church, as an organ of the will of God. The

ecclesigstical law of the church of Rome, on the other hand, what-

ever its origin, is now valid only in so far as it has the sanction of the authority of the Holy See. And it must be noted that the “canon law” in its old sense is not identical with the “ecclesiastical law” of the Roman Catholic church. By the canon law used to be

meant the contents of the Corpus iuris canonici, which have been largely superseded or added to by, e.g., the canons of the Council of Trent and the Vatican decrees. The long projected codification of the whole of the ecclesiastical law of the church of Rome, was completed in 1917 in the pontificate of Benedict XV. (See also CANON Law and ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION.) The ecclesiastical law of England is in complete dependence upon the authority of the State. The convocations of York and Canterbury are provincial assemblies possessing no legislative or judicial authority; even such purely ecclesiastical questions as may be formally commended to their attention by “letters of business” from the Crown can only be finally settled by act of parliament or, under the Church of England Assembly (Powers)

Act 1919, bya measure passed by the church assembly and then assented to by a separate resolution in each house of parliament and submitted for royal assent. The ecclesiastical courts are for the most part officered by laymen, whose subordination to the archbishops and bishops is purely formal, and the final court of appeal is the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. In like manner changes in the ecclesiastical law have been made directly by parliament in the ordinary course of legislation, and in point of fact a very large portion of the existing ecclesiastical law consists of acts of parliament. The first principle of the ecclesiastical law in England is the assertion of the supremacy of the Crown, which in the present state of the constitution means the same thing as the supremacy of parliament. This principle has been maintained ever since the Reformation. Before the Reformation the ecclesiastical supremacy of the pope was recognized, with certain limitations, in Eng-. land, and the church itself had some pretensions to ecclesiastical freedom.

The freedom

of the church is, in fact, one of the

standing provisions of those charters en which the English constitution was based. The first provision of Magna Carta is guod ecclesia Anglicana libera sit. By the various enactments of the

893

convocation was held to extend to the clergy only, and even to that extent required the sanction and assent of the Crown. The common law courts controlled the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts, claiming to have “the exposition of such statutes or acts of parliament as concern either the extent of the jurisdiction of these courts or the matters depending before them. And therefore if these courts either refuse to allow these acts of parliament, or expound them in any other sense than is truly and properly the exposition of them, the king’s great courts of common law may prohibit and control them.” The design of constructing a code of ecclesiastical laws was entertained during the period of the Reformation but never carried into effect. It is alluded to in various statutes of the reign of Henry VIII., who obtained power to appoint a commission to examine the old ecclesiastical laws, with a view of deciding which ought to be kept and which ought to be abolished, and in the meantime it was enacted that “such canons, institutions, ordinances, synodal or provincial, or other ecclesiastical laws or juris-

dictions spiritual as be yet accustomed and used here in the church of England, which necessarily and conveniently are requisite to be put in ure and execution for the time, not being repugnant, contrarient, or derogatory to the laws or statutes of the realm, nor to the prerogatives of the royal crown of the same, or any of them, shall be occupied, exercised, and put in ure for the time with this realm” (25 Henry VIII. c. 19, 35 c. 16). The work was actually undertaken and finished in the reign of Edward VI. by a subcommittee of eight persons, under the name of the Reformatio legum ecclesiasticarum, which, however, never obtained the royal assent. Although the powers of the 25 Henry VIII. c. 19, were revived by the 1 Elizabeth c. r, the scheme was never executed, and the ecclesiastical laws remained on the footing assigned to them in that statute—so much of the old ecclesiastical laws might be used as had been actually in use, and was not repugnant to the laws of the realm.

The statement is, indeed, made by Sir R. Phillimore (Ecclesiastical Law, 2nd ed., 1895) that the “Church of England has at all times, before and since the Reformation, claimed the right of an independent church in an independent kingdom, to be governed by the laws which she has deemed it expedient to adopt.” This position can only be accepted if it is confined, as the authorities cited for it are confined, to the resistance of interference from abroad. If it mean that the church, as distinguished from the kingdom, has claimed to be governed by laws of her own making,

all that can be said is that the claim has been singularly unsuccessful. From the time of the Reformation no change has been made in the law of the church which has not been made by the king and parliament, sometimes indirectly, as by confirming the resolutions of convocation, but for the most part by statute. The

list of statutes cited in Sir R. Phillimore’s Ecclesiastical Law fills rr pages. It is only by a kind of legal fiction that the church can be said to have deemed it éxpedient to adopt these laws. The terms on which the church establishment of Ireland was abolished, by the Irish Church Act of 1869, may be mentioned.

By s. 20 the present ecclesiastical law was made binding on the members for the time being of the church, “as if they had mutually contracted and agreed to abide by and observe the same”; and by s. 21 it was enacted that the ecclesiastical courts should cease after Jan. 1, 1871, and that the ecclesiastical laws of Ireland, . except so far as relates to matrimonial causes and matters, should cease to exist as law. (See also ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The number of works on ecclesiastical law is very great, and it must suffice here to mention a few of the more conspicu-

ous modern ones: Ferdinand Walter, Lehrbuch des Kirchenrechts aller christlichen Konfessionen (14th ed., Bonn, 1871); G. Phillips, Kirchenrecht, Bde. i—vii. (Regensburg, 1845-72) incomplete; the text-book

by Cardinal Hergenréther (q.v.); P. Hinschius, Kirchenrecht der

Katholiken und Protestanten in Deutschland, 6 Bde. (1869 sqq.), only the Catholic part, a masterly and detailed survey of the ecclesiastical law, finished; Sir Robert Phillimore, Eccl. Law of the Church of. Eng-..

land (2nd ed., ed. by Sir Walter Phillimore, 1895). For further refer... see CANON Law, and the article “Kirchenrecht” in Herzog-d1aut&..’ petiod of the Reformation the whole constitutional position of ences Realencyklopadie (ed. Leipzig, 1901); C. F. S. Zollman, Amër; the church, not merely with reference to the pope but with reference to the State, was definitely fixed. The legislative power of

“

Church Law (1917); P. Gillet, La personnalite ecclesiastique (Malines, 1927).

juridique en droit

ECCLESIASTICUS-ECGBERT i.

8o4 ECCLESIASTICUS

(abbreviated to Æcclus.), an alterna-

tive title of the apocryphal book otherwise called “The Wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach.” The Latin word ecclesiasticus means “churchly,” and might be used of any book which was read in church or received ecclesiastical sanction. The name of the book appears in the authorities in a variety of forms. The writer’s full name is given in 1, 27 (Heb. text) as “Simeon the son of Jeshua (.¢., Jesus) the son of Eleazar the son of Sira.” In the Greek text this name appears as “Jesus son of Sirach Eleazar of Jerusalem.” The name is shortened sometimes to Ben Sira in Hebrew, Bar Sira in Aramaic, and sometimes to Stach. The work is variously described as the Words (Heb. text), the Book (Talmud), the Proverbs (Jerome), or the Wisdom of the son of Sira (or Sirach). Of the date of the book we have no certain indication. It was translated by a person who says that he “came into Egypt in the 38th year of Euergetes the king” (Ptolemy VII.), ġe., in 132 B.c., and that he executed the work some time later. The translator believed that the writer of the original was his own grandfather (or ancestor, ramos). Arguments for a pre-Maccabean date may be derived (a) from the fact that the book contains apparently no reference to the Maccabean struggles, (6) from the eulogy of the priestly house of Zadok which fell into disrepute during these wars for independence. In the Jewish Church Ecclesiasticus hovered on the border of

the canon. The book contains much which attracted and also

much which repelled Jewish feeling, and it appears that it was necessary to pronounce against its canonicity. In the Talmud (Sanhedrin roo b) Rabbi Joseph says that it is forbidden to read (i.e., in the synagogue) the book of Ben Sira. In the Christian Church it was largely used by Clement of Alexandria (c. A.D. 200) and by St. Augustine. Jerome (c. A.D. 390-400) writes: “Let the Church read these two volumes (Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus) for the instruction of the people, not for establishing the authority of the dogmas of the Church” (Praejatio in libros Salomonis). In the Vulgate Ecclesiasticus immediately precedes Isaiah. The council of Trent declared this book

and the rest of the books reckoned in the Thirty-nine Articles as apocryphal to be canonical. The text of the book raises intricate problems which are still far from solution. The original Hebrew (rediscovered in fragments and published between 1896 and 1900) has come down to us in a mutilated and corrupt form. There are marginal readings which show that two different recensions existed once in Hebrew. The Greek version exists in two forms—(a) that preserved in cod. B and in the other uncial mss., (b) that preserved in the cursive codex 248 (Holmes and Parsons). Owing to the mutilation of the Hebrew the Greek version retains its| place as the chief authority for the text. The restoration of a satisfactory text is beyond our hopes, for we cannot doubt that the translator amplified and paraphrased the text before him. It is probable that at least one considerable omission must be laid to his charge, for the hymn preserved in the Hebrew text after ch. li. 12 is almost certainly original. Ancient translators allowed themselves much liberty in their work, and Ecclesiasticus had no reputation for canonicity in the 2nd century B.C. to serve as a protection for its text. The uncertainty of the text has affected both English versions | unfavourably. The A.V., following the corrupt cursives, is often

á Hebrew Ner. 1.. Acquaim thysdf with

a ph

before. tọ thy need of him with the

thou have need of him,

Ver. 15. He *

RY. (similarity Av.) — Honour a: honours due unto him.

that sinneth Het sinneth his Maker will Maker, let him fall into the behave himself proud- hands ph

ly againsta physician.

in the second instance, while the Hebrew says that the man who rebels against his Heavenly Benefactor will a fortiori rebel against a human benefactor, the Greek text gives a cynical turn to the verse, “Let the man who rebels against his true benefactor be punished through the tender mercies of a quack.” The Hebrew text is superior also in xliv. 1: “Let me now praise favoured men;” ż.e., men in whom God’s grace was shown. The Greek text

of v. 1 “famous men,” is nothing but a loose paraphrase. In character Ecclesiasticus resembles the book of Proverbs. It consists mainly of maxims, moral, utilitarian and secular. Occasionally the author attacks prevalent religious doctrines, e.g., the denial of free-will (xv. 11-20), or the assertion of God’s indifference towards men’s actions (xxxv. 12-19). Occasionally he touches the highest themes, and speaks of the nature of God: “He is All” (xliii. 27); “He is One from everlasting” (xlii. 21, Heb. text); “The mercy of the Lord is upon all flesh” (xviii. 13). The book contains several passages of force and beauty; e.g., ch. ii. (how to fear the Lord); xv. 11-20 (on free-will); xxiv. 1-22 (the song of wisdom); xlii. 15-25 (praise of the works of the Lord); xliv. 1-15 (the well known praise of famous men). Many sayings scattered throughout the book show depth of insight or practical shrewdness. A few examples may be cited. ‘Call no man blessed before his death” (xi. 28); “He that toucheth pitch shall be defiled” (xiii. 1); “God hath not given any man license to sin” (xv. 20); “Man cherisheth anger against man; and doth he seek healing from the Lord?” (xxviii. 3); “All things are double one against another: and He hath made nothing imperfect” (xlii. 24, the motto of Butler’s Analogy); “Work your work before the time cometh, and in His time He will give you your reward” (li. 30). It cannot be said, however, that Ben Sira preaches a hopeful religion. Though he prays, ‘Renew Thy signs, and repeat Thy wonders. ... Fill Sion with Thy majesty and Thy Temple with Thy glory” (xxxvi. 6, 14 [19], Heb. text), he does not look for a Messiah. Of the resurrection of the dead or of the immortality of the soul there is no word. In his maxims of life he shows a frigid and narrow mind. He is a pessimist as regards women: “From a woman was the beginning of sin; and because of her we all die” (xxv. 24). He does not believe in home-spun wisdom: “How shall he become wise that holdeth the plough?” (xxxviii. 25). Artificers are not expected to pray like the wise man: “In the handywork of their craft is their prayer”

(v. 34). Merchants are expected to cheat: “Sin will thrust itself

in between buying and selling” (xxvii. 2). BIBLIOCRAPHY.—A useful summary of the literature of Ecclesiasticus is found at the end of Israel Levi's article, “Sirach,” in the Jewish Encyclopaedia. The most important edition in English is that of G. H. Box and W. O. E. Oesterley in R. H. Charles, ‘ha end

Pseudepigrapha of the O.T. (1913).

ECGBERT or ECGBERHT

(d. 766), archbishop of Yak,

was made bishop of that see in 732 by his cousin Ceolwulf, king

of Northumbria, succeeding Wilfrid II. on the latter’s resignation. The pall wag'sent bim in 735 and he became the first northern wrong. The R.V., on the other hand, in following the uncial archbishop.-after Paulinus, none of his predecessors having remss. sometimes departs from the Hebrew, while the A.V. with ceived the vestment. He was thebrother of Eadberht, who ruled 737-758. He was the recipient of the famous letter the cursives agrees with it. Thus the R.V. omits the whole of. a iii. rọ, which the A.V. retains, but for the clause, “Mysteries | O Bede, dealing with the evils arising from the corrupt state of the Ecgbert himself wrote a Dialogus Ecclesiasticae are revealed unto the meek,” the A.V. has the support of the — and a Pontificale. He was a correHebrew. Sometimes both versions go astray in places in which Institutionis, 2 Penitentiale spondent of St. Boniface. His brother Eadberht succeeded to the Hebrew text recommends itself as original by its vigour;

e.g., in vii. 26, where theHebrew. is:—

Hast thou a wife? chominate her not. Hast thou a hated + e? trust not in her.

Again in ch. xxxviii. the—

both English versions.— is

toxt shows its superiority over

the: threne of Northumbria in 738, and Ecgbert, whose power m certainly increased bythisTelationship, weedhisauthority

My for the welfare of his see. He gave generously to the — ofhis diocese, and, in particular, founded the Cathedent ido!of York. He died onNov. 19, 766.

SesBede, Continuatio, sub. ann. 732, 735, 766, and Epistola —

ECGBERT--ECHINODERMA elas Hed Pec cane) ‘Chronicle, eub. ann. 734, 735, 738, 766 (od.. Earle and — ; Haddan and “Stubbs, —

taas Society Durham a

403-431; 3 Procesdings of

1

ECGBERT or ECGBERHT

*